4d5373fea0b55e3fcc244aae4d20f1d044a0a1e20571aaa286cbb0835f26603d

ensimple/5710.html.txt

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+Timothy Walter "Tim" Burton (born August 25, 1958) is an American movie director producer screenwriter and artist.
+
+He was born in Burbank, California on August 25, 1958. His father is of Dutch, English, French, German and Scottish descent and His mother is of Croatian, German, Norwegian and Swedish descent. He began as an animator for Walt Disney Pictures, but soon moved on making his own kinds of movies and projects.
+
+He has an individual style; the movies that he makes are creative and often based on events that would not happen in real life. For example, the main character in "Edward Scissorhands" is a young man who has scissors instead of hands. His movies attract an audience usually that fits his unique tastes.
+
+Burton has bipolar disorder.[1] He lives in Belsize Park, London, next door to his former partner Helena Bonham Carter. Burton and Carter split in December 2014. The houses have a door connecting them. The couple have a son and daughter together.

ensimple/5711.html.txt

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+The Democratic Republic of East Timor or Timor Leste is a country in Southeast Asia. It is on the eastern side of the island of Timor. It also includes the smaller islands of Atauro and Jaco Island, and a small area, named Oecusse, inside the west side of Timor. Oecusse is an exclave, which means it is separated from the main part of the country by part of another country. That other country is Indonesia.
+
+The capital and largest city, Dili, is home to one hundred and fifty thousand people. The next largest city is Baucau. (see List of settlements in East Timor).
+
+East Timor gets its name from the Malay word for "east", timur.
+
+It is a member of the United Nations the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.
+
+For a long time, Portugal controlled the East Timor and called it the Colony of Portuguese Timor. In 1975, the Portuguese army left, and East Timor was invaded (taken over) by the Indonesian army in 1975. The invasion was very violent. The army stayed there until 1999, when they gave up control of the territory with the help of the United Nations.
+
+At the time, the United States government said it did not know Indonesia was going to invade East Timor. But secret documents, released from 2002 to 2005, show that Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State of the United States, did know, and supported the invasion.
+
+When it got its independence on 20 May 2002, it became the first country to become independent in the twenty-first century (since the year 2001). In 2006, when Montenegro became independent, East Timor was no longer the newest one.
+
+Since then, East Timor has not been given much attention in the news. Recently, the Colombian music artist Shakira made a song named "Timor", which talks about the country. The attention is because there has been fighting in East Timor between gangs (groups of criminals with guns), security forces (the country's army). Australia, a large nearby country, sent troops in to make peace.
+
+East Timor is a small country located between Australia and Indonesia, 3,000 years ago, East Timor was a mountainous island composed of migrant indigenous people from New Guinea, Australia and Melanesia.
+
+There were some migrants from Austronesia searching for a new life on this island. Some of the people arrived from South China and North Indochina looking for trade because East Timor had resources which could be exported, like sandalwood, honey, slaves and wax.
+
+During the Second World War, the Japanese occupied the region, encountered strong resistance to their attempts to force the population to grow foods for their troops and export. At the time 30% of the population died.
+
+On 25 April  1974, the Portuguese Armed Forces headed by General António de Spínola organized a Military Coup against Salazar’s regime called the Revolution of Carnations. After this revolution, Portugal decided to give freedom to the colonized countries.
+
+East Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait, and the greater Banda Sea. To the south the Timor Sea separates the island from Australia.
+
+The country has many mountains. Its highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft).[6] The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid.
+
+The Nino Konis Santana National Park is on the eastern tip of the island. The park includes coral reefs, coastal area, and mountains.[7]
+
+East Timor is divided into 13 municipalites. These were formerly named districts. The municipalities are divided into administrative posts (former subdistricts), and further subdivided into sucos.[8] The 13 municipalities are:
+
+Canoes on shore at Dili
+
+Mount Tatamailau
+
+Coral reef near Dili
+
+Man playing a karau dikur

ensimple/5712.html.txt

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+The Democratic Republic of East Timor or Timor Leste is a country in Southeast Asia. It is on the eastern side of the island of Timor. It also includes the smaller islands of Atauro and Jaco Island, and a small area, named Oecusse, inside the west side of Timor. Oecusse is an exclave, which means it is separated from the main part of the country by part of another country. That other country is Indonesia.
+
+The capital and largest city, Dili, is home to one hundred and fifty thousand people. The next largest city is Baucau. (see List of settlements in East Timor).
+
+East Timor gets its name from the Malay word for "east", timur.
+
+It is a member of the United Nations the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.
+
+For a long time, Portugal controlled the East Timor and called it the Colony of Portuguese Timor. In 1975, the Portuguese army left, and East Timor was invaded (taken over) by the Indonesian army in 1975. The invasion was very violent. The army stayed there until 1999, when they gave up control of the territory with the help of the United Nations.
+
+At the time, the United States government said it did not know Indonesia was going to invade East Timor. But secret documents, released from 2002 to 2005, show that Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State of the United States, did know, and supported the invasion.
+
+When it got its independence on 20 May 2002, it became the first country to become independent in the twenty-first century (since the year 2001). In 2006, when Montenegro became independent, East Timor was no longer the newest one.
+
+Since then, East Timor has not been given much attention in the news. Recently, the Colombian music artist Shakira made a song named "Timor", which talks about the country. The attention is because there has been fighting in East Timor between gangs (groups of criminals with guns), security forces (the country's army). Australia, a large nearby country, sent troops in to make peace.
+
+East Timor is a small country located between Australia and Indonesia, 3,000 years ago, East Timor was a mountainous island composed of migrant indigenous people from New Guinea, Australia and Melanesia.
+
+There were some migrants from Austronesia searching for a new life on this island. Some of the people arrived from South China and North Indochina looking for trade because East Timor had resources which could be exported, like sandalwood, honey, slaves and wax.
+
+During the Second World War, the Japanese occupied the region, encountered strong resistance to their attempts to force the population to grow foods for their troops and export. At the time 30% of the population died.
+
+On 25 April  1974, the Portuguese Armed Forces headed by General António de Spínola organized a Military Coup against Salazar’s regime called the Revolution of Carnations. After this revolution, Portugal decided to give freedom to the colonized countries.
+
+East Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait, and the greater Banda Sea. To the south the Timor Sea separates the island from Australia.
+
+The country has many mountains. Its highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft).[6] The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid.
+
+The Nino Konis Santana National Park is on the eastern tip of the island. The park includes coral reefs, coastal area, and mountains.[7]
+
+East Timor is divided into 13 municipalites. These were formerly named districts. The municipalities are divided into administrative posts (former subdistricts), and further subdivided into sucos.[8] The 13 municipalities are:
+
+Canoes on shore at Dili
+
+Mount Tatamailau
+
+Coral reef near Dili
+
+Man playing a karau dikur

ensimple/5713.html.txt

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+The Democratic Republic of East Timor or Timor Leste is a country in Southeast Asia. It is on the eastern side of the island of Timor. It also includes the smaller islands of Atauro and Jaco Island, and a small area, named Oecusse, inside the west side of Timor. Oecusse is an exclave, which means it is separated from the main part of the country by part of another country. That other country is Indonesia.
+
+The capital and largest city, Dili, is home to one hundred and fifty thousand people. The next largest city is Baucau. (see List of settlements in East Timor).
+
+East Timor gets its name from the Malay word for "east", timur.
+
+It is a member of the United Nations the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.
+
+For a long time, Portugal controlled the East Timor and called it the Colony of Portuguese Timor. In 1975, the Portuguese army left, and East Timor was invaded (taken over) by the Indonesian army in 1975. The invasion was very violent. The army stayed there until 1999, when they gave up control of the territory with the help of the United Nations.
+
+At the time, the United States government said it did not know Indonesia was going to invade East Timor. But secret documents, released from 2002 to 2005, show that Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State of the United States, did know, and supported the invasion.
+
+When it got its independence on 20 May 2002, it became the first country to become independent in the twenty-first century (since the year 2001). In 2006, when Montenegro became independent, East Timor was no longer the newest one.
+
+Since then, East Timor has not been given much attention in the news. Recently, the Colombian music artist Shakira made a song named "Timor", which talks about the country. The attention is because there has been fighting in East Timor between gangs (groups of criminals with guns), security forces (the country's army). Australia, a large nearby country, sent troops in to make peace.
+
+East Timor is a small country located between Australia and Indonesia, 3,000 years ago, East Timor was a mountainous island composed of migrant indigenous people from New Guinea, Australia and Melanesia.
+
+There were some migrants from Austronesia searching for a new life on this island. Some of the people arrived from South China and North Indochina looking for trade because East Timor had resources which could be exported, like sandalwood, honey, slaves and wax.
+
+During the Second World War, the Japanese occupied the region, encountered strong resistance to their attempts to force the population to grow foods for their troops and export. At the time 30% of the population died.
+
+On 25 April  1974, the Portuguese Armed Forces headed by General António de Spínola organized a Military Coup against Salazar’s regime called the Revolution of Carnations. After this revolution, Portugal decided to give freedom to the colonized countries.
+
+East Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait, and the greater Banda Sea. To the south the Timor Sea separates the island from Australia.
+
+The country has many mountains. Its highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft).[6] The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid.
+
+The Nino Konis Santana National Park is on the eastern tip of the island. The park includes coral reefs, coastal area, and mountains.[7]
+
+East Timor is divided into 13 municipalites. These were formerly named districts. The municipalities are divided into administrative posts (former subdistricts), and further subdivided into sucos.[8] The 13 municipalities are:
+
+Canoes on shore at Dili
+
+Mount Tatamailau
+
+Coral reef near Dili
+
+Man playing a karau dikur

ensimple/5714.html.txt

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+The RMS Titanic [1] was a British passenger ship. It was built by Harland and Wolff ship builders, in Belfast, for the White Star Line company. She sank during her first trip at sea.
+
+Before she sailed, many people thought it would be almost impossible for ships of this design to sink.[2]
+
+At 11:40 PM on 14 April 1912, during the Titanic's first trip, she hit an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean. The iceberg broke the Titanic's hull (bottom), letting water into the ship. The Titanic sank two hours and forty minutes later at 2:20 AM on 15 April.
+
+As she sank, the Titanic split in two.  The wreck killed over 1,500 people.  Only around 705 people survived.[3] It was one of the worst shipwrecks that was not during a war.
+
+One reason why so many people died was that the ship did not have enough lifeboats for everyone on board. The Titanic had 20 lifeboats with room for 1,178 passengers, only a third of the number of passengers the ship could carry. It actually had more lifeboats than was needed by law (it needed 16 with room for 990 passengers). This was because the laws in the UK were out of date. They did not say that a ship needed enough lifeboats for all passengers. They only said that a ship weighing more than 10,000 tons needed 16 lifeboats (the Titanic weighed 46,000 tons). Furthermore, the White Star Line believed that the lifeboats on the Titanic would only be needed to take passengers a short distance to a rescue ship.
+
+Higher class women and children were allowed on the lifeboats first, and passengers who sailed in first class (which meant that they paid for better rooms on the ship) were allowed on before other passengers.  Few of the poorer people who had paid less (called second class and third class passengers) got out safely.
+
+Another reason so few people survived was that the radio was off on the SS Californian, the ship closest to the Titanic. The Californian crew did not hear about the accident.[4] Also,the Titanic did have flares but they were white.Back then(and still now),red meant emergency and other colors were used for identification(White=White Star Line).The Californian and other ships saw the flares but they didn't think of the flares as distress signals.[5] Another ship, the SS Carpathia, did hear about the accident and collected all 705 survivors.
+
+The last survivor of the 'Titanic disaster to die was a woman named Millvina Dean. She was the youngest passenger on board, as she was then a baby of only nine weeks old. She died in Ashhurst, Hampshire, England on 21 May 2009 aged 97.[6]
+
+The Titanic disaster changed many maritime ship laws. Because so many people died, authorities felt that laws should be put into place to make ship travel safer. Changes included requiring all ships to carry enough lifeboats for everyone on the ship, and emergency materials such as flares.  Someone must be at the ship's radio all the time.
+
+The wreck was found by a French and American team, led by Robert Ballard, on September 23, 1985 at 1:02 in the morning.
+
+In 1986, Ballard returned to the wreck with a submarine. He took many photos and made lots of films.
+
+In 1987, a French team salvaged 900 objects and took them to the surface.
+
+The story of the sinking has been made into several movies. The most popular film version is a 1997 film starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio called Titanic. It won 11 Academy Awards, tying Ben-Hur for the record for the most Academy Awards won by one movie.
+
+Other movie versions of the story include the 1958 film A Night to Remember, the 1953 film Titanic, the 1979 film S.O.S. Titanic and the 1996 movie Titanic.
+
+In the 1980 film Raise the Titanic, salvagers raise the shipwreck from the bottom of the ocean to the surface.  However, this is impossible to do in reality.  The Titanic broke in two, and the wreck is partially stuck in the bottom, buried under more than three feet (1 m) of mud in some spots.  The ship has been on the ocean floor for more than 100 years, and would shatter into many more pieces if disturbed.  Worms and other animals have eaten away much of the wood and many other parts.
+
+Media related to Titanic (ship, 1912) at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/5715.html.txt

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+The RMS Titanic [1] was a British passenger ship. It was built by Harland and Wolff ship builders, in Belfast, for the White Star Line company. She sank during her first trip at sea.
+
+Before she sailed, many people thought it would be almost impossible for ships of this design to sink.[2]
+
+At 11:40 PM on 14 April 1912, during the Titanic's first trip, she hit an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean. The iceberg broke the Titanic's hull (bottom), letting water into the ship. The Titanic sank two hours and forty minutes later at 2:20 AM on 15 April.
+
+As she sank, the Titanic split in two.  The wreck killed over 1,500 people.  Only around 705 people survived.[3] It was one of the worst shipwrecks that was not during a war.
+
+One reason why so many people died was that the ship did not have enough lifeboats for everyone on board. The Titanic had 20 lifeboats with room for 1,178 passengers, only a third of the number of passengers the ship could carry. It actually had more lifeboats than was needed by law (it needed 16 with room for 990 passengers). This was because the laws in the UK were out of date. They did not say that a ship needed enough lifeboats for all passengers. They only said that a ship weighing more than 10,000 tons needed 16 lifeboats (the Titanic weighed 46,000 tons). Furthermore, the White Star Line believed that the lifeboats on the Titanic would only be needed to take passengers a short distance to a rescue ship.
+
+Higher class women and children were allowed on the lifeboats first, and passengers who sailed in first class (which meant that they paid for better rooms on the ship) were allowed on before other passengers.  Few of the poorer people who had paid less (called second class and third class passengers) got out safely.
+
+Another reason so few people survived was that the radio was off on the SS Californian, the ship closest to the Titanic. The Californian crew did not hear about the accident.[4] Also,the Titanic did have flares but they were white.Back then(and still now),red meant emergency and other colors were used for identification(White=White Star Line).The Californian and other ships saw the flares but they didn't think of the flares as distress signals.[5] Another ship, the SS Carpathia, did hear about the accident and collected all 705 survivors.
+
+The last survivor of the 'Titanic disaster to die was a woman named Millvina Dean. She was the youngest passenger on board, as she was then a baby of only nine weeks old. She died in Ashhurst, Hampshire, England on 21 May 2009 aged 97.[6]
+
+The Titanic disaster changed many maritime ship laws. Because so many people died, authorities felt that laws should be put into place to make ship travel safer. Changes included requiring all ships to carry enough lifeboats for everyone on the ship, and emergency materials such as flares.  Someone must be at the ship's radio all the time.
+
+The wreck was found by a French and American team, led by Robert Ballard, on September 23, 1985 at 1:02 in the morning.
+
+In 1986, Ballard returned to the wreck with a submarine. He took many photos and made lots of films.
+
+In 1987, a French team salvaged 900 objects and took them to the surface.
+
+The story of the sinking has been made into several movies. The most popular film version is a 1997 film starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio called Titanic. It won 11 Academy Awards, tying Ben-Hur for the record for the most Academy Awards won by one movie.
+
+Other movie versions of the story include the 1958 film A Night to Remember, the 1953 film Titanic, the 1979 film S.O.S. Titanic and the 1996 movie Titanic.
+
+In the 1980 film Raise the Titanic, salvagers raise the shipwreck from the bottom of the ocean to the surface.  However, this is impossible to do in reality.  The Titanic broke in two, and the wreck is partially stuck in the bottom, buried under more than three feet (1 m) of mud in some spots.  The ship has been on the ocean floor for more than 100 years, and would shatter into many more pieces if disturbed.  Worms and other animals have eaten away much of the wood and many other parts.
+
+Media related to Titanic (ship, 1912) at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/5716.html.txt

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+Lake Titicaca (Quechua: Titiqaqa Qucha, "Titiqaqa Lake") is a large, deep lake in the Andes mountains. The eastern part is in Bolivia and the western part of it is in Peru. It is the largest lake in South America.[2][3][4]
+Lake Titicaca is at 3,812 m (12,507 ft) above sea level.[5][6] It is often called the "highest navigable lake" in the world. It means that it is the highest lake that boats use for trade. There are many other lakes in the world that are higher. The lake has 41 islands. Some of the islands are home to many people.
+
+Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 species of water animals.[7]
+Several threatened species such as the huge Titicaca water frog and the Titicaca grebe, a bird which cannot fly, only live in or near the lake.[8][9]
+
+Since 2000, the water level of Lake Titicaca has gone down. This is because of shorter rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers.[10][11] The Global Nature Fund (GNF) says that the natural life in and around Lake Titicaca is under threat from water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans.[12]
+
+The "Floating Islands" are small islands made by the Uros (or Uru) people. They use layers of cut totora, a thick reed that grows in Lake Titicaca.[13] The Uros make the islands by continuously bending over the reeds that grow in the lake.[14]
+
+Legend says that the Uru people came from the Amazon river area, and moved to Lake Titicaca. The local people did not allow them to have their own land.[13] They then built the reed islands, which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake for safety.
+
+The islands are a golden colour. Many are about 15 by 15 m (50 by 50 ft) big. The largest are about half the size of a football field.[13][15] Each island has a few houses. The people living together on an island are usually all related.[13] Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings, also made out of reeds.
+
+As of 2011[update], about 1,200 Uros lived on 60 islands.[13] They are mostly in the west corner of the lake near Puno, a large port town in Peru.[15] The islands have become one of Peru's tourist attractions. This means that the Uros can earn money by bringing visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling crafts.[13][15]
+
+Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca. The people living here speak the Quechua language. About 4,000 people live in 10 communities on the nearly circular 15 km2 (6 sq mi) island. It has two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth). Both peaks have ancient ruins on the top. The hillsides planted with wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle and sheep also graze on the hillsides.
+
+Taquile is a hilly island located 45 km (28 mi) east of Puno. About 2,200 people live here. It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century. In 1970, it became property of the Taquile people, who have inhabited the island since then. There are pre-Inca ruins on the highest part of the island.
+Taquile is famous for its weaving and knitting. "Taquile and Its Textile Art" were honoured by UNESCO with the label "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity".
+
+Isla del Sol (Spanish for "island of the sun") is one of the largest islands of the lake. It is a rocky, hilly island. There are no cars or paved roads on the island. About 800 families live here.
+There are over 180 ruins on the island. Most of these are from the Inca period around the 15th century AD. Among the ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock, a labyrinth-like building called Chicana, Kasa Pata, and Pilco Kaima. The island is also mentioned in Inca mythology.
+
+Isla de la Luna (Spanish for “island of the moon”) lies east of the bigger Isla del Sol. Legends say that this is where Viracocha told the moon to rise.[16]
+Archaeological excavations[17] show that the Tiwanaku peoples (around 650–1000 AD) built a large temple on the Island of the Moon.[18] The buildings on the island today were built by the Inca on top of the earlier Tiwanaku ones.
+
+Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of Lake Titicaca.[19] Suriki is the last place where they still make reed boats.
+

ensimple/5717.html.txt

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+Tiziano Vecellio (sometimes his last name is given as Vecelli, born around 1490,[1] in Pieve di Cadore near Belluno,  died 27 August 1576[2] in Venice) was a painter. His name in English is Titian. He was one of the leading painters of the 16th century Venetian school; he is also seen as one of the principal artists of High Renaissance painting of the 16th century. When he was alive, he was often called Da Cadore, after his place of birth.
+
+When he was active, the Republic of Venice had a Golden Age, and was well-off economically. Aged nine, Titian went to Venice. The brothers Gentile and Giovanni Bellini taught him how to paint. In 1513, he opened his own shop, and developed into a successful painter, known all over Europe. In 1533, Charles V made him a nobleman. He also obtained a job as a painter at the court of Charles V.  In 1545, Pope Paul III invited him to come to Rome, in 1548 and 1550, Titian accompanied Charles V and his son, Philip II to the Diet of Augsburg. When Titian died of the Plague in the year 1576, he was an old man. He was also one of the most famous painters of Venetian history.
+
+Titian was very productive: in total, he painted 676 works. He did portraits, landscapes, as well as themes from mythology and religious works. All his works are very colorful. This special use of color influenced other painters of the same period a great deal. His works influenced painters such as Peter Paul Rubens, Antoine Watteau and Eugène Delacroix.
+
+A self-portrait, done around 1510. For a long time, it was attributed to  Ariosto. Rembrandt  also used this composition for his self-portraits.
+
+Salome, or Judith; this also shows an idealized portrait of beauty, which Titian developed. Titian often used Venetian courtesans as models.
+
+This painting, called Danaë with Nursemaid is one of several he did with a mythological theme, for Philip II of Spain. It shows how well he could handle colour.  Even though Michelangelo thought the drawing was lacking, Titian produced several versions for other patrons.
+
+The Rape of Europa (1562) was admired and copied by Rubens. In contrast to the clarity of Titian's early works, it is almost baroque in its blurred lines, swirling colors, and vibrant brushstrokes.

