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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Spain is  a country in Southern Europe. It is in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain has borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Morocco. In Spain's northeast side are the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The people of Spain are called Spaniards. They speak Castilian or Spanish (in Spanish, "Castellano", from Castilla, or "Español" [espa'ɲol].  They speak other languages in some parts of the country.  They are Catalan, Basque, and Galician, Leonese, Aragonese, Aranese Occitan  and even Portuguese. The religion of about 56% of the population in Spain is Roman Catholic.
+
+Since 1975, Spain has had a constitutional monarchy. The King of Spain is Felipe VI; he only does what the constitution allows him to.  The parliament is called "Las Cortes Generales," and has two bodies: "El Congreso" (The Congress) and "El Senado" (The Senate) and it is chosen by the Spanish people by voting.  The Prime minister is Pedro Sánchez.  The government and the king's palace are in Madrid, the capital of Spain.
+
+Spain has more than five hundred thousand square kilometres of land.  It is smaller than France, but it is bigger than Germany. Almost fifty million people live in Spain. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (this means that they can decide upon some affairs themselves). Each community has its own government.
+
+People have lived in Spain since the Stone Age.  Later, the Roman Empire controlled Spain for about five hundred years; then as the Roman Empire broke up, groups of Germanic people including Visigoths moved in and took control.
+
+In 711, the Umayyads took over, and later groups from North Africa, called the Moors. At first the Moors ruled most of Spain but the reconquista slowly forced them out over seven centuries. They called the land Al-Andalus. They were Muslims, and Muslim Spain was the farthest western point of Islamic civilization. The Caliphate of Córdoba fell apart in the early 11th century and Muslim rulers sometimes fought each other when they weren't fighting the Christians. Muslim Spain was focused on learning. The greatest library system outside Baghdad was also there.
+
+The Kingdom of León, the most important in the early Spanish Middle Ages, was started in 910. This Kingdom developed the first democratic parliament (Cortes de Llión) in Europe in 1188. After 1301, León had the same King as the Kingdom of Castile in personal union.  The various kingdoms remained independent territories until 1833, when Spain was divided into regions and provinces.
+
+In 1492, the Christians took the last part of Spain that still belonged to the Moors, Granada.  Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrendered to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile on 2 January 1492.  Ferdinand and Isabella then ruled all of Spain.
+
+Before this, there were a number of Christian countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when Ferdinand II of Aragon married the queen Isabella of Castile.  The King ruled as much as the Queen.
+
+In the same year, 1492, they sent Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic Ocean.  Columbus found the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+When other Europeans explored, like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, they found out that there were two continents there - North America and South America.  Spanish conquistadores took over very large parts of those two continents. This empire did not make Spain a rich country, for most of the money had to be spent in wars in Italy and elsewhere.  Some of these wars were fought against other European countries who were trying to take over parts of the Americas.
+
+Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or taken to other countries.  Jews had also been expelled from Spain.  Some Jews remained but they had to become Christians.  Among the few old things kept and respected in Spain were in music:  harmony and stringed instruments. The buildings that had been built by the Moors were kept, and many Muslim religious buildings (mosques) were turned into churches. Some Jewish religious buildings were also turned into churches. Many Arab words became part of the Spanish Language.
+
+The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella was Charles.  When his grandfather died he inherited Castille and Aragon.  He also inherited many territories at the death of his other grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria.  Charles received from Maximilian the Austria state and the territories of Burgundy.  He was named Charles I in Spain, but he was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and was called Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.  This made the empire bigger than ever.  However, it was not a single country, but a personal union of  many independent countries with a single King.  At first many Spaniards did not want Charles as their king, so they fought against him. However, he won.
+
+Charles did not like the Protestant Reformation, and fought against it.
+
+In the 18th century some of the parts of that large empire became their own countries, or were taken over by new countries, such as the United States of America.
+
+Spain (and other European countries) was invaded by Napoleon of France. Britain sent troops to defend the peninsula, since it was so weak. Most of the Spanish Empire became independent in the following decades.
+
+There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made Alfonso XIII leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, in the Spanish Civil War (although those on the side of the Republic were largely socialist or anarchist), or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a nationalist dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
+
+Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a monarchy again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of Juan of Bourbon who had been forced to leave the country, to be king and Adolfo Suárez to become its first Prime Minister. But the king and Suárez did not rule as a dictator; instead, they chose to set up a democracy.
+
+On 23 February 1981 a group of people who had supported the now dead General Franco tried to take control of the democratic Spanish Parliament by force, they entered the building and fired guns in the air. It was seen live on Spanish television and there was widespread fear that this might be the start of another civil war. However, Juan Carlos I, quickly appeared on television and broadcast to the nation that they should remain calm. The persons responsible for the attempt to take over the country were arrested.
+
+Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is the eighth largest economy in the world and is an important part of the European Union.
+
+On 2 June 2014, Juan Carlos I announced that he would abdicate in favour of his son, Felipe VI.[11] The date of abdication and handover to Felipe occurred on 19 June 2014. He and his wife kept their titles.[12]
+
+Ancient religions in Spain were mostly pagan. Today, however, at least 68 percent of Spain is Roman Catholic.[13] Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila is an important figure within Catholicism. 27 percent of Spaniards are irreligious. 2 percent are from other religions, this include Baha'i Buddhists, Jain, Muslim,Unitarian Universalism and Zoroastrianism.
+
+The middle of Spain is a high, dry, flat land called La Meseta. In La Meseta it can be very hot in the summer and cold or very cold in the winter. Spain also has many mountain ranges. The Mount Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands), the highest mountain of Spain and the islands of the Atlantic (it is the third largest volcano in the world from its base). In the north there is a range of mountains called Los Picos de Europa (The European Peaks). Here it is very cold in winter with a lot of snow but with gentle warm summers.
+
+In the south-east of the country is a range of mountains called La Sierra Nevada (The Snowy Mountains). This range of mountains contains the highest mountain in mainland Spain, Mulacen, at 2952 metres. La Sierra Nevada is very popular in winter for winter sports, especially skiing. Snow remains on its peaks throughout the year.  The south coast, has a warm and temperate climate, not very hot or very cold.  Since Spain is in the south of Europe, it is very sunny.  Many people from Northern Europe take their vacations in Spain, enjoying its beaches and cities.
+
+Spain has a border with Portugal in the west and borders with France and Andorra in the North. In the south, it borders Gibraltar, a British territory. The Spanish territories of Ceuta and Melilla are in North Africa and border onto Morocco.
+
+Spain is divided into Autonomous Communities, which means that they have their own regional governments. They are Andalucía (capital city Seville), Aragon (capital city Zaragoza), Asturias (capital city Oviedo), Balearic Islands (capital city Palma de Mallorca), Basque Country (capital city Vitoria), Canary Islands (capital cities Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas), Cantabria (capital city Santander), Castilla-La Mancha (capital city Toledo), Castile and Leon (capital city Valladolid), Catalonia (capital city Barcelona), Extremadura (capital city Merida), Galicia (capital city Santiago de Compostela), La Rioja (capital city Logrono), Madrid Community (capital city Madrid), Murcia Community (capital city Murcia), Navarra (capital city Pamplona) and the Valencia Community (capital city Valencia).
+
+Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero, Spain, Jamón serrano
+
+Jamón serrano served at Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero
+
+Anchovies in Spanish Olive OIl
+
+(Spanish Tortilla)
+
+In Spain, many people live in cities or close to cities. The ten biggest city areas are:
+
+While Spanish is the most spoken language in the country, other languages like Catalan, Basque or Galician are also spoken in a few territories.

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+The Netherlands is a country that is part (of a constituent country) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Most of it is in Western Europe, but there are also some parts in the Caribbean. More than 17 million people live there. To the north and west of the European part of the Netherlands is the North Sea, and to the east is Germany and to the south is Belgium. The Netherlands is one of the countries that started the European Union. People who live in the Netherlands are called "Dutch". The language of the Netherlands is also called Dutch. The official capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam. However, the government is located in The Hague.
+
+"The Netherlands" means "the low lands". The land only rises, on average, 1 meter above sea level. One third of the land is below sea level. The Netherlands is also - incorrectly - referred to as Holland. Holland was a very rich area (two provinces) in the western part of the Netherlands, thus causing people to be mistaken. Some people who do not live in the western part of the Netherlands do not like it when people call the country Holland. The name "Holland" originates from the old Dutch words "Holt land" which means "wood lands".
+
+At the end of the Middle Ages the dukes of Burgundy, a country that is now part of France, united seventeen areas. Those areas were called the Netherlands. When the daughter of a duke married Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1477, the Netherlands became part of Spain. In the 16th century many Dutch people became Protestant. The king of Spain did not like it, he wanted all Dutch to be Roman Catholic. Of course the Dutch people did not like this, and after violent excesses by the Spanish they started a war against Spain in 1568, also for reasons of taxation. The war lasted until 1648, therefore it is called the Eighty Years' War. An important leader of the Dutch in this war was Willem van Oranje (Willem of orange) also called William the Silent.
+
+In 1648 the Netherlands and Spain signed peace. The Dutch people were allowed to keep all the areas they conquered. The part of the Netherlands that was not conquered by the Dutch stayed part of Spain. Later this part became the country Belgium.
+
+When the Netherlands became independent, it was a very special country. That time almost all countries in Europe were ruled by a king, but the Netherlands was a republic. The Netherlands was made up of seven provinces, that were ruled by the big cities. The cities were ruled by the municipality which consisted of rich civilians. Together those provinces were ruled by a stadtholder, a very powerful man, but compared to the kings of other European countries he had much less power.
+
+In the 17th century the Netherlands was the richest and one of the most powerful countries in the world. Therefore, the Dutch call the 17th century the Golden Age. Their Dutch Empire had possessions around the world. The most important possession were the East Indies, a country that is now called Indonesia. The Dutch also founded New Netherland, which is now called New York. The Netherlands often fought wars against other European countries, especially the Anglo-Dutch Wars against England. Michiel de Ruyter, a Dutch admiral, became a Dutch hero when he defeated the English navy close to London.
+
+In the 18th century the Netherlands became poorer. Many people blamed this on the government leaders, the stadtholders. Many thought they had too much power and wanted them to get away. In 1789 the French people deposed (got rid of) their king. French armies attacked other countries to depose their leaders too. In 1795 they attacked the Netherlands. Stadtholder William V had to flee to England. The Netherlands were renamed to Batavian Republic and became a democracy. But the French were not content (satisfied) with the Dutch ruler, so in 1806 the French emperor Napoleon made his brother Louis Bonaparte king of the Netherlands. Louis became popular in the Netherlands, but the emperor was again not content with him, so in 1810 the Netherlands became a part of France.
+
+In 1815 Napoleon was defeated, and the Netherlands became independent again. The rulers of European countries thought it was a good idea to make the Netherlands stronger, to make them able to resist another French invasion. Therefore, Belgium and Luxembourg were added to the Netherlands. William I, the son of stadtholder William V, became king. Some Belgians disliked their Dutch king. In 1830 they revolted. William sent an army. He was much more powerful than the Belgians but after ten days the French sent an army to support them. In 1831 the Belgians chose their own king and Belgium became an independent country.
+
+Some people again thought the Dutch king had too much power. They wanted to give him less power and vote for the government themselves. In 1848 there were violent revolts against the kings of many European countries. The Dutch king was afraid the same would happen in the Netherlands. Therefore, he allowed Johan Rudolf Thorbecke to write a constitution. From then on people were allowed to vote. At first only rich men were allowed to vote. From 1919 on all adults were allowed to vote.
+
+In World War I, the Netherlands did not fight and were not invaded. The Dutch wanted to stay neutral in World War II as well, but in 1940 the country was invaded and occupied by Germany. Like in other countries they had occupied, the German authorities started to kill Jews. Anne Frank was a Jewish girl who lived in the Netherlands. Her family hid from the Nazis and she wrote a diary. She died in a Nazi concentration camp and her diary became famous.
+
+In 1944 the American, Canadian, Polish and British armies liberated the south of the Netherlands from Nazi Occupation. They wanted to cross the Rhine river in Operation Market Garden to liberate the rest of the country, but they were defeated. It took until May 1945 before the entire country was liberated. During the five years of Nazi occupation, 250,000 people had died in the Netherlands.
+
+Shortly after the war, Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch sent soldiers to fight in Indonesia. After other countries, including the United States, told the Dutch to leave Indonesia, they finally did so in 1949.
+
+After the war the Netherlands became one of the richest countries in the world. In 2004 the United Nations said that the Netherlands was the 5th best country to live in.
+
+The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. That means the country has a king, but the real power is in the hands of a parliament, chosen by the Dutch people. All Dutch people at least 18 years old or older are allowed to vote. The Dutch parliament consists of two chambers: the Second Chamber (Dutch: Tweede Kamer, this is the House of Representatives, elected every four years), and the First Chamber (Dutch: Eerste Kamer, this is the Senate, elected by provincial politicians every four years). After the Second Chamber elections, parties that have had a majority of the votes create a cabinet. The cabinet consists of a prime minister and several other ministers and deputy ministers. Current government is the Third Rutte cabinet, consisting of VVD, CDA, D66 and CU politicians. Prime Minister is Mark Rutte (VVD).
+
+The latest general elections were held on March 15, 2017. The coalition party PvdA (Labour) lost dramatically, and the other coalition party VVD (Conservative-liberals) also lost but remained the largest party in parliament. Most opposition parties won seats, especially the green party GreenLeft won considerably. Populist party PVV of Geert Wilders also won seats, but not the amount expected. They became the second largest party.
+
+The Netherlands is known for tolerance in politics. The Netherlands is the only country where soft drugs are not entirely considered illegal. Furthermore, the Netherlands is one of the few countries that allow same-sex marriages, euthanasia and prostitution to a certain extent.
+
+More information: Politics of the Netherlands.
+
+The Netherlands is subdivided in provinces and municipalities.
+
+In the Netherlands there are 12 provinces:
+
+These provinces are all located in the part of the Netherlands that is in Europe. The country also includes three special municipalities in the Caribbean: Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius. They are not part of any province, but together are known as the Caribbean Netherlands. The Netherlands (both the European part and the Caribbean Netherlands), together with Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, also in the Caribbean, form a sovereign state called the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+
+When the Kingdom was formed in 1954, the territories in the Caribbean became part of the Netherlands Antilles. At that time it also included Suriname in South America, which became an independent country in 1975. Aruba left the Antilles in 1986, and Curaçao and Sint Maarten did the same in 2010. The rest of the islands then became the Caribbean Netherlands which is part of the Netherlands proper.
+
+The Netherlands has 355 municipalities (2020) and also three special municipalities in the so-called Caribbean Netherlands.
+
+Almost every year the amount of municipalities decrease.
+
+Cities aren't actually a subdivision of the Netherlands. Cities are also municipalities or they make part of municipalities.
+
+This is a list of the cities with over 100,000 people.
+
+In fact a large part of the Netherlands was created by the sand that came from the many rivers flowing through it. Notable Dutch rivers are the Rhine, the Maas, the IJssel and the Scelt. A large part of the Netherlands is below sea level. This is because the Dutch have made many lakes and parts of the sea dry, creating polders. Therefore, there is a saying "God created the earth, but the Dutch created the Netherlands." This makes the Netherlands very flat. In the very south-east of the Netherlands, in Limburg, there are some hills. Therefore, this region is a tourist-attraction for many Dutch people. The highest point in the European portion of the Netherlands, the Vaalserberg, is 323 metres above sea level. The highest point in both the Netherlands proper and the Kingdom of the Netherlands is Mount Scenery, on the Caribbean island of Saba, at 887 metres.
+
+The Netherlands is a small flat country; about 300 kilometers from north to south, and about 170 kilometers from east to west. It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).
+
+The Netherlands is a small country, but many people live there. It is one of the most densely populated countries of the world.
+
+Most people in the Netherlands speak Dutch. In Friesland, about 200,000 people speak Frisian. Frisian is the language with the most similarities to English. Some Dutch people speak dialects. The Saxon dialects spoken in the northeastern part of the Netherlands are somewhat similar to Low German.
+
+According to a survey done in 2006, 25% of the Dutch people are Christian and 3% believe in another organised religion, like Judaism, Islam or Hinduism. Twenty-six percent are 'unbounded spiritual' (have their own beliefs and are not tied to a religion). The other 44% are not religious.
+
+Nederlandse Spoorwegen (English: Dutch Railways) or NS is the main passenger railway operator in the Netherlands. The rail infrastructure is maintained by network manager ProRail, which was split from NS in 2003. Freight services, formerly operated by NS Cargo, merged with the DB Schenker group in 2000.
+
+NS runs 4,800 scheduled trains daily. In addition, NS provides international rail services from the Netherlands to other European destinations and carries out concessions on a number of foreign rail markets through its subsidiary Abellio such as Abellio Greater Anglia, Merseyrail and ScotRail.
+
+Arriva is another passenger railway operator in the Netherlands. It is a subsidiary of the German company Deutsche Bahn. Their local headquarters is based at Heerenveen. They have been active since 1998.
+
+Notes

