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FrancophonIA
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Vikidia-EnFr

+A steam engine is an engine that uses steam from boiling water to make it move. The steam pushes on the engine parts to make them move. Steam engines can power many kinds of machines including vehicles and electric generators.
+Steam engines were used in mine pumps starting in the early 18th century and were much improved by James Watt in the 1770s. They were very important during the industrial revolution where they replaced horses, windmills and watermills to work machines.
+The first steam engines were piston engines. The steam pressure pushed on a piston which made it move along a cylinder and so they had a reciprocal (back-and-forth) motion. This could move a pump directly or work a crank to turn a wheel and work a machine. They operated at low pressure and had to be very big to make a lot of power.
+Steam engines were used in factories to work machines and in mines to move pumps. Later smaller engines were built that could move railway locomotives and steam boats.
+The steam to power a steam engine is made in a boiler that heats water to make steam. In most places fire heats the boiler. Fuel for the fire may be wood, coal, or petroleum. Nuclear energy or solar energy may be used instead of fire. The steam coming out of the boiler applies the force on a piston. A valve sends the steam to one end of the piston, then the other, to make it move backwards and forwards. The moving piston pushes and pulls the piston rod, crosshead and connecting rod, to turn wheels or drive other machinery. The heavy spinning flywheel smooths out the power from the piston. The governor controls the speed of the engine.
+Today many steam engines are still at work. During the 20th century the pistons were replaced by turbines which spin like a windmill pushed by jets of steam. These turn faster with more energy efficiency than the original kinds of piston steam engines. They are used in power plants to operate generators which make electricity. Some ships are also powered by steam turbines. The boilers of steam turbines can be heated by many different types of fuel, even a nuclear reactor in some power stations and warships.

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+A steam engine is an engine that uses steam from boiling water to make it move. The steam pushes on the engine parts to make them move. Steam engines can power many kinds of machines including vehicles and electric generators.
+Steam engines were used in mine pumps starting in the early 18th century and were much improved by James Watt in the 1770s. They were very important during the industrial revolution where they replaced horses, windmills and watermills to work machines.
+The first steam engines were piston engines. The steam pressure pushed on a piston which made it move along a cylinder and so they had a reciprocal (back-and-forth) motion. This could move a pump directly or work a crank to turn a wheel and work a machine. They operated at low pressure and had to be very big to make a lot of power.
+Steam engines were used in factories to work machines and in mines to move pumps. Later smaller engines were built that could move railway locomotives and steam boats.
+The steam to power a steam engine is made in a boiler that heats water to make steam. In most places fire heats the boiler. Fuel for the fire may be wood, coal, or petroleum. Nuclear energy or solar energy may be used instead of fire. The steam coming out of the boiler applies the force on a piston. A valve sends the steam to one end of the piston, then the other, to make it move backwards and forwards. The moving piston pushes and pulls the piston rod, crosshead and connecting rod, to turn wheels or drive other machinery. The heavy spinning flywheel smooths out the power from the piston. The governor controls the speed of the engine.
+Today many steam engines are still at work. During the 20th century the pistons were replaced by turbines which spin like a windmill pushed by jets of steam. These turn faster with more energy efficiency than the original kinds of piston steam engines. They are used in power plants to operate generators which make electricity. Some ships are also powered by steam turbines. The boilers of steam turbines can be heated by many different types of fuel, even a nuclear reactor in some power stations and warships.

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+macOS, formerly Mac OS X from 2001 to 2012 and OS X until 2016,[4] is the name of an operating system for computers made by Apple Inc. These are called Macintosh computers, or Macs. It differs from other computers, as macOS is supposed to run only on Macs and not on other computers. However, people have made the OS run on computers that are not Macs. This is called Hackintosh and violates macOS' license agreement.
+macOS first came out in 2001, and is completely different than the "classic" Mac OS that it replaced. Unlike that old (original) operating system, macOS (since OS X) is based on the Unix operating system (current versions have UNIX 03 certification[5]) and on technologies developed between 1985 and 1997 at NeXT, a company that Apple co-founder Steve Jobs created after leaving Apple in 1985. The "X" in Mac OS X and OS X is the Roman numeral for the number 10 and is pronounced as such. The core of macOS is an open source OS called Darwin, but Darwin itself cannot run macOS software.
+macOS releases are named after kinds of big cats, or California landmarks, and have a version number that starts with 10. The latest versions of macOS code name is macOS Catalina (10.15).
+Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS. The current macOS is a Unix operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT from the 1980s until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. That company was also founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 (the "classic" "Mac OS" is much older, came out in 1984). The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language.
+On September 13, 2000, Apple released a $29.95 preview of Mac OS X to ask users what they think of the new operating system so far. Apple stopped the Public Beta in March 2001 because of the recent release of OS X 10.0.
+On March 24, 2001 Apple released Mac OS X for the first time aka OS X v10.0 (codename Cheetah), but unfortunately, it was a failure due to its many computer bugs and glitches and its slow performance. Luckily this operating system version only stayed on the market up until September when it was moved up to a "higher level".
+Due to many problems and complaints about Cheetah, Apple directly got to work on releasing Puma, the next big cat in Mac OS X. It was released on September 24, 2001. Apple gave 10.0 users a free Mac OS X v10.1 install CD to make up for the flawed operating system before. As of January 7, 2002, Apple said Mac OS 9 and other previous operating systems from Apple were "going in the computer scrapyard" by the end of the month (January 31, 2002) and OS X would be the default and only operating system available on all Macs.
+Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar was released on August 24, 2002 and was the first to have its codename in the version branding. The Happy Mac (which formerly appeared when a Mac was starting up) was replaced with a large gray apple logo with the startup sequence of OS X 10.2 Jaguar.
+Mac OS X 10.3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003 and was one of the biggest updates to OS X yet. It featured a new brushed metal interface, an updated Finder, and many more features from Jaguar the year before.
+Tiger was released on April 29, 2005 and as stated by Apple, featured more than 200 new features. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. Apple released the first Power Intel Macs for Tiger on January 10, 2006. Tiger ran swell on these computers. It was also the last operating system to support the Aqua color scheme.
+Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was completely redesigned featuring a 3D Dock, a new purple color scheme, and over 200 new features. It had both support for PowerPC and Intel Macs too. Leopard was the last release to have support for PowerPC.
+Mac OS X Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009, and rather than featuring changes to the appearance, it featured "Under the hood" changes. Snow Leopard dropped support for PowerPC Macs too.
+OS X Lion was first shown to the public at the "Back to The Mac" event in 2010, announced more at WWDC 2011, and released on July 20, 2011. It featured iOS like features such as a launchpad, the magic trackpad coming to MacBooks, and a new solar system color scheme. Apple also removed Rosetta making it impossible to use PowerPC.
+OS X Mountain Lion was announced on February 18, 2012, and released on July 25, 2012. It adds more features from iOS 5 and 6 to the Mac such as notifications, messaging, game center, and gaming with people on iPhones, iPods, and iPads.
+OS X Mavericks was announced on June 10, 2013 at the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference.[16] It adds the Maps and iBooks applications, as well as new Finder features, better multi-display support, power improvements, and a new version of Safari. It was released on October 22, 2013.
+OS X Yosemite was announced in June 2014 at the 2014 Worldwide Developers Conference. It was in beta form for developers and those enrolled in the public beta programme to test until October 16 2014 when it was released. It introduces a new flat design, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7.
+OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015 after being announced on June 8, 2015.[18] Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience" and "improvements to system performance" rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012".
+macOS 10.12 Sierra was announced on June 12, 2016[19] and released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes
+The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement-based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.
+Released on September 24, 2018. There are many additional features to the existing mac-OS apps. Some highlights are Dark Mode (UI theme & appearance), time shifts reflecting the hour of the day (desktop background), file stacks, edit features in quick look, continuity camera and Group FaceTime features also adds the screenshot app.
+Released on October 7, 2019. This OS is included with lots of additional new features like sharing your screen to iPad (Sidecar) and is capable of running iPad apps. Catalina is the first version of macOS to exclusively support 64-bit applications. MacOS Catalina also split up iTunes into 3 apps: Music, Podcasts and Movies. Because of the removal of iTunes, syncing your devices is done in Finder.
+Announced on June 22, 2020, macOS Big Sur changes the version number from 10 to 11. It now can run on ARM computers, the type of computer that Apple is moving the Mac to. It brings the biggest design changes since the beginning of macOS. Big Sur is in Beta testing right now.
+At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.[20]
+The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes.[21] More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused.[22] He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.[23]
+The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:[24]
+the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks.[25] Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines.[26] First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework,[27] retained from the classic Mac OS,[28] or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.[29]

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+macOS, formerly Mac OS X from 2001 to 2012 and OS X until 2016,[4] is the name of an operating system for computers made by Apple Inc. These are called Macintosh computers, or Macs. It differs from other computers, as macOS is supposed to run only on Macs and not on other computers. However, people have made the OS run on computers that are not Macs. This is called Hackintosh and violates macOS' license agreement.
+macOS first came out in 2001, and is completely different than the "classic" Mac OS that it replaced. Unlike that old (original) operating system, macOS (since OS X) is based on the Unix operating system (current versions have UNIX 03 certification[5]) and on technologies developed between 1985 and 1997 at NeXT, a company that Apple co-founder Steve Jobs created after leaving Apple in 1985. The "X" in Mac OS X and OS X is the Roman numeral for the number 10 and is pronounced as such. The core of macOS is an open source OS called Darwin, but Darwin itself cannot run macOS software.
+macOS releases are named after kinds of big cats, or California landmarks, and have a version number that starts with 10. The latest versions of macOS code name is macOS Catalina (10.15).
+Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS. The current macOS is a Unix operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT from the 1980s until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. That company was also founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 (the "classic" "Mac OS" is much older, came out in 1984). The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language.
+On September 13, 2000, Apple released a $29.95 preview of Mac OS X to ask users what they think of the new operating system so far. Apple stopped the Public Beta in March 2001 because of the recent release of OS X 10.0.
+On March 24, 2001 Apple released Mac OS X for the first time aka OS X v10.0 (codename Cheetah), but unfortunately, it was a failure due to its many computer bugs and glitches and its slow performance. Luckily this operating system version only stayed on the market up until September when it was moved up to a "higher level".
+Due to many problems and complaints about Cheetah, Apple directly got to work on releasing Puma, the next big cat in Mac OS X. It was released on September 24, 2001. Apple gave 10.0 users a free Mac OS X v10.1 install CD to make up for the flawed operating system before. As of January 7, 2002, Apple said Mac OS 9 and other previous operating systems from Apple were "going in the computer scrapyard" by the end of the month (January 31, 2002) and OS X would be the default and only operating system available on all Macs.
+Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar was released on August 24, 2002 and was the first to have its codename in the version branding. The Happy Mac (which formerly appeared when a Mac was starting up) was replaced with a large gray apple logo with the startup sequence of OS X 10.2 Jaguar.
+Mac OS X 10.3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003 and was one of the biggest updates to OS X yet. It featured a new brushed metal interface, an updated Finder, and many more features from Jaguar the year before.
+Tiger was released on April 29, 2005 and as stated by Apple, featured more than 200 new features. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. Apple released the first Power Intel Macs for Tiger on January 10, 2006. Tiger ran swell on these computers. It was also the last operating system to support the Aqua color scheme.
+Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was completely redesigned featuring a 3D Dock, a new purple color scheme, and over 200 new features. It had both support for PowerPC and Intel Macs too. Leopard was the last release to have support for PowerPC.
+Mac OS X Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009, and rather than featuring changes to the appearance, it featured "Under the hood" changes. Snow Leopard dropped support for PowerPC Macs too.
+OS X Lion was first shown to the public at the "Back to The Mac" event in 2010, announced more at WWDC 2011, and released on July 20, 2011. It featured iOS like features such as a launchpad, the magic trackpad coming to MacBooks, and a new solar system color scheme. Apple also removed Rosetta making it impossible to use PowerPC.
+OS X Mountain Lion was announced on February 18, 2012, and released on July 25, 2012. It adds more features from iOS 5 and 6 to the Mac such as notifications, messaging, game center, and gaming with people on iPhones, iPods, and iPads.
+OS X Mavericks was announced on June 10, 2013 at the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference.[16] It adds the Maps and iBooks applications, as well as new Finder features, better multi-display support, power improvements, and a new version of Safari. It was released on October 22, 2013.
+OS X Yosemite was announced in June 2014 at the 2014 Worldwide Developers Conference. It was in beta form for developers and those enrolled in the public beta programme to test until October 16 2014 when it was released. It introduces a new flat design, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7.
+OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015 after being announced on June 8, 2015.[18] Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience" and "improvements to system performance" rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012".
+macOS 10.12 Sierra was announced on June 12, 2016[19] and released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes
+The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement-based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.
+Released on September 24, 2018. There are many additional features to the existing mac-OS apps. Some highlights are Dark Mode (UI theme & appearance), time shifts reflecting the hour of the day (desktop background), file stacks, edit features in quick look, continuity camera and Group FaceTime features also adds the screenshot app.
+Released on October 7, 2019. This OS is included with lots of additional new features like sharing your screen to iPad (Sidecar) and is capable of running iPad apps. Catalina is the first version of macOS to exclusively support 64-bit applications. MacOS Catalina also split up iTunes into 3 apps: Music, Podcasts and Movies. Because of the removal of iTunes, syncing your devices is done in Finder.
+Announced on June 22, 2020, macOS Big Sur changes the version number from 10 to 11. It now can run on ARM computers, the type of computer that Apple is moving the Mac to. It brings the biggest design changes since the beginning of macOS. Big Sur is in Beta testing right now.
+At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.[20]
+The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes.[21] More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused.[22] He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.[23]
+The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:[24]
+the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks.[25] Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines.[26] First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework,[27] retained from the classic Mac OS,[28] or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.[29]

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+An acronym is a word whose letters are the first letters of other words. People often create a short acronym that means the same thing as a much longer phrase (set of words).  This is faster and shorter to say then the long phrase.
+Examples of acronyms are:
+An acronym usually must be able to be spoken as word. Other abbreviations such as ASAP[1] (as soon as possible), USA[2] (the United States of America), ECU[3] (European Currency Unit), FBI[4] (Federal Bureau of Investigation), NBA[5] (National Basketball Association) have combinations of letters that are not pronounced as a single word. People just say the letters, one after another.
+These three-letter acronyms,[6] and some more obscure four-letter ones such as ISDN are more often called initialisms.
+The word "acronym" comes from the Greek acro ‘extreme’ and onymus ‘name’.
+The world's longest acronym, according to the Guinness Book of World Records is NIIOMTPLABOPARMBETZHELBETRABSBOMONIMONKONOTDTEKHSTROMONT (Russian: Нииомтплабопармбетжелбетрабсбомонимонконотдтехстромонт). It is 56 letters long (54 in Cyrillic). It is from the Concise Dictionary of Soviet Terminology and means "the Laboratory for Shuttering, Reinforcement, Concrete and Ferroconcrete Operations for Composite-monolithic and Monolithic Constructions of the Department of Technology of Building Assembly Operations of the Scientific Research Institute of the Organization for Building Mechanization and Technical Aid of the Academy of Building and Architecture of the USSR."[7][8]

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+An amphitheatre (or amphitheater)  is a type of structure. It is a flat area, surrounded by an area that ascends gradually. In the ascending area, people can be seated. Today, such structures are used for presentations, but also spectator sports.
+In Ancient Rome, these structures were used to entertain the population. Gladiator combats, athletics and executions were staged there.[1]
+A natural amphitheatre is a natural formation of rocks or cliffs, which resemble a man-made amphitheatre.

