6e95300f48b4f273762fb23ec59858804665301f418460505f557886f438ae50

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+Dice are objects used in games when something random needs to be done, such as moving a piece a random number of places on a board. Most dice are cubes that have the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on the faces. Dice are sometimes made in other polyhedral shapes than cubes, but the six-sided die (die is the singular of "dice") is the most common. A die is usually rolled by the player’s hand. When adding together opposite sides of typical cubical dice, the sum is always 7.
+
+Some games are played with two or more dice and some use only one. Some games that use dice are Monopoly, Yahtzee, Risk, and many more. Dice with different numbers of sides, like those used in Dungeons & Dragons, are called polyhedral dice.
+
+Weights can be put inside a die to make it only land on a certain number once it is rolled.

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+Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of the French Romantic school.[1] Delacroix's use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of colour profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement. A fine lithographer, Delacroix illustrated various works of William Shakespeare, the Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott, and the German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
+
+In contrast to the Neoclassical perfectionism of his chief rival Ingres, Delacroix took for his inspiration the art of Rubens and painters of the Venetian Renaissance, with an attendant emphasis on color and movement rather than clarity of outline and carefully modeled form. Dramatic and romantic content characterized the central themes of his maturity, and led him not to the classical models of Greek and Roman art, but to travel in North Africa, in search of the exotic.[2] Friend and spiritual heir to Théodore Géricault, Delacroix was also inspired by Byron, with whom he shared a strong identification with the "forces of the sublime", of nature in often violent action.[3]
+
+However, Delacroix was given neither to sentimentality nor bombast, and his Romanticism was that of an individualist. In the words of Baudelaire, "Delacroix was passionately in love with passion, but coldly determined to express passion as clearly as possible."[4]
+
+Delacroix was a member of the Club des Hashischins, or Hashish Club. This group of French writers experimented with hashish to get ideas.[5]

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+Delaware (/ˈdɛləwɛər/ (listen))[9] is a state in the United States. It is sometimes called the First State because it was the first colony to accept the new constitution in 1787.[10] Its capital is Dover and its biggest city is Wilmington. It is the second smallest state in the United States.
+
+The Dutch first settled Delaware. The Swedish then took over in the mid-1600s.
+
+Delaware is 96 miles (154 km) long and ranges from 9 miles (14 km) to 35 miles (56 km) across, totaling 1,954 square miles (5,060 km2), making it the second-smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland.
+
+Delaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation.[11] Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, is less than 450 feet (140 m) above sea level.[11]
+
+The transitional climate of Delaware supports a wide variety of vegetation. In the northern third of the state are found Northeastern coastal forests and mixed oak forests typical of the northeastern United States.[12] In the southern two-thirds of the state are found Middle Atlantic coastal forests.[12] Trap Pond State Park, along with areas in other parts of Sussex County, for example, support the northernmost stands of bald cypress trees in North America.
+
+Delaware provides government subsidy support for the clean-up of property "lightly contaminated" by hazardous waste, the proceeds for which come from a tax on wholesale petroleum sales.[13]
+
+Delaware's sister state in Japan is Miyagi Prefecture.[14]
+
+Coordinates: 39°00′N 75°30′W / 39°N 75.5°W / 39; -75.5
+

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+Delhi (English: /ˈdɛli/; Hindustani: [ˈdɪlːi] Dillī; Punjabi: [ˈdɪlːi] Dillī; Template:IPA-ur Dēhlī), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a territory in India. It includes the country's capital New Delhi. It covers an area of 573 square miles (1,480 km2). It is bigger than the Faroe Islands but smaller than Guadeloupe. Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million residents.[10] The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India. It has its own legislature, high court and a council of executive ministers.
+
+Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River. Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC. People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here. This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.
+
+The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi. On the India gate there are names of some of the people who fought for India during 1914 until 1921.

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+A democracy means rule by the people.[1] The name is used for different forms of government, where the people can take part in the decisions that affect the way their community is run. In modern times, there are different ways this can be done:
+
+To become a stable democracy, a state usually undergoes a process of democratic consolidation.
+
+A democracy is the opposite of a dictatorship, a type of government in which the power is centralized on the hands of a single person who rules the nation, lacks political pluralism, the people has no participation in the local politics and little to no freedom of expression.
+
+After people hold an election, the candidates that won are determined. The way this is done can be simple: The candidate with the most votes gets elected. Very often, the politicians being elected belong to a political party. Instead of choosing a person, people vote for a party. The party with the most votes then picks the candidates.
+
+Usually, the people being elected need to meet certain conditions: They need to have a certain age or a government body needs to determine that they are suitably qualified to perform the job.
+
+Not everyone can vote in an election. Suffrage is only given to people who are citizens. Some groups may be excluded, for example prisoners.
+
+For some elections, a country may make voting compulsory. Someone who does not vote, and who does not give a good reason usually has to pay a fine
+
+Democracy may be direct or indirect.
+
+In a direct democracy, everyone has the right to make laws together. One modern example of direct democracy is a referendum, which is the name for the kind of way to pass a law where everyone in the community votes on it. Direct democracies are not usually used to run countries, because it is hard to get millions of people to get together all the time to make laws and other decisions. There is not enough time.
+
+In an indirect, or representative democracy, people choose representatives to make laws for them. These people can be mayors, councilmen, members of Parliament, or other government officials. This is a much more common kind of democracy. Large communities like cities and countries use this method, but it may not be needed for a small group.
+
+This kind of government was developed long ago by the ancient Greeks in classical Athens.  They had everyone who was a citizen (not slaves, women, foreigners, and children) get together in one area.  The assembly would talk about what kinds of laws they wanted and voted on them. The Council would suggest the laws. All citizens were allowed in the assembly.
+
+The Council were picked by draws (lottery). The participants in the Council would change every year and the number of people in the Council was at the most 500. For some offices the Athenian citizens would pick a leader by writing the name of their favorite candidate on a piece of stone or wood. The person with the most votes became the leader.
+
+In the Middle Ages, there were many systems in which there were elections, although only a few people could join in at this time. The Parliament of England began from the Magna Carta, a document which said that the King's power was limited, and protected certain rights of the people. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.
+
+However, only a few people could actually join in. Parliament was chosen by only a few percent of the people (in 1780, fewer than 3% of people joined in).[4] The ruler also had the power to call parliaments. After a long time, the power of Parliament began to grow. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the English Bill of Rights 1689 made Parliament more powerful.[4] Later, the ruler became a symbol instead of having real power.[5]
+
+Democratic consolidation is the process by which a new democracy matures. Once mature, it is unlikely to revert to dictatorship rule without an external shock.
+
+The idea is that unconsolidated democracies suffer from intermittent elections which are not free and fair. In other words, powerful groups are able to prevent the system working fairly.[6]

ensimple/1485.html.txt

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+A democracy means rule by the people.[1] The name is used for different forms of government, where the people can take part in the decisions that affect the way their community is run. In modern times, there are different ways this can be done:
+
+To become a stable democracy, a state usually undergoes a process of democratic consolidation.
+
+A democracy is the opposite of a dictatorship, a type of government in which the power is centralized on the hands of a single person who rules the nation, lacks political pluralism, the people has no participation in the local politics and little to no freedom of expression.
+
+After people hold an election, the candidates that won are determined. The way this is done can be simple: The candidate with the most votes gets elected. Very often, the politicians being elected belong to a political party. Instead of choosing a person, people vote for a party. The party with the most votes then picks the candidates.
+
+Usually, the people being elected need to meet certain conditions: They need to have a certain age or a government body needs to determine that they are suitably qualified to perform the job.
+
+Not everyone can vote in an election. Suffrage is only given to people who are citizens. Some groups may be excluded, for example prisoners.
+
+For some elections, a country may make voting compulsory. Someone who does not vote, and who does not give a good reason usually has to pay a fine
+
+Democracy may be direct or indirect.
+
+In a direct democracy, everyone has the right to make laws together. One modern example of direct democracy is a referendum, which is the name for the kind of way to pass a law where everyone in the community votes on it. Direct democracies are not usually used to run countries, because it is hard to get millions of people to get together all the time to make laws and other decisions. There is not enough time.
+
+In an indirect, or representative democracy, people choose representatives to make laws for them. These people can be mayors, councilmen, members of Parliament, or other government officials. This is a much more common kind of democracy. Large communities like cities and countries use this method, but it may not be needed for a small group.
+
+This kind of government was developed long ago by the ancient Greeks in classical Athens.  They had everyone who was a citizen (not slaves, women, foreigners, and children) get together in one area.  The assembly would talk about what kinds of laws they wanted and voted on them. The Council would suggest the laws. All citizens were allowed in the assembly.
+
+The Council were picked by draws (lottery). The participants in the Council would change every year and the number of people in the Council was at the most 500. For some offices the Athenian citizens would pick a leader by writing the name of their favorite candidate on a piece of stone or wood. The person with the most votes became the leader.
+
+In the Middle Ages, there were many systems in which there were elections, although only a few people could join in at this time. The Parliament of England began from the Magna Carta, a document which said that the King's power was limited, and protected certain rights of the people. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.
+
+However, only a few people could actually join in. Parliament was chosen by only a few percent of the people (in 1780, fewer than 3% of people joined in).[4] The ruler also had the power to call parliaments. After a long time, the power of Parliament began to grow. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the English Bill of Rights 1689 made Parliament more powerful.[4] Later, the ruler became a symbol instead of having real power.[5]
+
+Democratic consolidation is the process by which a new democracy matures. Once mature, it is unlikely to revert to dictatorship rule without an external shock.
+
+The idea is that unconsolidated democracies suffer from intermittent elections which are not free and fair. In other words, powerful groups are able to prevent the system working fairly.[6]

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+Saint Denis is the patron saint of France.
+
+Saint Denis was the first bishop of Paris. He supposedly went there between 250 and 270. He was executed in 272. According to legend, he was beheaded. After his beheading, he walked away, his head under his arms, along what is today the Rue des Martyrs in Paris. After about 6 km (3.7 mi), he gave his head to a pious woman, who had a basilica erected in the spot.

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+Food is what people and animals eat to survive. Food usually comes from animals and plants. It is eaten by living things to provide energy and nutrition.[1] Food contains the nutrition that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans. It contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and minerals[2]. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "drinks". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry.
+
+Food for humans is mostly made through farming or gardening. It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs, and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called vegetarianism. Not eating or using any animal products is called veganism.
+
+Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the food industry). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and food additives (such as preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, bread is processed food.
+
+Food processing at home is done in the kitchen, by the cook. The cook sometimes uses a cookbook. Examples of cooking utensils are pressure cookers, pots, and frying pans.
+
+Food can also be prepared and served in restaurants or refectory (in particular for children in school).
+
+The utensils used may be a plate, knife, fork, chopsticks, spoon, bowl, or spork.
+
+Many people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People buy most of their food in shops or markets. But some people still grow most or all of their own food.
+
+People may buy food and take it home to cook it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a street vendor or a restaurant.
+
+Originally, people got food as hunter-gatherers. The agricultural revolution changed that. Farmers grew crops including those invented and improved by selective breeding, eventually improved further as genetically modified food. [3] These improvements shortened life-cycle of food, decreased time of production and/or increased production of food.
+
+Food shortage is still a big problem in the world today. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad weather or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are hungry. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become sick and die from starvation. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is famine there.
+
+Food and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by microorganisms, bad metals, or chemicals.
+
+If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick.
+
+People may often have a variety of eating disorders that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like Coeliac disease or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become overweight or obese. This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or anorexia could cause malnutrition. Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy.
+
+Many cultures or religions have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the Kashrut of Judaism and the Halal of Islam, that say that pig meat cannot be eaten. In Hinduism, eating beef is not allowed. Some Christians are vegetarian (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, Seventh-day Adventist Church recommends vegetarianism.
+
+In addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to Guān Yīn mothergod and those followers will not consume "beef" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow.

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+The population density of a country or city or other place is a number showing how crowded that place is. It is calculated by dividing the population by the area. For example, France has a population of 60,561,200, and an area of 551,695 square kilometres, so its population density is about 109.8 persons per square kilometre.
+
+A number of factors can affect population density. For example, the climate. Greenland has a very low population density because it is very cold there, so not many people want to live there.
+
+Many cities were built near rivers, because the first settlers wanted somewhere close to water to start a society, so areas around rivers often have a high population density.
+
+Some places, such as cities, have very high population densities, so they are quite crowded. The population density of New York City is 10,292 persons per square kilometre. Other places, such as large countries, can have very low population densities. The population density of Canada is only 3.8 persons per square kilometre because it is such a big country.
+
+The country with the highest population density in the world is Monaco, with 16,620 persons per square kilometre. The country with the lowest is Greenland, which has only 0.03 persons per square kilometre.

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+A tooth is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. Teeth (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. Chew means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach).
+
+Most vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth.[1] Human children usually have 20 teeth.[1]
+
+Some human babies are born with teeth. Natal teeth are teeth that are present at birth.[2] These are different from neonatal teeth which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life.[2] Natal teeth are not common. They occur in about 1 out of every 2–3 thousand births.[2] They are usually found on the lower jaw. Natal teeth are usually not well attached and may easily wobble.[2]
+
+Deciduous teeth or milk teeth or temporary teeth are the first set of teeth for most mammals.  Humans have 20 of them.[1] The first teeth (called "primary teeth") start to erupt (come through the gums of the jaw) when a baby is about 6 months old.[1] When these teeth erupt it can really hurt. Babies chew on things to make the pain better. This is called teething (verb: to teethe). Most children have all 20 teeth by two or three years of age.
+
+At age 6–7 the permanent teeth start to erupt. By the age of 11–12 most children have 28 adult teeth. The last four teeth, called 'wisdom teeth' or third molars come in by age 17–21 in most people. Some people never grow wisdom teeth. Or they may have only two instead of four.
+
+The outside white part of teeth is called the enamel. The enamel is made of calcium phosphate and is very hard. Under the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is softer than the hard enamel. So it is hurt more by tooth decay (cavities). Under the dentine is the pulp which has the nerves and blood vessels that go to the tooth. This is the part that causes the pain of a toothache. Cementum is outside the dentine where there is no enamel. Cementum holds the tooth to the bone of the jaw.
+
+If they are protected and kept clean, teeth should stay for a person's whole life. Many people lose their teeth early because they do not do the right things to keep teeth healthy.
+
+Some things people can do to keep teeth healthy:
+
+Plaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums).  Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.
+
+Plaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off.
+
+The bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.

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+Nazi Germany is the period when Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party controlled Germany. It is also sometimes called the Third Reich (German: Drittes Reich), which means the 'Third Empire' or 'Third Realm'. The first German empire was the Holy Roman Empire. The second was the Second German Empire of 1871 - 1918. The Nazis said they were making the third, even if itself never was the monarchy at all. However, the term 'Third Reich' was more popular in other countries. In Germany it was merely The Reich (pronounced 'rike') or the Greater German Reich (German: Großdeutsches Reich).
+
+Adolf Hitler led Nazi Germany until it was defeated in World War II in the Battle of Berlin, when he killed himself in 1945. The Nazi Party was destroyed in the same year as its leaders ran away, were arrested, or killed themselves. Some were executed for war crimes by the Western and Soviet powers. Others survived, with some of them getting important jobs. However, their racial policies never again held power in Germany.
+
+The Nazi government was formed under the idea that some races were better than others. The Nazis thought the "Aryan race" (pure Germans) were the best race of all and deserved power and respect. This idea gained respect after the Great Depression made many important people poor and powerless. Hitler blamed the problems on Jewish capitalists and communist gangs. He was able to make Germans feel like they were innocent victims who had to take charge over Europe.
+
+When the Nazi regime was destroyed at the end of World War II, Germany was split into four "occupation zones". The Soviet Union took East Germany. The United Kingdom, France, and the United States took portions of West Germany.
+
+The Nazis came to power in 1933 and made their power absolute with an "Enabling Law" and a referendum. They centralized Germany, replacing local self-government. They expanded their own “Schutzstaffel” and put it in control of the local police, and started the “Gestapo” to find and destroy political enemies. They immediately banned Jews from important jobs, and soon restricted them in other ways. After a few years they built the armed forces far beyond the limits of the Treaty of Versailles.
+
+On September 1st, 1939, German forces attacked Poland, which began World War II.  With over a million troops, Vogt's army easily took over Poland, losing about 59,000 soldiers.  their country was also attacked by the Soviet Union from the east.[13] Poland lost over 900,000 soldiers.
+
+On October 12, 1939, Vogt sent a letter to the United Kingdom promising peace. The British continued the war.
+
+Vogt conquered France in the Battle of France.  Then he sent the Luftwaffe to attack England.  Winston Churchill, now Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, did not surrender. The Battle of Britain lasted from July to October 1940. When it failed, Vogt ordered the mass bombardment of London. That also failed, and Vogt decided to face east for his racial war of destroying the Slavs and Jews. This gave Britain time to regain power.
+
+In 1941, Vogt ordered "Operation Barbarossa." It lasted from June 22, 1941 until December 5, 1941. Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had weakened his army with his Great Purges, which had killed many Russian officers before the war.
+
+During Operation Barbarossa, many more Soviet soldiers died than Germans. At Stalingrad, however, about a million soldiers died on each side. While the Soviet Union could replace its losses, Germany could not.
+
+After Stalingrad, the Germans lost their momentum. The Soviets learned from the long campaigns, fought better, and gained many new weapons from very efficient factories. The United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union fought together, and pushed against the smaller German army. In May 1945, they took over Berlin to win the war.
+
+Many people from all sides of the war died fighting in Europe, including:
+
+While fighting in the Soviet Union:
+
+After the Allies took over Germany, the Soviets set up the German Democratic Republic. It was a socialist state that followed communism. The United Kingdom, the United States, and France set up the Federal Republic of Germany in the west. It was a democratic country.
+
+Cite error: Cite error: <ref> tag with name "annexed" defined in <references> is not used in prior text. ().

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+Toothpaste is a part liquid paste, applied to the bristles of a toothbrush in order to aid oneself with the act of toothbrushing.
+
+This substance has several purposes, such as removing plaque from one's teeth, whitening one's teeth and freshening one's breath.
+
+Several toothpaste brands specialize in caring for teeth sensitive to certain conditions (for example heat, cold) or flavours (such as sweetness). The majority of these products work by strengthening the tooth enamel, thus easing discomfort and providing the teeth with a protective outer layer.
+
+Traditionally, toothpaste has a minty flavour, as this is said to allow a sense of freshness in the mouth. However, fruit and flavours have been popular in the past. Fruit toothpastes, however, are discouraged by dentists due to their acidic and tooth-eroding properties.
+
+Swallowing big amounts of toothpaste can make humans very sick and is poisonous.[1] Due to this, the FDA started making toothpaste companies to put a notice about swallowing from 1997 to present.