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+The European Union (abbreviation: EU) is a confederation of 27 member countries in Europe established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992-1993.  The EU grew out of the European Economic Community (EEC) which was established by the Treaties of Rome in 1957. It has created a common economic area with Europe-wide laws allowing the citizens of EU countries to move and trade in other EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Nineteen of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
+
+The Treaty of Lisbon is the most recent treaty that says how the Union is run. Every member state signed to say that they each agreed with what it says. Most importantly, it says which jobs (’powers’) the Union should do for the members and which jobs they should do themselves. The members decide how the Union should act by voting for or against proposals.
+
+The objective of the EU is to bring its member states closer together with respect of human rights and democracy. It does this with a common style of passport, common rules about fair trading with each other, common agreements about law enforcement, and other agreements. Most members share a common currency (the euro) and most allow people to travel from one country to another without having to show a passport.
+
+After World War II, the countries in Europe wanted to live peacefully together and help one another's economies. Instead of fighting each other for coal and steel, the first member countries (West) Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg created one European Coal and Steel Community in 1952.
+
+In 1957 in the Italian city of Rome, the member countries signed another treaty and made the European Economic Community. Now it was a community for coal, steel and for trade. Later it changed the name to  the European Community.
+
+In 1993, with the Treaty of Maastricht it changed its name to the European Union. Now the member countries work together not only in politics and economy (coal, steel and trade), but also in money, justice (laws), and foreign affairs. With the Schengen Agreement, 22 member countries of the EU opened their borders to each other, so people can now travel from one country to the other without a passport or identity card. Now already 16 member countries have replaced their national currencies with the euro. 10 new countries became members of the EU in 2004, 2 more became members in 2007, and 1 more in 2013. Today there are 27 member countries altogether.
+
+A person who is a citizen of the European Union can live and work in any of the 27 member states without needing a work permit or visa. For example, a French person can move to Greece to work there, or just to live there, and he or she does not need permission from an authority in Greece.
+
+In the same way, products made in one member country can be sold in any other member country without any special permissions or extra taxes. For this reason, the members agree rules on product safety - they want to know that a product made in another country will be as safe as it would be if it had been made in their own.
+
+- Legislative (lower house) -
+
+- Sets impetus and direction -
+
+- Legislative (upper house) -
+
+- Executive -
+
+- Judiciary -
+
+- Financial auditor -
+
+- Monetary executive (central bank) -
+
+The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making group. The cabinet ministers of the member countries meet (Ministers for Foreign affairs, for Agriculture, for Justice, etc...) and discuss issues that are important to them.
+
+Before the Treaty of Lisbon (written in 2007, implemented in 2008) each member state takes a turn at being President of the Council for six months. For example, from January 2007 until July 2007, Germany held the presidency. The six months before that, Finland held the presidency. Now the President of the European Union chairs the council summits. The President of the Council is the organiser and manager and is voted into office for a duration of two and a half years. He or she does not have the power to make decisions about the European Union like the President of the United States does for that country.
+
+Member countries with a large population (Germany, France, United Kingdom, etc.) have more votes than countries with small populations (Luxembourg, Malta, etc.) but a decision cannot be made if enough countries vote against the decision.
+
+Twice a year, the heads of government (Prime Ministers) and/or the heads of state (Presidents) meet to talk about the main issues and make decisions on different issues. This meeting is different and not as formal. It is known as a European Council.
+
+The European Commission runs the day-to-day running of the EU and writes laws, like a government. Laws written by the Commission are discussed and changed by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union.
+
+The Commission has one President and 27 Commissioners, selected by the European Council. The Commission President is appointed by the European Council with the approval of the European Parliament.[14]
+
+The Commission operates like a cabinet government. There is one Commissioner per member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.
+
+The Parliament has a total of 785 members (called Members of the European Parliament, or MEP). They are elected in their countries every five years by the citizens of the European Union member countries. The Parliament can approve, reject or change proposed laws. It can also sack the European Commission. In that case, the entire commission would have to give up their jobs.
+
+There are many discussions in the EU about how it should develop and change in the future.
+
+The main reasons why European countries came together are political and economic:
+
+In 1951, six countries made the European Coal and Steel Community, a basic version of what the EU is now. These six then went further and in 1957 they made the European Economic Community and the European Coal and Steel Community. The UK and others decided not to join, and then when the UK changed its mind it was stopped from joining by French President Charles de Gaulle. When he was no longer President, the UK and others started to join. Today there are 27 members but the idea that more should join is not seen as a good one by everyone.
+
+Left in 2020
+
+Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Turkey and Iceland are "candidate countries"; they are being considered for membership. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are expected to follow.
+
+However, since there have been many political problems happening in Turkey recently, especially with President Erdogan's arresting of tens of thousands of political rivals since the failed coup attempt on July 15, 2016, it is unlikely that it would be allowed to part of the EU anytime soon because EU members believe that the current Turkish government is not respecting human rights, rule of law, or democracy.[16]
+
+United in diversity (or together with many types of people in Simple English), is the motto of the European Union.
+
+The motto in other languages:[17]
+
+On June 23, 2016, the UK held a referendum on whether it should stay in the EU or leave it. The majority [52% to 48%] favoured leaving.[18] Britain leaving the EU is commonly known as Brexit.
+
+The government of the UK triggered "Article 50" of the Treaty of European Union (the Treaty of Lisbon) on 29 March 2017.[19] This began negotiations with fellow members of the EU on the terms of exit. The timetable for these negotiations is two years, which meant that the UK would remain a member of the EU until at least March 2019. However this deadline was later extended to October 31st 2019 at the request of the British Government. The United Kingdom left the European Union on the 31. of January 2020 at 23:00 Greenwich Mean Time.
+
+Dunant / Passy (1901) ·
+Ducommun / Gobat (1902) ·
+Cremer (1903) ·
+IDI (1904) ·
+Suttner (1905) ·
+Roosevelt (1906) ·
+Moneta / Renault (1907) ·
+Arnoldson / Bajer (1908) ·
+Beernaert / Estournelles de Constant (1909) ·
+IPB (1910) ·
+Asser / Fried (1911) ·
+Root (1912) ·
+La Fontaine (1913) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross (1917) ·
+Wilson (1919) ·
+Bourgeois (1920) ·
+Branting / Lange (1921) ·
+Nansen (1922) ·
+Chamberlain / Dawes (1925)
+
+Briand / Stresemann (1926) ·
+Buisson / Quidde (1927) ·
+Kellogg (1929) ·
+Söderblom (1930) ·
+Addams / Butler (1931) ·
+Angell (1933) ·
+Henderson (1934) ·
+Ossietzky (1935) ·
+Lamas (1936) ·
+Cecil (1937) ·
+Nansen Office (1938) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross (1944) ·
+Hull (1945) ·
+Balch / Mott (1946) ·
+QPSW / AFSC (1947) ·
+Boyd Orr (1949) ·
+Bunche (1950)
+
+Jouhaux (1951) ·
+Schweitzer (1952) ·
+Marshall (1953) ·
+UNHCR (1954) ·
+Pearson (1957) ·
+Pire (1958) ·
+Noel‑Baker (1959) ·
+Lutuli (1960) ·
+Hammarskjöld (1961) ·
+Pauling (1962) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross / League of Red Cross Societies (1963) ·
+King (1964) ·
+UNICEF (1965) ·
+Cassin (1968) ·
+ILO (1969) ·
+Borlaug (1970) ·
+Brandt (1971) ·
+Kissinger / Le (1973) ·
+MacBride / Sato (1974) ·
+Sakharov (1975)
+
+B.Williams / Corrigan (1976) ·
+AI (1977) ·
+Sadat / Begin (1978) ·
+Mother Teresa (1979) ·
+Esquivel (1980) ·
+UNHCR (1981) ·
+Myrdal / García Robles (1982) ·
+Wałęsa (1983) ·
+Tutu (1984) ·
+IPPNW (1985) ·
+Wiesel (1986) ·
+Arias (1987) ·
+UN Peacekeeping Forces (1988) ·
+Dalai Lama (1989) ·
+Gorbachev (1990) ·
+Suu Kyi (1991) ·
+Menchú (1992) ·
+Mandela / de Klerk (1993) ·
+Arafat / Peres / Rabin (1994) ·
+Pugwash Conferences / Rotblat (1995) ·
+Belo / Ramos-Horta (1996) ·
+ICBL / J.Williams (1997) ·
+Hume / Trimble (1998) ·
+Médecins Sans Frontières (1999) ·
+Kim (2000)
+
+UN / Annan (2001) ·
+Carter (2002) ·
+Ebadi	(2003) ·
+Maathai (2004) ·
+IAEA / ElBaradei (2005) ·
+Yunus / Grameen Bank (2006) ·
+Gore / IPCC (2007) ·
+Ahtisaari (2008) ·
+Obama (2009) ·
+Xiaobo (2010) ·
+Sirleaf / Gbowee / Karman (2011) ·
+EU (2012) ·
+Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (2013) ·
+Yousafzai / Satyarthi (2014) ·
+Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet (2015) ·
+Juan Manuel Santos (2016) ·
+International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (2017) ·
+Mukwege / Murad (2018) ·
+Ahmed (2019)

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+Scandinavia is a group of countries in northern Europe. Scandinavia is Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.  Some people also think Finland is part of Scandinavia.  Others also say Iceland and the Faroe Islands should count.[1] Most of the time, "Scandinavia" is used to mean places where people speak Scandinavian languages (also called North Germanic languages). The Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish) are very similar to each other, and many Scandinavians understand some of the other languages.
+
+What people mean when they say "Scandinavia" depends on what they think is important at the time.  Mostly, when people want to talk about about maps, natural land formations and how the economy works, they say Finland is part of Scandinavia but Iceland isn't.  When people want to talk about history and what languages people speak, they say Iceland is part of Scandinavia but Finland isn't.[1]
+
+The Scandinavian Peninsula is a large peninsula reaching west from northern Europe over the north side of the Baltic Sea.  Norway, Sweden and some of Finland are on this peninsula. However, Denmark is considered part of Scandinavia in the ethnic sense more often than Finland is.  This is because Danish is a Scandinavian language but Finnish is not.
+
+Some people like to say "Nordic countries" instead of "Scandinavia" because they think it is more correct about geography, but the Nordic countries include Norway, Sweden, Denmark (including the Faroe Islands), Finland, and Iceland.  These five countries use the Nordic Council to work together on political and cultural activities. Denmark, Sweden, and Finland are also members of the European Union, but only Finland is part of the eurozone, meaning that it uses the Euro as its money. The other Nordic countries still use their own money, called krone or krona (from the word "crowns").  Norway and Iceland, which are not members of the EU, are members of NATO and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Only Denmark is a member of both the EU and NATO.
+
+Most of the Scandinavian Peninsula has only a few people in it. It has large forests of pine, birch, and spruce trees. The western and northern parts are mountainous; the Scandinavian mountains are some of the oldest in the world. The tallest mountain is Galdhøpiggen in Norway.  Denmark (43,098 km2) is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. It is more densely populated, and most of the land is farmland.  Sweden (449,964 km2) is the largest of the Scandinavian countries.  It has the most lakes, and the landscape ranges from plains in the south to mountains in the west (along the border with Norway) to tundra in the north.  The far north of Scandinavia and Finland is called Lapland, where the Sami people live.  Some of them still herd reindeer, but most Sami live in modern houses and have modern jobs, like other Scandinavians.
+
+The most famous group of Scandinavians is the Vikings of the Middle Ages.  The Vikings attacked and raided but they were also traders, traveling to the Ukraine and starting trade routes to the Middle East.
+
+Vikings from Norway were explorers, crossing the North Atlantic in their longships. They came to Iceland and Greenland and built towns and farms there.  The Norwegian explorers also came to the east coast of Canada, where they set up at least one settlement, but it did not last into modern times.[2]
+
+The Vikings from Denmark came to England, where they affected the history and politics and even the English language.  Danish raiders attacked England many times with great violence.  Sometimes the Danes would ask that the English pay them to go away.  These payments were called "Danegeld" (Danish gold).  The priests and bishops of churches on the east coast of England wrote a famous prayer: "deliver us, O Lord, from the wrath of the Norsemen!" "Norsemen" is another way to say "men from the north," or the Danes.[3][4]
+
+Much later, in the 19th century (1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture.  They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans.  They were the first to have the idea of Vikings wearing helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns.  Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not.  Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera Ring des Nibelungen so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.[5][6]
+
+During the 10th through 13th centuries, when the Christian religion spread through Scandiavia, modern countries started to form there. They came together into three kingdoms:
+
+These three Scandinavian kingdoms made the Kalmar Union in 1387 under Queen Margaret I of Denmark. However, in 1523, Sweden left the union. Because of this, civil war broke out in Denmark and Norway. Then, the Protestant Reformation happened, and Catholic and Protestant Christians fought each other. After things settled, the Norwegian Privy Council was abolished: it assembled for the last time in 1537. Denmark and Norway formed another union in 1536, and it lasted until 1814.  It turned into the three modern countries Denmark, Norway and Iceland.
+
+The borders between Denmark, Sweden and Norway came to the shape they have today in the middle of the seventeenth century: In the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro, Denmark–Norway gave some territory to Sweden: the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland, Härjedalen and Idre & Särna and the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel (in Estonia).   The 1658 Treaty of Roskilde forced Denmark–Norway to give the Danish provinces Scania, Blekinge, Halland, Bornholm, and the Norwegian provinces of Båhuslen and Trøndelag to Sweden.  In 1660, the Treaty of Copenhagen forced Sweden to give Bornholm and Trøndelag back to Denmark–Norway.
+
+Finland used to be part of Sweden in medieval times.  During the wars fought by Napoleon, it became part of Russia.
+
+Media related to Scandinavia at Wikimedia Commons

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+A lighthouse is a tall building that has a light near the top. Lighthouses are built on the coast of an ocean or lake.  The lighthouse protects ships from crashing into shore, by sending the light out towards the sea.  When sailors see the light, they know to avoid hitting the shore. The light usually turns in a circle so that ships see a flashing light.  The light is usually covered by a Fresnel lens.  This lens enables the light to travel a far distance.
+
+One of the most famous lighthouses was the Lighthouse of Alexandria. It was on an island near the coast. That island was called Pharos. Even today, in many languages, the word for lighthouse comes from the name of the island.
+
+Almost all lighthouses are automatic now.
+