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+macOS, formerly Mac OS X from 2001 to 2012 and OS X until 2016,[4] is the name of an operating system for computers made by Apple Inc. These are called Macintosh computers, or Macs. It differs from other computers, as macOS is supposed to run only on Macs and not on other computers. However, people have made the OS run on computers that are not Macs. This is called Hackintosh and violates macOS' license agreement.
+macOS first came out in 2001, and is completely different than the "classic" Mac OS that it replaced. Unlike that old (original) operating system, macOS (since OS X) is based on the Unix operating system (current versions have UNIX 03 certification[5]) and on technologies developed between 1985 and 1997 at NeXT, a company that Apple co-founder Steve Jobs created after leaving Apple in 1985. The "X" in Mac OS X and OS X is the Roman numeral for the number 10 and is pronounced as such. The core of macOS is an open source OS called Darwin, but Darwin itself cannot run macOS software.
+macOS releases are named after kinds of big cats, or California landmarks, and have a version number that starts with 10. The latest versions of macOS code name is macOS Catalina (10.15).
+Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS. The current macOS is a Unix operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT from the 1980s until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. That company was also founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 (the "classic" "Mac OS" is much older, came out in 1984). The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language.
+On September 13, 2000, Apple released a $29.95 preview of Mac OS X to ask users what they think of the new operating system so far. Apple stopped the Public Beta in March 2001 because of the recent release of OS X 10.0.
+On March 24, 2001 Apple released Mac OS X for the first time aka OS X v10.0 (codename Cheetah), but unfortunately, it was a failure due to its many computer bugs and glitches and its slow performance. Luckily this operating system version only stayed on the market up until September when it was moved up to a "higher level".
+Due to many problems and complaints about Cheetah, Apple directly got to work on releasing Puma, the next big cat in Mac OS X. It was released on September 24, 2001. Apple gave 10.0 users a free Mac OS X v10.1 install CD to make up for the flawed operating system before. As of January 7, 2002, Apple said Mac OS 9 and other previous operating systems from Apple were "going in the computer scrapyard" by the end of the month (January 31, 2002) and OS X would be the default and only operating system available on all Macs.
+Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar was released on August 24, 2002 and was the first to have its codename in the version branding. The Happy Mac (which formerly appeared when a Mac was starting up) was replaced with a large gray apple logo with the startup sequence of OS X 10.2 Jaguar.
+Mac OS X 10.3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003 and was one of the biggest updates to OS X yet. It featured a new brushed metal interface, an updated Finder, and many more features from Jaguar the year before.
+Tiger was released on April 29, 2005 and as stated by Apple, featured more than 200 new features. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. Apple released the first Power Intel Macs for Tiger on January 10, 2006. Tiger ran swell on these computers. It was also the last operating system to support the Aqua color scheme.
+Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was completely redesigned featuring a 3D Dock, a new purple color scheme, and over 200 new features. It had both support for PowerPC and Intel Macs too. Leopard was the last release to have support for PowerPC.
+Mac OS X Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009, and rather than featuring changes to the appearance, it featured "Under the hood" changes. Snow Leopard dropped support for PowerPC Macs too.
+OS X Lion was first shown to the public at the "Back to The Mac" event in 2010, announced more at WWDC 2011, and released on July 20, 2011. It featured iOS like features such as a launchpad, the magic trackpad coming to MacBooks, and a new solar system color scheme. Apple also removed Rosetta making it impossible to use PowerPC.
+OS X Mountain Lion was announced on February 18, 2012, and released on July 25, 2012. It adds more features from iOS 5 and 6 to the Mac such as notifications, messaging, game center, and gaming with people on iPhones, iPods, and iPads.
+OS X Mavericks was announced on June 10, 2013 at the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference.[16] It adds the Maps and iBooks applications, as well as new Finder features, better multi-display support, power improvements, and a new version of Safari. It was released on October 22, 2013.
+OS X Yosemite was announced in June 2014 at the 2014 Worldwide Developers Conference. It was in beta form for developers and those enrolled in the public beta programme to test until October 16 2014 when it was released. It introduces a new flat design, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7.
+OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015 after being announced on June 8, 2015.[18] Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience" and "improvements to system performance" rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012".
+macOS 10.12 Sierra was announced on June 12, 2016[19] and released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes
+The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement-based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.
+Released on September 24, 2018. There are many additional features to the existing mac-OS apps. Some highlights are Dark Mode (UI theme & appearance), time shifts reflecting the hour of the day (desktop background), file stacks, edit features in quick look, continuity camera and Group FaceTime features also adds the screenshot app.
+Released on October 7, 2019. This OS is included with lots of additional new features like sharing your screen to iPad (Sidecar) and is capable of running iPad apps. Catalina is the first version of macOS to exclusively support 64-bit applications. MacOS Catalina also split up iTunes into 3 apps: Music, Podcasts and Movies. Because of the removal of iTunes, syncing your devices is done in Finder.
+Announced on June 22, 2020, macOS Big Sur changes the version number from 10 to 11. It now can run on ARM computers, the type of computer that Apple is moving the Mac to. It brings the biggest design changes since the beginning of macOS. Big Sur is in Beta testing right now.
+At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.[20]
+The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes.[21] More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused.[22] He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.[23]
+The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:[24]
+the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks.[25] Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines.[26] First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework,[27] retained from the classic Mac OS,[28] or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.[29]

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+Emmanuel Jean-Michel Frédéric Macron (French: [emanɥɛl makʁɔ̃]; born 21 December 1977 in Amiens) is a French politician, senior civil servant, and former investment banker. Macron is the 25th and current President of France since 14 May 2017. He is a social liberal.
+Macron was a member of the Socialist Party (PS) from 2006 to 2009. He was designated deputy secretary-general under François Hollande's first government in 2012 before being appointed Minister of Economy, Industry and Digital Affairs in 2014 under the Second Valls Government,[1] where he pushed through business-friendly reforms.
+Macron resigned in August 2016[2] in order to launch a bid in the 2017 presidential election.[3] In November 2016, Macron declared that he would run in the election under the banner of En Marche!, a centrist[4] movement he founded in April 2016. Macron won the election after defeating Marine Le Pen on the second round on 7 May 2017 by winning 66% of the vote.[5] At his election to the presidency at age 39, he became the youngest President in French history and the youngest head of state since Napoléon III.[6]
+Macron was born in Amiens, France. He is the son of Françoise (Noguès), a physician, and Jean-Michel Macron, professor of neurology at the University of Picardy.[7] He was raised in a non-religious family, but he was baptised a Roman Catholic at his own will at age 12.[8] He learnt piano in Amiens conservatory.[9]
+His parents sent him off to Paris because of a bond he had formed with Brigitte Auzière, a married teacher with three children at Jésuites de la Providence, who later became his wife.[10] He studied Philosophy at the University of Paris-Ouest Nanterre La Défense.
+Macron was a member of the Socialist Party (PS) from 2006 to 2009.[11]
+He was appointed as the Minister of Economy and Finance in the second Valls Cabinet on 26 August 2014, replacing Arnaud Montebourg.[12] In August 2015, Macron stated that he was no longer a member of the PS and was now an Independent.[13]
+Macron founded an independent political party, En Marche!, in Amiens on 6 April 2016.[14] On 16 November 2016, Macron formally declared his candidacy for the French presidency after months of speculation. In his announcement speech, Macron called for a "democratic revolution" and promised to "unblock France".[15]
+Many foreign politicians have voiced support for Macron, including European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker, German Chancellor Angela Merkel,[16] and former US President Barack Obama.[17]
+On 23 April 2017, Macron won 24% of the vote with opponent Marine Le Pen winning 21%. During the second round, Macron beat Le Pen by a Landslide victory with 66% of the vote to LePen's 34%.[5]
+Macron formally became President on 14 May.[18] On 15 May, he appointed Édouard Philippe of the Republicans as Prime Minister.[19] On the same day, he met Angela Merkel, the Chancellor of Germany, as part of his first official foreign visit. The two leaders emphasized the importance of France–Germany relations to the European Union.[20] They agreed to draw up a "common road map" for Europe, insisting that neither was against changes to the Treaties of the European Union.[21]
+Trudeau ·
+ Macron  ·
+ Merkel ·
+ Conte ·
+ Abe ·
+ Putin (suspended) ·
+ Johnson ·
+ Trump

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+– in Africa  (light blue & dark grey)– in the African Union  (light blue)
+Madagascar is a large island nation in the Indian Ocean. It is off of the east coast of Africa. Twenty-two million people live there; its capital is Antananarivo. It is the world's fourth largest island.[10]
+The official languages are Malagasy and French.
+Geologists think that about two million years ago, Madagascar was a part of a big landmass that included what is now the continent of Africa, but it broke off. Madagascar would later break off of the Indian subcontinent.[11]
+Madagascar is home to many species that were not known about until around 1679 when Dutch explorers went there. They do not even exist elsewhere in Africa. They only exist in Madagascar. In fact, most of the mammals living in Madagascar do not live anywhere else in the world.[12] However, many of the species in Madagascar are in danger because many of the forests have been cut down.[13] A big reason that forests have been cut down is so that land can be used to grow crops such as coffee, which is one of the most important crops that is grown in Madagascar.
+Agriculture is a big part of the economy in Madagascar, including the growing of coffee and vanilla. Madagascar sells more vanilla than any other country in the world.[14] Madagascar also makes money from tourism.[15]
+In 2004 Madagascar was divided into 22 regions.  It used to be divided into 6 provinces.[16]
+People have probably lived in Madagascar for at least 2000 years.[18]
+France took over the city of Antananarivo in 1895, and added Madagascar as a colony two years later.[19] Madagascar became independent from France, which meant it became its own country, on 26 June, 1960. On March 17, 2009, President Marc Ravalomanana quit because of pressure from the military. Andry Raejolina became the next president.[20]

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+– in Africa  (light blue & dark grey)– in the African Union  (light blue)
+Madagascar is a large island nation in the Indian Ocean. It is off of the east coast of Africa. Twenty-two million people live there; its capital is Antananarivo. It is the world's fourth largest island.[10]
+The official languages are Malagasy and French.
+Geologists think that about two million years ago, Madagascar was a part of a big landmass that included what is now the continent of Africa, but it broke off. Madagascar would later break off of the Indian subcontinent.[11]
+Madagascar is home to many species that were not known about until around 1679 when Dutch explorers went there. They do not even exist elsewhere in Africa. They only exist in Madagascar. In fact, most of the mammals living in Madagascar do not live anywhere else in the world.[12] However, many of the species in Madagascar are in danger because many of the forests have been cut down.[13] A big reason that forests have been cut down is so that land can be used to grow crops such as coffee, which is one of the most important crops that is grown in Madagascar.
+Agriculture is a big part of the economy in Madagascar, including the growing of coffee and vanilla. Madagascar sells more vanilla than any other country in the world.[14] Madagascar also makes money from tourism.[15]
+In 2004 Madagascar was divided into 22 regions.  It used to be divided into 6 provinces.[16]
+People have probably lived in Madagascar for at least 2000 years.[18]
+France took over the city of Antananarivo in 1895, and added Madagascar as a colony two years later.[19] Madagascar became independent from France, which meant it became its own country, on 26 June, 1960. On March 17, 2009, President Marc Ravalomanana quit because of pressure from the military. Andry Raejolina became the next president.[20]

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1	+ Madame Tussauds is a wax museum in London with branches in a number of major cities. It was founded by wax sculptor Marie Tussaud. It used to be called "Madame Tussaud's", but the apostrophe is no longer used.[1][2] Madame Tussauds is a major tourist attraction in London. It has waxwork displays of historical and royal figures, film stars, sports stars and infamous murderers.
2	+
3	+ Media related to Madame Tussauds at Wikimedia Commons

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+Chennai (formerly known as Madras) is the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It has a population of about 7 million people. Almost 10% of all of the people in the state live in Chennai. The city is the fourth largest city of India. It was founded in 1661 by the British East India Company. The city is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal.
+Chennai is the automobile capital of India. It is also referred as the Detroit of South Asia. The 12 km (7 mi) long Marina Beach in Chennai, is one of the longest beaches in the world. The city is separated into three parts by two rivers. The Cooum River divides the city into almost half and the Adyar River divides the southern half of the city into two parts. The historic Buckingham Canal runs through the city. It is almost parallel to the coast. The 350 year old city still has much of its old charm. Today, it is a big commercial and industrial centre. The city has much cultural heritage. The temples, shrines, forts and palaces of the city combine its past with the present.
+Chennai and its nearby area has been an important administrative, military and economic centre back to the 1st century. Many South India kingdoms like the Pallava, the Chola, the Pandya and Vijayanagara Empires have ruled over the area. The British controlled the town in 1749. Under British control, the city grew into a major urban centre and naval base. The city grew up around the English settlement of Fort Saint George. It slowly grew in the nearby towns and villages. Chennai became the capital of Madras state (renamed as Tamil Nadu in 1968) when India became independent in 1947.
+Chennai is connected by airways, railways and roads with all the major towns of the country.
+Chennai is linked with roads from rest of the country. The distance of major cities and towns from Chennai are:
+Chennai railway station is connected with all the major railway stations of the country. These include Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Cochin, Hyderabad, Lucknow, and Varanasi.
+The airport in Chennai is directly linked to airports of Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Goa, Bhubaneswar, Cochin, Hyderabad, Port Blair and Pune.
+The international terminal is connected with other overseas airports including London, Tokyo, Brussels, Singapore, Dubai, Frankfurt, Kuala Lumpur and New York.
+It is one of the busiest airports in Asia.

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+Madrid (pronounced: “mah-DRID” or /məˈdrɪd/) is the capital and largest city of Spain. Madrid is in the middle of Spain, in the Community of Madrid. The Community is a large area that includes the city as well as small towns and villages outside the city. 7 million people live in the Community. More than 3 million live in the city itself. It is the largest city of Spain and, at 655 m (2,100 ft) above sea level, the highest capital of any European country.  It is the third largest city in the European Union.  As it is the capital city, Madrid is where the monarch lives and also where the government meets. Madrid is the financial centre of Spain. Many large businesses have their main offices there. It has four important footballs teams, Real Madrid, Atlético Madrid, Getafe, and Rayo Vallecano. People who live in Madrid are called madrileños.
+Madrid was ruled by the Romans from the 2nd century. After AD 711 it was occupied by the Moors. In 1083 Spain was ruled again by Spaniards. Catholic kings ruled the country. By the mid-16th century it had become the capital of a very large empire. Spain was ruled by monarchs from the House of Habsburg, then the House of Bourbon. After the Spanish Civil War it was ruled by a dictator until the mid-1970s when it became a democracy.
+Although it is a modern city, a lot of its history can be seen and felt as one walks along the streets and in the large squares of the city. There are beautiful parks, famous buildings, art galleries and concert halls.
+During the history of Spain many different people have lived there. The Phoenicians came in 1100 BC, followed by Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths and Moors. It was not until 1492, when the Catholic Monarchs got power, that Spain became a united country. Jews and Moors, who had lived happily there for many years, were driven away. Spain became very rich because it conquered many overseas countries, especially in Central and South America. However, Spain fought many wars and lost much of its treasure. It was very poor in 1936 when the Civil War was fought. General Franco became a harsh dictator until 1975 when Juan Carlos I was brought back to Spain and made king. There is now a democratic government.
+In prehistoric times people lived in the area which is now Madrid. The Romans lived there for several centuries. The origin of today’s city really starts in the 9th century when Muhammad I had a small palace built where the Palacio Real stands today. The Moors built strong forts in Madrid in 865 and put a wall round the city. These walls stood until 1476 when they were knocked down. In 1561 Felipe I moved the royal court from Toledo to Madrid. Madrid had now become the capital of a very large empire. Over the next years and decades the Plaza Mayor was built and many great buildings and monuments, many of which still stand.
+When Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile came to Madrid, Spain had become a very rich country. The 16th and 17th centuries are now known as the “Golden Century”. Their grandson was the famous Charles I of Spain (also known as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor). He liked his court to be in Seville. His son, Philip II (1527–1598) moved the court to Madrid in 1561.
+In the late 1800s there was a revolt, known as the First Spanish Republic. Later the monarchy was restored, but then there was a Second Spanish Republic followed by the Spanish Civil War. The Second Spanish Republic started on 14 April 1931 and was celebrated in La puerta del Sol which is the center of the city. Madrid suffered a lot in this war. It was bombed by airplanes.
+During the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, especially during the 1960s, south Madrid became very industrialized, and many people from the rural areas moved to Madrid especially to the south east of the city.
+When General Franco died and democracy was restored, Madrid became more prosperous. During the 1980s and 1990s many new buildings were put up.
+Madrid has been attacked many times by terrorists. This includes the bombing of a restaurant in 1985, killing 18 people and the of trains in 2004, killing over 190 people.
+Madrid has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Köppen climate classification). Most rain falls in autumn and spring. The winters are cool because it is high up, and occasionally it snows. The summers are hot and dry. Often the temperature is above 30 °C (86 °F) in July and can often reach 40 °C (104 °F). At night it is much cooler. This is why people have a sleep (siesta) in the afternoon when it is hot. Then they come out again in late afternoon and often eat dinner late at night.
+Spain's Royal Palace is in Madrid. It is one of the largest palaces in all of Western Europe. But the king and his family do not live there anymore; they live in a smaller palace, and only use the Royal Palace for important events, like meeting other kings and other official ceremonies. One can go inside the Royal Palace and learn about the history of Spanish monarchy.
+Other famous buildings are: The Prado Museum, the Temple of Debod, the Santiago Bernabeú Stadium and the Cuatro Torres Business Area.
+There are a lot of very big and important art museums in Madrid. The most famous ones are the Prado Museum, the Queen Sofia Museum, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza museum. These show off paintings, sculptures, and other works of art from some of the most famous artists in the world.
+Many famous, important, and valuable works of art are in these museums. For example, the Queen Sofia museum has a famous painting by Pablo Picasso, called Guernica. Picasso painted this painting to show how sad and angry it made him when the German Nazis destroyed a town in Spain called Guernica in 1937. Picasso had said that the painting should never return to Spain until it was a democracy again. Once that happened, they built the Queen Sofia museum just to have a good place to put it.
+There are many other sights to see in Madrid. Many people go to see the Plaza Mayor which was a market place. The Plaza de la Villa was another famous market place. There are a lot of shops along the Gran Via. Real Madrid football fans celebrate at the Plaza de Cibeles. Two famous gates to see are the Puerta del Sol and the Puerta de Alcalá. A more recent landmark is the Almudena Cathedral.
+Madrid has some lovely parks. The Retiro Park is the most famous. The Cristal Palace can be found in this park.
+The Plaza de Toros is visited by many tourists. Bullfights take place there.
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·