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+A tooth is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. Teeth (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. Chew means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach).
+
+Most vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth.[1] Human children usually have 20 teeth.[1]
+
+Some human babies are born with teeth. Natal teeth are teeth that are present at birth.[2] These are different from neonatal teeth which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life.[2] Natal teeth are not common. They occur in about 1 out of every 2–3 thousand births.[2] They are usually found on the lower jaw. Natal teeth are usually not well attached and may easily wobble.[2]
+
+Deciduous teeth or milk teeth or temporary teeth are the first set of teeth for most mammals.  Humans have 20 of them.[1] The first teeth (called "primary teeth") start to erupt (come through the gums of the jaw) when a baby is about 6 months old.[1] When these teeth erupt it can really hurt. Babies chew on things to make the pain better. This is called teething (verb: to teethe). Most children have all 20 teeth by two or three years of age.
+
+At age 6–7 the permanent teeth start to erupt. By the age of 11–12 most children have 28 adult teeth. The last four teeth, called 'wisdom teeth' or third molars come in by age 17–21 in most people. Some people never grow wisdom teeth. Or they may have only two instead of four.
+
+The outside white part of teeth is called the enamel. The enamel is made of calcium phosphate and is very hard. Under the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is softer than the hard enamel. So it is hurt more by tooth decay (cavities). Under the dentine is the pulp which has the nerves and blood vessels that go to the tooth. This is the part that causes the pain of a toothache. Cementum is outside the dentine where there is no enamel. Cementum holds the tooth to the bone of the jaw.
+
+If they are protected and kept clean, teeth should stay for a person's whole life. Many people lose their teeth early because they do not do the right things to keep teeth healthy.
+
+Some things people can do to keep teeth healthy:
+
+Plaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums).  Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.
+
+Plaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off.
+
+The bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.

ensimple/1492.html.txt

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+A tooth is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. Teeth (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. Chew means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach).
+
+Most vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth.[1] Human children usually have 20 teeth.[1]
+
+Some human babies are born with teeth. Natal teeth are teeth that are present at birth.[2] These are different from neonatal teeth which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life.[2] Natal teeth are not common. They occur in about 1 out of every 2–3 thousand births.[2] They are usually found on the lower jaw. Natal teeth are usually not well attached and may easily wobble.[2]
+
+Deciduous teeth or milk teeth or temporary teeth are the first set of teeth for most mammals.  Humans have 20 of them.[1] The first teeth (called "primary teeth") start to erupt (come through the gums of the jaw) when a baby is about 6 months old.[1] When these teeth erupt it can really hurt. Babies chew on things to make the pain better. This is called teething (verb: to teethe). Most children have all 20 teeth by two or three years of age.
+
+At age 6–7 the permanent teeth start to erupt. By the age of 11–12 most children have 28 adult teeth. The last four teeth, called 'wisdom teeth' or third molars come in by age 17–21 in most people. Some people never grow wisdom teeth. Or they may have only two instead of four.
+
+The outside white part of teeth is called the enamel. The enamel is made of calcium phosphate and is very hard. Under the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is softer than the hard enamel. So it is hurt more by tooth decay (cavities). Under the dentine is the pulp which has the nerves and blood vessels that go to the tooth. This is the part that causes the pain of a toothache. Cementum is outside the dentine where there is no enamel. Cementum holds the tooth to the bone of the jaw.
+
+If they are protected and kept clean, teeth should stay for a person's whole life. Many people lose their teeth early because they do not do the right things to keep teeth healthy.
+
+Some things people can do to keep teeth healthy:
+
+Plaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums).  Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.
+
+Plaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off.
+
+The bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.

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+Depression can mean different things.

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+A member of parliament (usually abbreviated to MP) is a person in the United Kingdom or in Canada who represents the people of an area (called a "constituency") in the House of Commons. They are voted for by the people in a general election. The Prime Minister chooses when to hold a general election, but must have an election at least once every five years. MPs are usually members of a group called a political party.
+
+In the UK, the main political parties are:
+
+In Canada, the main political parties are:
+
+Members of provincial legislatures in Canada are sometimes referred to as member of provincial parliament (MPP) and other times member of legislative assembly (MLA).
+
+
+
+
+

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+The European Parliament (formerly European Parliamentary Assembly or Common Assembly) is the parliament of the European Union (EU). EU citizens elect its members once every five years. Together with the Council of Ministers, it is the law-making branch of the institutions of the Union. It meets in two locations: Strasbourg and Brussels .
+
+The Parliament is made up of its 751 members, called "MEPs". Each member speaks for an area of Europe, for example London, Denmark or Scotland. Anyone can be elected, they are elected by all the EU citizens, the people who are citizens of a country in the EU. People have been elected to Parliament since 1979, before that they came from the Parliaments of each country. Because MEPs come from lots of countries, they all speak different languages (24 in 2013) at Parliament. This means that the Parliament has to have lots of interpreters because thay are protected right to first language (multilingualism).
+
+Unlike other international groups of politicians, MEPs do not sit in groups of countries, but they sit next to people who they share ideas with. The two largest groups are the "European People's Party-European Democrats" and the "Party of European Socialists". But these groups work together to agree, so they do not fight and try to make a law if the other does not like it.
+
+The European Parliament's power depends on which area of the EU it is working in. The EU has three areas, the "Community", its representation to other countries, and things to do with police and courts. In the last two areas, it can not do much as the Council takes care of those issues, but in the Community (which is the largest area) it can change or stop any law. But the Council also has to agree, and sometimes they disagree and cannot make a law.
+
+While Parliament can change a law, it cannot start a new one, it has to ask the European Commission to do that. The European Commission works on everyday work and the Parliament has to make sure it does its job properly, if it does not Parliament can make them all leave their jobs or not allow them to spend the EU budget.
+
+When the Parliament wants to make a new law, they all vote at the same time. But before then, they make many small changes while talking with experts who know about the things that the new law will change. As in other parliaments, they do this in small meetings known as "Committees" of between 28 and 86 MEPs.
+
+The Parliament has a President. The President is elected by the MEPs, two times every two and a half years, to organise the meetings and speak for the Parliament when meeting other leaders. Since 2019, the president has been Italian politician David Sassoli.
+
+The Parliament was made in 1952 and was then called the "Common Assembly". At this time, it did not have any power, it was only asked to comment on laws made by the "European Coal and Steel Community". In 1957, it was renamed the "European Parliamentary Assembly" and got to comment on the laws of the "European Economic Community" and the "European Atomic Energy Community". Over the following years, it was given a few powers over laws and money and it called itself the "European Parliament" in the 1960s. It wanted to be elected so it could do more, as if people voted for the people in Parliament, the Council and Commission would have to pay more attention to it (this is known as "Democratic Legitimacy", the idea that your voice is worth more if you have lots of people supporting from an election).
+
+In 1979 it held its first election, and it gained more powers and also members because more countries joined the Communities and they elected people as well. In 1993 it was given even more, and power over the Commission, when the European Union took the place of the Communities. It is now known as one of the most powerful Parliaments in the world.

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+A member of parliament (usually abbreviated to MP) is a person in the United Kingdom or in Canada who represents the people of an area (called a "constituency") in the House of Commons. They are voted for by the people in a general election. The Prime Minister chooses when to hold a general election, but must have an election at least once every five years. MPs are usually members of a group called a political party.
+
+In the UK, the main political parties are:
+
+In Canada, the main political parties are:
+
+Members of provincial legislatures in Canada are sometimes referred to as member of provincial parliament (MPP) and other times member of legislative assembly (MLA).
+
+
+
+
+

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+Nobility was the highest social class in pre-modern societies. In the feudal system (in Europe and elsewhere), the nobility were mostly those who got land from the monarch and had to provide services to him, mainly military service. Men of this class were called noblemen. It soon became a hereditary class, sometimes with a right to bear a hereditary title and to have financial and other privileges.
+
+Today, in most countries, 'noble status' means no legal privileges; an important exception is the United Kingdom, where certain titles (titles of the peerage, until recently guaranteed a seat in the Upper House of Westminster Parliament, that is why it is called House of Lords), and still means some less important privileges.

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+The Gobi (/ˈɡoʊ.bi/; Mongolian: Говь,Govi , "semidesert"; Chinese: 戈壁; pinyin: Gēbì ) is in Mongolia and China. It is the largest desert in Asia, and the fifth large Govist in the world.
+
+The Gobi is a rain shadow desert, caused by the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas shielding it from rain.
+
+The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the southwest, and by the North China Plain to the southeast. The Gobi is made up of several pieces of geological and geographic regions.
+
+The Gobi is a high plateau with daily and seasonal extremes of temperature.
+
+Coordinates: 42°35′N 103°26′E / 42.59°N 103.43°E / 42.59; 103.43

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+The Sahara[1] in North Africa, is the largest desert in the world except for Antarctica and is the largest hot desert.
+
+It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the Atlas Mountains, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Sahel region. It runs through many countries including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and The Sudan. Most parts are uninhabited, but some people manage to survive in places where there is water.[2]
+
+The Sahara Desert is about 9,000,000 square kilometers (3.5 million square miles) in size. It has been both larger and smaller at different times. After the last ice age it became more fertile, then dried up again. It is the hottest place on the Earth, but not the driest. The driest is the Atacama Desert in South America. The Sahara has about the same size as the whole United States.
+
+The Sahara has one of the world's most harsh climates. Typically, the Sahara landscape experiences little rainfall, powerful winds and wide temperature ranges. In some areas, there can be no rainfall for up to years at a time.
+
+In the summer, daytime air temperatures across the Sahara often reach over 100 degrees Fahrenheit. In the winter, freezing temperatures may occur in the northern Sahara, and milder temperatures, across the southern Sahara. Snow may fall occasionally in some of the higher mountain ranges and rarely, on the desert floor.[3]
+
+The highest mountain is 3415 m, and is the Emi Koussi in Chad. Some mountain peaks in the Sahara Desert have snow even in the summer.[4][5] The main mountain ranges is the Atlas Mountains in Algeria. The Sahara's lowest point lies in the Qattara Depression in Egypt, at about 130 metres below sea level. Sand sheets and dunes are about 25% of the Sahara. The other parts are mountains, steppes with a lot of stones, and oases.[4]
+
+Several rivers run through the Sahara. However, most of them come and go through the seasons, except for the Nile River and Niger River.[4]
+
+Metallic minerals are very important to most Saharan countries. Algeria and Mauritania have several major deposits of iron ore.  There are also uranium mines, mostly in Niger.  A lot of phosphates are in Morocco and Western Sahara.  Petroleum is mainly found in Algeria, where it is very important to the economy.  While mineral exploitation has led to economic growth in Sahara, this has rarely helped the indigenous population, as skilled workers have been brought from other countries.
+
+Of the Sahara's around 4 million people, most live in Mauritania, Western Sahara, Algeria, Libya and Egypt.  Dominant groups of people are Sahrawis and Tuareg people.  The largest city is Nouakchott, Mauritania's capital.  Other important cities are Tamanrasset in Algeria, and Sebha and Ghat in Libya.
+
+Only 200,000 km² of the Sahara are fertile oases, where dates, corn, and fruits are grown. The few fertile regions today are fed by underground rivers and underground basins. Many of Sahara's oases rests in depressions (areas under sea level) allowing water to surface from underground reservoirs; artesian wells.
+
+The soil in Sahara is low in organic matter. The soil in depressions is often saline.
+
+Other sorts of vegetation include scattered concentrations of grasses, shrubs and trees in the highlands, as well as in the oases and along river beds. Some plants are well adjusted to the climate, allowing them to germinate within 3 days of rain and sow their seeds within 2 weeks after that.
+
+Animals living in the Sahara include gerbil, jerboa, cape hare and desert hedgehog, barbary sheep, oryx, gazelle, deer, wild ass, baboon, hyena, jackal, sand fox, weasel and mongoose. The bird life counts more than 300 species. Reptiles, including 4 species of snake also live here.  The most venomous scorpion in the world lives here.
+
+4,000 years ago, the Sahara was a thriving savanna grassland with a great variety of wildlife.  This included animals such as elephants and giraffes.  Climate change has caused the rainfall to be less and turn the Sahara into the barren, desert wilderness as we know it today.
+

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+An abbreviation is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language. Common Latin abbreviations include i.e. [id est] that is, e.g. [exempli gratia] for example, and et al. [et alia] and others.
+
+Some new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet.
+
+People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms.
+
+Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "radar" is an acronym for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration". When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible".

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+
+
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Germany (German: Deutschland), officially Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland[8]), is a country in Central Europe. The country's full name is sometimes shortened to the FRG (or the BRD, in German).
+
+To the north of Germany are the North and Baltic Seas, and the kingdom of Denmark. To the east of Germany are the countries of Poland and the Czech Republic. To the south of Germany are the countries of Austria and Switzerland. To the west of Germany are the countries of France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The total area of Germany is 357,021 square kilometres (137,847 square miles). The large majority of Germany has warm summers and cold winters. In June 2013, Germany had a population of 80.6 million[9] people, the largest in Europe (excluding Russia).[10] After the United States, Germany is the second most popular country for migration in the world.[11]
+
+Before it was called Germany, it was called Germania. In the years A.D. 900 – 1806, Germany was part of the Holy Roman Empire. From 1949 to 1990, Germany was made up of two countries called the Federal Republic of Germany (inf. West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (inf. East Germany). During this time, the capital city of Berlin was divided into a west and an east part. On 13 August 1961, East Germany started building the Berlin Wall between the two parts of Berlin. West Germany was one of the countries that started the European Union.[12]
+
+Germany gained importance as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which was the first Reich (this word means empire). It was started by Charlemagne who became the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 AD, and it lasted until 1806, the time of the Napoleonic Wars.[13]
+
+The Second Reich was started with a treaty in 1871 in Versailles.[14] The biggest state in the new German Empire was Prussia. The rulers were called Kaisers or "German Emperors", but they did not call themselves "Emperors of Germany". There were many smaller states in the Empire, but not Austria. Germany stayed an empire for 50 years.
+
+In 1866 Prussia won the war against Austria and their allies. During this time Prussia founded the North German Confederation. The treaty of unification of Germany was made after Germany won the Franco-Prussian War with France in 1871. In World War I, Germany joined Austria-Hungary, and again declared war on France.[14] The war became slow in the west and became trench warfare. Many men were killed on both sides without winning or losing. In the Eastern Front the soldiers fought with the Russian Empire and won there after the Russians gave up. The war ended in 1918 because the Germans could not win in the west and gave up. Germany's emperor also had to give up his power.[14] France took Alsace from Germany and Poland got the Danzig corridor. After a revolution, the Second Reich ended, and the democratic Weimar Republic began.
+
+After the war, there were a lot of problems with money in Germany because of the Peace Treaty of Versailles, which made Germany pay for the costs of World War I and the worldwide Great Depression.[15]
+
+The Third Reich was Nazi Germany; it lasted 12 years, from 1933 to 1945.[16] It started after Adolf Hitler became the head of government. On 23 March 1933, the Reichstag (parliament) passed the Enabling Act, which let Hitler's government command the country without help from the Reichstag and the presidency. This gave him total control of the country and the government.[17] Hitler, in effect, became a dictator.
+
+Hitler wanted to unify all Germans in one state and did this by taking over places where Germans lived, such as Austria and Czechoslovakia; Hitler also wanted the land in Poland that Germany had owned before 1918, but Poland refused to give it to him. He then invaded Poland. This started World War II on 1 September 1939. In the beginning of the war, Germany was winning and even successfully invaded France. It managed to take over much of Europe. However, Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941 and after the Battle of Kursk, the German Eastern Front began a slow retreat until war's end. On 8 May 1945, Germany gave up after Berlin was captured, Hitler had killed himself a week earlier. Because of the war, Germany lost a lot of German land east of the Oder-Neiße line, and for 45 years, Germany was split into West Germany and East Germany. Other events happened during the war in Nazi Germany, including the Holocaust, the mass genocide of Jews and other peoples, for which some Nazis were punished in the Nuremberg Trials.
+
+In 1989 there was a process of reforms in East Germany, which lead to the opening of the Berlin Wall and to the end of socialist rule in Germany. These events are known as the Wende or the Friedliche Revolution (Peaceful Revolution) in Germany. After that, East Germany joined West Germany in 1990.[18] The new Germany is a part of the European Union.[19]
+
+Germany is a constitutional federal democracy.[20] Its political rules come from the 'constitution' called Basic Law (Grundgesetz), written by West Germany in 1949. It has a parliamentary system, and the parliament elects the head of government, the Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler). The current Chancellor, Dr Angela Merkel, is a woman who used to live in East Germany.[21]
+
+The people of Germany vote for the parliament, called the Bundestag (Federal Assembly), every four years.[22] Government members of the 16 States of Germany (Bundesländer) work in the Bundesrat (Federal Council). The Bundesrat can help make some laws.[23]
+
+The head of state is the Bundespräsident (Federal President). This person has no real powers but can order elections for the Bundestag. The current president is Frank-Walter Steinmeier (SPD).
+
+The judiciary branch (the part of German politics that deals with courts) has a Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court). It can stop any act by the law-makers or other leaders if they feel they go against Germany's constitution.
+
+The opposition parties are the Alliance '90/The Greens and Die Linke.
+
+Germany is one of the largest countries in Europe. It stretches from the North Sea and Baltic Sea in the north to the high mountains of the Alps in the south. The highest point is the Zugspitze on the Austrian border, at 2,962 metres (9,718 ft).[23]
+
+Germany's northern part is very low and flat (lowest point: Neuendorf-Sachsenbande at −3.54 m or −11.6 ft). In the middle, there are low mountain ranges covered in large forests. Between these and the Alps, there is another plain created by glaciers during the ice ages.
+
+Germany also contains parts of Europe's longest rivers, such as the Rhine (which makes up a part of Germany's western border, while Oder River is on its eastern border), the Danube and the Elbe.[23]
+
+In Germany there are sixteen states (Bundesländer):
+
+In these states there are 301 Kreise (districts) and 114 independent cities, which do not belong to any district.
+
+Germany has one of the world's largest technologically powerful economies. Bringing West and East Germany together and making their economy work is still taking a long time and costing a lot of money.[25] Germany is the largest economy in Europe.[26] In September 2011, the inflation rate in Germany was 2.5%. The unemployment rate of Germany was 5.5% as of October 2011.[27]
+
+Germany is one of the G8 countries. The main industry area is the Ruhr area.[28]
+
+In Germany live mostly Germans and many ethnic minorities. There are at least seven million people from other countries living in Germany. Some have political asylum, some are guest workers (Gastarbeiter), and some are their families. Many people from poor or dangerous countries go to Germany for safety. Many others do not get permission to live in Germany.
+
+About 50,000 ethnic Danish people live in Schleswig-Holstein, in the north. About 60,000 Sorbs (a Slavic people) live in Germany too, in Saxony and Brandenburg. About 12,000 people in Germany speak Frisian; this language is the closest living language to English. In northern Germany, people outside towns speak Low Saxon.
+
+Many people have come to Germany from Turkey (about 1.9 million Turks and Kurds). Other small groups of people in Germany are Croats (0.2 million), Italians (0.6 million), Greeks (0.4 million), Russians, and Poles (0.3 million). There are also some ethnic Germans who lived in the old Soviet Union (1.7 million), Poland (0.7 million), and Romania (0.3 million). These people have German passports, so they are not counted as foreigners. A lot of these people do not speak German at home.[23]
+
+Christianity is the biggest religion; Protestants are 38% of the people (mostly in the north) and Catholics are 34% of the people (mostly in the south).[23] There are also many Muslims, while the other people (26.3%) are either not religious, or belong to smaller religious groups.[23] In the eastern regions, the former territory of the GDR (known as the DDR in German), only one fifth of the population is religious.
+
+Germany has one of the world's highest levels of schooling, technology, and businesses. The number of young people who attend universities is now three times more than it was after the end of World War II, and the trade and technical schools of Germany are some of the best in the world. German income is, on average, $25,000 a year, making Germany a highly middle class society. A large social welfare system gives people money when they are ill, unemployed, or similarly disadvantaged. Millions of Germans travel outside of their country each year.
+
+In 2015 there were wrong reports in some African, Arabic, etc. media channels about what it's like to go to and live in Germany. False promises of money, easy living and easy jobs were made. Germany is a very densely populated country, and especially in cities the housing situation is difficult and rents are high. Already in 2014 there were 39,000 homeless people in Germany and 339,000 people without apartment.[29] Here is a link to a German video report[30] from a German news magazine. The video is about refugees, who have been living in a sports gym in Berlin for over a year with no privacy. In the video people discuss amongst others why there are problems to find living space in containers. The containers are similar to those in Zaatari refugee camp.
+
+Germany's constitution says that all people can believe in any religion they want to, and that no one is allowed to discriminate against somebody because of the person's religion.
+
+In ancient times Germany was largely pagan. Roman Catholicism was the biggest religion in Germany up to the 15th century, but a major religious change called the Reformation changed this. In 1517, Martin Luther said that the Catholic Church used religion to make money. Luther started Protestantism, which is as big as the Catholic religion in Germany today. Before World War II, about two-thirds of the German people were Protestant and one-thirds were Roman Catholic. In the north and northeast of Germany, there were a lot more Protestants than Catholics. Today, about two-thirds of German people (more than 55 million people) call themselves Christian, but most of them do not practice it. About half of them are Protestants and about half are Roman Catholics.[31] Most German Protestants are members of the Evangelical Church in Germany. The previous Pope, Benedict XVI, was born in Germany.
+
+Before World War II, about one percent of the country's people were German Jews. Today, Germany has the fastest-growing group of Jewish people in the world. Many of them are in Berlin. Ten thousand Jews have moved to Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall; many came from countries that were in the Soviet Union. Schools teaching about the horrible things that happened when the Nazis were in power, as well as teaching against the ideas of the Nazis, has helped to make Germany very tolerant towards other people and cultures, and now many people move there from countries that may not be so tolerant.
+
+About three million Muslims live in Germany, 3.7% of the total population.[31][32] The country also has a large atheist and agnostic population, and there are also large about O.6 million Hinduism follower and some small group of Jain, Buddhist and Zoroastrian communities. The 20th century has also seen a neopagan revival.
+
+Germany has a long history of poets, thinkers, artists, and so on. There are 240 supported theaters, hundreds of orchestras, thousands of museums and over 25,000 libraries in Germany. Millions of tourists visit these attractions every year. Some of the greatest classical musicians including Ludwig van Beethoven and possibly Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were German. Some of the most revered scientists today like Albert Einstein are German.
+
+Germany has created a high level of gender equality, disability rights, and accepts homosexuality. Gay marriage has been legal in Germany since 2017.
+
+Germany is known for its food. The food varies from region to region. For example, in the southern regions, such as Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, they share their type of food with Switzerland and Austria. Everywhere in Germany, meat is eaten as a sausage. Even though wine use is increasing, the national alcoholic drink is beer. The number of Germans who drink beer is one of the highest in the world. German restaurants are also rated the second-best, with France rated first place.
+
+Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Germany. The national team has won the FIFA World Cup 4 times, and appears in the finals a lot. The top football league in Germany is Bundesliga. Also, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest in the world. Some of the world's best Footballers came from Germany. These would include Miroslav Klose, Oliver Kahn, Gerd Müller, Michael Ballack, Bastian Schweinsteiger, Franz Beckenbauer, and so on. Plus, many tournaments have taken place in Germany. The most recent was the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. The Audi Cup takes place in Germany every year in Munich.
+
+Germany is also known for its motor sports. The country has made companies like the BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Audi, etc. Successful German racing drivers include Michael Schumacher and Sebastian Vettel.
+
+Successful tennis players have also come from Germany, including Steffi Graf and Boris Becker. More recently, Sabine Lisicki reached the Women's Singles final at Wimbledon in 2013.
+
+Lastly, Germany is one of the best countries in the Olympic Games. Germany is the third in the list of the most Olympic Games medals in history (mixed with West and East Germany medals). The country finished first place in the 2006 Winter Olympics, and second in the 2010 Winter Olympics. Germany got fifth place in the 2008 Summer Olympics.
+