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+
+
+Plants are one of six big groups (kingdoms) of living things. They are autotrophic eukaryotes, which means they have complex cells, and make their own food. Usually they cannot move (not counting growth).
+
+Plants include familiar types such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant (living) species of plants. Fungi and non-green algae are not classified as plants.
+
+Most plants grow in the ground, with stems in the air and roots below the surface. Some float on water. The root part absorbs water and some nutrients the plant needs to live and grow. These climb the stem and reach the leaves. The evaporation of water from pores in the leaves pulls water through the plant. This is called transpiration.
+
+A plant needs sunlight, carbon dioxide, minerals and water to make food by photosynthesis. A green substance in plants called chlorophyll traps the energy from the Sun needed to make food. Chlorophyll is mostly found in leaves, inside plastids, which are inside the leaf cells. The leaf can be thought of as a food factory. Leaves of plants vary in shape and size, but they are always the plant organ best suited to capture solar energy. Once the food is made in the leaf, it is transported to the other parts of the plant such as stems and roots.[5][6]
+
+The word "plant" can also mean the action of putting something in the ground. For example, farmers plant seeds in the field.
+
+Photosynthesis is a process that is taken place by the leaves on the plant. The leaves are the only parts of a plant that can do this process (as they adapted). This is also known as how the plant gets its food.You can make the process quicker by adding more CO2, light and chlorophyll.
+
+Green algae:
+
+Land plants (embryophyte)
+
+At least some plant cells contain photosynthetic organelles (plastids) which enable them to make food for themselves. With sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, the plastids make sugars, the basic molecules needed by the plant. Free oxygen (O2) is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis.[7]
+
+Later, in the cell cytoplasm, the sugars may be turned into amino acids for proteins, nucleotides for DNA and RNA, and carbohydrates such as starch. This process needs certain minerals: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron and magnesium.[8]
+
+Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth.
+
+Macronutrients:
+
+Micronutrients (trace elements) include:
+
+The roots of plants perform two main functions. First, they anchor the plant to the ground. Second, they absorb water and various nutrients dissolved in water from the soil. Plants use the water to make food. The water also provides the plant with support. Plants that lack water become very limp and their stems cannot support their leaves. Plants which specialise in desert areas are called xerophytes or phreatophytes, depending on the type of root growth.
+
+Water is transported from the roots to the rest of the plant through special vessels in the plant. When the water reaches the leaves, some of it evaporates into the air. Many plants need the help of fungi to make their roots work properly. This plant/fungi symbiosis is called mycorrhiza. Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules help some plants get nitrogen.[9]
+
+Flowers are the reproductive organ only of flowering plants (Angiosperms). The petals of a flower are often brightly colored and scented to attract insects and other pollinators. The stamen is the male part of the plant. It is composed of the filament (a stalk) that holds the anther, which produces the pollen. Pollen is needed for plants to produce seeds. The carpel is the female part of the flower. The top part of the carpel contains the stigma. The style is the neck of the carpel. The ovary is the swollen area at the bottom of the carpel. The ovary produces the seeds. The sepal is a leaf that protects a flower as a bud.
+
+The process by which pollen gets transferred from one flower to another flower is called pollination. This transfer can happen in different ways. Insects such as bees are attracted to bright, scented flowers. When bees go into the flower to gather nectar, the spiky pollen sticks to their back legs. The sticky stigma on another flower catches the pollen when the bee lands or flies nearby it.
+
+Some flowers use the wind to carry pollen. Their dangling stamens produce lots of pollen that is light enough to be carried by the wind. Their flowers are usually small and not highly coloured. The stigmas of these flowers are feathery and hang outside the flower to catch the pollen as it falls.[10]
+
+A plant produces many spores or seeds. Lower plants such as moss and ferns produce spores. The seed plants are the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. If all the seeds fell to the ground besides the plant, the area might become overcrowded. There might not be enough water and minerals for all the seeds. Seeds usually have some way to get to new places. Some seeds can be dispersed by the wind or by water. Seeds inside juicy fruits are dispersed after being eaten. Sometimes, seeds stick to animals and are dispersed that way.[11]
+
+The question of the earliest plant fossils depends on what is meant by the word "plant".
+
+By the Silurian, fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the lycophyte Baragwanathia. From the Devonian, detailed fossils of rhyniophytes have been found. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The Devonian period also saw the evolution of the first tree in the fossil record, Wattezia. This fern-like tree had a trunk with  fronds, and produced spores.
+
+The coal measures are a major source of Palaeozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow the stumps of Lepidodendron trees are found in their original growth positions.

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+The lung is an organ in many vertebrates (animals having a spine, or backbone). It takes blood oxygen from the air, and expels carbon dioxide. Most vertebrates with lungs have two of them.
+
+In animals, the lungs are the area where gas exchange takes place. Without gas exchange, oxygen would not pass into the blood from the lungs so the body cells would not be able to receive the oxygen needed for respiration.
+
+The alveoli are moist to allow oxygen to move from the lung through the alveoli into blood vessels and red blood cells. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli. The oxygen-filled blood goes back to the heart and the carbon dioxide in the alveoli is pushed out of the lungs and into the air we breathe out.
+
+Birds lungs are smaller than mammal lungs, and do not have alveoli, instead they have millions of para-bronchi. These para-bronchi end up in tiny capillaries or very small blood vessels and they pass close to the body's blood vessels, so diffusion can occur and the oxygen and carbon dioxide is exchanged. The oxygen and carbon dioxide in birds lungs are continuously  diffused into and out of the blood, not like in mammals where diffusion can only happen in the alveoli. Air does not go into and back out of the lungs as in mammals. Instead, muscular air sacs push the air forward through bird lungs.
+
+Reptile lungs open and close because of the ribs surrounding them pressing down on them and then opening up with the help of muscles. The liver is also attached to the bottom of the lungs and when a muscle which is attached to the liver pulls, the liver moves away from the lungs and pulls them, making them bigger.
+
+Frog lungs are very simple compared to most other lungs, they are simply balloons, with moist outsides allowing for diffusion. But frogs do not move around much and so do not need lots of oxygen, but they can also take in oxygen through their moist outer skin if a big demand of oxygen is needed (e.g. Fight or flight response)

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+A circle is a round, two-dimensional shape.  All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center.
+
+The radius of a circle is a line from the centre of the circle to a point on the side.  Mathematicians use the letter r for the length of a circle's radius.  The centre of a circle is the point in the very middle.
+
+The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the centre of the circle.  Mathematicians use the letter d for the length of this line.  The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius (d equals 2 times r).
+
+The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the centre of the circle.  Mathematicians use the letter C for the length of this line.
+
+The number π (written as the Greek letter pi) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter (π equals C divided by d). As a fraction the number π is equal to about ​22⁄7  or 335/113 (which is closer) and as a number it is about 3.1415926535.
+
+The area, a, inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by π (a equals π times r times r).
+
+π can be measured by drawing a large circle, then measuring its diameter (d) and circumference (C). This is because the circumference of a circle is always π times its diameter.
+
+π can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods.  Most methods used for calculating the value of π have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus.  However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:
+
+While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals π.  An easier to understand approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius r centered at the origin.  Then any point (x,y) whose distance d from the origin is less than r, calculated by the pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle:
+
+Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area A to be estimated. For example, by using integer coordinates for a big r. Since the area A of a circle is π times the radius squared, π can be approximated by using:

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+A skeleton is the hard structure that protects the internal organs of a living thing. Skeletons can be inside the body or outside the body. In mammals, which include humans, the skeleton is made of bones. All the bones, when they are joined together, make the "skeletal system" of a body. The skeletal system or "skeleton" is under the skin, the muscle and the tissue of the body. The skeleton supports the skin, muscle and tissue, and all the organs that are inside the body. The skeleton protects important internal organs like the brain, heart and lungs. If humans did not have a skeleton then the body would be flat as the skeleton gives the body its frame.
+
+The important parts of a human body are the head, the spine, the chest, the abdomen, the arms and hands, and the legs and feet.
+
+The head bones all together are called the skull.
+
+The spine supports the head, the chest and the structure that carries the arms. It is made of small bones called vertebrae. The spine, all together, is called the spinal column. It is not straight, but has curves that help to support the body, and help the person to move and bend. One bone is a "vertebra". More than one are "vertebrae".
+The "vertebrae" have different names, depending on the part of the body they are joined to.
+
+This part of the body is made of the sacrum and the two pelvic bones which are joined to it on either side. The pelvic bones are carried by the leg bones, and they support the "spinal column". Each pelvic bone has a strong structure for the leg bone to fit into, so that a person can stand, walk, run and jump. Each pelvic bone spreads into a large flat plate which supports the person's "internal organs". The pelvis of a woman spreads into a wider shape than a man's, so that when the woman is pregnant, the baby is supported by the pelvis, until it is ready to be born. At the bottom of the pelvis is a large opening, big enough for a baby to pass through.
+
+The chest is called the thorax, and the vertebrae that are part of it are the thoracic vertebrae. The thorax is made up of long flat curved bones called ribs. At the back, the ribs are joined to the vertebrae. At the front, most of the ribs are joined to the sternum, which is often called the "breast bone". All together, the "thorax" protects the heart, lungs and stomach.
+
+At the top of the "thorax" is the shoulder girdle. This is made of two thin horizontal bones at the front, joined to the "sternum". These two bones are called the clavicles or "collar bones". At the back of the "thorax" are two flat triangular-shaped bones called the scapulae, or "shoulder blades". The "clavicles" and "scapulae" come together on each side to make "shoulders". The bones of the arms fit into sockets (cup-like holes) in the "scapulae".
+
+Arms and legs both have a thicker bone at the top and two thinner bones at the bottom. They both have a rotating joint at the top, and a hinge joint in the middle. The hands and feet have lots of bones and are joined to the arms and legs by small bones with sliding parts.
+
+A skeleton, or just a skull, has often been used as a symbol for Death.
+
+Skeletons, particularly living skeletons, have often been used in horror stories and comedies.

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+Kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates that are shaped like beans. They make urine (the yellow waste water that comes out of the urethra.) They are part of the urinary system. When medical professionals discuss the kidneys, they typically refer to the word renal. For example, renal failure is when the kidneys are sick and do not work.
+
+The prefix nephro- is also used in words to mean "kidneys". For example, a nephrologist is a doctor who studies kidneys.
+
+The kidney makes hormones. The two most important ones that it makes are erythropoetin and renin.
+
+Erythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin tells the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. So this means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood.
+
+Renin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up.
+
+The kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant.
+
+If there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated.
+
+There are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. Severe kidney failure means very bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure always have symptoms. They may need special care from doctors.
+
+The main kinds of kidney diseases are:
+
+If a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys.
+
+There are two ways to replace the kidneys: dialysis and transplantation.
+
+Dialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
+
+Peritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do.
+
+Hemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a haemodialyser, and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2–4 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2–4 hours to do this each time.
+
+Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells.
+
+A better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person.
+
+Even transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working.
+
+It was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role.
+
+
+

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+
+
+See text for extinct groups.
+
+Reptile is the common name for one of the main groups of land vertebrates. It is not used so much by biologists, who use more accurate terms.
+
+The name "reptile" comes from Latin and means "one who creeps". All living reptile species are cold blooded, have scaly skin, and lay cleidoic eggs.[1][2] They excrete uric acid (instead of urea), and have a cloaca. A cloaca is a shared opening for the anus, urinary tract and reproductive ducts. Reptiles also share an arrangement of the heart and major blood vessels which is different from that of mammals.[3]
+
+Many important groups of reptiles are now extinct, for example the mosasaurs. We used to say the dinosaurs were extinct, but they survive in the form of their feathered descendants (birds). Ancient reptiles that do survive include the turtles, the crocodiles and the Tuatara, the lone survivor of its group. The great majority of present-day reptiles are snakes and lizards.
+
+The study of living reptiles is called herpetology.
+
+Some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles. Crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards. Theropod dinosaurs are even more closely related, because birds evolved from them.
+
+Cladistic writers prefer a more unified (monophyletic) grouping. This puts the birds (over 10,000 species) with what people normally call reptiles.[4][5][6] (see Sauropsida)
+
+Reptilia is an evolutionary grade rather than a clade. The main reason is that the term 'reptile' does not include birds, the descendents of theropod dinosaurs. Another reason is that the word 'reptile' is misleading because many extinct types were very different from living reptiles.
+
+So instead of Reptilia as a taxonomic class, today many experts use Class Sauropsida (which includes all reptiles and birds, living and extinct). Class Synapsida includes mammals and all their forebears. Reptile is still the usual informal term to describe living snakes and lizards. Mammals are a genuine clade, and so Mammalia is still the taxonomic term.
+
+Since reptiles are not monophyletic, reclassifying them is one of the key aims of researchers.[4][7][8] Some taxonomists, such as Benton,[9] make Sauropsida and Synapsida as class-level taxa. The two groups split in the Carboniferous, from stem-group Amniotes (the early tetrapods, which laid cleidoic eggs).
+
+A membrane forms an inner eyelid in  reptiles and birds. Whitish or translucent, it can be drawn across the eye to protect it from dust and keep it moist. It is called the nictitating membrane.
+
+Crocodile
+
+Tuatara
+
+Turtle
+
+Chameleons, a lizard
+
+Snake
+
+Komodo dragon, sleeping. Largest living lizard