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+In physics, magnetism is a force that can attract (pull closer) or repel (push away) objects that have a magnetic material like iron inside them (magnetic objects). In simpler words, it is a property of certain substances which pull closer or repel other objects.
+Magnetism can be made by a permanent magnet, or by electricity in a wire.  This is called an electromagnet.  When magnets are put near magnetic objects, the magnet and the object are pulled toward each other.  This is called magnetic attraction.  Magnets can also repel (push away) other magnets.  Most objects that are attracted to magnets have iron in them. This is ferromagnetism. Some metals, such as aluminum, are much more weakly attracted. This is paramagnetism. A few metals are weakly repelled. This is diamagnetism.
+Magnets have an unseen area around them called a "magnetic field". Magnetic objects inside this unseen field are attracted to the magnet. Magnetic things outside the magnetic field are not attracted to the magnet. This is why a magnet must be close to an object to attract it.
+The poles of two magnets repel or attract each other. Different poles attract each other. For example, if the south pole of one magnet is put near the south pole of another magnet, the magnets will repel each other. This will also happen with two north poles that are put near each other. If a north pole is put near a south pole, the magnets will attract each other until they stick to each other and can be hard to pull apart.
+Magnetism is caused by electrons (the negative particles in atoms that are also electric charges) spinning. The more a group of electrons spin in the same direction, the stronger the magnetic force. In a magnet, many electrons are spinning in the same direction.
+We can magnetize a small piece of iron by 'rubbing' it with a magnet. The electrons in the iron get 'spun' by the passing magnet just like a basketball player spinning a basketball.
+Magnets have many uses. One of them was found long ago when explorers found that a magnet could be used as a compass to show the direction of north & south.
+Electromagnets are another kind of magnet. They only work when electricity is running through them. An electric current makes a magnetic field. If you wrap the wire into a coil, the electrons spin around the coil and make a stronger magnetic domain.
+Often, these magnets work by using a coil of wire that makes a magnetic field when there is a current in it. In addition to this coil of wire, a large piece of metal, usually iron, is placed inside the coil to increase the magnetic field made. Though most large electromagnets employ many solenoids to lift heavy objects, smaller solenoids are used in everyday electronics. For example, they are used to change voltage in a transformer.
+Electromagnets are used to make many things work like computers, televisions and radios and also doorbells.
+Electromagnetic radiation including radio waves and light waves are used for communication including broadcasting and optical fiber, and for many other purposes.
+The North Magnetic Pole is the point on the surface of Earth's northern hemisphere where the planet's magnetic field points vertically downwards. There is only one place where this occurs, near to (but distinct from) the Geographic North Pole.[1]
+Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Since the Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, a line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the geometric centre of the Earth.
+The North Magnetic Pole moves over time due to magnetic changes in the Earth's core.[2] In 2001, it was near Ellesmere Island in northern Canada at 81°18′N 110°48′W / 81.3°N 110.8°W / 81.3; -110.8 (Magnetic North Pole 2001).  As of 2015, the pole is thought to have moved east beyond the Canadian Arctic territorial claim to 86°18′N 160°00′W / 86.3°N 160.0°W / 86.3; -160.0 (Magnetic North Pole 2012 est).[3]
+Earth does change its magnetic poles every million years (plus or minus 200,000 years). Before a change of magnetic field, the Earth's magnetic field becomes weaker and moves around, like a spinning top would before it falls. The Earth has already had hundreds of changes (flip flops). Scientists know this as a result of studies of magnetism on the sea floor, near the mid-Atlantic ridge. The lava slowly moves out of this crevasse (gap in the sea floor) and then it cools with its iron oxide molecules all pointing in the new direction of the Earth's magnetic field. We can look at the history of this magnetic field today to look back at the many flips in the past.[4]
+Reversals occur at intervals from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years. The most recent geomagnetic reversal, called the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, occurred about 780,000 years ago.[5][6] Another global reversal of the Earth's field, called the Laschamp event, occurred during the last ice age (41,000 years ago). However, because of its brief duration it is called an "excursion".[7][2]

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+Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Hindi: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी; Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી; Sindhi:محاتما گاندهي; October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was a leader of nationalism in British-ruled India. He is more commonly called Mahatma Gandhi;[1] mahatma is an honorific meaning "great-soul" or "venerable" in Sanskrit. He was first called this in 1914 in South Africa. He is also called Bapu in India (Gujarati endearment for "father", "papa"). Full Name is Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi
+He was the Martyr of the Nation since 1948. Rabindranath Tagore gave him the title of  'Mahatma'.[2]
+Read Also :- Essay on Mahatma Gandhi in English
+Gandhi was one of the most important people involved in the movement for the independence of India. He was a non-violent activist, who led the independence movement through a non-violent protest.
+Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, India.[3]  Several members of his family worked for the government of the state.  When Gandhi was 18 years old, he went to study law in England.[4]  After he became a lawyer, he went to the British colony of South Africa where he experienced laws that said people with  dark  skin had fewer rights than people with light skin. In 1897, Gandhi was attacked by a group of people in Durban Harbor, South Africa when he was going to work. He went to South Africa because he could not find work in India.[5] When traveling through South Africa, Gandhi was also kicked out of a first class train because of his skin color. Then Gandhi started protesting against segregation.[6] He decided then to become a political activist, so he could help change these unfair laws.  He created a powerful, non-violent movement.  During Gandhi's life, India was a colony of the United Kingdom, but wanted independence.  He was a huge leader during that era and his thoughts helped catalyze the Indian independence movement.
+In 1914, when Gandhi returned to India, he decided to again lead a march against a law called the Rowlatt Act. But then the protest turned violent and people started to kill the protesters.[6]
+In 1930, Gandhi led the Salt March.
+When he returned to India, he helped cause India's independence from British rule, inspiring other colonial people to work for their own independence, break up the British Empire, and replace it with the Commonwealth.
+People of many different religions and ethnic groups lived in British India. Many people thought that the country should break into separate countries so that different groups could have their own countries. In particular, many people thought that Hindus and Muslims should have separate countries. Gandhi was a Hindu, but he liked ideas from many religions including Islam, Judaism and Christianity, and he thought that people of all religions should have the same rights, and could live together peacefully in the same country.
+In 1938, Gandhi resigned from Congress.  He said that he was no longer able to work through Congress to unite the divisions in caste and religion.  He also felt that he had little to offer to the political process.[7]
+In 1947, British Indian Empire became independent, breaking India in two, India and Pakistan. Gandhi wanted independence, but did not want to split into two different countries. Instead of celebrating on independence day, he was crying over the division of India.
+Gandhi's principle of satyagraha, often translated as "way of truth" or "pursuit of truth", has inspired other democratic and anti-racist activists like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Gandhi often said that his values were simple, based upon traditional Hindu beliefs: truth (satya), and non-violence (ahimsa).
+On January 30, 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was shot dead by an Hindu activist  Nathuram Godse,because Nathuram gose thought that  Mahatma Gandhi was too respectful to the Muslims.As a punishment  he was hanged to death

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+Muhammad[n 1] (Arabic: محمد‎; pronounced [muħammad];[n 2] c. 570 – 8 June 632)[1] was the founder of Islam.[2][3] Muslims and Baha'is believe he was a messenger and a prophet of Allah (God). He is believed to be a descendant of Ishmael, a son of Abraham, and the last of all prophets (the seal of the prophets). He is seen as an example for all Muslims to follow.
+Muhammad was born about 570 AD in Mecca.[4] His father, whose name was Abdullah, died six months before Muhammad's birth. His mother, Amina, died when he was seven years old. So, his grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib, took care of him after the death of Amina but he too died two years later when Muhammad was nine. After his grandfather's death, his uncle Abu Talib took care of him, and was a support to him for many years of his adult life.
+In 610 AD, when Muhammad was forty years old, he went for a walk to the mountain of Hira near Mecca. According to Muslims, the angel Jibrail (Gabriel) spoke with him in a cave on the mountain. The story says that when Muhammad first saw the angel Gabriel, he fainted, because Gabriel was so large. This is what Jibrail said to Muhammad:
+"Read... in the name of God Who made man from a drop of blood... God is Most Rewarding... He Who taught man to write with pen... and taught man what he knew not."[5]
+Muhammad went back home to his wife Khadijah, and told her what had happened. New revelations came to him commanding him to preach what was being sent down from God. When Muhammad first started teaching, many of the people of Mecca, who worshipped idols, did not like the things that Muhammad said. But there were also people who listened to his preaching and obeyed his messages. These people were the first of the followers of Islam. Leaders of Mecca punished and tortured the followers of Islam. Some followers of Islam were executed. Muhammad resisted this and continued to teach Islam.
+After Muhammad finished in Mecca, he took his message to Medina, where some people learned about him and his followers. They welcomed him into their city, and Muhammad wanted them to convert to Islam. They agreed, and many of his followers went to Medina. This movement from Mecca to Medina is called the Hijrah. The Hijra was also the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad stayed behind until all of his people left Mecca safely.
+As Muhammad stayed in Mecca, his uncle Abu Lahab trained seven men to kill Muhammad in his sleep. According to the history, they did not see him leave Mecca. The men went into his house and found his cousin, Ali. Abu Lahab and his horsemen went to the desert to look for him and his friend, Abu Bakr.
+Muhammad and Abu Bakr arrived in Medina. Some people welcomed Muhammad to their homes. He used his camel to show everyone where he would build his house. Also, the first mosque of Medina, a small place for prayer, was built in the back of this house.
+The people in a strong Jewish tribe in Medina disagreed with the teachings and rules set by Muhammad. This tribe told their allies in Mecca to sell of all the things and homes that Muslims of Mecca left behind. The Muslims and those from Mecca were advised to fight for their property.  Muhammad told them not to do that.
+Muslims were called all over Medina to gather at a mosque that Muhammad prayed in. They were told to fight against the people of Mecca who burned down their homes and stole their property.
+The Quraysh pagans of Mecca heard about this, and they sent a larger army numbering 1000 warriors to fight the Muslims. They met in Badr, but the pagans were defeated and Abu Jahl, one of the pagan leaders, was also killed.
+But, the Muslims lost the second battle at Uhud. One year after the fight at Badr, the army of Mecca had outside help. Muslim archers failed to listen to Muhammad's instructions and Khalid ibn al-Walid cleverly took advantage of that. Hamza, Muhammad's last uncle, was killed when a slave from Mecca threw a spear into his chest. Muhammad himself was injured.
+Then in 627, Abu Sufyan led the Quraysh and its allies to attack Medina itself. However, they could not pass the trench that the Muslims had dug around Medina. After several weeks, the coalition broke up and went home. The Medinians were considered victors.
+After the pagans of Mecca failed to gain control of Medina, the Muslims became stronger. The pagans then decided to sign a truce with the Muslims. This means that they would not fight each other for ten years. The Muslims used this as a chance to talk to other people all over Arabia. In three years, many people changed their religions to Islam.
+But, this truce did not last for long. After three years of it, a small group of horsemen from Mecca attacked a Muslim camp and killed a few of them. The Muslims in Medina heard of this, and the truce was cancelled. Abu Sufyan, third leader of Mecca in Muhammad's lifetime, tried to resume the truce, but Muhammad politely refused the offer. Muhammad told his followers to be ready to capture Mecca. After Mecca was captured, they went on to capture the Torkan.
+In 630, most people in Arabia had become Muslims, and they became part of Muhammad's large army to capture Mecca. Because of the big size of the army, the people of Mecca were afraid to fight back. Abu Sufyan, who was feeling unhappy over the broken truce, went to Muhammad's camp outside Mecca to ask for forgiveness. Muhammad did not say that he would forgive him, so he returned home. While he was with Muhammad, he changed his religion to Islam by saying the Testimony (ash-Ashaada):
+"I testify that there is no other god but Allah, and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah."
+The next day, the Muslim army walked towards Mecca. Everyone ran to their homes and closed all doors and windows. They were afraid that the Muslims were going to kill them, because of the bad things they did to the Muslims many years ago. But, the Muslims went towards the Ka'aba, believed to be built by Abraham and his elder son, Ishmael. Bilal ibn Ribah, a former Ethiopian slave, shouted out loud to the people of Mecca that they were all safe: "All those who lay down arms are safe. All those in the house of Abu Sufyan are safe. All those behind closed doors are safe."
+Abu Sufyan heard this in his home. From this, he learns that Muhammad forgave him. At that time, Muhammad and his followers removed and broke all idols from the Kaaba. The idols were statues that were worshiped as gods. Muhammad forgave all citizens of Mecca. At the end, Bilal climbed to the top of the Kaaba and called for prayer. This was Muhammad's victory in spreading Islam all over Arabia. But, because he was old, he would not live for long.
+In 632 AD, on June 8, Muhammad became very sick, due to poisoning by a Jewess. Before he died, he told his followers about his death. He is buried in the chamber of his wife Aisha in Medina, where the Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) is. In Medina, his friend Abu Bakr went to the Masjid al-Nabawi and shouted to the people:
+"If any of you worship Muhammad, you should know that Muhammad is dead. But those of you who worship Allah(swt) (God), let it be known that Allah(swt) (God) is alive and cannot die."[6]
+Although Muhammad died, Islam soon spread all over the Middle East. Then, centuries later, it continued till it reached Africa, Asia and Europe. Islam has become one of the world's biggest and fastest growing religions.
+When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with Peace and Blessings be upon him (Arabic: sall-Allahu `alayhi wa sallam). For example, "Muhammad (Peace and Blessings be upon him)".[7] In printed matter, a calligraphic symbol is frequently used instead of printing the phrase. Sunnis believe that Abu Bakr succeeded Muhammad. Shias believe that Ali should have succeeded.
+Most Muslims do not make or show images of Muhammad. The Qur'an does not state that images of Muhammad must not ever be made, but it does contain passages that forbid the creation of idols. There are also passages against the creation of images of God in the Hadith. Muslims, especially Sunni Muslims, believe there should be no pictures of Muhammad. When people create images of Muhammad, some Muslims may view this as disrespectful, offensive and emotionally injurious.
+In 2005, a Danish newspaper published political cartoons of Muhammad. More than 100 people died during ensuing demonstrations. Johan Galtung, a Norwegian mathematician and peace activist, tried to help both sides come together and talk about this. According to Galtung, the attacks against Danish institutions ended after the government had invited talks.[source?]
+On 7th January, 2015 the Kouachi brothers, hooded and armed with Kalashnikovs, burst into the editorial meeting of the magazine Charlie Hebdo, shooting at the assembled people. They killed cartoonists Cabu, Charb, Honoré, Tignous and Wolinski, psychoanalyst Elsa Cayat, economist Bernard Maris, proof-reader Mustapha Ourrad, police officer Frank Brinsolaro who was protecting Charb, Michel Renaud, founder of the Rendez-vous du Carnet de voyage festival invited to the meeting, and caretaker Frédéric Boisseau. They also seriously wounded cartoonist Riss, journalists Philippe Lançon and Fabrice Nicolino and webmaster Simon Fieschi.
+As they left the building, just before killing policeman Ahmed Merabet who was lying on the pavement wounded and begging for mercy, the terrorists shouted: “We’ve avenged the prophet Muhammad”.
+In addition the following murders have been officially linked to the Charlie Hebdo massacre: Clarissa Jean-Philippe, 27, a policewoman was killed in the suburb of Montrouge. As were four people taken hostage at a supermarket in the east of Paris. These were Yohan Cohen, 20, worked at the supermarket, Philippe Braham, 45, a business manager for an IT firm, Yoav Hattab, 21, a student and the youngest supermarket victim, Francois-Michel Saada, 64, was a former pension fund manager.
+Amedy Coulibaly, 32, the hostage-taker in the supermarket, has also been linked by Paris prosecutors to the shooting and wounding of a 32-year-old jogger in a park in south-west Paris, on the day of the Charlie Hebdo attack.
+A list of his wives' names in chronological order
+Abdullah ibn Jafar reported that he heard Sayyiduna Ali saying in Kufa that Allah's Messenger, (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said, "The best of the women of her time was Maryam, daughter of Imran, and the best of women of her time was Khadijah, daughter of Khuwaylid."she was 45 years old when thy got married
+Sawda bint Zam'a was the first woman to immigrate to Abyssinia in the way of Allah.
+Aisha was a young girl. She is described  as very intelligent with a very good memory. Aisha spent the next nine years of her life with Muhammad, she remembered all that she saw and heard with great clarity, and reported a great deal of Muhammad's narrations. She married Muhammad when she was six years old.
+By marrying Hafsa, Muhammad strengthened the ties between two of his closest Companions, the two who would become the first two rightly guided khalifs after his death. He was now married to the daughter of Abu Bakr, A'isha and to the daughter of Umar, Hafsa.
+She offered herself in marriage to Muhammad who accepted her proposal and married her. Zaynab bint Khuzayma was seen by the community as very generous to orphans and the poor, later becoming known as the 'Mother of the Poor'. She died only eight months after.
+She was not the only wife to have been widowed as a result of the battle of Uhud, and because of this marriage, many of the Companions followed Muhammad's example, marrying widows and bringing them and their children into the circle of their families, instead of leaving them to struggle on their own.
+As with all the marriages of Muhammad, there was much for all the Muslims to learn from it. This one was to show that Zayed ibn Haretha was not Muhammad's son and to demonstrate that the social level matters when it comes to marriage. She bragged about the fact that her marriage had been arranged by Allah. It was at this point that Muhammad changed her name from Barra to Zaynab.
+Muhammad was thinking of how to save her and all her tribe from danger. By marrying Juwayriyya, the Banu Mustaliq would be able to enter Islam with honor, and with the humiliation of their recent defeat removed, so that it would no longer be felt necessary by them to embark on a war of vengeance that would have continued until one of the two parties had been annihilated.
+She said that once Muhammad said to her, "A house will be built in Heaven for anyone who, in the space of a day and a night, prays twelve voluntary prayers;" and she added, "I have never stopped doing this since"
+The only person who could save her from becoming a slave after having enjoyed such a high position was Muhammad. Although her father had planned to assassinate Muhammad after the battle of Uhud, and had conspired with the Banu Qurayza to exterminate all the Muslims during the battle of al-Khandaq. Muslims believe that this was characteristic of Muhammad, as he is believed to not have any grudges.
+Muhammad gave her the name, Maymuna, meaning "blessed", and Maymuna lived with Muhammad for just over three years, until his death. She was said to be very good natured and is said to have got on well with everyone and no quarrel or disagreement with any of Muhammad's other wives has been related to  her. Aisha said, "Among us, she had the most fear of Allah and did the most to maintain ties of kinship."
+Maria is said to have been honored and respected by Muhammad and his family and Companions. She spent three years of her life with Muhammad, until his death, and died five years later. For the last five years of her life, she remained a recluse and almost never went out except to visit the grave of Muhammad or her son's grave. After her death, Umar ibn al Khattab led the prayer over her and she was buried in al Baqi.
+Notes