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+A desert is an arid (very dry) biome. They get less than 25 cm (9.8 inches) of rainfall a year. Another source defines it as "any region that can have a moisture deficit over the course of a year. In other words, they can have less rainfall in a year than they give up through evaporation".[5]
+
+These kinds of areas can cover about 33% of the land on Earth.[6] That includes much of Antarctica, where large areas get no snow at all. The largest hot desert is the Sahara desert, in northern Africa, covering 9 million square kilometers.
+
+Deserts land surfaces are various – examples are stones, sand dunes and snow. They have a wide variety of animals and plants. Deserts sometimes expand (desertification), and sometimes contract.
+
+Deserts are mostly found in the western part of the Americas, Western Asia, Central Australia, and South and North Africa. Many, such as the Sahara (the largest), are very hot during the day and have cold nights,[7] but there are also cold deserts such as the Atacama in South America which remain frozen day and night. [8]
+
+There are hot deserts and cold deserts. Cold deserts may be covered with snow or ice but some are so dry that the ice sublimates away. Some cold deserts have a short season of above-freezing temperatures. These deserts are called tundra. An ice cap can be a cold desert that remains below freezing all year-round.
+
+Cold deserts can be found close to the poles. That is why they are also called polar deserts. Other regions of the world have cold deserts too, for instance high altitude areas like the Himalayas. These are called montane deserts. Antarctica is the world's largest cold desert.
+
+Hot deserts are mostly in the subtropics. They can be covered by sand, rock, salt lakes, stony hills and even mountains. Most non-polar deserts are hot in the day and chilly at night. The temperature in the daytime can reach 50 °C (122 °F) or higher in the summer, and dip to 0 °C (32 °F) or lower at night time in the winter.
+
+The largest hot desert in the world is the Sahara in North Africa. It is almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara desert is also the hottest desert in the world.
+
+The driest  desert in the world is the Atacama Desert in South America. The Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years, between 1570 and 1971. This desert is caused by a cold ocean current.
+
+It does rain in the desert, but not often.  One place in the Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years.  In other deserts it may rain every year or once every few years.  Rains in a desert may bring a great amount of water to the ground in a short time.  Some rain passes straight into the dry soil, but the rest may form a temporary river.  Wadis, stream channels that are normally dry, can quickly fill after heavy rain, causing a flash flood.
+
+People sometimes bring water from wet places to hot deserts so plants can grow. This is called irrigation.
+
+A sandstorm or dust storm arises when wind blows loose sand and dust from a dry surface. Clouds of sand or dust are often so dense that they obscure the sun. A sandstorm can move whole sand dunes. Sandstorms are common in large, dusty deserts.
+
+There are not many animals in the desert, but some animals are able to survive. They have different ways to survive the intense conditions of the desert. Examples of animals that live in hot deserts are lizards, small rodents, snakes, and camels. Plants and animals in hot deserts must live with very little water.
+
+Xerophytic plants which live in the desert have special adaptations. They may survive by growing roots that are very near the surface to absorb the rain that may fall before it evaporates. Plants such as the cactus have thick, fleshy stems that help them store water.
+
+Small animals such as lizards and small rodents often escape the hot rays by digging underground burrows where they live.[7] They only come out at night to search for food. Like the plants, desert animals must live on as little water as possible. Most of the water used by these animals comes from seeds and stems that absorb and hold water. Camels survive in hot deserts by storing water in body fat in their humps. Like other desert animals, the camel loses little water in its wastes (urine and feces).[7]

ensimple/1501.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+A desert is an arid (very dry) biome. They get less than 25 cm (9.8 inches) of rainfall a year. Another source defines it as "any region that can have a moisture deficit over the course of a year. In other words, they can have less rainfall in a year than they give up through evaporation".[5]
+
+These kinds of areas can cover about 33% of the land on Earth.[6] That includes much of Antarctica, where large areas get no snow at all. The largest hot desert is the Sahara desert, in northern Africa, covering 9 million square kilometers.
+
+Deserts land surfaces are various – examples are stones, sand dunes and snow. They have a wide variety of animals and plants. Deserts sometimes expand (desertification), and sometimes contract.
+
+Deserts are mostly found in the western part of the Americas, Western Asia, Central Australia, and South and North Africa. Many, such as the Sahara (the largest), are very hot during the day and have cold nights,[7] but there are also cold deserts such as the Atacama in South America which remain frozen day and night. [8]
+
+There are hot deserts and cold deserts. Cold deserts may be covered with snow or ice but some are so dry that the ice sublimates away. Some cold deserts have a short season of above-freezing temperatures. These deserts are called tundra. An ice cap can be a cold desert that remains below freezing all year-round.
+
+Cold deserts can be found close to the poles. That is why they are also called polar deserts. Other regions of the world have cold deserts too, for instance high altitude areas like the Himalayas. These are called montane deserts. Antarctica is the world's largest cold desert.
+
+Hot deserts are mostly in the subtropics. They can be covered by sand, rock, salt lakes, stony hills and even mountains. Most non-polar deserts are hot in the day and chilly at night. The temperature in the daytime can reach 50 °C (122 °F) or higher in the summer, and dip to 0 °C (32 °F) or lower at night time in the winter.
+
+The largest hot desert in the world is the Sahara in North Africa. It is almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara desert is also the hottest desert in the world.
+
+The driest  desert in the world is the Atacama Desert in South America. The Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years, between 1570 and 1971. This desert is caused by a cold ocean current.
+
+It does rain in the desert, but not often.  One place in the Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years.  In other deserts it may rain every year or once every few years.  Rains in a desert may bring a great amount of water to the ground in a short time.  Some rain passes straight into the dry soil, but the rest may form a temporary river.  Wadis, stream channels that are normally dry, can quickly fill after heavy rain, causing a flash flood.
+
+People sometimes bring water from wet places to hot deserts so plants can grow. This is called irrigation.
+
+A sandstorm or dust storm arises when wind blows loose sand and dust from a dry surface. Clouds of sand or dust are often so dense that they obscure the sun. A sandstorm can move whole sand dunes. Sandstorms are common in large, dusty deserts.
+
+There are not many animals in the desert, but some animals are able to survive. They have different ways to survive the intense conditions of the desert. Examples of animals that live in hot deserts are lizards, small rodents, snakes, and camels. Plants and animals in hot deserts must live with very little water.
+
+Xerophytic plants which live in the desert have special adaptations. They may survive by growing roots that are very near the surface to absorb the rain that may fall before it evaporates. Plants such as the cactus have thick, fleshy stems that help them store water.
+
+Small animals such as lizards and small rodents often escape the hot rays by digging underground burrows where they live.[7] They only come out at night to search for food. Like the plants, desert animals must live on as little water as possible. Most of the water used by these animals comes from seeds and stems that absorb and hold water. Camels survive in hot deserts by storing water in body fat in their humps. Like other desert animals, the camel loses little water in its wastes (urine and feces).[7]

ensimple/1502.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+A desert is an arid (very dry) biome. They get less than 25 cm (9.8 inches) of rainfall a year. Another source defines it as "any region that can have a moisture deficit over the course of a year. In other words, they can have less rainfall in a year than they give up through evaporation".[5]
+
+These kinds of areas can cover about 33% of the land on Earth.[6] That includes much of Antarctica, where large areas get no snow at all. The largest hot desert is the Sahara desert, in northern Africa, covering 9 million square kilometers.
+
+Deserts land surfaces are various – examples are stones, sand dunes and snow. They have a wide variety of animals and plants. Deserts sometimes expand (desertification), and sometimes contract.
+
+Deserts are mostly found in the western part of the Americas, Western Asia, Central Australia, and South and North Africa. Many, such as the Sahara (the largest), are very hot during the day and have cold nights,[7] but there are also cold deserts such as the Atacama in South America which remain frozen day and night. [8]
+
+There are hot deserts and cold deserts. Cold deserts may be covered with snow or ice but some are so dry that the ice sublimates away. Some cold deserts have a short season of above-freezing temperatures. These deserts are called tundra. An ice cap can be a cold desert that remains below freezing all year-round.
+
+Cold deserts can be found close to the poles. That is why they are also called polar deserts. Other regions of the world have cold deserts too, for instance high altitude areas like the Himalayas. These are called montane deserts. Antarctica is the world's largest cold desert.
+
+Hot deserts are mostly in the subtropics. They can be covered by sand, rock, salt lakes, stony hills and even mountains. Most non-polar deserts are hot in the day and chilly at night. The temperature in the daytime can reach 50 °C (122 °F) or higher in the summer, and dip to 0 °C (32 °F) or lower at night time in the winter.
+
+The largest hot desert in the world is the Sahara in North Africa. It is almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara desert is also the hottest desert in the world.
+
+The driest  desert in the world is the Atacama Desert in South America. The Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years, between 1570 and 1971. This desert is caused by a cold ocean current.
+
+It does rain in the desert, but not often.  One place in the Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years.  In other deserts it may rain every year or once every few years.  Rains in a desert may bring a great amount of water to the ground in a short time.  Some rain passes straight into the dry soil, but the rest may form a temporary river.  Wadis, stream channels that are normally dry, can quickly fill after heavy rain, causing a flash flood.
+
+People sometimes bring water from wet places to hot deserts so plants can grow. This is called irrigation.
+
+A sandstorm or dust storm arises when wind blows loose sand and dust from a dry surface. Clouds of sand or dust are often so dense that they obscure the sun. A sandstorm can move whole sand dunes. Sandstorms are common in large, dusty deserts.
+
+There are not many animals in the desert, but some animals are able to survive. They have different ways to survive the intense conditions of the desert. Examples of animals that live in hot deserts are lizards, small rodents, snakes, and camels. Plants and animals in hot deserts must live with very little water.
+
+Xerophytic plants which live in the desert have special adaptations. They may survive by growing roots that are very near the surface to absorb the rain that may fall before it evaporates. Plants such as the cactus have thick, fleshy stems that help them store water.
+
+Small animals such as lizards and small rodents often escape the hot rays by digging underground burrows where they live.[7] They only come out at night to search for food. Like the plants, desert animals must live on as little water as possible. Most of the water used by these animals comes from seeds and stems that absorb and hold water. Camels survive in hot deserts by storing water in body fat in their humps. Like other desert animals, the camel loses little water in its wastes (urine and feces).[7]

ensimple/1503.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Dice are objects used in games when something random needs to be done, such as moving a piece a random number of places on a board. Most dice are cubes that have the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on the faces. Dice are sometimes made in other polyhedral shapes than cubes, but the six-sided die (die is the singular of "dice") is the most common. A die is usually rolled by the player’s hand. When adding together opposite sides of typical cubical dice, the sum is always 7.
+
+Some games are played with two or more dice and some use only one. Some games that use dice are Monopoly, Yahtzee, Risk, and many more. Dice with different numbers of sides, like those used in Dungeons & Dragons, are called polyhedral dice.
+
+Weights can be put inside a die to make it only land on a certain number once it is rolled.

ensimple/1504.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Animation is a way of making a movie from many still images. The images are put together one after another, and then played at a fast speed to give the illusion of movement.
+
+Animation is a relatively new art form, and though the concept of moving images has been a theme throughout ancient civilizations, it was not until late into the 19th century that experimental animation truly began.  Today, the industry of animation is booming, making up a huge commercial enterprise.
+
+A person who makes animations is called an animator.
+
+There are three ways to animate:
+
+Because it is expensive to make, most animation comes from professional companies. However, independent animators have existed since the 1950s in America, with many of those people entering the professional industry. In Europe, the independent movement has existed since the 1910s, with animators like pre-revolutionary Russia's Ladislas Starevich and Germany's Lotte Reiniger.
+
+Many people use a computer animation program called Adobe Flash to create animations.  Flash uses a combination of drawing and computer graphics to make animations.  Many animations on the internet are made in Flash.  Most animators on the internet do not work for professional companies.
+
+Many television shows, especially those made for children, use limited animation. Companies such as UPA and Hanna-Barbera Productions do this. Simple, limited movement makes the images easier to draw, which allows quicker and cheaper production of animation.
+
+Many people consider animation to be childish and unsophisticated.  However, animation has changed the course of art history by giving artists possibilities, not just normal, stationary art. Many animated movies have been made, and some have made a big profit.

ensimple/1505.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Drawing is a way of making a picture. Drawings are created by making lines on a surface. Long lines make up the shapes and small lines make the textures. Drawings can be images of real life or abstract images showing ideas cannot be seen in the real world.
+
+A drawing is the art created this way. Examples of things used to mark with are pencils, chalk, charcoal, crayons, pastels, markers, wax colored pencils, pen and ink.
+
+Artists have been drawing for many centuries. They draw on paper or on other surfaces which the marks show up on.

ensimple/1506.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Drawing is a way of making a picture. Drawings are created by making lines on a surface. Long lines make up the shapes and small lines make the textures. Drawings can be images of real life or abstract images showing ideas cannot be seen in the real world.
+
+A drawing is the art created this way. Examples of things used to mark with are pencils, chalk, charcoal, crayons, pastels, markers, wax colored pencils, pen and ink.
+
+Artists have been drawing for many centuries. They draw on paper or on other surfaces which the marks show up on.

ensimple/1507.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Animation is a way of making a movie from many still images. The images are put together one after another, and then played at a fast speed to give the illusion of movement.
+
+Animation is a relatively new art form, and though the concept of moving images has been a theme throughout ancient civilizations, it was not until late into the 19th century that experimental animation truly began.  Today, the industry of animation is booming, making up a huge commercial enterprise.
+
+A person who makes animations is called an animator.
+
+There are three ways to animate:
+
+Because it is expensive to make, most animation comes from professional companies. However, independent animators have existed since the 1950s in America, with many of those people entering the professional industry. In Europe, the independent movement has existed since the 1910s, with animators like pre-revolutionary Russia's Ladislas Starevich and Germany's Lotte Reiniger.
+
+Many people use a computer animation program called Adobe Flash to create animations.  Flash uses a combination of drawing and computer graphics to make animations.  Many animations on the internet are made in Flash.  Most animators on the internet do not work for professional companies.
+
+Many television shows, especially those made for children, use limited animation. Companies such as UPA and Hanna-Barbera Productions do this. Simple, limited movement makes the images easier to draw, which allows quicker and cheaper production of animation.
+
+Many people consider animation to be childish and unsophisticated.  However, animation has changed the course of art history by giving artists possibilities, not just normal, stationary art. Many animated movies have been made, and some have made a big profit.