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+
+
+Carcharhiniformes
+Heterodontiformes
+Hexanchiformes
+Lamniformes
+Orectolobiformes
+Pristiophoriformes
+Squaliformes
+Squatiniformes
+
+Sharks are a superorder of fish, the Selachimorpha. They, like other Chondrichthyes, have skeletons made of cartilage instead of bone. Cartilage is tough, rubbery material which is less rigid than bone. Cartilaginous fish also include skates and rays.
+
+There are more than 350 different kinds of sharks, such as the great white and whale sharks. Fossils show that sharks have been around for 420 million years, since the early Silurian.[1] The great white shark is one of the biggest sharks.
+
+Most sharks are predators, meaning they hunt and eat fish, marine mammals, and other sea creatures. However, the largest shark eats krill, like whales. This is the whale shark, the largest fish in the world. It is widely believed that sharks are "silent-killers" but in a recent study it has been proven that sharks emit a low/soft but evident growl from their throats resonating through their scales. Some common kinds of shark include the hammerhead shark, the great white shark, the tiger shark, and the mako shark. Most sharks are cold-blooded but some, like the great white shark and the mako shark are partially warm-blooded.
+
+Sharks come in many different shapes and sizes, but most are long and thin (also called streamlined), with really strong jaws.
+
+Their teeth are constantly replaced throughout their lives. Sharks eat so violently they often break a few teeth, so new teeth grow continuously in a groove just inside the mouth and move forward from inside the mouth on "conveyor belts" formed by the skin which they are attached to. In its lifetime, a shark can lose and regrow as many as 30,000 teeth.
+
+Even with all those teeth, though, sharks can not chew. So they bite their prey and jerk it around so they can pull off a chunk to swallow. The chunks of food that a shark swallows end up in its stomach, where they are digested. This is pretty slow, however, so a meal might take several days to digest. This is why a shark does not eat every day.
+
+Sharks have different-shaped teeth, depending on what they eat. For instance, some sharks have sharp, pointy teeth, while bottom dwelling sharks have cone-shaped teeth for crushing shells. Because there are so many different kinds of sharks, and because each kind has its own kind of special teeth, many people enjoy collecting shark teeth. Shark teeth collectors can guess how large a shark was by measuring the shark tooth. First, they measure the length of the tooth in inches. Every inch of tooth equals 10ft of shark length: so if a shark tooth is 2 inches long, the tooth came from a shark that was 20 ft long! Even more terrifying is that some of the Megalodon teeth are 6 inches long so that suggests a shark 60 feet long.
+
+Sharks have skin covered in millions of tiny teeth-like scales that point to the tail. If you rub along a shark towards the tail, it would feel smooth, but if you rub the other way, it would be rough. Sharks' teeth can be 20 times as big as human teeth and they can grow back if they are lost.
+
+The fins of sharks are used for stabilizing, steering, lift and swimming. Each fin is used in a different manner.
+
+There are one or two fins present along the dorsal midline called the first and second dorsal fin.  These fins help the shark from constantly rolling around. These two fins may, or may not have spines.  When spines are present, they are used for defensive purposes, and may also have skin glands with them that produce an irritating substance.
+
+The pectoral fins are located behind the head and extend outwards. These fins are used for steering during swimming and help to provide the shark with lift.
+
+The pelvic fins are located behind the pectoral fins, near the cloaca, and are also stabilizers.
+
+Not all sharks have anal fins, but if they do have them, they are found between the pelvic and caudal fins.
+
+The tail region itself consists of the caudal peduncle and the caudal fin. The caudal peduncle sometimes has notches known as "precaudal pits", which are found just ahead of the caudal fin. The peduncle may also be horizontally flattened into lateral keels. The caudal fin has both, an upper lobe, and a lower lobe, that can be of different sizes and the shape depends of which species the shark is. The primary use of the caudal fin is to provide a "push" while the shark swims. The upper lobe of the caudal fin produces the most amount of the push, and usually forces the shark downwards. The pectoral fins and the shape of the body (like an airfoil) work together to counter this force. The strong, non-lunate caudal fin in most benthic shark species allows the shark to swim close to the seabed (such as the Nurse shark). However, the fastest swimming sharks (such as the Mako sharks) tend to have lunate-shaped (crescent-shaped) caudal fins. [2]
+
+Sharks have keen olfactory sense organs in the short duct between the front and back nasal openings. They can detect blood from miles away: as little as one part per million of blood in sea water may be enough.[3]
+
+Sharks have the ability to determine the direction of a given scent based on the timing of scent detection in each nostril.[4] This is similar to the method mammals use to determine direction of sound.
+
+They are more attracted to the chemicals found in the intestines of many species, and as a result often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as nurse sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey.
+
+Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas. Their eyesight is well adapted to the marine environment. They can contract and dilate their pupils, like humans, something no teleost fish can do. A tissue behind the retina reflects light back, thereby increasing sight in darker waters.
+
+Sharks have tiny holes all over the shark's snout, especially between the eye and the tip of the snout. In them are nerve receptors which are called the ampullae of Lorenzini. [5]p23 They can sense electricity in the water. Animal in the water give off electricity: every time an animal's heart beats or it moves, tiny currents of electricity are made. These tiny electric currents make signals that travel through water and get sensed. Sharks may use this sense when they catch their prey, even more than they use their sight.
+
+Although it is hard to test sharks' hearing, they may have a sharp sense of hearing and can possibly hear prey many miles away.[6] A small opening on each side of their heads (not the spiracle) leads directly into the inner ear through a thin channel.
+
+The lateral line detects changes in water pressure. It is open to the environment by a line of pores. This and the sound-detecting organs are grouped together as the 'acoustico-lateralis system', because they have a common origin. In bony fish and tetrapods the external opening into the inner ear has been lost.
+
+This system is found in other fish as well. It detects motion or vibrations in water. The shark can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz.[7]
+
+Just a few million years ago, a giant shark called Megalodon swam in the seas. It was 18 meters long, twice as long as the closely-related great white shark, and it ate whales. Megalodon died out 1.6 million years ago.
+
+Much of what we understand about prehistoric sharks comes from the study of their fossils. While sharks have skeletons made of soft cartilage that can fall apart before fossilizing, their teeth are harder and easily fossilized. Prehistoric sharks, like their modern descendants, would grow and shed many thousands of teeth over their lifetime. For this reason shark teeth are one of the most common fossils.
+
+About 70% of all known shark species give birth to live young, with the gestation period lasting from 6 to 22 months.[8]
+
+Pups are born with a full set of teeth, and are capable of taking care of themselves. Once born, they quickly swim away from their mothers, who sometimes feed on the pups. Litters vary from one or two pups (great white shark) to one hundred pups (blue shark and whale shark). [9]
+
+Some sharks are oviparous, laying their eggs in the water. Shark eggs (sometimes called "mermaid's purses") are covered by a tough, leathery membrane.[9]
+
+Most sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs hatch inside the female's body, with the babies developing within the mother, but there is no placenta to nourish the pups. Instead the young feed on the egg's yolk. The pups eat any unfertilized eggs and sometimes each other. Very few pups in a litter survive until birth due to this form of sibling cannibalism. Great white sharks, mako sharks, nurse sharks, tiger sharks, and sand tiger sharks reproduce this way.[9]
+
+Some sharks are viviparous, meaning that the females give live birth: the eggs hatch inside the female's body, and the babies are fed by a placenta. The placenta helps transfer nutrients and oxygen from the mother's bloodstream and transfers waste products from the baby to the mother for elimination. Examples of viviparous sharks include the bull sharks, the whitetip reef sharks, the lemon sharks, the blue sharks, the silvertip sharks, and the hammerhead sharks. Although long thought to be oviparous, whale sharks are viviparous, and pregnant females have been found containing hundreds of pups. [9]
+
+New sharks are still being found. Dave Ebert found ten new species in a Taiwan market alone. Over the past three decades he has named 24 new species. They include sharks, rays, sawfish and ghost sharks – these cartilaginous fish are all related.[10]
+
+Some sharks are not endangered, but some are hunted for food (like shark fin soup) or sport fishing.[11]  In 2013 five species of shark, along with two species of manta ray, received international protection as part of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.[12]
+
+It is thought that 100 million sharks are killed by commercial and recreational fishing.[13][14] Sharks are a common seafood in many places, including Japan and Australia. In the Australian state of Victoria, shark is the most commonly used fish in fish and chips, in which fillets are battered and deep-fried or crumbed and grilled. In fish and chip shops, shark is called "flake". In India, small sharks or baby sharks (called sora in Tamil language, Telugu language) are sold in local markets. Since the flesh is not developed, cooking the flesh breaks it into powder, which is then fried in oil and spices (called sora puttu/sora poratu). The soft bones can be easily chewed. They are considered a delicacy in coastal Tamil Nadu.
+

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+The Rocky Mountains (often 'The Rockies') are a range of mountains in the western United States and Canada. They stretch from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the southwestern United States. The Rocky Mountains are more than 3,000 miles long (4,800 kilometers). 
+The highest point in the Rocky Mountains is Mt. Elbert. Mt. Elbert is 14,433 ft tall.
+
+The Rocky Mountains were formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago (mya) during the Laramide orogeny. North America began to move westwards as Pangaea broke up. A number of tectonic plates began to slide under the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers has sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys.
+
+The rocks in the Rocky Mountains were formed before the mountains were raised by tectonic forces. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.[1]
+
+In the southern Rocky Mountains, near present-day Colorado, these ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building approximately 300 mya, during the Pennsylvanian. This mountain building produced the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone laid down in the shallow sea.[2] The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock.

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+Ancient Rome is the name for a civilization in Italy. It began as a small farming community in the 8th century BC. It became a city and took the name of Roma from its founder Romulus. It grew to become the largest empire in the ancient world.[1] It started as a kingdom, then became a republic, then an empire.
+
+The Roman Empire was so big that there were problems ruling Rome's vast territory that stretched from Britain to the Middle East. In 293 AD, Diocletian split the empire into two parts. A century later, in 395 AD, it was permanently split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.
+The Western Empire ended because of the Germanic tribe, the Visigoths in 476 AD. In the 5th century AD, the western part of the empire split up into different kingdoms. The eastern Roman Empire stayed together as the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was defeated by the Ottoman Empire in 1453.
+
+Rome was founded, according to legend,[2] on 21 April 753 BC and fell in 476 AD, having nearly 1200 years of independence and roughly 700 years of rule as a major power in the ancient world. This makes it one of the longest lasting civilizations in the antiquity.
+
+Roman culture spread to Western Europe and the area around the Mediterranean Sea. Its history still has a big influence on the world today. For example, Roman ideas about laws, government, art, literature, and language are important to European culture. The Roman language, Latin, slowly evolved, becoming modern French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and many other languages. Latin also indirectly influenced many other languages such as English.
+
+Beginning with Emperor Nero in the first century AD, the Roman government did not like Christianity. At certain points in history, people could be put to death because they were Christians. Under Emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians became the strongest. However, Christianity became an officially supported religion in the Roman Empire under Constantine I, who was the next Emperor. With the signing of the Edict of Milan in 313, it quickly became the biggest religion. Then in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity Rome's official religion.[3]
+
+The Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam, whose followers took over the territories of Syria, Armenia and Egypt and soon threatened to take over Constantinople.[4][5] In the next century, the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily.[6]
+
+The Byzantines survived during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, took back parts of the conquered lands.[7] In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its largest point, and culture and trade flourished.[8] However, the expansion was suddenly stopped in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. This finally made the empire start becoming weaker. After centuries of fighting and Turkic invasions, Emperor Alexius I Comnenus called for help from the West in 1095.[4]
+
+The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Fourth Crusade which conquered Constantinople in 1204.  New countries including Nicaea took pieces of the now smaller empire.[9] After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453.[10]
+
+Remains of Roman work and architecture have been found in the furthest corners of the late Empire.

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+A season is a part of a year. Most areas of the Earth have four seasons in a year: spring, summer, autumn (British English) or fall (US English), and winter.
+
+In some areas, there are a different number of seasons.  For example, the tropical parts of Australia (the northern parts of Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory) have wet and dry seasons.  These are in addition to, or replace the regular season names.[1]
+
+In places which are tropical and subtropical, there are two seasons: the rainy (or wet, or monsoon) season and the dry season. This is because the rain changes more than the temperature.
+
+Summer is a warm season because the days are longer and the Sun is high in the sky, giving direct light to the ground.    Winter is a cold season because the days are shorter and the Sun is low in the sky, giving indirect light to the ground.  Both the changes in the length of the day and the height of the Sun at noon are caused by the tilt of the Earth's spin axis with respect to the plane of the Earth's path around the Sun.  At any time, in any season, the northern and southern hemispheres (halves of the Earth) have opposite seasons.
+
+Seasons begin and end on different dates in different countries. In the United States, people say the seasons begin at the solstices and equinoxes. The summer solstice is the longest day of the year, and the winter solstice is the shortest. The equinox is the time when the day and the night are the same number of hours, assuming the sun were a point of light at its center. Since civil dawn occurs when the edge of the sun first appears over the horizon and civil dusk occurs when the edge drops over the horizon, the civil length of day is 12 hours long several days prior to the equinoxes. In the USA, summer begins at summer solstice, winter at winter solstice, spring at the spring (vernal) equinox and autumn at the autumnal equinox.
+
+In Britain, people traditionally say that the seasons begin about seven weeks earlier: spring begins on Candlemas (February 2), summer on May Day (May 1), autumn on Lammas (August 1), and winter on All Hallows (November 1). These are near the cross-quarter days halfway between the solstices and the equinoxes. The Irish calendar is similar, but Spring begins on February 1.
+
+In Denmark, spring begins on March 1, summer on June 1, autumn on September 1 and winter on December 1. In Australia, summer begins on December 1, autumn on March 1, winter on June 1, and spring on September 1.
+
+In the Chinese calendar and the Northern parts of India, the solstices and equinoxes are in the middle of each season. Summer happens in the hemisphere tilted towards the sun.
+
+High season is the time of year that people travel. During high season hotels and resorts increase their prices because demand is higher than in offseason. For example, winter is high season for skiing; summer is high season for beaches.

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+The Smurfs are fictional little blue beings created by Peyo, a Belgian cartoonist. They first appeared in 1958, and later in a cartoon television show created by Hanna-Barbera Productions in the 1980s. On September 12, 1981, they were featured on NBC on Saturday mornings as a cartoon series.[1] The little blue creatures from Belgium became popular among all ages.[1]
+
+A feature movie called The Smurfs was released in 2011.[2] The Smurfs 2 was a sequel released July 31, 2013.[3]
+
+The smurfs are very small.  In cartoons in which they appear with humans, they are small enough to stand on a human hand.
+
+Most Smurfs are male. There are only 3 females in the village: Smurfette, Sassette Smurfling, and Nanny Smurf.
+
+Most Smurfs wear white pants and white Phrygian caps. Papa Smurf, Grandpa Smurf, and some of the Smurflings dress differently. Grandpa Smurf wears yellow clothes and Papa Smurf wears red clothes. The Smurflings are Sassette, Snappy, Slouchy, and Nat. Sassette and Nat do not dress like the other Smurfs at all, while Slouchy and Nat do dress like the others. In some comics, the Smurfs dress differently in color or clothing.
+
+Smurfs live in mushroom-shaped houses in a village in a forest.
+

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+The Seven Wonders of the World (or the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) is a widely-known list of seven great buildings or structures from the classical time period.
+
+This is a list put together in the 2nd century BC by 
+Antipater of Sidon and Philon of Byzantium. This explains why it only lists monuments of the Mediterranean world. There are other slightly different versions: this is the most usual one.
+
+Out of those structures only the Great Pyramid still exists in the 21st century. Most of the wonders were built by the Greeks. Earlier versions listed the Walls of Babylon and the Palace of Cyrus the Great.
+
+This version was decided by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
+
+There is no single list of seven natural wonders of the world. One of the many lists was compiled by CNN:
+
+New7Wonders of the World  was an idea to choose new wonders of the world from a selection of 200 existing monuments.[1] The mission began in 2001 and ended in 2007 with the announcement of the winners. The popularity poll was led by Canadian-Swiss Bernard Weber and organized by the New7Wonders Foundation in Zürich, Switzerland.  Voting took place through the Internet or by telephone.
+
+The program caused different reactions from countries and organisations. Some countries praised their finalist and tried to get more people to vote for it. Others criticized the contest or did not think it was very important.[2][3]
+
+Among the strongest criticism was from UNESCO,[4] who said in a press release in 2007:[5]
+
+There is no comparison between Mr. Weber's mediatised campaign and the scientific and educational work resulting from the inscription of sites on UNESCO's World Heritage List. The list of the 8 New Wonders of the World will be the result of a private undertaking, reflecting only the opinions of those with access to the Internet and not the entire world. This initiative cannot, in any significant and sustainable manner, contribute to the preservation of sites elected by this public.
+
+Winners:
+
+From a variety of modern lists of wonders made by man, some items occur several times:

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+The Seven Wonders of the World (or the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) is a widely-known list of seven great buildings or structures from the classical time period.
+
+This is a list put together in the 2nd century BC by 
+Antipater of Sidon and Philon of Byzantium. This explains why it only lists monuments of the Mediterranean world. There are other slightly different versions: this is the most usual one.
+
+Out of those structures only the Great Pyramid still exists in the 21st century. Most of the wonders were built by the Greeks. Earlier versions listed the Walls of Babylon and the Palace of Cyrus the Great.
+
+This version was decided by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
+
+There is no single list of seven natural wonders of the world. One of the many lists was compiled by CNN:
+
+New7Wonders of the World  was an idea to choose new wonders of the world from a selection of 200 existing monuments.[1] The mission began in 2001 and ended in 2007 with the announcement of the winners. The popularity poll was led by Canadian-Swiss Bernard Weber and organized by the New7Wonders Foundation in Zürich, Switzerland.  Voting took place through the Internet or by telephone.
+
+The program caused different reactions from countries and organisations. Some countries praised their finalist and tried to get more people to vote for it. Others criticized the contest or did not think it was very important.[2][3]
+
+Among the strongest criticism was from UNESCO,[4] who said in a press release in 2007:[5]
+
+There is no comparison between Mr. Weber's mediatised campaign and the scientific and educational work resulting from the inscription of sites on UNESCO's World Heritage List. The list of the 8 New Wonders of the World will be the result of a private undertaking, reflecting only the opinions of those with access to the Internet and not the entire world. This initiative cannot, in any significant and sustainable manner, contribute to the preservation of sites elected by this public.
+
+Winners:
+
+From a variety of modern lists of wonders made by man, some items occur several times:

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+The Arc de Triomphe (meaning arch of victory),  at the centre of the place de l'Étoile and the western end of the Champs-Elysées, is a very famous monument in Paris.
+
+Emperor Napoléon Bonaparte commissioned it in 1806 after victory in the Battle of Austerlitz. It is a large arch, but it is not possible to drive underneath it. Jean-François Chalgrin designed it, and it has roughly 300 steps that lead to the top. It has four main sculptures and six reliefs. Just beneath the vault of the arch, there is the tomb of the unknown soldier. The names of French generals and battles are engraved on the walls.