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1	+ Ares is a god in Greek mythology. He is the god of savage war and bloodlust, and represents the untamed, wild aspects of conflict. He is one of the Twelve Olympians. His parents are Zeus and Hera. He had a twin sister called Eris. Neither parent liked him. He is considered murderous and bloody. In the Trojan War, he fought on the side of the Trojans. He had six children with Aphrodite. His homeland is Thrace.
2	+
3	+ Ares' name is believed to be derived from the Greek word ἀρή (arē), the Ionic form of the Doric ἀρά (ara), which translates to "bane" or "ruin".[1][2]
4	+

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+Muhammad[n 1] (Arabic: محمد‎; pronounced [muħammad];[n 2] c. 570 – 8 June 632)[1] was the founder of Islam.[2][3] Muslims and Baha'is believe he was a messenger and a prophet of Allah (God). He is believed to be a descendant of Ishmael, a son of Abraham, and the last of all prophets (the seal of the prophets). He is seen as an example for all Muslims to follow.
+Muhammad was born about 570 AD in Mecca.[4] His father, whose name was Abdullah, died six months before Muhammad's birth. His mother, Amina, died when he was seven years old. So, his grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib, took care of him after the death of Amina but he too died two years later when Muhammad was nine. After his grandfather's death, his uncle Abu Talib took care of him, and was a support to him for many years of his adult life.
+In 610 AD, when Muhammad was forty years old, he went for a walk to the mountain of Hira near Mecca. According to Muslims, the angel Jibrail (Gabriel) spoke with him in a cave on the mountain. The story says that when Muhammad first saw the angel Gabriel, he fainted, because Gabriel was so large. This is what Jibrail said to Muhammad:
+"Read... in the name of God Who made man from a drop of blood... God is Most Rewarding... He Who taught man to write with pen... and taught man what he knew not."[5]
+Muhammad went back home to his wife Khadijah, and told her what had happened. New revelations came to him commanding him to preach what was being sent down from God. When Muhammad first started teaching, many of the people of Mecca, who worshipped idols, did not like the things that Muhammad said. But there were also people who listened to his preaching and obeyed his messages. These people were the first of the followers of Islam. Leaders of Mecca punished and tortured the followers of Islam. Some followers of Islam were executed. Muhammad resisted this and continued to teach Islam.
+After Muhammad finished in Mecca, he took his message to Medina, where some people learned about him and his followers. They welcomed him into their city, and Muhammad wanted them to convert to Islam. They agreed, and many of his followers went to Medina. This movement from Mecca to Medina is called the Hijrah. The Hijra was also the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad stayed behind until all of his people left Mecca safely.
+As Muhammad stayed in Mecca, his uncle Abu Lahab trained seven men to kill Muhammad in his sleep. According to the history, they did not see him leave Mecca. The men went into his house and found his cousin, Ali. Abu Lahab and his horsemen went to the desert to look for him and his friend, Abu Bakr.
+Muhammad and Abu Bakr arrived in Medina. Some people welcomed Muhammad to their homes. He used his camel to show everyone where he would build his house. Also, the first mosque of Medina, a small place for prayer, was built in the back of this house.
+The people in a strong Jewish tribe in Medina disagreed with the teachings and rules set by Muhammad. This tribe told their allies in Mecca to sell of all the things and homes that Muslims of Mecca left behind. The Muslims and those from Mecca were advised to fight for their property.  Muhammad told them not to do that.
+Muslims were called all over Medina to gather at a mosque that Muhammad prayed in. They were told to fight against the people of Mecca who burned down their homes and stole their property.
+The Quraysh pagans of Mecca heard about this, and they sent a larger army numbering 1000 warriors to fight the Muslims. They met in Badr, but the pagans were defeated and Abu Jahl, one of the pagan leaders, was also killed.
+But, the Muslims lost the second battle at Uhud. One year after the fight at Badr, the army of Mecca had outside help. Muslim archers failed to listen to Muhammad's instructions and Khalid ibn al-Walid cleverly took advantage of that. Hamza, Muhammad's last uncle, was killed when a slave from Mecca threw a spear into his chest. Muhammad himself was injured.
+Then in 627, Abu Sufyan led the Quraysh and its allies to attack Medina itself. However, they could not pass the trench that the Muslims had dug around Medina. After several weeks, the coalition broke up and went home. The Medinians were considered victors.
+After the pagans of Mecca failed to gain control of Medina, the Muslims became stronger. The pagans then decided to sign a truce with the Muslims. This means that they would not fight each other for ten years. The Muslims used this as a chance to talk to other people all over Arabia. In three years, many people changed their religions to Islam.
+But, this truce did not last for long. After three years of it, a small group of horsemen from Mecca attacked a Muslim camp and killed a few of them. The Muslims in Medina heard of this, and the truce was cancelled. Abu Sufyan, third leader of Mecca in Muhammad's lifetime, tried to resume the truce, but Muhammad politely refused the offer. Muhammad told his followers to be ready to capture Mecca. After Mecca was captured, they went on to capture the Torkan.
+In 630, most people in Arabia had become Muslims, and they became part of Muhammad's large army to capture Mecca. Because of the big size of the army, the people of Mecca were afraid to fight back. Abu Sufyan, who was feeling unhappy over the broken truce, went to Muhammad's camp outside Mecca to ask for forgiveness. Muhammad did not say that he would forgive him, so he returned home. While he was with Muhammad, he changed his religion to Islam by saying the Testimony (ash-Ashaada):
+"I testify that there is no other god but Allah, and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah."
+The next day, the Muslim army walked towards Mecca. Everyone ran to their homes and closed all doors and windows. They were afraid that the Muslims were going to kill them, because of the bad things they did to the Muslims many years ago. But, the Muslims went towards the Ka'aba, believed to be built by Abraham and his elder son, Ishmael. Bilal ibn Ribah, a former Ethiopian slave, shouted out loud to the people of Mecca that they were all safe: "All those who lay down arms are safe. All those in the house of Abu Sufyan are safe. All those behind closed doors are safe."
+Abu Sufyan heard this in his home. From this, he learns that Muhammad forgave him. At that time, Muhammad and his followers removed and broke all idols from the Kaaba. The idols were statues that were worshiped as gods. Muhammad forgave all citizens of Mecca. At the end, Bilal climbed to the top of the Kaaba and called for prayer. This was Muhammad's victory in spreading Islam all over Arabia. But, because he was old, he would not live for long.
+In 632 AD, on June 8, Muhammad became very sick, due to poisoning by a Jewess. Before he died, he told his followers about his death. He is buried in the chamber of his wife Aisha in Medina, where the Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) is. In Medina, his friend Abu Bakr went to the Masjid al-Nabawi and shouted to the people:
+"If any of you worship Muhammad, you should know that Muhammad is dead. But those of you who worship Allah(swt) (God), let it be known that Allah(swt) (God) is alive and cannot die."[6]
+Although Muhammad died, Islam soon spread all over the Middle East. Then, centuries later, it continued till it reached Africa, Asia and Europe. Islam has become one of the world's biggest and fastest growing religions.
+When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with Peace and Blessings be upon him (Arabic: sall-Allahu `alayhi wa sallam). For example, "Muhammad (Peace and Blessings be upon him)".[7] In printed matter, a calligraphic symbol is frequently used instead of printing the phrase. Sunnis believe that Abu Bakr succeeded Muhammad. Shias believe that Ali should have succeeded.
+Most Muslims do not make or show images of Muhammad. The Qur'an does not state that images of Muhammad must not ever be made, but it does contain passages that forbid the creation of idols. There are also passages against the creation of images of God in the Hadith. Muslims, especially Sunni Muslims, believe there should be no pictures of Muhammad. When people create images of Muhammad, some Muslims may view this as disrespectful, offensive and emotionally injurious.
+In 2005, a Danish newspaper published political cartoons of Muhammad. More than 100 people died during ensuing demonstrations. Johan Galtung, a Norwegian mathematician and peace activist, tried to help both sides come together and talk about this. According to Galtung, the attacks against Danish institutions ended after the government had invited talks.[source?]
+On 7th January, 2015 the Kouachi brothers, hooded and armed with Kalashnikovs, burst into the editorial meeting of the magazine Charlie Hebdo, shooting at the assembled people. They killed cartoonists Cabu, Charb, Honoré, Tignous and Wolinski, psychoanalyst Elsa Cayat, economist Bernard Maris, proof-reader Mustapha Ourrad, police officer Frank Brinsolaro who was protecting Charb, Michel Renaud, founder of the Rendez-vous du Carnet de voyage festival invited to the meeting, and caretaker Frédéric Boisseau. They also seriously wounded cartoonist Riss, journalists Philippe Lançon and Fabrice Nicolino and webmaster Simon Fieschi.
+As they left the building, just before killing policeman Ahmed Merabet who was lying on the pavement wounded and begging for mercy, the terrorists shouted: “We’ve avenged the prophet Muhammad”.
+In addition the following murders have been officially linked to the Charlie Hebdo massacre: Clarissa Jean-Philippe, 27, a policewoman was killed in the suburb of Montrouge. As were four people taken hostage at a supermarket in the east of Paris. These were Yohan Cohen, 20, worked at the supermarket, Philippe Braham, 45, a business manager for an IT firm, Yoav Hattab, 21, a student and the youngest supermarket victim, Francois-Michel Saada, 64, was a former pension fund manager.
+Amedy Coulibaly, 32, the hostage-taker in the supermarket, has also been linked by Paris prosecutors to the shooting and wounding of a 32-year-old jogger in a park in south-west Paris, on the day of the Charlie Hebdo attack.
+A list of his wives' names in chronological order
+Abdullah ibn Jafar reported that he heard Sayyiduna Ali saying in Kufa that Allah's Messenger, (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said, "The best of the women of her time was Maryam, daughter of Imran, and the best of women of her time was Khadijah, daughter of Khuwaylid."she was 45 years old when thy got married
+Sawda bint Zam'a was the first woman to immigrate to Abyssinia in the way of Allah.
+Aisha was a young girl. She is described  as very intelligent with a very good memory. Aisha spent the next nine years of her life with Muhammad, she remembered all that she saw and heard with great clarity, and reported a great deal of Muhammad's narrations. She married Muhammad when she was six years old.
+By marrying Hafsa, Muhammad strengthened the ties between two of his closest Companions, the two who would become the first two rightly guided khalifs after his death. He was now married to the daughter of Abu Bakr, A'isha and to the daughter of Umar, Hafsa.
+She offered herself in marriage to Muhammad who accepted her proposal and married her. Zaynab bint Khuzayma was seen by the community as very generous to orphans and the poor, later becoming known as the 'Mother of the Poor'. She died only eight months after.
+She was not the only wife to have been widowed as a result of the battle of Uhud, and because of this marriage, many of the Companions followed Muhammad's example, marrying widows and bringing them and their children into the circle of their families, instead of leaving them to struggle on their own.
+As with all the marriages of Muhammad, there was much for all the Muslims to learn from it. This one was to show that Zayed ibn Haretha was not Muhammad's son and to demonstrate that the social level matters when it comes to marriage. She bragged about the fact that her marriage had been arranged by Allah. It was at this point that Muhammad changed her name from Barra to Zaynab.
+Muhammad was thinking of how to save her and all her tribe from danger. By marrying Juwayriyya, the Banu Mustaliq would be able to enter Islam with honor, and with the humiliation of their recent defeat removed, so that it would no longer be felt necessary by them to embark on a war of vengeance that would have continued until one of the two parties had been annihilated.
+She said that once Muhammad said to her, "A house will be built in Heaven for anyone who, in the space of a day and a night, prays twelve voluntary prayers;" and she added, "I have never stopped doing this since"
+The only person who could save her from becoming a slave after having enjoyed such a high position was Muhammad. Although her father had planned to assassinate Muhammad after the battle of Uhud, and had conspired with the Banu Qurayza to exterminate all the Muslims during the battle of al-Khandaq. Muslims believe that this was characteristic of Muhammad, as he is believed to not have any grudges.
+Muhammad gave her the name, Maymuna, meaning "blessed", and Maymuna lived with Muhammad for just over three years, until his death. She was said to be very good natured and is said to have got on well with everyone and no quarrel or disagreement with any of Muhammad's other wives has been related to  her. Aisha said, "Among us, she had the most fear of Allah and did the most to maintain ties of kinship."
+Maria is said to have been honored and respected by Muhammad and his family and Companions. She spent three years of her life with Muhammad, until his death, and died five years later. For the last five years of her life, she remained a recluse and almost never went out except to visit the grave of Muhammad or her son's grave. After her death, Umar ibn al Khattab led the prayer over her and she was buried in al Baqi.
+Notes

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1	+ Mayotte is an island in the Indian Ocean next to Madagascar.
2	+ It is geographically part of the Comoros Islands, but politically, it is part of France.

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+May is the fifth month of the year, coming between April and June. It has 31 days. The month of May might have been named for the Roman goddess Maia, or more likely the Roman goddess of fertility Bona Dea, whose festival was held in May.
+May never begins or ends on the same day of the week as any other month.
+May's flower is the Lily of the Valley. Its birthstone is the emerald. The meaning of the emerald is success in love.
+May comes between April and June and is the fifth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of seven months to have 31 days. In the older Roman calendar, May was the third month of the year. It is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of November in the other. May is likely to have been named after the Roman goddess Maia, though there is a theory that May might have its name from the Latin "Maiores", meaning "Seniors". The same theory suggests that June would then be named from "Iuniores", meaning "Juniors".
+No other month in any year, common or leap year, begins nor ends on the same day of the week as May.
+In common years, May starts on the same day of the week as August of the previous year, and in leap years, March and November of the previous year. In common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the previous year, and in leap years, March and June of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, May starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.
+Every year, May both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the following year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, May starts on the same day of the week as October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and July of the following year. In years immediately before common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, July of the following year.
+In the Northern Hemisphere, May is in late Spring, and May Day on May 1 and Walpurgis Night, during the night of April 30 to May 1, are symbolic of the transition from winter to summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is in autumn, and comes just before the Antarctic winter, when emperor penguins breed there.
+Special devotions to the Virgin Mary take place in May.[1]
+January |
+February |
+March |
+April |
+May |
+June |
+July |
+August |
+September |
+October |
+November |
+December

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+Electronic mail (or e-mail or email) is an Internet service that allows people who have an e-mail address (accounts) to send and receive electronic letters. Those are much like postal letters, except that they are delivered much faster than snail mail when sending over long distances, and are usually free.
+Like with regular mail, users may get a lot of unwanted mail. With e-mail, this is called spam. Some programs used for sending and receiving mail can detect spam and filter it out nearly completely.
+To send or receive an email in the traditional way, one needs a device (computer, phone etc.) connected to the Internet and an e-mail program (simply called mailer). Several formats exist for email addresses. The most common, called RFC 2822, looks like user@domain.com. E-mail messages are sent mostly by text, and sometimes by HTML style.
+Some companies let people send and receive emails for free from a remote website. Gmail, Hotmail and Yahoo! are among the many that do this kind of "web mail".  Webmail does not follow the pattern below exactly because the webpage is a web application and takes care of many details by itself.  The traditional way uses a mailer, as is usual with smartphones.
+Microsoft invented its own "communication protocol" (or set of rules) for sending and receiving mail, called "Exchange". Exchange protocol works entirely differently from the traditional method and is not explained here.
+This diagram gives an example of what happens when email is sent from one person to another using the traditional method. In this example, Alice is sending email to Bob.