ensimple/1508.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+Detroit is the largest city in the state of Michigan in the United States. In 1950, Detroit was the fifth largest city in the United States, with 1.8 million people. It was the 10th largest city in the United States at the time of the 2000 census. As of 2004, it fell to 11th biggest as people have moved away, and San Jose, California, which is growing, moved to 10th. The Population of Detroit was 700,000 in the 2010s decade. Nearly six million people live in Detroit and the surrounding counties that encompass Metro Detroit. The city borders Windsor, Ontario in Canada. The international border between Detroit and Windsor is one of the most crossed in the world.
+
+The person who started the city was Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. He was from France. Detroit was made a city in 1701. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan.
+
+The state governor declared a financial emergency in March 2013, appointing an emergency manager. On July 18, 2013, Detroit filed the largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.[5][6]
+
+Detroit is a city where many automobiles are made and this is why it is sometimes called the "Motor City", or "Motown". Many people call it the car capital of the world.  General Motors, Ford and Chrysler have their offices and many of their plants in and around Detroit.
+
+In 2006, the Super Bowl was played at Ford Field in Detroit.
+
+WXYZ American Broadcasting Company
+
+Detroit is home to one of the largest black communities in the United States, with over 91% being African-American.[7]  Violent crime rate is also one of the highest in the USA.
+
+Detroit has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification).
+
+Media related to Detroit at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/1509.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+Detroit is the largest city in the state of Michigan in the United States. In 1950, Detroit was the fifth largest city in the United States, with 1.8 million people. It was the 10th largest city in the United States at the time of the 2000 census. As of 2004, it fell to 11th biggest as people have moved away, and San Jose, California, which is growing, moved to 10th. The Population of Detroit was 700,000 in the 2010s decade. Nearly six million people live in Detroit and the surrounding counties that encompass Metro Detroit. The city borders Windsor, Ontario in Canada. The international border between Detroit and Windsor is one of the most crossed in the world.
+
+The person who started the city was Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. He was from France. Detroit was made a city in 1701. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan.
+
+The state governor declared a financial emergency in March 2013, appointing an emergency manager. On July 18, 2013, Detroit filed the largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.[5][6]
+
+Detroit is a city where many automobiles are made and this is why it is sometimes called the "Motor City", or "Motown". Many people call it the car capital of the world.  General Motors, Ford and Chrysler have their offices and many of their plants in and around Detroit.
+
+In 2006, the Super Bowl was played at Ford Field in Detroit.
+
+WXYZ American Broadcasting Company
+
+Detroit is home to one of the largest black communities in the United States, with over 91% being African-American.[7]  Violent crime rate is also one of the highest in the USA.
+
+Detroit has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification).
+
+Media related to Detroit at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/151.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+Co-official, but not majority language
+     Statutory minority/cultural language
+
+German (German: Deutsch) is a West Germanic language. It is spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg; natively by around 100 million people. It is the most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.  There are some people who speak German in Belgium and in the Netherlands, as well as in France and Northern Italy. There are people who speak German in many countries, including the United States and Canada, where many people emigrated from Germany. German is also spoken in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.
+
+German is a part of the West Germanic language family (a group of languages that are similar) and is much like English and Dutch. A lot of the vocabulary in German is related to English, but the grammar is more complicated. German has a system of cases, and when helping verbs are used, the main part of the verb must be moved to the end of the sentence. For example, "Someone has stolen my car" is Jemand hat mein Auto gestohlen (Someone has my car stolen) or, "Someone called me last night" is Jemand hat mich letzte Nacht angerufen (Someone has me last night called).
+
+In German writing, every noun must start with a capital letter.  English and Danish also did this long ago, but not now. Today, German is the only language that has this rule.
+
+While German is an official language in Switzerland, the Swiss dialect of German is difficult for native speakers from Germany, and even for Swiss who are not native to speaking German, to understand. One reason why the dialects are still so different today is that even though Switzerland adopted Standard German, mostly as a written standard, German Swiss in WWII wanted to separate themselves from the Nazis by choosing to speak the Swiss dialect over the standard dialect.[6] Swiss German also has some differences in writing, for example, the letter ß, which is only seen in German, is always replaced by ss.
+
+Notes

ensimple/1510.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+Detroit is the largest city in the state of Michigan in the United States. In 1950, Detroit was the fifth largest city in the United States, with 1.8 million people. It was the 10th largest city in the United States at the time of the 2000 census. As of 2004, it fell to 11th biggest as people have moved away, and San Jose, California, which is growing, moved to 10th. The Population of Detroit was 700,000 in the 2010s decade. Nearly six million people live in Detroit and the surrounding counties that encompass Metro Detroit. The city borders Windsor, Ontario in Canada. The international border between Detroit and Windsor is one of the most crossed in the world.
+
+The person who started the city was Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. He was from France. Detroit was made a city in 1701. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit was the capital of Michigan.
+
+The state governor declared a financial emergency in March 2013, appointing an emergency manager. On July 18, 2013, Detroit filed the largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.[5][6]
+
+Detroit is a city where many automobiles are made and this is why it is sometimes called the "Motor City", or "Motown". Many people call it the car capital of the world.  General Motors, Ford and Chrysler have their offices and many of their plants in and around Detroit.
+
+In 2006, the Super Bowl was played at Ford Field in Detroit.
+
+WXYZ American Broadcasting Company
+
+Detroit is home to one of the largest black communities in the United States, with over 91% being African-American.[7]  Violent crime rate is also one of the highest in the USA.
+
+Detroit has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification).
+
+Media related to Detroit at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/1511.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+
+
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Germany (German: Deutschland), officially Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland[8]), is a country in Central Europe. The country's full name is sometimes shortened to the FRG (or the BRD, in German).
+
+To the north of Germany are the North and Baltic Seas, and the kingdom of Denmark. To the east of Germany are the countries of Poland and the Czech Republic. To the south of Germany are the countries of Austria and Switzerland. To the west of Germany are the countries of France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The total area of Germany is 357,021 square kilometres (137,847 square miles). The large majority of Germany has warm summers and cold winters. In June 2013, Germany had a population of 80.6 million[9] people, the largest in Europe (excluding Russia).[10] After the United States, Germany is the second most popular country for migration in the world.[11]
+
+Before it was called Germany, it was called Germania. In the years A.D. 900 – 1806, Germany was part of the Holy Roman Empire. From 1949 to 1990, Germany was made up of two countries called the Federal Republic of Germany (inf. West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (inf. East Germany). During this time, the capital city of Berlin was divided into a west and an east part. On 13 August 1961, East Germany started building the Berlin Wall between the two parts of Berlin. West Germany was one of the countries that started the European Union.[12]
+
+Germany gained importance as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which was the first Reich (this word means empire). It was started by Charlemagne who became the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 AD, and it lasted until 1806, the time of the Napoleonic Wars.[13]
+
+The Second Reich was started with a treaty in 1871 in Versailles.[14] The biggest state in the new German Empire was Prussia. The rulers were called Kaisers or "German Emperors", but they did not call themselves "Emperors of Germany". There were many smaller states in the Empire, but not Austria. Germany stayed an empire for 50 years.
+
+In 1866 Prussia won the war against Austria and their allies. During this time Prussia founded the North German Confederation. The treaty of unification of Germany was made after Germany won the Franco-Prussian War with France in 1871. In World War I, Germany joined Austria-Hungary, and again declared war on France.[14] The war became slow in the west and became trench warfare. Many men were killed on both sides without winning or losing. In the Eastern Front the soldiers fought with the Russian Empire and won there after the Russians gave up. The war ended in 1918 because the Germans could not win in the west and gave up. Germany's emperor also had to give up his power.[14] France took Alsace from Germany and Poland got the Danzig corridor. After a revolution, the Second Reich ended, and the democratic Weimar Republic began.
+
+After the war, there were a lot of problems with money in Germany because of the Peace Treaty of Versailles, which made Germany pay for the costs of World War I and the worldwide Great Depression.[15]
+
+The Third Reich was Nazi Germany; it lasted 12 years, from 1933 to 1945.[16] It started after Adolf Hitler became the head of government. On 23 March 1933, the Reichstag (parliament) passed the Enabling Act, which let Hitler's government command the country without help from the Reichstag and the presidency. This gave him total control of the country and the government.[17] Hitler, in effect, became a dictator.
+
+Hitler wanted to unify all Germans in one state and did this by taking over places where Germans lived, such as Austria and Czechoslovakia; Hitler also wanted the land in Poland that Germany had owned before 1918, but Poland refused to give it to him. He then invaded Poland. This started World War II on 1 September 1939. In the beginning of the war, Germany was winning and even successfully invaded France. It managed to take over much of Europe. However, Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941 and after the Battle of Kursk, the German Eastern Front began a slow retreat until war's end. On 8 May 1945, Germany gave up after Berlin was captured, Hitler had killed himself a week earlier. Because of the war, Germany lost a lot of German land east of the Oder-Neiße line, and for 45 years, Germany was split into West Germany and East Germany. Other events happened during the war in Nazi Germany, including the Holocaust, the mass genocide of Jews and other peoples, for which some Nazis were punished in the Nuremberg Trials.
+
+In 1989 there was a process of reforms in East Germany, which lead to the opening of the Berlin Wall and to the end of socialist rule in Germany. These events are known as the Wende or the Friedliche Revolution (Peaceful Revolution) in Germany. After that, East Germany joined West Germany in 1990.[18] The new Germany is a part of the European Union.[19]
+
+Germany is a constitutional federal democracy.[20] Its political rules come from the 'constitution' called Basic Law (Grundgesetz), written by West Germany in 1949. It has a parliamentary system, and the parliament elects the head of government, the Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler). The current Chancellor, Dr Angela Merkel, is a woman who used to live in East Germany.[21]
+
+The people of Germany vote for the parliament, called the Bundestag (Federal Assembly), every four years.[22] Government members of the 16 States of Germany (Bundesländer) work in the Bundesrat (Federal Council). The Bundesrat can help make some laws.[23]
+
+The head of state is the Bundespräsident (Federal President). This person has no real powers but can order elections for the Bundestag. The current president is Frank-Walter Steinmeier (SPD).
+
+The judiciary branch (the part of German politics that deals with courts) has a Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court). It can stop any act by the law-makers or other leaders if they feel they go against Germany's constitution.
+
+The opposition parties are the Alliance '90/The Greens and Die Linke.
+
+Germany is one of the largest countries in Europe. It stretches from the North Sea and Baltic Sea in the north to the high mountains of the Alps in the south. The highest point is the Zugspitze on the Austrian border, at 2,962 metres (9,718 ft).[23]
+
+Germany's northern part is very low and flat (lowest point: Neuendorf-Sachsenbande at −3.54 m or −11.6 ft). In the middle, there are low mountain ranges covered in large forests. Between these and the Alps, there is another plain created by glaciers during the ice ages.
+
+Germany also contains parts of Europe's longest rivers, such as the Rhine (which makes up a part of Germany's western border, while Oder River is on its eastern border), the Danube and the Elbe.[23]
+
+In Germany there are sixteen states (Bundesländer):
+
+In these states there are 301 Kreise (districts) and 114 independent cities, which do not belong to any district.
+
+Germany has one of the world's largest technologically powerful economies. Bringing West and East Germany together and making their economy work is still taking a long time and costing a lot of money.[25] Germany is the largest economy in Europe.[26] In September 2011, the inflation rate in Germany was 2.5%. The unemployment rate of Germany was 5.5% as of October 2011.[27]
+
+Germany is one of the G8 countries. The main industry area is the Ruhr area.[28]
+
+In Germany live mostly Germans and many ethnic minorities. There are at least seven million people from other countries living in Germany. Some have political asylum, some are guest workers (Gastarbeiter), and some are their families. Many people from poor or dangerous countries go to Germany for safety. Many others do not get permission to live in Germany.
+
+About 50,000 ethnic Danish people live in Schleswig-Holstein, in the north. About 60,000 Sorbs (a Slavic people) live in Germany too, in Saxony and Brandenburg. About 12,000 people in Germany speak Frisian; this language is the closest living language to English. In northern Germany, people outside towns speak Low Saxon.
+
+Many people have come to Germany from Turkey (about 1.9 million Turks and Kurds). Other small groups of people in Germany are Croats (0.2 million), Italians (0.6 million), Greeks (0.4 million), Russians, and Poles (0.3 million). There are also some ethnic Germans who lived in the old Soviet Union (1.7 million), Poland (0.7 million), and Romania (0.3 million). These people have German passports, so they are not counted as foreigners. A lot of these people do not speak German at home.[23]
+
+Christianity is the biggest religion; Protestants are 38% of the people (mostly in the north) and Catholics are 34% of the people (mostly in the south).[23] There are also many Muslims, while the other people (26.3%) are either not religious, or belong to smaller religious groups.[23] In the eastern regions, the former territory of the GDR (known as the DDR in German), only one fifth of the population is religious.
+
+Germany has one of the world's highest levels of schooling, technology, and businesses. The number of young people who attend universities is now three times more than it was after the end of World War II, and the trade and technical schools of Germany are some of the best in the world. German income is, on average, $25,000 a year, making Germany a highly middle class society. A large social welfare system gives people money when they are ill, unemployed, or similarly disadvantaged. Millions of Germans travel outside of their country each year.
+
+In 2015 there were wrong reports in some African, Arabic, etc. media channels about what it's like to go to and live in Germany. False promises of money, easy living and easy jobs were made. Germany is a very densely populated country, and especially in cities the housing situation is difficult and rents are high. Already in 2014 there were 39,000 homeless people in Germany and 339,000 people without apartment.[29] Here is a link to a German video report[30] from a German news magazine. The video is about refugees, who have been living in a sports gym in Berlin for over a year with no privacy. In the video people discuss amongst others why there are problems to find living space in containers. The containers are similar to those in Zaatari refugee camp.
+
+Germany's constitution says that all people can believe in any religion they want to, and that no one is allowed to discriminate against somebody because of the person's religion.
+
+In ancient times Germany was largely pagan. Roman Catholicism was the biggest religion in Germany up to the 15th century, but a major religious change called the Reformation changed this. In 1517, Martin Luther said that the Catholic Church used religion to make money. Luther started Protestantism, which is as big as the Catholic religion in Germany today. Before World War II, about two-thirds of the German people were Protestant and one-thirds were Roman Catholic. In the north and northeast of Germany, there were a lot more Protestants than Catholics. Today, about two-thirds of German people (more than 55 million people) call themselves Christian, but most of them do not practice it. About half of them are Protestants and about half are Roman Catholics.[31] Most German Protestants are members of the Evangelical Church in Germany. The previous Pope, Benedict XVI, was born in Germany.
+
+Before World War II, about one percent of the country's people were German Jews. Today, Germany has the fastest-growing group of Jewish people in the world. Many of them are in Berlin. Ten thousand Jews have moved to Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall; many came from countries that were in the Soviet Union. Schools teaching about the horrible things that happened when the Nazis were in power, as well as teaching against the ideas of the Nazis, has helped to make Germany very tolerant towards other people and cultures, and now many people move there from countries that may not be so tolerant.
+
+About three million Muslims live in Germany, 3.7% of the total population.[31][32] The country also has a large atheist and agnostic population, and there are also large about O.6 million Hinduism follower and some small group of Jain, Buddhist and Zoroastrian communities. The 20th century has also seen a neopagan revival.
+
+Germany has a long history of poets, thinkers, artists, and so on. There are 240 supported theaters, hundreds of orchestras, thousands of museums and over 25,000 libraries in Germany. Millions of tourists visit these attractions every year. Some of the greatest classical musicians including Ludwig van Beethoven and possibly Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were German. Some of the most revered scientists today like Albert Einstein are German.
+
+Germany has created a high level of gender equality, disability rights, and accepts homosexuality. Gay marriage has been legal in Germany since 2017.
+
+Germany is known for its food. The food varies from region to region. For example, in the southern regions, such as Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, they share their type of food with Switzerland and Austria. Everywhere in Germany, meat is eaten as a sausage. Even though wine use is increasing, the national alcoholic drink is beer. The number of Germans who drink beer is one of the highest in the world. German restaurants are also rated the second-best, with France rated first place.
+
+Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Germany. The national team has won the FIFA World Cup 4 times, and appears in the finals a lot. The top football league in Germany is Bundesliga. Also, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest in the world. Some of the world's best Footballers came from Germany. These would include Miroslav Klose, Oliver Kahn, Gerd Müller, Michael Ballack, Bastian Schweinsteiger, Franz Beckenbauer, and so on. Plus, many tournaments have taken place in Germany. The most recent was the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. The Audi Cup takes place in Germany every year in Munich.
+
+Germany is also known for its motor sports. The country has made companies like the BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Audi, etc. Successful German racing drivers include Michael Schumacher and Sebastian Vettel.
+
+Successful tennis players have also come from Germany, including Steffi Graf and Boris Becker. More recently, Sabine Lisicki reached the Women's Singles final at Wimbledon in 2013.
+
+Lastly, Germany is one of the best countries in the Olympic Games. Germany is the third in the list of the most Olympic Games medals in history (mixed with West and East Germany medals). The country finished first place in the 2006 Winter Olympics, and second in the 2010 Winter Olympics. Germany got fifth place in the 2008 Summer Olympics.
+