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+The Simpsons is an American adult animated sitcom. It was created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The show started on December 17, 1989 and so far over 677 episodes have aired in 31 seasons. As of today, the show is in its 31st season. As a full-length movie, The Simpsons Movie, was released on July 27, 2007 as a celebration of the franchise. It is aimed at the whole family.
+
+The comedy takes place in the fake (make-believe) town of Springfield, although it is speculated that this town may correspond to the real-life cities of Springfield, Oregon (a city near where Groening grew up) or Springfield, Virginia. Bart's name is an anagram of Brat. His full name is Bartholomew Jojo Simpson. This TV show has a yellow skinned cartoon family. In 2002, the production of The Simpsons had switched from cels to digital ink and paint. During that time, The Simpsons had suffering of franchise fatigue.
+
+The television show The Simpsons was originally shown as short shows on The Tracey Ullman Show. Fox then decided to give them their own show in 1989.
+
+Seasons of The Simpsons mostly have a total of 22 episodes.
+
+Many episodes begin with a scene of Springfield Elementary School, where Bart Simpson is shown writing lines on a chalkboard as punishment for being bad. For example, in one episode, Bart writes, "I will not conduct my own fire drills." The line is supposed to be humourous. Not every episode has a new one and sometimes the chalkboard gag may be cut (removed) because there is not enough time.
+
+In the opening, all the Simpsons come home after work or school. After Homer Simpson is almost or is hit by Marge's car, they all go into the living room, where something comical happens again. These are called "couch gags". On one couch gag Homer Simpson walked onto the screen like James Bond and shot the camera. Sometimes if an episode is a short one, then the couch gag will be very long. A couple of couch gags have been over one minute long. Couch gags in earlier seasons were simple but then became more interesting in later seasons.
+
+At the end of the show, the credits are shown. Sometimes they might be changed. In one episode, the ending showed Homer reading from a document about Dateline. In another episode, where all of the character sung in song, the character Snake kept firing his gun in order to make the music that was playing stop.
+
+A film based on the show, The Simpsons Movie, was released in 2007, specifically on the day that it was released. It included the character Spider Pig as Homer's new pet after rescuing him from a chain restaurant, Krusty Burger.

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+The Simpsons is an American adult animated sitcom. It was created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The show started on December 17, 1989 and so far over 677 episodes have aired in 31 seasons. As of today, the show is in its 31st season. As a full-length movie, The Simpsons Movie, was released on July 27, 2007 as a celebration of the franchise. It is aimed at the whole family.
+
+The comedy takes place in the fake (make-believe) town of Springfield, although it is speculated that this town may correspond to the real-life cities of Springfield, Oregon (a city near where Groening grew up) or Springfield, Virginia. Bart's name is an anagram of Brat. His full name is Bartholomew Jojo Simpson. This TV show has a yellow skinned cartoon family. In 2002, the production of The Simpsons had switched from cels to digital ink and paint. During that time, The Simpsons had suffering of franchise fatigue.
+
+The television show The Simpsons was originally shown as short shows on The Tracey Ullman Show. Fox then decided to give them their own show in 1989.
+
+Seasons of The Simpsons mostly have a total of 22 episodes.
+
+Many episodes begin with a scene of Springfield Elementary School, where Bart Simpson is shown writing lines on a chalkboard as punishment for being bad. For example, in one episode, Bart writes, "I will not conduct my own fire drills." The line is supposed to be humourous. Not every episode has a new one and sometimes the chalkboard gag may be cut (removed) because there is not enough time.
+
+In the opening, all the Simpsons come home after work or school. After Homer Simpson is almost or is hit by Marge's car, they all go into the living room, where something comical happens again. These are called "couch gags". On one couch gag Homer Simpson walked onto the screen like James Bond and shot the camera. Sometimes if an episode is a short one, then the couch gag will be very long. A couple of couch gags have been over one minute long. Couch gags in earlier seasons were simple but then became more interesting in later seasons.
+
+At the end of the show, the credits are shown. Sometimes they might be changed. In one episode, the ending showed Homer reading from a document about Dateline. In another episode, where all of the character sung in song, the character Snake kept firing his gun in order to make the music that was playing stop.
+
+A film based on the show, The Simpsons Movie, was released in 2007, specifically on the day that it was released. It included the character Spider Pig as Homer's new pet after rescuing him from a chain restaurant, Krusty Burger.

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+A submarine (or Sub) is a vessel that goes underwater. Most large submarines are war vessels. Some small ones are used for scientific or business purposes. These are often called "submersibles" and cannot go far or stay long away from base. Some people buy their own to explore under the sea. A submarine is actually a boat, not a ship.
+
+Early submarines were often powered by hand. This is because boat engines had not been invented yet. They were almost always made for war. Submarines would try to sink enemy ships by crude methods. These included drilling screws into their wooden hulls. Some tried to blow up a ship. This often destroyed the submarine, too. At the end of the 19th century the Whitehead torpedo and electrical systems allowed much better submarines.
+
+These better submarines were much used during the First and Second World Wars. Many of these better submarines were created by Germany, called U-boats. The submarines were powered by a diesel-electric system. A diesel motor would be used to turn a generator. The generator would charge a large battery while the submarine was on the surface. The power in the battery was then used by the submarine when it went underwater. These submarines were dangerous to enemies. They were hard to see while underwater but it was easy to attack them when they surfaced to recharge.  Many modern boats still use this diesel-electric propulsion system.
+
+The First Battle of the Atlantic was the first major battle that was mainly fought between submarines and their enemies. As in later wars, the main jobs of submarines were to enforce a blockade and to sink enemy warships. They usually attacked freighters at night, shooting with their deck guns and then hiding under the water. Sometimes they used their torpedoes, which they could fire while underwater, especially against larger ships and warships. During World War II The US Navy lost around 52 submarines due to combat and non combat causes.
+
+After World War II better sonar helped the enemies of submarines to find and destroy them. New subs were more streamlined and had no deck guns because water dragging against the guns made noise underwater and slowed the subs.
+
+Most large modern military submarines are powered by nuclear reactors. These submarines often have a system which can get air from the seawater. These two things allow them to stay under water for long periods of time. Their most important uses are attacking ships or launching missiles. These include cruise missiles and nuclear missiles. There are two main kinds of subs. Attack submarines are small and fast. They attack other subs and surface ships with torpedos. Missile subs are larger and slower. They are built to shoot missiles at far-away targets on land.

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+
+
+Tigris striatus Severtzov, 1858
+
+The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living member of the cat family, the Felidae. It feeds by hunting. It lives in Asia, mainly India, Bhutan, China, Korea and Siberian Russia.[4] Tigers are solitary animals.
+
+Tigers have orange fur with black stripes, and a white belly. The black stripes usually extend to the white underside. The stripes are used to keep them camouflaged while hunting. No two tigers have the same pattern of stripes.[5]
+
+Sometimes there are tigers with different colors. There are white tigers that have white fur with black stripes, or that even have pure white fur. They have blue or green eyes. Most Bengal tigers have orange fur. The white coat only appears once in every 10,000 births. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India.
+
+Tigers vary in size depending on their subspecies. Siberian tigers are the largest. Males can grow to at least 6 feet (1.8 metres) long (body length) and weigh about 500 lb (230 kg). Females are a bit smaller. Record weight for males is claimed as 700 lbs (318 kg), but this cannot be confirmed.
+
+Tigers can live in a variety of habitats. Mostly they need to hide, be near to a water source, and have enough prey to eat. Bengal tigers in particular live in many types of forests. These include the wet, evergreen of Assam and eastern Bengal; the swampy mangrove forest of the Ganges Delta; the deciduous forest of Nepal, and the thorn forests of the Western Ghats.
+
+As previously thought, the tiger had five living subspecies. In this context, 'recently' means in the last two centuries. Three tiger subspecies are extinct (†).
+
+However, in 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica.[6]
+
+Tigers are becoming rare, because people hunt them for their skin and destroy the habitats they live in. The Bengal tiger has the largest population with 3,500 left in the wild. To help keep the tiger population, tigers are often placed in zoos.
+
+Tigers eat many types of prey, mostly other large mammals. Some examples are deer, monkeys, wild rabbits, wild pigs, tapirs, buffalo and other animals found in Asia.[7] All tigers are carnivores (meat eaters). Some tigers may eat up to 50 pounds (23 kilograms) of meat a day. Tigers kill their prey by clamping down on the prey's throat and suffocating it.[8]

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+The stomach is part of the digestive system. It is an internal organ between the esophagus and the small intestines. The stomach is the third stage in the digestive process. It holds food after ingestion. Food in the stomach then passes through to the small intestine where most of the food's nutrition is absorbed.
+
+The stomach contains hydrochloric acid made by stomach cells. As a useful side-effect, the acid kills bacteria in the food. However, its main function is to help the protein-digesting enzymes called proteases work. In general, the food is churned, squeezed and mixed. This prepares it for digestion. The partially digested food is called chyme.
+
+The stomach acid may cause problems. It can make peptic ulcers worse. It can also cause  heartburn—pain in the chest when acid from the stomach refluxes (backs up into) the oesophagus. These can usually be treated by neutralizing the acid. Vomiting occurs when food goes back up the oesophagus and out the mouth. Vomiting can be a symptom of disease.
+
+Stomachs of other mammals work differently to human stomachs. Ruminants, for example, have a stomach with multiple compartments.
+In that system, food goes through the first part of the digestive system twice, and the work of digesting the grass is done by bacteria.
+
+Other words for stomach include belly and tummy.

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+– on the European continent  (green & grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Estonia /isˈtoʊniə/ (listen) (Estonian: Eesti), officially the Republic of Estonia (Estonian: Eesti Vabariik) is a small country in the Baltic Region of Northern Europe. The capital city is Tallinn. Estonia's neighbors are Sweden, Finland, Russia and Latvia. Its population is 1,332,893.[10]
+
+The territory of Estonia has the mainland and 2,222 islands in the Baltic Sea.[11]
+
+People have lived in Estonia since at least 9,000 BC. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the Pärnu River.
+
+Estonia became independent from Russia in 1920 after a brief War of Independence at the end of World War I. During World War II (1939–1945), Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union and Germany. It then became the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and lost its independence.
+
+Estonia had its independence restored in 1991.[12] It became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 29 March 2004. It joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.
+
+Estonia is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland with Finland on the other side, to the west by the Baltic Sea with Sweden on the other side, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia (338.6 km).[13]
+
+Average elevation reaches only 50 metres (164 ft). The country's highest point is the Suur Munamägi in the southeast at 318 metres (1,043 ft).
+
+Estonia has many forests, almost 50% of the land is covered with forests.[14] The most common tree species are pine, spruce and birch.[15] Estonia has over 1,400 lakes and over 2,000 islands. The longest rivers are Võhandu (162 km or 101 mi), Pärnu (144 km or 89 mi), and Põltsamaa (135 km or 84 mi).
+
+Mammals in Estonia include the grey wolf, lynx, brown bear, red fox, badger, wild boar, moose, red deer, roe deer, beaver, otter, grey seal, and ringed seal. The critically endangered European mink has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa. The rare Siberian flying squirrel is present in east Estonia.[16][17]
+
+Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia. These include the white-tailed eagle, lesser spotted eagle, golden eagle, western capercaillie, black and white stork, many species of owls, waders, geese and many others.[18] The Barn swallow is the national bird of Estonia.[19]
+
+Protected areas cover 18% of Estonian land and 26% of its sea territory. There are 5 national parks, 159 nature reserves, and many other protection areas.[20]
+
+The Riigikogu is the name of the parliament in Estonia.
+
+Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments. This includes 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a county, which is a state administrative unit.[21]
+
+The counties are:
+
+According to speedtest.net Estonia has one of the fastest Internet download speeds in the world with an average download speed of 27.12 Mbit/s.[22]
+
+Estonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with the song "Everybody" performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event.
+
+The Estonian National Day is the Independence Day celebrated on 24 February. This is the day the Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued. As of 2013[update], there are 12 public holidays and 12 national holidays celebrated each year.
+
+The following are links to international rankings of Estonia.
+

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+The Three Musketeers (French: Les Trois Mousquetaires) is a novel by Alexandre Dumas, père. It is the story of a young man named d'Artagnan. He leaves home to become a musketeer of the guard of King Louis XIII of France. He and his friends Athos, Porthos, and Aramis live by the motto, "One for all, and all for one" (French: Un pour tous, et tous pour un!).
+
+The story of d'Artagnan is continued in Twenty Years After and The Vicomte de Bragelonne. Those three novels by Dumas are together known as the D'Artagnan Romances.
+
+The Three Musketeers was first published in serial form in the magazine Le Siècle between March and July 1844. All the books sold well and made plenty of money for Dumas. The story was later made into several plays and movies.
+

ensimple/3397.html.txt

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+The Three Musketeers (French: Les Trois Mousquetaires) is a novel by Alexandre Dumas, père. It is the story of a young man named d'Artagnan. He leaves home to become a musketeer of the guard of King Louis XIII of France. He and his friends Athos, Porthos, and Aramis live by the motto, "One for all, and all for one" (French: Un pour tous, et tous pour un!).
+
+The story of d'Artagnan is continued in Twenty Years After and The Vicomte de Bragelonne. Those three novels by Dumas are together known as the D'Artagnan Romances.
+
+The Three Musketeers was first published in serial form in the magazine Le Siècle between March and July 1844. All the books sold well and made plenty of money for Dumas. The story was later made into several plays and movies.
+

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+Sugar[1] is the common name for a number of chemical substances, some of which have a sweet taste. Mostly, it refers to either sucrose, lactose, or fructose.[2] Sugar is contained in certain kinds of food, or it is added to give a sweet taste. Sugar is extracted from certain plants, such as sugarcane or sugar beet.
+
+Regular sugar (the one commonly added to food) is called sucrose. Fructose is the sugar that is in fruits. As chemicals, sucrose and fructose are both made by two smaller sugars. Glucose is the more common of these smaller sugars. The human body changes regular sugar into the smaller sugars.
+
+Sugars are a kind of carbohydrate. This is because sugars are made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.[3] Carbohydrates can be simple carbohydrates or complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are made of only one or a few of the smallest sugars. Complex carbohydrates are made of many of the smallest sugars.
+
+Starch is a chemical found in foods such as bread, crackers, and potatoes. It is a complex carbohydrate that is made from many glucose molecules. When starch is eaten, the human body breaks it apart into smaller sugars. An enzyme is added in the mouth, but it only begins to work in the stomach. Pure starch is actually tasteless in the mouth.
+
+Brazil produces the most sugar per person and India's total consumption of sugar is the highest for a country.[4]
+
+There are other chemical substances that can be used to produce a sweet taste, but that are not sugar. One of them, commonly called Stevia, is gained from a plant with the same name. Others, like aspartame, are completely synthetic. In general, these substances are known as artificial sweeteners, or sugar substitutes. People eat them to avoid health problems that sugar causes.
+
+Sugar can be different colours. For example, brown sugar has molasses in it, and is often used in baking.