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1	+ A hand is the part of the body at the end of an arm. Most humans have two hands. Each hand usually has four fingers and a thumb. On the inside of the hand is the palm. The five bones inside this part of the hand are called metacarpals. The wrist connects the hand to the arm. The hand has 27 bones including the wrist bones.
2	+
3	+ When the fingers are all bent tightly, the hand forms a fist. The joints that are the hardest part of the fist are called knuckles. Many other animals, especially other primates, have hands that can hold things. Human hands can do things other hands cannot.
4	+

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+When writing articles here:
+Evolution is a scientific theory used by biologists. It explains how animals and plants changed over a long time, and how they have come to be the way they are.
+Earth is very old, about 4.5 billion years. By studying the layers of rock that make up Earth's crust, scientists can find out about its past. This kind of research is called historical geology.
+We know that living things have changed over time, because we can see their remains in the rocks. These remains are called 'fossils'. So we know that the animals and plants of today are different from those of long ago. And the further we go back, the more different the fossils are.
+How has this come about? Evolution has taken place. That evolution has taken place is a fact, because it is overwhelmingly supported by many lines of evidence. At the same time, evolutionary questions are still being actively researched by biologists.
+The theory of evolution is the basis of modern biology. Nothing in biology makes sense without it.
+From a collection of Wikipedia's articles:
+See the pages of the Wikimedia Foundation Governance wiki, too.
+English  •
+Cebuano (Cebuano)
+Deutsch (German)  •
+español (Spanish)  •
+français (French)  •
+italiano (Italian)  •
+日本語 (Japanese)  •
+Nederlands (Dutch)  •
+polski (Polish)  •
+português (Portuguese)  •
+русский (Russian)  •
+svenska (Swedish)  •
+Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese)  •
+Winaray (Waray)  •
+中文 (Chinese)
+العربية (Arabic)  •
+català (Catalan)  •
+فارسی (Persian)  •
+Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)  •
+norsk (Norwegian)  •
+српски / srpski (Serbian)  •
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+Mainz is a German city. It is the capital of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate.
+Mainz is on the left side of the river Rhine, on the right side is the city Wiesbaden. Mainz has about 203,000 people. Its main economic product is wine. It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
+Mainz has some universities:

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+The mayor is a person who is in charge of the administration of a city.  Some mayors are elected by the people who live in that city.  For other cities, a central government body may choose the mayor.  Some large cities have a Lord Mayor.
+In federal countries like Germany the mayor can also be head of the government of a city state. The Mayor of Hamburg runs the government just like the Minister President of Bavaria runs the Bavarian government. In some big cities such as Tokyo the Mayor is a Governor.
+In many countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the mayor is not in charge of the daily functions of a city or town. That job is done by a Town Clerk or Chief Executive, who is appointed to a full-time paid job. The mayor works part-time, usually without payment, and represents the city at events and civic functions.

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+The mayor is a person who is in charge of the administration of a city.  Some mayors are elected by the people who live in that city.  For other cities, a central government body may choose the mayor.  Some large cities have a Lord Mayor.
+In federal countries like Germany the mayor can also be head of the government of a city state. The Mayor of Hamburg runs the government just like the Minister President of Bavaria runs the Bavarian government. In some big cities such as Tokyo the Mayor is a Governor.
+In many countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the mayor is not in charge of the daily functions of a city or town. That job is done by a Town Clerk or Chief Executive, who is appointed to a full-time paid job. The mayor works part-time, usually without payment, and represents the city at events and civic functions.

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+A city hall or town hall is the headquarters of a city or town's administration and usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments and their employees. It is also usually the base of the city, town, borough or county mayor.
+In North America, a hall is labeled a "city" or "town" hall depending on the size of the municipality it serves. City halls are usually found in larger cities and town halls in smaller urban areas.
+In the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and many Commonwealth countries, "town hall" is the more common term. During the 1960s many of the older town halls were replaced by "Civic centres". The civic centre was a functional building, offices of the council only, without the art gallery or hall for cultural activities which were a feature of many of the older town halls.
+"County hall" is used for the headquarters of County council administrations.

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1	+ Ares is a god in Greek mythology. He is the god of savage war and bloodlust, and represents the untamed, wild aspects of conflict. He is one of the Twelve Olympians. His parents are Zeus and Hera. He had a twin sister called Eris. Neither parent liked him. He is considered murderous and bloody. In the Trojan War, he fought on the side of the Trojans. He had six children with Aphrodite. His homeland is Thrace.
2	+
3	+ Ares' name is believed to be derived from the Greek word ἀρή (arē), the Ionic form of the Doric ἀρά (ara), which translates to "bane" or "ruin".[1][2]
4	+

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+The White House is the home and main workplace of the President of the United States. The house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban.[2] It is at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C..  The building was built between 1792 and 1800 out of white-painted sandstone from Aquia Creek in Virginia. It was designed in the Neoclassical style. It has been the home of every U.S. President since John Adams. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) expanded the building outward. They made two colonnades that were meant to hide stables and storage.[3] It was originally called the Executive Mansion before being renamed the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt.[4]
+In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set on fire by the British Army in the Burning of Washington.  The fire destroyed the inside of the house and charred much of the outside. Reconstruction began almost immediately. President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed house in October 1817. Construction continued with the addition of the South Portico in 1824 and the North in 1829.
+Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices moved to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901.  Eight years later, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office. This was eventually moved as the section was expanded. The third-floor attic was changed into living quarters in 1927. A newly built East Wing was used as a reception area for social events. Jefferson's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing changes were completed in 1946. These changes made more office space. By 1948, the house's load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely taken apart and a new internal load-bearing steel frame was built inside the walls. Once this work was done, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
+Today, the White House Complex includes the Executive Residence, West Wing, East Wing, Blair House, and the Old Executive Office Building, a separate building west of the West Wing, which houses the executive offices of the President and Vice President.
+The White House is made up of six stories— the two story basement, The Ground Floor, The State Floor, The Second Floor and The Third Floor.The term White House is regularly used as a metonym for the Executive Office of the President of the United States and for the president's administration and advisers in general.  The property is owned by the National Park Service and is part of the President's Park.  In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of "America's Favorite Architecture."

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+The White House is the home and main workplace of the President of the United States. The house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban.[2] It is at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C..  The building was built between 1792 and 1800 out of white-painted sandstone from Aquia Creek in Virginia. It was designed in the Neoclassical style. It has been the home of every U.S. President since John Adams. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) expanded the building outward. They made two colonnades that were meant to hide stables and storage.[3] It was originally called the Executive Mansion before being renamed the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt.[4]
+In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set on fire by the British Army in the Burning of Washington.  The fire destroyed the inside of the house and charred much of the outside. Reconstruction began almost immediately. President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed house in October 1817. Construction continued with the addition of the South Portico in 1824 and the North in 1829.
+Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices moved to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901.  Eight years later, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office. This was eventually moved as the section was expanded. The third-floor attic was changed into living quarters in 1927. A newly built East Wing was used as a reception area for social events. Jefferson's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing changes were completed in 1946. These changes made more office space. By 1948, the house's load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely taken apart and a new internal load-bearing steel frame was built inside the walls. Once this work was done, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
+Today, the White House Complex includes the Executive Residence, West Wing, East Wing, Blair House, and the Old Executive Office Building, a separate building west of the West Wing, which houses the executive offices of the President and Vice President.
+The White House is made up of six stories— the two story basement, The Ground Floor, The State Floor, The Second Floor and The Third Floor.The term White House is regularly used as a metonym for the Executive Office of the President of the United States and for the president's administration and advisers in general.  The property is owned by the National Park Service and is part of the President's Park.  In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of "America's Favorite Architecture."

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+A house is a building that is made for people to live in.  It is a "permanent" building that is meant to stay standing.  It is not easily packed up and carried away like a tent, or moved like a caravan.  If people live in the same house for more than a short stay, then they call it their "home".  Being without a home is called homelessness.
+Houses come in many different shapes and sizes. They may be as small as just one room, or they may have hundreds of rooms. They also are made many different shapes, and may have just one level or several different levels. A house is sometimes joined to other houses at the sides to make a "terrace" or "row house" (a connected row of houses).
+A big building with many levels and apartments is called "a block of flats" (British) or an apartment building. One of the differences between a house and an apartment is that a house has a front door to the outside world, whereas the main door of an apartment usually opens onto a passage or landing that can be used by other people in the building.
+Houses have a roof to keep off the rain and sun, and walls to keep out the wind and cold. They have window openings to let in light, and a floor. Houses of different countries look different to each other, because of different materials, climate, and styles.
+A house is a building for people to live in. It is usually built for a family (parents and their children).[1]
+Most modern houses have special areas or rooms for people to do the things that they need to live comfortably. A modern house has a place to cook food, a place to eat, places to sleep and a place to wash. These things are usually done in separate rooms, which are called the kitchen, the sitting room, the bedrooms, the bathroom, the toilet (or lavatory). Many houses have a separate dining room for eating meals and a separate laundry. In some houses the toilet is in the bathroom, and in other houses it is separate. Many houses may also have a "study" or computer room and a "family room" where the children can play games and watch television.
+In some countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand many families live in a "detached house" which is separate from other buildings and surrounded by its own yard, but is close enough to town to have shops, good transport and entertainment nearby. In many other countries, including most of Europe, owning a house like this is something that only the richer families can afford, and is just a dream for most people.
+In many very poor countries, a lot of people live crowded in houses with only one room. They often have to share a toilet with many other families, and have to do the cooking outside. The house might be made of materials that can be found nearby like mud bricks and grass or from second-hand materials like corrugated iron and cardboard boxes. In many cities there are thousands of small houses crowded together with narrow alleys between them.
+A small house is often called a cottage. Apart from it, its also called small space. In England, where this word comes from, it is used to mean a house that has one main storey, with a second, lower storey of bedrooms which fit under the roof upstairs. Cottages are usually found in villages or in the countryside. They are nearly always built from material that can be found nearby. In many places the word cottage is used to mean a small old-fashioned house. In the United States the word cottage is often used to mean a small holiday home.
+A semi-detached house is a building that has two houses side by side and covered over by just one big roof. Each house has a pathway to one side, leading from the front to the backyard. Semi-detached houses are very common in some cities, and can be single storey or several storeys high.
+A row or terraced house (see the picture in the introduction) is a house that is part of a row of houses joined at the side walls. Many cities and towns have thousands of row houses because they are a good way to build lots of houses close together. Many row houses have two rooms downstairs and two rooms upstairs, with a kitchen or wash area at the back. Houses like this were built for poor factory workers and coal miners in many cities and towns.  "Terrace houses" are a type of row house where each house has a similar front to its neighbours.
+Row houses are not always small. Some cities have large beautiful row houses, such as the Royal Crescent, which was built 200 years ago at Bath in England and is a famous example of Georgian architecture.
+In some places, the word "bungalow" is used for any house that is all on one level. The word came from India and for a long time was used for a house that is built all on one level and has a verandah where people can sit or work outdoors, but under a shady roof. A bungalow often has a hall down the middle of the house to let the breeze blow through. Bungalows are often seen in countries with hot summers, in India, South East Asia, South Africa, parts of the United States, South America, Australia and New Zealand. In regions with flooding, a bungalow is often built up on wooden "stilts" or a high basement. In the 1800s, bungalows were nearly always built of wood, but from the 1920s it became fashionable to build them of brick as well.
+A farmhouse may look like a cottage, a bungalow or a mansion, but in many countries a farmhouse can look quite different to a house in a town, because, as well as having a place for people to live, it also has a place for animals. Three typical types of farmhouses are found. Many farm houses are long and have two doors. One door leads to the rooms used by the family. The other door opens into a stable for the cows, sheep and chickens. The stable part often has a loft where hay can be kept to feed the animals in the winter. Another type of farmhouse has two storeys with a big stable and storeroom underneath, with the rooms for the family on the upper floor. Another type of farmhouse has buildings such as the family house, the barn and the stable all joined together around a central courtyard. Old farmhouses of these three types can be found in many parts of Europe and Great Britain.
+A mansion is a big grand house, usually with two stories and sometimes more. A mansion often has beautiful architecture, and shows that the person for whom it was designed and built was rich. Mansions often have beautiful gardens. Sometimes a mansion does not belong to a private family, but to a town council, to a big business company, to a church or college and is a place for a person with an important job to live and to entertain guests. A mansion often has rooms which are not found in ordinary houses, such as a drawing room, a ballroom, a library and a music room. Mansions often need servants to help keep them in order and there are often special rooms where the servants do particular jobs such as cleaning the silver tableware. Well-known mansions are the White House in Washington, D.C. where the President of the United States lives and Mansion House in London where the Lord Mayor of London lives.
+A palace is a house that is very grand. Many palaces are homes of royal or aristocratic people. Some old palaces been changed by people who lived there over many hundreds of years.
+One of the best-known palaces in the world is Buckingham Palace, a royal palace in London.  The largest palace in the world is the Louvre which was built in Paris for the Kings of France. It now holds a famous art gallery.
+Houses are usually built from types of material that can easily be made or bought near the place where the house is built. Because of this, old houses in different towns and different villages look quite different to each other, even in the same country. In modern times building materials can be transported easily and this means that a builder has much more choice about the types of material to use for a house.
+In many parts of the world, mud or clay are the main building materials. Clay is a type of soil that sticks together more strongly than most other types of soil. There are three main ways of building walls with mud and clay.
+It was discovered that if clay was used, rather than mud, very strong bricks could be made by "firing" (or baking) them in a "kiln" (a special oven). "Fired" bricks were like pottery; they did not wash away easily in rain and would sometimes last for thousands of years. The bricks were joined to each other with a type of cement called "mortar". Some houses built by the Ancient Romans are still standing 2000 years later.
+Bricks became one of the most common building materials. In most cities, nearly all the houses are built of bricks because they are long lasting, they do not need repairing very often. Brick houses are generally made strong by having all the main walls two bricks thick. Two walls are built side by side which are "bonded" (or joined to each other) by having some bricks set so they make a bridge between the two layers. The pattern of the bonded bricks can be seen from the outside. The two main patterns are called "Flemish Bond" and "British Bond".
+Houses made of timber are found wherever there are, or there has once been big forests. Timber houses are also often found in seaside towns where the sea air makes brick and stone houses feel cold and damp.
+A well-known type of old-fashioned house is the "half-timbered" house. These are seen in the British Isles, France, and across northern Europe and the Alps. These houses date mainly from about 1200 to about 1800.
+In places where there is lots of stone, many houses are built of it. In many parts of the world, little cottages are built of stone. Many mansions and palaces are also built of stone.
+Modern houses are often made of "pre-fabricated" parts that are partly built in a factory, and are easy to put together at the site of the building.
+Many different types of materials for making houses have been developed in the 20th century.