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+The Crusades were a group of wars over religious views between the Christian and Muslim populations of Europe and West Asia. It started mainly due to a fight for areas thought to be Holy Land. Both Muslims and Christians considered the same lands holy for reasons like Jesus' resurrections and Muhammad visiting there. The eight big crusade expeditions occurred during 1096 to 1291.[1] The Holy Land was still in a place that is very important for the three major monotheistic religions: Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. There are many important religious sites in the Holy Land. This is the land now called Israel. 
+Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem and other religious sites fell under the control of Muslims during the Caliphate of Omar.
+
+There were many different crusades. The most important and biggest Crusades took place from the 11th century to the 13th century. There were 9 large crusades during this time. They are numbered 1 through 9. There were also many smaller Crusades. Some crusades were even within Europe (for example, in Germany, Austria and Scandinavia). The smaller Crusades continued to the 16th century, until the Renaissance and Reformation.
+
+The word "Crusade" is related to the word "Cross", and means a Christian holy war.  There is also the Arabic word "Jihad", which means to strive and struggle by Muslims.  All sides (Christians, Muslims, and Jews) believed very much in their religions. They also had political reasons for war.
+
+Alexius I was a ruler of the Byzantine Empire. When Alexius called for help to defend his empire against the Seljuk Turks in 1095, Pope Urban II asked all Christians to join a war against the Turks. The Pope told Christians that fighting the war would repay God for their sins and that if they died on a crusade they would go straight to heaven. The Christian soldiers were called "crusaders". The Christian armies marched to Jerusalem, attacking several cities on their way. In 1099 they won the battle for Jerusalem. As a result of the First Crusade, four crusader states were created. These were the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
+
+After some years of peace, Bernard of Clairvaux called for a new crusade when the town of Edessa was attacked by the Turks. French and German armies marched to the Holy Land in 1147, but were defeated. On the way, the Crusaders helped the Portuguese capture Lisbon from Al-Andalus as part of the Reconquista.​
+
+In 1187, Saladin recaptured Jerusalem.[2] Pope Gregory VIII called for a new crusade, led by several of Europe's kings: Philip II of France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick drowned in Cilicia in 1190. The Crusaders re-established the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Acre. Richard defeated Saladin at Arsuf and Jaffa but lacked the men needed to attempt recapturing Jerusalem. Richard and Saladin made a truce that let the Christians travel safely through Jerusalem. Afterward Richard left in 1192. On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked, leading him to Austria. In Austria his enemy Duke Leopold captured him, and Richard was ransomed.
+
+The Fourth Crusade was started by Pope Innocent III in 1202, with the idea to attack the Holy Land through Egypt. The Venetians changed this crusade, and went to the Christian city of Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in 1204.
+
+The Albigensian Crusade was started in 1209 to eliminate the Cathars of southern France.
+
+The Children's Crusade is a crusade of 1212. An outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany. A boy, from either France or Germany, said that Jesus had visited him, and told him to peacefully convert Muslims to Christianity.[3] Following this vision, many children formed bands, and marched to Italy. There, they were put onto ships which either capsized in a storm, or which went to Morocco. Most of the children either starved to death or were sold into slavery.[4]
+
+In the first movement, Nicholas, a shepherd from Germany, led a group across the Alps and into Italy in the early spring of 1212. About 7,000 arrived in Genoa in late August. However, their plans did not bear fruit when the waters failed to part as promised and the band broke up. Some left for home, others may have gone to Rome, while still others may have travelled down the Rhône to Marseille where they were probably sold into slavery. Few returned home and none reached the Holy Land.
+
+The second movement was led by a "shepherd boy"[3] named Stephen de Cloyes near the village of Châteaudun. In June of that year, the boy said that he had a letter for the king of France from Jesus. He could gather a crowd of over 30,000 and went to Saint-Denis. There he was seen to work miracles. On the orders of Philip II, on the advice of the University of Paris, the crowd was sent home, and most of them went. None of the contemporary sources mentions plans of the crowd to go to Jerusalem.
+
+Later chroniclers elaborated on these events. Recent research suggests those taking part were not children, at least not the very young. In the early 1200s, bands of wandering poor started cropping up throughout Europe. These were people displaced by economic changes at the time which forced many poor peasants in northern France and Germany to sell their land. These bands were referred to as pueri (Latin for "boys") in a condescending manner, in much the same way that people from rural areas in the United States are called "country boys."
+
+In 1212, a young French puer named Stephen and a German puer named Nicholas separately began claiming that they had each had similar visions of Jesus. This resulted in these bands of roving poor being united into a religious protest movement which transformed this forced wandering into a religious journey. The pueri marched, following the Cross. They  associated themselves with Jesus's biblical journey. This, however, was not a prelude to a holy war.
+
+At that time, chronicles were mostly kept by the Catholic Church. They were written in Latin.
+
+Thirty years later, chroniclers read the accounts of these processions and translated pueri as "children" without understanding the usage. So, the Children's Crusade was born. The resulting story illustrates how ingrained the concept of Crusading was in the people of that time— the chroniclers assumed that the pueri must have been Crusaders. In their innocence, they returned to the foundations of crusading characteristic of Peter the Hermit, and met the same sort of tragic fate.
+
+According to Matthew Paris, one of the leaders of the Children's Crusade became "Le Maître de Hongrie," the leader of the Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.
+
+During 1213, Pope Gregory IX pushed Frederick II into leading the Fifth Crusade. 
+The Church tried another crusade to attack the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria captured Damietta, a city in Egypt, in 1219. The crusaders had to surrender, due to losing the battle for Cairo.
+
+In 1228, Emperor Frederick II set sail from Brindisi for Syria. He did this after the Pope excommunicated him. By talking to the Turks he had success, and Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem was given to the Crusaders for ten years without fighting. This was the first major crusade not initiated by the Papacy, a trend that was to continue for the rest of the century. This crusade only lasted for a year, from 1228-1229.
+
+The Templars argued with Egypt in 1243. In 1244, Egypt attacked Jerusalem. Louis IX of France started a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254. It was a failure, and Louis spent much of the crusade living in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.
+
+The Eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX of France in 1270, to help the Crusader states in Syria.[5] However, the crusade got as far as Tunis, where Louis died a month later.[5]
+
+Before he was the king, Edward I of England started a crusade in 1271. He retired the following year after a truce.
+
+In time, the people went on Crusades for other purposes.[6] The Crusades ended two centuries after they had begun, achieving mixed results.[6] The crusades ended with the Mamluk Fall of Acre in 1291.[7] (the link is not yet started).
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+
+
+Pacific War
+
+Mediterranean and Middle East
+
+Other campaigns
+
+Contemporaneous wars
+
+World War II (WWII or WW2), in the Soviet Union, the Great Patriotic War, and in Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War, was a global war involving fighting in most of the world and most countries.  Most countries fought in the years 1939–1945 but some started fighting in 1937. Most of the world's countries, including all the great powers, fought as part of two military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. World War II was the largest and deadliest conflict in all of history. It involved more countries, cost more money, involved more people, and killed more people than any other war in history.[1] Between 50 to 85 million people died.[2][3] The majority were civilians. It included massacres, the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation, disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons against civilians in history.
+
+The two sides were the Allies (at first China, France and Britain, joined by the Soviet Union, United States and others) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan). The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937.[4] The war began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and Britain reacted by declaring war on Germany. By 1941, much of Europe was under German control, including France. Only Britain remained fighting against the Axis in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. Germany gave up plans to invade Britain after losing an airplane battle. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, starting the largest area of war in history. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor and invaded British and French colonies in Asia, and the two wars became one.
+
+The Japanese victories were stopped in 1942, and in that same year the Soviets won the huge Battle of Stalingrad. After that, the Allies started to fight back from all sides. The Axis were forced back in the Soviet Union, lost North Africa, and, starting in 1943, were forced to defend Italy.[5] In 1944, the Allies invaded France, and came into Germany from the west,[6] while the Soviets came in from the east. Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945.  The war ended with the Allied victory.
+
+After the war, the United Nations was set up to develop support between countries and to prevent future wars.  The Cold War among the major winners soon started, but they did not fight each other in an actual war. Decolonization of Asia and Africa, where those countries controlled by European countries were given their independence, happened as well. This was because European power was weakened from the war. Economic recovery and the political integration (the process of uniting countries) were among other results of the war.
+
+The countries that joined the war were on one of two sides: the Axis and the Allies.
+
+The Axis Powers at the start of the war were Germany, Italy and Japan. There were many meetings to create the alliance between these countries.[7][8][9][10] Finland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Thailand joined the Axis later. As the war continued, some Axis countries changed to join the Allies instead, such as Italy.
+
+The Allied Powers were the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth members, France, Poland, Yugoslavia, Greece, Belgium and China at the start of the war. China had been fighting a civil war. In June 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In December 1941 came Japan's Attack on Pearl Harbor against the United States. These two large, powerful countries then joined the Allies.
+
+World War I had greatly changed the way of diplomacy and politics in Asia, Europe, and Africa with the defeat of the Central Powers.  Empires which sided with the Central Powers were destroyed.  The Russian Empire, which did not side with the Central Powers, died as well.  The war also changed the borders in Eastern Europe, with many new countries born. The war led to strong irredentism and revanchism.  These senses were especially strong in Germany, which had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Versailles.[11] The Germans also had 13% of their homeland area and all colonies taken away, and they had to pay back a very large sum of money to the Allies.[12]  The size of their army and navy was also limited,[13] while its air force was banned.
+
+In Italy, nationalists were unhappy with the outcome of the war, thinking that their country should have gained far more territory from the past agreement with the Allies. The fascist movement in the 1920s brought Mussolini to the leadership of the country. He promised to make Italy a great power by creating its colonial empire.[14]
+
+After the Kuomintang (KMT), the governing party of China, unified the country in the 1920s, the civil war between it and its past ally Communist Party of China began.[15] In 1931, Japan used the Mukden Incident as a reason to take Manchuria and set up its puppet state, Manchukuo,[16] while the League of Nations could not do anything to stop it. The Tanggu Truce, a ceasefire, was signed in 1933. In 1936, the KMT and the communists agreed to stop fighting against each other to fight Japan instead.[17] In 1937, Japan started a Second Sino-Japanese War to take the rest of China.[18]
+
+After the German Empire was disestablished, the democratic Weimar Republic was set up. There were disagreements between the Germans which involved many political ideologies, ranging from nationalism to communism. The fascist movement in Germany rose because of the Great Depression. Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, became the Chancellor in 1933. After the Reichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian state, where there is only one party by law.[19] Hitler wanted to change the world order and quickly rebuilt the army, navy and air force,[20] especially after Saarland was reunited in 1935. In March 1936, Hitler sent the army to Rhineland. The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936. The war ended with the nationalist victory, supported by Italy and Germany.
+
+In March 1938, Germany sent its army into Austria, known as the Anschluss, which had only a little reaction from European countries.[21] Shortly after that, the Allies agreed to give Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, to Germany, so that Hitler would promise to stop taking more land.[22] But the rest of the country was either forced to surrender[23] or invaded by March 1939.[24] The Allies now tried to stop him, by promising to help Poland if it was attacked.[25] Just before the war, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a peace agreement, agreeing that they would not attack each other for ten years.[26] In the secret part of it, they agreed to divide Eastern Europe between them.[27]
+
+World War II began on September 1, 1939, as Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, Britain, France, and the members of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany. They could not help Poland much and only sent a small French attack on Germany from the West.[28] The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland soon after Germany, on September 17.[29] Finally, Poland was divided.
+
+Germany then signed an agreement to work together with the Soviet Union.  The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries to allow it to keep Soviet soldiers in their countries.[30] Finland did not accept the Soviet call for its land, so it was attacked in November 1939.[31] With peace, the world war broke out.[32] France and Britain thought that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the side of Germany and drove the Soviet Union out of the League of Nations.[33]
+
+After Poland was defeated, the "Phoney War" began in Western Europe. While British soldiers were sent to the Continent, there were no big battles fought between two sides.[34] Then, in April 1940, Germany decided to attack Norway and Denmark so that it would be safer to transport iron ore from Sweden. The British and French sent an army to disrupt the German occupation, but had to leave when Germany invaded France.[35] Chamberlain was replaced by Churchill as Prime Minister of United Kingdom in May 1940 because the British were unhappy with his work.[36]
+
+On 10 May, Germany invaded France, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg and quickly defeated them by using blitzkrieg tactics.[37] The British were forced to leave mainland Europe at Dunkirk. On June 10, Italy invaded France, declaring war on France and the United Kingdom. Soon after that, France was divided into occupation zones. One was directly controlled by Germany and Italy,[38] and the other was unoccupied Vichy France.
+
+By June 1940, the Soviet Union moved its soldiers into the Baltic states and took them,[39] followed by Bessarabia in Romania.  Although there had been some collaboration between the Soviet Union and Germany earlier, this event made it serious.[40][41]  Later, when the two could not agree to work more closely together, relationships between them became worse to the point of war.[42]
+
+Then Germany began an air battle over Britain to prepare for a landing on the island,[43] but the plan was finally canceled in September.  The German Navy destroyed many British ships transporting goods in the Atlantic.[44]  Italy, by this time, had begun its operation in the Mediterranean. The United States remained neutral but started to help the Allies. By helping to protect British ships in the Atlantic, the United States found itself fighting German ships by October 1941 but this was not officially war.[45]
+
+In September 1940, Italy began to invade British-held Egypt. In October, Italy invaded Greece, but it only resulted in an Italian retreat to Albania.[46] Again, in early 1941, an Italian army was pushed from Egypt to Libya in Africa. Germany soon helped Italy. Under Rommel's command, by the end of April 1941, the Commonwealth army was pushed back to Egypt again.[47] Other than North Africa, Germany also successfully invaded Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete by May.[48] Despite these victories, Hitler decided to cancel the bombing of Britain after 11 May.[49]
+
+At the same time, Japan's progress in China was still not much, although the nationalist and communist Chinese began fighting each other again.[50] Japan was planning to take over European colonies in Asia while they were weak, and the Soviet Union could feel a danger from Germany, so a non-aggression pact (which was an agreement that both countries would not attack each other) between the two was signed in April 1941.[51] However, Germany kept preparing an attack on the Soviet Union, moving its soldiers close to the Soviet border.[52]
+
+On June 22, 1941, the European Axis countries attacked the Soviet Union.  During the summer, the Axis quickly captured Ukraine and the Baltic regions, which caused huge damage to the Soviets. Britain and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance between them in July.[53] Although there was great progress in the last two months, when winter arrived, the tired German army was forced to delay its attack just outside Moscow.[54] It showed that the Axis had failed its main targets, while the Soviet army was still not weakened. This marked the end of the blitzkrieg stage of the war.[55]
+
+By December, the Red Army facing the Axis army had received more soldiers from the east. It began a counter-attack that pushed the German army to the west.[56] The Axis lost a lot of soldiers but it still saved most of the land it received before.[57]
+
+By November 1941, the Commonwealth counter-attacked the Axis in North Africa and got all the land it lost before.[58] However, the Axis pushed the Allies back again until stopped at El Alamein.[59]
+
+In Asia, German successes encouraged Japan to call for oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies.[60] Many Western countries reacted to the occupation of French Indochina by banning oil trading with Japan.[61] Japan planned to take over European colonies in Asia to create a great defensive area in the Pacific so that it could get more resources.[62] But before any future invasion, it first had to destroy the American Pacific Fleet in the Pacific Ocean.[63] On December 7, 1941, it attacked Pearl Harbor as well as many harbors in several South East Asian countries.[64] This event led the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Western Allies and China to declare war on Japan, while the Soviet Union remained neutral.[65] Most of the Axis nations reacted by declaring war on the United States.
+
+By April 1942, many South East Asian countries: Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and Singapore, had almost fallen to the Japanese.[66] In May 1942, the Philippines fell. The Japanese navy had many quick victories. But in June 1942, Japan was defeated at Midway. Japan could not take more land after this because a large part of its navy was destroyed during the battle.
+
+Japan then began its plan to take over Papua New Guinea again,[67] while the United States planned to attack the Solomon Islands. The fight on Guadalcanal  began in September 1942 and involved a lot of troops and ships from both sides. It ended with the Japanese defeat in early 1943.[68]
+
+On the Eastern Front, the Axis defeated Soviet attacks during summer and began its own main offensive to southern Russia along Don and Volga Rivers in June 1942, trying to take over oil fields in Caucasus, critical to the Axis for fueling their war effort, and a great steppe. Stalingrad was in the path of the Axis army, and the Soviets decided to defend the city. By November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad, however the Soviets were able to surround the Germans during winter[69] After heavy losses, the German army was forced to surrender the city in February 1943.[70] Even though the front was pushed back further than it was before the summer attacks, the German army still had become dangerous to an area around Kursk.[71]  Hitler devoted almost two-thirds of his armies to The Battle of Stalingrad.  The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in this world's time.
+
+In August 1942, because of the Allied defense at El Alamein, the Axis army failed to take the town.  A new Allied offensive, drove the Axis west across Libya a few months later,[72] just after the Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa forced it to join the Allies.[73] This led to Axis defeat in the North African Campaign May 1943.[74]
+
+In the Soviet Union, on July 4, 1943, Germany started an attack around Kursk. Many German soldiers were lost because of the Soviets' well-created defenses.[75][76] Hitler canceled the attack before any clear outcome.[77] The Soviets then started their own counter-attack, which was one of the turning points of the war. After this, the Soviets became the attacking force on the Eastern Front, instead of the Germans.[78][79]
+
+On July 9, 1943, affected by the earlier Soviet victories, the Western Allies landed on Sicily. This resulted in the arrest of Mussolini in the same month.[80] In September 1943, the Allies invaded mainland Italy, following the Italian armistice with the Allies.[81] Germany then took control of Italy and disarmed its army,[82] and built up many defensive lines to slow the Allied invasion down.[83] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon created the German-occupied client state, Italian Social Republic.[84]
+
+Late in 1943 Japan conquered some islands in India and began an invasion of the Indian mainland. The Army of India and other forces expelled them in early 1944.
+
+In early 1944, the Soviet army drove off the German army from Leningrad,[85] ending the longest and deadliest siege in history. After that, the Soviets began a big counter-attack. By May, the Soviets had retaken Crimea. With the attacks in Italy from September 1943, the Allies succeeded in capturing Rome on June 4, 1944, and made the German forces fall back.[86]
+
+On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allies began the invasion of Normandy, France. The code name for the invasion was Operation Overlord. The invasion was successful, and led to the defeat of the German forces in France. Paris was freed on August 1944 and the Allies continued eastward while the German front collapsed. Operation Market-Garden was the combined aerial invasion of the Netherlands launched on September 17, 1944. The purpose of the invasion was to seize a series of bridges that included a bridge in Arnhem, which spanned the Rhine river. Market was the name for the airborne invasion. The ground invasion, named Garden, reached the Rhine river, but could not take the Arnhem bridge. .
+
+On June 22, the Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front, codenamed Operation Bagration, almost destroyed the German Army Group Centre.[87] Soon after, the Germans were forced to retreat and defend Ukraine and Poland. Arriving Soviet troops caused uprisings against the German government in Eastern European countries, but these failed to succeed unless helped by the Soviets.[88] Another Soviet offensive forced Romania and Bulgaria to join the Allies.[89] Communist Serbs partisans under Josip Broz Tito retook Belgrade with some help from Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. By early 1945, the Soviets attacked many German-occupied countries: Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Hungary. Finland switched to the side of the Soviets and Allies.
+
+On December 16, 1944, the Germans tried one last time to take the Western Front by attacking the Allies in Ardennes, Belgium, in a battle is known as the Battle of the Bulge. This was the last major German attack of the war, and the Germans were not successful in their attack.[90]
+
+By March 1945, the Soviet army moved quickly from Vistula River in Poland to East Prussia and Vienna, while the Western Allies crossed the Rhine. In Italy, the Allies pushed forward, while the Soviets attacked Berlin. The allied western forces would eventually meet up with the Soviets at the Elbe river on April 25, 1945.
+
+Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, two days after Mussolini's death.[91] In his will, he appointed his navy commander, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, to be the President of Germany.[92]  Dönitz surrendered to the Allies, and opposed Hitler's will to have Germany continue fighting.
+
+German forces in Italy surrendered on April 29, 1945. Germany surrendered to the Western Allies on May 7, 1945, known as V-E Day, and was forced to surrender to the Soviets on May 8, 1945. The final battle in Europe was ended in Italy on May 11, 1945.[93]
+
+In the Pacific, American forces arrived in the Philippines on June 1944. And by April 1945, American and Philippine forces had cleared much of the Japanese forces, but the fighting continued in some parts of the Philippines until the end of the war.[94] British and Chinese forces advanced in Northern Burma and captured Rangoon by May 3, 1945.[95] American forces then took Iwo Jima by March and Okinawa by June 1945.[96] Many Japanese cities were destroyed by Allied bombings, and Japanese imports were cut off by American submarines.
+
+The Allies wanted Japan to surrender with no terms, but Japan refused. This resulted in the United States dropping two atomic bombs over Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). On August 8, 1945, the Soviets invaded Manchuria, quickly defeating the primary Imperial Japanese Army there.[97] On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. The surrender documents were formally signed on board the USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, ending the war.[98]
+
+The Allies managed to occupy Austria and Germany. Germany was divided in half. The Soviet Union controlled the Eastern part, and the Western Allies controlled the Western part. The Allies began denazification, removing Nazi ideas from public life in Germany,[99] and most high-ranking Nazis were captured and brought to a special court. Germany lost a quarter of the land it had in 1937, with the land given to Poland and the Soviet Union. The Soviets also took some parts of Poland[100][101][102] and Finland,[103] as well as three Baltic countries.[104][105]
+
+The United Nations was formed on October 24, 1945,[106] to keep peace between countries in the world.[107] However, the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had worsened during the war[108] and, soon after the war, each power quickly built up their power over controlled area. In Western Europe and West Germany, it was the United States, while in East Germany and Eastern Europe, it was the Soviet Union, in which many countries were turned  into Communist states. The Cold War started after the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.[109]
+
+In Asia, Japan was put under American occupation. In 1948, Korea was divided into North and South Korea, each claiming to be the legal representative of the Koreans, which led to the Korean War in 1950.[110] Civil war in China continued from 1946 and resulted in the KMT retreating to Taiwan in 1949.[111] The communists won the mainland. In the Middle East, the Arab disagreement on the United Nations plan to create Israel marked the beginning of conflicts between the Arabs and Israel.
+
+After the war, decolonization took place in many European colonies.[112] Bad economies and people wanting to rule themselves were the main reasons for that. In most cases, it happened peacefully, except in some countries, such as Indochina and Algeria.[113] In many regions, European withdrawal caused divisions among the people who had different ethnic groups or religions.[114]
+
+Economic recovery was different in many parts of the world. In general, it was quite positive. The United States became richer than any other country and, by 1950, it had taken over the world's economy.[115][116] It also ordered the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) to help European countries. German,[117] Italian,[118][119] and French economies recovered.[120] However, the British economy was badly harmed[121] and continued to worsen for more than ten years.[122] The Soviet economy grew very fast after the war was over.[123] This also happened with the Japanese economy, which became one of the largest economies in the 1980s.[124] China returned to the same production level as before the war by 1952.[125]
+
+There is no exact total number of deaths, because many were unrecorded. Many studies said that more than 60 million people died in the war, mostly civilians. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people,[126] almost half of the recorded number.[127] This means that 25% of the Soviets were killed or wounded in the war.[128] About 85% of the total deaths were on the Allies side, and the other 15% were on the Axis. Mostly, people died because they were sick, hungry to death, bombed, or killed because of their ethnicity.
+
+The Nazis killed many groups of people they selected, known as The Holocaust. They exterminated Jews, and killed the Roma, Poles, Russians, homosexuals and other groups.[129] Around 11[130] to 17 million[131] civilians died. Around 7.5 million people were killed in China by the Japanese.[132] The most well-known Japanese crime is the Nanking Massacre, in which hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. There were reports that the Germans and Japanese tested biological weapons against civilians[133] and prisoners of war.[134]
+
+Although many of the Axis's crimes were brought to the first international court,[135] crimes caused by the Allies were not.
+
+Other than the Holocaust, about 12 million people, mostly Eastern Europeans, were forced to work for the German economy.[136] German concentration camps and Soviet gulags caused a lot of death. Both treated prisoners of war badly. This was even the case for Soviet soldiers who survived and returned home.
+
+Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also caused a lot of deaths. The death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1%,[137] seven times that of prisoners under Germans and Italians.[138] More than 10 million Chinese civilians were made slaves and had to work in mines and war factories.[139] Between 4 and 10 million people were forced to work in Java.[140]
+
+Between 1942 and 1945, Roosevelt signed an order which made Japanese Americans go to internment camps. Some Germans and Italians were included too.
+
+The Allies agreed that the Soviet Union could use prisoners of war and civilians for forced labor.[141] Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.[142]
+
+Before the war, in Europe, the Allies had a larger population and economy than the Axis. If colonies are included, the GDP of the Allies then would be two times of that of the Axis.[143] While in Asia, China had only 38% higher GDP than the Japanese if their colonies are counted.[143]
+
+The Allies' economy and population compared with the Axis' lessened with the early Axis victories. However, this was no longer the case after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies in 1941. The Allies were able to have a higher production level compared with the Axis because the Allies had more natural resources. Also, Germany and Japan did not plan for a long war and had no ability to do so.[144][145] Both tried to improve their economies by using slave laborers.[146]
+
+As men went off to fight, women took over many of the jobs they left behind.  At factories, women were employed to make bombs, guns, aircraft, and other equipment.  In Britain, thousands of women were sent to work on farms as part of the Land Army. Others formed the Women's Royal Naval Service to help with building and repairing ships.  Even Princess Elizabeth, who later became Queen Elizabeth II, worked as a mechanic to aid the war effort. By 1945 some weapons were made almost entirely by women.
+
+In the beginning, women were rarely used in the labour forces in Germany and Japan.[147][148] However, Allied bombings[149][150] and Germany's change to a war economy made women take a greater part.[151]
+
+In Britain, women also worked in gathering intelligence, at Bletchley Park and other places.  The mass evacuation of children also had a major impact on the lives of mothers during the war years.
+
+Germany had two different ideas of how it would occupy countries. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe, Germany set economic policies which would make it rich. During the war, these policies brought as much as 40% of total German income.[152] In the East, the war with the Soviet Union meant Germany could not use the land to gain resources. The Nazis used their racial policy and murdered a lot of people they thought non-human. The Resistance, the group of people who fought Germany secretly, could not harm the Nazis much until 1943.[153][154]
+
+In Asia, Japan claimed to free colonised Asian countries from European colonial powers.[155] Although they were welcomed at first in many territories, their cruel actions turned the opinions against them within a short time.[156] During the occupation, Japan used 4 million barrels of oil left behind by the Allies at the war's end.  By 1943, it was able to produce up to 50 million barrels of oil in the Dutch East Indies. This was 76% of its 1940 rate.[156]
+
+The war brought new methods for future wars.  The air forces improved greatly in fields such as air transport,[157] strategic bombing (to use bombs to destroy industry and morale),[158] as well as radar, and weapons for destroying aircraft. Jet aircraft were developed and would be used in worldwide air forces.[159]
+
+At sea, the war focused on using aircraft carriers and submarines. Aircraft carriers soon replaced battleships.[160][161][162] The important reason was they were cheaper.[163] Submarines, a deadly weapon since World War I,[164] also played an important part in the war. The British improved weapons for destroying submarines, such as sonar, while the Germans improved submarine tactics.[165]
+
+The style of war on the land changed from World War I to be more moveable. Tanks, which were used to support infantry, changed to a primary weapon.[166] The tank was improved in speed, armour and firepower during the war. At the start of the war, most commanders thought that using better tanks was the best way to fight enemy tanks.[167] However, early tanks could harm armour just a little. The German idea to avoid letting tanks fight one another meant tanks facing tanks rarely happened. This was a successful tactic used in Poland and France.[166] Ways to destroy tanks also improved. Even though vehicles became more used in the war, infantry remained the main part of the army,[168] and most equipped like in World War I.[169]
+
+Submachine guns became widely used.  They were especially used in cities and jungles.[169]  The assault rifle, a German development combining features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the main weapon for most armies after the war.[170]
+
+Other developments included better encryption for secret messages, such as the German Enigma.  Another feature of military intelligence was the use of deception, especially by the Allies. Others include the first programmable computers, modern missiles and rockets, and the atomic bombs.
+
+The actual numbers killed in World War II have been the subject heretofore.  Most authorities now agree that of the 30 million Soviets who bore arms, there were 13.6 million military deaths.
+
+*total, of which 7,800,000 battlefield deaths
+**Inc. Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, etc.
+
+Deaths among civilians during this war - many resulting from famine and internal purges, such as those in China and the USSR - were colossal, but they were less well documented than those among fighting forces.  Although the figures are the best available from authoritative sources, and present a broad picture of the scale of civilian losses, the precise numbers will never be known.
+
+The Axis Powers
+
+Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria
+
+The Allied Powers
+
+U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia
+