ensimple/5718.html.txt

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+Togo is a small country in West Africa.  It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. The capital city Lomé is located along the Gulf of Guinea. In 2016, about 7.5 million people lived there.[3] The official language is French.
+
+From the 11th century to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions: the Ewé from the east, and the Mina and Guin from the west; most of them settled in coastal areas. The Portuguese explored the area in the late 15th century. As Togoland, it became a protectorate of Germany in 1884. After World War I, Togo was ceded to the French. Togo gained independence from French rule in the 1960s. General Gnassingbé Eyadéma became the military leader in 1967. When Eyadéma Resigns in 2002 and later died in 2005, his son, Faure Gnassingbe became president.
+
+The economy of this small African country is based on agriculture. Agriculture provides jobs for 65% of the labor force according to the CIA Factbook.[5] Agricultural products include coffee, cocoa, cotton, yams, cassava (tapioca), corn, beans, rice, millet, and sorghum. Industries include phosphate mining, agricultural processing, cement, handicrafts, textiles, and beverages. Togo's economy is primarily agricultural.
+
+The president of Togo is elected for 5 years. The president is also the commander of the armed forces. The president also has the right to begin legislation and dissolve parliament.
+
+After Togo's independence from France, General Gnassingbé Eyadéma became the military leader. When Eyadéma died in 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbe became president.
+
+Togo is divided into 5 regions.  The regions are divided into 30 prefectures and 1 commune.  From north to south the regions are Savanes, Kara, Centrale, Plateaux and Maritime.
+
+The largest cities in Togo are:
+
+About 51% of the population has local beliefs, 29% is Christian, and 20% Muslim.[6]
+
+The Togolese enjoy many foods including tropical fruits, pastries, and many different products made from peanuts. Major drinks include tea, coffee, and wine. Togolese often snack on plantains and French donuts or beignets.

ensimple/5719.html.txt

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+Tokio Hotel is a German pop-rock  band. The band began in 2001, and were first called Devilish. The people who are in the band all came from Magdeburg in Germany. The youngest, the Kaulitz twins, were born two months before the Berlin Wall was taken down.
+
+Tokio Hotel was started by singer Bill Kaulitz and guitarist Tom Kaulitz, who are identical twin brothers. Their step father owns a music school named "Rock School". The drummer is Gustav Schäfer and bass-guitarist is Georg Listing. The four met in 2001 after a live show in a Magdeburg club, where Listing and Schäfer, who knew each other from music school, watched from the audience while Bill and Tom Kaulitz played on the stage. Using the name "Devilish", the band began playing in talent shows and small concerts. After Bill Kaulitz took part in a children's Star Search in 2003 at age thirteen (which he lost in the quarter-final), he was discovered by music producer Peter Hoffmann. Devilish changed their name to "Tokio Hotel": "Tokio", the German spelling of the Japanese city Tokyo, because they love the city, and "Hotel" because of their constant touring and living in hotels. Soon after Sony BMG took them under contract, Hoffmann hired David Jost and Pat Benzner into the team of creators and authors. They guided the teens on songwriting and instrument playing; most of the songs of the first album were written by Hoffmann, Jost, Benzer, and Bill Kaulitz (including the singles "Scream" and "Rescue me" which were completely written by them). Only the single "Unendlichkeit" was written completely by Tokio Hotel themselves. However, shortly before release of their first album, Sony ended their contract. In 2005, Universal Music Group took Tokio Hotel under contract and developed a marketing plan. The band has now become one of the biggest acts from Germany.
+
+Bill Kaulitz (born September 1 1989, in Leipzig, Germany) is the lead singer of Tokio Hotel. He is the twin brother of Tom Kaulitz. Bill is ten minutes younger than Tom. They used to live in Magdeburg, Germany. Before making Tokio Hotel, the band was called Devilish. Bill was on the German star search but he lost in 2001. Because of Bill going on the Star Search he came to be known by Peter Hoffman. Tokio Hotel soon got a job with Sony but in 2005 Sony ended it. After the first European tour, Bill lost his voice and found out he had cyst on his vocal cords. He had surgery and it took three weeks to get better. He then went back to having concerts with the band.
+
+Tom Kaulitz was born on September 1 1989, in Leipzig ten minutes before his identical twin brother, Bill. He is from Magdeburg in Germany. Tom and Bill now live in Berlin, Germany. As of September 2007, Tom is using Gibson guitars. He has stated his musical influences to be Aerosmith and German hip-hop such as Samy Deluxe.
+
+Georg Listing was born on March 31 1987. His hometown is Halle. He began playing bass when he was thirteen years old, as of September 2007, uses a Sandberg bass. He has said that his playing style was heavily influenced by Flea of Red Hot Chili Peppers, and other musical influences include Die Ärzte and Oasis.
+
+Gustav Schäfer was born on September 8 1988, in his hometown of Magdeburg, and has an older sister. Gustav has been playing the drums since he was five. His musical influences include Metallica, Joe Cocker and Rod Stewart.
+
+Straightforward pop-rock with catchy melodies and a well-calculated mix of stolen Metallica riffs and romantic ballad elements. Everything is played on the safe side, and the production is technically perfect.
+
+Straightforward pop-rock with catchy melodies and a well-calculated mix of stolen Metallica riffs and romantic ballad elements. Everything is played on the safe side, and the production is technically perfect.

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+St. Peter's Basilica, which is called "Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano" in Italian, is a large church in the Vatican City, in Rome, Italy. It is often called "the greatest church in Christendom".[2][3] In Catholic tradition, St. Peter's Basilica is believed to be the burial place of Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. It is believed that Saint Peter was the first Bishop of Rome.
+
+Although the Bible does not say that the apostle Peter went to Rome, other Roman Christians who were alive in the 1st century AD have written about him.[4] Catholics believe that after Peter was killed, his body was buried in a cemetery where the basilica now stands. A tomb has been found below the altar of the basilica, and there were some bones, but no-one can say for certain if they are the bones of St. Peter.
+
+A church was built here in the 4th century AD. The building that stands here now was begun on April 18, 1506 and was finished in 1626.[5] Many Popes have been buried there. Although many people think St. Peter's is a cathedral, it is not, because it does not have a bishop. The pope is the Bishop of Rome, and although he usually uses St. Peter's as his main church, because he lives in the Vatican, his bishop's throne is in a different church, the cathedral of Saint John Lateran. Large important churches like St. Peter's are often called basilicas. There are four ancient basilicas in Rome that were begun by the Emperor Constantine soon after he made Christianity the legal religion of the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD (300s). The basilicas are St. Peter's Basilica, St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul outside the Walls.
+
+St. Peter's is famous for many reasons:
+
+One of the books of the Bible, called the Acts of the Apostles, tells what happened to the disciples of Jesus after he was put to death by crucifixion in the 1st century AD. One of his twelve disciples became the leader. His name was Simon Peter and he was a fisherman from Galilee. Peter became one of the most important people in starting the Christian Church. Another important disciple was Paul of Tarsus, who travelled to many places and wrote lots of letters to teach and to encourage people in the new Christian groups that began to spring up in many different parts of the Roman Empire. St. Paul travelled to Rome. It is believed that St. Peter also travelled to Rome and that both Paul and Peter were put to death there as Christian martyrs. St. Paul was beheaded with a sword. Peter was crucified up-side-down. It is believed that the body of St. Peter was buried in a cemetery near the Via Cornelia, a road leading out of the city, on the hill called Vaticanus. Peter's grave was marked, by a red rock, the symbol of his name. The place where Peter died was marked, in the 1400s, by a little round temple called the "Tempietto" designed by Bramante.
+
+St. Peter is very important in Roman Catholic tradition because Peter is believed to have been the head of the Christian Church in Rome, and so he was the first bishop. The Gospel of Matthew (chapter 16, verse 18) tells that Jesus said these words to Peter:
+
+The name Peter means a "rock". The Roman Catholic Church believes that Jesus made Peter the head of the Christian Church, and so all the Bishops of Rome (the Popes) must be the leaders of the Christian Church throughout the whole world. The Protestant and Orthodox churches believe that Jesus was speaking about the important words Peter had just said: "You are the Christ and the Son of the Living God" (Matthew 16:16), and that this Confession of Faith is the rock that the Christian Church is built on.
+
+On December 23, 1950, while making his Christmas radio broadcast to the world, Pope Pius XII announced that Saint Peter's tomb had been discovered.[8] Archaeologists had been searching for ten years in a place under the basilica that had been covered up for about a thousand years. They had found part of a small building dating from soon after St. Peter's death, and some bones, but no-one could be sure if they were the bones of St. Peter.
+
+St. Peter's Basilica, as it stand today, was begun in 1506. The first basilica, which is now called "Old St. Peter's Basilica" was begun by the Emperor Constantine between 326 and 333 AD. This was a big wide church in the shape of a Latin Cross, over 103.6 metres (350 feet) long. The central part called the "nave" had two aisles on either side, separated by rows of talls Roman columns. In front of the main entrance was large courtyard with a covered walkway all around. This church had been built over a small "shrine" (little chapel) believed to mark the burial place of St. Peter. The old basilica contained a very large number of tombs and memorials, including those of most of the popes from St. Peter to the 15th century.[9]
+
+By the end of the 15th century (1400s), the old basilica was falling to pieces. Pope Nicholas V, (1447–55), was worried about it and got two architects, Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino, to make plans to restore it or build a new one. But Pope Nicholas had so many political problems that when he died, very little of the work had been done.[10]
+In 1505, Pope Julius II decided to demolish (pull down) the old St. Peter's and build a basilica that would be the grandest church in the world and make Rome (and himself) famous.[6] He held a competition and invited lots of artists and architects to draw designs. A plan was selected and the build was begun, but Pope Julius did not get his new basilica. In fact, it was not finished for 120 years. The planning and construction (or "building work") lasted through the reigns of 21 popes and 8 architects.
+
+The changing plans for St. Peter's. The architectural terms are explained in the article.
+
+The Old Saint Peter's Basilica drawn by H. W. Brewer, 1891. He used very old drawings and writings to work out how it must have looked.
+
+Bramante's plan is for a Greek Cross with a dome on four big piers. There is a tower at each corner.
+
+Raphael's plan is simpler and is for a Latin Cross like the old basilica.
+
+The finished basilica shows Michelangelo's plan, with four huge piers. It also shows Maderna's nave, portico and facade.
+
+When Pope Julius decided to build the "grandest church in Christendom"[6] the design by Donato Bramante was chosen, and Pope Julius laid the foundation stone in 1506. Bramante's plan was in the shape of an enormous Greek Cross, which means that it had four arms all of equal length, and a large dome at the middle. For the next hundred years, the groundplan got changed backwards and forwards between a "Greek Cross" like Bramante's plan and a "Latin Cross" like the old basilica, but one thing never changed, and that was the idea of having an enormous dome at the place where the two arms crossed.
+
+At that time, there were only three very large domes in the whole world. One was far away in Constantinople on the church of Hagia Sophia and not many people in Italy had seen it. The other two domes were both very well known. One was the dome on the temple to the Ancient Roman gods, called the Pantheon. The other dome was built in the early 15th century (1400s) on Florence Cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi. The dome of the Pantheon is 43.3 metres (142.06 ft) across and the dome of Florence Cathedral is about 42.1 metres (138 ft), but is much taller. Bramante's plan for the dome of St. Peter's was for it to be about as wide as the dome of Florence, and even taller.
+
+No architect with any sense would try to design a dome without first checking out how these other two domes were made. Bramante checked them out. He discovered that the dome of the Pantheon, which had been standing for nearly 1500 years, was made of concrete. So that the concrete wouldn't be too heavy, it was mixed with pumice stone which comes out of a volcano and is full of gas holes so it is very light weight. Bramante learned how to make concrete like the Ancient Romans.
+
+Bramante's dome was to be like the one on the Pantheon. But there was one very big difference between the Pantheon dome and Bramante's design. The Pantheon's dome stands on a round wall like a drum, with only one doorway in it, but Bramante's dome was designed to stand on a drum, which was standing high up on four wide arches. The aches rested on four enormous piers (pillars of stone). He had got this idea from Florence Cathedral which had an enormous dome resting on eight big piers. Another idea that Bramante got from Florence Cathedral was the design for the little stone tower which sits on top of the dome and is called the lantern.
+
+When Pope Julius died in 1513, the next pope, Leo X, called in three architects, Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Sangallo and Fr Giocondo both died in 1515. Raphael made a big change to the plan. Instead of having a Greek Cross, he decided to change the plan to a Latin Cross, which had a long nave and aisles like the old basilica.[11]
+
+Raphael also died, in his mid-30s, in 1520, before any important changes could be made to the building. The next architect was Peruzzi who like some of the ideas that Raphael had, but did not like the Latin Cross plan. Peruzzi went back to Bramante's Greek Cross plan.[12] But there were so many arguments in the church that the building stopped completely. Then in 1527 Rome was invaded by Emperor Charles V. Peruzzi died in 1536 without his plan being built.[6] The only main parts of the building which had been constructed were Bramante's four big piers to hold the dome.
+
+Antonio da Sangallo (known as "Sangallo the Younger") looked at all the different plans by Peruzzi, Raphael and Bramante. He put some of their ideas together in a design that had a very short nave, (not a long one like Raphael's design) and had a big porch at the front. He changed Bramante's dome to be much stronger and also much more decorated. The main new idea that he added were 16 stone ribs to strengthen the dome. This idea came from Florence Cathedral which had eight stone ribs.[13] But Sangallo's plan never got built, either. The main job that he did was to strengthen Bramante's piers which had begun to crack.[14]
+
+On January 1st, 1547 in the reign of Pope Paul III, Michelangelo, who was already over 70, became the architect of St. Peter's.[15] He is the main designer of the building as it stands today. Michelangelo died before the job was finished, but by that time, he had got the construction up to a point where other people could get it finished. Michelangelo had already done a lot of work for the popes, carving figures for the tomb of Pope Julius II, painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling, which took five years, and the enormous fresco the "Last Judgement" on the wall of the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo found the popes and the cardinals very difficult to work with. When Pope Paul asked him to be the new architect for St. Peter's, Michelangelo did not want the job. In fact, Pope Paul did not really want Michelangelo. But his first choice, Giulio Romano, died suddenly. Michelangelo told the pope that he would only do the job, if he could do it in whatever way he thought was best.[14]
+
+Michelangelo wrote:
+
+When Michelangelo took over a building site in 1547, the nave of the old basilica was still standing and in use. There were four of the most enormous piers in the world standing where the western part of the old basilica had been. The building work had stopped for so long that weeds and bushes were growing out between the stones of the unfinished building as if it was a cliff. Michelangelo looked at all the plans that had been drawn by some of the greatest architects and engineers of the 16th century. He knew he could do whatever he liked but he had respect for the other designers, especially Bramante. He knew that he was expected to make a design that would be the symbol of the city of Rome, in the same way as Brunelleschi's dome was the symbol of Florence where Michelangelo had lived as a young man. He went back to the Greek Cross idea and re-drew Bramante's plan, making every part of it much stronger and simpler.[16] It had to be strong enough to support the tallest dome in the world.
+
+Michelangelo was a sculptor. When he was going to carve something, he would start by making a clay model. Michelangelo could imagine the building like a lump of clay. What if the building could be pushed and pulled and squeezed? If you could squeeze the corners in, then other bits would bulge out. If you could put your hands around the whole building and squeeze it, then the dome would bulge upwards. The idea of imagining buildings as bendy and bulgy was a completely new one. But other artists like Gianlorenzo Bernini looked at what Michelangelo did at St. Peter's and used this clever new idea in their own work. This is called the Baroque style.
+
+As it stands today, the Greek Cross part of the basilica is Michelangelo's design and the nave, which was added later, is by Carlo Maderna.[17] Comparing Michelangelo's plan with Raphael's plan shows that while the outside-line of Raphael's plan has clear square and round shapes, the outside-line in Michelangelo's plan has lots of changes of direction. That is the way it was built. All around the outside of the building are enormous "pilasters" (which are like giant columns stuck on the building). Almost every pilaster is set at a different angle to the next one as if the flat walls had been folded up. Right around the top of the building is a band called the "cornice". A "cornice" is usually quite flat, but because of all the changes of direction, this cornice ripples like a giant piece of ribbon, tied around the outside of the building.[18] The art historian Helen Gardner wrote that it looked as of the whole building was being held together from top to bottom.[16]
+
+Michelangelo designed the dome again, using ideas from Bramante and Sangallo the Younger. Three important ideas came from the dome that Brunelleschi had built in Florence more than 100 years earlier.
+
+When Michelangelo died in 1564, the walls were being built, the piers had been strengthened and everything was ready for the building of the dome. The Pope wanted Michelangelo's assistant Vignola to finish it, but he was not able to. After twenty years Pope Sixtus V gave the job to the architect Giacomo della Porta and the engineer Domenico Fontana.[6][14] Giacomo Della Porta successfully built the dome. He made some changes to the design, like adding some lions' heads to the decoration because they were the symbol of Pope Sixtus' family. The main way that the dome is different from the wooden model is that it is much more pointy.[14]
+
+Some writers believe that Michelangelo had changed his mind from his first plan, and did not want the pointy dome. They believe he wanted a round dome which would look more "restful". Other writers believe that Michelangelo wanted the pointed dome, not just because it was safer to build, but also because it looked more exciting, as if the building was pushing upwards.[16][18] Pope Sixtus V lived just long enough to see the dome finished in 1590. His name is written in gold letters around the inside, just below the lantern.
+
+Pope Clement III, had a cross raised into place on top of the lantern. It took a whole day and everyone in Rome was given a holiday, and all the church-bells of the city were rung. In the arms of the cross are set two lead boxes, one containing a fragment of the True Cross and a bone of Saint Andrew and the other containing medals of the "Holy Lamb".[14][19]
+
+The dome of St. Peter's rises to a height of 136.57 m (448.06 ft) from the floor of the basilica. It is the tallest dome in the world.[20] Its inside diameter is 41.47 metres (136.06 ft), just slightly smaller than those of the Pantheon and the Florence Cathedral.
+
+Around the inside of the dome is written in letters 2 metres (6.5 ft) high:
+
+In 1602 Pope Paul V put Carlo Maderna in charge of the building. On February 18 1606, workmen began to pull down the rest of the old basilica. Some people were very upset. The building committee felt guilty. They decided that the church was the wrong shape, and that they wanted a Latin Cross plan because it was the symbol of the death of Jesus.[14] They wanted a nave which would cover all the Holy Ground where the old building had been. In 1607 Maderna's plans for the nave and the facade (the front) were accepted. For the inside, he used very large piers with pilasters like Michelangelo's, but he made a clear join between the two parts of the building. The building work began on May 7 1607 and 700 men were employed to do the work. In 1608, the facade was begun. In December 1614 the building was all finished except for the decorations on the ceiling. Early in 1615 the temporary wall between Michelangelo's building and the new nave was pulled down. All the mess was carted away, and the nave was ready for use by Palm Sunday.[14]
+
+The façade was designed by Maderna. It is 114.69 metres (376.28 ft) wide and 45.55 metres (149.44 ft) high and is built of pale grey travertine stone, with a giant Corinthian columns and a central triangular pediment. Along the roof-line are statues of Christ, John the Baptist, and eleven of the apostles.
+
+Inside the main doors is a portico (a long hall) which runs across the front of the building and has five doors leading into the basilica. Its has a long curving roof decorated with gold. The light that comes through the doors shines on the beautifully patterned marble floor. At each end of the portico, set between columns, is a statue of a figure on horseback. They are Charlemagne sculpted by Cornacchini (18th century) to the south and Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) to the north. Maderna's last work at St. Peter's was to design a sunken crypt called the "Confessio" under the dome, where people can go to be nearer the burial place of the apostle. All around its marble handrail are 95 bronze lamps.
+
+As a young boy Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) visited St. Peter's and said that one day he wanted to build "a mighty throne for the apostle". His wish came true. As a young man, in 1626, Pope Urban VIII asked him to work as architect for the basilica. Bernini spent the next fifty years thinking of new and beautiful things to design. He is thought of as the greatest architect and sculptor of the Baroque period.[14][16]
+
+Bernini's first work at St. Peter's was to design the "baldacchino" which is like a tent or "pavilion" above the High Altar. This amazing thing is 30 metres (98 ft) tall and is probably the largest piece of bronze in the world. It stands underneath the dome and has four huge bronze twisted columns decorated with olive leaves and bees, because bees were the symbol of Pope Urban. Pope Urban had a niece that he loved very much and he got Bernini to put her face and the face of her new-born baby boy on the columns as well.[14][16]
+
+Bernini had a great idea for Bramante's great big piers. He had four hollow "niches" carved into them where four huge statues could stand. The basilica owns some precious relics: a piece of the True Cross of Jesus, a veil that a woman wiped the face of Jesus with, while he was carrying the cross, the spear that was used to pierce Jesus side, and the bones of St. Andrew, the brother of St. Peter. No-one knows for sure whether these things are real or not, but for hundreds of years they have been precious. Bernini's plan was the make four marble statues of the four Holy people: St. Helena who found the cross, St. Longinus who was the soldier with the spear, St Veronica who wiped Jesus' face and St. Andrew.[14] (See below)
+
+Bernini's next job was to make a special throne out of bronze, to hold an ancient wood and ivory throne that had been at the basilica for more than 500 years. It is called the Cattedra Petri or "throne of St. Peter". The bronze throne, with the old wooden throne inside it, is held up high at the end of the basilica, by four important saints who are called "Doctors of the Church" because they were all great writers and teachers.[21] The statues are made of bronze. They are Saints Ambrose and Augustine for the Church of Rome and Saints Athanasius and John Chrysostum for the Orthodox Church. Above the chair is a window which is made not from glass but thin translucent stone called alabaster. The Dove of the Holy Spirit is in the middle of the window with rays of light spreading out into the basilica through a sculpture of golden clouds and angels. Bernini designed this to look like a window into Heaven. There was a great celebration when the chair was put in place on January 16, 1666.[14][16]
+
+Bernini's last work for St. Peter's, 1676, was to decorate of the Chapel of the Sacrament. He designed a miniature version of Bramante's Tempietto, and made it in gilt bronze. On either side is an angel, one gazing in adoration and the other looking towards the viewer in welcome. Bernini died in 1680 in his 82nd year.[14]
+
+To the east of the basilica is the Piazza di San Pietro (St. Peter's Place).[22] The piazza was designed by Bernini and built between 1656 and 1667. It was not an easy job because the designer had lots of things to think about. Firstly, many people complained that Maderna's facade on St. Peter's looked too wide, so Bernini wanted to make it look narrower, not wider. Secondly, in the old square left over from the Old St. Peter's, Pope Sixtus V had a monument set up. This monument was a precious Ancient Egyptian obelisk (which is like a tall column, but with four flat sides). From its base to the top of the cross (that the pope had put on top) it was 40 metres (131 ft) high, and had been brought to Rome in ancient times. The obelisk really should be at the center of the new square, but it was not in quite the right place, and was very difficult to move without breaking. The third problem was that Maderna had built a fountain to one side of the obelisk, and Bernini needed to make another fountain to match it, otherwise the design would look unbalanced.[14]
+
+Bernini solved the problem by making two areas, instead of one huge one. The first area is an almost-square area right in front of the facade. It is cleverly designed with sloping sides that make the building look taller and not so wide. The second part of the piazza is oval. It has the obelisk at the center with two fountains on either side at the widest part. The two parts of the piazza are surrounded by a colonnade (covered walk-way) which is carried on tall columns. All around are large statues of saints which seem to look down on the thousands of visitors that come to the square every day. The colonnade is in two great arcs that seem to stretch out like loving arms, welcoming people to the Basilica.[16] In recent times some buildings were demolished, making another square, to match the one near the piazza.
+
+The famous architectural historian, Sir Banister Fletcher, said that no other city in the world had given such a wonderful view to people visiting their main church. He said that no other architect except Bernini could have imagined such a noble design. He said it is the greatest entrance to the greatest Christian church in the whole world.[23]
+
+St. Peter's Basilica has many treasures. These include Christian relics, the tombs of popes and many other important people, famous artworks which are mostly sculpture and other interesting things.
+
+The Egyptian obelisk stands in the centre of the piazza.
+
+The fountains of Maderna and Bernini are lit up at night.
+
+Outside the basilica stand two statues. This is St. Paul.
+
+There are many statues on the colonnade and roof.
+
+The Holy Door is opened only for great celebrations.
+
+No-one knows how old the statue of St. Peter is. Its feet are worn down from people kissing them.
+
+The Pietà by Michelangelo is the most famous artwork in St. Peter's. It shows the Virgin Mary holding the body of her son, Jesus.
+
+The body of The Blessed Pope John XXIII can be seen inside his tomb.
+
+There are many sculptured decorations like this angel.
+
+The window of the Holy Spirit designed by Bernini
+
+Many parts of the basilica are decorated with mosaics. This is St. John the Gospel Writer.
+
+The mosaic decoration of this small dome shows the Blessed Virgin Mary in Heaven.
+
+The Dove of Peace showing the different coloured marbles used to decorate the piers.
+
+The tomb of Queen Christina of Sweden, who gave up her throne and became a nun.
+
+The tomb of Pope Innocent XII has the figures of Caring and Justice.
+
+This carved altarpiece shows Attila the Hun being driven out of Rome.
+
+Four large statues are in the piers near the High Altar. Saint Helena holds the True Cross which she found in Jerusalem.
+
+Saint Longinus carries the spear that pierced the side of Jesus.
+
+Saint Andrew carries the cross on which he was crucified. His bones are at St. Peter's
+
+Saint Veronica carries the veil that she used to wipe the face of Jesus, when he was carrying his cross.
+

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+Tokyo (東京, Tōkyō, "Eastern Capital") is the capital and largest city of Japan located on the island of Honshu.
+Tokyo is the center of the Japanese government. The Imperial Palace is in Tokyo.
+
+Tokyo is the center of business, trade, and industry of Japan and also of Asia. The city is the center of the largest metropolitan area in the world.
+It faces Tokyo Bay.
+
+It became the capital city of Japan in the middle of 19th century, when its name changed from "Edo" to "Tokyo". Before then, Kyoto was the capital of Japan. The Emperor of Japan, or Tenno, lived in Kyoto. Edo was the place where the Tokugawa Shoguns lived. The city grew up under the control of the shoguns. Before then it was a small town on the sea. Edo means "the mouth of a river" in Japanese.
+
+Tokyo was destroyed by fires started by the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. It was also badly damaged by bombs during World War II. After Japan lost the war, the city was rebuilt.
+
+Tokyo began as a small fishing village named Edo. Edo was in the old Musashi Province.[1]
+
+The Edo clan built walls to protect the town in the late 12th century. In 1457, Ōta Dōkan built Edo Castle. In 1590, Tokugawa Ieyasu made Edo his base. He became shogun in 1603, and the town became the center of his military government. This marked the beginning of the Edo period. During this time, Edo grew into one of the largest cities in the world. More than one million people lived there by the 18th century.[2]
+
+Edo was not the capital of Japan. The emperor lived in the capital, Kyoto. However, since the shogun was more powerful than the emperor throughout Japanese history, Edo had more power.[3] After about 263 years, the Meiji Restoration removed the shogun from power. In 1869, the 17-year-old Emperor Meiji moved to Edo. The old Edo Castle became the Imperial Palace.
+
+The Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo were established. This was the capital city until 1943.
+
+In 1943, Tokyo City and the "associated municipalities of what was formerly Tokyo Prefecture (東京府, Tōkyō-fu) (1869-1943)" combined into one.
+
+Central Tokyo is built around major railway stations. Suburban railways were built relatively cheaply at street level. There are some expressways.
+
+Tokyo suffered two major catastrophes in the 20th century. The 1923 Great Kantō earthquake left 140,000 dead or missing.[4] World War II was the other disaster for the city. The Bombing of Tokyo from 1944 through 1945 killed between 75,000 and 200,000 people and destroyed half the city. This was almost as much damage as the atomic bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined.[5]
+
+Tokyo was completely rebuilt after the war. The 1964 Summer Olympics were a major world event. New high-rise developments such as Sunshine 60 started in the 1970s.
+
+Tokyo has a four-season climate with rainy summers and dry winters.
+
+TokyoSpecial wardsTama AreaIslands
+
+12.79 million8.653 million4.109 million28,000
+
+Young people (age 0-14)Working age (age 15-64)Retirement age (age 65+)
+
+1.461 million (11.8%)8.546 million (69.3%)2.332 million (18.9%)
+
+DayNight
+
+14.978 million12.416 million
+
+International residents
+
+364,6534
+
+² as of January 1, 2007.
+
+4 as of January 1, 2006.
+
+As of October 2007 about 8.7 million were living in Tokyo's 23 special wards.[10] The number of people in Tokyo increases to over 15 million during the day. About 2.5 million workers and students enter the city everyday. The three central wards of Chiyoda, Chūō, and Minato increase the most. As of 2005, the regular population in those three areas was only 326,000 at night, but there are 2.4 million in those areas during the day.[10]
+
+Tokyo has many international residents. As of 2005, the most common groups in Tokyo are Chinese (123,661), Koreans (106,697), and Filipinos (31,077). Americans (18,848), British (7,696), Brazilian (5,300) and French (3,000) are less common.[11]
+
+The 23 special wards of Tokyo are the same area that had been called Tokyo City. On July 1, 1943, Tokyo City was merged with Tokyo Prefecture (東京府, Tōkyō-fu) to become a special government area. This made the wards different from other wards in Japan. Other city wards are part of a larger city government, but these are not.
+Each ward is a municipality with its own mayor and assembly like the other cities of Japan. The special wards often use the word city in their official English name, e.g. Chiyoda City.
+
+The wards have a unique administrative relationship with the prefectural government.  The Tokyo Metropolitan Government manages some public works such as water, sewer, and fire-fighting. To pay for these things, the prefecture collects the municipal taxes usually collected by a city.[12]
+
+The special wards of Tokyo are:
+
+Three wards of Tokyo make up the central part of the city. They are Chiyoda, Chūō and Minato.[13]
+
+Tokyo has many sight-seeing spots, but very few of them are old. There are very few buildings in Tokyo that are more than 50 years old. Popular places for visitors range from Tokyo Tower in the center of the city to Mount Takao out in the western countryside. Tokyo Sky Tree is a new tower and is the tallest in Japan. Traditional religious sights such as Meiji Shrine and Sensō-ji attract many tourists. The Imperial Palace can be seen in the middle of the city, but is not open to the public.
+
+Tokyo is the cultural, business, and political center of the country. It is also the center of many transport systems. There are many air, rail, sea, and road links in and out of the city. Local subway and bus systems serve every part of the city.
+
+Two commercial airports serve Tokyo. Haneda Airport is in the city limits next to Tokyo Bay. This airport is mostly for domestic travel. Most international flights to and from Tokyo go through Narita Airport in Chiba Prefecture.
+
+Several Shinkansen super-express railway lines begin at Tokyo Station, including the  Tōkaidō Shinkansen going west and Tōhoku Shinkansen going northeast. Tokyo Metro is the city's major subway system.
+
+Tokyo has a busy international and domestic port, but more traffic goes through the nearby port of Yokohama. There are domestic ferries to the islands of Tokyo, but also to other parts of the country such as Hokkaido.
+
+Many highways meet in Tokyo, including: the Chūō, Kan-Etsu, Tōhoku, and Tōmei Expressways. All highway distances in Japan start from zero at a marker in Nihonbashi, Tokyo.

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+
+
+John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (3 January 1892 – 2 September 1973) was a British philologist, university professor, and writer. Tolkien is best known for his most famous works, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.
+
+He was born in Bloemfontein, South Africa but his parents were both from England. He lost much of his family at an early age. He fought in World War I, and after the war he found a job helping to produce the Oxford English Dictionary. Tolkien was very interested in languages, and he had studied at Oxford University. Soon he became a professor of English Language at the University of Leeds. He was then a professor at the University of Oxford until 1959, when he retired. He also was good friends with many other writers and scholars, most notably C. S. Lewis, who wrote the Narnia books, The Screwtape Letters, and many essays on Christian theology. Tolkien himself was a devout Catholic.
+
+Tolkien married Edith Mary Bratt on 22 March 1916 in England, at the age of 24.[1] They had four children, three sons and a girl: John, Michael, Christopher, and Priscilla.
+
+He created and worked on the fictional fantasy world of Middle-earth for most of his life, and his most famous books are set in that world. Because of his Middle-earth books he is often considered the "father of high fantasy" which made the fantasy genre very popular.
+
+Tolkien wrote other books, for example Farmer Giles Of Ham, and also illustrated (drew the pictures and maps for) The Lord of the Rings. The Lord of the Rings was published in three parts and has been made into several motion pictures. The Lord of the Rings took 12 years to write.[2]

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+
+
+Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H. Karst.
+Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.[1]
+
+The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a botanical fruit (but not a fruit as ordinary people use the word).[2]
+
+It is shiny and smooth. It has many small seeds. It is also very good for health.  Most tomatoes are red. The tomato is green when it is unripe. It slowly changes color from green to red as it gets ripe, and as it gets ripe it gets bigger and bigger. There are many different types of tomatoes. Some kinds of tomato are yellow or orange when they are ripe. Tomatoes are used a lot in Italian food. They are also used to make ketchup. Tomatoes are called fruit, because they contain seeds. Tomato seeds are dispersed by being eaten by animals. After being eaten the seeds pass through the animal's digestive system.  Although tomatoes are botanically fruits, many people consider them vegetables and treat them as such in cooking.
+
+The tomato is native to western South America. Wild versions were small, like cherry tomatoes, and most likely yellow instead of red. The Spanish first showed tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish and Italian food. The French and northern Europeans wrongly thought that they were poisonous because they are a member of the deadly nightshade family.[2] The leaves and immature fruit contains tomatine, which in large amounts would be toxic. However, the ripe fruit contains no tomatine.
+
+The tomato is grown and eaten around the world. It is used in many ways, such as raw in salads or in slices, stewed, a part of a wide variety of dishes, or processed into ketchup or tomato soup. Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to make salsa, or pickled. Tomato juice is sold as a drink, and is used in cocktails such as the Bloody Mary.
+

ensimple/5723.html.txt

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+A grave is where somebody or something is buried after they have died.
+Graves are usually placed in a graveyard, with a headstone used to identify the dead person.
+A funeral will occur if the family has enough money. If they do not, there will not be a proper funeral. The name on the grave is of the dead person. For example, William Shakespeare was buried in England.
+
+Media related to Graves at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/5724.html.txt

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+A grave is where somebody or something is buried after they have died.
+Graves are usually placed in a graveyard, with a headstone used to identify the dead person.
+A funeral will occur if the family has enough money. If they do not, there will not be a proper funeral. The name on the grave is of the dead person. For example, William Shakespeare was buried in England.
+
+Media related to Graves at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/5725.html.txt

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+
+
+Anthony Charles Lynton "Tony" Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. He was Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007 and Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007. On the day he stood down as Prime Minister and MP, he was made official Envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East on behalf of the United Nations, the European Union, the United States and Russia.[1]
+
+Blair was elected Leader of the Labour Party in the 1994 leadership election following the sudden death of his predecessor, John Smith. Under Blair's leadership the party abandoned many policies it had held for decades. Labour won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election, which ended 18 years of Conservative rule with the heaviest Conservative defeat since 1832.[2]
+
+He was the Labour Party's longest-serving Prime Minister and the only leader to have taken the party to three uninterrupted general election victories.
+
+Gordon Brown, Chancellor of the Exchequer during all Blair's ten years in office, succeeded him as party leader and Prime Minister in 2007.[3]
+
+Blair was born at Queen Mary Maternity Home in Edinburgh on 6 May 1953. He was the second son of Leo and Hazel Blair. Blair joined the Labour Party in 1975.
+
+Blair was a lawyer before becoming a politician. He married Cherie Booth, also a lawyer, who graduated from the London School of Economics with a first-class honours degree. Blair himself left Oxford University with a second-class degree. They have four children: Euan, Nicky, Kathryn, and Leo. There was a controversy over Blair sending Euan to a grant-maintained school. As a result of this, Alastair Campbell discovered Blair "standing stark naked reading the Daily Mail."[4]
+
+As Leader of the Labour Party, he won the 1997, 2001 and 2005 UK general elections. Blair is the first and only Labour Party leader to have won three general elections in a row.[5]
+
+He attributes his success in politics to a pair of "lucky brogues", which he wore for every single Prime Minister's Questions of his leadership. He claimed that "cheap shoes are a false economy".[6]
+
+On the day of his resignation, Blair was made an official envoy in the Middle East. In 2004, he started the Commission for Africa.[7] He continued work as a commissioner after he stopped being Prime Minister.[8]
+

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+A tornado is a tube of violently spinning air that touches the ground. Wind inside the tornado spins fast, but the actual 'circle' of wind around them is huge. This makes tornadoes very dangerous.[1] Tornadoes are especially dangerous to people in cars or mobile homes and about 60 people are killed by tornadoes every year.
+
+Tornadoes destroy things. They can tear houses to pieces and often leave people homeless. Tornadoes can be caused by winds that have been going opposite directions with humidity. They are smaller than hurricane but stronger. Nearly three quarters of the world's tornadoes happen in the United States. However, they can happen anywhere.
+
+Tornadoes mostly happen during strong thunderstorms called super cell storms. They cause a lot of damage to anything in their path. Tornadoes are ranked on the Enhanced Fujita scale, from EF0 to EF5. EF0 for tornados that caused the least damage, and EF5 for the ones that caused the most.[2]
+
+Tornadoes can happen in nearly any part of the world. In the United States, a tornado has happened in all states. The middle part of the United States is nicknamed 'Tornado Alley' for the number of tornadoes there. A tornado can have wind speeds of over 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across and travel a few miles before disappearing. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil; downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is not similar.
+
+A tornado does not necessarily need to be visible; however, the extremely low pressure caused by the high wind speeds and rapid rotation usually causes water vapor in the air to condense into a visible condensation funnel. The tornado is the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud.
+
+A single storm may produce multiple tornadoes and mesocyclones. Tornadoes produced from the same storm are referred to as a tornado family. Sometimes multiple tornadoes from distinct mesocyclones occur at the same time.[3]
+
+Occasionally, several tornadoes are spawned from the same very large storm. If there is no break in their activity, this is considered a tornado outbreak, although there are various definitions. A period of several successive days with tornado outbreaks in the same general area (spawned by multiple weather systems) is a tornado outbreak sequence, occasionally called an extended tornado outbreak.[1][4]
+
+Sometimes, tornadoes happen in groups.[5] 148 tornadoes struck on the same day in April 1974. Many towns in the midwestern United States and Canada were destroyed. More than 300 people died.[5] They were hit by flying wrecks, buried under houses, and thrown by powerful winds. That day, students in Xenia, Ohio were practicing for a play on the auditorium stage. One girl looked out the window and saw the tornado. The students ran into the hall, covering their heads. A few seconds later, all the school buses flew right onto the stage.[5]
+
+A man in another town hid under the couch in his living room. He held onto one couch leg. The tornado struck his house, and winds blew around him. When the tornado left, he was outside. There was no house. The couch had disappeared, and he was only holding onto one couch leg.[5]
+
+The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by how much damage they cause. The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale was an update to the older Fujita scale. The updated scale uses engineered wind estimates and has better damage descriptions. The EF Scale was designed so that a tornado rated on the Fujita scale would get the same numerical rating, and was used in the United States since 2007. An EF0 tornado will probably damage trees but not big buildings, whereas an EF5 tornado can rip buildings off their foundations leaving them destroyed and even damage big skyscrapers.
+
+In the United States, 80% of tornadoes are EF0 and EF1 (T0 through T3) tornadoes. Less than 1% of tornadoes are violent tornadoes (EF4, T8 or stronger).[8]
+
+A "tornado watch" is given when the weather conditions look like a tornado could form. A 'PDS (Particularly Dangerous Situation)' watch is given when a likely tornado outbreak is to start, many strong tornadoes will form in the area, or an ongoing tornado outbreak is in the works in the area. A "tornado warning" is given if somebody has actually seen a tornado or if a tornado 'signature' (usually the storm has a 'hook' or 'U' echo) has shown up on radar.[9] Tornado emergencies are issued in Special Weather Statements or Tornado Warnings saying that a powerful tornado is about to hit an area with a lot of people in it (especially cities in Tornado Alley), a tornado has been spotted, and the tornado is expected to cause deaths.
+
+It is often thought that opening windows will lessen the damage caused by a tornado. While there is a big drop in atmospheric pressure inside a strong tornado, it is unlikely that the pressure drop would be enough to cause the house to explode. Opening windows may actually increase the tornado's damage.[10] A violent tornado can destroy a house whether its windows are open or closed.[10][11]
+Another common misconception is that highway overpasses provide adequate shelter from tornadoes. Due to the Venturi effect, tornadic winds are stronger in the small space of an overpass.[12] In the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak of May 3, 1999, three highway overpasses were directly hit by tornadoes. At each of the three places there was a death, along with many life-threatening injuries.[13] By comparison, during the same tornado outbreak, more than 2000 homes were completely destroyed, with another 7000 damaged, and yet only a few dozen people died in their homes.[14]
+
+There are areas which people believe to be safe from tornadoes, whether by being in a city, near a major river, hill, or mountain, or even protected by supernatural forces.[15] Tornadoes have been known to cross major rivers, climb mountains,[16] hit valleys, and have damaged several city centers. As a general rule, no area is safe from tornadoes, though some areas are more likely to be hit than others.[10][11][17]
+
+To keep safe in a tornado, here are some tips you can follow:[18]

ensimple/5727.html.txt

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+Pokémon (ポケモン, Pokémon, English pronunciation: /ˈpoʊkeɪmɒn, ˈpɒkimɒn/; often spelled wrongly as "Pokemon") is a media franchise owned by The Pokémon Company. It is based on the concept of catching, collecting, raising, trading and battling with hundreds of different creatures. The concept was made by Satoshi Tajiri, Pokémon's creator. It is represented in many types of media, most famously video games, a still-running anime series, manga, and a trading card game. There are eight regions in these games. Although there are 890 different types of Pokémon, most people will know of the mascot of the company, an electric mouse Pokémon known as Pikachu.
+
+The video games have sold more copies than every other series except Nintendo's Mario series.[1]
+
+A number of Pokémon games have been released, mostly on Nintendo systems, with the exception of Pokémon GO as The Pokémon Company is owned by Nintendo.
+
+Most games are based on catching, training and battling Pokémon, and the player is a Pokémon trainer who does all these things. There are a number of aspects to the games.
+
+In the games, Pokémon are creatures that trainers catch (using various types of capture devices known as Poké Balls), train, battle, collect, and trade with each other. As of the seventh generation, there are 802 of them. One of the most popular Pokémon in competitive battling is Mega Kangaskhan, because of its ability to hit the target twice with each move.
+
+Another Pokemon game is the famous Pokemon GO that can be played only on touch phones. It has a big difference from the other games but its basics are the same. This game uses Augmented Reality and the phone's GPS to give the player a very real sense of play. People literally walk around their neighborhoods, explore new places and catch Pokemon which can be captured along with your surrounding environment by using the phone's camera. People can also go to special places or landmarks where there would be Poké Stops and Gyms which can be used to collect items, battle other Pokemon etc. This game has been a huge success when it was released and is widely considered as the beginning of the AR era.
+
+The gameplay of the Pokémon series of role-playing video games involves the capture and training of many of fictional creatures called "Pokémon" and using them to battle other trainers. Each generation of games builds upon this idea by introducing new Pokémon, items, and gameplay concepts. Some of the general ideas were featured elsewhere before being introduced in the games; double battles appeared in the anime long before appearing in the games, and Pokémon abilities are similar to the Pokémon Powers first seen in the Pokémon Trading Card Game.
+
+Not long after Pokémon Red and Blue (the first Pokémon video games) were released, a Pokémon anime was created. It was first shown in Japan in late 1997, and in the United States in late 1998. The anime started what has been called "Pokémania", which meant that after the anime came out, it became very popular among children, and many parents assumed it was a fad and no one would care about it in a couple years. However, it was never cancelled, and it is still running, although it is not as popular as in 1998 and 1999.
+
+The interesting thing about the Pokémon Anime is that when a new Pokémon game is released that is not a remake, the whole Anime focuses on that with new Pokémon and the world that is in that Pokémon game.
+
+The anime shows the adventures of Ash Ketchum, (with the exception of some special series)  a ten-year-old Pokémon trainer who has many adventures, meeting many new people and Pokémon. His most famous Pokémon, and probably the most famous Pokémon, is Pikachu.
+
+A number of Pokémon films have also been made that relate to the anime. The first one was Pokémon: The First Movie (released in 1998 in Japan and 1999 in United States). There are more movies still being made. There have now been seventeen films released.
+
+A Pokémon trading card game also exists. Players use Pokémon cards to battle each other and collect them by opening packs. There are also live tournaments hosted by Nintendo. Pokémon's damage is counted by "damage counters" or objects which are placed on the cards to keep track of damage. After you add up all of the numbers on the damage counters, you subtract it from the card's HP (health points) to find out how much HP is left. Only 60 cards are used in a player's deck, and six of these are set aside in a pile called "prize cards." After one player knocks out an opponent's card, the defeater takes just one face-down prize card for non-EX Pokémon. Meanwhile, when someone makes an EX Pokémon faint, he or she gets two prize cards. There is one discard pile for each player, where fainted Pokémon go. Some ways to win are taking all of your prize cards, and/or making your opponent draw all of his or her cards.
+
+There are cards designed as various Pokémon, which usually need "Energy" cards to use attacks. There are also "Trainer" cards, which are used for additional things other than direct Pokémon attacks, like giving Pokemon more HP. Most fans of the series agree that a good deck is made of about twenty "Pokémon" cards, twenty "Energy" cards, and twenty "Trainer" cards.
+
+Players can evolve their Benched or Active Pokémon. The Bench is a spot that can hold Pokémon, and these Pokémon can be evolved with its evolution card. Active Pokémon can evolve too, but can also use attacks. To evolve a Pokémon, you can just put its evolution card on top of it.
+
+All Pokémon cards have types. The type affects how effective an attack is. For example, a certain Lightning-type Pikachu card can use an attack that normally deals 80 damage. If the Pikachu uses it against a Pokémon with a Weakness of +20 to Lighting, you add 20 more damage to the normal damage to make it 100. Types can also make things less effective.
+
+There is also a special kind of Pokémon in the trading card game called "EX" Pokémon. EX & GX Pokémon are stronger than regular ones, but when they are knocked out, the player's opponent draws two of their prize cards (with regular Pokémon it is just one.) Also, there is another special type of Pokémon in the trading card game called "Delta Species" Pokémon, which have types that are different than typical cards, like an Electric-type Charmander, who is usually Fire-type. In the "Diamond & Pearl" trading card game expansion, "LV.X" cards were introduced. These are a little like evolution cards, but they can only be used on Active Pokémon. In the "HeartGold & SoulSilver" expansion, The Pokémon Company released new cards, called LEGEND cards. LEGEND cards are two cards sold separately that when put together make one picture. They can be used only when the two cards they are made of are put together; they cannot work separately.
+
+The Pokémon media franchise, especially the anime, has been often criticized by organizations such as PETA.
+
+An episode of the anime called "Dennō Senshi Porygon" ("Electric Soldier Porygon" in the United States) was first shown in Japan on December 16, 1997. One part of the episode showed quickly flashing red and blue lights. This caused 685 Japanese children to have epileptic seizures.[2] Because of this, the anime went on a four-month break, and several laws were put in place regarding the flashing lights.
+
+Porygon, one of the main characters in the episode, has not appeared again in the anime ever since "Dennō Senshi Porygon". It has two evolved forms, Porygon2 and Porygon-Z, and neither of them have appeared in the anime at all, even though it was Ash Ketchum's Pikachu that made the explosion that caused the flashing lights.
+
+An episode of The Simpsons called "Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo" made fun of "Dennō Senshi Porygon". So did an episode of South Park called "Chinpokomon".
+
+Jynx, a species of Pokémon, was criticized because it looked like it was using blackface (an old film-making technique that makes white actors look African-American).[3]  It was also criticized because it looked like a drag queen (a man who dresses as a woman). This was not an issue in Japan, but it caused a lot of argument in the United States because of the United States' history of racism. Ever since then, Jynx has purple skin instead of black skin, and anime episodes featuring it were banned due to argument.
+
+Registeel, one of the regi-trios was criticized for being too similar to a Hitler's salute. In the Gen IV sprites for Registeel, it appears it is saluting. This only took place in the Japanese copies. When the English translations got released they have censored in such a way it was not saluting.
+
+Another Nazi-related censorship was the card Koga's Ninga Trick. In this card, there are various symbols, one of them being the swastika. In the Asian culture, this symbol meant peace and relaxation/ While over the last century, it has turned into a demonic symbol. In the English translation, it has turned into another symbol.

ensimple/5728.html.txt

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+
+
+Cryptodira
+Pleurodira
+†Meiolaniidae and see text
+
+Turtles are the reptile order Testudines. They have a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield.[3]
+
+The order Testudines includes both living and extinct species. The earliest fossil turtle comes from the early Upper Triassic of China, about 220 million years ago.[4] So turtles are one of the oldest surviving reptile groups and a more ancient group than lizards, snakes and crocodiles.
+
+Molecular evidence shows they are definitely archosauromorphs, the group of diapsid reptiles which also includes the dinosaurs.[4]box 5.1, p123/4
+
+Turtles have been very successful, and have  almost world-wide distribution. But, of the many species alive today, some are highly endangered.[5]
+
+Although the word turtle is widely used to describe all members of the order Testudines, it is also common to see certain members described as terrapins, tortoises or sea turtles, as well. How these names are used, if at all, depends on the type of English.
+
+To avoid confusion, the word "chelonian" is popular among some who work with these animals, as a catch-all name.[7] Unfortunately, Chelonia is also the name of a particular genus of turtles, so this conflicts with its use for the entire order Testudines.
+
+Although many turtles spend much of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. Some spend their whole lives on dry land.
+
+Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is being studied. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called papillae, have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire.
+
+Like other reptiles, turtles lay eggs which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually.
+
+In some species, there is temperature-dependent sex determination. Temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. No turtle mother cares for its young.
+
+Researchers have recently discovered a turtle’s organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are almost identical with that of its young counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.[8]
+
+Turtles are divided into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their necks into their shells. The Cryptodira (hidden neck) can draw their necks in while contracting it under their spine. The Pleurodira (side neck), now found only in fresh water environments in the Southern hemisphere, contract their necks to the side. So, the important adaptation of head withdrawing evolved twice from ancestral turtles which did not have this ability.
+
+Turtles have a hard beak. Turtles use their jaws to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knife-sharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Turtles use their tongues to swallow food, but they cannot, unlike most reptiles, stick out their tongues to catch food.
+
+The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the plastron. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called bridges.
+
+The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones. It includes parts of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called scutes that are part of its outer skin, or epidermis. Scutes are made up of a fibrous protein called keratin that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes. For example, the leatherback sea turtle and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead.
+
+The largest chelonian is a marine turtle, the great leatherback sea turtle, which reaches a shell length of 200 cm (80 inches) and can reach a weight of over 900 kg (2,000 lb, or 1 short ton). Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported to measure up to 200 cm or 80 in (Das, 1991). This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America, which attains a shell length of up to 80 cm (31½ in) and a weight of about 60 kg (170 lb).
+
+The lagest fossil turtle, Archelon, was more than twice the length of the leatherback, at up to 4.5 metres.
+
+The first fossil proto-turtles come from Upper Triassic of the Mesozoic era, about 220 million years ago. Their shell evolved from bony extensions of their backbones and broad ribs that expanded and grew together to form a complete shell. It offered protection at every stage of its evolution, even when the bony component of the shell was not complete. This proved a long-lasting adaptation, and the group as a whole has survived many changes in the seas, and several extinction events.
+
+Fossils of the freshwater Odontochelys semitestacea or "half-shelled turtle with teeth", from the later Triassic, have been found in southwest China. Odontochelys displays a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace, similar to an early stage of turtle embryonic development.[9] By the Upper Jurassic, turtles had radiated widely, and their fossil history becomes easier to read.
+
+Their exact ancestry has been a puzzle. Early amniotes had no openings in the skull behind the eyes. Openings developed in both Sauropsid and Synapsid skulls. They made the skull lighter, gave attachment points for muscles, and gave room for muscle bulges. But turtles do not have these skull openings. They were called 'anapsids', meaning 'no openings'.
+
+Eventually it was suggested that turtles evolved from sauropsids which had skull openings, but turtles lost them as part of their evolution towards heavy defensive armour.[10] All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids; some place turtles within Archosauria,[11] or as a sister group to extant archosaurs.[12][13][14][15][16]
+
+The earliest known fully shelled turtles are the late Triassic Odontochelys, Chinlechelys and Proganochelys. The first-named genus was aquatic, but the second was probably terrestrial.[17] They already had many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably had many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution and species in their ancestry. They did lack the ability to pull their heads into their shell (and they had a long neck), and (Odontochelys) had a long, spiked tail ending in a club, a body form similar to that of ankylosaurs, resulting from convergent evolution.
+
+Turtles are divided into two living suborders, the Cryptodira and the Pleurodira. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group mostly consists of freshwater turtles.

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+
+
+Cryptodira
+Pleurodira
+†Meiolaniidae and see text
+
+Turtles are the reptile order Testudines. They have a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield.[3]
+
+The order Testudines includes both living and extinct species. The earliest fossil turtle comes from the early Upper Triassic of China, about 220 million years ago.[4] So turtles are one of the oldest surviving reptile groups and a more ancient group than lizards, snakes and crocodiles.
+
+Molecular evidence shows they are definitely archosauromorphs, the group of diapsid reptiles which also includes the dinosaurs.[4]box 5.1, p123/4
+
+Turtles have been very successful, and have  almost world-wide distribution. But, of the many species alive today, some are highly endangered.[5]
+
+Although the word turtle is widely used to describe all members of the order Testudines, it is also common to see certain members described as terrapins, tortoises or sea turtles, as well. How these names are used, if at all, depends on the type of English.
+
+To avoid confusion, the word "chelonian" is popular among some who work with these animals, as a catch-all name.[7] Unfortunately, Chelonia is also the name of a particular genus of turtles, so this conflicts with its use for the entire order Testudines.
+
+Although many turtles spend much of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. Some spend their whole lives on dry land.
+
+Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is being studied. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called papillae, have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire.
+
+Like other reptiles, turtles lay eggs which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually.
+
+In some species, there is temperature-dependent sex determination. Temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. No turtle mother cares for its young.
+
+Researchers have recently discovered a turtle’s organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are almost identical with that of its young counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.[8]
+
+Turtles are divided into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their necks into their shells. The Cryptodira (hidden neck) can draw their necks in while contracting it under their spine. The Pleurodira (side neck), now found only in fresh water environments in the Southern hemisphere, contract their necks to the side. So, the important adaptation of head withdrawing evolved twice from ancestral turtles which did not have this ability.
+
+Turtles have a hard beak. Turtles use their jaws to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knife-sharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Turtles use their tongues to swallow food, but they cannot, unlike most reptiles, stick out their tongues to catch food.
+
+The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the plastron. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called bridges.
+
+The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones. It includes parts of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called scutes that are part of its outer skin, or epidermis. Scutes are made up of a fibrous protein called keratin that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes. For example, the leatherback sea turtle and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead.
+
+The largest chelonian is a marine turtle, the great leatherback sea turtle, which reaches a shell length of 200 cm (80 inches) and can reach a weight of over 900 kg (2,000 lb, or 1 short ton). Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported to measure up to 200 cm or 80 in (Das, 1991). This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America, which attains a shell length of up to 80 cm (31½ in) and a weight of about 60 kg (170 lb).
+
+The lagest fossil turtle, Archelon, was more than twice the length of the leatherback, at up to 4.5 metres.
+
+The first fossil proto-turtles come from Upper Triassic of the Mesozoic era, about 220 million years ago. Their shell evolved from bony extensions of their backbones and broad ribs that expanded and grew together to form a complete shell. It offered protection at every stage of its evolution, even when the bony component of the shell was not complete. This proved a long-lasting adaptation, and the group as a whole has survived many changes in the seas, and several extinction events.
+
+Fossils of the freshwater Odontochelys semitestacea or "half-shelled turtle with teeth", from the later Triassic, have been found in southwest China. Odontochelys displays a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace, similar to an early stage of turtle embryonic development.[9] By the Upper Jurassic, turtles had radiated widely, and their fossil history becomes easier to read.
+
+Their exact ancestry has been a puzzle. Early amniotes had no openings in the skull behind the eyes. Openings developed in both Sauropsid and Synapsid skulls. They made the skull lighter, gave attachment points for muscles, and gave room for muscle bulges. But turtles do not have these skull openings. They were called 'anapsids', meaning 'no openings'.
+
+Eventually it was suggested that turtles evolved from sauropsids which had skull openings, but turtles lost them as part of their evolution towards heavy defensive armour.[10] All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids; some place turtles within Archosauria,[11] or as a sister group to extant archosaurs.[12][13][14][15][16]
+
+The earliest known fully shelled turtles are the late Triassic Odontochelys, Chinlechelys and Proganochelys. The first-named genus was aquatic, but the second was probably terrestrial.[17] They already had many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably had many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution and species in their ancestry. They did lack the ability to pull their heads into their shell (and they had a long neck), and (Odontochelys) had a long, spiked tail ending in a club, a body form similar to that of ankylosaurs, resulting from convergent evolution.
+
+Turtles are divided into two living suborders, the Cryptodira and the Pleurodira. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group mostly consists of freshwater turtles.

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+St. Peter's Basilica, which is called "Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano" in Italian, is a large church in the Vatican City, in Rome, Italy. It is often called "the greatest church in Christendom".[2][3] In Catholic tradition, St. Peter's Basilica is believed to be the burial place of Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. It is believed that Saint Peter was the first Bishop of Rome.
+
+Although the Bible does not say that the apostle Peter went to Rome, other Roman Christians who were alive in the 1st century AD have written about him.[4] Catholics believe that after Peter was killed, his body was buried in a cemetery where the basilica now stands. A tomb has been found below the altar of the basilica, and there were some bones, but no-one can say for certain if they are the bones of St. Peter.
+
+A church was built here in the 4th century AD. The building that stands here now was begun on April 18, 1506 and was finished in 1626.[5] Many Popes have been buried there. Although many people think St. Peter's is a cathedral, it is not, because it does not have a bishop. The pope is the Bishop of Rome, and although he usually uses St. Peter's as his main church, because he lives in the Vatican, his bishop's throne is in a different church, the cathedral of Saint John Lateran. Large important churches like St. Peter's are often called basilicas. There are four ancient basilicas in Rome that were begun by the Emperor Constantine soon after he made Christianity the legal religion of the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD (300s). The basilicas are St. Peter's Basilica, St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul outside the Walls.
+
+St. Peter's is famous for many reasons:
+
+One of the books of the Bible, called the Acts of the Apostles, tells what happened to the disciples of Jesus after he was put to death by crucifixion in the 1st century AD. One of his twelve disciples became the leader. His name was Simon Peter and he was a fisherman from Galilee. Peter became one of the most important people in starting the Christian Church. Another important disciple was Paul of Tarsus, who travelled to many places and wrote lots of letters to teach and to encourage people in the new Christian groups that began to spring up in many different parts of the Roman Empire. St. Paul travelled to Rome. It is believed that St. Peter also travelled to Rome and that both Paul and Peter were put to death there as Christian martyrs. St. Paul was beheaded with a sword. Peter was crucified up-side-down. It is believed that the body of St. Peter was buried in a cemetery near the Via Cornelia, a road leading out of the city, on the hill called Vaticanus. Peter's grave was marked, by a red rock, the symbol of his name. The place where Peter died was marked, in the 1400s, by a little round temple called the "Tempietto" designed by Bramante.
+
+St. Peter is very important in Roman Catholic tradition because Peter is believed to have been the head of the Christian Church in Rome, and so he was the first bishop. The Gospel of Matthew (chapter 16, verse 18) tells that Jesus said these words to Peter:
+
+The name Peter means a "rock". The Roman Catholic Church believes that Jesus made Peter the head of the Christian Church, and so all the Bishops of Rome (the Popes) must be the leaders of the Christian Church throughout the whole world. The Protestant and Orthodox churches believe that Jesus was speaking about the important words Peter had just said: "You are the Christ and the Son of the Living God" (Matthew 16:16), and that this Confession of Faith is the rock that the Christian Church is built on.
+
+On December 23, 1950, while making his Christmas radio broadcast to the world, Pope Pius XII announced that Saint Peter's tomb had been discovered.[8] Archaeologists had been searching for ten years in a place under the basilica that had been covered up for about a thousand years. They had found part of a small building dating from soon after St. Peter's death, and some bones, but no-one could be sure if they were the bones of St. Peter.
+
+St. Peter's Basilica, as it stand today, was begun in 1506. The first basilica, which is now called "Old St. Peter's Basilica" was begun by the Emperor Constantine between 326 and 333 AD. This was a big wide church in the shape of a Latin Cross, over 103.6 metres (350 feet) long. The central part called the "nave" had two aisles on either side, separated by rows of talls Roman columns. In front of the main entrance was large courtyard with a covered walkway all around. This church had been built over a small "shrine" (little chapel) believed to mark the burial place of St. Peter. The old basilica contained a very large number of tombs and memorials, including those of most of the popes from St. Peter to the 15th century.[9]
+
+By the end of the 15th century (1400s), the old basilica was falling to pieces. Pope Nicholas V, (1447–55), was worried about it and got two architects, Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino, to make plans to restore it or build a new one. But Pope Nicholas had so many political problems that when he died, very little of the work had been done.[10]
+In 1505, Pope Julius II decided to demolish (pull down) the old St. Peter's and build a basilica that would be the grandest church in the world and make Rome (and himself) famous.[6] He held a competition and invited lots of artists and architects to draw designs. A plan was selected and the build was begun, but Pope Julius did not get his new basilica. In fact, it was not finished for 120 years. The planning and construction (or "building work") lasted through the reigns of 21 popes and 8 architects.
+
+The changing plans for St. Peter's. The architectural terms are explained in the article.
+
+The Old Saint Peter's Basilica drawn by H. W. Brewer, 1891. He used very old drawings and writings to work out how it must have looked.
+
+Bramante's plan is for a Greek Cross with a dome on four big piers. There is a tower at each corner.
+
+Raphael's plan is simpler and is for a Latin Cross like the old basilica.
+
+The finished basilica shows Michelangelo's plan, with four huge piers. It also shows Maderna's nave, portico and facade.
+
+When Pope Julius decided to build the "grandest church in Christendom"[6] the design by Donato Bramante was chosen, and Pope Julius laid the foundation stone in 1506. Bramante's plan was in the shape of an enormous Greek Cross, which means that it had four arms all of equal length, and a large dome at the middle. For the next hundred years, the groundplan got changed backwards and forwards between a "Greek Cross" like Bramante's plan and a "Latin Cross" like the old basilica, but one thing never changed, and that was the idea of having an enormous dome at the place where the two arms crossed.
+
+At that time, there were only three very large domes in the whole world. One was far away in Constantinople on the church of Hagia Sophia and not many people in Italy had seen it. The other two domes were both very well known. One was the dome on the temple to the Ancient Roman gods, called the Pantheon. The other dome was built in the early 15th century (1400s) on Florence Cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi. The dome of the Pantheon is 43.3 metres (142.06 ft) across and the dome of Florence Cathedral is about 42.1 metres (138 ft), but is much taller. Bramante's plan for the dome of St. Peter's was for it to be about as wide as the dome of Florence, and even taller.
+
+No architect with any sense would try to design a dome without first checking out how these other two domes were made. Bramante checked them out. He discovered that the dome of the Pantheon, which had been standing for nearly 1500 years, was made of concrete. So that the concrete wouldn't be too heavy, it was mixed with pumice stone which comes out of a volcano and is full of gas holes so it is very light weight. Bramante learned how to make concrete like the Ancient Romans.
+
+Bramante's dome was to be like the one on the Pantheon. But there was one very big difference between the Pantheon dome and Bramante's design. The Pantheon's dome stands on a round wall like a drum, with only one doorway in it, but Bramante's dome was designed to stand on a drum, which was standing high up on four wide arches. The aches rested on four enormous piers (pillars of stone). He had got this idea from Florence Cathedral which had an enormous dome resting on eight big piers. Another idea that Bramante got from Florence Cathedral was the design for the little stone tower which sits on top of the dome and is called the lantern.
+
+When Pope Julius died in 1513, the next pope, Leo X, called in three architects, Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Sangallo and Fr Giocondo both died in 1515. Raphael made a big change to the plan. Instead of having a Greek Cross, he decided to change the plan to a Latin Cross, which had a long nave and aisles like the old basilica.[11]
+
+Raphael also died, in his mid-30s, in 1520, before any important changes could be made to the building. The next architect was Peruzzi who like some of the ideas that Raphael had, but did not like the Latin Cross plan. Peruzzi went back to Bramante's Greek Cross plan.[12] But there were so many arguments in the church that the building stopped completely. Then in 1527 Rome was invaded by Emperor Charles V. Peruzzi died in 1536 without his plan being built.[6] The only main parts of the building which had been constructed were Bramante's four big piers to hold the dome.
+
+Antonio da Sangallo (known as "Sangallo the Younger") looked at all the different plans by Peruzzi, Raphael and Bramante. He put some of their ideas together in a design that had a very short nave, (not a long one like Raphael's design) and had a big porch at the front. He changed Bramante's dome to be much stronger and also much more decorated. The main new idea that he added were 16 stone ribs to strengthen the dome. This idea came from Florence Cathedral which had eight stone ribs.[13] But Sangallo's plan never got built, either. The main job that he did was to strengthen Bramante's piers which had begun to crack.[14]
+
+On January 1st, 1547 in the reign of Pope Paul III, Michelangelo, who was already over 70, became the architect of St. Peter's.[15] He is the main designer of the building as it stands today. Michelangelo died before the job was finished, but by that time, he had got the construction up to a point where other people could get it finished. Michelangelo had already done a lot of work for the popes, carving figures for the tomb of Pope Julius II, painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling, which took five years, and the enormous fresco the "Last Judgement" on the wall of the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo found the popes and the cardinals very difficult to work with. When Pope Paul asked him to be the new architect for St. Peter's, Michelangelo did not want the job. In fact, Pope Paul did not really want Michelangelo. But his first choice, Giulio Romano, died suddenly. Michelangelo told the pope that he would only do the job, if he could do it in whatever way he thought was best.[14]
+
+Michelangelo wrote:
+
+When Michelangelo took over a building site in 1547, the nave of the old basilica was still standing and in use. There were four of the most enormous piers in the world standing where the western part of the old basilica had been. The building work had stopped for so long that weeds and bushes were growing out between the stones of the unfinished building as if it was a cliff. Michelangelo looked at all the plans that had been drawn by some of the greatest architects and engineers of the 16th century. He knew he could do whatever he liked but he had respect for the other designers, especially Bramante. He knew that he was expected to make a design that would be the symbol of the city of Rome, in the same way as Brunelleschi's dome was the symbol of Florence where Michelangelo had lived as a young man. He went back to the Greek Cross idea and re-drew Bramante's plan, making every part of it much stronger and simpler.[16] It had to be strong enough to support the tallest dome in the world.
+
+Michelangelo was a sculptor. When he was going to carve something, he would start by making a clay model. Michelangelo could imagine the building like a lump of clay. What if the building could be pushed and pulled and squeezed? If you could squeeze the corners in, then other bits would bulge out. If you could put your hands around the whole building and squeeze it, then the dome would bulge upwards. The idea of imagining buildings as bendy and bulgy was a completely new one. But other artists like Gianlorenzo Bernini looked at what Michelangelo did at St. Peter's and used this clever new idea in their own work. This is called the Baroque style.
+
+As it stands today, the Greek Cross part of the basilica is Michelangelo's design and the nave, which was added later, is by Carlo Maderna.[17] Comparing Michelangelo's plan with Raphael's plan shows that while the outside-line of Raphael's plan has clear square and round shapes, the outside-line in Michelangelo's plan has lots of changes of direction. That is the way it was built. All around the outside of the building are enormous "pilasters" (which are like giant columns stuck on the building). Almost every pilaster is set at a different angle to the next one as if the flat walls had been folded up. Right around the top of the building is a band called the "cornice". A "cornice" is usually quite flat, but because of all the changes of direction, this cornice ripples like a giant piece of ribbon, tied around the outside of the building.[18] The art historian Helen Gardner wrote that it looked as of the whole building was being held together from top to bottom.[16]
+
+Michelangelo designed the dome again, using ideas from Bramante and Sangallo the Younger. Three important ideas came from the dome that Brunelleschi had built in Florence more than 100 years earlier.
+
+When Michelangelo died in 1564, the walls were being built, the piers had been strengthened and everything was ready for the building of the dome. The Pope wanted Michelangelo's assistant Vignola to finish it, but he was not able to. After twenty years Pope Sixtus V gave the job to the architect Giacomo della Porta and the engineer Domenico Fontana.[6][14] Giacomo Della Porta successfully built the dome. He made some changes to the design, like adding some lions' heads to the decoration because they were the symbol of Pope Sixtus' family. The main way that the dome is different from the wooden model is that it is much more pointy.[14]
+
+Some writers believe that Michelangelo had changed his mind from his first plan, and did not want the pointy dome. They believe he wanted a round dome which would look more "restful". Other writers believe that Michelangelo wanted the pointed dome, not just because it was safer to build, but also because it looked more exciting, as if the building was pushing upwards.[16][18] Pope Sixtus V lived just long enough to see the dome finished in 1590. His name is written in gold letters around the inside, just below the lantern.
+
+Pope Clement III, had a cross raised into place on top of the lantern. It took a whole day and everyone in Rome was given a holiday, and all the church-bells of the city were rung. In the arms of the cross are set two lead boxes, one containing a fragment of the True Cross and a bone of Saint Andrew and the other containing medals of the "Holy Lamb".[14][19]
+
+The dome of St. Peter's rises to a height of 136.57 m (448.06 ft) from the floor of the basilica. It is the tallest dome in the world.[20] Its inside diameter is 41.47 metres (136.06 ft), just slightly smaller than those of the Pantheon and the Florence Cathedral.
+
+Around the inside of the dome is written in letters 2 metres (6.5 ft) high:
+
+In 1602 Pope Paul V put Carlo Maderna in charge of the building. On February 18 1606, workmen began to pull down the rest of the old basilica. Some people were very upset. The building committee felt guilty. They decided that the church was the wrong shape, and that they wanted a Latin Cross plan because it was the symbol of the death of Jesus.[14] They wanted a nave which would cover all the Holy Ground where the old building had been. In 1607 Maderna's plans for the nave and the facade (the front) were accepted. For the inside, he used very large piers with pilasters like Michelangelo's, but he made a clear join between the two parts of the building. The building work began on May 7 1607 and 700 men were employed to do the work. In 1608, the facade was begun. In December 1614 the building was all finished except for the decorations on the ceiling. Early in 1615 the temporary wall between Michelangelo's building and the new nave was pulled down. All the mess was carted away, and the nave was ready for use by Palm Sunday.[14]
+
+The façade was designed by Maderna. It is 114.69 metres (376.28 ft) wide and 45.55 metres (149.44 ft) high and is built of pale grey travertine stone, with a giant Corinthian columns and a central triangular pediment. Along the roof-line are statues of Christ, John the Baptist, and eleven of the apostles.
+
+Inside the main doors is a portico (a long hall) which runs across the front of the building and has five doors leading into the basilica. Its has a long curving roof decorated with gold. The light that comes through the doors shines on the beautifully patterned marble floor. At each end of the portico, set between columns, is a statue of a figure on horseback. They are Charlemagne sculpted by Cornacchini (18th century) to the south and Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) to the north. Maderna's last work at St. Peter's was to design a sunken crypt called the "Confessio" under the dome, where people can go to be nearer the burial place of the apostle. All around its marble handrail are 95 bronze lamps.
+
+As a young boy Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) visited St. Peter's and said that one day he wanted to build "a mighty throne for the apostle". His wish came true. As a young man, in 1626, Pope Urban VIII asked him to work as architect for the basilica. Bernini spent the next fifty years thinking of new and beautiful things to design. He is thought of as the greatest architect and sculptor of the Baroque period.[14][16]
+
+Bernini's first work at St. Peter's was to design the "baldacchino" which is like a tent or "pavilion" above the High Altar. This amazing thing is 30 metres (98 ft) tall and is probably the largest piece of bronze in the world. It stands underneath the dome and has four huge bronze twisted columns decorated with olive leaves and bees, because bees were the symbol of Pope Urban. Pope Urban had a niece that he loved very much and he got Bernini to put her face and the face of her new-born baby boy on the columns as well.[14][16]
+
+Bernini had a great idea for Bramante's great big piers. He had four hollow "niches" carved into them where four huge statues could stand. The basilica owns some precious relics: a piece of the True Cross of Jesus, a veil that a woman wiped the face of Jesus with, while he was carrying the cross, the spear that was used to pierce Jesus side, and the bones of St. Andrew, the brother of St. Peter. No-one knows for sure whether these things are real or not, but for hundreds of years they have been precious. Bernini's plan was the make four marble statues of the four Holy people: St. Helena who found the cross, St. Longinus who was the soldier with the spear, St Veronica who wiped Jesus' face and St. Andrew.[14] (See below)
+
+Bernini's next job was to make a special throne out of bronze, to hold an ancient wood and ivory throne that had been at the basilica for more than 500 years. It is called the Cattedra Petri or "throne of St. Peter". The bronze throne, with the old wooden throne inside it, is held up high at the end of the basilica, by four important saints who are called "Doctors of the Church" because they were all great writers and teachers.[21] The statues are made of bronze. They are Saints Ambrose and Augustine for the Church of Rome and Saints Athanasius and John Chrysostum for the Orthodox Church. Above the chair is a window which is made not from glass but thin translucent stone called alabaster. The Dove of the Holy Spirit is in the middle of the window with rays of light spreading out into the basilica through a sculpture of golden clouds and angels. Bernini designed this to look like a window into Heaven. There was a great celebration when the chair was put in place on January 16, 1666.[14][16]
+
+Bernini's last work for St. Peter's, 1676, was to decorate of the Chapel of the Sacrament. He designed a miniature version of Bramante's Tempietto, and made it in gilt bronze. On either side is an angel, one gazing in adoration and the other looking towards the viewer in welcome. Bernini died in 1680 in his 82nd year.[14]
+
+To the east of the basilica is the Piazza di San Pietro (St. Peter's Place).[22] The piazza was designed by Bernini and built between 1656 and 1667. It was not an easy job because the designer had lots of things to think about. Firstly, many people complained that Maderna's facade on St. Peter's looked too wide, so Bernini wanted to make it look narrower, not wider. Secondly, in the old square left over from the Old St. Peter's, Pope Sixtus V had a monument set up. This monument was a precious Ancient Egyptian obelisk (which is like a tall column, but with four flat sides). From its base to the top of the cross (that the pope had put on top) it was 40 metres (131 ft) high, and had been brought to Rome in ancient times. The obelisk really should be at the center of the new square, but it was not in quite the right place, and was very difficult to move without breaking. The third problem was that Maderna had built a fountain to one side of the obelisk, and Bernini needed to make another fountain to match it, otherwise the design would look unbalanced.[14]
+
+Bernini solved the problem by making two areas, instead of one huge one. The first area is an almost-square area right in front of the facade. It is cleverly designed with sloping sides that make the building look taller and not so wide. The second part of the piazza is oval. It has the obelisk at the center with two fountains on either side at the widest part. The two parts of the piazza are surrounded by a colonnade (covered walk-way) which is carried on tall columns. All around are large statues of saints which seem to look down on the thousands of visitors that come to the square every day. The colonnade is in two great arcs that seem to stretch out like loving arms, welcoming people to the Basilica.[16] In recent times some buildings were demolished, making another square, to match the one near the piazza.
+
+The famous architectural historian, Sir Banister Fletcher, said that no other city in the world had given such a wonderful view to people visiting their main church. He said that no other architect except Bernini could have imagined such a noble design. He said it is the greatest entrance to the greatest Christian church in the whole world.[23]
+
+St. Peter's Basilica has many treasures. These include Christian relics, the tombs of popes and many other important people, famous artworks which are mostly sculpture and other interesting things.
+
+The Egyptian obelisk stands in the centre of the piazza.
+
+The fountains of Maderna and Bernini are lit up at night.
+
+Outside the basilica stand two statues. This is St. Paul.
+
+There are many statues on the colonnade and roof.
+
+The Holy Door is opened only for great celebrations.
+
+No-one knows how old the statue of St. Peter is. Its feet are worn down from people kissing them.
+
+The Pietà by Michelangelo is the most famous artwork in St. Peter's. It shows the Virgin Mary holding the body of her son, Jesus.
+
+The body of The Blessed Pope John XXIII can be seen inside his tomb.
+
+There are many sculptured decorations like this angel.
+
+The window of the Holy Spirit designed by Bernini
+
+Many parts of the basilica are decorated with mosaics. This is St. John the Gospel Writer.
+
+The mosaic decoration of this small dome shows the Blessed Virgin Mary in Heaven.
+
+The Dove of Peace showing the different coloured marbles used to decorate the piers.
+
+The tomb of Queen Christina of Sweden, who gave up her throne and became a nun.
+
+The tomb of Pope Innocent XII has the figures of Caring and Justice.
+
+This carved altarpiece shows Attila the Hun being driven out of Rome.
+
+Four large statues are in the piers near the High Altar. Saint Helena holds the True Cross which she found in Jerusalem.
+
+Saint Longinus carries the spear that pierced the side of Jesus.
+
+Saint Andrew carries the cross on which he was crucified. His bones are at St. Peter's
+
+Saint Veronica carries the veil that she used to wipe the face of Jesus, when he was carrying his cross.
+

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+
+
+Cryptodira
+Pleurodira
+†Meiolaniidae and see text
+
+Turtles are the reptile order Testudines. They have a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield.[3]
+
+The order Testudines includes both living and extinct species. The earliest fossil turtle comes from the early Upper Triassic of China, about 220 million years ago.[4] So turtles are one of the oldest surviving reptile groups and a more ancient group than lizards, snakes and crocodiles.
+
+Molecular evidence shows they are definitely archosauromorphs, the group of diapsid reptiles which also includes the dinosaurs.[4]box 5.1, p123/4
+
+Turtles have been very successful, and have  almost world-wide distribution. But, of the many species alive today, some are highly endangered.[5]
+
+Although the word turtle is widely used to describe all members of the order Testudines, it is also common to see certain members described as terrapins, tortoises or sea turtles, as well. How these names are used, if at all, depends on the type of English.
+
+To avoid confusion, the word "chelonian" is popular among some who work with these animals, as a catch-all name.[7] Unfortunately, Chelonia is also the name of a particular genus of turtles, so this conflicts with its use for the entire order Testudines.
+
+Although many turtles spend much of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. Some spend their whole lives on dry land.
+
+Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is being studied. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called papillae, have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire.
+
+Like other reptiles, turtles lay eggs which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually.
+
+In some species, there is temperature-dependent sex determination. Temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. No turtle mother cares for its young.
+
+Researchers have recently discovered a turtle’s organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are almost identical with that of its young counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.[8]
+
+Turtles are divided into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their necks into their shells. The Cryptodira (hidden neck) can draw their necks in while contracting it under their spine. The Pleurodira (side neck), now found only in fresh water environments in the Southern hemisphere, contract their necks to the side. So, the important adaptation of head withdrawing evolved twice from ancestral turtles which did not have this ability.
+
+Turtles have a hard beak. Turtles use their jaws to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knife-sharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Turtles use their tongues to swallow food, but they cannot, unlike most reptiles, stick out their tongues to catch food.
+
+The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the plastron. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called bridges.
+
+The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones. It includes parts of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called scutes that are part of its outer skin, or epidermis. Scutes are made up of a fibrous protein called keratin that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes. For example, the leatherback sea turtle and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead.
+
+The largest chelonian is a marine turtle, the great leatherback sea turtle, which reaches a shell length of 200 cm (80 inches) and can reach a weight of over 900 kg (2,000 lb, or 1 short ton). Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported to measure up to 200 cm or 80 in (Das, 1991). This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America, which attains a shell length of up to 80 cm (31½ in) and a weight of about 60 kg (170 lb).
+
+The lagest fossil turtle, Archelon, was more than twice the length of the leatherback, at up to 4.5 metres.
+
+The first fossil proto-turtles come from Upper Triassic of the Mesozoic era, about 220 million years ago. Their shell evolved from bony extensions of their backbones and broad ribs that expanded and grew together to form a complete shell. It offered protection at every stage of its evolution, even when the bony component of the shell was not complete. This proved a long-lasting adaptation, and the group as a whole has survived many changes in the seas, and several extinction events.
+
+Fossils of the freshwater Odontochelys semitestacea or "half-shelled turtle with teeth", from the later Triassic, have been found in southwest China. Odontochelys displays a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace, similar to an early stage of turtle embryonic development.[9] By the Upper Jurassic, turtles had radiated widely, and their fossil history becomes easier to read.
+
+Their exact ancestry has been a puzzle. Early amniotes had no openings in the skull behind the eyes. Openings developed in both Sauropsid and Synapsid skulls. They made the skull lighter, gave attachment points for muscles, and gave room for muscle bulges. But turtles do not have these skull openings. They were called 'anapsids', meaning 'no openings'.
+
+Eventually it was suggested that turtles evolved from sauropsids which had skull openings, but turtles lost them as part of their evolution towards heavy defensive armour.[10] All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids; some place turtles within Archosauria,[11] or as a sister group to extant archosaurs.[12][13][14][15][16]
+
+The earliest known fully shelled turtles are the late Triassic Odontochelys, Chinlechelys and Proganochelys. The first-named genus was aquatic, but the second was probably terrestrial.[17] They already had many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably had many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution and species in their ancestry. They did lack the ability to pull their heads into their shell (and they had a long neck), and (Odontochelys) had a long, spiked tail ending in a club, a body form similar to that of ankylosaurs, resulting from convergent evolution.
+
+Turtles are divided into two living suborders, the Cryptodira and the Pleurodira. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group mostly consists of freshwater turtles.

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+
+
+A tortoise is a reptile of the order Testudines which lives on land.  Like their aquatic cousins, the sea turtles, tortoises are shielded from predators by a shell. Most are quite small, but island tortoises have several times evolved to a large size: those on the Galapagos are famous. Darwin made one of his rare mistakes when he did not note which island each of them came from. Later it became clear that they were slightly different on different islands.
+
+A baby Testudo marginata emerges from its shell
+
+Aldabra Giant Tortoise Geochelone gigantea
+
+Galápagos tortoise on Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos Islands
+
+Gigantic galapagos turtle, Chelonoidis nigra on the island of Santa Cruz
+

ensimple/5732.html.txt

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+Tuscany (in Italian Toscana ) is a region in the center of Italy. It has an area of 22,990 km² and a population of about 3.6 million people (in 2004). The capital is Florence. Tuscany is known for its landscapes and its artistic legacy. Six Tuscan localities have been made UNESCO protected sites: the historical center of Florence (1982), the historical center of Siena (1995), the square of the Cathedral of Pisa (1987), the historical center of San Gimignano (1990), the historical center of Pienza (1996) and the Val d'Orcia (2004).
+
+Tuscany, bordering Emilia-Romagna to the north, Liguria to the north-west, Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, Umbria and Marche to the east, Lazio to the south-east. The territory is two thirds hilly and one fourth mountainous. The remainder is constituted of the plains that form the valley of the Arno River.
+
+Tuscany is known for its wines (most famous of which are Chianti, Morellino di Scansano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, and Brunello di Montalcino) and has 120 protected regions (nature reserves). Other agricultural products include Chianina cattle (particularly the famous "Fiorentina" steak) and the production of olive oil, principally in Lucca.
+
+Tourism is the economic principally of the called "Cities of Art" (Florence, Arezzo, Lucca, Pisa, Siena, San Gimignano), as well as on the coast and in the isles (Elba).
+
+In the '80s and '90s the region attracted an intense influx of immigrants, in particular from China and Northern Africa. There is also a significant community of British and Americans. As of 2006, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 215,490 foreign-born immigrants live in Tuscany, about 5.9% of the people in Tuscany.
+
+Towns of Tuscany with a population of 50,000 or more:

ensimple/5733.html.txt

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+A touchpad (also called a trackpad) is a type of input device for computers that does the same things as a computer mouse. It is made up of a flat, touch-sensitive surface which the user slides one or more fingers on to move the cursor on the screen. Next to the touchpad are push-buttons that work just like mouse buttons, including left-clicking and right-clicking. In some newer touchpads, there are no actual buttons, and clicking is done by pushing near the button of the touchpad itself.
+
+Unlike computer mice, touchpads stay in one place when they are being used. This makes it easy to build them into hardware. They are mostly found on laptop computers because, when the user is travelling, sometimes he or she cannot use a mouse. But most laptops do allow the user is able to attach (connect) a separate mouse. Besides laptops, touchpads are also more and more used on mobile devices with a GUI, including MP3 players (a well-known one being the iPod) and mobile phones (such as the BlackBerry). However, touchpads on today's mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers have been replaced with the touchscreen, which is used much like a touchpad except the screen is built into the touch-sensitive surface itself so that no mouse cursor is needed. One can just touch anywhere on the surface to choose what is on the screen at that part.
+
+Most touchpads have the function of tapping, which imitates the left-click button on a mouse. New models of touchpads often do more things because they can respond to the pressure of more than one finger. This is called multi-touch and makes it possible to do things like scroll though, zoom in and out, and rotate a page or part of the screen. The user can choose and change which functions happen if the user does certain moves. For example, the normal function for tapping on the pad is the left-click on the mouse. The user can change it in the settings section to the right-click of the mouse, if the user likes it better.

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+Toulouse (Occitan: Tolosa) is a commune in southwestern France. It is the capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, as well as of the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Toulouse. In 2014, 1.312.304 people live in the urban area, and 466.297 in the city itself. Toulouse is the 4th largest city of France.
+
+The city has a unique architecture made of pinkish terracotta bricks, which earned it the nickname la Ville Rose ("the Pink City"). Toulouse counts two UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Canal du Midi (designated in 1996 and shared with other cities) and the St. Sernin Basilica, the largest remaining Romanesque building in Europe,[2] designated in 1998.
+
+The city was the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom in the 5th century and the capital of the old French province of Languedoc in the late Middle Ages and early modern period (provinces were abolished during the French Revolution), making it the unofficial capital of the cultural region of Occitania (Southern France). It is now the capital of the Occitanie region, the largest region in metropolitan France.
+
+The city of Toulouse is along the Garonne river, 150 kilometres (93 miles) from the Mediterranean Sea, 230 km (143 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean, and 680 km (420 mi) from Paris.
+
+The commune has an area of 118.3 km2 (45.7 sq mi),[3] and its average altitude is 189 m (620 ft); at the city hall, the altitude is 146 m (479 ft).[4]
+
+The climate of Toulouse, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.[5]
+
+The average amount of precipitation for the year in Toulouse is 637.5 mm (25.1 in). The month with the most precipitation on average is May with 73.7 mm (2.9 in) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 38.1 mm (1.5 in). There are an average of 74.0 days of precipitation, with the most rain occurring in May with 7.0 days and the least rain occurring in July with 4.4 days.[6]
+
+The average temperature for the year in Toulouse is 13.8 °C (56.8 °F). The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of 22.3 °C (72.1 °F). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 6 °C (43 °F).[6]
+
+The inhabitants of Toulouse are known, in French, as Toulousains (women: Toulousaines).[7]
+
+Toulouse has a population, in 2014, of 466,297,[8] for a population density of 3,941.6 inhabitants/km2.
+
+Evolution of the population in Toulouse
+
+Toulouse is the prefecture of the Haute-Garonne department, the capital of the arrondissement of Toulouse and the administrative centre (French: chef-lieu) of 11 cantons:
+
+It is part of the intercommunality Metropolitan Toulouse (French: Toulouse Métropole).
+
+Saint-Gaudens is twinned with:
+
+
+
+Toulouse also has accords of cooperation with the following towns:
+
+
+
+In addition, Toulouse has an adoption city:

ensimple/5735.html.txt

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+Alpine tundra is a type of geological terrain. It is to be found at high enough altitude at any latitude on Earth. Alpine tundra lacks trees. The lower parts do not have permafrost. Because of this they are generally better drained than permafrost soils. Alpine tundra changes to subalpine forests below the tree line.
+
+Because alpine tundra is in many different widely separated regions of the Earth, there is no animal species found in all areas of alpine tundra.
+
+Some animals of alpine tundra environments include the Kea parrot, marmot, Mountain goats, chinchilla, pika, golden eagle and snow leopard. Plants include mosses, lichens and poor grasses. Some dwarf trees like birch and alder grow in tundras.
+
+Alpine tundra is very cold with summer temperatures on average below 10 °C. All types of tundra are classified as a desert.
+
+Tundras are mainly found in northern areas such as Siberia and the north of Canada.
+

ensimple/5736.html.txt

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+A tower is a tall structure. Towers are different from buildings because people do not live in them. Many castles have towers. Today, towers are very tall. Some things they are used for are to send radio signals, for observation, or to hold up bridges.
+
+The Eiffel Tower is a landmark of Paris.
+
+Cathedrals often have towers, this one is in Cadiz
+
+A church with a well-visible tower.
+
+A pagoda in Guangzhou
+
+Skyscrapers are often called towers. This one is in Vienna
+
+A tower used for radio and video transmissions
+
+The tower on a mosque is called a minaret. This one is in Iran

ensimple/5737.html.txt

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+Peat, or turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, mires, and swamps.
+
+Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of marshland vegetation: trees, grasses, fungi, as well as other types of organic remains, such as insects, and animal remains. Under certain conditions, the decomposition of the latter (in the absence of oxygen) is inhibited.
+
+Peat formed in very wet conditions accumulates faster, and is less decomposed, than that in drier places. This allows climatologists to use peat as an indicator of climatic change. The composition of peat can also be used to reconstruct ancient ecologies by examining the types and quantities of its organic constituents.
+
+Under the proper conditions, peat is the earliest stage in the formation of coal. The coal measures of the Pennsylvanian period were laid down in a gigantic tropical river basin, and later squeezed and heated to form the metamorphic rock we call 'coal'.
+
+Most modern peat bogs formed in high latitudes after the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age some 9,000 years ago. They usually grow slowly, at the rate of about a millimetre per year.
+
+The peat in the world's peatlands has been forming for 360 million years and contains 550 Gigatonnes of carbon.[1][2]
+
+Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world. By volume, there are about 4 trillion m³ of peat in the world covering a total of around 2% of global land area (about 3 million km²), containing about 8 billion terajoules of energy.[3][4]
+
+Peat is soft and easily compressed. Under pressure, water in the peat is forced out. Upon drying, peat can be used as a fuel. It has industrial importance as a fuel in some countries, such as Ireland and Finland, where it is harvested on an industrial scale. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, where trees are often scarce, peat is traditionally used for cooking and domestic heating. Stacks of drying peat dug from the bogs can still be seen in some rural areas.
+
+Peat's insulating properties make it of use to industry.
+
+Peat fires are used to dry malted barley for use in Scotch whisky distillation. This gives Scotch whisky its distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".
+
+Although peat has many uses for humans, it also presents problems. When dry, it can be a major fire hazard, as peat fires can burn almost indefinitely (or at least until the fuel is exhausted). Peat fires can even burn underground, reigniting after the winter, provided there is a source of oxygen. Peat deposits also pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways, as they are highly compressible under even small loads. When the West Highland Line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a mattress of tree roots, brushwood and thousands of tons of earth and ashes.

ensimple/5738.html.txt

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+The Tour de France (English: Tour of France) is a well known bicycle race. It began in 1903. It is held in France, every summer. In recent years it has ended with a race through the centre of Paris, past the Eiffel Tower. It is among the most famous, and has some of the highest prizes, of bike races in Europe. Recently, it was in the media, because some athletes were doping. The race goes around France, but can have some parts in other countries, including England, Belgium, or Spain as they race in the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The tour lasts about three weeks. At the end of each day's race the leader is given a yellow shirt, the best sprinter is given a green shirt, and the best rider in the mountain races is given a polka dot jersey. He is sometimes called the King of the Mountains. The best young rider, who must be under 26, gets a white jersey. The winner is the one who finishes the race to Paris in the fastest time. There is a lot of prize money for the teams of the winners of the Tour, but the winner of each day's race also gets prize money.
+
+1903 Maurice Garin ·
+ 1904 Henri Cornet ·
+ 1905 Louis Trousselier ·
+ 1906 René Pottier ·
+ 1907-1908 Lucien Petit-Breton ·
+ 1909 François Faber ·
+ 1910 Octave Lapize ·
+ 1911 Gustave Garrigou ·
+ 1912 Odile Defraye ·
+ 1913-1914 Philippe Thys ·
+ 1915-1918 World War I ·
+ 1919 Firmin Lambot ·
+ 1920 Philippe Thys ·
+ 1921 Léon Scieur ·
+ 1922 Firmin Lambot ·
+ 1923 Henri Pélissier ·
+ 1924-1925 Ottavio Bottecchia ·
+ 1926 Lucien Buysse ·
+ 1927-1928 Nicolas Frantz ·
+ 1929 Maurice De Waele ·
+ 1930 André Leducq ·
+ 1931 Antonin Magne ·
+ 1932 André Leducq ·
+ 1933 Georges Speicher ·
+ 1934 Antonin Magne ·
+ 1935 Romain Maes ·
+ 1936 Sylvère Maes ·
+ 1937 Roger Lapébie ·
+ 1938 Gino Bartali ·
+ 1939 Sylvère Maes ·
+ 1940-1946 World War II ·
+ 1947 Jean Robic ·
+ 1948 Gino Bartali ·
+ 1949 Fausto Coppi ·
+ 1950 Ferdinand Kübler ·
+ 1951 Hugo Koblet ·
+ 1952 Fausto Coppi ·
+ 1953-1955 Louison Bobet ·
+ 1956 Roger Walkowiak ·
+ 1957 Jacques Anquetil ·
+ 1958 Charly Gaul ·
+ 1959 Federico Bahamontes ·
+ 1960 Gastone Nencini ·
+ 1961-1964 Jacques Anquetil ·
+ 1965 Felice Gimondi ·
+ 1966 Lucien Aimar ·
+ 1967 Roger Pingeon ·
+ 1968 Jan Janssen ·
+ 1969-1972 Eddy Merckx ·
+ 1973 Luis Ocaña ·
+ 1974 Eddy Merckx ·
+ 1975 Bernard Thévenet ·
+ 1976 Lucien Van Impe ·
+ 1977 Bernard Thévenet ·
+ 1978-1979 Bernard Hinault ·
+ 1980 Joop Zoetemelk ·
+ 1981-1982 Bernard Hinault ·
+ 1983-1984 Laurent Fignon ·
+ 1985 Bernard Hinault ·
+ 1986 Greg LeMond ·
+ 1987 Stephen Roche ·
+ 1988 Pedro Delgado ·
+ 1989-1990 Greg LeMond ·
+ 1991-1995 Miguel Indurain ·
+ 1996 Bjarne Riis ·
+ 1997 Jan Ullrich ·
+ 1998 Marco Pantani ·
+ 1999-2005 Lance Armstrong, disqualified ·
+ 2006 Óscar Pereiro (Floyd Landis, disqualified) ·
+ 2007 Alberto Contador ·
+ 2008 Carlos Sastre ·
+ 2009–10 Alberto Contador ·
+ 2011 Cadel Evans ·
+ 2012 Bradley Wiggins ·
+ 2013 Chris Froome ·
+ 2014 Vincenzo Nibali

ensimple/5739.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+The Tour de France (English: Tour of France) is a well known bicycle race. It began in 1903. It is held in France, every summer. In recent years it has ended with a race through the centre of Paris, past the Eiffel Tower. It is among the most famous, and has some of the highest prizes, of bike races in Europe. Recently, it was in the media, because some athletes were doping. The race goes around France, but can have some parts in other countries, including England, Belgium, or Spain as they race in the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The tour lasts about three weeks. At the end of each day's race the leader is given a yellow shirt, the best sprinter is given a green shirt, and the best rider in the mountain races is given a polka dot jersey. He is sometimes called the King of the Mountains. The best young rider, who must be under 26, gets a white jersey. The winner is the one who finishes the race to Paris in the fastest time. There is a lot of prize money for the teams of the winners of the Tour, but the winner of each day's race also gets prize money.
+
+1903 Maurice Garin ·
+ 1904 Henri Cornet ·
+ 1905 Louis Trousselier ·
+ 1906 René Pottier ·
+ 1907-1908 Lucien Petit-Breton ·
+ 1909 François Faber ·
+ 1910 Octave Lapize ·
+ 1911 Gustave Garrigou ·
+ 1912 Odile Defraye ·
+ 1913-1914 Philippe Thys ·
+ 1915-1918 World War I ·
+ 1919 Firmin Lambot ·
+ 1920 Philippe Thys ·
+ 1921 Léon Scieur ·
+ 1922 Firmin Lambot ·
+ 1923 Henri Pélissier ·
+ 1924-1925 Ottavio Bottecchia ·
+ 1926 Lucien Buysse ·
+ 1927-1928 Nicolas Frantz ·
+ 1929 Maurice De Waele ·
+ 1930 André Leducq ·
+ 1931 Antonin Magne ·
+ 1932 André Leducq ·
+ 1933 Georges Speicher ·
+ 1934 Antonin Magne ·
+ 1935 Romain Maes ·
+ 1936 Sylvère Maes ·
+ 1937 Roger Lapébie ·
+ 1938 Gino Bartali ·
+ 1939 Sylvère Maes ·
+ 1940-1946 World War II ·
+ 1947 Jean Robic ·
+ 1948 Gino Bartali ·
+ 1949 Fausto Coppi ·
+ 1950 Ferdinand Kübler ·
+ 1951 Hugo Koblet ·
+ 1952 Fausto Coppi ·
+ 1953-1955 Louison Bobet ·
+ 1956 Roger Walkowiak ·
+ 1957 Jacques Anquetil ·
+ 1958 Charly Gaul ·
+ 1959 Federico Bahamontes ·
+ 1960 Gastone Nencini ·
+ 1961-1964 Jacques Anquetil ·
+ 1965 Felice Gimondi ·
+ 1966 Lucien Aimar ·
+ 1967 Roger Pingeon ·
+ 1968 Jan Janssen ·
+ 1969-1972 Eddy Merckx ·
+ 1973 Luis Ocaña ·
+ 1974 Eddy Merckx ·
+ 1975 Bernard Thévenet ·
+ 1976 Lucien Van Impe ·
+ 1977 Bernard Thévenet ·
+ 1978-1979 Bernard Hinault ·
+ 1980 Joop Zoetemelk ·
+ 1981-1982 Bernard Hinault ·
+ 1983-1984 Laurent Fignon ·
+ 1985 Bernard Hinault ·
+ 1986 Greg LeMond ·
+ 1987 Stephen Roche ·
+ 1988 Pedro Delgado ·
+ 1989-1990 Greg LeMond ·
+ 1991-1995 Miguel Indurain ·
+ 1996 Bjarne Riis ·
+ 1997 Jan Ullrich ·
+ 1998 Marco Pantani ·
+ 1999-2005 Lance Armstrong, disqualified ·
+ 2006 Óscar Pereiro (Floyd Landis, disqualified) ·
+ 2007 Alberto Contador ·
+ 2008 Carlos Sastre ·
+ 2009–10 Alberto Contador ·
+ 2011 Cadel Evans ·
+ 2012 Bradley Wiggins ·
+ 2013 Chris Froome ·
+ 2014 Vincenzo Nibali

ensimple/574.html.txt

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+Football (soccer)
+Basketball
+Rugby
+Gymnastics
+Baseball
+American football
+Cycling·Auto racing
+Cricket·Golf
+Field hockey·Handball
+Archery·Shooting
+Fencing·Weightlifting
+Pentathlon·Triathlon
+Horseback riding
+
+Swimming· Diving
+Water polo·Sailing
+Canoeing·Rowing
+
+Boxing·Wrestling
+Karate·Taekwondo
+
+Tennis· Volleyball
+Table tennis· Badminton
+
+Winter sports
+
+Skiing·Curling
+Bobsled·Luge
+Snowboarding·Biathlon
+Ice sledge hockey
+
+Basketball is a team sport where two teams, usually consisting of five players on each team, play against each other on a rectangular court. The objective is to get the ball through a hoop mounted high on a backboard on the opponent's side of the court, while preventing the opponent from shooting it into your team's hoop. It is a very popular sport worldwide, played with a round and usually orange(orange-brown) ball that bounces. Basketball players mainly use skills such as dribbling, shooting, running, and jumping. Each made basket is worth two points, while a basket made from beyond the three-point line is worth three points. If a player gets into too much physical contact, they may be given free throws which are worth one point each. The game typically lasts for four-quarters and the team with the most points at the end of the four-quarters win the game. If the score is tied at the end of the game, there will be something called overtime, which is additional play time to allow one team to win the match.
+
+The game is played between men's teams or between women's teams. Basketball has been played in the Summer Olympic Games since 1936. The shot clock rule started in 1954. The first basketball game took place in 1892, where the court was half the size of what it is today.In 1891 the game was invented by James Naismith.
+
+In early December 1891, James Naismith (1861–1939), a Canadian physical education teacher at Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts, invented an indoor game called basketball. He invented the sport to keep his students from becoming bored during the winter. Naismith wrote the basic rules and then nailed a peach basket onto a 20-foot tall pole. Unlike modern basketball hoops, the bottom of the peach-basket was still there, so after a point was scored, somebody had to get the ball out of the basket with a long stick. Over time, people made a hole at the bottom of the basket so the ball could go through more easily.  The first game of basketball was played at the International Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Springfield, Massachusetts. The score of the first game of basketball ever played was 1-0. There is a sculpture in Springfield, outside where the first game was held. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is also in Springfield.
+
+For that first game of basketball in 1891, Naismith used two half-bushel peach baskets as goals, which gave the sport its name. The students were enthusiastic. After much running and shooting, William R. Chase made a midcourt shot, which was the only score in that historic contest. Word spread about the newly invented game, and numerous associations wrote Naismith for a copy of the rules, which were published in the January 15, 1892, issue of the Triangle, the YMCA Training School's campus paper.
+
+Since the rules had not been formally written, there was no maximum number of players then, unlike today. This also meant that there were no set rules to the game; Naismith only observed how it was played and changed the rules accordingly.
+
+The aim of basketball is to score more points than the other team, by making the ball in the basket. Players on one team try to stop players on the other team from scoring. Baskets can be worth 1, 2, or 3 points. Each normal score is worth two points; however, if a player throws the ball into the hoop from behind the large arched line on the court, called the "3-point line," the score is worth three points. You get points by "shooting" (throwing or dropping) the ball into the opponents' basket. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins.
+The ball is moved forward by shooting, passing (throwing or handing off) or dribbling it. The ball may not be carried by a player who is walking or running without dribbling it. If this rule is violated, it is called a travel.
+
+The court, where the game is played, is a rectangle, and at both end lines there is a goal called a "hoop" in the shape of a circle basket with the bottom cut out.
+
+In each game of basketball these things are required:
+
+Basketball is played with two teams, with 5 players from each team on the court at one time. The maximum number of players on the bench differs by the league. In international play, a maximum of 7 players is allowed on the bench, resulting in a roster of 12 players. The NBA has 13-player rosters; college and high school teams have 15-player rosters. When a player wants to substitute for another player on the court, they let the score bench know. The referees will signal for the player waiting to come into the court. The player that was in the game comes off the court and the player that was  sitting on the bench goes inside the game. This is called a substitution. In regional matches, in some areas, a minimum of 3 players are required to be on the bench. In India, there might be leeway in the number depending on the category of the tournament you're playing in.
+
+A game of basketball is made up of four different quarters, each ten (or in the National Basketball Association, 12) minutes long. In the NCAA, or National Collegiate Athletic Association, there are 2  20 minute halves. At the start of every game the referee throws the basketball up in the air, and one player from each team tries to hit it to their teammates, that is called a "jump ball."
+
+At the start of each quarter the team who has the possession arrow pointing towards their hoop gets the ball. Then the arrow is switched, and the next team gets the ball next quarter.
+
+After four-quarters, the team who scores the most points wins. If the two teams score the same number of points, there is a five-minute "overtime" to see who can score more points. "Overtime" can be played over and over until one team finally scores more points.
+
+If a player does something illegal in the game, it is called a "foul." If a player fouls someone on the other team who is shooting the basketball, the player who was fouled gets to shoot "free throws" from the "foul line." A free throw is a shot that no one is allowed to try to block. A free throw is shot from the straight line in front of the hoop. Each successful free throw is worth one point.
+
+If a player fouls an opponent who is not shooting, the other team gets the ball, and can throw it in bounds from the sideline. Players can do three things with the ball: "dribble" (bounce) the ball, "pass" the ball to a teammate, or "shoot" the ball at the hoop. The player with the ball tries to keep the ball and not let the other team get it.
+
+The ball can't be kicked or hit with the fist. If this is violated, the other team gets possession of the ball and gets to throw it in from the nearest out of bounds area.
+
+Once a player commits five fouls, he is no longer allowed to play in the game, and a player on the bench must go in the game immediately. If a team commits four fouls, the opposing team gets to shoot a free throw on any next foul that doesn't involve shooting. (Depending on the league).
+
+In a game of basketball, there are a number of officials who are not from either team, who are there to help. Officials are important to the game, and help it run efficiently. Here is a list of some of these people:
+
+Fans and media in North America will often use "referee" to describe all on-court officials, whether their formal titles are "referee", "umpire", or "crew chief".
+
+There are some basketball terms that players have to understand when playing the game. Here are some terms:
+
+In professional basketball teams, each player has a position. A position is a job or role that a player has to take part in to play the game. If everyone is doing their job correctly, the team is usually successful.
+
+Other positions, more usual in professional basketball teams, are used in basketball.
+
+There are many types of basketball. Some are for people with disabilities, others are played more by a specific group, some are played using only half the court, and some are for when there are fewer players.
+
+This is the most popular "pick up game" variation of basketball. Pick up games are when teams are chosen on the court instead of having official teams. Due to there being no referee, this more casual game has more relaxed rules than official games. Instead of 5 players, there are only three players on each team, hence the name.
+
+While the exact rules vary from place to place, there are several common rules typically found in most games, including:
+
+There are officially sponsored 3 on 3 tournaments, though the game is mostly played without an official league.
+
+Variations with 2 player and 4 player teams often follow this same format.
+
+Twenty-one (21) is a variation of basketball that does not include teams. It is often played with odd-numbers of players or when there are too few players for 3 on 3 games.
+
+The object of 21 is to score exactly 21 points. Players keep track of their own scores and call out their points after making a basket. All players play defense against all other players and compete for the rebound on a miss.
+
+When a player makes a shot, he or she scores 2 points and is then awarded a chance to score an additional 3 points by attempting a series of free-throws. If a player makes a free-throw, he or she is awarded an additional point and an additional free-throw. If a player makes three straight free-throws they are then given the ball a the top of the key and the other players may then defend.
+
+One special rule is that if a player gets 20 points and then misses a free-throw, or scores 17 points and then makes all three free-throws, their score is set back to 15. This is because their next basket would put them over 21 points, and the object of the game is to get exactly 21.
+
+Due to there being no teams, there are a number of special rules to 21:
+
+The game H-O-R-S-E, (pronounced horse) is played by two or more players. The player in control of the ball tries to make a shot however they want. The other layer has to repeat their shot. If they miss, they get an H added, until they get enough letters to finish the word horse and they lose. If the player who has the ball missed their shot, no letter is added and control moves to the next player.
+
+In this variation, the players are all seated in a wheelchair. This is often played by people who cannot walk or are unable to play normal basketball. The rules are altered slightly, but the game follows the same general concepts.

ensimple/5740.html.txt

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+The Leaning Tower of Pisa is a building in Pisa, Italy.  It is a bell tower.  It is famous because it is not vertical.  In 1990 the tower was leaning at 5.5 degrees and increasing.  After that, much restoration work has been done to stop it from falling over completely.  There was scaffolding all around the tower for 20 years.  On 26 April 2011, the last bit of scaffolding was removed so that the tower can be seen properly again.[1]
+
+The height of the tower is about 56 metres from the ground. Its weight is about 14,500 tonnes. It now leans at about 3.99 degrees. The tower has 294 steps.
+
+When the second floor was built in 1178, the tower started to lean. This was because it had a small three-meter foundation in soft soil. The design of this tower was bad from the beginning. Construction was stopped for almost 100 years because the people of Pisa were often at war with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence.
+
+There is an old story that Galileo Galilei used the Tower for a physics experiment.

ensimple/5741.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+The Leaning Tower of Pisa is a building in Pisa, Italy.  It is a bell tower.  It is famous because it is not vertical.  In 1990 the tower was leaning at 5.5 degrees and increasing.  After that, much restoration work has been done to stop it from falling over completely.  There was scaffolding all around the tower for 20 years.  On 26 April 2011, the last bit of scaffolding was removed so that the tower can be seen properly again.[1]
+
+The height of the tower is about 56 metres from the ground. Its weight is about 14,500 tonnes. It now leans at about 3.99 degrees. The tower has 294 steps.
+
+When the second floor was built in 1178, the tower started to lean. This was because it had a small three-meter foundation in soft soil. The design of this tower was bad from the beginning. Construction was stopped for almost 100 years because the people of Pisa were often at war with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence.
+
+There is an old story that Galileo Galilei used the Tower for a physics experiment.

ensimple/5742.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl], IPA pronunciation: "EYE-full" English; "eh-FEHL" French) is a landmark in Paris. It was built between 1887 and 1889 for the Exposition Universialle (World Fair). The Tower was the Exposition's main attraction.[3]
+
+The Eiffel Tower cost 7,799,401.31 French gold francs to build in 1889, an amount equal to $1,495,139.89 at that time. Today, its cost would equal to $36,784,020.11. It took 2 years, 2 months and 5 days to build it. The tower is 300 m (980 feet) tall, but this height does not include the 24 m (79 feet) aerial (antenna) on the top; the total height of the structure is 324 m (1,063 feet). It has a square base that is 125 m (410 feet) long on each side. The second story platform is 115.5 m (378 feet 11 inches) off 45,000 litres (12,000 US gallons), and the surface to be painted is 250,000 square metres (62 acres). Since it has been built it has been repainted 18 times, each of these 18 paint jobs there were only 25 painters are hired to do the job. Three separate colors of paint are used on the structure in order to enhance the impression of height, with the lightest at the top.
+
+There are 20,000 sparkling lights and 80 km (50 miles) of cables covering the structure. The paper used to print the visitors' tickets in one year weighs 2 tonnes (4,400 pounds). The top of the tower leans away from the sun as the metal facing the sun heats up and expands it can move as much as 18 cm (7 inches) and grow 15 cm (6 inches) taller.[4] The tower was also built to sway slightly in the wind.
+
+The Eiffel Tower was built by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel for the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Even though Gustave Eiffel is credited for the Eiffel Tower it was actually two lesser known people who came up with the original drawing of it. These people were Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier. These two men were the chief engineers of Eiffel’s engineering firm. The main architect was Stephen Sauvestre.
+
+Koechlin, Nouguier, Sauvestre, and Eiffel submitted the plans to compete for the spot on the champ de mars plot of land, to serve as the expositions entrance. It would also determine the 1889 world's fair centerpiece in Paris. There were 107 bids submitted to construct the Eiffel Tower. Fifty people worked on the design, and more than 100 built the parts. One hundred and thirty two workers assembled the parts on site.
+
+The first digging for the foundations began on January 28, 1887 and all construction was concluded on March 31, 1889. When the tower was built, it was only meant to be kept for 20 years. People did not like the Eiffel Tower and wanted it taken down because they thought is was an ugly structure polluting the scenery of the Paris sky. After the 20 years, the tower became the property of Paris again.
+
+By this time, the city had learned that the tower could be used to help with communications. There was also a metrology lab that had been installed for studies on everything from gravity to electricity. The military used the tower as a wireless telegraph transmitter for communication during battle. The tower was used in the capture of the spy "Mata Hari" during World War I after a message was intercepted. Today, it is used to send radio and television signals to the capital city of Paris and beyond. After people learned about the many benefits the tower provided, no one wanted it to be taken apart.
+
+The Eiffel Tower joined the green energy movement by building two wind turbines on the second level. These wind turbines produce 10,000 kilowatts per hour (13,000 horsepower per hour) of electricity.
+
+There were 50 architects, engineers, and draftsmen that created 5,300 drawings of the Eiffel Tower before the construction started. Once they had a plan, there were 18,000 pieces built and prepared in Eiffel's factory outside of town. These pieces were created to the accuracy of 1/10 of a millimeter. These pieces were put together to form new pieces that were 5 meters long to be transported to the building site.
+
+There were 132 workers there to assemble the pieces on site. All the pieces were put into place and hooked together by thermally assembled rivets. There were 4 men needed to assemble a single rivet: one person to heat the rivet up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape the head, and a fourth person to beat the rivet with a sledge hammer.
+
+Only ​1⁄3 of the 2.5 million rivets were assembled on site. The work on the foundations took 5 months. The workers only used spades, and the rubble was taken away by horses and steam locomotives.
+
+There was no problem in building the pillars on the Champ de Mars side of the tower. But on the Seine River side of the tower, foundations used compressed air and corrugated steel caissons five meters under water. The deepest foundations are 15 meters under ground. The feet of the tower are set in each of these foundation ditches. These foundations support the four pillars or truss frames.
+
+The difficulty building the first floor was in bringing building materials and people up to it with a point of departure as in the elevators. The elevators had to be positioned at a slanting angle to meet the horizontal beams on the first floor. The elevator had to use hydraulic jacks to move and erect the elevator up the slanted legs. Currently the hydraulic jacks are not in use due to more advanced technology. The second floor was assembled with cranes that took the same route as the elevators. There was no troubles from this point onward in the construction.
+

ensimple/5743.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl], IPA pronunciation: "EYE-full" English; "eh-FEHL" French) is a landmark in Paris. It was built between 1887 and 1889 for the Exposition Universialle (World Fair). The Tower was the Exposition's main attraction.[3]
+
+The Eiffel Tower cost 7,799,401.31 French gold francs to build in 1889, an amount equal to $1,495,139.89 at that time. Today, its cost would equal to $36,784,020.11. It took 2 years, 2 months and 5 days to build it. The tower is 300 m (980 feet) tall, but this height does not include the 24 m (79 feet) aerial (antenna) on the top; the total height of the structure is 324 m (1,063 feet). It has a square base that is 125 m (410 feet) long on each side. The second story platform is 115.5 m (378 feet 11 inches) off 45,000 litres (12,000 US gallons), and the surface to be painted is 250,000 square metres (62 acres). Since it has been built it has been repainted 18 times, each of these 18 paint jobs there were only 25 painters are hired to do the job. Three separate colors of paint are used on the structure in order to enhance the impression of height, with the lightest at the top.
+
+There are 20,000 sparkling lights and 80 km (50 miles) of cables covering the structure. The paper used to print the visitors' tickets in one year weighs 2 tonnes (4,400 pounds). The top of the tower leans away from the sun as the metal facing the sun heats up and expands it can move as much as 18 cm (7 inches) and grow 15 cm (6 inches) taller.[4] The tower was also built to sway slightly in the wind.
+
+The Eiffel Tower was built by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel for the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Even though Gustave Eiffel is credited for the Eiffel Tower it was actually two lesser known people who came up with the original drawing of it. These people were Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier. These two men were the chief engineers of Eiffel’s engineering firm. The main architect was Stephen Sauvestre.
+
+Koechlin, Nouguier, Sauvestre, and Eiffel submitted the plans to compete for the spot on the champ de mars plot of land, to serve as the expositions entrance. It would also determine the 1889 world's fair centerpiece in Paris. There were 107 bids submitted to construct the Eiffel Tower. Fifty people worked on the design, and more than 100 built the parts. One hundred and thirty two workers assembled the parts on site.
+
+The first digging for the foundations began on January 28, 1887 and all construction was concluded on March 31, 1889. When the tower was built, it was only meant to be kept for 20 years. People did not like the Eiffel Tower and wanted it taken down because they thought is was an ugly structure polluting the scenery of the Paris sky. After the 20 years, the tower became the property of Paris again.
+
+By this time, the city had learned that the tower could be used to help with communications. There was also a metrology lab that had been installed for studies on everything from gravity to electricity. The military used the tower as a wireless telegraph transmitter for communication during battle. The tower was used in the capture of the spy "Mata Hari" during World War I after a message was intercepted. Today, it is used to send radio and television signals to the capital city of Paris and beyond. After people learned about the many benefits the tower provided, no one wanted it to be taken apart.
+
+The Eiffel Tower joined the green energy movement by building two wind turbines on the second level. These wind turbines produce 10,000 kilowatts per hour (13,000 horsepower per hour) of electricity.
+
+There were 50 architects, engineers, and draftsmen that created 5,300 drawings of the Eiffel Tower before the construction started. Once they had a plan, there were 18,000 pieces built and prepared in Eiffel's factory outside of town. These pieces were created to the accuracy of 1/10 of a millimeter. These pieces were put together to form new pieces that were 5 meters long to be transported to the building site.
+
+There were 132 workers there to assemble the pieces on site. All the pieces were put into place and hooked together by thermally assembled rivets. There were 4 men needed to assemble a single rivet: one person to heat the rivet up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape the head, and a fourth person to beat the rivet with a sledge hammer.
+
+Only ​1⁄3 of the 2.5 million rivets were assembled on site. The work on the foundations took 5 months. The workers only used spades, and the rubble was taken away by horses and steam locomotives.
+
+There was no problem in building the pillars on the Champ de Mars side of the tower. But on the Seine River side of the tower, foundations used compressed air and corrugated steel caissons five meters under water. The deepest foundations are 15 meters under ground. The feet of the tower are set in each of these foundation ditches. These foundations support the four pillars or truss frames.
+
+The difficulty building the first floor was in bringing building materials and people up to it with a point of departure as in the elevators. The elevators had to be positioned at a slanting angle to meet the horizontal beams on the first floor. The elevator had to use hydraulic jacks to move and erect the elevator up the slanted legs. Currently the hydraulic jacks are not in use due to more advanced technology. The second floor was assembled with cranes that took the same route as the elevators. There was no troubles from this point onward in the construction.
+

ensimple/5744.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl], IPA pronunciation: "EYE-full" English; "eh-FEHL" French) is a landmark in Paris. It was built between 1887 and 1889 for the Exposition Universialle (World Fair). The Tower was the Exposition's main attraction.[3]
+
+The Eiffel Tower cost 7,799,401.31 French gold francs to build in 1889, an amount equal to $1,495,139.89 at that time. Today, its cost would equal to $36,784,020.11. It took 2 years, 2 months and 5 days to build it. The tower is 300 m (980 feet) tall, but this height does not include the 24 m (79 feet) aerial (antenna) on the top; the total height of the structure is 324 m (1,063 feet). It has a square base that is 125 m (410 feet) long on each side. The second story platform is 115.5 m (378 feet 11 inches) off 45,000 litres (12,000 US gallons), and the surface to be painted is 250,000 square metres (62 acres). Since it has been built it has been repainted 18 times, each of these 18 paint jobs there were only 25 painters are hired to do the job. Three separate colors of paint are used on the structure in order to enhance the impression of height, with the lightest at the top.
+
+There are 20,000 sparkling lights and 80 km (50 miles) of cables covering the structure. The paper used to print the visitors' tickets in one year weighs 2 tonnes (4,400 pounds). The top of the tower leans away from the sun as the metal facing the sun heats up and expands it can move as much as 18 cm (7 inches) and grow 15 cm (6 inches) taller.[4] The tower was also built to sway slightly in the wind.
+
+The Eiffel Tower was built by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel for the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Even though Gustave Eiffel is credited for the Eiffel Tower it was actually two lesser known people who came up with the original drawing of it. These people were Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier. These two men were the chief engineers of Eiffel’s engineering firm. The main architect was Stephen Sauvestre.
+
+Koechlin, Nouguier, Sauvestre, and Eiffel submitted the plans to compete for the spot on the champ de mars plot of land, to serve as the expositions entrance. It would also determine the 1889 world's fair centerpiece in Paris. There were 107 bids submitted to construct the Eiffel Tower. Fifty people worked on the design, and more than 100 built the parts. One hundred and thirty two workers assembled the parts on site.
+
+The first digging for the foundations began on January 28, 1887 and all construction was concluded on March 31, 1889. When the tower was built, it was only meant to be kept for 20 years. People did not like the Eiffel Tower and wanted it taken down because they thought is was an ugly structure polluting the scenery of the Paris sky. After the 20 years, the tower became the property of Paris again.
+
+By this time, the city had learned that the tower could be used to help with communications. There was also a metrology lab that had been installed for studies on everything from gravity to electricity. The military used the tower as a wireless telegraph transmitter for communication during battle. The tower was used in the capture of the spy "Mata Hari" during World War I after a message was intercepted. Today, it is used to send radio and television signals to the capital city of Paris and beyond. After people learned about the many benefits the tower provided, no one wanted it to be taken apart.
+
+The Eiffel Tower joined the green energy movement by building two wind turbines on the second level. These wind turbines produce 10,000 kilowatts per hour (13,000 horsepower per hour) of electricity.
+
+There were 50 architects, engineers, and draftsmen that created 5,300 drawings of the Eiffel Tower before the construction started. Once they had a plan, there were 18,000 pieces built and prepared in Eiffel's factory outside of town. These pieces were created to the accuracy of 1/10 of a millimeter. These pieces were put together to form new pieces that were 5 meters long to be transported to the building site.
+
+There were 132 workers there to assemble the pieces on site. All the pieces were put into place and hooked together by thermally assembled rivets. There were 4 men needed to assemble a single rivet: one person to heat the rivet up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape the head, and a fourth person to beat the rivet with a sledge hammer.
+
+Only ​1⁄3 of the 2.5 million rivets were assembled on site. The work on the foundations took 5 months. The workers only used spades, and the rubble was taken away by horses and steam locomotives.
+
+There was no problem in building the pillars on the Champ de Mars side of the tower. But on the Seine River side of the tower, foundations used compressed air and corrugated steel caissons five meters under water. The deepest foundations are 15 meters under ground. The feet of the tower are set in each of these foundation ditches. These foundations support the four pillars or truss frames.
+
+The difficulty building the first floor was in bringing building materials and people up to it with a point of departure as in the elevators. The elevators had to be positioned at a slanting angle to meet the horizontal beams on the first floor. The elevator had to use hydraulic jacks to move and erect the elevator up the slanted legs. Currently the hydraulic jacks are not in use due to more advanced technology. The second floor was assembled with cranes that took the same route as the elevators. There was no troubles from this point onward in the construction.
+

ensimple/5745.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl], IPA pronunciation: "EYE-full" English; "eh-FEHL" French) is a landmark in Paris. It was built between 1887 and 1889 for the Exposition Universialle (World Fair). The Tower was the Exposition's main attraction.[3]
+
+The Eiffel Tower cost 7,799,401.31 French gold francs to build in 1889, an amount equal to $1,495,139.89 at that time. Today, its cost would equal to $36,784,020.11. It took 2 years, 2 months and 5 days to build it. The tower is 300 m (980 feet) tall, but this height does not include the 24 m (79 feet) aerial (antenna) on the top; the total height of the structure is 324 m (1,063 feet). It has a square base that is 125 m (410 feet) long on each side. The second story platform is 115.5 m (378 feet 11 inches) off 45,000 litres (12,000 US gallons), and the surface to be painted is 250,000 square metres (62 acres). Since it has been built it has been repainted 18 times, each of these 18 paint jobs there were only 25 painters are hired to do the job. Three separate colors of paint are used on the structure in order to enhance the impression of height, with the lightest at the top.
+
+There are 20,000 sparkling lights and 80 km (50 miles) of cables covering the structure. The paper used to print the visitors' tickets in one year weighs 2 tonnes (4,400 pounds). The top of the tower leans away from the sun as the metal facing the sun heats up and expands it can move as much as 18 cm (7 inches) and grow 15 cm (6 inches) taller.[4] The tower was also built to sway slightly in the wind.
+
+The Eiffel Tower was built by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel for the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Even though Gustave Eiffel is credited for the Eiffel Tower it was actually two lesser known people who came up with the original drawing of it. These people were Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier. These two men were the chief engineers of Eiffel’s engineering firm. The main architect was Stephen Sauvestre.
+
+Koechlin, Nouguier, Sauvestre, and Eiffel submitted the plans to compete for the spot on the champ de mars plot of land, to serve as the expositions entrance. It would also determine the 1889 world's fair centerpiece in Paris. There were 107 bids submitted to construct the Eiffel Tower. Fifty people worked on the design, and more than 100 built the parts. One hundred and thirty two workers assembled the parts on site.
+
+The first digging for the foundations began on January 28, 1887 and all construction was concluded on March 31, 1889. When the tower was built, it was only meant to be kept for 20 years. People did not like the Eiffel Tower and wanted it taken down because they thought is was an ugly structure polluting the scenery of the Paris sky. After the 20 years, the tower became the property of Paris again.
+
+By this time, the city had learned that the tower could be used to help with communications. There was also a metrology lab that had been installed for studies on everything from gravity to electricity. The military used the tower as a wireless telegraph transmitter for communication during battle. The tower was used in the capture of the spy "Mata Hari" during World War I after a message was intercepted. Today, it is used to send radio and television signals to the capital city of Paris and beyond. After people learned about the many benefits the tower provided, no one wanted it to be taken apart.
+
+The Eiffel Tower joined the green energy movement by building two wind turbines on the second level. These wind turbines produce 10,000 kilowatts per hour (13,000 horsepower per hour) of electricity.
+
+There were 50 architects, engineers, and draftsmen that created 5,300 drawings of the Eiffel Tower before the construction started. Once they had a plan, there were 18,000 pieces built and prepared in Eiffel's factory outside of town. These pieces were created to the accuracy of 1/10 of a millimeter. These pieces were put together to form new pieces that were 5 meters long to be transported to the building site.
+
+There were 132 workers there to assemble the pieces on site. All the pieces were put into place and hooked together by thermally assembled rivets. There were 4 men needed to assemble a single rivet: one person to heat the rivet up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape the head, and a fourth person to beat the rivet with a sledge hammer.
+
+Only ​1⁄3 of the 2.5 million rivets were assembled on site. The work on the foundations took 5 months. The workers only used spades, and the rubble was taken away by horses and steam locomotives.
+
+There was no problem in building the pillars on the Champ de Mars side of the tower. But on the Seine River side of the tower, foundations used compressed air and corrugated steel caissons five meters under water. The deepest foundations are 15 meters under ground. The feet of the tower are set in each of these foundation ditches. These foundations support the four pillars or truss frames.
+
+The difficulty building the first floor was in bringing building materials and people up to it with a point of departure as in the elevators. The elevators had to be positioned at a slanting angle to meet the horizontal beams on the first floor. The elevator had to use hydraulic jacks to move and erect the elevator up the slanted legs. Currently the hydraulic jacks are not in use due to more advanced technology. The second floor was assembled with cranes that took the same route as the elevators. There was no troubles from this point onward in the construction.
+

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+
+
+The sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is a living  annual plant in the family Asteraceae, with a large flower head (capitulum). The stem of the flower can grow up to 3 metres tall, with a flower head that can be 30 cm wide.  Other types of sunflowers include the California Royal Sunflower, which has a burgundy (red + purple) flower head.
+
+The flower head is actually an inflorescence made of hundreds or thousands of tiny flowers called florets. The central florets look like the centre of a normal flower, apseudanthium. The benefit to the plant is that it is very easily seen by the insects and birds which pollinate it, and it produces thousands of seeds.
+
+The sunflower is the state flower of Kansas. That is why Kansas is sometimes called the Sunflower State.
+To grow well, sunflowers need full sun. They grow best in fertile, wet, well-drained soil with a lot of mulch. In commercial planting, seeds are planted 45 cm (1.5 ft) apart and 2.5 cm (1 in) deep.
+
+The outer petal-bearing florets are the sterile florets and can be yellow, red, orange, or other colors. The florets inside the circular head are called disc florets, which mature into seeds.
+
+The flower petals within the sunflower's cluster are always in a spiral pattern. Generally, each floret is oriented toward the next by approximately the golden angle, 137.5°, producing a pattern of interconnecting spirals, where the number of left spirals and the number of right spirals are successive Fibonacci numbers. Typically, there are 34 spirals in one direction and 55 in the other; on a very large sunflower there could be 89 in one direction and 144 in the other.[1][2]
+
+Sunflowers commonly grow to heights between 1.5 and 3.5 m (5–12 ft.). The tallest sunflower confirmed by Guinness World Records is 9.17 m (2014, Germany). In 16th century Europe the record was already 7.3 m (24 ft., Spain).[3] Most cultivars are variants of H. annuus, but four other species (all perennials) are also domesticated. This includes H. tuberosus, the Jerusalem Artichoke, which produces edible tubers.
+
+Sunflower "whole seed" (fruit) are sold as a snack food, after roasting in ovens, with or without salt added. Sunflowers can be processed into a peanut butter alternative, Sunbutter. In Germany, it is mixed together with rye flour to make Sonnenblumenkernbrot (literally: sunflower whole seed bread), which is quite popular in German-speaking Europe. It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in cooking and salads.
+Sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds, is used for cooking, as a carrier oil and to produce margarine and biodiesel, as it is cheaper than olive oil. A range of sunflower varieties exist with differing fatty acid compositions; some 'high oleic' types contain a higher level of healthy monounsaturated fats in their oil than Olive oil.
+
+The cake remaining after the seeds have been processed for oil is used as a livestock feed. Some recently developed cultivars have drooping heads. These cultivars are less attractive to gardeners growing the flowers as ornamental plants, but appeal to farmers, because they reduce bird damage and losses from some plant diseases. Sunflowers also produce latex and are the subject of experiments to improve their suitability as an alternative crop for producing hypoallergenic rubber.
+Traditionally, several Native American groups planted sunflowers on the north edges of their gardens as a "fourth sister" to the better known three sisters combination of corn, beans, and squash.[9] Annual species are often planted for their allelopathic properties.[source?] However, for commercial farmers growing commodity crops, the sunflower, like any other unwanted plant, is often considered a weed. Especially in the midwestern USA, wild (perennial) species are often found in corn and soybean fields and can have a negative impact on yields.
+Sunflowers may also be used to extract toxic ingredients from soil, such as lead, arsenic and uranium. They were used to remove uranium, cesium-137, and strontium-90 from soil after the Chernobyl disaster (see phytoremediation).