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+The age of majority is the age that children become adults by law. This means that they are legally in control over their own actions and decisions, and their parents are no longer responsible for them. When used this way, the word majority means having the full number of years to be an adult. The opposite is minority, which means being a minor or child. The law in a given place may never actually use the words "age of majority" when deciding when people become adults. The age of majority is a legally fixed age and idea of adulthood which is different in different places. It may not match the actual maturity of a person's body or mind. The age of majority is 18 in the vast majority of jurisdictions, but ages as low as 15 and as high as 21 exist in some.
+Once a person reaches the age of majority, there are some things they can do that they could not do before. These may include buying stocks, voting, buying or drinking alcohol, driving cars on public roads, and marrying without having to ask for permission. The ages that these things can be done are different depending on where the person lives.
+Even after a person reaches the age of majority, there may be other age-based rules that they still have to follow, such as the right to stand for office in elections or become a judge. For example, the youngest a person is allowed to purchase alcohol is 21 in all U.S. states even though the age of majority is 18 in most states. The age of majority in the Republic of Ireland is 18, but a person must be over 21 years old to stand for election.
+Emancipation is when a child is freed from the responsibility and care of their parents or legal guardians before they reach the age of majority.
+In almost all places, minors who are married are automatically emancipated. Some places also do the same for minors who are in the armed forces or who have a certain degree or diploma.[1]
+This is a list of the age of majority in various countries (or administrative divisions):
+Age 15
+Age 16
+Age 17
+Age 18
+Age 19
+Age 20
+Age 21

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+The age of majority is the age that children become adults by law. This means that they are legally in control over their own actions and decisions, and their parents are no longer responsible for them. When used this way, the word majority means having the full number of years to be an adult. The opposite is minority, which means being a minor or child. The law in a given place may never actually use the words "age of majority" when deciding when people become adults. The age of majority is a legally fixed age and idea of adulthood which is different in different places. It may not match the actual maturity of a person's body or mind. The age of majority is 18 in the vast majority of jurisdictions, but ages as low as 15 and as high as 21 exist in some.
+Once a person reaches the age of majority, there are some things they can do that they could not do before. These may include buying stocks, voting, buying or drinking alcohol, driving cars on public roads, and marrying without having to ask for permission. The ages that these things can be done are different depending on where the person lives.
+Even after a person reaches the age of majority, there may be other age-based rules that they still have to follow, such as the right to stand for office in elections or become a judge. For example, the youngest a person is allowed to purchase alcohol is 21 in all U.S. states even though the age of majority is 18 in most states. The age of majority in the Republic of Ireland is 18, but a person must be over 21 years old to stand for election.
+Emancipation is when a child is freed from the responsibility and care of their parents or legal guardians before they reach the age of majority.
+In almost all places, minors who are married are automatically emancipated. Some places also do the same for minors who are in the armed forces or who have a certain degree or diploma.[1]
+This is a list of the age of majority in various countries (or administrative divisions):
+Age 15
+Age 16
+Age 17
+Age 18
+Age 19
+Age 20
+Age 21

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+A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind.[1]  Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death. The word disease is sometimes used to include:
+A disease can be caused by many things.  Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air.  A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus. Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods. There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases. Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease.
+One of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water.  Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito.  Animals that spread disease are called vectors. There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas.
+Some people are born with 'genetic diseases'. These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA. An example of a mutation is cancer. Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases. Diseases are more common in older people.
+Some diseases can be helped with medicine. Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem. Some disease may be helped by surgery. Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though. Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases. An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus. Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away). People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians.
+Some diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms. If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems. An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear. If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured. If it is found later it usually causes death. Another example is immunization. The basic of it is to make the body ready for a disease. The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system. One special characteristic of the  immune system is its ability to remember. If a person had been sick before and had recovered, the immune system produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person. The antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen. An example of this is measles which is a virus. A person usually a child who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this cause the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus.
+For general prevention to be useful:
+Epidemiology is the study of the cause of disease. Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality. Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name. Some diseases can be taken for something else. This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria.[3]

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+Alzheimer's Disease (AD)  is a brain disease that slowly destroys brain cells. As of now, there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease. With time, the different symptoms of  the disease become more marked. Many people die because of Alzheimer's disease. The disease affects different parts of the brain but has its worst effects on the areas of the brain that control memory, language, and thinking skills. Alzheimer's Disease is the most common form of senile dementia accounting for up to 70% of cases.
+The clinical symptoms of AD usually occurs after age 65, but changes in the brain which do not cause symptoms and are caused by Alzheimer's, may begin years or in some cases decades before. Although the symptoms of AD begin in older people it is not a normal part of aging.
+At this time there is no cure for Alzheimer's, but there are treatments that can help some patients with the signs and symptoms so they do not affect them as badly. There are also treatments which slow down the disease so the damage to the brain does not happen as quickly. There are also certain personal habits that people can learn which may help to delay the onset of the disease.
+While it is not yet known exactly what causes Alzheimer's disease, there are a number of risk factors which may make a person more likely to get it. Some of these risk factors are genetic; changes to four different genes have been found which increase the risk.
+The current lifetime risk for a 65-year-old person to get Alzheimer's disease is estimated to be at 10.5%. It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States causing about 83,500 deaths a year. In 2007, there were more than 26.6 million people throughout the world who were affected by AD.[1]
+Alzheimer's disease was named after Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist who first described the disease after studying the case of a middle-aged woman, Auguste Deter, who was a patient at a hospital in Frankfurt, Germany in 1906.[2] The disease was named Alzheimer's disease in 1910 by Dr. Emil Kraepilin a co-worker of Alzheimer.
+Two of the main features found in the brains of people with of Alzheimer's disease, are neurobrillary tangles ('tangles' for short), which are made up of a protein called tau, and senile plaques (which are made mostly from another protein called beta-amyloid, they are also sometimes called beta-amyloid bundles or 'bundles' for short). The tau proteins that form the tangles previously held together a structure inside the neurons called a microtubule which is an important part of the neuron; it forms part of the cytoskeleton (cell skeleton) which is what maintains a cell's shape, and microtubules plays a part in cell communication.[3]
+Both tangles and plaques may be caused by other diseases, such as Herpes simplex virus Type 1 which is being investigated as a possible cause or contributor in developing Alzheimer's. It is not known for sure if tangles and plaques are part of what causes Alzheimer's, or if they are the results.
+Microtubules
+Microtubules are made of a protein called tubulin. The tubulin is polymerized, which is when molecules form the same shapes over and over again that are linked together in groups, and these groups are linked together. They can form long chains or other shapes; in this case the polymerized tubulin forms microtubules. The microtubules are rigid tubes like microscopic straws which are hollow inside. Microtubules help keep the shape of the neuron, and are inolved in passing signals through the neuron.[4]
+Tau
+Tau is a protein that is found mostly in the neurons of the central nervous system. They help hold together the microtubules within the neurons.  and when changes happen in the way the tau proteins are supposed to work the microtubules break apart. The tau proteins which are no longer holding the microtubules together form strands called fibrils, which then clump together inside the neuron to make what are called neurofibrillary tangles . These clumps, also known as 'tau tangles', are all that remain after a neuron has died.[5]
+Beta-amyloid
+Beta-amyloid(Aβ) (also called 'amyloid beta') plaques start with a protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP). APP is one of the proteins that make up a cell's membrane or outer covering, that protects the cell. In this case a neuron.. As it is made inside the cell, APP sticks out through the membrane of the cell.
+In different parts of the of cell including the outermost part of the cell membrane, chemicals called enzymes snip the APP into small pieces.  These enzymes that do the snipping are alpha-secretase, beta-secretase, and gamma-secretase.  Depending on which enzyme is doing the snipping and what parts of the APP are snipped, two different things can happen. One that is helpful and one that causes the formation of beta-amyloid plaques.
+The plaques are formed when beta-secretase snips the APP molecule at one end of the beta-amyloid peptide, releasing sAPPβ from the cell. Gamma-secretase then cuts the pieces of APP that is left and, still sticking out of the neuron’s membrane, at the other end of the beta-amyloid peptide. After this snipping the beta-amyloid peptide is released into the space outside the neuron and begins to stick to other beta-amyloid peptides. These pieces stick together to form oligomers. Different oligomers of various sizes are now floating around in the spaces between the neurons, which may be responsible for reacting with receptors on neighboring cells and synapses, affecting their ability to function.
+Some of these oligomers are cleared from the brain. Those that are not cleared out clump together with more pieces of beta-amyloid. As more pieces clump togther the oligomers get bigger larger, and the next size up are called protofibrils and the next size after that are called fibrils. After a while, these fibrils clump together with other protein molecules, neurons and non-nerve cells floating around in the space between the cells and form what are called plaques.
+Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA)
+Deposits of beta-amyloid also form in the walls (in the tunica media, the middle layer, and  tunica adventitia or tunica externa, the outer layer) of small and mid-sized arteries (and sometimes veins) in the cerebral cortex and the leptomeninges (the leptomeninges are the two inner layers - pia mater and arachnoid - of the meninges, a protective 3-layer membrane covering the brain.)
+CAA is found in 30% of people over the age of 60 years who do not have any dementia but is found in 90%-96% of people with Alzheimer disease and is severe in one third to two thirds of these cases.[7]
+The first area of the brain to be affected by Alzheimer's is the "transentorhinal region"[8] which is part of the medial temporal lobe located deep within the brain.  Neurons start dying in this area first. It then spreads into the adjacent entorhinal cortex (EC) which acts as a central hub, for a widespread network that handles signals for memory and movement[9](like a main train station with train tracks going to different areas).
+The EC is the main area for communication between the hippocampus, and the neocortex - which is the outer portion of the brain responsible for higher functioning such as how the brain perceives information from the five senses; (smell, sight, taste, touch and hearing; Ex. seeing a person's face and recognizing them,) generating motor commands (Ex, moving and arm or leg, walking, running) spatial reasoning, conscious thought and language.
+The disease then spreads into the hippocampus which is part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is involved in forming new memories, organizing them, and storing them for later recall. It is also where emotions and senses, such as smell and sound are attached to specific memories. Example 1.: A memory might make you happy or sad. Example 2.: A smell might bring up a certain memory.
+The hippocampus then sends memories to the different parts of the cerebral hemisphere where they are placed in long-term storage and it helps retrieve them when necessary. Example: An adult trying to remember the name of a classmate from kindergarten.
+In addition to handling memory the hippocampus is also involved in emotional responses, navigation (getting around) and spatial orientation (knowing your sense of place as you move around Example: Knowing your way around your bedroom even with the lights off).
+There are actually two parts of the hippocampus which is shaped like a horseshoe with one in the left part of the brain and the other in the right part of the brain.
+Preclinical
+Red Blue Green Purple Orange Purple Orange Green Blue Red
+Blue Orange Purple Green Red Purple Green Red Blue Orange
+This is a short example of the test. The test is used to measure different cognitive functions such as selective attention.
+Naming the colors of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second, because in the first set, the colors match the words, in the second set they do not. So a person has to pay more attention.
+With current research using advances in neuroimaging such as FDG-PET and PIB-PET scans, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assays, it is now possible to detect the beginning processes of Alzheimer's disease that occur before symptoms begin. The research suggests that clinically normal older people (no symptoms at all) have biomarker evidence of amyloid beta (Aβ) build-up in the brain. This amyloid beta (Aβ) is linked to changes in the structure of the brain and how it works that is the similar to what is seen in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) - which may lead to Alzheimer's - and people with Alzheimer's.
+These small preclinical changes (no symptoms) in the brain may occur many years, to even a few decades before a person is diagnosed with Alzheimer's. With a stage where there is some memory loss, or mild cognitive impairment. These changes put a person at risk of developing the clinical symptoms of full-blown  Alzheimer's but not everyone who has these changes will get the disease. Even though there is no cure for Alzheimer's, there are new treatments which are being developed which would work better in the very first stages of the disease.[12]
+At this time exactly what makes up the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's is still being researched, such as why some people with go on to develop Alzheimer's and others do not. So the term preclinical phase is being used for research only. There is a worldwide effort in various countries doing research in this area known as the World Wide Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (WW-ADNI) which is the umbrella organization for neuroimaging studies being carried out through the North American ADNI, European ADNI (E-ADNI), Japan ADNI, Australian ADNI (AIBL), Taiwan ADNI, Korea ADNI, China ADNI and Argentina ADNI.[13]
+Beginning stages
+"Misdiagnosis in very early stages of Alzheimer's is a significant problem, as there are more than 100 conditions that can mimic the disease. In people with mild memory complaints, our accuracy is barely better than chance," according to study researcher P. Murali Doraiswamy, MBBS, professor of psychiatry and medicine at Duke Medicine, "Given that the definitive gold standard for diagnosing Alzheimer's is autopsy, we need a better way to look into the brain."
+In 1901, a 51-year-old woman named Auguste Deter, was committed to the City Asylum for the Insane and Epileptic, (Städtischen Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische) in Frankfurt am Main, Germany which had the nickname  "Irrenschloss" (Castle of the Insane). She was married and had a normal life until eight months prior to her commitment, when she started having psychological and neurological problems, such as problems with memory and language, paranoia, becoming disorientated and having hallucinations.
+She was studied by a doctor on staff named Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915).  Alzheimer became interested in her case because of her age; while the effects of senile dementia were known at the time, they usually did not start until a person was in their early to mid-sixties. Her case was also notable because of the rapid onset of dementia, only eight months, from the first reported symptoms, until she was committed.
+While conducting one of his examinations of Ms. Deter, he asked her to perform a series of simple writing tasks. Unable to do what was asked such as write her name, she said "I have lost myself, so to speak" ("Ich habe mich sozusagen selbst verloren").
+Alzheimer left the hospital in Franfkurt in 1902 to begin working with Emil Kraepelin at the Psychiatric University Hospital in Heidelberg-Bergheim, and in 1903 both he and Kraepelin began working at Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich.
+When Ms. Deter died of septicemia on 8 April 1906, Alzheimer was informed and her brain was sent to Munich for him to study. Studying samples of her brain under a microscope he noticed neurofibriallry tangles and bundles made up of beta-amyloid plaque, which are two of the main features of the disease.  On 3 November 1906, Alzheimer presented the results of his findings in Auguste's case at the Conference of South-West German Psychiatrists in Tübingen, and he published his findings in the case in 1907.
+In 1910, Emil Kraepelin named the disease 'Alzheimer's disease'. Alzheimer's disease usually beigins affecting people between ages 60–65, in Ms. Deter's case - who was 55-years-old when she died - she had a form of what is now known as Early-onset Alzhiemer's disease.[14]
+Anyone can get Alzheimer's disease, rich people or poor famous people and unfamous people. Some of the famous people who have gotten Alzheimer's disease are former United States President Ronald Reagan and Irish writer Iris Murdoch, both of whom were the subjects of scientific articles examining how their cognitive capacities got worse with the disease.[15][16][17]
+Other cases include the retired footballer Ferenc Puskás,[18] the former Prime Ministers Harold Wilson (United Kingdom) and Adolfo Suárez (Spain),[19][20] the actress Rita Hayworth,[21] the Nobel Prize-winner Raymond Davis, Jr.,[22] the actors Charlton Heston and Gene Wilder,[23][24] the novelist Terry Pratchett, politician and activist Sargent Shriver,[25][26] the Blues musician B.B. King,[27] director Jacques Rivette,[28] Indian politician George Fernandes,[29]
+and the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics recipient Charles K. Kao.[30] In 2012, Nobel Prize writer Gabriel García Márquez was diagnosed with the disease.[31] Former Finnish President Mauno Koivisto died of the disease in May 2017.[32] Country singer Glen Campbell died of the disease in August 2017.[33]

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+A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind.[1]  Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death. The word disease is sometimes used to include:
+A disease can be caused by many things.  Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air.  A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus. Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods. There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases. Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease.
+One of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water.  Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito.  Animals that spread disease are called vectors. There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas.
+Some people are born with 'genetic diseases'. These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA. An example of a mutation is cancer. Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases. Diseases are more common in older people.
+Some diseases can be helped with medicine. Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem. Some disease may be helped by surgery. Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though. Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases. An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus. Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away). People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians.
+Some diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms. If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems. An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear. If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured. If it is found later it usually causes death. Another example is immunization. The basic of it is to make the body ready for a disease. The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system. One special characteristic of the  immune system is its ability to remember. If a person had been sick before and had recovered, the immune system produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person. The antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen. An example of this is measles which is a virus. A person usually a child who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this cause the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus.
+For general prevention to be useful:
+Epidemiology is the study of the cause of disease. Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality. Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name. Some diseases can be taken for something else. This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria.[3]

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+A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind.[1]  Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death. The word disease is sometimes used to include:
+A disease can be caused by many things.  Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air.  A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus. Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods. There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases. Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease.
+One of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water.  Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito.  Animals that spread disease are called vectors. There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas.
+Some people are born with 'genetic diseases'. These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA. An example of a mutation is cancer. Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases. Diseases are more common in older people.
+Some diseases can be helped with medicine. Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem. Some disease may be helped by surgery. Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though. Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases. An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus. Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away). People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians.
+Some diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms. If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems. An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear. If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured. If it is found later it usually causes death. Another example is immunization. The basic of it is to make the body ready for a disease. The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system. One special characteristic of the  immune system is its ability to remember. If a person had been sick before and had recovered, the immune system produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person. The antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen. An example of this is measles which is a virus. A person usually a child who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this cause the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus.
+For general prevention to be useful:
+Epidemiology is the study of the cause of disease. Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality. Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name. Some diseases can be taken for something else. This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria.[3]