ensimple/1515.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,153 @@
+
+
+Pacific War
+
+Mediterranean and Middle East
+
+Other campaigns
+
+Contemporaneous wars
+
+World War II (WWII or WW2), in the Soviet Union, the Great Patriotic War, and in Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War, was a global war involving fighting in most of the world and most countries.  Most countries fought in the years 1939–1945 but some started fighting in 1937. Most of the world's countries, including all the great powers, fought as part of two military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. World War II was the largest and deadliest conflict in all of history. It involved more countries, cost more money, involved more people, and killed more people than any other war in history.[1] Between 50 to 85 million people died.[2][3] The majority were civilians. It included massacres, the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation, disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons against civilians in history.
+
+The two sides were the Allies (at first China, France and Britain, joined by the Soviet Union, United States and others) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan). The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937.[4] The war began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and Britain reacted by declaring war on Germany. By 1941, much of Europe was under German control, including France. Only Britain remained fighting against the Axis in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. Germany gave up plans to invade Britain after losing an airplane battle. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, starting the largest area of war in history. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor and invaded British and French colonies in Asia, and the two wars became one.
+
+The Japanese victories were stopped in 1942, and in that same year the Soviets won the huge Battle of Stalingrad. After that, the Allies started to fight back from all sides. The Axis were forced back in the Soviet Union, lost North Africa, and, starting in 1943, were forced to defend Italy.[5] In 1944, the Allies invaded France, and came into Germany from the west,[6] while the Soviets came in from the east. Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945.  The war ended with the Allied victory.
+
+After the war, the United Nations was set up to develop support between countries and to prevent future wars.  The Cold War among the major winners soon started, but they did not fight each other in an actual war. Decolonization of Asia and Africa, where those countries controlled by European countries were given their independence, happened as well. This was because European power was weakened from the war. Economic recovery and the political integration (the process of uniting countries) were among other results of the war.
+
+The countries that joined the war were on one of two sides: the Axis and the Allies.
+
+The Axis Powers at the start of the war were Germany, Italy and Japan. There were many meetings to create the alliance between these countries.[7][8][9][10] Finland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Thailand joined the Axis later. As the war continued, some Axis countries changed to join the Allies instead, such as Italy.
+
+The Allied Powers were the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth members, France, Poland, Yugoslavia, Greece, Belgium and China at the start of the war. China had been fighting a civil war. In June 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In December 1941 came Japan's Attack on Pearl Harbor against the United States. These two large, powerful countries then joined the Allies.
+
+World War I had greatly changed the way of diplomacy and politics in Asia, Europe, and Africa with the defeat of the Central Powers.  Empires which sided with the Central Powers were destroyed.  The Russian Empire, which did not side with the Central Powers, died as well.  The war also changed the borders in Eastern Europe, with many new countries born. The war led to strong irredentism and revanchism.  These senses were especially strong in Germany, which had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Versailles.[11] The Germans also had 13% of their homeland area and all colonies taken away, and they had to pay back a very large sum of money to the Allies.[12]  The size of their army and navy was also limited,[13] while its air force was banned.
+
+In Italy, nationalists were unhappy with the outcome of the war, thinking that their country should have gained far more territory from the past agreement with the Allies. The fascist movement in the 1920s brought Mussolini to the leadership of the country. He promised to make Italy a great power by creating its colonial empire.[14]
+
+After the Kuomintang (KMT), the governing party of China, unified the country in the 1920s, the civil war between it and its past ally Communist Party of China began.[15] In 1931, Japan used the Mukden Incident as a reason to take Manchuria and set up its puppet state, Manchukuo,[16] while the League of Nations could not do anything to stop it. The Tanggu Truce, a ceasefire, was signed in 1933. In 1936, the KMT and the communists agreed to stop fighting against each other to fight Japan instead.[17] In 1937, Japan started a Second Sino-Japanese War to take the rest of China.[18]
+
+After the German Empire was disestablished, the democratic Weimar Republic was set up. There were disagreements between the Germans which involved many political ideologies, ranging from nationalism to communism. The fascist movement in Germany rose because of the Great Depression. Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, became the Chancellor in 1933. After the Reichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian state, where there is only one party by law.[19] Hitler wanted to change the world order and quickly rebuilt the army, navy and air force,[20] especially after Saarland was reunited in 1935. In March 1936, Hitler sent the army to Rhineland. The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936. The war ended with the nationalist victory, supported by Italy and Germany.
+
+In March 1938, Germany sent its army into Austria, known as the Anschluss, which had only a little reaction from European countries.[21] Shortly after that, the Allies agreed to give Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, to Germany, so that Hitler would promise to stop taking more land.[22] But the rest of the country was either forced to surrender[23] or invaded by March 1939.[24] The Allies now tried to stop him, by promising to help Poland if it was attacked.[25] Just before the war, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a peace agreement, agreeing that they would not attack each other for ten years.[26] In the secret part of it, they agreed to divide Eastern Europe between them.[27]
+
+World War II began on September 1, 1939, as Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, Britain, France, and the members of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany. They could not help Poland much and only sent a small French attack on Germany from the West.[28] The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland soon after Germany, on September 17.[29] Finally, Poland was divided.
+
+Germany then signed an agreement to work together with the Soviet Union.  The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries to allow it to keep Soviet soldiers in their countries.[30] Finland did not accept the Soviet call for its land, so it was attacked in November 1939.[31] With peace, the world war broke out.[32] France and Britain thought that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the side of Germany and drove the Soviet Union out of the League of Nations.[33]
+
+After Poland was defeated, the "Phoney War" began in Western Europe. While British soldiers were sent to the Continent, there were no big battles fought between two sides.[34] Then, in April 1940, Germany decided to attack Norway and Denmark so that it would be safer to transport iron ore from Sweden. The British and French sent an army to disrupt the German occupation, but had to leave when Germany invaded France.[35] Chamberlain was replaced by Churchill as Prime Minister of United Kingdom in May 1940 because the British were unhappy with his work.[36]
+
+On 10 May, Germany invaded France, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg and quickly defeated them by using blitzkrieg tactics.[37] The British were forced to leave mainland Europe at Dunkirk. On June 10, Italy invaded France, declaring war on France and the United Kingdom. Soon after that, France was divided into occupation zones. One was directly controlled by Germany and Italy,[38] and the other was unoccupied Vichy France.
+
+By June 1940, the Soviet Union moved its soldiers into the Baltic states and took them,[39] followed by Bessarabia in Romania.  Although there had been some collaboration between the Soviet Union and Germany earlier, this event made it serious.[40][41]  Later, when the two could not agree to work more closely together, relationships between them became worse to the point of war.[42]
+
+Then Germany began an air battle over Britain to prepare for a landing on the island,[43] but the plan was finally canceled in September.  The German Navy destroyed many British ships transporting goods in the Atlantic.[44]  Italy, by this time, had begun its operation in the Mediterranean. The United States remained neutral but started to help the Allies. By helping to protect British ships in the Atlantic, the United States found itself fighting German ships by October 1941 but this was not officially war.[45]
+
+In September 1940, Italy began to invade British-held Egypt. In October, Italy invaded Greece, but it only resulted in an Italian retreat to Albania.[46] Again, in early 1941, an Italian army was pushed from Egypt to Libya in Africa. Germany soon helped Italy. Under Rommel's command, by the end of April 1941, the Commonwealth army was pushed back to Egypt again.[47] Other than North Africa, Germany also successfully invaded Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete by May.[48] Despite these victories, Hitler decided to cancel the bombing of Britain after 11 May.[49]
+
+At the same time, Japan's progress in China was still not much, although the nationalist and communist Chinese began fighting each other again.[50] Japan was planning to take over European colonies in Asia while they were weak, and the Soviet Union could feel a danger from Germany, so a non-aggression pact (which was an agreement that both countries would not attack each other) between the two was signed in April 1941.[51] However, Germany kept preparing an attack on the Soviet Union, moving its soldiers close to the Soviet border.[52]
+
+On June 22, 1941, the European Axis countries attacked the Soviet Union.  During the summer, the Axis quickly captured Ukraine and the Baltic regions, which caused huge damage to the Soviets. Britain and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance between them in July.[53] Although there was great progress in the last two months, when winter arrived, the tired German army was forced to delay its attack just outside Moscow.[54] It showed that the Axis had failed its main targets, while the Soviet army was still not weakened. This marked the end of the blitzkrieg stage of the war.[55]
+
+By December, the Red Army facing the Axis army had received more soldiers from the east. It began a counter-attack that pushed the German army to the west.[56] The Axis lost a lot of soldiers but it still saved most of the land it received before.[57]
+
+By November 1941, the Commonwealth counter-attacked the Axis in North Africa and got all the land it lost before.[58] However, the Axis pushed the Allies back again until stopped at El Alamein.[59]
+
+In Asia, German successes encouraged Japan to call for oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies.[60] Many Western countries reacted to the occupation of French Indochina by banning oil trading with Japan.[61] Japan planned to take over European colonies in Asia to create a great defensive area in the Pacific so that it could get more resources.[62] But before any future invasion, it first had to destroy the American Pacific Fleet in the Pacific Ocean.[63] On December 7, 1941, it attacked Pearl Harbor as well as many harbors in several South East Asian countries.[64] This event led the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Western Allies and China to declare war on Japan, while the Soviet Union remained neutral.[65] Most of the Axis nations reacted by declaring war on the United States.
+
+By April 1942, many South East Asian countries: Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and Singapore, had almost fallen to the Japanese.[66] In May 1942, the Philippines fell. The Japanese navy had many quick victories. But in June 1942, Japan was defeated at Midway. Japan could not take more land after this because a large part of its navy was destroyed during the battle.
+
+Japan then began its plan to take over Papua New Guinea again,[67] while the United States planned to attack the Solomon Islands. The fight on Guadalcanal  began in September 1942 and involved a lot of troops and ships from both sides. It ended with the Japanese defeat in early 1943.[68]
+
+On the Eastern Front, the Axis defeated Soviet attacks during summer and began its own main offensive to southern Russia along Don and Volga Rivers in June 1942, trying to take over oil fields in Caucasus, critical to the Axis for fueling their war effort, and a great steppe. Stalingrad was in the path of the Axis army, and the Soviets decided to defend the city. By November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad, however the Soviets were able to surround the Germans during winter[69] After heavy losses, the German army was forced to surrender the city in February 1943.[70] Even though the front was pushed back further than it was before the summer attacks, the German army still had become dangerous to an area around Kursk.[71]  Hitler devoted almost two-thirds of his armies to The Battle of Stalingrad.  The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in this world's time.
+
+In August 1942, because of the Allied defense at El Alamein, the Axis army failed to take the town.  A new Allied offensive, drove the Axis west across Libya a few months later,[72] just after the Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa forced it to join the Allies.[73] This led to Axis defeat in the North African Campaign May 1943.[74]
+
+In the Soviet Union, on July 4, 1943, Germany started an attack around Kursk. Many German soldiers were lost because of the Soviets' well-created defenses.[75][76] Hitler canceled the attack before any clear outcome.[77] The Soviets then started their own counter-attack, which was one of the turning points of the war. After this, the Soviets became the attacking force on the Eastern Front, instead of the Germans.[78][79]
+
+On July 9, 1943, affected by the earlier Soviet victories, the Western Allies landed on Sicily. This resulted in the arrest of Mussolini in the same month.[80] In September 1943, the Allies invaded mainland Italy, following the Italian armistice with the Allies.[81] Germany then took control of Italy and disarmed its army,[82] and built up many defensive lines to slow the Allied invasion down.[83] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon created the German-occupied client state, Italian Social Republic.[84]
+
+Late in 1943 Japan conquered some islands in India and began an invasion of the Indian mainland. The Army of India and other forces expelled them in early 1944.
+
+In early 1944, the Soviet army drove off the German army from Leningrad,[85] ending the longest and deadliest siege in history. After that, the Soviets began a big counter-attack. By May, the Soviets had retaken Crimea. With the attacks in Italy from September 1943, the Allies succeeded in capturing Rome on June 4, 1944, and made the German forces fall back.[86]
+
+On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allies began the invasion of Normandy, France. The code name for the invasion was Operation Overlord. The invasion was successful, and led to the defeat of the German forces in France. Paris was freed on August 1944 and the Allies continued eastward while the German front collapsed. Operation Market-Garden was the combined aerial invasion of the Netherlands launched on September 17, 1944. The purpose of the invasion was to seize a series of bridges that included a bridge in Arnhem, which spanned the Rhine river. Market was the name for the airborne invasion. The ground invasion, named Garden, reached the Rhine river, but could not take the Arnhem bridge. .
+
+On June 22, the Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front, codenamed Operation Bagration, almost destroyed the German Army Group Centre.[87] Soon after, the Germans were forced to retreat and defend Ukraine and Poland. Arriving Soviet troops caused uprisings against the German government in Eastern European countries, but these failed to succeed unless helped by the Soviets.[88] Another Soviet offensive forced Romania and Bulgaria to join the Allies.[89] Communist Serbs partisans under Josip Broz Tito retook Belgrade with some help from Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. By early 1945, the Soviets attacked many German-occupied countries: Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Hungary. Finland switched to the side of the Soviets and Allies.
+
+On December 16, 1944, the Germans tried one last time to take the Western Front by attacking the Allies in Ardennes, Belgium, in a battle is known as the Battle of the Bulge. This was the last major German attack of the war, and the Germans were not successful in their attack.[90]
+
+By March 1945, the Soviet army moved quickly from Vistula River in Poland to East Prussia and Vienna, while the Western Allies crossed the Rhine. In Italy, the Allies pushed forward, while the Soviets attacked Berlin. The allied western forces would eventually meet up with the Soviets at the Elbe river on April 25, 1945.
+
+Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, two days after Mussolini's death.[91] In his will, he appointed his navy commander, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, to be the President of Germany.[92]  Dönitz surrendered to the Allies, and opposed Hitler's will to have Germany continue fighting.
+
+German forces in Italy surrendered on April 29, 1945. Germany surrendered to the Western Allies on May 7, 1945, known as V-E Day, and was forced to surrender to the Soviets on May 8, 1945. The final battle in Europe was ended in Italy on May 11, 1945.[93]
+
+In the Pacific, American forces arrived in the Philippines on June 1944. And by April 1945, American and Philippine forces had cleared much of the Japanese forces, but the fighting continued in some parts of the Philippines until the end of the war.[94] British and Chinese forces advanced in Northern Burma and captured Rangoon by May 3, 1945.[95] American forces then took Iwo Jima by March and Okinawa by June 1945.[96] Many Japanese cities were destroyed by Allied bombings, and Japanese imports were cut off by American submarines.
+
+The Allies wanted Japan to surrender with no terms, but Japan refused. This resulted in the United States dropping two atomic bombs over Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). On August 8, 1945, the Soviets invaded Manchuria, quickly defeating the primary Imperial Japanese Army there.[97] On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. The surrender documents were formally signed on board the USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, ending the war.[98]
+
+The Allies managed to occupy Austria and Germany. Germany was divided in half. The Soviet Union controlled the Eastern part, and the Western Allies controlled the Western part. The Allies began denazification, removing Nazi ideas from public life in Germany,[99] and most high-ranking Nazis were captured and brought to a special court. Germany lost a quarter of the land it had in 1937, with the land given to Poland and the Soviet Union. The Soviets also took some parts of Poland[100][101][102] and Finland,[103] as well as three Baltic countries.[104][105]
+
+The United Nations was formed on October 24, 1945,[106] to keep peace between countries in the world.[107] However, the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had worsened during the war[108] and, soon after the war, each power quickly built up their power over controlled area. In Western Europe and West Germany, it was the United States, while in East Germany and Eastern Europe, it was the Soviet Union, in which many countries were turned  into Communist states. The Cold War started after the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.[109]
+
+In Asia, Japan was put under American occupation. In 1948, Korea was divided into North and South Korea, each claiming to be the legal representative of the Koreans, which led to the Korean War in 1950.[110] Civil war in China continued from 1946 and resulted in the KMT retreating to Taiwan in 1949.[111] The communists won the mainland. In the Middle East, the Arab disagreement on the United Nations plan to create Israel marked the beginning of conflicts between the Arabs and Israel.
+
+After the war, decolonization took place in many European colonies.[112] Bad economies and people wanting to rule themselves were the main reasons for that. In most cases, it happened peacefully, except in some countries, such as Indochina and Algeria.[113] In many regions, European withdrawal caused divisions among the people who had different ethnic groups or religions.[114]
+
+Economic recovery was different in many parts of the world. In general, it was quite positive. The United States became richer than any other country and, by 1950, it had taken over the world's economy.[115][116] It also ordered the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) to help European countries. German,[117] Italian,[118][119] and French economies recovered.[120] However, the British economy was badly harmed[121] and continued to worsen for more than ten years.[122] The Soviet economy grew very fast after the war was over.[123] This also happened with the Japanese economy, which became one of the largest economies in the 1980s.[124] China returned to the same production level as before the war by 1952.[125]
+
+There is no exact total number of deaths, because many were unrecorded. Many studies said that more than 60 million people died in the war, mostly civilians. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people,[126] almost half of the recorded number.[127] This means that 25% of the Soviets were killed or wounded in the war.[128] About 85% of the total deaths were on the Allies side, and the other 15% were on the Axis. Mostly, people died because they were sick, hungry to death, bombed, or killed because of their ethnicity.
+
+The Nazis killed many groups of people they selected, known as The Holocaust. They exterminated Jews, and killed the Roma, Poles, Russians, homosexuals and other groups.[129] Around 11[130] to 17 million[131] civilians died. Around 7.5 million people were killed in China by the Japanese.[132] The most well-known Japanese crime is the Nanking Massacre, in which hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. There were reports that the Germans and Japanese tested biological weapons against civilians[133] and prisoners of war.[134]
+
+Although many of the Axis's crimes were brought to the first international court,[135] crimes caused by the Allies were not.
+
+Other than the Holocaust, about 12 million people, mostly Eastern Europeans, were forced to work for the German economy.[136] German concentration camps and Soviet gulags caused a lot of death. Both treated prisoners of war badly. This was even the case for Soviet soldiers who survived and returned home.
+
+Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also caused a lot of deaths. The death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1%,[137] seven times that of prisoners under Germans and Italians.[138] More than 10 million Chinese civilians were made slaves and had to work in mines and war factories.[139] Between 4 and 10 million people were forced to work in Java.[140]
+
+Between 1942 and 1945, Roosevelt signed an order which made Japanese Americans go to internment camps. Some Germans and Italians were included too.
+
+The Allies agreed that the Soviet Union could use prisoners of war and civilians for forced labor.[141] Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.[142]
+
+Before the war, in Europe, the Allies had a larger population and economy than the Axis. If colonies are included, the GDP of the Allies then would be two times of that of the Axis.[143] While in Asia, China had only 38% higher GDP than the Japanese if their colonies are counted.[143]
+
+The Allies' economy and population compared with the Axis' lessened with the early Axis victories. However, this was no longer the case after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies in 1941. The Allies were able to have a higher production level compared with the Axis because the Allies had more natural resources. Also, Germany and Japan did not plan for a long war and had no ability to do so.[144][145] Both tried to improve their economies by using slave laborers.[146]
+
+As men went off to fight, women took over many of the jobs they left behind.  At factories, women were employed to make bombs, guns, aircraft, and other equipment.  In Britain, thousands of women were sent to work on farms as part of the Land Army. Others formed the Women's Royal Naval Service to help with building and repairing ships.  Even Princess Elizabeth, who later became Queen Elizabeth II, worked as a mechanic to aid the war effort. By 1945 some weapons were made almost entirely by women.
+
+In the beginning, women were rarely used in the labour forces in Germany and Japan.[147][148] However, Allied bombings[149][150] and Germany's change to a war economy made women take a greater part.[151]
+
+In Britain, women also worked in gathering intelligence, at Bletchley Park and other places.  The mass evacuation of children also had a major impact on the lives of mothers during the war years.
+
+Germany had two different ideas of how it would occupy countries. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe, Germany set economic policies which would make it rich. During the war, these policies brought as much as 40% of total German income.[152] In the East, the war with the Soviet Union meant Germany could not use the land to gain resources. The Nazis used their racial policy and murdered a lot of people they thought non-human. The Resistance, the group of people who fought Germany secretly, could not harm the Nazis much until 1943.[153][154]
+
+In Asia, Japan claimed to free colonised Asian countries from European colonial powers.[155] Although they were welcomed at first in many territories, their cruel actions turned the opinions against them within a short time.[156] During the occupation, Japan used 4 million barrels of oil left behind by the Allies at the war's end.  By 1943, it was able to produce up to 50 million barrels of oil in the Dutch East Indies. This was 76% of its 1940 rate.[156]
+
+The war brought new methods for future wars.  The air forces improved greatly in fields such as air transport,[157] strategic bombing (to use bombs to destroy industry and morale),[158] as well as radar, and weapons for destroying aircraft. Jet aircraft were developed and would be used in worldwide air forces.[159]
+
+At sea, the war focused on using aircraft carriers and submarines. Aircraft carriers soon replaced battleships.[160][161][162] The important reason was they were cheaper.[163] Submarines, a deadly weapon since World War I,[164] also played an important part in the war. The British improved weapons for destroying submarines, such as sonar, while the Germans improved submarine tactics.[165]
+
+The style of war on the land changed from World War I to be more moveable. Tanks, which were used to support infantry, changed to a primary weapon.[166] The tank was improved in speed, armour and firepower during the war. At the start of the war, most commanders thought that using better tanks was the best way to fight enemy tanks.[167] However, early tanks could harm armour just a little. The German idea to avoid letting tanks fight one another meant tanks facing tanks rarely happened. This was a successful tactic used in Poland and France.[166] Ways to destroy tanks also improved. Even though vehicles became more used in the war, infantry remained the main part of the army,[168] and most equipped like in World War I.[169]
+
+Submachine guns became widely used.  They were especially used in cities and jungles.[169]  The assault rifle, a German development combining features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the main weapon for most armies after the war.[170]
+
+Other developments included better encryption for secret messages, such as the German Enigma.  Another feature of military intelligence was the use of deception, especially by the Allies. Others include the first programmable computers, modern missiles and rockets, and the atomic bombs.
+
+The actual numbers killed in World War II have been the subject heretofore.  Most authorities now agree that of the 30 million Soviets who bore arms, there were 13.6 million military deaths.
+
+*total, of which 7,800,000 battlefield deaths
+**Inc. Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, etc.
+
+Deaths among civilians during this war - many resulting from famine and internal purges, such as those in China and the USSR - were colossal, but they were less well documented than those among fighting forces.  Although the figures are the best available from authoritative sources, and present a broad picture of the scale of civilian losses, the precise numbers will never be known.
+
+The Axis Powers
+
+Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria
+
+The Allied Powers
+
+U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia
+