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+Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a work (for example, a book, movie, picture, song or website) the right to say how other people can use it. Copyright laws make it easier for authors to make money by selling their works. It is one part of a group of laws about intellectual property (the others being trademark and patent law). It helps the authors to be protected from being re-copied of their works without permission and/or re-copying their works for commercial purpose.
+
+With copyright, a work can only be copied if the owner gives permission. If someone copies a work without permission, the owner can say they infringed their copyright. When this happens, the owner may sue for the amount that should have been paid. Most cases are handled by civil law. In more serious cases, a person who copies a work that is protected under copyright could be arrested, fined or even go to prison. Commonly, the copy-right law will protect the authors and their heirs from 50 to 100 years since the first day of the authors' deaths.
+
+In many countries, the governments tried to modify "copy-right law" to be updated to meet international standard. Eventhough there are determinations to make the copy-right law to meet international standard but there are still some differences, according to the law culture each country. Some countries, violating copy-right law will be sued only to the civil law courts but some countries can also be charged by criminal courts too.
+
+Copyright was originally made for books. Before printing presses were made, books could only be copied by hand, which would take a while to do. But when printing presses were made, books could be copied faster and easier. Because of this, some books were copied by people who did not own the book themselves. So lawmakers gave only owners the right to copy.
+
+Because technology got better over time, copyright began to cover other types of media such as pictures, sound, and film. Commonly, copy-right violation warning would be shown at the beginning of the media to always warn the audiences to avoid from violating copy-right law.
+
+In most countries, authors automatically own the copyright to any work they make or create, as long as they do not give the copyright to someone else.
+
+In most countries, there is no need to register the copyright, and some countries do not even have procedures to register copyrights.  But, where registration is available, many authors register anyway, especially for works that are sold for money. That is because registration helps to prove that the copyright of a work belongs to a certain author.
+
+If an author gets paid to make a work for someone else, the person who pays for making the work (for example, the author's employer) will often get to own the copyright instead of the author themselves. For example, if a person working for a company,Microsoft creates a new computer software program at work, the Microsoft company would own the copyright. It is very common that the company will instead register the copyright registration to avoid their employees from claiming their works.
+
+Copyright laws usually protect owners of copyright beyond their lifetime. In some countries, such as Canada and New Zealand, works are protected for 50 years after the author dies. In other countries, like the United States and the United Kingdom, the protection lasts for 70 years after death.[1] When the period of copyright protection has ended, the written document, musical composition, book, picture, or other creative work is in the public domain. This means that no one owns the copyright and everyone is free to copy, use and change them without having to ask for permission or pay the owner.
+
+There is an exception to the rules of copyright, called fair use. This means that people can copy a very small amount of a work to use in reviews or in research reports.
+
+An example of fair use is when newspaper writers quote several sentences from a copyright-protected document to tell the story. Another example of "fair use" is when a university professor quotes several sentences from a copyright-protected book in a review of the book, or in a research report.
+
+Different countries have different copyright laws. Most of the differences are about:
+
+Because of these differences, a certain piece of work may be under copyright in one country, and in the public domain in another.
+
+Some people argue that copyright laws make it easier for people to make new works and think of new ideas. After all, if authors get to make money for the time, effort and money they put in, then they will want to make more works later, and make more money.
+
+But others believe that copyright laws make it harder to be creative. Without copyright, other people could reuse existing work, and copyright law often stops that.
+
+If an author wants to sell a work, it's often easiest to give the copyright to a publisher. The publisher will do all the selling, and in return for that service, will keep part of the money. But the publisher has many different things to sell, and they may not want to sell the work the author made. Authors often find it very hard to find a publisher willing to sell their work.
+
+But without a publisher, it can be even harder for an author to sell his or her work. In many markets, a few big publishers own the copyrights to almost everything available, and stores will not want to sell works published by small authors themselves. Many people say copyright law helps big publishers stay in control, and keeps smaller authors out of the market. (tragedy of the anticommons).
+
+As a solution to these problems, groups of authors have come up with the idea of open content. With open content, authors give everyone permission to copy, change and give away or sell their works, as long as they follow certain rules. These rules are explained in an open content license. Some possible open content rules are:
+
+The term for Open Content is sometimes called Copyleft.

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+A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages. There are slums in most of the big cities of the world. They may not be called slum, however; see shanty town.
+
+Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:
+
+Dickens, Sketches by Boz, 1839.
+

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+A tractor is a strong work vehicle used for farming.[1] It usually has a seat for only the driver, and can be used to pull many different tools or trailers.
+

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+Football (soccer)
+Basketball
+Rugby
+Gymnastics
+Baseball
+American football
+Cycling·Auto racing
+Cricket·Golf
+Field hockey·Handball
+Archery·Shooting
+Fencing·Weightlifting
+Pentathlon·Triathlon
+Horseback riding
+
+Swimming· Diving
+Water polo·Sailing
+Canoeing·Rowing
+
+Boxing·Wrestling
+Karate·Taekwondo
+
+Tennis· Volleyball
+Table tennis· Badminton
+
+Winter sports
+
+Skiing·Curling
+Bobsled·Luge
+Snowboarding·Biathlon
+Ice sledge hockey
+
+Basketball is a team sport where two teams, usually consisting of five players on each team, play against each other on a rectangular court. The objective is to get the ball through a hoop mounted high on a backboard on the opponent's side of the court, while preventing the opponent from shooting it into your team's hoop. It is a very popular sport worldwide, played with a round and usually orange(orange-brown) ball that bounces. Basketball players mainly use skills such as dribbling, shooting, running, and jumping. Each made basket is worth two points, while a basket made from beyond the three-point line is worth three points. If a player gets into too much physical contact, they may be given free throws which are worth one point each. The game typically lasts for four-quarters and the team with the most points at the end of the four-quarters win the game. If the score is tied at the end of the game, there will be something called overtime, which is additional play time to allow one team to win the match.
+
+The game is played between men's teams or between women's teams. Basketball has been played in the Summer Olympic Games since 1936. The shot clock rule started in 1954. The first basketball game took place in 1892, where the court was half the size of what it is today.In 1891 the game was invented by James Naismith.
+
+In early December 1891, James Naismith (1861–1939), a Canadian physical education teacher at Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts, invented an indoor game called basketball. He invented the sport to keep his students from becoming bored during the winter. Naismith wrote the basic rules and then nailed a peach basket onto a 20-foot tall pole. Unlike modern basketball hoops, the bottom of the peach-basket was still there, so after a point was scored, somebody had to get the ball out of the basket with a long stick. Over time, people made a hole at the bottom of the basket so the ball could go through more easily.  The first game of basketball was played at the International Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Springfield, Massachusetts. The score of the first game of basketball ever played was 1-0. There is a sculpture in Springfield, outside where the first game was held. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is also in Springfield.
+
+For that first game of basketball in 1891, Naismith used two half-bushel peach baskets as goals, which gave the sport its name. The students were enthusiastic. After much running and shooting, William R. Chase made a midcourt shot, which was the only score in that historic contest. Word spread about the newly invented game, and numerous associations wrote Naismith for a copy of the rules, which were published in the January 15, 1892, issue of the Triangle, the YMCA Training School's campus paper.
+
+Since the rules had not been formally written, there was no maximum number of players then, unlike today. This also meant that there were no set rules to the game; Naismith only observed how it was played and changed the rules accordingly.
+
+The aim of basketball is to score more points than the other team, by making the ball in the basket. Players on one team try to stop players on the other team from scoring. Baskets can be worth 1, 2, or 3 points. Each normal score is worth two points; however, if a player throws the ball into the hoop from behind the large arched line on the court, called the "3-point line," the score is worth three points. You get points by "shooting" (throwing or dropping) the ball into the opponents' basket. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins.
+The ball is moved forward by shooting, passing (throwing or handing off) or dribbling it. The ball may not be carried by a player who is walking or running without dribbling it. If this rule is violated, it is called a travel.
+
+The court, where the game is played, is a rectangle, and at both end lines there is a goal called a "hoop" in the shape of a circle basket with the bottom cut out.
+
+In each game of basketball these things are required:
+
+Basketball is played with two teams, with 5 players from each team on the court at one time. The maximum number of players on the bench differs by the league. In international play, a maximum of 7 players is allowed on the bench, resulting in a roster of 12 players. The NBA has 13-player rosters; college and high school teams have 15-player rosters. When a player wants to substitute for another player on the court, they let the score bench know. The referees will signal for the player waiting to come into the court. The player that was in the game comes off the court and the player that was  sitting on the bench goes inside the game. This is called a substitution. In regional matches, in some areas, a minimum of 3 players are required to be on the bench. In India, there might be leeway in the number depending on the category of the tournament you're playing in.
+
+A game of basketball is made up of four different quarters, each ten (or in the National Basketball Association, 12) minutes long. In the NCAA, or National Collegiate Athletic Association, there are 2  20 minute halves. At the start of every game the referee throws the basketball up in the air, and one player from each team tries to hit it to their teammates, that is called a "jump ball."
+
+At the start of each quarter the team who has the possession arrow pointing towards their hoop gets the ball. Then the arrow is switched, and the next team gets the ball next quarter.
+
+After four-quarters, the team who scores the most points wins. If the two teams score the same number of points, there is a five-minute "overtime" to see who can score more points. "Overtime" can be played over and over until one team finally scores more points.
+
+If a player does something illegal in the game, it is called a "foul." If a player fouls someone on the other team who is shooting the basketball, the player who was fouled gets to shoot "free throws" from the "foul line." A free throw is a shot that no one is allowed to try to block. A free throw is shot from the straight line in front of the hoop. Each successful free throw is worth one point.
+
+If a player fouls an opponent who is not shooting, the other team gets the ball, and can throw it in bounds from the sideline. Players can do three things with the ball: "dribble" (bounce) the ball, "pass" the ball to a teammate, or "shoot" the ball at the hoop. The player with the ball tries to keep the ball and not let the other team get it.
+
+The ball can't be kicked or hit with the fist. If this is violated, the other team gets possession of the ball and gets to throw it in from the nearest out of bounds area.
+
+Once a player commits five fouls, he is no longer allowed to play in the game, and a player on the bench must go in the game immediately. If a team commits four fouls, the opposing team gets to shoot a free throw on any next foul that doesn't involve shooting. (Depending on the league).
+
+In a game of basketball, there are a number of officials who are not from either team, who are there to help. Officials are important to the game, and help it run efficiently. Here is a list of some of these people:
+
+Fans and media in North America will often use "referee" to describe all on-court officials, whether their formal titles are "referee", "umpire", or "crew chief".
+
+There are some basketball terms that players have to understand when playing the game. Here are some terms:
+
+In professional basketball teams, each player has a position. A position is a job or role that a player has to take part in to play the game. If everyone is doing their job correctly, the team is usually successful.
+
+Other positions, more usual in professional basketball teams, are used in basketball.
+
+There are many types of basketball. Some are for people with disabilities, others are played more by a specific group, some are played using only half the court, and some are for when there are fewer players.
+
+This is the most popular "pick up game" variation of basketball. Pick up games are when teams are chosen on the court instead of having official teams. Due to there being no referee, this more casual game has more relaxed rules than official games. Instead of 5 players, there are only three players on each team, hence the name.
+
+While the exact rules vary from place to place, there are several common rules typically found in most games, including:
+
+There are officially sponsored 3 on 3 tournaments, though the game is mostly played without an official league.
+
+Variations with 2 player and 4 player teams often follow this same format.
+
+Twenty-one (21) is a variation of basketball that does not include teams. It is often played with odd-numbers of players or when there are too few players for 3 on 3 games.
+
+The object of 21 is to score exactly 21 points. Players keep track of their own scores and call out their points after making a basket. All players play defense against all other players and compete for the rebound on a miss.
+
+When a player makes a shot, he or she scores 2 points and is then awarded a chance to score an additional 3 points by attempting a series of free-throws. If a player makes a free-throw, he or she is awarded an additional point and an additional free-throw. If a player makes three straight free-throws they are then given the ball a the top of the key and the other players may then defend.
+
+One special rule is that if a player gets 20 points and then misses a free-throw, or scores 17 points and then makes all three free-throws, their score is set back to 15. This is because their next basket would put them over 21 points, and the object of the game is to get exactly 21.
+
+Due to there being no teams, there are a number of special rules to 21:
+
+The game H-O-R-S-E, (pronounced horse) is played by two or more players. The player in control of the ball tries to make a shot however they want. The other layer has to repeat their shot. If they miss, they get an H added, until they get enough letters to finish the word horse and they lose. If the player who has the ball missed their shot, no letter is added and control moves to the next player.
+
+In this variation, the players are all seated in a wheelchair. This is often played by people who cannot walk or are unable to play normal basketball. The rules are altered slightly, but the game follows the same general concepts.

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+A tractor is a strong work vehicle used for farming.[1] It usually has a seat for only the driver, and can be used to pull many different tools or trailers.
+

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+In theatre, a tragedy as defined by Aristotle is a play that ends badly for the hero or heroine or others. A tragedy is usually about a person who has many good qualities, but also has one poor quality (called a "tragic flaw") that causes trouble for him, and maybe his family or friends.
+
+Often in a tragedy, there is one possible event that the hero fears and tries to prevent, but no matter what he does, it makes this thing more and more sure to happen.  Tragedies originated in Ancient Greek theatre, where they were performed at religious festivals. The three most famous Greek tragedy writers were Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Later famous writers include Shakespeare and Jean Racine.
+
+Sometimes the word tragedy is also used to mean something with a bad outcome in real life.

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+In theatre, a tragedy as defined by Aristotle is a play that ends badly for the hero or heroine or others. A tragedy is usually about a person who has many good qualities, but also has one poor quality (called a "tragic flaw") that causes trouble for him, and maybe his family or friends.
+
+Often in a tragedy, there is one possible event that the hero fears and tries to prevent, but no matter what he does, it makes this thing more and more sure to happen.  Tragedies originated in Ancient Greek theatre, where they were performed at religious festivals. The three most famous Greek tragedy writers were Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Later famous writers include Shakespeare and Jean Racine.
+
+Sometimes the word tragedy is also used to mean something with a bad outcome in real life.

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+A train is a set of cars on a railway. The vehicles that carry freight or are called cars (in the United States) or wagons (in the United Kingdom). The ones that carry passengers are often called coaches or carriages. A place where a train stops to let people get on and off is called a Train station or railway station. Early trains used horse power and ran on wooden or iron tracks. These were used in the Middle Ages. The first steam trains were built in England in the early 19th century. Long before railways, "train" meant any group of vehicles or pack animals traveling in a line, as in wagon train or camel train.
+
+Trains contain the prime mover (either locomotive or motor unit) and one or more cars. The locomotive or railway engine (usually the first car of the train) pulls the cars along the track. The last car you will see on a train is called the caboose. Some trains look like a special bus that can only drive on rails. Trains are used to carry people, as well as cargo, such as raw material,finished goods, and waste.
+
+Freight trains have freight cars (US) or goods wagons (UK) to carry goods from one place to another. Some are boxcars (closed and roofed cars for cargo); others are special so they can carry special cargo. There are hopper cars for sand, coal, ore and other granulous (sand-like) materials, flatbed cars for vehicles and machinery, tank cars for liquids, container cars for containers and even bottle cars for molten iron. Almost anything which is not too large to fit under tunnels and bridges can be transported on special freight cars.
+
+Passenger trains have passenger cars (US) or coaches (UK) made so people can ride them from one train station to another. There are few long-distance passenger trains in the United States, but more in Europe and Asia. Most passenger cars are single-deckers: there are also double-decker passenger cars, such as the Finnish Inter-City cars.
+
+Passenger trains are usually a very comfortable way of traveling. Many trains have electrical outlets and Wi-Fi hotspots for computers, and a special restaurant car for dining and refreshments. There are also sleeping cars (passenger cars with beds) for long overnight voyages.
+
+High-speed rail uses special, fast passenger trains on special tracks.  A few very fast ones are maglev trains using magnets to hover slightly off the tracks to have less friction.
+
+Most trains are pulled by locomotives. Before 1900, almost all were steam locomotives. As this kind of steam engine uses very much fuel for the work it does, steam began to give way to diesel locomotives and electric locomotives during the 1930s.  Today, most locomotives are diesel-electric locomotives.
+
+Sometimes a train has no separate locomotive, but the prime mover (diesel engine or electric motor) is located on the first car of the train itself, and the car has engineer's cabin. The car is called a "motor unit".   Some trains have motors in many or all of the cars. This is called a diesel multiple unit or electric multiple unit.  Usually, both ends of the train have engineer's cabins.  These trains are especially popular in commuter traffic in large towns and cities. Electric trains get their power from a third rail or from overhead wires.

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+A train is a set of cars on a railway. The vehicles that carry freight or are called cars (in the United States) or wagons (in the United Kingdom). The ones that carry passengers are often called coaches or carriages. A place where a train stops to let people get on and off is called a Train station or railway station. Early trains used horse power and ran on wooden or iron tracks. These were used in the Middle Ages. The first steam trains were built in England in the early 19th century. Long before railways, "train" meant any group of vehicles or pack animals traveling in a line, as in wagon train or camel train.
+
+Trains contain the prime mover (either locomotive or motor unit) and one or more cars. The locomotive or railway engine (usually the first car of the train) pulls the cars along the track. The last car you will see on a train is called the caboose. Some trains look like a special bus that can only drive on rails. Trains are used to carry people, as well as cargo, such as raw material,finished goods, and waste.
+
+Freight trains have freight cars (US) or goods wagons (UK) to carry goods from one place to another. Some are boxcars (closed and roofed cars for cargo); others are special so they can carry special cargo. There are hopper cars for sand, coal, ore and other granulous (sand-like) materials, flatbed cars for vehicles and machinery, tank cars for liquids, container cars for containers and even bottle cars for molten iron. Almost anything which is not too large to fit under tunnels and bridges can be transported on special freight cars.
+
+Passenger trains have passenger cars (US) or coaches (UK) made so people can ride them from one train station to another. There are few long-distance passenger trains in the United States, but more in Europe and Asia. Most passenger cars are single-deckers: there are also double-decker passenger cars, such as the Finnish Inter-City cars.
+
+Passenger trains are usually a very comfortable way of traveling. Many trains have electrical outlets and Wi-Fi hotspots for computers, and a special restaurant car for dining and refreshments. There are also sleeping cars (passenger cars with beds) for long overnight voyages.
+
+High-speed rail uses special, fast passenger trains on special tracks.  A few very fast ones are maglev trains using magnets to hover slightly off the tracks to have less friction.
+
+Most trains are pulled by locomotives. Before 1900, almost all were steam locomotives. As this kind of steam engine uses very much fuel for the work it does, steam began to give way to diesel locomotives and electric locomotives during the 1930s.  Today, most locomotives are diesel-electric locomotives.
+
+Sometimes a train has no separate locomotive, but the prime mover (diesel engine or electric motor) is located on the first car of the train itself, and the car has engineer's cabin. The car is called a "motor unit".   Some trains have motors in many or all of the cars. This is called a diesel multiple unit or electric multiple unit.  Usually, both ends of the train have engineer's cabins.  These trains are especially popular in commuter traffic in large towns and cities. Electric trains get their power from a third rail or from overhead wires.

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+Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
+
+There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery.[1] There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents.[2] Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
+
+During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law.[3] Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.[4]
+
+The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe.[5][6]  According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war.  Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.
+
+Slavery has existed for a long time.[7] Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves.[8] They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people.[8] Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.[8] This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.[9]
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+In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of  Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
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+In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants.[10] Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.
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+In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.
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+Roman slaves played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services. They could work at highly skilled jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.
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+Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.
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+Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.[11]
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+After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom.
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+Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated.[12] It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process.[12] But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”.[12] Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.[12]
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+For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans.[13] Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.[13]
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+Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves.[14] At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.[14]
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+Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[15] The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[16] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[17][18] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[19] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[20] Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.[21][unreliable source?]
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+Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well.[4] The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.
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+One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.[22]
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+Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.
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+Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[23]  In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China.[24] They included 69 children.[25] The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.[24]
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+In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour.[26][27] Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007.[28] In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population.[29][30][31] Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining.  According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.[32]
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+In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour.[33][34] The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.[35][36]
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+Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
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+An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.