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+Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. It is a federation which has 13 states. It is divided into two parts by the South China Sea. Its mainland is on the Malay Peninsula. It faces the Straits of Malacca on its west coast and the South China Sea on its east coast. The other part of this country, sometimes known as East Malaysia, is on the northern part of the island of Borneo in the South China Sea. Kuala Lumpur on the Malay Peninsula is its capital. The federal capital was recently moved to Putrajaya, a newly created city exclusively designed for administration.
+The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, with most people being Malay, but there are also Chinese and Indians. Its official language is Malay written in the Latin alphabet. English is a recognised language and also the official language in Sarawak state along with Malay. Tamil and Chinese is also often used. There are over 130 other languages spoken in Malaysia, with 94 in Malaysian Borneo and 40 on the peninsula. Islam is the official religion, but non-Malay citizens have the freedom to practice other religions.
+Between China and India, Malaysia was an ancient trading place. When Europeans came to this area, Malacca became an important trade port.
+The states of Malaysia became a colony of the British Empire, starting with Penang in 1786. The peninsular part became independent on 31 August 1957 as the Federation of Malaya. In September 1963, Malaya, Singapore and the Borneo part joined together to become Malaysia. In 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation and declared independence.
+Malaysia has 13 states, which are Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Penang, Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor and Terengganu, and three federal territories, Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya and Labuan. The number of points of the star on the flag represents the number of states Malaysia has, but it has 14 because Singapore was one of the states in Malaysia during its creation. The 14th point now represents the federal territories, called Wilayah Persekutuan. The head of state of Malaysia is known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, otherwise called the "King of Malaysia". That title is currently held by Sultan Abdullah of Pahang. Malaysia's head of government is the Prime Minister. Its current prime minister is Mahathir Mohamad, upon being elected in May 2018 at age 92. It also has a parliament and a court system. It is a founding member of ASEAN. Its economy is steadily growing and it is a relatively rich country in Southeast Asia.
+The following is a list of places in Malaysia.  They are in order by the date they were given city status.
+Malaysia is a multi-religious society, and Islam is the largest
+Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multilingual society, consisting of 65% Malays and other indigenous tribes, 25% Chinese, 7% Indians. The Malays, which form the largest community, are all Muslims since one has to be Muslim to be legally Malay under Malaysian law. The Malays play a dominant role politically and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputera.
+Many cultures from within the country and from surrounding areas have influenced the cuisine. Much of the influence comes from the Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran cultures, largely because the country was part of the ancient spice route.
+Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using ways taken from another culture, for example, shrimp paste (belacan) and sambal are commonly used by Chinese restaurants for cooking. This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture, they have their own identity. Rice is popular in many dishes. Chili is commonly found in local cuisine, although this does not necessarily make them spicy. Examples are laksa, which is a spicy noodle dish common in Malaysia and teh tarik, which is a popular drink.
+Malaysia's national sports centre is the Bukit Jalil Sports Complex. Nicol David (squash) and Lee Chong Wei (badminton) are notable athletes from Malaysia. Malaysia won 12 gold medals in the Commonwealth Games 2010 in India, and broke their Commonwealth Games target.
+Malaysia's road network covers 98,721 kilometres (61,342 mi) and includes 1,821 kilometres (1,132 mi) of expressways. The longest highway of the country, the North-South Expressway, extends over 800 kilometres (497 mi) between the Thai border and Singapore. The road systems in Sabah and Sarawak are less developed and of lower quality in comparison to that of Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysia has 118 airports, of which 38 are paved. The official airline of Malaysia is Malaysia Airlines, providing international and domestic air service alongside two other carriers. The railway system is state-run, and covers a total of 1,849 kilometres (1,149 mi). There are also Light Rail Transit in Kuala Lumpur.

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+Silver (symbol Ag) is a chemical element. In chemistry, silver is element 47, a transition metal. It has an atomic weight of 107.86 a.m.u. Its symbol is Ag, from the Latin word for silver, argentum.
+Silver is a soft metal. It is also a precious metal. When it is used in money or in jewellery, it is often mixed with gold or some other metal to make it harder. It is bluish-white. It reflects light very well. It is a very good conductor of electricity. It is considered a precious metal. Silver is very malleable, and ductile, which means it can be pulled into wire or hammered into thin sheets. Silver is one of the only words in the English language that does not rhyme with any other word. Silver coins and bars can be bought and sold at coin shops around the world.
+It is not reactive. It does not dissolve in most acids. Nitric acid dissolves it, though, to make silver nitrate. It does react with strong oxidizing agents like potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate. It does not corrode easily. It only corrodes when there is hydrogen sulfide in the air. Then, it forms a black coating known as tarnish.
+Silver exists in two main oxidation states: +1 and +2. The +1 is much more common. A few compounds exist in the +2 oxidation state, but they are very strong oxidizing agents. Silver compounds can be brown, black, yellow, gray, or colorless. Silver compounds are disinfectants.
+Silver(I) compounds are oxidizing agents. They are more common. Most of them are very expensive.
+Silver(II) compounds are powerful oxidizing agents and rare.
+Silver can be found as a native metal. Silver can be found with copper, lead, or gold in rocks. The rocks are found mostly in Canada, Mexico, Peru, and the United States. Peru produces the most silver. Silver is also in chemical compounds. Acanthite is a silver ore that is a silver compound.
+Silver is extracted from the earth in several ways. It is normally extracted using electrolysis.
+Silver has been used for many thousands of years by people all over the world, for jewellery, as money, and many other things. It is called a white metal even though it looks grey. The word silver is also used to talk about this color or shade of grey. Silver is also used for utensils. It may be used to fill teeth in dentistry as an amalgam. Silver is used as a catalyst.
+Silver compounds are disinfectants. It can kill bacteria and has other useful properties. It is used in the silver oxide battery. They are also used in photographic film. They can also be used to reduce odors in clothes. Some silver compounds are used in creams that help burns heal.
+Silver has been around for thousands of years. It was normally considered second to gold in value. Romans used silver as money. The symbol Ag is from the Latin name for silver, argentum. Silver was also used to prevent infections and decay.
+Silver is not a large danger to humans. Silver compounds are toxic. They make the skin turn blue. Some can be carcinogens. Colloidal silver, a common homeopathic remedy, is not toxic in normal amounts, but it does not do much.
+Silver, because it is depleting, is actually more valuable than gold.[source?] The silver saved up in the world is running out very quickly because more of it has been used each year than the amount mined in each year since 1990. Companies that use silver have benefited from speculators who sell promises to deliver silver that does not exist, keeping prices artificially low. This is called naked short selling. The amount owed is more than all the silver in the world. The price of silver could go very high when the stored silver runs out and investors start asking for their metal back, instead of taking more I.O.U.'s.
+Silver is 18 US dollars per troy ounce as of June 2010.
+Silver increased to 28 US dollars per troy ounce as of December 2010.

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+Malaria is produced by 4 species of the protozoal parasite Plasmodium, is endemic in most parts of India and other tropical countries. It is most comman health problems. As per latest WHO estimates (2011)* between 149–274 (median 216) million clinical cases and ~ 0.655 million deaths occur globally due to malaria each year, 90% of which are in Africa.
+This amounts to one malaria death every minute. In India the National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP), started in 1958, achieved near complete disappearance of the disease in 1960s (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s).
+Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite: it is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito. People catch malaria when the parasite enters the blood. The parasite causes a deadly infection which kills many people each year.
+(from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s). However, due to the development of insecticide resistance among mosquitoes and other factors, it staged a comeback in the mid 1970s (6.47 million cases in 1976), and continues to prevail in endemic/subendemic proportions, so that 80% indian population lives in malaria risk areas.
+The parasite that causes malaria is a protozoan called 'Plasmodium'. Protozoa are organisms with only one cell, but they are not bacteria. Bacteria are smaller and simpler than protozoans.
+People usually get malaria from the Anopheles or Culex mosquitoes: they are the vectors of the disease. The Plasmodium gets into people by the bites of mosquitoes. The Plasmodium is in the mosquito's special saliva.[1] The mosquito's saliva injects an anticoagulant into the person to prevent their blood from clotting. The person is then infected with Plasmodium as a by-product. This makes the person have the disease we call malaria.
+Only the female mosquito gives people malaria, because only the female mosquito consumes blood. The male mosquito lives on the nectar of flowers. The female uses blood as a source of protein for its eggs.
+Some people do not get malaria from mosquitoes. A baby can get it while inside its mother. This is called maternal-foetal transmission. People can also get malaria from a blood transfusion. This is when someone gives blood to another person. Another way people can catch malaria is by using a needle that someone with the disease used before them.
+The red blood cells are infected next, at this stage symptoms of malaria appear.
+There are several species (kinds) of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans:
+P. vivax and P. falciparum cause the most malaria in people. Falciparum malaria is the worst kind, and kills the most people.
+When Plasmodium enters the blood, they are then called sporozoites. Sporozoites go to the liver, where they make many more sporozoites. Then they change into a different form of Plasmodium. This form is the merozoite. The merozoites go into the red blood cells, then they make many more merozoites.
+The merozoites break out of the red blood cells again and again. When they do this, the person gets very sick, and shows symptoms of malaria. This happens every few days, and is called a paroxysm.
+P. vivax and P. ovale can live in the liver for a long time. A person can look well, but still have the Plasmodium in the liver. This is called a dormant phase. Weeks or months later, the Plasmodium can leave the liver to the blood, and the person will get sick again.
+P. falciparum is the most dangerous type of malaria. It makes people sicker than those with other types of malaria, because there are more of them in the blood. Also, with falciparum malaria, the red blood cells are sticky. This makes the red blood cells block blood vessels. If blood vessels are blocked, this can hurt what the blood vessel brings blood to, and can hurt people's organs.
+Pregnant women and children are hurt most by malaria. When they get malaria, they get sicker.
+40% of people live in a place where there is malaria. Malaria is in these places:
+Every year, 300 to 700 million people get malaria. It kills 1 million to 2 million people every year. 90% of the deaths occur in Africa. Most of the people who die from malaria are children. Even if children do not die, many have brain damage.
+Many of these deaths might be stopped with medicine or mosquito control. But many of the places malaria may be found are in poor countries. These countries do not have enough money to stop the mosquitoes, or to give people medicine. Money, however, is not the only problem. A country must have an organised medical system to provide services. Many countries in central Africa have been disrupted by warfare and conflict between groups, and general unrest. Also, easy solutions to kill the parasites do not exist as they did 50 years ago. This is because the insects are resistant to many insecticides, and the Plasmodium parasite is highly resistant to quinine and most other common drugs. This is a normal evolutionary process: the chemicals weed out the non-resistant organisms, and the offspring of the few resistant organisms multiply.
+Symptoms are changes in someone's body that are signs for a disease. Most people who get malaria get symptoms 10–30 days after they get infected (the Plasmodium gets in their blood.) But some people can get symptoms after only a week, and some may be infected with malaria and not have symptoms for a year.
+The most common symptom of malaria is fever, when the body temperature is high. The fever from malaria usually comes very suddenly. The people who have malaria often feel like they had influenza.
+Symptoms of malaria are:
+Signs of malaria:
+Complications are problems that happen because of a disease.
+Pregnant women and young children have more complications. People who get malaria for the first time have more complications. Falciparum malaria has the most complications.
+Complications of malaria are:
+A clinical diagnosis is based on the signs and symptoms of a disease, it is a diagnosis made without medical testing. In the case of malaria one of the main symptoms which may lead to a clinical diagnosis of malaria is a fever.
+Any clinical diagnosis of malaria should be confirmed by a trained professional based upon laboratory results as soon as it is possible.[6]
+A Malaria rapid diagnostic test is a blood test which can confirm a diagnosis of malaria in about twenty minutes. RDTs are not foolproof and have a number of drawbacks, and as such a negative rapid diagnostic test should not be accepted at face-value and follow-up with malaria microscopy is necessary.
+To see if patients have malaria, doctors may do a blood test. This test is called a Giemsa blood smear. Blood is put on a slide which is a thin piece of glass. The Giemsa stain is put on the slide. This stain helps doctors see the malaria. Then they look at the slide under a microscope. The Plasmodium is seen in the red blood cells.
+People with different kinds of malaria need different medicines. The medicine that works for one kind of malaria may not for another kind. So it is very important to know which species of Plasmodium the person has.
+If the species is not known, the person should be given medicine and care like they have falciparum malaria – the worst kind.
+It is also important to know where the person got malaria. Plasmodium in some places is resistant to some medicines. So the medicines to treat malaria in Africa are different from the medicines to treat malaria from South America.
+Everywhere except New Guinea, the treatment is the same. In New Guinea most P. vivax is resistant to chloroquine. It can be treated with quinine, but this medicine can make people sick. Everywhere else, non-falciparum malaria is treated with chloroquine.
+Chloroquine kills the Plasmodium in the blood. But the Plasmodium in the liver is not killed by chloroquine. P. vivax and P. ovale both stay in the liver a long time. This is the dormant phase. Another medicine must be given with chloroquine for P. vivax and P. ovale. This is to kill the Plasmodium in the liver. The medicine used to kill malaria in the liver is primaquine. In southeast Asia, some P. vivax is resistant to primaquine. Most other places, primaquine works very well.
+Some people get very sick from primaquine. So people have to be tested to see if they have G6PD-deficiency before they take primaquine.
+Falciparum is the worst kind of malaria. People with falciparum malaria should be treated in a hospital if they are:
+Even people who are treated with medicines at home should stay with the doctor for 8 hours. This is to make sure they do not get sicker.It also makes sure they can take the medicines by mouth. Malaria does not start to become a life-threatening disease until it has been a couple of weeks after the bite without being treated.
+Falciparum malaria also has more resistance to medicines. This makes it much harder to treat. Falciparum malaria is always treated with two or more medicines. Doctors choose the medicines by where in the world the person got malaria. Different places have P. falciparum that is resistant to different medicines.
+The most important resistance is chloroquine-resistance. In some places in the world, P. falciparum is killed by chloroquine. In some places it is chloroquine-resistant. This means chloroquine does not kill it. In these places quinine can be used. Quinine is taken by mouth.
+There are three ways to prevent malaria:
+Vector control is one way to stop malaria. Vector means an organism that carries an infectious disease to another organism. For malaria, the vector is the Anopheles mosquito.
+The most used method of vector control is pesticides. These are chemicals that kill the mosquito. The first pesticide used for vector control was DDT. DDT worked very well for vector control. It killed mosquitoes. It did not make people very sick at the time it was used. It did not cost very much money. Other chemicals for vector control had not been invented yet.
+In many places mosquitoes became resistant to DDT. This meant that DDT did not work anymore in these areas. Scientists worried that DDT was making people and animals sick. It killed a lot of wildlife too. DDT also stays in the environment for a long time. For these reasons, people mostly use other chemicals for vector control. Organophosphate or carbonate pesticides are used, like malathion or bendiocarb.
+Vector control is not the only way to stop malaria. And DDT is not the only chemical that can be used for vector control. The best way to stop malaria is to use a combination of methods. In some places, DDT may be a useful part of a program to stop malaria. This is why DDT is still allowed to be used for controlling malaria.
+The mosquito that carries malaria comes more at dawn (when the sun comes up) and dusk (when the sun goes down.) Be most careful at these times. Wear long trousers and shirts with long sleeves. Wear mosquito repellent (this is a chemical that mosquitoes do not like, so they do not bite.) Mosquitoes will bite through thin cloth. So repellent should be used on skin and clothes.
+Pesticides can be used in rooms to kill mosquitoes. When sleeping outside, people use a mosquito net. This is made from cloth that air can go through but keeps mosquitoes out. It is put over a bed where people sleep to keep mosquitoes out. Sometimes people also use it when they are not sleeping. It is best to use mosquito nets that have been treated with Permethrin, which repels and kills mosquitoes.
+People can take medicine when they are in a place where there is malaria. This reduces the chances that they contract malaria. This is called prophylaxis.
+Some people take prophylactic medicines for years. Many people in areas where there is malaria do not have the money to buy this medicine.
+People who live where there is no malaria usually have not had malaria. The first case malaria is usually much worse. So people from places where there is no malaria may take prophylactic medicines when they go to places where there is malaria. The kind of prophylactic medicines people take depends on where they are. This is because not all medicines work on the malaria in every place.
+To make them work best, prophylactic medicines have to be taken the right way. The medicine should start before going to an area with malaria. Most medicines should be taken for 4 weeks after coming home. One medicine (Malarone) only needs to be used for one week after coming home.
+There are some children in Tanzania who are naturally immune to malaria. Researchers are using this to develop a new vaccine. U.S. researchers have found the children produce an antibody which attacks the malaria-causing parasite. Injecting a form of this antibody into mice protected the animals from the disease. The researchers plan to do tests on primates, including humans.[7]
+It was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the Presidency General Hospital in the Kolkata, who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes.[8][9] He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds. He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.[10] For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius.[11] The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900. Its recommendations were used during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against the  disease.
+The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine. This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru. The indigenous peoples of Peru made a tincture of cinchona to control malaria.  The Jesuits noted the efficacy of the practice and introduced the treatment to Europe during the 1640s, where it was rapidly accepted.[12] It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by French chemists.[13]
+In the early 20th century, before antibiotics became available, Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovered that patients with syphilis could be treated by intentionally infecting them with malaria. The resulting fever would kill the syphilis spirochaetes, and quinine could be administered to control the malaria. Although some patients died from malaria, this was preferable to the almost-certain death from syphilis.[14]
+Malaria was the largest hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were infected.[15] Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the North African and South Pacific campaigns.[16]