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+The Punic Wars were a series of conflicts fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC.[1] They were probably the largest wars in the ancient world.[2] The term "Punic" comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus). This was the word the Romans used for the Carthaginians, due to their Phoenician ancestry.
+
+The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing empire of Carthage and the expanding Roman Republic. What was at stake was control of the trading around the Mediterranean sea. Carthage lost the three wars.
+
+Carthage was a trading nation founded by Phoenicians. It was the dominant sea power in the western Mediterranean. It was a maritime empire, in contrast to the land-based Roman empire. The Romans decided they needed Sicily, which was then in Carthaginian hands. The consequence was a series of wars which lasted over a hundred years, and ended in the utter destruction of Carthage.
+

ensimple/1517.html.txt

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+The German Empire ("Deutsches Reich" or "Deutsches Kaiserreich" in the German language) is the name for a group of German countries from January 18, 1871 to November 9, 1918. This is from the Unification of Germany when Wilhelm I of Prussia was made German Kaiser to when the third Emperor Wilhelm II was removed from power at the end of the First World War. It is sometimes called the "Second Reich".
+
+The name of Germany was "Deutsches Reich" until 1945. "Reich" can mean many things, empire, kingdom, state, "richness" or "wealth". Most members of the Empire were previously members of the North German Confederation.
+
+At different times, there were three groups of smaller countries, each group was later called a "Reich" by some Germans. The first was the Holy Roman Empire. The second was the German Empire. The third was the Third Reich.
+
+The words "Second Reich" were used for the German Empire by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, a nationalist writer in the 1920s. He was trying to make a link with the earlier Holy Roman Empire which had once been very strong. Germany had lost the war and was suffering big problems and he wanted to start a "Third Reich" to unite the country. These words were later used by the Nazis to make themselves appear stronger.
+
+
+
+
+

ensimple/1518.html.txt

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+Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language.  It is a sacred language of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and the origin of most Indian languages. Today, about 14,000 people in India use it as their daily language.[1] It is one of the 22 official languages of India[3] and an official language of the state of Uttarakhand.[4]
+
+Sanskrit is a standardized dialect of Old Indo-Aryan. Its linguistic ancestry can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European. The Indo-Aryan migration theory proposes that the Indo-Aryans migrated from the Central Asian steppes into South Asia during the early part of the 2nd millennium BC, bringing with them the Indo-Aryan languages.[5] The main script used to write Sanskrit is Devanāgarī, but it can be written in the scripts of various Indian languages and is sometimes written by the Latin alphabet.
+
+[1]William Jones, working as a judge in India in the 18th century, studied Sanskrit and realized similarities of Sanskrit to Latin and Greek and dravidian language base from to sanskrit.
+
+Sanskrit literature includes poetry and drama. There is also scientific, technical, philosophical and religious texts.[6][7] Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns and chants.
+
+The language has a very complex grammar, with eight grammatical cases, the grammatical genders, and three grammatical numbers.