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+A volcano is a mountain that has lava (hot, liquid rock) coming out from a magma chamber under the ground, or did have in the past. Volcanoes[1] are formed by the movement of tectonic plates.
+
+The Earth's crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates. These float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.[2] Volcanoes are often found where tectonic plates are moving apart or coming together.   
+Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, e.g., in the East African Rift.[3] Volcanoes are usually not found where two tectonic plates slide past one another.
+
+Volcanism away from plate boundaries is caused by mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are thought to arise from upwelling magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.
+
+Most volcanoes have a volcanic crater at the top. When a volcano is active, materials come out of it. The materials include lava, steam, gaseous sulfur compounds, ash and broken rock pieces.
+
+When there is enough pressure, the volcano erupts. Some volcanic eruptions blow off the top of the volcano. Sometimes, the magma comes out quickly and sometimes it comes slowly. Some eruptions come out at a side instead of the top.
+
+Volcanoes are found on planets other than Earth. An example is Olympus Mons on Mars.
+
+Volcanologists are scientists who study volcanoes using methods from geology, chemistry, geography, mineralogy, physics and sociology.
+
+The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii's 'Big Island'. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 1984. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. Mauna Loa is 4,196 meters tall. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail 51 kilometres (32 miles) long.
+
+The lava and pyroclastic material (clouds of ash, lava fragments and vapor) that comes out from volcanoes can make many different kinds of land shapes. There are two basic kinds of volcanoes.
+
+These volcanoes are formed by fluid low-silica mafic lava.
+
+Shield volcanoes are built out of layers of lava from continual eruptions (without explosions). Because the lava is so fluid, it spreads out, often over a wide area. Shield volcanoes do not grow to a great height, and the layers of lava spread out to give the volcano gently sloping sides. Shield volcanoes can produce huge areas of basalt, which is usually what lava is when cooled.
+
+The base of the volcano increases in size over successive eruptions where solidified lava spreads out and accumulates. Some of the world's largest volcanoes are shield volcanoes.
+
+Even though their sides are not very steep, shield volcanoes can be huge. Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the biggest mountain on Earth if it is measured from its base on the floor of the sea.[4]
+
+A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano,[5] is a tall, conical volcano. It is built up of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash.
+
+Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes have a steep profile and periodic eruptions. The lava that flows from stratovolcanoes cools and hardens before spreading far. It is sticky, that is, it has high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, with high-to-intermediate levels of silica, and less mafic magma. Big felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as 15 km (9.3 mi).[4][6]
+
+Two famous stratovolcanoes are Japan's Mount Fuji, and Vesuvius. Both have big bases and steep sides that get steeper and steeper as it goes near the top. Vesuvius is famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 AD, killing thousands.
+
+A caldera is a basin-like feature formed by collapse of land after a volcanic eruption. This happens after a huge stratovolcano blows its top off. The base of the crater then sinks, leaving a caldera where the top of the volcano was before. Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883, is much smaller now.[4]
+
+There are two main processes.
+
+Volcanoes are made when two tectonic plates come together. When these two plates meet, one of them (usually the oceanic plate) goes under the continental plate. This is the process of subduction. Afterwards, it melts and makes magma (inside the magma chamber), and the pressure builds up until the magma bursts through the Earth's crust.
+
+The second way is when a tectonic plate moves over a hot spot in the Earth's crust. The hot spot works its way through the crust until it breaks through. The caldera of Yellowstone Park was formed in that way; so were the Hawaiian Islands.
+
+A traditional way to classify or identify volcanoes is by its pattern of eruptions. Those volcanoes which may erupt again at any time are called active. Those that are now quiet called dormant (inactive). Those volcanoes which have not erupted in historical times are called extinct.
+
+An active volcano is currently erupting, or it has erupted in the last 10,000 years. An example of an active volcano is Mount St. Helens in the United States (US).[7]
+
+A dormant volcano is "sleeping," but it could awaken in the future. Mount Rainier in the United States is considered dormant.[7]
+
+in French dormant means en sommeil
+
+An extinct volcano has not erupted in the past 10,000 years.[7] Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is located on top of an extinct volcano.[8]
+
+The Earth's largest volcano has been discovered.[9][10] It is 2 km below the sea on an underwater plateau known as the Shatsky Rise. This is about 1,600 km east of Japan. The previous record-holder, Mauna Loa in Hawaii, is still the largest volcano on land.
+
+The 310,000 km2 (119,000 sq mi) volcano, Tamu Massif, is comparable in size to Mars' vast Olympus Mons volcano, which is the largest in the Solar System. It was formed about 145 million years ago when massive lava flows erupted from the centre of the volcano to form a broad, shield-like feature. That suggests the volcano produced a flood basalt eruption.
+
+The Tamu Massif extends some 30 km (18 miles) into the Earth's crust. The researchers doubted the submerged volcano's peak ever rose above sea level during its lifetime and say it is unlikely to erupt again.

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+Steel is iron mixed with carbon and perhaps other metals. It is harder and stronger than iron. Iron with more than 1.7% percent carbon by weight is named cast iron. Steel is different from wrought iron, which has little or no carbon.
+
+Steel has a long history. People in India and Sri Lanka were making small amounts of steel more than 2,500 years ago. It was very expensive and was often used to make swords and knives. In the Middle Ages, steel could be made only in small amounts since the processes took a long time.
+
+In the time since, there have been many changes to the way steel is made. In about the year 1610 steel started to be made in England, and the way it was made got better and cheaper over the next 100 years. Cheap steel helped start the Industrial Revolution in England and in Europe. The first industrial Converter (metallurgy) for making cheap steel was the Bessemer converter, followed by Siemens-Martin open-hearth process.
+
+Today the most common way of making steel is the basic-oxygen process.  The converter is a large turnip-shaped vessel.  Liquid raw iron called "pig iron" is poured in and some scrap metal is added in to balance the heat. Oxygen is then blown into the iron. The oxygen burns off the extra carbon and other impurities.  Then enough carbon is added to make the carbon contents as wanted. The liquid steel is then poured. It can be either cast into molds or rolled into sheets, slabs, beams and other so-called "long products", such as railway tracks. Some special steels are made in electric arc furnaces.
+
+Steel is most often made by machines in huge buildings called steel mills.  It is a very cheap metal and is used to make many things.  Steel is used in making buildings and bridges, and all kinds of machines. Almost all ships and cars are today made from steel. When a steel object is old, or it is broken beyond repair, it is called scrap. It can be melted down and re-shaped into a new object. Steel is recyclable material; that is, the same steel can be used and re-used.
+
+Steel is a metal alloy which includes iron and often some carbon.
+
+Every material is made up of atoms which are very small parts. Some atoms hold together quite well, which is what makes some solid materials hard. Something made of pure iron is softer than steel because the atoms can slip over one another. If other atoms like carbon are added, they are different from iron atoms and stop the iron atoms from sliding apart so easily. This makes the metal stronger and harder.
+
+Changing the amount of carbon (or other atoms) added to steel will change those things that are interesting and useful about the metal. These are called the properties of the steel. Some properties are:
+
+Steel with more carbon is harder and stronger than pure iron, but it also breaks more easily (brittle).
+
+There are thousands of steel types. Each type is made of different chemical elements.
+
+All steels have some elements that have a bad effect, such as phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). Steel makers take out as much P and S as possible.
+
+Plain carbon steels are made only of iron, carbon, and undesired elements.  They fall into three general groups. Plain carbon steel with 0.05 to 0.2% carbon does not harden when cooled quickly. Welding it is simple, so it is used for shipbuilding, boilers, pipes, fence wire and other purposes where low cost is important.  Plain  steels are used for springs, gears, and engine parts.  Plain carbon steel with 0.45 to 0.8% carbon is used for very hard items such as shears and machine tools.
+
+Alloy steels are plain carbon steel with metals such as Boron (B), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and cobalt (Co) added.  These give other properties than plain carbon steel.  Alloy steels are made for specialized purposes. For example, chromium can be added to make stainless steel, which does not rust easily, or boron can be added to make very hard steel that is also not brittle.
+
+There are a huge number of things that people make from steel. It is one of the most common and useful metals. 
+A lot of items made from iron in the past are now made of steel. Some of them are:

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+The Arc de Triomphe (meaning arch of victory),  at the centre of the place de l'Étoile and the western end of the Champs-Elysées, is a very famous monument in Paris.
+
+Emperor Napoléon Bonaparte commissioned it in 1806 after victory in the Battle of Austerlitz. It is a large arch, but it is not possible to drive underneath it. Jean-François Chalgrin designed it, and it has roughly 300 steps that lead to the top. It has four main sculptures and six reliefs. Just beneath the vault of the arch, there is the tomb of the unknown soldier. The names of French generals and battles are engraved on the walls.

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+The Solar System is the Sun and all the objects that orbit around it. The Sun is orbited by planets, asteroids, comets and other things.
+
+The Solar System is about 4.6 billion years old.[1] It formed by gravity in a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, and the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. It is thought that almost all stars form by this process.
+
+The Sun is a star. It contains 99.9% of the Solar System's mass.[2] This means that it has strong gravity. The other objects are pulled into orbit around the Sun. The Sun is mostly made out of hydrogen, and some helium.
+
+There are eight planets in the Solar System. From closest to farthest from the Sun, they are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The first four planets are called terrestrial planets. They are mostly made of rock and metal, and they are mostly solid.  The last four planets are called gas giants.  This is because they are much larger than other planets and are mostly made of gas.
+
+The Solar System also contains other things. There are asteroid belts, mostly between Mars and Jupiter.  Further out than Neptune, there is the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc. These areas have dwarf planets, including Pluto, MakeMake,Haumea,Ceres and Eris. There are thousands of very small objects in these areas. There are also comets, centaurs, and there is interplanetary dust.
+
+Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by moons.  Furthermore, planetary dust orbits the gas giants.  Many other systems like the Solar System have been found.  Each of the billions of stars in the Milky Way galaxy might have a planetary system.
+
+The formation and evolution of the Solar System began 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud.[3]
+
+Most of the collapsing mass collected in the centre, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk of loose dust, out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other Solar System bodies formed.
+
+This model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was developed in the 18th (1700s) century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. It has been adjusted by scientific disciplines such as astronomy, physics, geology, and planetary science. As our knowledge of space has grown, the models have been changed to account for the new observations.
+
+The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are believed to have formed and were later captured by their planets. Still others, as the Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions.
+
+Many collisions between bodies have occurred, and have been important to the evolution of the Solar System. In the early stages, the positions of the planets sometimes shifted, and planets have switched places.[4][5] This planetary migration is thought to have been responsible for much of the Solar System's early evolution.
+
+The Earth's orbit around the Sun is nearly a perfect circle, but when mapped it is found that the Earth moves around the Sun in a very slightly oval shaped orbit, called an elliptical orbit. The other planets in the Solar System also circle the Sun in slightly elliptical orbits. Mercury has a more elliptical orbit than the others, and some of the smaller objects orbit the Sun in very eccentric orbits.
+
+For thousands of years, people had no need for a name for the "Solar System". They thought the Earth stayed still at the center of everything (geocentrism). Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos suggested that there was a special order in the sky,[6] Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematical system that described what we now call the "solar system". This was called a new "system of the world". In the 17th century, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton began helping people understand physics more clearly. People began to accept the idea that the Earth is a planet and moves around the Sun, and that the planets are worlds with the same physical laws that control Earth. More recently, telescopes and space probes have led to discoveries of mountains and craters, and seasonal meteorological phenomena such as clouds, dust storms and ice caps on the other planets.
+
+In their order from the Sun:
+
+The planets are the biggest objects that go around the Sun.  It took people many years of using telescopes to find the objects that were farthest away.  New planets might still be found, and more small objects are found every year.  Most of the planets have moons that orbit around them just as the planets orbit the Sun. There are at least 173 of these moons in the solar system.
+
+Pluto had been called a planet since it was discovered in 1930, but in 2006 astronomers meeting at the International Astronomical Union decided on the definition of a planet, and Pluto did not fit.[7] Instead they defined a new category of dwarf planet, into which Pluto did fit, along with some others. These small planets are sometimes called plutinos.
+
+There are a few main parts of the Solar System. Here they are in order from the Sun, with the planets numbered, and the dwarf planets marked with the letters a - e.
+
+The first four planets closest to the Sun are called the inner planets. They are small and dense terrestrial planets, with solid surfaces. They are made up of mostly rock and metal with a distinct internal structure and a similar size. Three also have an atmosphere. The study of the four planets gives information about geology outside the Earth. Most asteroids are also often counted with the inner planets
+
+The Oort cloud is separate from the trans-Neptune region, and much farther out. It contains the long-period comets.
+
+The plane of the ecliptic is defined by the Earth's orbit around the Sun. All of the planets orbit the Sun roughly around this same orbital plane. The farther away from this plane a planet orbits, the more inclined is its orbit to the ecliptic. If you could look at the solar system "edge on" then all the planets would be orbiting more or less in the plane of the ecliptic.

ensimple/3401.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+The Solar System is the Sun and all the objects that orbit around it. The Sun is orbited by planets, asteroids, comets and other things.
+
+The Solar System is about 4.6 billion years old.[1] It formed by gravity in a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, and the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. It is thought that almost all stars form by this process.
+
+The Sun is a star. It contains 99.9% of the Solar System's mass.[2] This means that it has strong gravity. The other objects are pulled into orbit around the Sun. The Sun is mostly made out of hydrogen, and some helium.
+
+There are eight planets in the Solar System. From closest to farthest from the Sun, they are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The first four planets are called terrestrial planets. They are mostly made of rock and metal, and they are mostly solid.  The last four planets are called gas giants.  This is because they are much larger than other planets and are mostly made of gas.
+
+The Solar System also contains other things. There are asteroid belts, mostly between Mars and Jupiter.  Further out than Neptune, there is the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc. These areas have dwarf planets, including Pluto, MakeMake,Haumea,Ceres and Eris. There are thousands of very small objects in these areas. There are also comets, centaurs, and there is interplanetary dust.
+
+Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by moons.  Furthermore, planetary dust orbits the gas giants.  Many other systems like the Solar System have been found.  Each of the billions of stars in the Milky Way galaxy might have a planetary system.
+
+The formation and evolution of the Solar System began 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud.[3]
+
+Most of the collapsing mass collected in the centre, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk of loose dust, out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other Solar System bodies formed.
+
+This model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was developed in the 18th (1700s) century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. It has been adjusted by scientific disciplines such as astronomy, physics, geology, and planetary science. As our knowledge of space has grown, the models have been changed to account for the new observations.
+
+The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are believed to have formed and were later captured by their planets. Still others, as the Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions.
+
+Many collisions between bodies have occurred, and have been important to the evolution of the Solar System. In the early stages, the positions of the planets sometimes shifted, and planets have switched places.[4][5] This planetary migration is thought to have been responsible for much of the Solar System's early evolution.
+
+The Earth's orbit around the Sun is nearly a perfect circle, but when mapped it is found that the Earth moves around the Sun in a very slightly oval shaped orbit, called an elliptical orbit. The other planets in the Solar System also circle the Sun in slightly elliptical orbits. Mercury has a more elliptical orbit than the others, and some of the smaller objects orbit the Sun in very eccentric orbits.
+
+For thousands of years, people had no need for a name for the "Solar System". They thought the Earth stayed still at the center of everything (geocentrism). Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos suggested that there was a special order in the sky,[6] Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematical system that described what we now call the "solar system". This was called a new "system of the world". In the 17th century, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton began helping people understand physics more clearly. People began to accept the idea that the Earth is a planet and moves around the Sun, and that the planets are worlds with the same physical laws that control Earth. More recently, telescopes and space probes have led to discoveries of mountains and craters, and seasonal meteorological phenomena such as clouds, dust storms and ice caps on the other planets.
+
+In their order from the Sun:
+
+The planets are the biggest objects that go around the Sun.  It took people many years of using telescopes to find the objects that were farthest away.  New planets might still be found, and more small objects are found every year.  Most of the planets have moons that orbit around them just as the planets orbit the Sun. There are at least 173 of these moons in the solar system.
+
+Pluto had been called a planet since it was discovered in 1930, but in 2006 astronomers meeting at the International Astronomical Union decided on the definition of a planet, and Pluto did not fit.[7] Instead they defined a new category of dwarf planet, into which Pluto did fit, along with some others. These small planets are sometimes called plutinos.
+
+There are a few main parts of the Solar System. Here they are in order from the Sun, with the planets numbered, and the dwarf planets marked with the letters a - e.
+
+The first four planets closest to the Sun are called the inner planets. They are small and dense terrestrial planets, with solid surfaces. They are made up of mostly rock and metal with a distinct internal structure and a similar size. Three also have an atmosphere. The study of the four planets gives information about geology outside the Earth. Most asteroids are also often counted with the inner planets
+
+The Oort cloud is separate from the trans-Neptune region, and much farther out. It contains the long-period comets.
+
+The plane of the ecliptic is defined by the Earth's orbit around the Sun. All of the planets orbit the Sun roughly around this same orbital plane. The farther away from this plane a planet orbits, the more inclined is its orbit to the ecliptic. If you could look at the solar system "edge on" then all the planets would be orbiting more or less in the plane of the ecliptic.

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+Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family.
+
+Native Americans used tobacco before Europeans arrived in the Americas.  The earliest know use of tobacco comes  from  nicotine residue from a  pipe in the Southeastern United States.  It is Radiocarbon dated  at  1685-1530 BC. [2] Europeans in the Americas learned to smoke and brought it back to Europe, where it became very popular. At that time tobacco was usually smoked in a pipe.
+
+The Europeans who moved to America started to farm tobacco so that they could sell it in Europe. This became one of the main causes of the African slave trade. In 1610 a European man called John Rolfe arrived in the American state of Virginia and set up a tobacco farm which made him very rich. Rolfe was the first  non-native farmer to use nicotiana tabacum, which is the type of tobacco most commonly smoked today. He also married Pocahontas, a Native American woman who became famous when she went to live in London.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries tobacco made farmers very rich and towns quickly grew in the states of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1883 one third of United States tax money came from tobacco.
+
+In 1864 the first American tobacco factory opened to produce 20 million cigarettes annually. By 1964 the cigarette contained over 500 added chemicals. Today tobacco manufacturers are still not required by law to list the 500+ ingredients.
+
+Tobacco users (especially smokers) risk many very serious and often deadly illnesses, such as cancer, strokes, heart disease, and lung disease. The United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature (early) death worldwide". There are over 4800 chemicals in tobacco, including arsenic. Sixty-four of them are known to cause cancer. Smoking can also make men lose erections, and make their penises a bit smaller.[3]
+

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+
+
+Tigris striatus Severtzov, 1858
+
+The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living member of the cat family, the Felidae. It feeds by hunting. It lives in Asia, mainly India, Bhutan, China, Korea and Siberian Russia.[4] Tigers are solitary animals.
+
+Tigers have orange fur with black stripes, and a white belly. The black stripes usually extend to the white underside. The stripes are used to keep them camouflaged while hunting. No two tigers have the same pattern of stripes.[5]
+
+Sometimes there are tigers with different colors. There are white tigers that have white fur with black stripes, or that even have pure white fur. They have blue or green eyes. Most Bengal tigers have orange fur. The white coat only appears once in every 10,000 births. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India.
+
+Tigers vary in size depending on their subspecies. Siberian tigers are the largest. Males can grow to at least 6 feet (1.8 metres) long (body length) and weigh about 500 lb (230 kg). Females are a bit smaller. Record weight for males is claimed as 700 lbs (318 kg), but this cannot be confirmed.
+
+Tigers can live in a variety of habitats. Mostly they need to hide, be near to a water source, and have enough prey to eat. Bengal tigers in particular live in many types of forests. These include the wet, evergreen of Assam and eastern Bengal; the swampy mangrove forest of the Ganges Delta; the deciduous forest of Nepal, and the thorn forests of the Western Ghats.
+
+As previously thought, the tiger had five living subspecies. In this context, 'recently' means in the last two centuries. Three tiger subspecies are extinct (†).
+
+However, in 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica.[6]
+
+Tigers are becoming rare, because people hunt them for their skin and destroy the habitats they live in. The Bengal tiger has the largest population with 3,500 left in the wild. To help keep the tiger population, tigers are often placed in zoos.
+
+Tigers eat many types of prey, mostly other large mammals. Some examples are deer, monkeys, wild rabbits, wild pigs, tapirs, buffalo and other animals found in Asia.[7] All tigers are carnivores (meat eaters). Some tigers may eat up to 50 pounds (23 kilograms) of meat a day. Tigers kill their prey by clamping down on the prey's throat and suffocating it.[8]

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+The RMS Titanic [1] was a British passenger ship. It was built by Harland and Wolff ship builders, in Belfast, for the White Star Line company. She sank during her first trip at sea.
+
+Before she sailed, many people thought it would be almost impossible for ships of this design to sink.[2]
+
+At 11:40 PM on 14 April 1912, during the Titanic's first trip, she hit an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean. The iceberg broke the Titanic's hull (bottom), letting water into the ship. The Titanic sank two hours and forty minutes later at 2:20 AM on 15 April.
+
+As she sank, the Titanic split in two.  The wreck killed over 1,500 people.  Only around 705 people survived.[3] It was one of the worst shipwrecks that was not during a war.
+
+One reason why so many people died was that the ship did not have enough lifeboats for everyone on board. The Titanic had 20 lifeboats with room for 1,178 passengers, only a third of the number of passengers the ship could carry. It actually had more lifeboats than was needed by law (it needed 16 with room for 990 passengers). This was because the laws in the UK were out of date. They did not say that a ship needed enough lifeboats for all passengers. They only said that a ship weighing more than 10,000 tons needed 16 lifeboats (the Titanic weighed 46,000 tons). Furthermore, the White Star Line believed that the lifeboats on the Titanic would only be needed to take passengers a short distance to a rescue ship.
+
+Higher class women and children were allowed on the lifeboats first, and passengers who sailed in first class (which meant that they paid for better rooms on the ship) were allowed on before other passengers.  Few of the poorer people who had paid less (called second class and third class passengers) got out safely.
+
+Another reason so few people survived was that the radio was off on the SS Californian, the ship closest to the Titanic. The Californian crew did not hear about the accident.[4] Also,the Titanic did have flares but they were white.Back then(and still now),red meant emergency and other colors were used for identification(White=White Star Line).The Californian and other ships saw the flares but they didn't think of the flares as distress signals.[5] Another ship, the SS Carpathia, did hear about the accident and collected all 705 survivors.
+
+The last survivor of the 'Titanic disaster to die was a woman named Millvina Dean. She was the youngest passenger on board, as she was then a baby of only nine weeks old. She died in Ashhurst, Hampshire, England on 21 May 2009 aged 97.[6]
+
+The Titanic disaster changed many maritime ship laws. Because so many people died, authorities felt that laws should be put into place to make ship travel safer. Changes included requiring all ships to carry enough lifeboats for everyone on the ship, and emergency materials such as flares.  Someone must be at the ship's radio all the time.
+
+The wreck was found by a French and American team, led by Robert Ballard, on September 23, 1985 at 1:02 in the morning.
+
+In 1986, Ballard returned to the wreck with a submarine. He took many photos and made lots of films.
+
+In 1987, a French team salvaged 900 objects and took them to the surface.
+
+The story of the sinking has been made into several movies. The most popular film version is a 1997 film starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio called Titanic. It won 11 Academy Awards, tying Ben-Hur for the record for the most Academy Awards won by one movie.
+
+Other movie versions of the story include the 1958 film A Night to Remember, the 1953 film Titanic, the 1979 film S.O.S. Titanic and the 1996 movie Titanic.
+
+In the 1980 film Raise the Titanic, salvagers raise the shipwreck from the bottom of the ocean to the surface.  However, this is impossible to do in reality.  The Titanic broke in two, and the wreck is partially stuck in the bottom, buried under more than three feet (1 m) of mud in some spots.  The ship has been on the ocean floor for more than 100 years, and would shatter into many more pieces if disturbed.  Worms and other animals have eaten away much of the wood and many other parts.
+
+Media related to Titanic (ship, 1912) at Wikimedia Commons

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+Tiziano Vecellio (sometimes his last name is given as Vecelli, born around 1490,[1] in Pieve di Cadore near Belluno,  died 27 August 1576[2] in Venice) was a painter. His name in English is Titian. He was one of the leading painters of the 16th century Venetian school; he is also seen as one of the principal artists of High Renaissance painting of the 16th century. When he was alive, he was often called Da Cadore, after his place of birth.
+
+When he was active, the Republic of Venice had a Golden Age, and was well-off economically. Aged nine, Titian went to Venice. The brothers Gentile and Giovanni Bellini taught him how to paint. In 1513, he opened his own shop, and developed into a successful painter, known all over Europe. In 1533, Charles V made him a nobleman. He also obtained a job as a painter at the court of Charles V.  In 1545, Pope Paul III invited him to come to Rome, in 1548 and 1550, Titian accompanied Charles V and his son, Philip II to the Diet of Augsburg. When Titian died of the Plague in the year 1576, he was an old man. He was also one of the most famous painters of Venetian history.
+
+Titian was very productive: in total, he painted 676 works. He did portraits, landscapes, as well as themes from mythology and religious works. All his works are very colorful. This special use of color influenced other painters of the same period a great deal. His works influenced painters such as Peter Paul Rubens, Antoine Watteau and Eugène Delacroix.
+
+A self-portrait, done around 1510. For a long time, it was attributed to  Ariosto. Rembrandt  also used this composition for his self-portraits.
+
+Salome, or Judith; this also shows an idealized portrait of beauty, which Titian developed. Titian often used Venetian courtesans as models.
+
+This painting, called Danaë with Nursemaid is one of several he did with a mythological theme, for Philip II of Spain. It shows how well he could handle colour.  Even though Michelangelo thought the drawing was lacking, Titian produced several versions for other patrons.
+
+The Rape of Europa (1562) was admired and copied by Rubens. In contrast to the clarity of Titian's early works, it is almost baroque in its blurred lines, swirling colors, and vibrant brushstrokes.

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+A train is a set of cars on a railway. The vehicles that carry freight or are called cars (in the United States) or wagons (in the United Kingdom). The ones that carry passengers are often called coaches or carriages. A place where a train stops to let people get on and off is called a Train station or railway station. Early trains used horse power and ran on wooden or iron tracks. These were used in the Middle Ages. The first steam trains were built in England in the early 19th century. Long before railways, "train" meant any group of vehicles or pack animals traveling in a line, as in wagon train or camel train.
+
+Trains contain the prime mover (either locomotive or motor unit) and one or more cars. The locomotive or railway engine (usually the first car of the train) pulls the cars along the track. The last car you will see on a train is called the caboose. Some trains look like a special bus that can only drive on rails. Trains are used to carry people, as well as cargo, such as raw material,finished goods, and waste.
+
+Freight trains have freight cars (US) or goods wagons (UK) to carry goods from one place to another. Some are boxcars (closed and roofed cars for cargo); others are special so they can carry special cargo. There are hopper cars for sand, coal, ore and other granulous (sand-like) materials, flatbed cars for vehicles and machinery, tank cars for liquids, container cars for containers and even bottle cars for molten iron. Almost anything which is not too large to fit under tunnels and bridges can be transported on special freight cars.
+
+Passenger trains have passenger cars (US) or coaches (UK) made so people can ride them from one train station to another. There are few long-distance passenger trains in the United States, but more in Europe and Asia. Most passenger cars are single-deckers: there are also double-decker passenger cars, such as the Finnish Inter-City cars.
+
+Passenger trains are usually a very comfortable way of traveling. Many trains have electrical outlets and Wi-Fi hotspots for computers, and a special restaurant car for dining and refreshments. There are also sleeping cars (passenger cars with beds) for long overnight voyages.
+
+High-speed rail uses special, fast passenger trains on special tracks.  A few very fast ones are maglev trains using magnets to hover slightly off the tracks to have less friction.
+
+Most trains are pulled by locomotives. Before 1900, almost all were steam locomotives. As this kind of steam engine uses very much fuel for the work it does, steam began to give way to diesel locomotives and electric locomotives during the 1930s.  Today, most locomotives are diesel-electric locomotives.
+
+Sometimes a train has no separate locomotive, but the prime mover (diesel engine or electric motor) is located on the first car of the train itself, and the car has engineer's cabin. The car is called a "motor unit".   Some trains have motors in many or all of the cars. This is called a diesel multiple unit or electric multiple unit.  Usually, both ends of the train have engineer's cabins.  These trains are especially popular in commuter traffic in large towns and cities. Electric trains get their power from a third rail or from overhead wires.

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Latvia is a country in Northern Europe. The capital is Riga. It is one of the Baltic States, together with Estonia in the north and Lithuania in the south. Latvia's neighbours to the east are the countries Russia and Belarus. Latvia is split into four parts called Kurzeme, Vidzeme, Zemgale, and Latgale.
+
+People from Latvia are called Latvians. They speak the Latvian language, which is a little like the Lithuanian language, though not close enough to be understood.
+
+Latvia was settled by the Baltic tribes thousands of years ago. They mainly fished, hunted, and traded.
+
+German traders and crusaders came to Latvia at the end of the 12th century. Latvians lost control of their homeland. Over the next 800 years, Germans, Danes, Swedes, Poles, and Russians all invaded Latvia. Latvia finally became independent in 1918.
+
+The Soviet Union invaded Latvia during World War II and killed or took away many of its people to Siberia and other places far away from their homes.  The Soviet Union then invaded again and occupied Latvia until 1991, when the Soviet Union fell apart and Latvia became an independent country again.
+
+In Copenhagen on 13 December 2002, Latvia and nine other countries were invited to join the European Union. On 20 September 2003, Latvians held an election to vote on joining. Two thirds of Latvians voted to join, and on 1 May 2004 Latvia became a member of the EU.
+
+Latvia has been a NATO member since 29 March, 2004.

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+The digestive system is the parts of the body that  digest food; it is also called the gastrointestinal system. It breaks down food into simple chemicals that can be  absorbed into the blood stream. From the blood stream, nutrients go first to the liver, which is a kind of chemical factory for the body. The liver adjusts the nutrients so that the mix is what the body needs. The digestive system consists of Hydrochloric acid It is very reactive. It has a pH level of 1. To protect it the stomach has a protective layering called as the mucus.
+
+The digestive system also gets rid of waste material. The gastrointestinal system starts at the lips and ends at the anus. Animals like worms, insects, mammals, birds, fish, and people all have digestive systems.
+
+The gastrointestinal tract is not only the gut, but also other organs that help us digest food. For example, digestive enzymes are needed to help us absorb carbohydrates and meat.
+
+The parts of the human, and many other animals, digestive system are:
+
+Other organs that are part of the gastrointestinal system but are not part of the gut are:
+
+Food does not go through these organs. But they help the gut digest the food. They also have other work. For example, the pancreas, thyroid, liver, and parathyroids are also endocrine glands that make hormones like insulin.
+
+There are many diseases that affect the gastrointestinal system. Doctors who study the gastrointestinal tract are called gastroenterologists.

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+The job of white blood cells (also called leukocytes) is to fight infections and cancer. They also remove poison, waste and damaged cells from the body.[1][2]
+
+The number of white blood cells increases when a person is fighting infection or disease and decrease when a person is healthy.
+
+Lymphocytes are round white blood cells a bit bigger than a red blood cell. Their center is round and they have little cytoplasm. Part of the lymphatic system, these target specific germs or poisons using their antibodies. There are three known types of lymphocytes, called T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells).
+
+B-cells make antibodies, which are little molecules that attach to viruses or bad cells. These tell other cells to destroy the viruses or bad cells, like a flag.
+
+T-cells can either help make more B-cells, or kill cells with antibodies.[1]
+
+Natural killer cells kill cells in the body that have been infected by a virus or that are part of a tumor. They are part of the innate immune system.
+
+Monocytes are reserve cells which turn into macrophages and dendritic cells, which work together in tissues to fight disease. Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped center and lots of cytoplasm. They may appear as macrophages in a non-round shape when they pass through tissue to eat germs, "junk" cells, and dead cells.
+
+The next three types of white blood cells are referred to as granulocytes since they all contain rough, grain-like particles that assist in attacking viruses and bacteria. Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the shape of the nucleus, which has three segments.
+
+Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals, 70% of leukocytes. They are an essential part of the immune system. They get to the site of an injury within minutes, and make up much of the content of pus. They have a short life-span of a couple of days.
+
+The nucleus, which looks like a string of beads, does not take up stain strongly. Like phagocytes, they actually eat the bacteria and dead cells. They also release a bunch of proteins which work to damage the bacteria.
+
+Basophils, or basophil granulocytes, are rare granulocytes. If you collected 1000 white blood cells, only 1–3 of them would be basophils. Their nucleus is hidden by granules which turn dark blue in color when stained. Basophils carry histamine and heparin. They appear at the sites of ectoparasite infection, or allergies. We don't know exactly how they work.[1]
+
+Eosinophils, or acidophils, are leukocytes. They are one of the immune system components which combat parasites and certain infections. As with mast cells and basophils, they part causes of allergy and asthma. Eosinophils are round cells with a lobed nucleus and granules which turn red when stained. These granules are packed with proteins that can be poured out to help destroy invaders.
+
+A test called a differential count shows how many white blood cells there are in a person's blood, and how many of each type are there.

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+A rainbow is an arc of colour in the sky that can be seen when the sun shines through falling rain. The pattern of colours start with red on the outside and changes through orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet on the inside. Sometimes a second, larger, dimmer rainbow is seen.
+
+A rainbow is created when white light is bent (refracted) while entering a droplet of water, split into separate colours, and reflected back. A rainbow is actually round like a circle. On the ground, the bottom part is hidden, but in the sky, like from a flying airplane, it can be seen as a circle around the point opposite the Sun.
+
+Rainbows often appear after storms, and are popular symbols for peace in many cultures.
+
+The rainbow effect can be seen when there are water drops in the air and the sun is giving light at the back of the observer at a low distance up or angle.
+Rainbows always appear opposite the Sun: they form circles around the shadow of your head (which is the point opposite the Sun).
+
+While sunlight is white, all white light is actually a blend of many different colours. Water and other materials bend the different colours at different angles, some more strongly than others. This is called dispersion. By splitting up white light into its separate colours, rainbows appear colourful even though the source of light hitting them is white.
+
+The rainbow displays with the deepest effect in our minds take place when:
+
+Another common place to see the rainbow effect is near waterfalls. Parts of rainbows can be seen some of the time:
+
+An unnatural rainbow effect can also be made by spraying drops of water into the air on a sunny day.
+
+The rainbow has no definite number of physical colours but seven are traditionally listed, below is listed a 7 color adoption. Computer screens cannot show them precisely but can approximate them:
+

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+The job of white blood cells (also called leukocytes) is to fight infections and cancer. They also remove poison, waste and damaged cells from the body.[1][2]
+
+The number of white blood cells increases when a person is fighting infection or disease and decrease when a person is healthy.
+
+Lymphocytes are round white blood cells a bit bigger than a red blood cell. Their center is round and they have little cytoplasm. Part of the lymphatic system, these target specific germs or poisons using their antibodies. There are three known types of lymphocytes, called T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells).
+
+B-cells make antibodies, which are little molecules that attach to viruses or bad cells. These tell other cells to destroy the viruses or bad cells, like a flag.
+
+T-cells can either help make more B-cells, or kill cells with antibodies.[1]
+
+Natural killer cells kill cells in the body that have been infected by a virus or that are part of a tumor. They are part of the innate immune system.
+
+Monocytes are reserve cells which turn into macrophages and dendritic cells, which work together in tissues to fight disease. Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped center and lots of cytoplasm. They may appear as macrophages in a non-round shape when they pass through tissue to eat germs, "junk" cells, and dead cells.
+
+The next three types of white blood cells are referred to as granulocytes since they all contain rough, grain-like particles that assist in attacking viruses and bacteria. Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the shape of the nucleus, which has three segments.
+
+Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals, 70% of leukocytes. They are an essential part of the immune system. They get to the site of an injury within minutes, and make up much of the content of pus. They have a short life-span of a couple of days.
+
+The nucleus, which looks like a string of beads, does not take up stain strongly. Like phagocytes, they actually eat the bacteria and dead cells. They also release a bunch of proteins which work to damage the bacteria.
+
+Basophils, or basophil granulocytes, are rare granulocytes. If you collected 1000 white blood cells, only 1–3 of them would be basophils. Their nucleus is hidden by granules which turn dark blue in color when stained. Basophils carry histamine and heparin. They appear at the sites of ectoparasite infection, or allergies. We don't know exactly how they work.[1]
+
+Eosinophils, or acidophils, are leukocytes. They are one of the immune system components which combat parasites and certain infections. As with mast cells and basophils, they part causes of allergy and asthma. Eosinophils are round cells with a lobed nucleus and granules which turn red when stained. These granules are packed with proteins that can be poured out to help destroy invaders.
+
+A test called a differential count shows how many white blood cells there are in a person's blood, and how many of each type are there.

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+Europe is the western part of the continent of Eurasia, sometimes thought of as its own continent. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia and the Bosporus strait in Turkey.
+
+Europe is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the Atlantic Ocean. To the north is the Arctic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea separates Southeastern Europe from Africa. On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and Ural Mountains.
+
+There are at least 43 countries in Europe (the European identity of Cyprus, Georgia, Turkey and Russia are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the European Union.
+
+Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometers (3,930,000 square miles). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area).
+
+As of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe.[1]
+
+Europe makes 44% of the world's wine.
+
+Europe contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is Mount Etna that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent.
+
+Europe is a major tourist attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many World Heritage Sites and other attractions.
+
+Europe is named after a princess in Greek mythology called "Europa." The myth says that Zeus kidnapped Europa and took her to Crete, where she became the mother of King Minos (from whom Europe’s first civilization gets its name, the Minoans).
+
+The name "Europa" was later used to describe Greece. Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and empires, the entire area West of the Ural Mountains came to be called "Europa".
+
+The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. Greek mythology and the beginning of western civilization came from European nations.
+
+Some of the major periods in European history have been:
+
+Andreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different cultures live closely together, "embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances".[2]
+
+There are several major regions of Europe:
+
+Within these regions, there are up to 47 independent European countries (with the identities of 4 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe.
+
+The European city with the largest population is Istanbul. The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia.
+
+Two European countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, are on islands called the British Isles.
+
+Most of Europe lies in temperate climate zones.
+
+However, there are many different climates throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees Celsius for 4–5 months in Finland. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in Spain.
+
+The European Union is a confederation of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Nineteen of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
+
+Africa
+
+Antarctica
+
+Asia
+
+Australia
+
+Europe
+
+North America
+
+South America
+
+Afro-Eurasia
+
+Americas
+
+Eurasia
+
+Oceania
+

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+A bicycle (or bike) is a small, human powered land vehicle with a seat, two wheels, two pedals, and a metal chain connected to cogs on the pedals and rear wheel. A frame gives the bike strength, and the other parts are attached to the frame. The name comes from these two words - the prefix "bi-" meaning two, and the suffix "-cycle" meaning wheel. It is powered by a person riding on top, who pushes the pedals around with his or her feet.
+
+Riding bicycles, which is also called cycling, is an important way to travel in several parts of the world. The most popular type of cycling is Utility cycling.  It is also a common recreation, a good form of low-impact exercise, and a popular sport. Road bicycle racing is the second most popular spectator sport in the world.
+Bicycling uses less energy per mile than any other human transport.[1]
+
+In 1817 a German professor, Baron Karl von Drais, created the first two-wheeled bicycle. It was made of wood and had two wheels. The front wheel could be turned using the handlebars in order to steer the bike. However, it did not have pedals, so the rider would have to push their feet on the ground to make it move.
+
+In the 1860s, French inventors added pedals to the front wheel. However, it took a lot of effort to turn the pedals. Later inventors made bikes out of metal only, and made the front wheel very big, giving higher speed. This design was called the penny-farthing bicycle. However, it was difficult to ride, since it could fall easily and the rider would fall far.
+
+Several improvements were made in the 1880s and '90s. In 1885, the safety bicycle was invented. This had two wheels the same size so that the rider could sit at a lower height. It was called the safety bicycle because it much easier to ride than the penny-farthing. When stopping, the rider can simply put down a foot instead of completely dismounting.  Instead of pedaling and steering with the front wheel, the safety bicycle steers with the front wheel while the pedals turn the back wheel using a chain. Brakes operated by hand levers on some bikes also increased safety.
+
+In 1888, Scottish inventor John Boyd Dunlop re-invented a type of tire which was filled with air. This made safety bicycles more comfortable. Soon, the freewheel was invented. This was a device inside the hub of the back wheel that allowed the wheel to spin even if the rider wasn't pedaling.  However, this meant the rider could no longer stop the bike by backpedaling.  As a result, better hand brakes were invented, and a different type of brake which could stop the bike if the pedals were turned backwards.  Later inventions included better brakes, and gears which made cycling over hills much easier. During this time the bicycle became very popular.
+
+Basic components common to most bikes include a seat, pedals, gearing, handlebar, wheels, and brakes, all mounted on a frame. The majority also have a gear shifter. The cyclist's feet push the pedals to make them go around in circles, which moves the chain, which turns the back wheel of the bike to make the bike move forwards. The front wheel is connected to the handlebar, so turning the handlebar from side to side swivels the front wheel which steers the bike.
+
+When riding on streets, it is safest to ride on the same side of the street that cars drive (which would mean riding on the right side of the road in countries where people drive on the right side of the road, and riding on the left in countries where people drive on the left).  To avoid hitting people, riders must obey signs that say "no bicycling", even if it does not seem to make sense at the time.  Low light makes bicycle lighting important. It may not be safe to ride when it is dark. Riders wear reflective clothing to be safer in low light.  Wearing a helmet makes bicycle riding safer. More than 300,000 people children alone to go to a hospital every year because they were hurt riding a bicycle.[3] Wearing a helmet does not mean that somebody cannot be hurt if they crash their bicycle, but it makes being hurt less likely.[4] Some bicycles have bells or horns that the rider can use to warn other people that they are riding by them.
+
+Many places have a bicycle path linking houses with shops, schools and stations.  These make bicycling safer, letting cyclists stay away from busy motor traffic on dangerous roads.

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+The violin is a string instrument which has four strings and is played with a bow.[1] The strings are usually tuned to the notes G, D, A, and E.[2]  It is held between the left collar bone (near the shoulder) and the chin. Different notes are made by fingering (pressing on the strings) with the left hand while bowing with the right. Unlike guitar, it has no frets or other markers on the fingerboard.
+
+The violin is the smallest and highest pitched string instrument typically used in western music.[3] A person who plays the violin is called a violinist. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier.
+
+The violin is important in European and Arabian music. No other instrument has played such an important part in Europe. The modern violin is about 400 years old. Similar string instruments have been around for almost 1000 years. By the time the modern orchestras started to form in the 17th century, the violin was nearly fully developed. It became the most important orchestral instrument - in fact, nearly half of the instruments in the orchestra is made up of violins, which are divided into two parts: "first violins" and "second violins". Nearly every composer wrote for the violin, whether as a solo instrument, in chamber music, in orchestral music, folk music, and even in jazz.
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+The violin is sometimes called a “fiddle”.  Someone who plays it is a “fiddler”. To "fiddle" means "to play the fiddle". This word can be used as a nickname for the violin. It is properly used when talking about folk music.
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+The word “violin” is related to the word “viol”. The violin was not made directly from the instruments called viols. The word violin comes from the Middle Latin word vitula. It means stringed instrument.[4] This word is also believed to be the source of the Germanic “fiddle”.[5] The modern European violin changed over time from many different bowed stringed instruments. They were brought from the Middle East[6] and the Byzantine Empire.[7][8]  Most likely, the first makers of violins took ideas from three kinds of current instruments. They are the rebec, in use since the 10th century,[9] the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio.[10] These instruments were held under the chin and bowed.
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+In the 17th century, there were several families of luthiers who were very good at making instruments. The most famous violin makers were Stradivarius, Amati, and Guarneri.  Some of the instruments that these luthiers made are still here today. They are kept in museums all around the world. They are some of the best instruments in existence.[11] They can have prices over one million dollars.[12]
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+The biggest part of the violin is the wooden body. This acts as a resonating box. It makes the vibrating strings sound louder. Many of the parts of the violin are named after parts of the body. The front is called the “belly”. The back is called the “back”. The sides are the “ribs”. The strings go from near the top of the “neck” down the “fingerboard” and on to the “tail piece”. The strings go across the bridge halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the tailpiece. The bridge is not fixed onto the violin. It is held in place by the strings. The strings keep it in place because they are so tight. If the strings are completely loosened, the bridge will not stay on. The bridge helps to send the vibrations of the strings down to the body of the instrument. Inside the body there is a “soundpost”. This is a small piece of wood. It looks like a small finger. It goes from the belly to the back. The soundpost is also held in place by the strings. In the middle of the belly there are two long, curved holes. They are called “f holes”. This is because of their shape. The top of the strings are wound around pegs.  The violin can be tuned by turning the pegs. The very top of the neck is called the scroll. Violins today also have a chinrest. This helps to hold the violin against the player's shoulder. A shoulder rest can also be used. These are now made of foam. They have special legs to hold them on to the violin.  Many beginners prefer to use a sponge and an elastic band instead.
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+To make it easier to tune the violin, many people find it helpful to have “adjusters” for “fine tuning” when the string is only slightly out of tune.  These adjusters go through holes in the tailpiece.  They stop the strings from slipping when being tuned.
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+Strings used to be made of gut. They are now mostly made of steel or nylon. Adjusters can only be used with some strings. The front of the violin body is made of spruce. The back and sides of the body are made of maple. The bow can be made of several kinds of wood. An example would be pernambuco. Some players today use bows made of carbon fibre. The bow is strung with horsehair (horsehair is hair that comes from the back of the horse's head also known as the mane or from the horse's tail).
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+It takes years of practice to become a good violinist.  A beginner will start with pieces and or exercises that do not require precise or complicated technique in right or left hand.  Some examples of pieces that do not require great technique are Twinkle Twinkle Little Star by Mozart, Children's Song (A German folk tune), and Over the Rainbow.  During these "simple" songs, the violinist will develop fundamental skills necessary for all other techniques, such as proper bow and violin holding.  As the musician develops more and more confidence and skill in both left and right hand, pieces and exercises will become progressively more difficult.  When necessary, they will also learn techniques and skills that will enhance their playing.  Vibrato, smooth bow changes in the right hand, and shifting.
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+The violinist has to learn to put the fingers in exactly the right place so that the music is “in tune”. This is called intonation. The musician will also learn vibrato. This changes the intonation of each note slightly by making it a little bit sharper (higher), then a little bit flatter (lower), producing a kind of wobble. This is important in many styles of music to create mood.
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+Besides plucking (pizzicato), there are many special effects. Some of them are glissando, portamento, and harmonics. There is also double stopping, chords, and scordatura tuning.
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+The violin can be played either standing or sitting down. When playing solo music the violinist normally stands. When playing in chamber music or in orchestras the violinist sits, but this was not always the case. When sitting, the violinist may have to turn his or her right leg in so that it does not get in the way of the bow.
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+In the 17th and 18th centuries, composers wrote a lot of music for solo violin. Many of these composers were from Italy. They were themselves violinists. Some of these violinists are Corelli, Vitali, Vivaldi, Veracini, Geminiani, Locatelli and Tartini.
+In Germany, Schmelzer and Biber wrote some very virtuoso violin music. Later, in the early 18th century, Bach and Handel wrote many masterpieces for the violin.
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+In the Classical music period, the great composers Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote solo works for the violin. They also wrote a large amount of chamber music, especially string quartets.
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+In the Romantic period many virtuoso violin works were written. These include concertos by Mendelssohn, Saint-Saëns, Brahms, Bruch, Wieniawski, Tchaikovsky, and Dvořák. In the 20th century, many virtuoso works were written. These include Elgar, Sibelius, Szymanowski, Bartók, Stravinsky, Berg, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Hindemith, and Penderecki. In the 19th century, Niccolò Paganini was the most famous violinist. He composed and played violin music that was harder than anything that had been written before. People compared him to the devil because he could play so brilliantly and because he looked thin and moved his body about in strange ways.[13]
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+In recent years the violin has also been used in jazz playing. Stéphane Grappelli was especially famous for this.
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+Some of the most famous violinists of the last century are Fritz Kreisler, Jascha Heifetz, David Oistrakh, Yehudi Menuhin, Ida Haendel, and Isaac Stern. Today some of the greatest players include Itzhak Perlman, Maxim Vengerov, Vadim Repin, Nigel Kennedy, Hilary Hahn, Joshua Bell and fiddler Sara Watkins.
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+Ascomycota (sac fungi)
+
+Yeast are microorganisms. They are single-celled fungi. There are about 1,500 different species of yeast. Most reproduce asexually, by budding. Some use binary fission to reproduce asexually.
+
+A particular species of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been used for a very long time. It is used for baking bread. It is also used in fermentation to make ethanol. This method makes many drinks, such as beer or wine.  Ethanol is also used as fuel and to make other organic chemicals.
+
+Yeast can be used to make electricity.  Yeast is also a model organism for studying cell biology. Some yeasts can cause infections in humans (they are  pathogens).
+
+A block of fresh yeast
+
+Dry yeast (usually, yeast is sold like this)
+
+Media related to Yeast at Wikimedia Commons
+
+zygomycota: Zygomycosis
+