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+Malawi (Republic of Malawi) is a country in south-east Africa. It has borders with the countries of Tanzania, Zambia, and Mozambique. The capital of Malawi is Lilongwe and the spoken languages are English and Chichewa. The official language of Malawi is English. The total size is about 118480 km² and there are about 100 people per km². The country is also called "The Warm Heart of Africa".[9] Malawi is one of the smallest countries in Africa. Lake Malawi takes about a third of Malawi's area.[10]
+Bantu people started living in Malawi in the 10th century. In 1891 the area became a colony of the United Kingdom. In 1953 Malawi, then called as Nyasaland, as a protectorate of the United Kingdom, became an almost independent country called Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was ended in 1963. In 1964 the protection of the United Kingdom over Nyasaland was ended. Nyasaland became an independent country which was ruled by Queen Elizabeth and was called Malawi. Two years later it became a republic. After getting independence it became a one-party rule which was ruled by Hastings Banda. He was president until 1994. Peter Mutharika is the current president. Malawi has a democratic, many party government. Malawi has a small military: army, a navy and an air support. Malawi has good relations with Western countries and most countries in the world. Malawi has joined some international organizations.
+Malawi is one of the poorest countries in the world. Economy is based in farming. Most of the population live in field areas. Country gets aid from other countries. Government has a hard time building and expanding the economy and develop health care, education and environment safety. Since 2005 some programs have been developed to focus on these problems.
+Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. People become ill with AIDS. Africans, Asians and Europeans are living in the country and they speak in different languages.
+People have lived in the area of Malawi for thousands of years. At first they were hunter-gatherers. Bantu groups came to the area around the 10th century. Most of the Bantu groups went to south but some started living there and made ethnic groups based on familiar race.[11]
+By 1500 AD groups came together and made Maravi empire, which streched from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River and from Lake Malawi to the Luangwa River in what is now Zambia.
+After 1600 the area was united under one ruler and began trading and making connection with Portuguese traders and members of the military through the Mozambican port which was occupied by Portuguese. By 1700 the empire had broken up into areas that were controlled by individual groups of people which was known by the Portuguese by collecting information.[12] The Swahili-Arab slave trade had its highest amount in the middle of 1800s when about 20,000 people were forced to become slaves and were sold every year.[13]
+In 1859 British explorer David Livingstone found Lake Malawi (then it was called Lake Nyasa) and thought that Shire Highlands to the south of the lake was a good place for Europeans to make a colony. Many British missions were done in the area in the 1860s and 1870s. The African Lakes Company Limited was made in 1878 to set up a trade and transport that helped with the missions, and a small mission and trading area was made at Blantyre in 1876 and a British Consul started living there in 1883.
+Malawi became an independent country in 6 July 1964. Hastings Banda became the first president. Constitution made Malawi become a republic and one-party state. Banda's Malawi Congress Party (MCP) was the only legal party in the country. In 1971, Banda became president for life. For almost 30 years, Banda ruled over a harsh government which kept Malawi out from war.[14]
+Banda showed how a poor country with no access to sea, big population and no minerals can develop farming and industries.[15] Banda made a business empire that produced one-third of the country's GDP and used 10% of the workers who got paid.[16] All money made by Banda was used to develop Malawi.
+Under pressure for free politics, Banda held an referendum in 1993, where population voted for many party, democratic government. In late 1993 a presidential council was made, president for life was ended and new constitution was put in place, ending MCP rule.[14] In 1994 the first many party elections were held in Malawi, and Banda was defeated by Bakili Muluzi.

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+Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. It is a federation which has 13 states. It is divided into two parts by the South China Sea. Its mainland is on the Malay Peninsula. It faces the Straits of Malacca on its west coast and the South China Sea on its east coast. The other part of this country, sometimes known as East Malaysia, is on the northern part of the island of Borneo in the South China Sea. Kuala Lumpur on the Malay Peninsula is its capital. The federal capital was recently moved to Putrajaya, a newly created city exclusively designed for administration.
+The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, with most people being Malay, but there are also Chinese and Indians. Its official language is Malay written in the Latin alphabet. English is a recognised language and also the official language in Sarawak state along with Malay. Tamil and Chinese is also often used. There are over 130 other languages spoken in Malaysia, with 94 in Malaysian Borneo and 40 on the peninsula. Islam is the official religion, but non-Malay citizens have the freedom to practice other religions.
+Between China and India, Malaysia was an ancient trading place. When Europeans came to this area, Malacca became an important trade port.
+The states of Malaysia became a colony of the British Empire, starting with Penang in 1786. The peninsular part became independent on 31 August 1957 as the Federation of Malaya. In September 1963, Malaya, Singapore and the Borneo part joined together to become Malaysia. In 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation and declared independence.
+Malaysia has 13 states, which are Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Penang, Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor and Terengganu, and three federal territories, Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya and Labuan. The number of points of the star on the flag represents the number of states Malaysia has, but it has 14 because Singapore was one of the states in Malaysia during its creation. The 14th point now represents the federal territories, called Wilayah Persekutuan. The head of state of Malaysia is known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, otherwise called the "King of Malaysia". That title is currently held by Sultan Abdullah of Pahang. Malaysia's head of government is the Prime Minister. Its current prime minister is Mahathir Mohamad, upon being elected in May 2018 at age 92. It also has a parliament and a court system. It is a founding member of ASEAN. Its economy is steadily growing and it is a relatively rich country in Southeast Asia.
+The following is a list of places in Malaysia.  They are in order by the date they were given city status.
+Malaysia is a multi-religious society, and Islam is the largest
+Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multilingual society, consisting of 65% Malays and other indigenous tribes, 25% Chinese, 7% Indians. The Malays, which form the largest community, are all Muslims since one has to be Muslim to be legally Malay under Malaysian law. The Malays play a dominant role politically and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputera.
+Many cultures from within the country and from surrounding areas have influenced the cuisine. Much of the influence comes from the Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran cultures, largely because the country was part of the ancient spice route.
+Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using ways taken from another culture, for example, shrimp paste (belacan) and sambal are commonly used by Chinese restaurants for cooking. This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture, they have their own identity. Rice is popular in many dishes. Chili is commonly found in local cuisine, although this does not necessarily make them spicy. Examples are laksa, which is a spicy noodle dish common in Malaysia and teh tarik, which is a popular drink.
+Malaysia's national sports centre is the Bukit Jalil Sports Complex. Nicol David (squash) and Lee Chong Wei (badminton) are notable athletes from Malaysia. Malaysia won 12 gold medals in the Commonwealth Games 2010 in India, and broke their Commonwealth Games target.
+Malaysia's road network covers 98,721 kilometres (61,342 mi) and includes 1,821 kilometres (1,132 mi) of expressways. The longest highway of the country, the North-South Expressway, extends over 800 kilometres (497 mi) between the Thai border and Singapore. The road systems in Sabah and Sarawak are less developed and of lower quality in comparison to that of Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysia has 118 airports, of which 38 are paved. The official airline of Malaysia is Malaysia Airlines, providing international and domestic air service alongside two other carriers. The railway system is state-run, and covers a total of 1,849 kilometres (1,149 mi). There are also Light Rail Transit in Kuala Lumpur.

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+The Maldives are a group of islands in the Indian Ocean. They are southwest of India. They are made up of the Maldive and Suadive archipelagos, with over 1,200 islands. These islands are a part of 26 atolls. And they are divided to 20 administrative atolls.People live on about 200 of the islands. It has more than 1126 coral reefs. It is the flattest country in the world. The highest point in the Maldives is only 2 m (7 ft) high above the level of the sea.
+Malé is the capital, with a population of 150,000 people. It’s official religion is Islam mandated by law.
+The Maldives has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) under the Köppen climate classification, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. Because the Maldives has the lowest elevation of any country in the world, the temperature is constantly hot and often humid. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture-rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms.
+The shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages 254 centimetres (100 in) in the north and 381 centimetres (150 in) in the south.[7]
+The monsoonal influence is greater in the north of the Maldives than in the south, more influenced by the equatorial currents.
+The highest temperature ever recorded in Malé was 39.6 °C (103.3 °F) on 1 January 2000 and the lowest was 20.4 °C (68.7 °F) on 20 March 1989 and 21 January 2017.
+Media related to Maldives at Wikimedia Commons

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+Mali is a landlocked country (a country entirely surrounded by land) in West Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Physical features of Mali include the Sahara desert in the north, with the Niger River and Sénégal River in the southern part of the country. As of a July 2011 estimate, Mali has a population of approximately 14,000,000 people. Mali has a total area of 1,220,190 square kilometres (471,120 sq mi). Most of the people live in the southern part of the country, with Mali's capital and most populated city being Bamako.
+Mali. Four civilians killed in Saturday and overnight violence in Bamako
+Mandé people founded several kingdoms in the Sahel. This was a big area that included Mali. These kingdoms included the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. Timbuktu was an important city in these empires because a lot of trade across the Sahara Desert went there. Timbuktu was also a good place for learning.  The Songhai Empire became much smaller after a Moroccan attack in 1591.
+France invaded Mali in 1880. After that, France owned Mali. France gave Mali the names French Sudan and the Sudanese Republic. At some times it also included other nearby countries. In early 1959, Mali and Senegal united and they became the Mali Federation. They became independent from France on June 20, 1960. Senegal left the Mali Federation a few months later.  The Republic of Mali, with Modibo Keïta as the first president, left the French Community on September 22, 1960.
+There was a coup in Mali in 1968. Modibo Keïta lost his job and was put in prison. Mali was then ruled by Moussa Traoré until 1991. He treated the country badly, and so there was another coup in 1991 after protests against the government, and a new constitution was made.  The leader of the country was then Amadou Toumani Touré.  In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic election.  President Konaré won again in 1997 and he made big political and economic changes.  In 2002, Amadou Toumani Touré won the election and he started his second term as head of state.  He was a retired general and he had been the military leader of the 1991 coup.  Today, Mali is one of the least stable countries in Africa.
+Mali is divided into 8 regions and 1 district.[6] The country is further divided into 49 cercles, containing 288 "arrondissements" and 703 communes.[7]
+The regions and district are:
+Mali is the world's 24th-largest country. The area of the country is 1,240,000 km² (478,734 mi²). Mali and South Africa are about the same size. It is two times bigger than Texas.
+Mali is does not have any sea coast. It is landlocked. The climate is dry. Mali does not have many mountains. Flat areas in the north are covered by sand. Savanna is around the Niger River in the south. Most of Mali is part of the Sahara Desert. Dry season is hot and dusty. There are many natural resources in Mali, including gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt, and limestone.
+Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world. 65% of its land area is desert or something similar. There were several long droughts there over the last hundred years. Therefore, most economic activity is near the Niger River. About 10% of the people are nomads and 80% of workers have jobs in farming and fishing. Industry is mainly to process farm products. Women also do pottery and the pots are bought and taken to markets. Many foreign tourists like the traditional methods which the women use to make the pots. Mali's main export is cotton, so if the price of cotton changes, Mali's economy is affected a lot. Mali also receives a lot of financial help from other countries. In 1997, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) recommended a programme for changing the economy and the government followed this. Several international companies started digging for larger amounts of gold in 1996-1998, and the Malian government thinks that Mali will become an important gold exporter soon.
+There are several ethnic and religious groups in Mali.
+These religions are common in Mali.
+About 90% of people from Mali follow Sunni Islam, but they do not always forget their traditional religions. Muslims have their own schooling system. The number of Muslims from Mali who go to Mecca is increasing and some study in Arab countries. About 1% of the people are Christians. When Mali was under French control, Christian teachers were sent to Islamic areas.
+The language of Mali under French rule was French, but now not many people outside towns can read or write this language. However, about 60% of the people use other languages well. Many people can read and write in Bamanakan (the most popular spoken language). This language has its own alphabet, called N'Ko. Other people can read and write in Arabic, after going to an Islamic school. One of the oldest universities in the world is Sankore University in Timbuktu.  It began in the 1400s.
+Famous musicians from Mali include kora player Toumani Diabaté, and the guitarist Ali Farka Touré, who has died.

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+Mechelen is a municipality in the south part of the Belgian province of Antwerp.
+In 2007, 78,900 people lived there.[1] In 2008: 80,176.
+It is at 51° 01 North, 04° 28 East.[2]

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+– on the European continent  (light green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (light green)  —  [Legend]
+Malta is a country in  Europe. It is an island near the center of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The capital of Malta is Valletta. Around 400,000 people live in Malta and it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Its many cities and towns grew close to each other over time.
+Maltese is the national language of Malta. Maltese and English are the official languages in line with the constitution of the country. A majority of the people of Malta can speak three languages; Maltese, English and Italian.
+Malta had its own currency, called the Maltese Lira until 2008. The Maltese Lira was better known as the Maltese Pound because of the strong links to the United Kingdom. One Maltese Lira consisted of 100 cents. In 2008 Malta joined the Euro countries in adopting the Euro as the National Currency.
+People have lived in Malta since at least 5200 BC. The island has some key archaeological sites dating from early times.
+Malta became well known as the base of the Knights Hospitaller. They moved to Malta after being forced to leave Palestine and then Rhodes, in Greece. In 1565 they survived a great attack by the Ottoman Empire. The history of the knights at Malta continued the strong Roman Catholic beliefs in the country that were started by the Norman and Spanish rulers.
+In 1798, Napoleon took control of Malta. The French rule was not popular and in 1800 Maltese rebels invited the British Royal Navy to come to the island. This led to 200 years as a British colony and independent Commonwealth member.
+During World War II, Malta was attacked this time by the Axis forces. The entire island was symbolically given the George Cross for heroism.
+Malta became independent in 1964 and a republic in 1974. In 2004 Malta joined the European Union and in 2008 Malta joined the Euro.

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+– on the European continent  (light green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (light green)  —  [Legend]
+Malta is a country in  Europe. It is an island near the center of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The capital of Malta is Valletta. Around 400,000 people live in Malta and it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Its many cities and towns grew close to each other over time.
+Maltese is the national language of Malta. Maltese and English are the official languages in line with the constitution of the country. A majority of the people of Malta can speak three languages; Maltese, English and Italian.
+Malta had its own currency, called the Maltese Lira until 2008. The Maltese Lira was better known as the Maltese Pound because of the strong links to the United Kingdom. One Maltese Lira consisted of 100 cents. In 2008 Malta joined the Euro countries in adopting the Euro as the National Currency.
+People have lived in Malta since at least 5200 BC. The island has some key archaeological sites dating from early times.
+Malta became well known as the base of the Knights Hospitaller. They moved to Malta after being forced to leave Palestine and then Rhodes, in Greece. In 1565 they survived a great attack by the Ottoman Empire. The history of the knights at Malta continued the strong Roman Catholic beliefs in the country that were started by the Norman and Spanish rulers.
+In 1798, Napoleon took control of Malta. The French rule was not popular and in 1800 Maltese rebels invited the British Royal Navy to come to the island. This led to 200 years as a British colony and independent Commonwealth member.
+During World War II, Malta was attacked this time by the Axis forces. The entire island was symbolically given the George Cross for heroism.
+Malta became independent in 1964 and a republic in 1974. In 2004 Malta joined the European Union and in 2008 Malta joined the Euro.

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1	+ Parents are the mother and father or caretaker of their offspring.
2	+
3	+ In humans, a parent is the mother or the father figure of a child. They are either biologically or legally related to the person. When parents separate and choose who takes care of a child it is called custody. Parents who fail in their duty may be guilty of child abuse.
4	+

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1	+ Parents are the mother and father or caretaker of their offspring.
2	+
3	+ In humans, a parent is the mother or the father figure of a child. They are either biologically or legally related to the person. When parents separate and choose who takes care of a child it is called custody. Parents who fail in their duty may be guilty of child abuse.
4	+

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+Argentina (officially the Argentine Republic)  is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world.
+Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia.
+In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucumán, Mar del Plata,  Salta, Santa Fe, and Bahía Blanca.
+Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.  Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe.  They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.
+The name Argentina comes from the Latin argentum (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).
+The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.
+Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.
+Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by José de San Martín in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.
+In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.
+One of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War.  Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.
+In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations.
+Argentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Alberto Fernández since December 2019.
+Argentina is divided into 23 provinces (provincias; singular: provincia), and 1 city (commonly known as capital federal):
+Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain.
+The most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paraná. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.
+See List of cities in Argentina for the many places people live in Argentina.
+The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Germany, Ireland, France, other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country.[14]
+Football or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.
+Argentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.
+Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well.