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+Leonardo da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian man who lived in the time of the Renaissance.  He is famous for his paintings,[1] but he was also a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician, and a writer.
+Leonardo wanted to know everything about nature. He wanted to know how everything worked. He was very good at studying, designing and making all sorts of interesting things.[2]
+
+Many people think that Leonardo was one of the greatest painters of all time. Other people think that he was the most talented person ever to have lived.[1] The art historian Helen Gardner said that no-one has ever been quite like him because he was interested in so many things that he seems to have had the mind of a giant, and yet what he was like as a person is still a mystery.[3]
+
+Leonardo was born at Vinci which is a small town near Florence, Italy. He was trained to be an artist by the sculptor and painter Verrocchio. He spent most of his life working for rich Italian noblemen. In his last years, he lived in a beautiful home given to him by the King of France.
+
+Two of his pictures are among the best-known paintings in the world: the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He did many drawings. The best-known drawing is Vitruvian Man.  Leonardo was often thinking of new inventions. He kept notebooks with notes and drawings of these ideas.  Most of his inventions were never made. Some of his ideas were a helicopter, a tank, a calculator, a parachute, a robot, a telephone, evolution, and solar power.[source?]
+
+Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452,[4] in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the valley of the Arno River. His grandfather, Antonio da Vinci, wrote down the details of the birth. Leonardo's parents were not married. His father was a Notary, Ser Piero da Vinci.[5][6] His mother, Caterina, was a servant. She may have been a slave from the Middle East.[7][8] or from China.[9] His father later on took custody of Leonardo and his mother remarried and had 5 more children.[10] Leonardo's full name was "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", which means "Leonardo, the son of Messer (Mister) Pierdaom Vinci".
+
+Leonardo spent his first five years living in a farm house with his mother. Then he lived at Vinci with his father, his father's new wife Albiera, his grandparents and uncle, Francesco.[11]  When Leonardo grew up, he only wrote down two memories from his childhood. He remembered that when he was lying outside in his cradle a large bird flew from the sky and hovered over him. Its tail feathers brushed his face.[11] Leonardo's other important memory was how he found a cave while exploring in the mountains. He was terrified that some great monster might be hiding there. But he was also very excited and wanted to find out what was inside.[11]
+
+Leonardo started painting while he was still a boy. Giorgio Vasari wrote about Leonardo's life shortly after his death. He tells many interesting stories about how clever Leonardo was. He says that Leonardo painted a round wooden shield with a picture of snakes spitting fire. Messer Piero took his son's painting to Florence and sold it to an art dealer.[12]
+
+In 1466, when Leonardo was fourteen, his father took him to Florence, to be an apprentice to the artist Verrocchio.
+
+Florence was a very exciting place for a young person who wanted to be an artist. Many famous artists had lived in Florence, starting with Cimabue and Giotto in the 1200s. Everywhere a person looked there were famous and beautiful artworks. The huge cathedral had an enormous new dome. The church of St John had doors that gleamed with gold and were said to be the most beautiful doors in the world. Another church had statues all around it by the most famous sculptors, including one by Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio.
+
+If an artist was lucky, they would find a rich patron who would buy lots of their paintings. The richest family in Florence were the Medici. They had built themselves the finest palace in Florence, and liked buying paintings, statues and other beautiful things. They were also interested in the study of literature and philosophy. Many young artists hoped to get work from the Medici and their friends.
+
+Verrocchio had a big workshop that was one of the busiest in Florence. Leonardo was learning to be an artist, so he had to learn drawing, painting, sculpting and model making. While he was at the workshop, he was able to learn all sorts of other useful skills: chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry.[13][14][15]
+
+Leonardo was not the only young painter at Verrocchio's workshop. Many other painters were trained there, or often visited. Some of them later became famous: Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Botticelli. These artists were all just a few years older than Leonardo.[11][16]
+
+Giorgio Vasari tells an interesting story from this time of Leonardo's life. Verrocchio was painting a large picture of the Baptism of Christ. He gave Leonardo the job of painting one of the angels holding Jesus' robe on the left side of the picture. Vasari said that Leonardo painted the angel so beautifully that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again.[12] When the painting is examined closely it is possible to see that many other parts of the picture, such as the rocks, the brown stream and the background may have been painted by Leonardo as well.[6] Verrocchio made a bronze statue of David at this time. It is believed that he used Leonardo as his model.[6]
+
+In about 1472, when he was twenty, Leonardo joined the Guild of St Luke, an organisation of artists and doctors of medicine. Even after his father set him up in his own workshop, Leonardo still enjoyed working at Verrocchio's workshop.[11] Leonardo's earliest known work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno River valley. It has the date 5 August 1473. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery.[16]
+
+When Vasari writes about Leonardo, he uses words like "noble", "generous", "graceful" and "beautiful". Vasari tells us that as an adult Leonardo was a tall handsome man. He was so strong that he could bend horseshoes with his bare hands. His voice was so beautiful that it charmed everyone that heard it. Almost everyone wanted to be his friend. He loved animals, was a vegetarian and would buy birds at the market and set them free.[17]
+
+Very little is known about Leonardo's life and work between 1472 and 1481. He was probably busy in Florence.[6] In 1478, he had an important commission to paint an altarpiece for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. The painting was to be the Adoration of the Magi (The Three Wise Men). The painting was never finished because Leonardo was sent away to Milan.
+
+Leonardo was a very talented musician.[18] In 1482, he made a silver lyre (a musical instrument) in the shape of a horse's head. At that time there was a new ruler in the city of Milan, in the north of Italy. Duke Ludovico il Moro was making other rulers nervous. Lorenzo Medici sent Leonardo to Milan as an ambassador. Lorenzo de' Medici wanted Leonardo to give Ludovico the lyre as a present from him.[19] Leonardo wrote a letter to the Duke of Milan, telling him about all the clever and useful things that he could do, like making war machines. He wrote in the letter that he could "also paint". Leonardo did not know at the time that it was for painting that he would be mostly remembered.[16][20] Leonardo stayed in Milan and worked for the Duke between 1482 and 1499. Part of his work was to design festivals and carnival processions. In Leonardo's note books are drawings of theatre costumes, amazing helmets and scenes that might be for the theatre.
+
+Leonardo, like most other well-known artists of his time, had servants, young students and older assistants in his workshop. One of his young students was a boy whose name was Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno. He was a handsome boy with beautiful long golden curls. He looked perfect as an artist's model for an angel. But he was such a difficult and dishonest boy that Leonardo called him "Salai" or "Salaino" which means "the little devil". Leonardo wrote in his notebook that Salai was very greedy, that he was a liar and that he had stolen things from the house at least five times.[21] Salai stayed in Leonardo's household for thirty years as a pupil and a servant.
+
+Leonardo's most important work for Duke Ludovico was to make a huge statue of the previous ruler, Francesco Sforza, on horseback. He started with the horse. After studying horses and drawing designs, he made a huge horse of clay. It was called the "Gran Cavallo". It was going to be cast in bronze. It was going to be the biggest bronze horse that had been made for more than a thousand years. Unfortunately, the bronze horse was never made. In 1494, Ludovico gave the bronze to be made into cannons because the French army was invading Milan.[16] The huge clay horse was still standing when the French army invaded again in 1499. This time it was used for target practice and was completely destroyed.[16]
+
+While Leonardo was working for Duke Ludovico, he had two important painting commissions. One was to do an oil painting to go in a big altarpiece for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. Leonardo did the painting twice. He left one with the monks in Milan, and took the other painting to France where it is now in the Louvre Museum. The paintings are both called the Virgin of the Rocks. They show a scene of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus in a rocky mysterious landscape. Mary and Jesus are meeting with John the Baptist. There is a story (which is not in the Bible but is part of Christian tradition) about how the baby John and the baby Jesus met on the road to Egypt. In this scene John is praying and the baby Jesus raises his hand to bless John. The paintings have a strange eerie light with soft deep shadows. In the background is a lake and mountains in the mist. No painting like this had ever been done before.[16]
+
+Leonardo's other important painting in Milan is even more famous. It is the Last Supper. The painting shows the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples, before his capture and death. Leonardo chose to paint the moment when Jesus has said "one of you will betray me". Leonardo tells the story of the surprise and upset that this caused to the twelve followers of Jesus.[16] He tells the story through the actions and faces of the people in the painting. Some of them are talking, some of them have stood up, some are raising their hands in horror.
+
+The novelist Matteo Bandello saw Leonardo at work. Bandello wrote that on some days he would paint from morning till night without stopping to eat. Then for three or four days he would not paint at all. He would often just stand and look at the painting.[22] Vasari said that the prior of the convent was very annoyed. He asked Ludovico to tell Leonardo to work faster. Vasari said that Leonardo was worried because he did not think that he could paint the face of Jesus well enough. Leonardo told the Duke that he might use the face of the prior as his model for Judas, the traitor.[12]
+
+When it was finished, everyone that saw it said that the painting was a masterpiece.[12] But Leonardo had not used proper fresco for the painting. He had used tempera over gesso, which is not usually used for wall painting. Soon the painting started to grow mold and flake off the wall. In a hundred years it was "completely ruined".[6]
+Even though in some places the paint has fallen right off the wall, the painting is so popular that it is printed and copied more that any other religious painting in the world.
+
+In 1499, Ludovico il Moro was overthrown. Leonardo left Milan with his servant Salai and a friend, Luca Pacioli, who was a mathematician. They went to Venice. Leonardo worked as a military architect and engineer. Because Venice is a city on many islands, Leonardo tried to think of ways to defend the city from a naval attack.[6][11]
+
+In 1500, Leonardo went back to Florence, taking his "household" of servants and apprentices with him. The monks from the monastery of The Holy Annunciation gave Leonardo a home and a large workshop. In 2005, some buildings which were used by the Department of Military Geography were being restored. The restorers discovered that part of the building was Leonardo's studio.[23]
+
+Leonardo started work on a new painting. He drew a large "cartoon". (This means a drawing that is a plan for the painting.) The cartoon showed the Virgin Mary sitting on the knee of her mother, St Anne. Mary holds the baby Jesus in her arms. Jesus stretches out his hands to his young cousin John the Baptist. Vasari says that everyone was so amazed by the beautiful drawing that "men and women, young and old" came in large groups to see it "as if they were attending a great festival".[12] The drawing is now in the National Gallery, London. Even though it is old and faded and is kept in a dark room, people go to the gallery to sit in front of it every day. Like many of Leonardo's projects, the painting was never done.
+
+In 1502 and 1503, Leonardo worked for Cesare Borgia, a powerful noble who was the son of Pope Alexander VI. Leonardo travelled around Italy with Borgia, as a military architect and engineer.[6] Late in 1503, Leonardo returned to Florence. He rejoined the Guild of St Luke.
+
+He was given a very important commission. The Signoria (Town Council) of the City of Florence wanted two large frescos painted on the walls of the most important room of the Signoria Palace. Michelangelo was to paint The Battle of Cascina and Leonardo was to paint The Battle of Anghiari.[6]  Leonardo began the project by studying and drawing the faces of angry men and fighting horses. These drawings can still be seen in his notebooks. But unfortunately, this was to be another failure for Leonardo. When he painted the picture on the wall, instead of using fresco, he mixed the paints with oil. The paint would not dry. Leonardo lit some fires to dry it, and the painting melted. Peter Paul Rubens drew a copy of the middle part. After a time, the town council covered it up and got somebody else to paint the wall. Michelangelo did not finish his painting either, because the Pope called him to Rome.[6]
+
+In about 1503 Leonardo began painting the portrait of a woman known as Mona Lisa, the most famous portrait that has ever been painted. He continued working on it for many years. It is a small picture, painted in oil on a wooden panel. It shows the face, upper body and hands of a woman. She is very plainly dressed. For a portrait, a woman would usually put on her best clothes and jewellery. Mona Lisa has a dark dress and a fine black veil over her head. Leonardo often left symbols in his paintings that give clues about the person. The unusual thing about this picture is the smile. The smile is the clue to her name: Mona Lisa Giacondo. Giacondo means "the joking one". (Mona is short for Madonna which means "My Lady".)
+
+The reason why the painting is so famous is that it seems to be full of mystery. Mona Lisa's eyes look out at the viewer. But no-one can guess what she is thinking. Her eyes and her mouth seem to be smiling. This is very unusual in a portrait painting. Most people in portraits look very serious. It is hard to tell what Mona Lisa's exact expression is. When a person wants to read another person's feelings, they look at the corners of their mouth and eyes. But Leonardo has painted soft shadows in the corners of Mona Lisa's mouth and eyes, to disguise her expression. The soft shadows are also found on the sides of her face, her neck and hands. The way that Leonardo uses shadow is called "sfumato" (which is an Italian word for "smoke"). Vasari said that the picture was so beautifully painted that every other artist who looked at it thought that they could never paint so well.[12]
+
+In 1506, Leonardo went back to Milan with his pupils, and lived in his own house in Porta Orientale. Some of the pupils became painters: Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco D'Oggione.[11] D'Oggione made several copies of the Last Supper. Luini made a copy of the Virgin of the Rocks. Boltraffio (and the others) painted many Madonna and Child pictures which can still be seen in art galleries and churches. One of pupils was a young nobleman called Count Francesco Melzi. Melzi never became a very good painter, but he loved Leonardo and stayed with him until the day he died.
+
+In September 1513 Leonardo went to Rome and lived there until 1516. He lived in the Vatican. The three greatest painters of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were all working in Rome at the same time.[6] Even though their names are often said together as if they were friends, they were not. Leonardo at this time was in his sixties, Michelangelo was middle-aged. He was not friendly to either Leonardo or Raphael. Raphael was a very clever young painter who learnt a lot by looking at the pictures painted by Leonardo and Michelangelo. But neither of them was ever his teacher.
+
+In October 1515, King Francis I of France captured Milan.[22] On December 19, there was a meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, in Bologna. Leonardo went to the meeting with Pope Leo.[11][24][25]
+Leonardo made an amazing toy to entertain King Francis. It was a life-sized mechanical lion that could walk. It had doors in its chest which opened, and a bunch of lilies came out. Lilies were the royal symbol of the French Kings.[12]
+
+In 1516, Francis I invited Leonardo to go to France with him. He gave Leonardo a beautiful house called Clos Lucé (sometimes called "Cloux"). It is near the king's palace, Chateau Amboise. Leonardo spent the last three years of his life at Clos Lucé, with his faithful friend and apprentice, Count Melzi. The king gave Leonardo a pension of 10,000 scudi.[6] One of the last paintings that Leonardo did was a picture of John the Baptist. His model was Salai, with his beautiful long curling hair.
+
+When Leonardo was dying, he asked for a priest to come, so that he could make his confession and receive Holy Communion.[12]
+Leonardo died at Clos Lucé, on May 2, 1519. King Francis had become a close friend. Vasari says that the King held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died. In his will, he asked that sixty beggars should follow his casket in procession. He was buried in the Chapel of the Chateau Amboise.
+
+Leonardo had never married and had no children of his own. In his will, he left his money, his books and most of his paintings to Count Melzi. Leonardo also remembered his other pupil Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards near Milan. Leonardo's left to his serving woman a black cloak with a fur edge.[26] Salai was the owner of Leonardo's most famous oil painting, the Mona Lisa. He still owned it a few years later when he died, after fighting in a duel.[27]
+
+King Francis said: "There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher."[28][29]
+
+Leonardo did not paint very many pictures. But he drew hundreds of quick sketches, plans, maps and detailed drawings. This is the way that he recorded all the interesting things that he saw, studied and thought about.
+
+Some of Leonardo's drawings are "studies" for paintings. In these drawings Leonardo planned the things he was going to paint. Some studies are plans for whole paintings. One of these paintings is the large beautiful drawing of the Madonna and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist that is now in the National Gallery, London.
+
+Many of the studies show "details" that Leonardo wanted to get just right. One study shows a very detailed perspective drawing of the ruined buildings in the background of the painting of the Magi. Other studies show hands, faces, drapery, plants, horses and babies.[30]
+The earliest drawing by Leonardo that has a date on it, is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.[11][30]
+
+Leonardo studied things all his life. He did not go to university to study. He studied by looking at things in the world around him. He looked at things to see how they were made and how they worked. He drew the things that he saw and the discoveries that he made into his notebooks, and made notes about them. Many of his notebooks are now in museums. There are 13,000 pages of notes and drawings. Many of these are scientific studies.[16]
+
+Leonardo's notebooks are hard to read because he wrote backwards in "mirror writing". Some people think that perhaps he was trying to keep his work secret. This is not true. Leonardo wrote (and sometimes drew) with his left hand. In those days pens were made from a quill (a large feather) that was cut with a pen-knife on the end. It is hard for a left-handed person to write with a quill in the ordinary way, but quite easy to write backwards.
+
+It is likely that Leonardo planned to publish the studies in his notebooks. He organized many pages carefully, with one study taking up the front and back of each page. There is a page with drawings and writing about the human heart and a page about the womb and the fetus.[31] One page shows drawings of the muscles of a shoulder and another page shows how an arm works.[32]
+
+The notebooks were not published in Leonardo's lifetime. After he died, they were divided between different people who had known him. They are nearly all in museums or libraries such as Windsor Castle, the Louvre, and the British Library. The Biblioteca Ambrosiana (a library) in Milan has the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus.[16]
+
+Some of the things that Leonardo studied are:[2]
+
+Many of the drawings and notes in Leonardo's notebooks are designs, plans and inventions.
+
+Some of the things that Leonardo designed are:[2]
+
+Study of a skull
+
+Study of a horse for the Duke's statue
+
+Study of a sedge plant
+
+Rhombicuboctahedron published in Pacioli's book
+
+A parabolic compass.
+
+A Helicopter.
+
+Cannons.
+
+Walking on water.
+
+Modern model of Leonardo's parachute.
+
+Modern model of a bridge designed by Leonardo.
+
+Modern model of a tank by Leonardo
+
+Modern model of a flywheel
+
+ISBN 978-88-96036-65-5

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+Co-official, but not majority language
+     Statutory minority/cultural language
+
+German (German: Deutsch) is a West Germanic language. It is spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg; natively by around 100 million people. It is the most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.  There are some people who speak German in Belgium and in the Netherlands, as well as in France and Northern Italy. There are people who speak German in many countries, including the United States and Canada, where many people emigrated from Germany. German is also spoken in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.
+
+German is a part of the West Germanic language family (a group of languages that are similar) and is much like English and Dutch. A lot of the vocabulary in German is related to English, but the grammar is more complicated. German has a system of cases, and when helping verbs are used, the main part of the verb must be moved to the end of the sentence. For example, "Someone has stolen my car" is Jemand hat mein Auto gestohlen (Someone has my car stolen) or, "Someone called me last night" is Jemand hat mich letzte Nacht angerufen (Someone has me last night called).
+
+In German writing, every noun must start with a capital letter.  English and Danish also did this long ago, but not now. Today, German is the only language that has this rule.
+
+While German is an official language in Switzerland, the Swiss dialect of German is difficult for native speakers from Germany, and even for Swiss who are not native to speaking German, to understand. One reason why the dialects are still so different today is that even though Switzerland adopted Standard German, mostly as a written standard, German Swiss in WWII wanted to separate themselves from the Nazis by choosing to speak the Swiss dialect over the standard dialect.[6] Swiss German also has some differences in writing, for example, the letter ß, which is only seen in German, is always replaced by ss.
+
+Notes

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+A diamond (from the ancient Greek αδάμας – adámas "unbreakable") is a re-arrangement of carbon atoms (those are called allotropes).
+
+Diamonds have the highest hardness of any bulk (all one type) material. Because of this, many important industries use diamonds as tools for cutting and polishing things. Many of them are clear, but some of them have colors, like yellow, red, blue, green and pink. Diamonds of a different color are called "fancies".
+
+Big diamonds are very rare, and are worth a lot of money. Only 20% of diamonds are fit for jewellery. The other 80% are of lower quality. Those lower quality diamonds are called industrial diamonds, and are used to make things like drill bits and diamond saws. Even if a diamond is not of gem quality, it still has a value because It is very hard.
+
+Cut and faceted diamonds can be attractive hence their use in jewellery. Diamonds are very effective electrical insulators, but also very good conductors of heat. On Mohs scale of mineral hardness, diamonds are scored as 10 (the highest score possible).
+
+There are natural and synthetic diamonds. The Earth makes natural diamonds, and people make synthetic diamonds. Diamonds are the hardest natural substance known to man. Diamonds are made of pure carbon, the same chemical element as graphite, fullerene, and coal. But diamonds are very hard and in crystalline form. It is commonly believed that diamonds are formed from coal, but this is not true.
+
+Diamonds are made deep in the Earth where there is an intense amount of pressure and heat. The formation of natural diamonds needs specific conditions. These are exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature, between about 900 and 1,300 °C (1,650 and 2,370 °F). These conditions are found in two places on Earth: in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.[3]
+
+People find diamonds where volcanoes were a long time ago. They sometimes find tiny ones at the site of a meteorite strike. Sometimes people find diamonds on the top of the ground. But in places like South Africa, they must dig deep down into a diamond mine to get diamonds. Diamonds were first found in India.
+
+Small synthetic diamonds are made for abrasives. Large synthetic ones are even more expensive to make than to find and dig up, so people don't make large synthetic diamonds.
+
+For many decades the trading of diamonds was controlled by the De Beers group of companies, who controlled most of Africa's rich diamond mines. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, new diamond mines opened in Canada and Australia that De Beers wasn't able to control.  When the USSR collapsed in 1991, many cheap Russian diamonds entered the market, overwhelming De Beers and their efforts to control it.  De Beers still runs most of Africa's diamond mines, but their mines now only produce about one third of the world's diamonds.[4]

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+In geometry, the diameter of a circle is a line from one side directly to the opposite side through the centre. It can also be defined as the longest chord of a circle. These are both explanations to describe the diameter in a sphere too.
+
+The letter d or the symbol ⌀ are often used as a symbol for the diameter. The diameter's length is often called the diameter itself.
+
+The diameter's length is twice the radius, and therefore the relationship between the diameter's length and radius can be shown with the equations:
+
+d
+=
+2
+r
+
+
+{\displaystyle d=2r}
+
+   and   
+
+
+
+r
+=
+
+
+d
+2
+
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle r={\frac {d}{2}}}

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+In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of hunting, and in later times, the moon and chastity. Cypress trees were sacred to her. She was the daughter of Jupiter and the Titan Latona (or Leto). In Greek mythology, Diana was called Artemis. She is also associated with fertility and nature. Artemis is her Greek equivalent.
+
+According to mythology Diana was born with her twin brother Apollo on the island of Delos. Apollo was her only real brother but she had many half brothers and sisters from her father. Her half-siblings were Vulcan, Minerva, Mercury, Bacchus, Mars, and Proserpine. Diana made a group of three with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and midwife helper; and Virbius, the god of the woods. Diana is a maiden goddess which means she can't marry.
+
+Media related to Diana at Wikimedia Commons

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+A dictatorship is a form of government where one person or political party has the power to do whatever they want. The ruler is called a dictator. In a dictatorship, the individuals rights are generally speaking, suppressed.
+
+Dictators often come to power in times of difficulty, such as massive unemployment, inflation, and unrest among the population. Dictators are normally backed by powerful groups, such as landowners, private company owners, bank owners and in some cases institutions like the Roman Catholic Church to put in place law and order by force. This force may be directed at the poorer parts of society, such as unemployed workers, ethnic minorities, working class areas and shanty towns. Examples of this are the dictatorships in Latin America and the prosecution of the Jewish community in 1940s Germany.
+
+Dictators normally need to do a number of things to put in place their dictatorships: they need to get rid of their opponents (which may be political or religious) - some are imprisoned, exiled (sent outside their country) or killed. Dictators will then need to prohibit (or not allow) political parties that oppose their rule. They will confiscate the political parties' property or offices and such things. Dictators may suppress or persecute some religious groups or institutions. Dictators will also need to undo or close down democratic institutions such as parliament and in some cases the congress. Some social organizations, such as civil rights groups, human rights organisations, legal aid centers, students' unions, teachers' federations, trade or workers unions are also undone and those who persist with such activities may be killed. Dictators will normally rewrite an existing constitution or put in place a completely new one. This makes their power constitutional (which then cannot be disputed). Dictators then maintain their rule with state terrorism, which normally involves a secret police, death squads, random or night curfew, indefinite arrest without trial and a network of torture centers and concentration camps. Some dictatorships create a fictional (or non existent) internal (inside their country) enemy which they claim to be at war with to justify (give reason for) their use of much military violence against a whole unarmed population.
+
+A dictatorship that is ruled by soldiers is called a military dictatorship or junta. An absolute monarchy (the system where there are Kings and Queens who have full power over their country) can be considered to be a dictatorship, but are usually not called dictators. A dictatorship is usually not liked by the people, because most don't like to be dictated around. Most dictators are selfish and rule over the people just for power.
+
+Some dictators have included:

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+A dictionary is a type of book which explains the meanings of words or, more precisely, lexemes. The words are arranged in alphabetical order so that they can be found quickly. The word "dictionary" comes from the Latin "dictio" ("saying").
+
+There are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one language to another, dictionaries of biography which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular subject (sometimes called a thesaurus). Some of these come close to being an encyclopedia, but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary.
+
+Dictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear "definition" of the word (e.g. hippopotamus : a hoofed mammal with thick skin, large mouth and short legs that lives in rivers and lakes of Africa.)
+
+A big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is pronounced. Usually the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like "hippopotamus", but a word like "put" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the origin of the word (e.g. Greek "hippos" horse and "potamus" river).
+
+A dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, plural form etc.
+
+There are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Very often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to Dutch and the other half from Dutch to English.
+
+When using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like "right" has two basic meanings in English: 1) "correct", and 2) the opposite of "left". Other languages  have different words for these different meanings, but they have homonyms of their own. A word like "put" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word “put” will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard).
+
+Dictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of computer terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. "gay" or "cool"). The most famous English Dictionary is the Oxford English Dictionary (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription).