64bd2aa2c74749203ee2a8aec7190d4c27d919e1ca919ec8c20373d26e8955eb

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+A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages. There are slums in most of the big cities of the world. They may not be called slum, however; see shanty town.
+
+Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:
+
+Dickens, Sketches by Boz, 1839.
+

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+on the European continent  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+Belarus (officially called Republic of Belarus) is a country in Eastern Europe.[8] About nine million people live there. Its capital is Minsk. It was part of the Soviet Union until 1991. The president of Belarus has been Alexander Lukashenko since 1994. It is bordered by Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested.[9]
+
+The State is a member of the UN, the CIS, Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Eurasian Economic Community, the Union State of Russia and Belarus (from 2 April 1997), as well as a member of other international organizations.
+
+Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries. These included the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. After the Russian Revolution, Belarus became part of the Soviet Union.  It was renamed the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939. Some lands of the Second Polish Republic were added into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland.[10][11][12][13][14][15] The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II. Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources.[16] In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
+
+The parliament of the republic declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990. During the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus became independent on 25 August 1991.
+
+Over 70% of Belarus's population of 9.49 million live in the urban areas.[17] More than 80% of the population are ethnic Belarusians. Most of the rest are Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. The country has two official languages: Belarusian and Russian. The main religion in the country is Russian Orthodox Christianity. The second most popular, Roman Catholicism, has a much smaller following.
+
+Both Homo erectus and Neanderthal remains have been found in the region. From 5,000 to 2,000 BCE, Bandkeramik cultures lived here. Cimmerians were in the area by 1,000 BCE. By 500 BCE, Slavs moved in. The Huns and Avars came through around 400–600 CE. They were unable to move the Slavs.[18]
+
+The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. They came into contact with the Varangians, who were bands of Scandinavian warriors and traders.[19] They formed Kievan Rus' in 862.
+
+When Kievan Rus' ruler Yaroslav I the Wise died, the state split.[20] Later some were added into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[21] Lithuania made a union with Poland. The union ended in 1795.[22] The land of Belarus went to the Russian Empire.[23] The land stayed with Russia until going to the German Empire during World War I.[24]
+
+Belarus said they were free from Germany on 25 March 1918. They formed the Belarusian People's Republic.[25][26] Then the Polish–Soviet War started. A part of Belarus under Russian rule became the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919. Then it added to the Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Other lands were divided between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921. The Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[25][27] The western part of modern Belarus stayed part of Poland.[28][29][30]
+
+In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland. This was the beginning of World War II. Parts of Poland were added to the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.  They are now West Belarus.
+
+Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. BSSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings.[16] Casualties were between two and three million.[16][31] The population of Belarus did not come back to its pre-war level until 1971.[31]
+
+Joseph Stalin wanted Belorussian SSR to be more Russian. Russians were sent from other parts of the Soviet Union to be in the government. The use of the Belarusian language was limited. After Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev continued the plan.
+
+In 1986, the Belorussian SSR had nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR.[32]
+
+Belarus said it was free on 27 July 1990. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.[33]
+
+Belarus is landlocked and mostly flat. It has a lot of marshy land.[34] Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus.[34] Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnieper.
+
+The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara at 345 metres (1,132 ft). Belarus has a hemiboreal humid continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification).
+
+Natural resources include peat deposits, small amounts of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay.[34] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory. The farmland continues to be affected by radiation fallout.[35]
+
+Belarus is a presidential republic. It is governed by a president and the National Assembly.
+
+Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style".[36] Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship.[37] The Council of Europe has stopped Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting.
+
+The Armed Forces of Belarus have three branches: the Army, the Air Force, and the Ministry of Defense joint staff. Lieutenant General Yuri Zhadobin heads the Ministry of Defense.[38] Alexander Lukashenko (as president) is Commander-in-Chief.[39]
+
+Belarus is divided into six regions. They are named after the cities that are their administrative centers.[40]
+
+Regions (with administrative centers):
+
+Special administrative district:
+
+Most of the Belarusian economy is state-controlled.[41] It has been described as "Soviet-style."[42] The country relies on Russia for some imports, including petroleum.[43] As of 1994, Belarus's main exports included heavy machinery (especially tractors), agricultural products, and energy products.[44]
+
+According to 2009 census, the population is 9,503,807.[2] Ethnic Belarusians are 83.7% of Belarus' total population.[2] The next largest ethnic groups are: Russians (8.3%), Poles (3.1%), and Ukrainians (1.7%).[2] Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, is home to 1,836,808 residents as of 2009.[2] Gomel, with 481,000 people, is the second-largest city and is the capital of the Homiel Voblast. Other large cities are Mogilev (365,100), Vitebsk (342,400), Hrodna (314,800) and Brest (298,300).[45] For other places in Belarus see List of settlements in Belarus.
+
+Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th-century religious scripture. By the 16th century, Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. The modern era of Belarusian literature began in the late 19th century. One important writer was Yanka Kupala. Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus. They would not return until the 1960s.[46] The last major revival of Belarusian literature was in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil Bykaŭ and Uladzimir Karatkievich.
+
+In the 19th century, Polish composer Stanisław Moniuszko made operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk. At the end of the 19th century, major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies.
+
+The National Academic Theatre of Ballet, in Minsk, was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world.[47] Rock music has become more popular in recent years, though the Belarusian government has tried to limit the amount of foreign music aired on the radio. Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision Song Contest.[48]
+
+The traditional Belarusian dress is from the Kievan Rus' period. Due to the cool climate, clothes were made to keep body heat and were usually made from flax or wool.
+
+Belarusian cuisine is mainly vegetables, meat (especially pork), and breads. Foods are usually either slowly cooked or stewed. A typical Belarusian eats a light breakfast and two hearty meals, with dinner being the largest meal of the day. Wheat and rye breads are eaten in Belarus. Rye is more plentiful because conditions are too harsh for growing wheat. To show hospitality, a host will give an offering of bread and salt when greeting a guest or visitor.[49] Popular drinks in Belarus include Russian wheat vodka and kvass,  Kvass is a drink made from fermented malted brown bread or rye flour. Kvass may also be added with sliced vegetables to create a cold soup called okroshka.[50]
+
+Belarus has four World Heritage Sites: the Mir Castle Complex, the Nesvizh Castle, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha (shared with Poland), and the Struve Geodetic Arc (shared with nine other countries).[51]

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+The word good can be an adjective that means something that is wanted.  Something that is good is not bad.  See good in the dictionary.
+
+Good can also mean:

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+
+
+in the African Union  (light blue)
+
+The Republic of South Africa is a country in the southern region of Africa. About fifty-five million people live there. South Africa is next to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland.
+
+The biggest city of South Africa is Johannesburg. The country has three capitals for different purposes.  They are Cape Town, Pretoria, and Bloemfontein. This is because the government is based in Pretoria, the parliament is in Cape Town and the Supreme Court is in Bloemfontein.[8]
+
+There are 11 national languages. They are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Setswana, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Venda and Tsonga. They are also known as National Lexicography Units (NLUs). Because of all the languages, the country has an official name in each language.
+
+One of South Africa's most well known people is Nelson Mandela. He was its president from 1994 until 1999. He died in 2013. The current president is Cyril Ramaphosa.
+
+The first European people to come to South Africa were Portuguese explorers. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias found what he called the "Cape of Storms". The king of Portugal changed it to "Cape of Good Hope". He called it this because the cape gave the Portuguese a new chance to find a sea route to India.
+
+In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck colonized the Cape. He started the camp for the Dutch East India Company. This was so that they could give fresh food to ships on their way to the south of Asia. There were very few native people living in the Cape. Because of this, slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar and India to work at the colony. In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, to stop France from taking it. The British gave it back in 1803 but then annexed the Cape in 1807 when the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt.
+
+Diamonds were found in South Africa in 1867. Gold was found in 1884. This made a great number of people to come to South Africa from Europe. They were hoping to make money.
+
+The First Boer War happened in 1880-1881. The war was between the British and the Boers Republics. At that time, the British had the Cape. The Boer Republics were established when Dutch settlers moved north in the Great Trek. The British lost the war and came back 8 years later in 1899. They won this Second Boer War in 1902. The British had brought many more soldiers the second time. The Boers had no chance of winning. On 31 May 1910 the Union of South Africa was made from the Cape and Natal colonies. It was also made from Orange Free State and the Transvaal. These were two Boer Republics.
+
+South Africa is found at the southernmost region of Africa, with a long coastline that reaches more than 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi),[9] South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is almost the size of Colombia. Njesuthi in the Drakensberg at 3,408 m (11,181 ft) is the highest part in South Africa.
+
+The back of South Africa is a big and flat. It is a very populated scrubland, the Karoo, which is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert. The eastern coastline however, is well-watered, which makes a climate kind of like the tropics.
+
+To the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the escarpment of the Highveld. It then turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and a lot of wildlife. East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld reaches towards the Indian Ocean. It has mostly high temperatures, and is also the location of subtropical agriculture.
+
+South Africa has a mostly temperate climate. It is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, and is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere. Average elevation is higher towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland. Because of this varied topography and oceanic influence, different parts of South Africa have different climates.
+
+There is a desert in the southern Namib in the farthest northwest and subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian ocean. From the east, the land quickly rises over mountains towards the back plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is thought as semi-arid, there is a difference in climate as well as topography.
+
+The southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with mild, moderately wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also makes much of the wine in South Africa. This region is also mostly known for its wind, which blows almost all year. The wind can sometimes be severe when passing around the Cape of Good Hope mostly gets bad for sailors, making many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall falls more evenly throughout the year, making a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.
+
+The Orange Free State is mostly flat, because it lies in the center of the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not get subtropical heat. Johannesburg, in the center of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and gets a yearly rainfall of 740 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.
+
+South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries,[10] with more than 20,000 different kinds of plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it very rich in plant biodiversity.
+
+The most common biome in South Africa is the grassland, mostly on the Highveld. This is where grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mostly camel-thorn and whitethorn are more common then plants. Plants become even more less common towards the northwest. This is because of low rainfall. There are many species of water-storing plants like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with more thick growth. There are many numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.[11]
+
+South Africa's economy is divided. It is divided between First World and Third World standards. The developed part of the economy is similar to that of most nations with wealth (for example, Britain or Australia). The rest of the economy is closer to that of poor nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The main companies in South Africa are mining (mostly for gold and diamonds), car making, and service industries, such as insurance.
+
+Unemployment is very high. Income inequality is about the same as Brazil. During 1995–2003, the number of older jobs went down. Informal jobs went up. Overall unemployment got worse.[12] The average South African household income went down a lot between 1995 and 2000. As for racial inequality, Statistics South Africa said that in 1995 the average white household earned four times as much as the average black household. In 2000 the average white family was earning six times more than the average black household.[13]
+The action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth. There is a developing black middle class.[14][15] Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. South Africa suffers from mostly heavy overall regulation compared to developed countries. .[16] Restrictive labor rules have added to the unemployment weakness.[12]
+
+South Africa is a nation of about 50 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions. The last census was held in 2001 and the next will be in 2011. Statistics South Africa had five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew "not needed" responses, and these results were not counted.[17] The 2009 middle-year estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.3%, White at 9.1%, Colored at 9.0%, and Asian at 2.6%.[18]
+
+Even though the population of South Africa has grown in the past decade[17][19] (mostly because of immigration), the country had an yearly population growth rate of −0.501% in 2008 (CIA est.), counting immigration. The CIA thinks that in 2009 South Africa's population started to grow again, at a rate of 0.281%. South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, counting about 3 million Zimbabweans.[20][21][22] A series of anti-immigrant riots happened in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008.[23][24]
+
+South Africa is divided into 9 provinces. The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further divided into 226 local municipalities.
+
+1. Johannesburg
+
+2. Cape Town
+
+3. Durban
+
+4. Pretoria
+
+It may be suggested that there is no single South African culture because of its ethnic diversity. Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures is enjoyed by all and marketed to tourists who wish to taste South African food. Food is not the only thing, music and dance is there too.
+
+South African food is mostly meat-based and has spawned the South African social gathering known as a braai, or barbecue. South Africa has also developed into a big wine maker. It has some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.[27]
+
+South Africa is the only Western country of Africa.
+Most South African blacks still have poor lives. It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions live most strongly. This is because blacks have become urbanised and Westernised, much parts of traditional culture have fallen. Urban blacks normally speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still important groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not in the eleven official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognized languages.
+
+Members of middle class, who are mostly white but whose ranks are growing numbers of black, colored and Indian people,[28] have lifestyles similar in many ways to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work from foreign countries for greater exposure to the markets of the world.
+
+According to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population. This has Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hinduism about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified.[29][30]
+
+South Africa's most liked sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket. Other sports that are popular are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Soccer is the most liked among youth. There are other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding that are becoming more liked.
+
+Famous boxers from South Africa are Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. There are football players who have played for major foreign clubs. Some of them are Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga (both were of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atletico Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto and Blackburn Rovers), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley (Borussia Dortmund) and Steven Pienaar (Ajax Amsterdam and Everton). South Africa made Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter. Famous current cricket players are Herschelle Gibbs, Graeme Smith, Jacques Kallis, JP Duminy and more. Most of them also participate in the Indian Premier League.
+
+South Africa has also made many world class rugby players. Some of them are Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, and Bryan Habana. South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup at their first try. They won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France. South Africa was only allowed to participate from 1995 since the end of Apartheid. It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations. It had the national team, 'Bafana Bafana,' going on to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. and the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship. Both of them were a great success.
+
+In 2010, South Africa became the first African nation to host the FIFA World Cup. The national team has competed in three World Cups. It bid for the right to stage the 2004 Olympic Games, but finished third to Athens. South Africa is also well known for their cricket team. They are right now the world's number one in test match cricket.
+
+The main schools span the first seven years of schooling. In the age of Apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to judgment through inadequate funding and so forth. Instruction can take place in Afrikaans as well. Public payment on education was at 5.4% of the 2002-05 GDP.[31]
+
+South Africa's military is the most powerful in southern Africa. South Africa spends more on its military than any of its neighboring countries do. They have very advanced weapons as a result. South Africa used to have nuclear weapons, but they were taken apart in 1993.

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+Beer is a type of alcoholic drink. It is made with water, hops, barley (types of cereal grains), and types of yeast (a fungus that produces alcohol). A process called fermentation turns sugar into alcohol, using yeast. Another product of the fermentation is carbon dioxide.
+
+In general, all alcoholic drinks where yeast turns sugar into alcohol are called beer. In these cases, distillation is not used. The difference to wine is that with wine, sugars from plants, such as fruit sugar, or that made by animals is used. As an example, mead is a wine made from honey. Japanese sake is made from rice, and uses yeast for fermentation; so even if some people call it rice wine, sake is really a kind of beer.
+
+The act of making beer is called "brewing". Beer is made by adding warm water to malted barley and other grains. The enzymes in the barley change the malted barley and other grains into simple sugars. This is called the mash. The water is then sparged (drained) from the grain. The water is now called wort. The wort is boiled and hops are added. Hops provide flavour and preserve the beer. After boiling the wort is cooled and yeast is added. The yeast turns the sugars into alcohol and the wort into beer.
+
+Different beers can have different natures, depending on the ingredients used; for example, an ale uses top fermenting yeast. Top fermenting yeasts eat more sugar and produce more alcohol. A lager uses bottom fermenting yeast. Bottom fermenting yeasts eat less sugar and produce a crisper, cleaner taste. Adding hops makes the beer more bitter and aromatic. Specialty malts (different types of cooked barley) produce different flavours and colours. These flavours and colours are most notable in dark beers like Porter and Stout.
+
+Different countries have different ways to make beer. In Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, beer is usually made from just hops, malt, water, and yeast. This is because of the Reinheitsgebot. The Reinheitsgebot was a law that said says that beer can only be made from hops, malt, and water. Yeast was discovered after the Reinheitsgebot. The law was overturned by the European Union in 1992. In Belgium, however, beers have always been made with wheat, sugar, fruit, and other ingredients.
+
+The type of yeast used determines the kind of beer made:
+
+The earliest records of beer were written around 7000 years ago by the Sumerians. It is said that the Sumerians discovered the fermentation process by accident. It is not known exactly how this happened, but it could be that a piece of bread or grain became wet, and a short time later, it began to ferment and made a pulp that caused people to become drunk. A seal around 4,000 years old is a Sumerian "Hymn to Ninkasi", the goddess of brewing. This "hymn" is also a recipe for making beer. A description of the making of beer on this ancient engraving in the Sumerian language is the earliest account of what is easily recognised as barley, followed by a pictograph of bread being baked, crumbled into water to form a mash, and then made into a drink, that is recorded as having made people feel "...wonderful and blissful". It could even be possible that bread was first baked to be a way to make beer that is easy to carry around. The Sumerians were probably the first people to brew beer. They had found a "divine drink" -- they felt it was a gift from the gods.
+
+Normal beers have around 3-5 % alcohol (for the volume, i.e. in 100ml beer there is 3-5ml alcohol). In brewing beer, the amount of alcohol can be made more or less quite easily. The Belgian types of beer are made by adding more sugar. Through the fermentation, this will then turn to alcohol. Today, there are beers with between 2% and about 16% of alcohol (about the same alcohol content as wine). Spirits can have up to 80% alcohol. Some beer labels say there is no alcohol in them because it was taken out later. This is not completely true, though. Beers "without alcohol" usually do have less than 1% of alcohol.

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+The Big Bang is a scientific theory about how the universe started, and then made the stars and galaxies we see today. The Big Bang is the name that scientists use for the most common theory of the universe,[2][3][4] from the very early stages to the present day.[5][6][7]
+
+The universe began as a very hot, small, and dense superforce (the mix of the four fundamental forces), with no stars, atoms, form, or structure (called a "singularity"). Then about 13.8 billion years ago,[1] space expanded very quickly (thus the name "Big Bang"). This started the formation of atoms, which eventually led to the formation of stars and galaxies. It was Georges Lemaître who first noted (in 1927) that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point. The universe is still expanding today, and getting colder as well.
+
+As a whole, the universe is growing and the temperature is falling as time passes. Cosmology is the study of how the universe began and its development. Scientists who study cosmology have agreed that the Big Bang theory matches what they have observed so far.[1]
+
+Fred Hoyle called the theory the "Big Bang" on his radio show. He did not believe the Big Bang was correct. Scientists who did not agree with him thought the name was funny and decided to use it.[8]
+
+Scientists base the Big Bang theory on many different observations. The most important is the redshift of very far away galaxies. Redshift is the Doppler effect occurring in light. When an object moves away from Earth, its color rays look more similar to the color red than they actually are, because the movement stretches the wavelength of light given off by the object. Scientists use the word "red hot" to describe this stretched light wave because red is the longest wavelength on the visible spectrum. The more redshift there is, the faster the object is moving away. By measuring the redshift, scientists proved that the universe is expanding, and they can work out how fast the object is moving away from the Earth. With very exact observation and measurements, scientists believe that the universe was a singularity approximately 13.8 billion years ago. Because most things become colder as they expand, scientists assume that the universe was very small and very hot when it started.[9]
+
+Other observations that support the Big Bang theory are the amounts of chemical elements in the universe. Amounts of very light elements, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium seem to agree with the theory of the Big Bang. Scientists also have found "cosmic microwaves background radiation". This radiation is known as radio waves, and they are everywhere in the universe. This radiation is now very weak and cold, but a long time ago it was very strong and very hot.[1]
+
+It can be said that time had no meaning before the Big Bang. If the Big Bang was the beginning of time, then there was no universe before the Big Bang, since there could not be any "before" if there was no time! Other ideas state that the Big Bang was not the beginning of time 13.8 billion years ago. Instead, some believe that there was a completely different universe before the Big Bang, and it may have been very different from the one we know today.[9]
+
+Nonetheless, in November 2019, Jim Peebles, awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics for his theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology.[10] noted, in his award presentation, that he does not support the Big Bang Theory, due to the lack of concrete supporting evidence, and stated, "It's very unfortunate that one thinks of the beginning whereas in fact, we have no good theory of such a thing as the beginning."[11]
+
+Many things happened in the first picosecond of the universe's time:

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+The Big Bang is a scientific theory about how the universe started, and then made the stars and galaxies we see today. The Big Bang is the name that scientists use for the most common theory of the universe,[2][3][4] from the very early stages to the present day.[5][6][7]
+
+The universe began as a very hot, small, and dense superforce (the mix of the four fundamental forces), with no stars, atoms, form, or structure (called a "singularity"). Then about 13.8 billion years ago,[1] space expanded very quickly (thus the name "Big Bang"). This started the formation of atoms, which eventually led to the formation of stars and galaxies. It was Georges Lemaître who first noted (in 1927) that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point. The universe is still expanding today, and getting colder as well.
+
+As a whole, the universe is growing and the temperature is falling as time passes. Cosmology is the study of how the universe began and its development. Scientists who study cosmology have agreed that the Big Bang theory matches what they have observed so far.[1]
+
+Fred Hoyle called the theory the "Big Bang" on his radio show. He did not believe the Big Bang was correct. Scientists who did not agree with him thought the name was funny and decided to use it.[8]
+
+Scientists base the Big Bang theory on many different observations. The most important is the redshift of very far away galaxies. Redshift is the Doppler effect occurring in light. When an object moves away from Earth, its color rays look more similar to the color red than they actually are, because the movement stretches the wavelength of light given off by the object. Scientists use the word "red hot" to describe this stretched light wave because red is the longest wavelength on the visible spectrum. The more redshift there is, the faster the object is moving away. By measuring the redshift, scientists proved that the universe is expanding, and they can work out how fast the object is moving away from the Earth. With very exact observation and measurements, scientists believe that the universe was a singularity approximately 13.8 billion years ago. Because most things become colder as they expand, scientists assume that the universe was very small and very hot when it started.[9]
+
+Other observations that support the Big Bang theory are the amounts of chemical elements in the universe. Amounts of very light elements, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium seem to agree with the theory of the Big Bang. Scientists also have found "cosmic microwaves background radiation". This radiation is known as radio waves, and they are everywhere in the universe. This radiation is now very weak and cold, but a long time ago it was very strong and very hot.[1]
+
+It can be said that time had no meaning before the Big Bang. If the Big Bang was the beginning of time, then there was no universe before the Big Bang, since there could not be any "before" if there was no time! Other ideas state that the Big Bang was not the beginning of time 13.8 billion years ago. Instead, some believe that there was a completely different universe before the Big Bang, and it may have been very different from the one we know today.[9]
+
+Nonetheless, in November 2019, Jim Peebles, awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics for his theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology.[10] noted, in his award presentation, that he does not support the Big Bang Theory, due to the lack of concrete supporting evidence, and stated, "It's very unfortunate that one thinks of the beginning whereas in fact, we have no good theory of such a thing as the beginning."[11]
+
+Many things happened in the first picosecond of the universe's time:

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+
+
+Big Ben is the nickname of a bell that hangs in the clock tower at the northern end of the Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London, England.[1] Officially, the tower itself is called Elizabeth Tower. It was previously known as just the Clock Tower, but was renamed in September 2012 as a tribute to the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II.[2] However, most people, including those that live in London, call the tower "Big Ben" because it is very large.
+
+Designed by Edmund Beckett Denison, the clock took 13 years to build and it was completed in 1859.[3] It has worked continuously since then except for a few months in 1976 when it broke down and had to be fixed.
+
+Big Ben is one of England’s best-known landmarks. Some believe it got its name from Sir Benjamin Hall.[1] The Elizabeth Tower which it is located in has become one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and is often in the establishing shot of films set in London.
+
+Since August 2017, repair work is being done on the clock, which will take four years. For the safety of those doing this work, Big Ben no longer rings out every hour. It will still be heard on special occasions, such as the New Year and Remembrance Day.[4]
+
+The Elizabeth Tower is over 96 metres (315 ft) high and the turret clock mechanism that drives the clock alone weighs about 5 tons (5.08 tonnes). The clock on it has four faces that are 9 feet (2.7 m) in diameter, making it one of the largest in the world for a clock that chimes and strikes every hour.[5] The figures on the clock face are about 2 feet (0.61 m) long and the minute spaces are 1 foot (0.30 m) long. There are, however, clocks with much bigger faces that Big Ben. One of these is the Abraj Al Bait, a hotel in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Its faces are more than ten times bigger than Big Ben.
+
+The bell known as Big Ben weighs 13 tons and is the biggest of the five bells in the Elizabeth Tower.[1] Big Ben only sounds at the top of every hour, and at that time it rings once for every hour (for example, it rings three times at 3 o'clock). The other four bells in the tower are smaller and play a short melody every 15 minutes. This melody, which is broadcasted live on BBC Radio 4 at 6 pm and midnight every day, can be heard in many other clocks around the world and is called the Westminster Chimes.
+
+The bells are struck by hammers that are connected to the clock mechanism, which is powered by large weights that are wound three times a week. It does not use any electricity except for winding and to light the faces so that the clock could be seen when it is dark.
+
+The Big Ben was built in 1859.
+

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+
+
+Big Ben is the nickname of a bell that hangs in the clock tower at the northern end of the Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London, England.[1] Officially, the tower itself is called Elizabeth Tower. It was previously known as just the Clock Tower, but was renamed in September 2012 as a tribute to the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II.[2] However, most people, including those that live in London, call the tower "Big Ben" because it is very large.
+
+Designed by Edmund Beckett Denison, the clock took 13 years to build and it was completed in 1859.[3] It has worked continuously since then except for a few months in 1976 when it broke down and had to be fixed.
+
+Big Ben is one of England’s best-known landmarks. Some believe it got its name from Sir Benjamin Hall.[1] The Elizabeth Tower which it is located in has become one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and is often in the establishing shot of films set in London.
+
+Since August 2017, repair work is being done on the clock, which will take four years. For the safety of those doing this work, Big Ben no longer rings out every hour. It will still be heard on special occasions, such as the New Year and Remembrance Day.[4]
+
+The Elizabeth Tower is over 96 metres (315 ft) high and the turret clock mechanism that drives the clock alone weighs about 5 tons (5.08 tonnes). The clock on it has four faces that are 9 feet (2.7 m) in diameter, making it one of the largest in the world for a clock that chimes and strikes every hour.[5] The figures on the clock face are about 2 feet (0.61 m) long and the minute spaces are 1 foot (0.30 m) long. There are, however, clocks with much bigger faces that Big Ben. One of these is the Abraj Al Bait, a hotel in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Its faces are more than ten times bigger than Big Ben.
+
+The bell known as Big Ben weighs 13 tons and is the biggest of the five bells in the Elizabeth Tower.[1] Big Ben only sounds at the top of every hour, and at that time it rings once for every hour (for example, it rings three times at 3 o'clock). The other four bells in the tower are smaller and play a short melody every 15 minutes. This melody, which is broadcasted live on BBC Radio 4 at 6 pm and midnight every day, can be heard in many other clocks around the world and is called the Westminster Chimes.
+
+The bells are struck by hammers that are connected to the clock mechanism, which is powered by large weights that are wound three times a week. It does not use any electricity except for winding and to light the faces so that the clock could be seen when it is dark.
+
+The Big Ben was built in 1859.
+

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+
+
+Pacific War
+
+Mediterranean and Middle East
+
+Other campaigns
+
+Contemporaneous wars
+
+World War II (WWII or WW2), in the Soviet Union, the Great Patriotic War, and in Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War, was a global war involving fighting in most of the world and most countries.  Most countries fought in the years 1939–1945 but some started fighting in 1937. Most of the world's countries, including all the great powers, fought as part of two military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. World War II was the largest and deadliest conflict in all of history. It involved more countries, cost more money, involved more people, and killed more people than any other war in history.[1] Between 50 to 85 million people died.[2][3] The majority were civilians. It included massacres, the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation, disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons against civilians in history.
+
+The two sides were the Allies (at first China, France and Britain, joined by the Soviet Union, United States and others) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan). The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937.[4] The war began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and Britain reacted by declaring war on Germany. By 1941, much of Europe was under German control, including France. Only Britain remained fighting against the Axis in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. Germany gave up plans to invade Britain after losing an airplane battle. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, starting the largest area of war in history. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor and invaded British and French colonies in Asia, and the two wars became one.
+
+The Japanese victories were stopped in 1942, and in that same year the Soviets won the huge Battle of Stalingrad. After that, the Allies started to fight back from all sides. The Axis were forced back in the Soviet Union, lost North Africa, and, starting in 1943, were forced to defend Italy.[5] In 1944, the Allies invaded France, and came into Germany from the west,[6] while the Soviets came in from the east. Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945.  The war ended with the Allied victory.
+
+After the war, the United Nations was set up to develop support between countries and to prevent future wars.  The Cold War among the major winners soon started, but they did not fight each other in an actual war. Decolonization of Asia and Africa, where those countries controlled by European countries were given their independence, happened as well. This was because European power was weakened from the war. Economic recovery and the political integration (the process of uniting countries) were among other results of the war.
+
+The countries that joined the war were on one of two sides: the Axis and the Allies.
+
+The Axis Powers at the start of the war were Germany, Italy and Japan. There were many meetings to create the alliance between these countries.[7][8][9][10] Finland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Thailand joined the Axis later. As the war continued, some Axis countries changed to join the Allies instead, such as Italy.
+
+The Allied Powers were the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth members, France, Poland, Yugoslavia, Greece, Belgium and China at the start of the war. China had been fighting a civil war. In June 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In December 1941 came Japan's Attack on Pearl Harbor against the United States. These two large, powerful countries then joined the Allies.
+
+World War I had greatly changed the way of diplomacy and politics in Asia, Europe, and Africa with the defeat of the Central Powers.  Empires which sided with the Central Powers were destroyed.  The Russian Empire, which did not side with the Central Powers, died as well.  The war also changed the borders in Eastern Europe, with many new countries born. The war led to strong irredentism and revanchism.  These senses were especially strong in Germany, which had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Versailles.[11] The Germans also had 13% of their homeland area and all colonies taken away, and they had to pay back a very large sum of money to the Allies.[12]  The size of their army and navy was also limited,[13] while its air force was banned.
+
+In Italy, nationalists were unhappy with the outcome of the war, thinking that their country should have gained far more territory from the past agreement with the Allies. The fascist movement in the 1920s brought Mussolini to the leadership of the country. He promised to make Italy a great power by creating its colonial empire.[14]
+
+After the Kuomintang (KMT), the governing party of China, unified the country in the 1920s, the civil war between it and its past ally Communist Party of China began.[15] In 1931, Japan used the Mukden Incident as a reason to take Manchuria and set up its puppet state, Manchukuo,[16] while the League of Nations could not do anything to stop it. The Tanggu Truce, a ceasefire, was signed in 1933. In 1936, the KMT and the communists agreed to stop fighting against each other to fight Japan instead.[17] In 1937, Japan started a Second Sino-Japanese War to take the rest of China.[18]
+
+After the German Empire was disestablished, the democratic Weimar Republic was set up. There were disagreements between the Germans which involved many political ideologies, ranging from nationalism to communism. The fascist movement in Germany rose because of the Great Depression. Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, became the Chancellor in 1933. After the Reichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian state, where there is only one party by law.[19] Hitler wanted to change the world order and quickly rebuilt the army, navy and air force,[20] especially after Saarland was reunited in 1935. In March 1936, Hitler sent the army to Rhineland. The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936. The war ended with the nationalist victory, supported by Italy and Germany.
+
+In March 1938, Germany sent its army into Austria, known as the Anschluss, which had only a little reaction from European countries.[21] Shortly after that, the Allies agreed to give Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, to Germany, so that Hitler would promise to stop taking more land.[22] But the rest of the country was either forced to surrender[23] or invaded by March 1939.[24] The Allies now tried to stop him, by promising to help Poland if it was attacked.[25] Just before the war, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a peace agreement, agreeing that they would not attack each other for ten years.[26] In the secret part of it, they agreed to divide Eastern Europe between them.[27]
+
+World War II began on September 1, 1939, as Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, Britain, France, and the members of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany. They could not help Poland much and only sent a small French attack on Germany from the West.[28] The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland soon after Germany, on September 17.[29] Finally, Poland was divided.
+
+Germany then signed an agreement to work together with the Soviet Union.  The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries to allow it to keep Soviet soldiers in their countries.[30] Finland did not accept the Soviet call for its land, so it was attacked in November 1939.[31] With peace, the world war broke out.[32] France and Britain thought that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the side of Germany and drove the Soviet Union out of the League of Nations.[33]
+
+After Poland was defeated, the "Phoney War" began in Western Europe. While British soldiers were sent to the Continent, there were no big battles fought between two sides.[34] Then, in April 1940, Germany decided to attack Norway and Denmark so that it would be safer to transport iron ore from Sweden. The British and French sent an army to disrupt the German occupation, but had to leave when Germany invaded France.[35] Chamberlain was replaced by Churchill as Prime Minister of United Kingdom in May 1940 because the British were unhappy with his work.[36]
+
+On 10 May, Germany invaded France, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg and quickly defeated them by using blitzkrieg tactics.[37] The British were forced to leave mainland Europe at Dunkirk. On June 10, Italy invaded France, declaring war on France and the United Kingdom. Soon after that, France was divided into occupation zones. One was directly controlled by Germany and Italy,[38] and the other was unoccupied Vichy France.
+
+By June 1940, the Soviet Union moved its soldiers into the Baltic states and took them,[39] followed by Bessarabia in Romania.  Although there had been some collaboration between the Soviet Union and Germany earlier, this event made it serious.[40][41]  Later, when the two could not agree to work more closely together, relationships between them became worse to the point of war.[42]
+
+Then Germany began an air battle over Britain to prepare for a landing on the island,[43] but the plan was finally canceled in September.  The German Navy destroyed many British ships transporting goods in the Atlantic.[44]  Italy, by this time, had begun its operation in the Mediterranean. The United States remained neutral but started to help the Allies. By helping to protect British ships in the Atlantic, the United States found itself fighting German ships by October 1941 but this was not officially war.[45]
+
+In September 1940, Italy began to invade British-held Egypt. In October, Italy invaded Greece, but it only resulted in an Italian retreat to Albania.[46] Again, in early 1941, an Italian army was pushed from Egypt to Libya in Africa. Germany soon helped Italy. Under Rommel's command, by the end of April 1941, the Commonwealth army was pushed back to Egypt again.[47] Other than North Africa, Germany also successfully invaded Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete by May.[48] Despite these victories, Hitler decided to cancel the bombing of Britain after 11 May.[49]
+
+At the same time, Japan's progress in China was still not much, although the nationalist and communist Chinese began fighting each other again.[50] Japan was planning to take over European colonies in Asia while they were weak, and the Soviet Union could feel a danger from Germany, so a non-aggression pact (which was an agreement that both countries would not attack each other) between the two was signed in April 1941.[51] However, Germany kept preparing an attack on the Soviet Union, moving its soldiers close to the Soviet border.[52]
+
+On June 22, 1941, the European Axis countries attacked the Soviet Union.  During the summer, the Axis quickly captured Ukraine and the Baltic regions, which caused huge damage to the Soviets. Britain and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance between them in July.[53] Although there was great progress in the last two months, when winter arrived, the tired German army was forced to delay its attack just outside Moscow.[54] It showed that the Axis had failed its main targets, while the Soviet army was still not weakened. This marked the end of the blitzkrieg stage of the war.[55]
+
+By December, the Red Army facing the Axis army had received more soldiers from the east. It began a counter-attack that pushed the German army to the west.[56] The Axis lost a lot of soldiers but it still saved most of the land it received before.[57]
+
+By November 1941, the Commonwealth counter-attacked the Axis in North Africa and got all the land it lost before.[58] However, the Axis pushed the Allies back again until stopped at El Alamein.[59]
+
+In Asia, German successes encouraged Japan to call for oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies.[60] Many Western countries reacted to the occupation of French Indochina by banning oil trading with Japan.[61] Japan planned to take over European colonies in Asia to create a great defensive area in the Pacific so that it could get more resources.[62] But before any future invasion, it first had to destroy the American Pacific Fleet in the Pacific Ocean.[63] On December 7, 1941, it attacked Pearl Harbor as well as many harbors in several South East Asian countries.[64] This event led the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Western Allies and China to declare war on Japan, while the Soviet Union remained neutral.[65] Most of the Axis nations reacted by declaring war on the United States.
+
+By April 1942, many South East Asian countries: Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and Singapore, had almost fallen to the Japanese.[66] In May 1942, the Philippines fell. The Japanese navy had many quick victories. But in June 1942, Japan was defeated at Midway. Japan could not take more land after this because a large part of its navy was destroyed during the battle.
+
+Japan then began its plan to take over Papua New Guinea again,[67] while the United States planned to attack the Solomon Islands. The fight on Guadalcanal  began in September 1942 and involved a lot of troops and ships from both sides. It ended with the Japanese defeat in early 1943.[68]
+
+On the Eastern Front, the Axis defeated Soviet attacks during summer and began its own main offensive to southern Russia along Don and Volga Rivers in June 1942, trying to take over oil fields in Caucasus, critical to the Axis for fueling their war effort, and a great steppe. Stalingrad was in the path of the Axis army, and the Soviets decided to defend the city. By November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad, however the Soviets were able to surround the Germans during winter[69] After heavy losses, the German army was forced to surrender the city in February 1943.[70] Even though the front was pushed back further than it was before the summer attacks, the German army still had become dangerous to an area around Kursk.[71]  Hitler devoted almost two-thirds of his armies to The Battle of Stalingrad.  The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in this world's time.
+
+In August 1942, because of the Allied defense at El Alamein, the Axis army failed to take the town.  A new Allied offensive, drove the Axis west across Libya a few months later,[72] just after the Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa forced it to join the Allies.[73] This led to Axis defeat in the North African Campaign May 1943.[74]
+
+In the Soviet Union, on July 4, 1943, Germany started an attack around Kursk. Many German soldiers were lost because of the Soviets' well-created defenses.[75][76] Hitler canceled the attack before any clear outcome.[77] The Soviets then started their own counter-attack, which was one of the turning points of the war. After this, the Soviets became the attacking force on the Eastern Front, instead of the Germans.[78][79]
+
+On July 9, 1943, affected by the earlier Soviet victories, the Western Allies landed on Sicily. This resulted in the arrest of Mussolini in the same month.[80] In September 1943, the Allies invaded mainland Italy, following the Italian armistice with the Allies.[81] Germany then took control of Italy and disarmed its army,[82] and built up many defensive lines to slow the Allied invasion down.[83] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon created the German-occupied client state, Italian Social Republic.[84]
+
+Late in 1943 Japan conquered some islands in India and began an invasion of the Indian mainland. The Army of India and other forces expelled them in early 1944.
+
+In early 1944, the Soviet army drove off the German army from Leningrad,[85] ending the longest and deadliest siege in history. After that, the Soviets began a big counter-attack. By May, the Soviets had retaken Crimea. With the attacks in Italy from September 1943, the Allies succeeded in capturing Rome on June 4, 1944, and made the German forces fall back.[86]
+
+On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allies began the invasion of Normandy, France. The code name for the invasion was Operation Overlord. The invasion was successful, and led to the defeat of the German forces in France. Paris was freed on August 1944 and the Allies continued eastward while the German front collapsed. Operation Market-Garden was the combined aerial invasion of the Netherlands launched on September 17, 1944. The purpose of the invasion was to seize a series of bridges that included a bridge in Arnhem, which spanned the Rhine river. Market was the name for the airborne invasion. The ground invasion, named Garden, reached the Rhine river, but could not take the Arnhem bridge. .
+
+On June 22, the Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front, codenamed Operation Bagration, almost destroyed the German Army Group Centre.[87] Soon after, the Germans were forced to retreat and defend Ukraine and Poland. Arriving Soviet troops caused uprisings against the German government in Eastern European countries, but these failed to succeed unless helped by the Soviets.[88] Another Soviet offensive forced Romania and Bulgaria to join the Allies.[89] Communist Serbs partisans under Josip Broz Tito retook Belgrade with some help from Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. By early 1945, the Soviets attacked many German-occupied countries: Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Hungary. Finland switched to the side of the Soviets and Allies.
+
+On December 16, 1944, the Germans tried one last time to take the Western Front by attacking the Allies in Ardennes, Belgium, in a battle is known as the Battle of the Bulge. This was the last major German attack of the war, and the Germans were not successful in their attack.[90]
+
+By March 1945, the Soviet army moved quickly from Vistula River in Poland to East Prussia and Vienna, while the Western Allies crossed the Rhine. In Italy, the Allies pushed forward, while the Soviets attacked Berlin. The allied western forces would eventually meet up with the Soviets at the Elbe river on April 25, 1945.
+
+Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, two days after Mussolini's death.[91] In his will, he appointed his navy commander, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, to be the President of Germany.[92]  Dönitz surrendered to the Allies, and opposed Hitler's will to have Germany continue fighting.
+
+German forces in Italy surrendered on April 29, 1945. Germany surrendered to the Western Allies on May 7, 1945, known as V-E Day, and was forced to surrender to the Soviets on May 8, 1945. The final battle in Europe was ended in Italy on May 11, 1945.[93]
+
+In the Pacific, American forces arrived in the Philippines on June 1944. And by April 1945, American and Philippine forces had cleared much of the Japanese forces, but the fighting continued in some parts of the Philippines until the end of the war.[94] British and Chinese forces advanced in Northern Burma and captured Rangoon by May 3, 1945.[95] American forces then took Iwo Jima by March and Okinawa by June 1945.[96] Many Japanese cities were destroyed by Allied bombings, and Japanese imports were cut off by American submarines.
+
+The Allies wanted Japan to surrender with no terms, but Japan refused. This resulted in the United States dropping two atomic bombs over Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). On August 8, 1945, the Soviets invaded Manchuria, quickly defeating the primary Imperial Japanese Army there.[97] On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. The surrender documents were formally signed on board the USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, ending the war.[98]
+
+The Allies managed to occupy Austria and Germany. Germany was divided in half. The Soviet Union controlled the Eastern part, and the Western Allies controlled the Western part. The Allies began denazification, removing Nazi ideas from public life in Germany,[99] and most high-ranking Nazis were captured and brought to a special court. Germany lost a quarter of the land it had in 1937, with the land given to Poland and the Soviet Union. The Soviets also took some parts of Poland[100][101][102] and Finland,[103] as well as three Baltic countries.[104][105]
+
+The United Nations was formed on October 24, 1945,[106] to keep peace between countries in the world.[107] However, the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had worsened during the war[108] and, soon after the war, each power quickly built up their power over controlled area. In Western Europe and West Germany, it was the United States, while in East Germany and Eastern Europe, it was the Soviet Union, in which many countries were turned  into Communist states. The Cold War started after the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.[109]
+
+In Asia, Japan was put under American occupation. In 1948, Korea was divided into North and South Korea, each claiming to be the legal representative of the Koreans, which led to the Korean War in 1950.[110] Civil war in China continued from 1946 and resulted in the KMT retreating to Taiwan in 1949.[111] The communists won the mainland. In the Middle East, the Arab disagreement on the United Nations plan to create Israel marked the beginning of conflicts between the Arabs and Israel.
+
+After the war, decolonization took place in many European colonies.[112] Bad economies and people wanting to rule themselves were the main reasons for that. In most cases, it happened peacefully, except in some countries, such as Indochina and Algeria.[113] In many regions, European withdrawal caused divisions among the people who had different ethnic groups or religions.[114]
+
+Economic recovery was different in many parts of the world. In general, it was quite positive. The United States became richer than any other country and, by 1950, it had taken over the world's economy.[115][116] It also ordered the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) to help European countries. German,[117] Italian,[118][119] and French economies recovered.[120] However, the British economy was badly harmed[121] and continued to worsen for more than ten years.[122] The Soviet economy grew very fast after the war was over.[123] This also happened with the Japanese economy, which became one of the largest economies in the 1980s.[124] China returned to the same production level as before the war by 1952.[125]
+
+There is no exact total number of deaths, because many were unrecorded. Many studies said that more than 60 million people died in the war, mostly civilians. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people,[126] almost half of the recorded number.[127] This means that 25% of the Soviets were killed or wounded in the war.[128] About 85% of the total deaths were on the Allies side, and the other 15% were on the Axis. Mostly, people died because they were sick, hungry to death, bombed, or killed because of their ethnicity.
+
+The Nazis killed many groups of people they selected, known as The Holocaust. They exterminated Jews, and killed the Roma, Poles, Russians, homosexuals and other groups.[129] Around 11[130] to 17 million[131] civilians died. Around 7.5 million people were killed in China by the Japanese.[132] The most well-known Japanese crime is the Nanking Massacre, in which hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. There were reports that the Germans and Japanese tested biological weapons against civilians[133] and prisoners of war.[134]
+
+Although many of the Axis's crimes were brought to the first international court,[135] crimes caused by the Allies were not.
+
+Other than the Holocaust, about 12 million people, mostly Eastern Europeans, were forced to work for the German economy.[136] German concentration camps and Soviet gulags caused a lot of death. Both treated prisoners of war badly. This was even the case for Soviet soldiers who survived and returned home.
+
+Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also caused a lot of deaths. The death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1%,[137] seven times that of prisoners under Germans and Italians.[138] More than 10 million Chinese civilians were made slaves and had to work in mines and war factories.[139] Between 4 and 10 million people were forced to work in Java.[140]
+
+Between 1942 and 1945, Roosevelt signed an order which made Japanese Americans go to internment camps. Some Germans and Italians were included too.
+
+The Allies agreed that the Soviet Union could use prisoners of war and civilians for forced labor.[141] Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.[142]
+
+Before the war, in Europe, the Allies had a larger population and economy than the Axis. If colonies are included, the GDP of the Allies then would be two times of that of the Axis.[143] While in Asia, China had only 38% higher GDP than the Japanese if their colonies are counted.[143]
+
+The Allies' economy and population compared with the Axis' lessened with the early Axis victories. However, this was no longer the case after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies in 1941. The Allies were able to have a higher production level compared with the Axis because the Allies had more natural resources. Also, Germany and Japan did not plan for a long war and had no ability to do so.[144][145] Both tried to improve their economies by using slave laborers.[146]
+
+As men went off to fight, women took over many of the jobs they left behind.  At factories, women were employed to make bombs, guns, aircraft, and other equipment.  In Britain, thousands of women were sent to work on farms as part of the Land Army. Others formed the Women's Royal Naval Service to help with building and repairing ships.  Even Princess Elizabeth, who later became Queen Elizabeth II, worked as a mechanic to aid the war effort. By 1945 some weapons were made almost entirely by women.
+
+In the beginning, women were rarely used in the labour forces in Germany and Japan.[147][148] However, Allied bombings[149][150] and Germany's change to a war economy made women take a greater part.[151]
+
+In Britain, women also worked in gathering intelligence, at Bletchley Park and other places.  The mass evacuation of children also had a major impact on the lives of mothers during the war years.
+
+Germany had two different ideas of how it would occupy countries. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe, Germany set economic policies which would make it rich. During the war, these policies brought as much as 40% of total German income.[152] In the East, the war with the Soviet Union meant Germany could not use the land to gain resources. The Nazis used their racial policy and murdered a lot of people they thought non-human. The Resistance, the group of people who fought Germany secretly, could not harm the Nazis much until 1943.[153][154]
+
+In Asia, Japan claimed to free colonised Asian countries from European colonial powers.[155] Although they were welcomed at first in many territories, their cruel actions turned the opinions against them within a short time.[156] During the occupation, Japan used 4 million barrels of oil left behind by the Allies at the war's end.  By 1943, it was able to produce up to 50 million barrels of oil in the Dutch East Indies. This was 76% of its 1940 rate.[156]
+
+The war brought new methods for future wars.  The air forces improved greatly in fields such as air transport,[157] strategic bombing (to use bombs to destroy industry and morale),[158] as well as radar, and weapons for destroying aircraft. Jet aircraft were developed and would be used in worldwide air forces.[159]
+
+At sea, the war focused on using aircraft carriers and submarines. Aircraft carriers soon replaced battleships.[160][161][162] The important reason was they were cheaper.[163] Submarines, a deadly weapon since World War I,[164] also played an important part in the war. The British improved weapons for destroying submarines, such as sonar, while the Germans improved submarine tactics.[165]
+
+The style of war on the land changed from World War I to be more moveable. Tanks, which were used to support infantry, changed to a primary weapon.[166] The tank was improved in speed, armour and firepower during the war. At the start of the war, most commanders thought that using better tanks was the best way to fight enemy tanks.[167] However, early tanks could harm armour just a little. The German idea to avoid letting tanks fight one another meant tanks facing tanks rarely happened. This was a successful tactic used in Poland and France.[166] Ways to destroy tanks also improved. Even though vehicles became more used in the war, infantry remained the main part of the army,[168] and most equipped like in World War I.[169]
+
+Submachine guns became widely used.  They were especially used in cities and jungles.[169]  The assault rifle, a German development combining features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the main weapon for most armies after the war.[170]
+
+Other developments included better encryption for secret messages, such as the German Enigma.  Another feature of military intelligence was the use of deception, especially by the Allies. Others include the first programmable computers, modern missiles and rockets, and the atomic bombs.
+
+The actual numbers killed in World War II have been the subject heretofore.  Most authorities now agree that of the 30 million Soviets who bore arms, there were 13.6 million military deaths.
+
+*total, of which 7,800,000 battlefield deaths
+**Inc. Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, etc.
+
+Deaths among civilians during this war - many resulting from famine and internal purges, such as those in China and the USSR - were colossal, but they were less well documented than those among fighting forces.  Although the figures are the best available from authoritative sources, and present a broad picture of the scale of civilian losses, the precise numbers will never be known.
+
+The Axis Powers
+
+Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria
+
+The Allied Powers
+
+U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia
+

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+
+
+Pacific War
+
+Mediterranean and Middle East
+
+Other campaigns
+
+Contemporaneous wars
+
+World War II (WWII or WW2), in the Soviet Union, the Great Patriotic War, and in Japan, the Second Sino-Japanese War, was a global war involving fighting in most of the world and most countries.  Most countries fought in the years 1939–1945 but some started fighting in 1937. Most of the world's countries, including all the great powers, fought as part of two military alliances: the Allies and the Axis Powers. World War II was the largest and deadliest conflict in all of history. It involved more countries, cost more money, involved more people, and killed more people than any other war in history.[1] Between 50 to 85 million people died.[2][3] The majority were civilians. It included massacres, the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation, disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons against civilians in history.
+
+The two sides were the Allies (at first China, France and Britain, joined by the Soviet Union, United States and others) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan). The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937.[4] The war began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and Britain reacted by declaring war on Germany. By 1941, much of Europe was under German control, including France. Only Britain remained fighting against the Axis in North Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. Germany gave up plans to invade Britain after losing an airplane battle. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, starting the largest area of war in history. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor and invaded British and French colonies in Asia, and the two wars became one.
+
+The Japanese victories were stopped in 1942, and in that same year the Soviets won the huge Battle of Stalingrad. After that, the Allies started to fight back from all sides. The Axis were forced back in the Soviet Union, lost North Africa, and, starting in 1943, were forced to defend Italy.[5] In 1944, the Allies invaded France, and came into Germany from the west,[6] while the Soviets came in from the east. Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945.  The war ended with the Allied victory.
+
+After the war, the United Nations was set up to develop support between countries and to prevent future wars.  The Cold War among the major winners soon started, but they did not fight each other in an actual war. Decolonization of Asia and Africa, where those countries controlled by European countries were given their independence, happened as well. This was because European power was weakened from the war. Economic recovery and the political integration (the process of uniting countries) were among other results of the war.
+
+The countries that joined the war were on one of two sides: the Axis and the Allies.
+
+The Axis Powers at the start of the war were Germany, Italy and Japan. There were many meetings to create the alliance between these countries.[7][8][9][10] Finland, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Thailand joined the Axis later. As the war continued, some Axis countries changed to join the Allies instead, such as Italy.
+
+The Allied Powers were the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth members, France, Poland, Yugoslavia, Greece, Belgium and China at the start of the war. China had been fighting a civil war. In June 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In December 1941 came Japan's Attack on Pearl Harbor against the United States. These two large, powerful countries then joined the Allies.
+
+World War I had greatly changed the way of diplomacy and politics in Asia, Europe, and Africa with the defeat of the Central Powers.  Empires which sided with the Central Powers were destroyed.  The Russian Empire, which did not side with the Central Powers, died as well.  The war also changed the borders in Eastern Europe, with many new countries born. The war led to strong irredentism and revanchism.  These senses were especially strong in Germany, which had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Versailles.[11] The Germans also had 13% of their homeland area and all colonies taken away, and they had to pay back a very large sum of money to the Allies.[12]  The size of their army and navy was also limited,[13] while its air force was banned.
+
+In Italy, nationalists were unhappy with the outcome of the war, thinking that their country should have gained far more territory from the past agreement with the Allies. The fascist movement in the 1920s brought Mussolini to the leadership of the country. He promised to make Italy a great power by creating its colonial empire.[14]
+
+After the Kuomintang (KMT), the governing party of China, unified the country in the 1920s, the civil war between it and its past ally Communist Party of China began.[15] In 1931, Japan used the Mukden Incident as a reason to take Manchuria and set up its puppet state, Manchukuo,[16] while the League of Nations could not do anything to stop it. The Tanggu Truce, a ceasefire, was signed in 1933. In 1936, the KMT and the communists agreed to stop fighting against each other to fight Japan instead.[17] In 1937, Japan started a Second Sino-Japanese War to take the rest of China.[18]
+
+After the German Empire was disestablished, the democratic Weimar Republic was set up. There were disagreements between the Germans which involved many political ideologies, ranging from nationalism to communism. The fascist movement in Germany rose because of the Great Depression. Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, became the Chancellor in 1933. After the Reichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian state, where there is only one party by law.[19] Hitler wanted to change the world order and quickly rebuilt the army, navy and air force,[20] especially after Saarland was reunited in 1935. In March 1936, Hitler sent the army to Rhineland. The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936. The war ended with the nationalist victory, supported by Italy and Germany.
+
+In March 1938, Germany sent its army into Austria, known as the Anschluss, which had only a little reaction from European countries.[21] Shortly after that, the Allies agreed to give Sudetenland, part of Czechoslovakia, to Germany, so that Hitler would promise to stop taking more land.[22] But the rest of the country was either forced to surrender[23] or invaded by March 1939.[24] The Allies now tried to stop him, by promising to help Poland if it was attacked.[25] Just before the war, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a peace agreement, agreeing that they would not attack each other for ten years.[26] In the secret part of it, they agreed to divide Eastern Europe between them.[27]
+
+World War II began on September 1, 1939, as Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, Britain, France, and the members of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany. They could not help Poland much and only sent a small French attack on Germany from the West.[28] The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland soon after Germany, on September 17.[29] Finally, Poland was divided.
+
+Germany then signed an agreement to work together with the Soviet Union.  The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries to allow it to keep Soviet soldiers in their countries.[30] Finland did not accept the Soviet call for its land, so it was attacked in November 1939.[31] With peace, the world war broke out.[32] France and Britain thought that the Soviet Union might enter the war on the side of Germany and drove the Soviet Union out of the League of Nations.[33]
+
+After Poland was defeated, the "Phoney War" began in Western Europe. While British soldiers were sent to the Continent, there were no big battles fought between two sides.[34] Then, in April 1940, Germany decided to attack Norway and Denmark so that it would be safer to transport iron ore from Sweden. The British and French sent an army to disrupt the German occupation, but had to leave when Germany invaded France.[35] Chamberlain was replaced by Churchill as Prime Minister of United Kingdom in May 1940 because the British were unhappy with his work.[36]
+
+On 10 May, Germany invaded France, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg and quickly defeated them by using blitzkrieg tactics.[37] The British were forced to leave mainland Europe at Dunkirk. On June 10, Italy invaded France, declaring war on France and the United Kingdom. Soon after that, France was divided into occupation zones. One was directly controlled by Germany and Italy,[38] and the other was unoccupied Vichy France.
+
+By June 1940, the Soviet Union moved its soldiers into the Baltic states and took them,[39] followed by Bessarabia in Romania.  Although there had been some collaboration between the Soviet Union and Germany earlier, this event made it serious.[40][41]  Later, when the two could not agree to work more closely together, relationships between them became worse to the point of war.[42]
+
+Then Germany began an air battle over Britain to prepare for a landing on the island,[43] but the plan was finally canceled in September.  The German Navy destroyed many British ships transporting goods in the Atlantic.[44]  Italy, by this time, had begun its operation in the Mediterranean. The United States remained neutral but started to help the Allies. By helping to protect British ships in the Atlantic, the United States found itself fighting German ships by October 1941 but this was not officially war.[45]
+
+In September 1940, Italy began to invade British-held Egypt. In October, Italy invaded Greece, but it only resulted in an Italian retreat to Albania.[46] Again, in early 1941, an Italian army was pushed from Egypt to Libya in Africa. Germany soon helped Italy. Under Rommel's command, by the end of April 1941, the Commonwealth army was pushed back to Egypt again.[47] Other than North Africa, Germany also successfully invaded Greece, Yugoslavia and Crete by May.[48] Despite these victories, Hitler decided to cancel the bombing of Britain after 11 May.[49]
+
+At the same time, Japan's progress in China was still not much, although the nationalist and communist Chinese began fighting each other again.[50] Japan was planning to take over European colonies in Asia while they were weak, and the Soviet Union could feel a danger from Germany, so a non-aggression pact (which was an agreement that both countries would not attack each other) between the two was signed in April 1941.[51] However, Germany kept preparing an attack on the Soviet Union, moving its soldiers close to the Soviet border.[52]
+
+On June 22, 1941, the European Axis countries attacked the Soviet Union.  During the summer, the Axis quickly captured Ukraine and the Baltic regions, which caused huge damage to the Soviets. Britain and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance between them in July.[53] Although there was great progress in the last two months, when winter arrived, the tired German army was forced to delay its attack just outside Moscow.[54] It showed that the Axis had failed its main targets, while the Soviet army was still not weakened. This marked the end of the blitzkrieg stage of the war.[55]
+
+By December, the Red Army facing the Axis army had received more soldiers from the east. It began a counter-attack that pushed the German army to the west.[56] The Axis lost a lot of soldiers but it still saved most of the land it received before.[57]
+
+By November 1941, the Commonwealth counter-attacked the Axis in North Africa and got all the land it lost before.[58] However, the Axis pushed the Allies back again until stopped at El Alamein.[59]
+
+In Asia, German successes encouraged Japan to call for oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies.[60] Many Western countries reacted to the occupation of French Indochina by banning oil trading with Japan.[61] Japan planned to take over European colonies in Asia to create a great defensive area in the Pacific so that it could get more resources.[62] But before any future invasion, it first had to destroy the American Pacific Fleet in the Pacific Ocean.[63] On December 7, 1941, it attacked Pearl Harbor as well as many harbors in several South East Asian countries.[64] This event led the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Western Allies and China to declare war on Japan, while the Soviet Union remained neutral.[65] Most of the Axis nations reacted by declaring war on the United States.
+
+By April 1942, many South East Asian countries: Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and Singapore, had almost fallen to the Japanese.[66] In May 1942, the Philippines fell. The Japanese navy had many quick victories. But in June 1942, Japan was defeated at Midway. Japan could not take more land after this because a large part of its navy was destroyed during the battle.
+
+Japan then began its plan to take over Papua New Guinea again,[67] while the United States planned to attack the Solomon Islands. The fight on Guadalcanal  began in September 1942 and involved a lot of troops and ships from both sides. It ended with the Japanese defeat in early 1943.[68]
+
+On the Eastern Front, the Axis defeated Soviet attacks during summer and began its own main offensive to southern Russia along Don and Volga Rivers in June 1942, trying to take over oil fields in Caucasus, critical to the Axis for fueling their war effort, and a great steppe. Stalingrad was in the path of the Axis army, and the Soviets decided to defend the city. By November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad, however the Soviets were able to surround the Germans during winter[69] After heavy losses, the German army was forced to surrender the city in February 1943.[70] Even though the front was pushed back further than it was before the summer attacks, the German army still had become dangerous to an area around Kursk.[71]  Hitler devoted almost two-thirds of his armies to The Battle of Stalingrad.  The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in this world's time.
+
+In August 1942, because of the Allied defense at El Alamein, the Axis army failed to take the town.  A new Allied offensive, drove the Axis west across Libya a few months later,[72] just after the Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa forced it to join the Allies.[73] This led to Axis defeat in the North African Campaign May 1943.[74]
+
+In the Soviet Union, on July 4, 1943, Germany started an attack around Kursk. Many German soldiers were lost because of the Soviets' well-created defenses.[75][76] Hitler canceled the attack before any clear outcome.[77] The Soviets then started their own counter-attack, which was one of the turning points of the war. After this, the Soviets became the attacking force on the Eastern Front, instead of the Germans.[78][79]
+
+On July 9, 1943, affected by the earlier Soviet victories, the Western Allies landed on Sicily. This resulted in the arrest of Mussolini in the same month.[80] In September 1943, the Allies invaded mainland Italy, following the Italian armistice with the Allies.[81] Germany then took control of Italy and disarmed its army,[82] and built up many defensive lines to slow the Allied invasion down.[83] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon created the German-occupied client state, Italian Social Republic.[84]
+
+Late in 1943 Japan conquered some islands in India and began an invasion of the Indian mainland. The Army of India and other forces expelled them in early 1944.
+
+In early 1944, the Soviet army drove off the German army from Leningrad,[85] ending the longest and deadliest siege in history. After that, the Soviets began a big counter-attack. By May, the Soviets had retaken Crimea. With the attacks in Italy from September 1943, the Allies succeeded in capturing Rome on June 4, 1944, and made the German forces fall back.[86]
+
+On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allies began the invasion of Normandy, France. The code name for the invasion was Operation Overlord. The invasion was successful, and led to the defeat of the German forces in France. Paris was freed on August 1944 and the Allies continued eastward while the German front collapsed. Operation Market-Garden was the combined aerial invasion of the Netherlands launched on September 17, 1944. The purpose of the invasion was to seize a series of bridges that included a bridge in Arnhem, which spanned the Rhine river. Market was the name for the airborne invasion. The ground invasion, named Garden, reached the Rhine river, but could not take the Arnhem bridge. .
+
+On June 22, the Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front, codenamed Operation Bagration, almost destroyed the German Army Group Centre.[87] Soon after, the Germans were forced to retreat and defend Ukraine and Poland. Arriving Soviet troops caused uprisings against the German government in Eastern European countries, but these failed to succeed unless helped by the Soviets.[88] Another Soviet offensive forced Romania and Bulgaria to join the Allies.[89] Communist Serbs partisans under Josip Broz Tito retook Belgrade with some help from Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. By early 1945, the Soviets attacked many German-occupied countries: Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Hungary. Finland switched to the side of the Soviets and Allies.
+
+On December 16, 1944, the Germans tried one last time to take the Western Front by attacking the Allies in Ardennes, Belgium, in a battle is known as the Battle of the Bulge. This was the last major German attack of the war, and the Germans were not successful in their attack.[90]
+
+By March 1945, the Soviet army moved quickly from Vistula River in Poland to East Prussia and Vienna, while the Western Allies crossed the Rhine. In Italy, the Allies pushed forward, while the Soviets attacked Berlin. The allied western forces would eventually meet up with the Soviets at the Elbe river on April 25, 1945.
+
+Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, two days after Mussolini's death.[91] In his will, he appointed his navy commander, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, to be the President of Germany.[92]  Dönitz surrendered to the Allies, and opposed Hitler's will to have Germany continue fighting.
+
+German forces in Italy surrendered on April 29, 1945. Germany surrendered to the Western Allies on May 7, 1945, known as V-E Day, and was forced to surrender to the Soviets on May 8, 1945. The final battle in Europe was ended in Italy on May 11, 1945.[93]
+
+In the Pacific, American forces arrived in the Philippines on June 1944. And by April 1945, American and Philippine forces had cleared much of the Japanese forces, but the fighting continued in some parts of the Philippines until the end of the war.[94] British and Chinese forces advanced in Northern Burma and captured Rangoon by May 3, 1945.[95] American forces then took Iwo Jima by March and Okinawa by June 1945.[96] Many Japanese cities were destroyed by Allied bombings, and Japanese imports were cut off by American submarines.
+
+The Allies wanted Japan to surrender with no terms, but Japan refused. This resulted in the United States dropping two atomic bombs over Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). On August 8, 1945, the Soviets invaded Manchuria, quickly defeating the primary Imperial Japanese Army there.[97] On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. The surrender documents were formally signed on board the USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, ending the war.[98]
+
+The Allies managed to occupy Austria and Germany. Germany was divided in half. The Soviet Union controlled the Eastern part, and the Western Allies controlled the Western part. The Allies began denazification, removing Nazi ideas from public life in Germany,[99] and most high-ranking Nazis were captured and brought to a special court. Germany lost a quarter of the land it had in 1937, with the land given to Poland and the Soviet Union. The Soviets also took some parts of Poland[100][101][102] and Finland,[103] as well as three Baltic countries.[104][105]
+
+The United Nations was formed on October 24, 1945,[106] to keep peace between countries in the world.[107] However, the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had worsened during the war[108] and, soon after the war, each power quickly built up their power over controlled area. In Western Europe and West Germany, it was the United States, while in East Germany and Eastern Europe, it was the Soviet Union, in which many countries were turned  into Communist states. The Cold War started after the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.[109]
+
+In Asia, Japan was put under American occupation. In 1948, Korea was divided into North and South Korea, each claiming to be the legal representative of the Koreans, which led to the Korean War in 1950.[110] Civil war in China continued from 1946 and resulted in the KMT retreating to Taiwan in 1949.[111] The communists won the mainland. In the Middle East, the Arab disagreement on the United Nations plan to create Israel marked the beginning of conflicts between the Arabs and Israel.
+
+After the war, decolonization took place in many European colonies.[112] Bad economies and people wanting to rule themselves were the main reasons for that. In most cases, it happened peacefully, except in some countries, such as Indochina and Algeria.[113] In many regions, European withdrawal caused divisions among the people who had different ethnic groups or religions.[114]
+
+Economic recovery was different in many parts of the world. In general, it was quite positive. The United States became richer than any other country and, by 1950, it had taken over the world's economy.[115][116] It also ordered the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) to help European countries. German,[117] Italian,[118][119] and French economies recovered.[120] However, the British economy was badly harmed[121] and continued to worsen for more than ten years.[122] The Soviet economy grew very fast after the war was over.[123] This also happened with the Japanese economy, which became one of the largest economies in the 1980s.[124] China returned to the same production level as before the war by 1952.[125]
+
+There is no exact total number of deaths, because many were unrecorded. Many studies said that more than 60 million people died in the war, mostly civilians. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people,[126] almost half of the recorded number.[127] This means that 25% of the Soviets were killed or wounded in the war.[128] About 85% of the total deaths were on the Allies side, and the other 15% were on the Axis. Mostly, people died because they were sick, hungry to death, bombed, or killed because of their ethnicity.
+
+The Nazis killed many groups of people they selected, known as The Holocaust. They exterminated Jews, and killed the Roma, Poles, Russians, homosexuals and other groups.[129] Around 11[130] to 17 million[131] civilians died. Around 7.5 million people were killed in China by the Japanese.[132] The most well-known Japanese crime is the Nanking Massacre, in which hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. There were reports that the Germans and Japanese tested biological weapons against civilians[133] and prisoners of war.[134]
+
+Although many of the Axis's crimes were brought to the first international court,[135] crimes caused by the Allies were not.
+
+Other than the Holocaust, about 12 million people, mostly Eastern Europeans, were forced to work for the German economy.[136] German concentration camps and Soviet gulags caused a lot of death. Both treated prisoners of war badly. This was even the case for Soviet soldiers who survived and returned home.
+
+Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also caused a lot of deaths. The death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1%,[137] seven times that of prisoners under Germans and Italians.[138] More than 10 million Chinese civilians were made slaves and had to work in mines and war factories.[139] Between 4 and 10 million people were forced to work in Java.[140]
+
+Between 1942 and 1945, Roosevelt signed an order which made Japanese Americans go to internment camps. Some Germans and Italians were included too.
+
+The Allies agreed that the Soviet Union could use prisoners of war and civilians for forced labor.[141] Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.[142]
+
+Before the war, in Europe, the Allies had a larger population and economy than the Axis. If colonies are included, the GDP of the Allies then would be two times of that of the Axis.[143] While in Asia, China had only 38% higher GDP than the Japanese if their colonies are counted.[143]
+
+The Allies' economy and population compared with the Axis' lessened with the early Axis victories. However, this was no longer the case after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies in 1941. The Allies were able to have a higher production level compared with the Axis because the Allies had more natural resources. Also, Germany and Japan did not plan for a long war and had no ability to do so.[144][145] Both tried to improve their economies by using slave laborers.[146]
+
+As men went off to fight, women took over many of the jobs they left behind.  At factories, women were employed to make bombs, guns, aircraft, and other equipment.  In Britain, thousands of women were sent to work on farms as part of the Land Army. Others formed the Women's Royal Naval Service to help with building and repairing ships.  Even Princess Elizabeth, who later became Queen Elizabeth II, worked as a mechanic to aid the war effort. By 1945 some weapons were made almost entirely by women.
+
+In the beginning, women were rarely used in the labour forces in Germany and Japan.[147][148] However, Allied bombings[149][150] and Germany's change to a war economy made women take a greater part.[151]
+
+In Britain, women also worked in gathering intelligence, at Bletchley Park and other places.  The mass evacuation of children also had a major impact on the lives of mothers during the war years.
+
+Germany had two different ideas of how it would occupy countries. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe, Germany set economic policies which would make it rich. During the war, these policies brought as much as 40% of total German income.[152] In the East, the war with the Soviet Union meant Germany could not use the land to gain resources. The Nazis used their racial policy and murdered a lot of people they thought non-human. The Resistance, the group of people who fought Germany secretly, could not harm the Nazis much until 1943.[153][154]
+
+In Asia, Japan claimed to free colonised Asian countries from European colonial powers.[155] Although they were welcomed at first in many territories, their cruel actions turned the opinions against them within a short time.[156] During the occupation, Japan used 4 million barrels of oil left behind by the Allies at the war's end.  By 1943, it was able to produce up to 50 million barrels of oil in the Dutch East Indies. This was 76% of its 1940 rate.[156]
+
+The war brought new methods for future wars.  The air forces improved greatly in fields such as air transport,[157] strategic bombing (to use bombs to destroy industry and morale),[158] as well as radar, and weapons for destroying aircraft. Jet aircraft were developed and would be used in worldwide air forces.[159]
+
+At sea, the war focused on using aircraft carriers and submarines. Aircraft carriers soon replaced battleships.[160][161][162] The important reason was they were cheaper.[163] Submarines, a deadly weapon since World War I,[164] also played an important part in the war. The British improved weapons for destroying submarines, such as sonar, while the Germans improved submarine tactics.[165]
+
+The style of war on the land changed from World War I to be more moveable. Tanks, which were used to support infantry, changed to a primary weapon.[166] The tank was improved in speed, armour and firepower during the war. At the start of the war, most commanders thought that using better tanks was the best way to fight enemy tanks.[167] However, early tanks could harm armour just a little. The German idea to avoid letting tanks fight one another meant tanks facing tanks rarely happened. This was a successful tactic used in Poland and France.[166] Ways to destroy tanks also improved. Even though vehicles became more used in the war, infantry remained the main part of the army,[168] and most equipped like in World War I.[169]
+
+Submachine guns became widely used.  They were especially used in cities and jungles.[169]  The assault rifle, a German development combining features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the main weapon for most armies after the war.[170]
+
+Other developments included better encryption for secret messages, such as the German Enigma.  Another feature of military intelligence was the use of deception, especially by the Allies. Others include the first programmable computers, modern missiles and rockets, and the atomic bombs.
+
+The actual numbers killed in World War II have been the subject heretofore.  Most authorities now agree that of the 30 million Soviets who bore arms, there were 13.6 million military deaths.
+
+*total, of which 7,800,000 battlefield deaths
+**Inc. Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, etc.
+
+Deaths among civilians during this war - many resulting from famine and internal purges, such as those in China and the USSR - were colossal, but they were less well documented than those among fighting forces.  Although the figures are the best available from authoritative sources, and present a broad picture of the scale of civilian losses, the precise numbers will never be known.
+
+The Axis Powers
+
+Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria
+
+The Allied Powers
+
+U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia
+

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+The Hobbit, or There and Back Again, is a book written by J. R. R. Tolkien. It was first published on September 21, 1937. Tolkien wrote it in the 1930s for his children as a bedtime story. The story takes place before The Lord of the Rings.
+
+The plot is about the hobbit (a small race of people invented by Tolkien) Bilbo Baggins who goes on an adventurous quest with a group of dwarves and the wizard Gandalf, in order to fight the dragon Smaug, which has stolen the treasures and home of the dwarves.
+
+Although Tolkien borrowed (for example names and background) from his own Middle-earth storyline, The Hobbit was at first not intended to be part of it. Only later, when Tolkien wrote The Lord of the Rings, did he integrate the story of both Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings into his Middle-earth world.
+
+Bilbo Baggins is a hobbit, who lives a quiet life in the Shire, who goes on an unexpected adventure during the book. He is visited by the wizard Gandalf the Grey, who enlists him to travel with a group of 13 dwarves, as a burglar.
+
+Thorin Oakenshield is the leader of the group of dwarves, and true King under the Mountain of the old Dwarven kingdom of the Lonely Mountain. The dwarves are on an adventure to get their old kingdom back from the dragon Smaug, who conquered the Lonely Mountain and made the dwarves flee years before. The other dwarves are and Thorin's young nephews Fíli and Kíli, Thorin's cousins Balin and Dwalin, Óin and Glóin, Dori, Nori, Ori, and the dwarves Bifur, Bofur and Bombur.
+
+Along their travels they met many people and creatures: Elrond, a wise elf in Rivendell; goblins; Gollum, a creature with a magic ring; speaking Great Eagles; Beorn the bear shapeshifter; the Elvenking of Mirkwood; Bard the Bowman, and many more.
+
+The hobbit Bilbo Baggins lives a quiet and peaceful life. One day the wizard Gandalf comes to him, and with him thirteen dwarves: Thorin Oakenshield, Fíli and Kíli, Balin, Dwalin, Óin, Glóin, Dori, Nori, Ori, Bifur, Bofur, and Bombur.
+The dwarves tell their story: A long time ago they lived in the Lonely Mountain. Thorin's father was their king, the King under the Mountain. But one day the dragon Smaug came to the Lonely Mountain and killed all of the dwarves he found. The dragon took their treasure and now lives in the Lonely Mountain. But some of the dwarves could flee.
+Now the dwarves want to go back the Lonely Mountain, and get back their home and treasures from the dragon. Gandalf wants Bilbo to come with them, and work as a master thief. At first Bilbo does not want to, but later he goes with them.
+
+Gandalf, the dwarves, and Bilbo start to go east on their journey to the Lonely Mountain. After Gandalf saves the group from three trolls, they find the trolls' cave. Among the trolls' things there is some gold and swords. Gandalf, Thorin, and Bilbo each get a sword. The group continues on to the elven city Rivendell. Its master, Elrond, gives them helpful information.
+
+As the group travels east over the Misty Mountains, they are attacked by Goblins (Orcs). The Goblins take the dwarves and Bilbo into their caves. Gandalf saves them and the group flees. During their flight Bilbo gets lost, and tries to find a way out by himself. In the tunnels Bilbo finds a ring, which he puts in his pocket. By an underground lake, Bilbo meets the creature Gollum. Gollum and Bilbo play a game of riddles. If Bilbo wins the game, Gollum will show him the way out; if Gollum wins, he will eat Bilbo. When Bilbo does not know another riddle to ask Gollum, he finds the ring in his pocket and asks himself: "What have I got in my pocket?" Gollum thinks this is a riddle, but cannot answer it, and so Bilbo wins the game. Gollum is angry and does not want to help Bilbo. Gollum then goes away to get something he owns: a magical ring, which turns the wearer invisible. Gollum cannot find his ring, and realizes that Bilbo has it. Gollum goes back, but Bilbo is afraid and runs away. While running, the ring slips on Bilbo's finger and he becomes invisible. Gollum runs past Bilbo, towards the way out of the caves. Bilbo realizes that the ring makes him invisible. With the help of the ring he can follow Gollum and get out of the caves. Outside, Bilbo again meets Gandalf and the dwarves.
+
+The group is attacked by Goblins and Wargs, but saved by the Great Eagles. The group comes to the home of Beorn, a big man that can become a bear. After staying at Beorn's house, they continue to the forest Mirkwood. At the border of Mirkwood, Gandalf leaves the group. Bilbo and the dwarves have go through Mirkwood without him. The dwarves are attacked and captured by giant spiders. With the help of his ring and his sword, Bilbo saves them. Bilbo names his sword Sting. The Wood-Elves capture the dwarves. Bilbo again uses the ring and saves the dwarves. He frees them and puts them into barrels, which he lets swim down a river out of Mirkwood. The group comes to Lake-town, a human city near the Lonely Mountain.
+
+The dwarves and Bilbo travel to the Lonely Mountain. They can find the secret door into the mountain, and open it. Bilbo goes in two times and meets the dragon Smaug. Bilbo steals a golden cup, and finds out that Smaug has a weak place on his left chest. Bilbo tells this to the dwarves, but a thrush (a bird) also hears it. Smaug is angry and goes out to destroy Lake-town. But in Laketown the thrush tells the archer Bard of the dragon's weak point, and Bard shoots the dragon. A big part of Laketown is destroyed, but Smaug is killed.
+
+The dwarves are happy to be back in their old home, and to have their old treasures back. Thorin sends a message to the dwarves of his people, and tells them to come. But soon the people from Laketown and the Mirkwood-Elves arrive. Both peoples want a part of the treasure, but the dwarves do not want to give them anything. The humans and elves start a siege of the Lonely Mountain. After a while the other dwarves of Thorin's people come: Dáin II Ironfoot and an army of dwarves.
+
+The three armies almost start to fight each other, but then the wizard Gandalf appears. Gandalf tells them that an army of Goblins is coming to the Lonely Mountain, and because of that the humans, elves, and dwarves have to fight the Goblins together. The Battle of Five Armies is long and hard, but is finally won with the help of the Great Eagles and Beorn. Thorin's nephews Fíli and Kíli are killed in the battle. Thorin is wounded and dies afterwards. Dáin becomes King under the Mountain. Everyone gets a part of the dwarves' treasure. In the end Bilbo returns home, and lives happily everafter.
+
+The Hobbit has been adapted many times.

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+The gallbladder is a pear-shaped organ in your abdomen. It stores about 50 ml of acidic liquid (bile) until the body needs it for digestion. That liquid helps digest fat. The gallbladder is about 7-10cm long in humans. It is dark green in color because of the bile in it. It is connected to the liver and the duodenum by the biliary tract.

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+
+
+William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III; August 19, 1946) is an American politician and humanitarian activist who served from 1993 to 2001 as the 42nd President of the United States. He was 46 years old when he was elected and the third youngest president.
+
+He took office at the end of the Cold War. Clinton was the first president from the baby boom generation. Clinton was the second president to be impeached. He was impeached in 1998. Before he was president, Clinton was the Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992, Attorney General of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979. He is married to Hillary Rodham Clinton, who was the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013, Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and the Democratic nominee for president in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.
+
+Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. His biological father, William Jefferson Blythe. Jr, died in a car accident, three months before Clinton was born. His mother, Virginia Clinton Kelley was a Nurse anesthetist. He took the last name Clinton because it was his stepfather, Roger Clinton, Sr.'s name. Clinton grew up in Hot Springs, Arkansas. In high school, Clinton played the saxophone. Clinton went to college at Georgetown University. During his college years, Clinton worked under several politicians. He later went to Oxford University and Yale Law School. Clinton did not fight in the Vietnam War because he was in the ROTC for a short time.[1][2]
+
+Clinton married Hillary Rodham in 1975. In 1980, their daughter, Chelsea Clinton, was born.
+
+After law school. Clinton was elected Attorney General of Arkansas in 1976 and governor of Arkansas in 1978. At 32, he was the youngest governor in the country at that time. Clinton was governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again from 1983 to 1993. Clinton was known for being a "New Democrat" while governor. During his time as governor, Clinton changed the state's school system. There was also a scandal called Whitewater during Clinton's term.
+
+In the 1992 presidential election, he beat Republican George H. W. Bush. During the early part of Clinton's first term, he put in place a tax code which would increase taxes on the rich.
+
+In 1994, during Clinton's first term in office, the Congress switched to a Republican majority. However, Clinton still beat Republican Bob Dole in the 1996 election.
+
+The Republicans defeated Clinton's proposal for the U.S. government to adopt universal health care. The Republicans proposed many new ideas to Congress to limit the size of government such as requiring the budget to be balanced and to stop people from abusing the welfare system.
+
+Clinton was sued by Paula Jones for sexual harassment, but the lawsuit was officially dismissed after Jones failed to prove damages. This made him the first sitting United States president to be sued.[3]
+
+President Clinton was accused of wrongdoing by the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1998 during the Monica Lewinsky scandal and was impeached.[4] Although he lied that they did not engage in sexual activity, he was found to have done nothing wrong by the U.S. Senate in February 1999.[5]
+
+The country faced few challenges during his term. The Cold War was over and there was very little need for the U.S. military to get involved in the world's affairs, so defense spending was significantly lowered. The economy was doing very well during his term, though there is a debate whether the economy was well because of Clinton's policies or because of the Republicans' policies.
+
+The decade ended with the being the first time the United States did not have to borrow money to pay for its budget. Clinton left office with high approval ratings and was succeeded by George W. Bush.
+
+After his presidency, he wrote some books and traveled around the world helping out the United States. He is married to former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and now lives in New York. He has written My Life, a book about his life, and several other books. Clinton has received two Grammy Awards, both for books he read on tape. He is now the U.N.'s envoy to Haiti. He also became a vegetarian.[6][7]
+
+In 2013, Clinton started following Buddhist meditation to help him relax.[8]
+
+On November 20, 2013, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States, by President Barack Obama.

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+
+
+in the African Union  (light blue)
+
+The Republic of South Africa is a country in the southern region of Africa. About fifty-five million people live there. South Africa is next to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland.
+
+The biggest city of South Africa is Johannesburg. The country has three capitals for different purposes.  They are Cape Town, Pretoria, and Bloemfontein. This is because the government is based in Pretoria, the parliament is in Cape Town and the Supreme Court is in Bloemfontein.[8]
+
+There are 11 national languages. They are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Setswana, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Venda and Tsonga. They are also known as National Lexicography Units (NLUs). Because of all the languages, the country has an official name in each language.
+
+One of South Africa's most well known people is Nelson Mandela. He was its president from 1994 until 1999. He died in 2013. The current president is Cyril Ramaphosa.
+
+The first European people to come to South Africa were Portuguese explorers. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias found what he called the "Cape of Storms". The king of Portugal changed it to "Cape of Good Hope". He called it this because the cape gave the Portuguese a new chance to find a sea route to India.
+
+In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck colonized the Cape. He started the camp for the Dutch East India Company. This was so that they could give fresh food to ships on their way to the south of Asia. There were very few native people living in the Cape. Because of this, slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar and India to work at the colony. In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, to stop France from taking it. The British gave it back in 1803 but then annexed the Cape in 1807 when the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt.
+
+Diamonds were found in South Africa in 1867. Gold was found in 1884. This made a great number of people to come to South Africa from Europe. They were hoping to make money.
+
+The First Boer War happened in 1880-1881. The war was between the British and the Boers Republics. At that time, the British had the Cape. The Boer Republics were established when Dutch settlers moved north in the Great Trek. The British lost the war and came back 8 years later in 1899. They won this Second Boer War in 1902. The British had brought many more soldiers the second time. The Boers had no chance of winning. On 31 May 1910 the Union of South Africa was made from the Cape and Natal colonies. It was also made from Orange Free State and the Transvaal. These were two Boer Republics.
+
+South Africa is found at the southernmost region of Africa, with a long coastline that reaches more than 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi),[9] South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is almost the size of Colombia. Njesuthi in the Drakensberg at 3,408 m (11,181 ft) is the highest part in South Africa.
+
+The back of South Africa is a big and flat. It is a very populated scrubland, the Karoo, which is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert. The eastern coastline however, is well-watered, which makes a climate kind of like the tropics.
+
+To the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the escarpment of the Highveld. It then turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and a lot of wildlife. East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld reaches towards the Indian Ocean. It has mostly high temperatures, and is also the location of subtropical agriculture.
+
+South Africa has a mostly temperate climate. It is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, and is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere. Average elevation is higher towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland. Because of this varied topography and oceanic influence, different parts of South Africa have different climates.
+
+There is a desert in the southern Namib in the farthest northwest and subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian ocean. From the east, the land quickly rises over mountains towards the back plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is thought as semi-arid, there is a difference in climate as well as topography.
+
+The southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with mild, moderately wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also makes much of the wine in South Africa. This region is also mostly known for its wind, which blows almost all year. The wind can sometimes be severe when passing around the Cape of Good Hope mostly gets bad for sailors, making many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall falls more evenly throughout the year, making a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.
+
+The Orange Free State is mostly flat, because it lies in the center of the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not get subtropical heat. Johannesburg, in the center of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and gets a yearly rainfall of 740 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.
+
+South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries,[10] with more than 20,000 different kinds of plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it very rich in plant biodiversity.
+
+The most common biome in South Africa is the grassland, mostly on the Highveld. This is where grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mostly camel-thorn and whitethorn are more common then plants. Plants become even more less common towards the northwest. This is because of low rainfall. There are many species of water-storing plants like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with more thick growth. There are many numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.[11]
+
+South Africa's economy is divided. It is divided between First World and Third World standards. The developed part of the economy is similar to that of most nations with wealth (for example, Britain or Australia). The rest of the economy is closer to that of poor nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The main companies in South Africa are mining (mostly for gold and diamonds), car making, and service industries, such as insurance.
+
+Unemployment is very high. Income inequality is about the same as Brazil. During 1995–2003, the number of older jobs went down. Informal jobs went up. Overall unemployment got worse.[12] The average South African household income went down a lot between 1995 and 2000. As for racial inequality, Statistics South Africa said that in 1995 the average white household earned four times as much as the average black household. In 2000 the average white family was earning six times more than the average black household.[13]
+The action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth. There is a developing black middle class.[14][15] Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. South Africa suffers from mostly heavy overall regulation compared to developed countries. .[16] Restrictive labor rules have added to the unemployment weakness.[12]
+
+South Africa is a nation of about 50 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions. The last census was held in 2001 and the next will be in 2011. Statistics South Africa had five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew "not needed" responses, and these results were not counted.[17] The 2009 middle-year estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.3%, White at 9.1%, Colored at 9.0%, and Asian at 2.6%.[18]
+
+Even though the population of South Africa has grown in the past decade[17][19] (mostly because of immigration), the country had an yearly population growth rate of −0.501% in 2008 (CIA est.), counting immigration. The CIA thinks that in 2009 South Africa's population started to grow again, at a rate of 0.281%. South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, counting about 3 million Zimbabweans.[20][21][22] A series of anti-immigrant riots happened in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008.[23][24]
+
+South Africa is divided into 9 provinces. The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further divided into 226 local municipalities.
+
+1. Johannesburg
+
+2. Cape Town
+
+3. Durban
+
+4. Pretoria
+
+It may be suggested that there is no single South African culture because of its ethnic diversity. Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures is enjoyed by all and marketed to tourists who wish to taste South African food. Food is not the only thing, music and dance is there too.
+
+South African food is mostly meat-based and has spawned the South African social gathering known as a braai, or barbecue. South Africa has also developed into a big wine maker. It has some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.[27]
+
+South Africa is the only Western country of Africa.
+Most South African blacks still have poor lives. It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions live most strongly. This is because blacks have become urbanised and Westernised, much parts of traditional culture have fallen. Urban blacks normally speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still important groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not in the eleven official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognized languages.
+
+Members of middle class, who are mostly white but whose ranks are growing numbers of black, colored and Indian people,[28] have lifestyles similar in many ways to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work from foreign countries for greater exposure to the markets of the world.
+
+According to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population. This has Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hinduism about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified.[29][30]
+
+South Africa's most liked sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket. Other sports that are popular are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Soccer is the most liked among youth. There are other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding that are becoming more liked.
+
+Famous boxers from South Africa are Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. There are football players who have played for major foreign clubs. Some of them are Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga (both were of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atletico Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto and Blackburn Rovers), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley (Borussia Dortmund) and Steven Pienaar (Ajax Amsterdam and Everton). South Africa made Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter. Famous current cricket players are Herschelle Gibbs, Graeme Smith, Jacques Kallis, JP Duminy and more. Most of them also participate in the Indian Premier League.
+
+South Africa has also made many world class rugby players. Some of them are Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, and Bryan Habana. South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup at their first try. They won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France. South Africa was only allowed to participate from 1995 since the end of Apartheid. It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations. It had the national team, 'Bafana Bafana,' going on to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. and the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship. Both of them were a great success.
+
+In 2010, South Africa became the first African nation to host the FIFA World Cup. The national team has competed in three World Cups. It bid for the right to stage the 2004 Olympic Games, but finished third to Athens. South Africa is also well known for their cricket team. They are right now the world's number one in test match cricket.
+
+The main schools span the first seven years of schooling. In the age of Apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to judgment through inadequate funding and so forth. Instruction can take place in Afrikaans as well. Public payment on education was at 5.4% of the 2002-05 GDP.[31]
+
+South Africa's military is the most powerful in southern Africa. South Africa spends more on its military than any of its neighboring countries do. They have very advanced weapons as a result. South Africa used to have nuclear weapons, but they were taken apart in 1993.

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+Money can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and services. Money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.
+There are many kinds of money in the world. Most countries have their own kind of money, such as the United States dollar or the British pound.
+Money is also called many other names, like currency or cash.
+
+The idea of bartering things is very old.[1] A long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. Instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed.[1] One person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of wheat. Each would trade a little of what he had with the other. This would support the people on his farm. Other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. This gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.
+
+When people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. They must still have a known value, and could be carried around. The first country in the world to make metal coins was called Lydia.[2] These first appeared during the 7th century BC, in the western part of what is now Turkey.[2] The Lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a lion. This idea soon spread to Greece, the rest of the Mediterranean, and the rest of the world. Coins were all made to the same size and shape. In some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.
+
+Besides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. Money is easier to divide than many trade goods. If someone own cows, and wants to trade for only "half a cow's worth" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. But if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.
+
+Cows die, and wheat rots. But money lasts longer than most trade goods. If someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. He can always leave it to his children when he dies. It can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.
+
+Not every cow is as good as another cow. Some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. Some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. So if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. However, money is standard. That means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. It is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.
+
+Later, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an "I.O.U." note. The first true paper money was used in China in the 10th century AD.[3] Paper money was also printed in Sweden between 1660 and 1664.[4] Both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. Massachusetts Bay Colony printed paper money in the 1690s.[5] This time, the use became more common.
+
+Today, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. It is numbers in bank accounts, saved in computer memories. Many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using electronic money on a computer memory.
+
+Many types of money have been used at different times in history. These are:
+
+Commodity money can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. We say it possesses intrinsic value, because it is useful or valuable by itself. Some examples of commodity money are cattle, silk, gold and silver. Convertible paper money is money that is convertible into gold and silver. Gold and Silver certificates are convertible paper money as they can be fully convertible into gold and silver.
+
+Inconvertible money is money that cannot be converted into gold and silver. Notes and coins are inconvertible money. They are inconvertible and are declared by the government money. Such fiat money is a country's legal tender. Today, notes and coins are the currencies used in bank deposits.
+
+Types of bank deposits:

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+William Henry Gates III  (born October 28, 1955),[1] is an American businessman and the co-founder and chairman of Microsoft. He is the third-richest person in the world behind Jeff Bezos in net worth as of December 2019.[2]
+
+William Henry Gates III was born on October 28, 1955 at Swedish Medical Center in Seattle, Washington, U.S. [3] He has British and German ancestry. His father William H. Gates, Sr. was a lawyer. His mother Mary Maxwell Gates served on the board of directors for First Interstate BancSystem and the United Way. His parents wanted him to be a lawyer. At the age of 13, Bill went to Lakeside High School.[4]
+
+He was a freshman at Harvard University in 1973. He left Harvard to make software.  Bill Gates saw an opportunity to transform the personal computer, which was expensive and difficult to use.  He decided that computers could be made less expensive and easier to use.  Gates started Microsoft in 1975 with Paul Allen in the city of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Gates then went on to develop the Windows operating system, which at first wasn't well received but with time became the most used operating system in the world.[1]
+
+In 2006, Gates announced he was going to quit his job at Microsoft. This was so he could do more charity work with his wife, Melinda. Their charity is called the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Gates' philanthropy projects have included vaccination of children in sub-Saharan Africa, scholarship programs in the United States, and a mission to help organize other billionaires to redistribute their wealth. He likes to give money and support to human rights, education and technological innovation.
+
+Gates stepped down from his CEO position in Microsoft in 1998 and Steve Ballmer did the job instead. On June 16, 2007, Microsoft said that Gates, the chairman of Microsoft, will come in on a day-to-day schedule to continue working with his charity organization full-time for the years to come. On 2014, Satya Nadella became the new CEO of Microsoft and Bill Gates came back as the Chief Technology Adviser.
+
+He was awarded an honorary knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005 for his services to philanthropy and charity.[5] As an American citizen, he cannot be called "Sir Bill Gates", but can use the letters "KBE" after his name.
+
+In 1986, Gates took Microsoft public. The company's stock was worth $520 million. Gates owned 45 percent of the stock himself, which was worth $234 million. The company continued its rapid growth and the stock price soared. At one point, Gates' stock was worth over $100 billion. He was the richest man in the world. And now, he is the second-richest person in the world just behind Jeff Bezos as of December 2019.[2]
+
+
+

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+
+
+The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968,[1] where he advocated conservation. It was widely adopted only in the 1980s.[2]
+
+The term biodiversity first appeared in a publication in 1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as a title.[3][4] Since then, the term has often been used by biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and citizens. A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage." It predates the others and is more accepted by the wider audience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms.
+
+Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region".[5] An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances. There are three levels at which biological variety can been identified:
+
+The idea can be used for tackling practical problems in conservation, for example:

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+Jean de La Fontaine (IPA: [ʒɑ̃ də la fɔ̃tɛn]; 8 July 1621 – 13 April 1695)[1] was the first of the French fabulist.[2] He was one of the most widely read French poets of the 17th century. He is known for his fables. These provided a model for later fabulists across Europe. They were also an example for numerous alternative versions in France and in French regional languages.
+
+According to Flaubert, he was the only French poet to understand and master the subtleties of the French language before Victor Hugo. A set of postage stamps celebrating La Fontaine and the Fables was issued by France in 1995.

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+Jean de La Fontaine (IPA: [ʒɑ̃ də la fɔ̃tɛn]; 8 July 1621 – 13 April 1695)[1] was the first of the French fabulist.[2] He was one of the most widely read French poets of the 17th century. He is known for his fables. These provided a model for later fabulists across Europe. They were also an example for numerous alternative versions in France and in French regional languages.
+
+According to Flaubert, he was the only French poet to understand and master the subtleties of the French language before Victor Hugo. A set of postage stamps celebrating La Fontaine and the Fables was issued by France in 1995.

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+A biography is the story of a real person's life. The word comes from the Greek words bios (= life) and graphein (= write). When the biography is written by the person it is about, it is called an autobiography.
+
+A biography is a part of literature. Biographies can also be made as movies. These movies are often called biopics it is also we are biographies.
+
+The first known biographies were written to record rulers' lives. They were written in Assyria, ancient Babylonia, ancient Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia. Biographies were an early form of history.
+
+In ancient Greece, people wrote biographies too. But not only biographies of the rulers but also biographies of people who the writers thought were great. Xenophon wrote a biography of Socrates and gave this book the name Memorabilia (Memories). Plutarch wrote Parallel Lives. In this book Plutarch wrote about a couple of Greek politicians and Roman politicians. Later among the Romans, Suetonius wrote biographies of the Roman emperors, Lives of Caesars. The Gospels were also biographies of Jesus Christ.
+
+In Eastern countries people wrote biographies. In ancient China a biography was one of basic form of history book. In India biographies of Buddha were written and also biographies of his reincarnated lives.
+
+Another early form of biography was called hagiography meaning writing about holy people. Hagio= life of a saint; graphs= writing. >Delegaye, Hippolytus, The Legends of the Saints: An Introduction to Hagiography (London: Longmans, Green and Calcutta, 1907) p. 2<
+
+Samuel Johnson, a British writer and critic, sparked a revolution in the practice of writing biographies that idealized individuals. He called for biographies that >Nadel, Bruce. Biography: Fiction, Fact & Form (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1984), p. 18.<
+

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+Biology is the science that studies life, and living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea.
+
+The term 'biology' is relatively modern. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes.[1]
+
+People who study biology are called biologists. Biology looks at how animals and other living things behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how organisms react with each other and the environment. It has existed as a science for about 200 years, and was preceded by natural history. Biology has many research fields and branches. Like all sciences, biology uses the scientific method. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves.
+
+Biology attempts to answer questions such as:
+
+Modern biology is influenced by evolution, which answers the question: "How has the living world come to be as it is?"
+
+The word biology comes from the Greek word βίος (bios), "life", and the suffix -λογία (logia), "study of".[2][3]

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+Biology is the science that studies life, and living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea.
+
+The term 'biology' is relatively modern. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes.[1]
+
+People who study biology are called biologists. Biology looks at how animals and other living things behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how organisms react with each other and the environment. It has existed as a science for about 200 years, and was preceded by natural history. Biology has many research fields and branches. Like all sciences, biology uses the scientific method. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves.
+
+Biology attempts to answer questions such as:
+
+Modern biology is influenced by evolution, which answers the question: "How has the living world come to be as it is?"
+
+The word biology comes from the Greek word βίος (bios), "life", and the suffix -λογία (logia), "study of".[2][3]

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+in ASEAN  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia. Its full name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. It is also sometimes called Burma. Myanmar is the largest country in Southeast Asia that is not an island. It is also part of South Asia.
+
+It is bordered by China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and the India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. There are over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) of coastline.
+
+The country was ruled by a  military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988. Its political system today stays under the tight control of its military government.  In 1991, Senior General Than Shwe began ruling the country. In 2011 Thein Sein was elected as a first president of the civilian government. In 2016 Htin Kyaw became the second elected civilian leader.[6] Aung San Suu Kyi, who is prevented from becoming President by the constitution of Myanmar, will act as an advisor to Kyaw.[6]
+
+In March 2018, Win Myint became the country's tenth and current President.
+
+In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar. It also made a new name in English for places in the country, such as its former capital city, from Rangoon to Yangon. The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar did not change, however. The renaming was controversial, seen by some as linguistically bad.  Accepting the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow, with many people still using the name Burma to refer to the country.  Major news organizations like the BBC still call it Burma.  Some question the military junta's authority to "officially" change the name in English in the first place. Aung San Suu Kyi, however, calls the country Myanmar now.
+
+Myanmar had a strong kingdom in ancient times, but the nation was taken over by the British in the 1800s.  It was occupied by the Empire of Japan in the 1940s. Myanmar became independent in 1948 as the Union of Burma, and had a democratic government at first.  However, in 1962, a coup d'état brought the military into power, where it has been ever since. The founder of modern Myanmar, Aung San was assassinated months before independence.  His daughter Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest many times for leading the democracy movement.
+
+In 1991, the military junta agreed to democratic elections, which were won by the National League for Democracy, and should have made Aung San Suu Kyi the Prime Minister. However, the dictatorship ignored the results of the elections and continued ruling. In November 2005, the military government stated that the national capital would be moved from Yangon to a location near Pyinmana, which was renamed Naypyidaw in March 2006.
+
+Since independence in 1948 and the assassination of Aung San, Burma has had civil wars between its governments and minority ethnic groups like the Kachin, Karen, Shan and others. These conflicts are known as the Internal conflict in Burma.
+
+National animal of Myanmar
+
+National bird of Myanmar
+
+National flower of Myanmar
+
+Today, there are 14 sections. 7 are called states and the other 7 are called divisions.
+
+The divisions are split into townships. The townships are divided into villages and wards.

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+A leap year is a year in which an extra day is added to the Gregorian calendar, which is used by most of the world. While an ordinary year has 365 days, a leap year has 366 days. The extra day, February 29, is added to the month of February. In an ordinary year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year, it has 29 days. The extra day, called a leap day, is the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1. Also, in a leap year, the months of January, April, and July all start on the same day of the week.
+
+A leap year comes once every four years. Because of this, a leap year can always be evenly divided by four. For example, 2020 (this year) is a leap year. But a year is a common year if it can be evenly divided by 100 but not by 400. This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 are common years.
+
+We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the Earth really takes a few minutes less than 365-1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the Sun. Without leap years, the seasons would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years. After 360 years, spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere (which usually begins on March 21) would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins).
+
+A number of countries use a lunar calendar (based on the Moon, instead of the Sun, like our solar calendar is). They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month. Different calendars add the extra month in different ways. So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year.

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+Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It makes up about a fifth of the world's land.[3] It is surrounded by large areas of water. There are 54 fully recognised and independent countries in Africa, and 14.7% (1.216 billion) of the world's population lives there.[3] It is thought to be the continent where the first humans evolved.
+
+The history of Africa begins from the first modern human beings and leads to its present difficult state as a politically developing continent.
+
+Africa's ancient historic period includes the rise of Egyptian civilization, the further development of societies outside the Nile River Valley and the interaction between them and civilizations outside of Africa. In the late 7th century North and East Africa were heavily influenced by the spread of Islam. That led to the appearance of new cultures such as those of the Swahili people, and the Mali Empire, whose king, Musa Keita I, became one of the richest and most influential people of the early 14th century. This also led to an increase in the slave trade that had a very bad influence for the development of the whole continent until the 19th century.
+
+Slavery has long been practised in Africa.[4][5] Between the seventh and twentieth centuries, the Arab slave trade took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes.
+
+Between the fifteenth and the nineteenth centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.[6][7][8]
+
+Between 1808 and 1860, the British Navy captured approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[9]
+
+In the late nineteenth century, the European powers occupied much of the continent, creating many colonial and dependent territories. They left only three fully independent states: Darwiish State, (also spelled Daraawiish State),  Ethiopia (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia"), and Liberia.
+
+Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire. However, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt  was effectively under British administration until 1922.
+
+African independence movements had their first success in 1951 when Libya became the first former colony to become independent. Modern African history has been full of revolutions and wars as well as the growth of modern African economies and democratization across the continent.
+
+A civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) began in 1998. Neighbouring African countries have become involved. Since the conflict began, 5,5 million are estimated to have died because of it.[10]
+
+Political associations such as the African Union offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries.
+
+From north to south, Africa has most types of climate. In sequence from the north:
+
+Running north-east to the south is the East African Great Rift Valley. This has mountains, volcanoes, deep rifts and valleys, rivers and lakes.
+
+In fact Africa has examples of most of the Earth's climate types.
+
+Much of North Africa is dry and hot: it is dominated by the Sahara Desert and does not receive much rain. In Saharan Africa there are few rivers or other water sources. Underground water sources, such as springs are very important in the desert. These often form oases. An oasis is an area of vegetation (plant life) surrounded by desert.
+
+In that part of the world the wind comes mostly from the east. That does bring rain, but the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau blocks the monsoon rain and prevents it getting to North Africa. Also, the Atlas Mountains near the north coast
+of Africa prevent rain from coming in from the north. That is another rain shadow.
+
+These two rain shadows are mainly responsible for the Sahara desert.
+
+Conditions and winds are different further south, where huge amounts of rain falls near the equator. The equator runs across the middle of Africa (see red line drawn on map). That means much of Africa is between the two tropics:
+
+Africa has a lot of wildlife.[11][12] There are many types of animals there. In particular, it is now the only continent that has many native species of large mammals. Some of them occur in very large numbers. There are antelope, buffalo, zebra, cheetah, elephant, lion, giraffe, rhinoceros, apes, hyaena, and a lot more. Over 2,000 types of fish live in African lakes and rivers.[13]
+
+The African Union (AU) is an international organisation. It aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan African Parliament. A person becomes President of the AU by being elected to the PAP, and then gaining majority support in the PAP.
+
+Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include Uganda,[14] Sierra Leone,[15] Liberia, Sudan,[16] Zimbabwe,[17] and Côte d'Ivoire.[18]
+
+People who come from Africa are called Africans. People north of the Sahara are called Maghrebis and people on the south are called Subsaharans. Languages in eastern Africa include Swahili, Oromo and Amharic. Languages in western Africa include Lingala, Igbo and Fulani. The most populated country in Africa is Nigeria.
+
+Countries with significant African descendents outside Africa:
+
+
+
+Africa
+
+Antarctica
+
+Asia
+
+Australia
+
+Europe
+
+North America
+
+South America
+
+Afro-Eurasia
+
+Americas
+
+Eurasia
+
+Oceania
+

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+Bit can have different meanings:

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+
+
+Badgers are short-legged mammals found across Europe, Africa, North America and Asia.
+
+Badgers have wide bodies, with short legs for digging.[1] They have long weasel-like heads with small ears. Their tails vary in length depending on species. They have black faces with white markings and grey bodies with a light-coloured stripe from head to tail. They have dark legs with light coloured underbellies. They grow to around 90 centimetres (35 in) in length including the tail. The European badger is one of the largest badgers. The American badger, the hog badger and the honey badger are a little smaller and lighter. They weigh around 9.1–11 kg (20–24 lb) on average, with some badgers in Europe and Asia weighing about 18 kg (40 lb)
+
+A male badger is called a boar.[2] A female is called a sow.[2] A young badger is called a cub.[2]
+
+Badgers are found in North America, Ireland,  Britain[3] and most of Europe. The Javan ferret-badger lives in Indonesia.[4] The Bornean ferret-badger lives in Malaysia.[4] The honey badger is found in sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Desert, southern Levant, Turkmenistan, and India.[5]
+
+Badgers all live underground.[6] They live in burrows called setts, which may be very large. Some live on their own, moving from home to home. Others are known to form family groups called cetes. Between two and fifteen badgers can live in a cete at one time. Badgers can run or gallop at speeds of up to 25–30 km/h (16–19 mph) for short periods of time. Badgers are only active at night. They can dig a hole fast enough to escape most predators.[6] They fill in the hole behind them as they dig.[6]
+
+The badger’s diet is mainly small mammals; mice, gophers and squirrels.[6] They eat amphibians, reptiles and birds. Badgers also eat earthworms, insects, grubs, and bird eggs. They will sometimes eat roots and fruit. In Britain, they are the main predator of hedgehogs. Badgers have been known to become drunk from the alcohol found in rotting fruit.

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+Blaise Pascal (19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) was a French mathematician. He was born in Clermont-Ferrand, France. His mother died when he was three years old. His father's name was Étienne. He had two sisters, Jaqueline and Gilberte. Pascal was completely educated by his father. Pascal was considered a child prodigy. Though best known for his works in mathematics, including the creation of Pascal's Triangle, which is named after him, and developments in the field of probability, Pascal was also a scientist. He wrote in support of the scientific method and also contributed to physics. Later he wrote two books about Christianity. Also, the Pascal unit was named after him.
+
+Pascal died in Paris, France at 39. He had several illnesses; it is not known which of them caused his death.
+
+Pascal invented a form of counting machine which helped inventors create the calculator in the 20th century.

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+Egg can mean different things:

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+White is a color. White light can be made by putting all the other colors of light on the spectrum together. These other colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
+
+White is linked with light, goodness, innocence, purity, cleanliness and virginity. It is sometimes thought to be the color of perfection. The opposite of black, white usually has a positive connotation. White can stand for a successful beginning. In heraldry, white depicts faith and purity.
+
+In advertising, white is linked with coolness and cleanliness because it is the color of snow. You can use white to show simplicity in high-tech products. White is an appropriate color for charitable organizations; angels are usually imagined wearing white clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and cleanliness, so you can use white to show safety when promoting medical products. White is often linked with low weight, low-fat food, and dairy products.
+

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+
+
+References:  Serial No. 42236 ITIS 2002-09-22
+
+Wheat (species of Triticum) is a cereal grain. People eat it most often in the form of bread. It is a kind of grass whose fruit is a "head of wheat" with edible seeds. It was first grown in the Levant, a region of the Near East. Now it is cultivated worldwide.
+
+World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.[1] Globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food. It has a higher protein content than other major cereals such as maize (corn) or rice.[2] In terms of total production, it is second to rice as the main human food crop and ahead of maize (maize is used more for animal feeds).
+
+Wheat was a key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of civilization. It was one of the first crops that could be easily cultivated on a large scale, and its seeds could be stored for long periods in a dry climate. Wheat helped the growth of city-states in the Fertile Crescent, including the Babylonian, Assyrian and persian empires.
+
+Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous.[3] It can also be fermented to make ethanol,[4] for alcoholic drinks,[5] or biofuel.[6]
+
+An allergy to wheat can cause coeliac disease, which makes the sufferer have diarrhoea if they eat any food containing wheat.
+
+The wheat plant has long, slender leaves, stems that are hollow in most types of wheat plants, and heads that have many kinds of flowers, from 20 to 100. The flowers are grouped together in spikelets. Each spikelet has two to six flowers. In most spikelets, two or three of the flowers become fertilized, and this makes them produce the grains used for food.[7]
+
+All cultivated wheats have more than one normal diploid set of chromosomes. The increases in chromosome sets occurs naturally at a low rate. Because they have more chromosomes, their ears of wheat are larger.  All man did was to select the plants with extra fat ears of wheat when they occurred. Now a whole range of cultivated wheats are available. These are just a few:
+
+Hexaploid species (six sets of chromosomes)
+
+Tetraploid species (four sets)
+
+Diploid species (normal two sets of chromosomes)
+
+Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), or 'hulled wheat',[8] is a type of awned wheat.[9] It was one of the first crops domesticated in the Near East. It was widely cultivated in the ancient world, but is now a relict crop in mountainous regions of Europe and Asia.
+
+In the wild, the awns of emmer wheat spikelets help them dig into the soil.  With humidity in the night, the awns of the spikelet become erect and draw together, and in the process push the grain into the soil.  During the day, the humidity drops and the awns slacken back again.  During the course of days and nights, the awns' pumping movements drill the spikelet as much as an inch into the soil.[10]
+
+Einkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, (Triticum monococcum). Grains of wild einkorn have been found in Paleolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. It was first domesticated about 7500 BC (~9000 years ago), in the early Neolithic period.[11]  Evidence from DNA suggests einkorn was domesticated in southeast Turkey, where a number of early farming villages have been found.[12]  Its cultivation decreased in the Bronze Age, and today it is a relic crop that is rarely planted. It has found a new market as a health food. It is still used for bulgur (cracked wheat) or as animal feed, in mountainous areas of France, Libya, former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries. It often survives on poor soils where other species of wheat fail.[13][14]
+
+Einkorn was domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but was not so important.

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+Blue is one of the colors of the rainbow that people can see. It is one of the seven colors of the rainbow along with red, orange, yellow, green, indigo and violet. Apart from indigo and violet, it has the shortest wavelength of these colors (about 470 nanometers).
+
+Blue is the color of the Earth's sky and sea.  Earth looks blue when seen from outer space by astronauts.
+
+Blue is a color used to show coldness. It is also one of the colors your lips can turn if you are chilly.
+
+Blue is the color of a bluebird. A blue jay is the color blue.
+
+The color blue is sometimes associated with sadness, which may be where the name of the music style The Blues comes from.
+Blue is a color of the Jewish religion.
+In Western cultures since the 1940s, blue is associated with men/boys, while pink is associated with women/girls. Before the 1940s, it was the other way around, so blue was for women/girls and pink was for men/boys. Nobody knows exactly why it changed.[1][2]
+

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+Blue is one of the colors of the rainbow that people can see. It is one of the seven colors of the rainbow along with red, orange, yellow, green, indigo and violet. Apart from indigo and violet, it has the shortest wavelength of these colors (about 470 nanometers).
+
+Blue is the color of the Earth's sky and sea.  Earth looks blue when seen from outer space by astronauts.
+
+Blue is a color used to show coldness. It is also one of the colors your lips can turn if you are chilly.
+
+Blue is the color of a bluebird. A blue jay is the color blue.
+
+The color blue is sometimes associated with sadness, which may be where the name of the music style The Blues comes from.
+Blue is a color of the Jewish religion.
+In Western cultures since the 1940s, blue is associated with men/boys, while pink is associated with women/girls. Before the 1940s, it was the other way around, so blue was for women/girls and pink was for men/boys. Nobody knows exactly why it changed.[1][2]
+

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+Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, commonly referred to as BMW (German pronunciation: [ˈbeːˈʔɛmˈveː] (listen)), is a German car and motorcycle maker founded on 7 March 1916. It is one of the most famous car makers in the world. The headquarter is located in Munich, Bavaria. BMW is part of the "German Big 3" luxury car manufacturers, along with Audi and Mercedes-Benz.
+
+BMW makes these cars:
+
+BMW's cars are tuned and modified by several German Tuning Companies such as AC Schnitzer, M, and Alpina.
+

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+Bobsled or bobsleigh is a sport played during the Winter Olympic Games. It is played by riding on iced tracks with a sled. Modern tracks are made of concrete, coated with ice. Artificial bobsleigh tracks are also available.
+
+International bobsled competitions are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT).[1]

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+Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It makes up about a fifth of the world's land.[3] It is surrounded by large areas of water. There are 54 fully recognised and independent countries in Africa, and 14.7% (1.216 billion) of the world's population lives there.[3] It is thought to be the continent where the first humans evolved.
+
+The history of Africa begins from the first modern human beings and leads to its present difficult state as a politically developing continent.
+
+Africa's ancient historic period includes the rise of Egyptian civilization, the further development of societies outside the Nile River Valley and the interaction between them and civilizations outside of Africa. In the late 7th century North and East Africa were heavily influenced by the spread of Islam. That led to the appearance of new cultures such as those of the Swahili people, and the Mali Empire, whose king, Musa Keita I, became one of the richest and most influential people of the early 14th century. This also led to an increase in the slave trade that had a very bad influence for the development of the whole continent until the 19th century.
+
+Slavery has long been practised in Africa.[4][5] Between the seventh and twentieth centuries, the Arab slave trade took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes.
+
+Between the fifteenth and the nineteenth centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.[6][7][8]
+
+Between 1808 and 1860, the British Navy captured approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[9]
+
+In the late nineteenth century, the European powers occupied much of the continent, creating many colonial and dependent territories. They left only three fully independent states: Darwiish State, (also spelled Daraawiish State),  Ethiopia (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia"), and Liberia.
+
+Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire. However, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt  was effectively under British administration until 1922.
+
+African independence movements had their first success in 1951 when Libya became the first former colony to become independent. Modern African history has been full of revolutions and wars as well as the growth of modern African economies and democratization across the continent.
+
+A civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) began in 1998. Neighbouring African countries have become involved. Since the conflict began, 5,5 million are estimated to have died because of it.[10]
+
+Political associations such as the African Union offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries.
+
+From north to south, Africa has most types of climate. In sequence from the north:
+
+Running north-east to the south is the East African Great Rift Valley. This has mountains, volcanoes, deep rifts and valleys, rivers and lakes.
+
+In fact Africa has examples of most of the Earth's climate types.
+
+Much of North Africa is dry and hot: it is dominated by the Sahara Desert and does not receive much rain. In Saharan Africa there are few rivers or other water sources. Underground water sources, such as springs are very important in the desert. These often form oases. An oasis is an area of vegetation (plant life) surrounded by desert.
+
+In that part of the world the wind comes mostly from the east. That does bring rain, but the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau blocks the monsoon rain and prevents it getting to North Africa. Also, the Atlas Mountains near the north coast
+of Africa prevent rain from coming in from the north. That is another rain shadow.
+
+These two rain shadows are mainly responsible for the Sahara desert.
+
+Conditions and winds are different further south, where huge amounts of rain falls near the equator. The equator runs across the middle of Africa (see red line drawn on map). That means much of Africa is between the two tropics:
+
+Africa has a lot of wildlife.[11][12] There are many types of animals there. In particular, it is now the only continent that has many native species of large mammals. Some of them occur in very large numbers. There are antelope, buffalo, zebra, cheetah, elephant, lion, giraffe, rhinoceros, apes, hyaena, and a lot more. Over 2,000 types of fish live in African lakes and rivers.[13]
+
+The African Union (AU) is an international organisation. It aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan African Parliament. A person becomes President of the AU by being elected to the PAP, and then gaining majority support in the PAP.
+
+Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include Uganda,[14] Sierra Leone,[15] Liberia, Sudan,[16] Zimbabwe,[17] and Côte d'Ivoire.[18]
+
+People who come from Africa are called Africans. People north of the Sahara are called Maghrebis and people on the south are called Subsaharans. Languages in eastern Africa include Swahili, Oromo and Amharic. Languages in western Africa include Lingala, Igbo and Fulani. The most populated country in Africa is Nigeria.
+
+Countries with significant African descendents outside Africa:
+
+
+
+Africa
+
+Antarctica
+
+Asia
+
+Australia
+
+Europe
+
+North America
+
+South America
+
+Afro-Eurasia
+
+Americas
+
+Eurasia
+
+Oceania
+

ensimple/690.html.txt

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+Bogota is the capital (city) of Colombia. As of 2009, more than 7 million people live in Bogota, which makes it the largest city in Colombia. It is about 2,640 meters above sea level, on top a plateau (a mountain with a flat top). This makes it the third highest capital in the world.[4] With many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America".[5]The weather is usually nice during the day and cool at night. It has a series of bike paths (trails that are made for bikes) that wind through the city. It has many recreational and amusement parks open to the public. The current mayor is Claudia López.
+
+Originally, Native Americans called Muisca lived in the area. Then, in 1538, Gonzalo Jimenes de Quezada, a Spanish conqueror, founded Bogota. Bogota became a center of trade, art, and education. Some of the oldest universities in the Americas are in Bogota.  After Independence from Spain, Bogota became the capital of Gran Colombia in 1819.
+
+Bogota has had extremely awful moments. In 1948, a presidential candidate, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, was murdered while doing a speech in front of hundreds of persons. This tragic moment brought with it terrible consequences: one of the most remembered one is the "Bogotazo". The "Bogotazo" started as a political party war, the blue party, self named the "conservatives", began to hunt and kill every single member of the red party, the "liberals".  The remaining blue party members decided to create the "Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia" (FARC); however, this group was ironically created to protect the oppressed people from their oppressors. Nowadays, this group is known as terrorists and murderers;nevertheless, Colombia's capital city, Bogota, has not being attacked in the last few years.

ensimple/691.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Bogota is the capital (city) of Colombia. As of 2009, more than 7 million people live in Bogota, which makes it the largest city in Colombia. It is about 2,640 meters above sea level, on top a plateau (a mountain with a flat top). This makes it the third highest capital in the world.[4] With many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America".[5]The weather is usually nice during the day and cool at night. It has a series of bike paths (trails that are made for bikes) that wind through the city. It has many recreational and amusement parks open to the public. The current mayor is Claudia López.
+
+Originally, Native Americans called Muisca lived in the area. Then, in 1538, Gonzalo Jimenes de Quezada, a Spanish conqueror, founded Bogota. Bogota became a center of trade, art, and education. Some of the oldest universities in the Americas are in Bogota.  After Independence from Spain, Bogota became the capital of Gran Colombia in 1819.
+
+Bogota has had extremely awful moments. In 1948, a presidential candidate, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, was murdered while doing a speech in front of hundreds of persons. This tragic moment brought with it terrible consequences: one of the most remembered one is the "Bogotazo". The "Bogotazo" started as a political party war, the blue party, self named the "conservatives", began to hunt and kill every single member of the red party, the "liberals".  The remaining blue party members decided to create the "Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia" (FARC); however, this group was ironically created to protect the oppressed people from their oppressors. Nowadays, this group is known as terrorists and murderers;nevertheless, Colombia's capital city, Bogota, has not being attacked in the last few years.

ensimple/692.html.txt

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+The Roma are an ethnic group found mainly in Europe. They are also known as Roma.  In English they are often called Gypsies. Some Roma consider "gypsy" a slur.  The Roma are a nomadic people that originally came from the northern Indian subcontinent,[1][2][3] They came from the Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Sindh regions.[2][3]
+
+A DNA study by Indian and Estonian researchers shows that the Roma/Romani/Gypsy and Sinti people originate from the Untouchable Dalit community of their ancestral homeland.[4] They migrated northwest into Europe via the Middle East. Today there are populations of Roma found all over Europe, although the largest populations are in Eastern Europe, and their religions are: Eastern Christianity, Catholicism and Islam. Baptism by the Christian Roma and Male Circumcision by the Muslim Roma are practised.
+
+There are various groups of Roma: the Roma of East European birth;[5] the Sinti in Germany and Manouches in France and Catalonia; the Kaló in Spain, Ciganos in Portugal and Gitans of southern France; and the Romanichals of Britain.[6]
+
+The Romani language is now an official language in many countries of Europe under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[7]
+
+The 18th-century idea about the Indian birth of the Roma is based on the likeness between Romani[8] and languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent and is now supported by genetic evidence. The origins of the Roms were not known until 1763, when a theology student named Stefan Vali met Indian medical students. He noticed that they were physically similar to the Roms he saw in Hungary. He also noticed that they were using similar words.[9]
+
+It is believed to have been around the 11th century that Roms left India to go northwest, through Persia and the Middle East. Around the 15th century, the Roma reached the Balkans. From there, they dispersed through Europe. The first arrivals were well accepted. European people thought they were Christian pilgrims. The local people of Europe were fascinated by their nomadic way of life and their new sciences. The Roms were often recruited as mercenaries, horse trainers and circus artists. Roms were crossing Europe aboard large caravans which contained their luggage.[10]
+
+Roms also left a great musical heritage. Guitars and violins are part of their traditions. They influenced a lot of musical styles in Europe, such as flamenco, rumba, jazz, etc.[10] During World War II, Roma people suffered from the Nazis' discriminative policies. Statistics show that about 500,000 Roms died in Nazi concentration camps.[11]
+
+On 8 April 1971, the Roms' nationality was legally recognised in Europe. Since this day, 8 April is the Roms national day.[12]
+
+Even though they have been recognised, they still suffer from discrimination. Some countries still apply discriminative attitudes towards Roms, especially in workplaces and schools, where they are not accepted.[12] The main reason why they are not accepted is that they kept their nomadic lifestyle, which is against the law in some countries like France. Their squatting communities irritate locals.[13] The Romani created an association in 1978 to defend their rights.[14]

ensimple/693.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Roma are an ethnic group found mainly in Europe. They are also known as Roma.  In English they are often called Gypsies. Some Roma consider "gypsy" a slur.  The Roma are a nomadic people that originally came from the northern Indian subcontinent,[1][2][3] They came from the Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Sindh regions.[2][3]
+
+A DNA study by Indian and Estonian researchers shows that the Roma/Romani/Gypsy and Sinti people originate from the Untouchable Dalit community of their ancestral homeland.[4] They migrated northwest into Europe via the Middle East. Today there are populations of Roma found all over Europe, although the largest populations are in Eastern Europe, and their religions are: Eastern Christianity, Catholicism and Islam. Baptism by the Christian Roma and Male Circumcision by the Muslim Roma are practised.
+
+There are various groups of Roma: the Roma of East European birth;[5] the Sinti in Germany and Manouches in France and Catalonia; the Kaló in Spain, Ciganos in Portugal and Gitans of southern France; and the Romanichals of Britain.[6]
+
+The Romani language is now an official language in many countries of Europe under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[7]
+
+The 18th-century idea about the Indian birth of the Roma is based on the likeness between Romani[8] and languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent and is now supported by genetic evidence. The origins of the Roms were not known until 1763, when a theology student named Stefan Vali met Indian medical students. He noticed that they were physically similar to the Roms he saw in Hungary. He also noticed that they were using similar words.[9]
+
+It is believed to have been around the 11th century that Roms left India to go northwest, through Persia and the Middle East. Around the 15th century, the Roma reached the Balkans. From there, they dispersed through Europe. The first arrivals were well accepted. European people thought they were Christian pilgrims. The local people of Europe were fascinated by their nomadic way of life and their new sciences. The Roms were often recruited as mercenaries, horse trainers and circus artists. Roms were crossing Europe aboard large caravans which contained their luggage.[10]
+
+Roms also left a great musical heritage. Guitars and violins are part of their traditions. They influenced a lot of musical styles in Europe, such as flamenco, rumba, jazz, etc.[10] During World War II, Roma people suffered from the Nazis' discriminative policies. Statistics show that about 500,000 Roms died in Nazi concentration camps.[11]
+
+On 8 April 1971, the Roms' nationality was legally recognised in Europe. Since this day, 8 April is the Roms national day.[12]
+
+Even though they have been recognised, they still suffer from discrimination. Some countries still apply discriminative attitudes towards Roms, especially in workplaces and schools, where they are not accepted.[12] The main reason why they are not accepted is that they kept their nomadic lifestyle, which is against the law in some countries like France. Their squatting communities irritate locals.[13] The Romani created an association in 1978 to defend their rights.[14]

ensimple/694.html.txt

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+In chemistry, alcohol is a general term which refers to many organic compounds used in industry and science as reagents, solvents, and fuels. Alcohols are carbohydrates which are  made of an alkyl group with one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups bound to its carbon atoms. Alcohol is colorless, and also transparent.
+
+There are two ways of naming alcohols: Common names, and IUPAC names.
+
+The hydroxyl (OH) group makes alcohols polar. Alcohols are very weakly acidic. Most alcohols are highly flammable.
+
+The simplest two alcohols are methanol (or methyl alcohol) and ethanol (or ethyl alcohol), which have the following structures:
+
+Methanol
+
+Ethanol
+
+IUPAC nomenclature is used when describing more complex alcohols.
+
+In common usage, "alcohol" often means ethanol or "grain alcohol". (See also: alcoholic proof).
+
+Other commonly used alcohols include:

ensimple/695.html.txt

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+In Greek mythology, Pandora was the first mortal woman.[1] According to Hesiod, each god helped create her by giving her unique gifts. Zeus ordered Hephaestus to mould her out of Earth. This was part of the punishment of mankind, because Prometheus had stolen  the secret of fire. All the gods helped by giving her seductive gifts.  Another name was found for her was Anesidora, she who sends gifts. This name was found inscribed against her figure on a white-ground kylix in the British Museum.[2]
+
+According to the myth, Pandora opened a jar (pithos) and released all the evils of mankind. With the exception of plagues and diseases, Hesiod does not specify the evils in detail. When Pandora closed the jar again, only Hope was left inside.[3] The word pithos has been translated the wrong way, which may have led to the idea of "Pandora's box". Pandora opened the jar because she was curious what was inside, and not because of malice.[4]
+
+The myth of Pandora is ancient, and there are several different Greek versions. It has been interpreted in different ways. In the literary versions, the myth is a kind of theodicy, it addresses the question why there is evil in the world. The oldest versiion is that of Hesiod, who wrote it in the 7th century BC. He shortly mentions it in his Theogony, in line 570, but does not name Pandora. In his Works and Days he gives the oldest known literary version of the story. There is an older story that tells that urns and jars can contain blessings and evils which is told in Homer's Illiad:
+
+The immortals know no care, yet the lot they spin for man is full of sorrow; on the floor of Zeus' palace there stand two urns, the one filled with evil gifts, and the other with good ones. He for whom Zeus the lord of thunder mixes the gifts he sends, will meet now with good and now with evil fortune; but he to whom Zeus sends none but evil gifts will be pointed at by the finger of scorn, the hand of famine will pursue him to the ends of the world, and he will go up and down the face of the earth, respected neither by gods nor men.[5]
+
+The Pandora myth first appears in lines 560–612 of Hesiod's poem the Theogony. This version does not give the woman a name. Prometheus has stolen the gift of fire, and has given it to the humans. Zeus is angry about this and decides to punish men, as a compensation for the gift. He commands Hephaestus to make the first woman  from earth. This woman is described as a "beautiful evil" whose descendants would torment the race of men. After Hephaestus does so, Athena dressed her in a silvery gown, an embroidered veil, garlands and a crown of gold. This woman is unnamed in the Theogony, but is probably Pandora. Hesiod rewrote her myth in Works and Days. When she first appears before gods and mortals, "wonder seized them" as they looked upon her. But she was "sheer guile, not to be withstood by men." Hesiod elaborates (590–93):
+
+From her is the race of women and female kind:
+of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who
+live amongst mortal men to their great trouble,
+no helpmates in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.
+
+Later, Hesiod tells that men who try to avoid the evil of women by avoiding marriage will fare no better (604–7):
+
+He reaches deadly old age without anyone to tend his years,
+and though he at least has no lack of livelihood while he lives,
+yet, when he is dead, his kinsfolk divide his possessions amongst them.
+
+At the end, Hesiod says that occasionally a man finds a good wife,  but still (609) "evil contends with good."
+
+The more famous version of the myth comes from another of Hesiod's works, called Works and Days. There, the myth is contained in lines 60 to 105. Hesiod tells about Pandora's origin. He also makes the scope of the misery she inflicts on mankind bigger. As before, she is created by Hephaestus, but now more gods help completing her (lines 63-82): Athena taught her needlework and weaving (63–4); Aphrodite "shed grace upon her head and cruel longing and cares that weary the limbs" (65–6); Hermes gave her "a shameful mind and deceitful nature" (67–8); Hermes also gave her the power of speech, putting in her "lies and crafty words" (77–80) ; Athena then clothed her (72); next she, Persuasion and the Charites adorned her with necklaces and other finery (72–4); the Horae adorned her with a garland crown (75). Finally, Hermes gives this woman a name: Pandora – "All-gifted" – "because all the Olympians gave her a gift" (81).[6] The story is written in such a way that Pandora's feminine and deceitful nature is a small problem for mankind, because she brings a pithos. This word is usually translated as jar, sometimes as a box.[7][8] The box contains "burdensome toil and sickness that brings death to men" (91–2), diseases (102) and "a myriad other pains" (100).
+
+Prometheus had warned his brother Epimetheus not to accept any gifts from Zeus. But Epimetheus did not listen; he accepted Pandora, who promptly scattered the contents of her jar. As a result, Hesiod tells us, "the earth and sea are full of evils" (101). One item, however, did not escape the jar (96–9), hope:
+
+Only Hope was left within her unbreakable house,
+she remained under the lip of the jar, and did not
+fly away. Before [she could], Pandora replaced the
+lid of the jar. This was the will of aegis-bearing
+Zeus the Cloudgatherer.
+
+He does not tell the reader why hope remained in the jar.[9]
+
+Hesiod closes with this moral (105): "Thus it is not possible to escape the mind of Zeus."
+
+Archaic and Classic Greek literature do not mention Pandora any more. Sophocles wrote a satyr play Pandora, or The Hammerers, but very little is known of this play. Sappho may have made reference to Pandora in a surviving fragment.[10]
+
+Later, people filled in small details, or they added postscripts to Hesiod's story. Examples for this are Apollodorus and Hyginus: Each of them added a part to the story, that might have already been in Hesiod's version, even though it was not written down: Epimetheus married Pandora. They each add that they had a daughter, Pyrrha, who married Deucalion and survived the deluge with him. The problem of that version is that Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, fragment #2, had made a "Pandora" one of the daughters of Deucalion, and the mother of Graecus by Zeus.
+
+In the 15th century, a monk named Annio da Viterbo said he had found a manuscript of a historian named Berossus. Berossus had lived in the 3rd century BC. According to the manuscript, "Pandora" was also named as a daughter-in-law of Noah. This attempt to join pagan and Christian texts was later recognised as a forgery, though.
+
+The poet Theognis of Megara, who lived in the 6th year BC, had a different point of view:
+
+Hope is the only good god remaining among mankind;
+the others have left and gone to Olympus.
+Trust, a mighty god has gone, Restraint has gone from men,
+and the Graces, my friend, have abandoned the earth.
+Men’s judicial oaths are no longer to be trusted, nor does anyone
+revere the immortal gods; the race of pious men has perished and
+men no longer recognize the rules of conduct or acts of piety.
+
+Theogonis seems to be referring to a different version of the myth: In that version, the jar contained blessings rather than evils. This version seems to follow a tradition before Hesiod, which was preserved by 2nd century writer  Babrius.[11] According to Babrius, the gods sent a jar containing blessings to humans. A "foolish man" (not Pandora) opened the jar, and most of the blessings were lost forever. Only hope remained, "to promise each of us the good things that fled."
+
+Attic red-figure painters seem to have had a tradition which was independent of the literary sources: Sometimes, they add to the literary version, sometimes they ignore it altogether.
+
+There are many ways in which the figure of Pandora can be interpreted. Erwin Panofsky wrote a monography on the subject.[12] According to M. L. West, the story of Pandora and the jar is older than Hesiod's versions. This also explains the confusion and problems of Hesiod's version and that it is inconclusive.[13] According to West, Pandoora was married to Prometheus in these versions. West cites Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, which preserved the older version. In one version of the story, the jar may have contained only good things for mankind. West also writes that it may have been that Epimetheus and Pandora and their roles were transposed in the pre-Hesiodic myths. This is called a "mythic inversion". He remarks that there is a curious correlation between Pandora being made out of earth in Hesiod's story, to what is in Apollodorus that Prometheus created man from water and earth.[13][14] Hesiod's myth of Pandora's jar, then, could be an summary of many different early myths.
+
+There are different questions that need to be discussed. The Greek original text speaks about elpis. Usually, this word is translated into English as Hope, but it could be translated differently. Expectation is another possible translation, which is more neutral. One can expect good things, as well as bad things. Hope has a positive connotation.
+
+Elpis is everything that remains in the jar, when Pandora closed it again, so does the jar give elpis to mankind, or does it keep elpis away from it? -Another question to ask is wheter  elpis remaining in the jar a good thing, or a bad one, for mankind?
+
+The first question might confuse the non-specialist. But as with most ancient Greek words, elpis can be translated a number of ways. A number of scholars prefer the neutral translation of "expectation." But expectation of what? Classical authors use the word elpis to mean "expectation of bad," as well as "expectation of good." Statistical analysis demonstrates that the latter sense appears five times more than the former in all of ancient Greek literature.[15] Others hold the minority view that elpis should be rendered, "expectation of evil" (vel sim).[16]
+
+How one answers the first question largely depends on the answer to the second question: should we interpret the jar to function as a prison, or a pantry?[17] The jar certainly serves as a prison for the evils that Pandora released – they only affect mankind once outside the jar. Some have argued that logic dictates, therefore, that the jar acts as a prison for Elpis as well, withholding it from men.[18] If one takes elpis to mean expectant hope, then the myth's tone is pessimistic: All the evils in the world were scattered from Pandora's jar, while the one potentially mitigating force, Hope, remains locked securely inside.[19]
+
+This interpretation raises yet another question, complicating the debate: are we to take Hope in an absolute sense, or in a narrow sense where we understand Hope to mean hope only as it pertains to the evils released from the jar? If Hope is imprisoned in the jar, does this mean that human existence is utterly hopeless? This is the most pessimistic reading possible for the myth. A less pessimistic interpretation (still pessimistic, to be sure) understands the myth to say: countless evils fled Pandora's jar and plague human existence; the hope that we might be able to master these evils remains imprisoned inside the jar. Life is not hopeless, but each of us is hopelessly human.[20]
+
+It is also argued that hope was simply one of the evils in the jar, the false kind of hope, and was no good for mankind, since, later in the poem, Hesiod writes that hope is empty (498) and no good (500) and makes mankind lazy by taking away his industriousness, making him prone to evil.[21]
+
+In Human, All Too Human, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche argued that "Zeus did not want man to throw his life away, no matter how much the other evils might torment him, but rather to go on letting himself be tormented anew. To that end, he gives man hope. In truth, it is the most evil of evils because it prolongs man's torment."[22]
+
+An objection to the hope is good/the jar is a prison interpretation counters that, if the jar is full of evils, then what is expectant hope – a blessing – doing among them? This objection leads some to render elpis as the expectation of evil, which would make the myth's tone somewhat optimistic: although humankind is troubled by all the evils in the world, at least we are spared the continual expectation of evil, which would make life unbearable.[16]
+
+The optimistic reading of the myth is expressed by M. L. West. Elpis takes the more common meaning of expectant hope. And while the jar served as a prison for the evils that escaped, it thereafter serves as a residence for Hope. West explains, "It would be absurd to represent either the presence of ills by their confinement in a jar or the presence of hope by its escape from one."[23] Hope is thus preserved as a benefit for humans.[24]
+
+An incorrect etymology of Pandora's name, "all-gifted", was provided in Works and Days. Pandora means "all-giving", but not "all-gifted." Some paintings in vases, from the fifth century before Christ, indicate that the beliefs about the goddess Pandora lasted after the time of Hesiod. Another name of Pandora was found in a kylix (circa 460 BC), Anesidora, that means "she who sends up gifts." This vase painting depicts Hephaestus and Athenae finishing the touches on the first woman, like in the Theogony. The epithet anesidora is also used to name Gaia or Demeter.
+
+Pandora/Anesidora possibly would have taken on aspects of Gaea and Demeter. Pandora would incarnate the fertility of the Earth and its capacity to bear grain and fruits for the benefit of the Humans. Over time this "all-giving" goddess somehow devolved into an "all-gifted" mortal woman. T. A. Sinclair, commenting on Works and Days[25] argues that Hesiod shows no awareness of the mythology of such a divine "giver". A.H. Smith,[26] however, notes that in Hesiod's account Athena and the Seasons brought wreaths of grass and spring flowers to Pandora, indicating that Hesiod was conscious of Pandora's original "all-giving" function. Jane Ellen Harrison sees in Hesiod's story "evidence of a shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in Greek culture. As the life-bringing goddess Pandora is eclipsed, the death-bringing human Pandora arises."[27] Thus Harrison concludes "in the patriarchal mythology of Hesiod her great figure is strangely changed and diminished. She is no longer Earth-Born, but the creature, the handiwork of Olympian Zeus." (Harrison 1922:284) Robert Graves, quoting Harrison,[28] asserts of the Hesiodic episode that "Pandora is not a genuine myth, but an anti-feminist fable, probably of his own invention." H.J.Rose wrote that the myth of Pandora is decidedly more illiberal than that of epic in that it makes Pandora the origin of all of Man's woes with her being the exemplification of the bad wife.[29]
+
+The Hesiodic myth did not, however, completely obliterate the memory of the all-giving goddess Pandora. A scholium to line 971 of Aristophanes' The Birds mentions a cult "to Pandora, the earth, because she bestows all things necessary for life".[30]
+
+In fifth-century Athens Pandora made a prominent appearance in what, at first, appears an unexpected context, in a marble relief or bronze appliqués as a frieze along the base of the Athena Parthenos the culminating experience on the Acropolis; there Jeffrey M. Hurwit has interpreted her presence as an "anti-Athena" reinforcing civic ideologies of patriarchy and the "highly gendered social and political realities of fifth-century Athens."[30] Interpretation has never come easy: Pausanias (i.24.7) merely noted the subject and moved on. Jeffrey Hurwit has argued that Pandora represents an "anti-Athena", similarly a child of no mother, an embodiment of the need for the patriarchal rule that the virginal Athena, rising above her sex, defended.
+
+The humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam translated Hesiod from Greek to Latin, in the 16th century.  The Greek word pithos is used for a large jar, used for example for storing wine.[31] It can also refer to a funerary jar.[32] Pyxis, on the other hand, is a box. Usually, it is said that Erasmus swapped the words when he translated, so Pandora's jar became Pandora's box.[33][34] The phrase "Pandora's box" has endured ever since.
+
+A pithos from Crete, ca. 675 BC; Louvre
+
+An Attic pyxis, 440–430 BC; British Museum

ensimple/696.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+In Greek mythology, Pandora was the first mortal woman.[1] According to Hesiod, each god helped create her by giving her unique gifts. Zeus ordered Hephaestus to mould her out of Earth. This was part of the punishment of mankind, because Prometheus had stolen  the secret of fire. All the gods helped by giving her seductive gifts.  Another name was found for her was Anesidora, she who sends gifts. This name was found inscribed against her figure on a white-ground kylix in the British Museum.[2]
+
+According to the myth, Pandora opened a jar (pithos) and released all the evils of mankind. With the exception of plagues and diseases, Hesiod does not specify the evils in detail. When Pandora closed the jar again, only Hope was left inside.[3] The word pithos has been translated the wrong way, which may have led to the idea of "Pandora's box". Pandora opened the jar because she was curious what was inside, and not because of malice.[4]
+
+The myth of Pandora is ancient, and there are several different Greek versions. It has been interpreted in different ways. In the literary versions, the myth is a kind of theodicy, it addresses the question why there is evil in the world. The oldest versiion is that of Hesiod, who wrote it in the 7th century BC. He shortly mentions it in his Theogony, in line 570, but does not name Pandora. In his Works and Days he gives the oldest known literary version of the story. There is an older story that tells that urns and jars can contain blessings and evils which is told in Homer's Illiad:
+
+The immortals know no care, yet the lot they spin for man is full of sorrow; on the floor of Zeus' palace there stand two urns, the one filled with evil gifts, and the other with good ones. He for whom Zeus the lord of thunder mixes the gifts he sends, will meet now with good and now with evil fortune; but he to whom Zeus sends none but evil gifts will be pointed at by the finger of scorn, the hand of famine will pursue him to the ends of the world, and he will go up and down the face of the earth, respected neither by gods nor men.[5]
+
+The Pandora myth first appears in lines 560–612 of Hesiod's poem the Theogony. This version does not give the woman a name. Prometheus has stolen the gift of fire, and has given it to the humans. Zeus is angry about this and decides to punish men, as a compensation for the gift. He commands Hephaestus to make the first woman  from earth. This woman is described as a "beautiful evil" whose descendants would torment the race of men. After Hephaestus does so, Athena dressed her in a silvery gown, an embroidered veil, garlands and a crown of gold. This woman is unnamed in the Theogony, but is probably Pandora. Hesiod rewrote her myth in Works and Days. When she first appears before gods and mortals, "wonder seized them" as they looked upon her. But she was "sheer guile, not to be withstood by men." Hesiod elaborates (590–93):
+
+From her is the race of women and female kind:
+of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who
+live amongst mortal men to their great trouble,
+no helpmates in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.
+
+Later, Hesiod tells that men who try to avoid the evil of women by avoiding marriage will fare no better (604–7):
+
+He reaches deadly old age without anyone to tend his years,
+and though he at least has no lack of livelihood while he lives,
+yet, when he is dead, his kinsfolk divide his possessions amongst them.
+
+At the end, Hesiod says that occasionally a man finds a good wife,  but still (609) "evil contends with good."
+
+The more famous version of the myth comes from another of Hesiod's works, called Works and Days. There, the myth is contained in lines 60 to 105. Hesiod tells about Pandora's origin. He also makes the scope of the misery she inflicts on mankind bigger. As before, she is created by Hephaestus, but now more gods help completing her (lines 63-82): Athena taught her needlework and weaving (63–4); Aphrodite "shed grace upon her head and cruel longing and cares that weary the limbs" (65–6); Hermes gave her "a shameful mind and deceitful nature" (67–8); Hermes also gave her the power of speech, putting in her "lies and crafty words" (77–80) ; Athena then clothed her (72); next she, Persuasion and the Charites adorned her with necklaces and other finery (72–4); the Horae adorned her with a garland crown (75). Finally, Hermes gives this woman a name: Pandora – "All-gifted" – "because all the Olympians gave her a gift" (81).[6] The story is written in such a way that Pandora's feminine and deceitful nature is a small problem for mankind, because she brings a pithos. This word is usually translated as jar, sometimes as a box.[7][8] The box contains "burdensome toil and sickness that brings death to men" (91–2), diseases (102) and "a myriad other pains" (100).
+
+Prometheus had warned his brother Epimetheus not to accept any gifts from Zeus. But Epimetheus did not listen; he accepted Pandora, who promptly scattered the contents of her jar. As a result, Hesiod tells us, "the earth and sea are full of evils" (101). One item, however, did not escape the jar (96–9), hope:
+
+Only Hope was left within her unbreakable house,
+she remained under the lip of the jar, and did not
+fly away. Before [she could], Pandora replaced the
+lid of the jar. This was the will of aegis-bearing
+Zeus the Cloudgatherer.
+
+He does not tell the reader why hope remained in the jar.[9]
+
+Hesiod closes with this moral (105): "Thus it is not possible to escape the mind of Zeus."
+
+Archaic and Classic Greek literature do not mention Pandora any more. Sophocles wrote a satyr play Pandora, or The Hammerers, but very little is known of this play. Sappho may have made reference to Pandora in a surviving fragment.[10]
+
+Later, people filled in small details, or they added postscripts to Hesiod's story. Examples for this are Apollodorus and Hyginus: Each of them added a part to the story, that might have already been in Hesiod's version, even though it was not written down: Epimetheus married Pandora. They each add that they had a daughter, Pyrrha, who married Deucalion and survived the deluge with him. The problem of that version is that Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, fragment #2, had made a "Pandora" one of the daughters of Deucalion, and the mother of Graecus by Zeus.
+
+In the 15th century, a monk named Annio da Viterbo said he had found a manuscript of a historian named Berossus. Berossus had lived in the 3rd century BC. According to the manuscript, "Pandora" was also named as a daughter-in-law of Noah. This attempt to join pagan and Christian texts was later recognised as a forgery, though.
+
+The poet Theognis of Megara, who lived in the 6th year BC, had a different point of view:
+
+Hope is the only good god remaining among mankind;
+the others have left and gone to Olympus.
+Trust, a mighty god has gone, Restraint has gone from men,
+and the Graces, my friend, have abandoned the earth.
+Men’s judicial oaths are no longer to be trusted, nor does anyone
+revere the immortal gods; the race of pious men has perished and
+men no longer recognize the rules of conduct or acts of piety.
+
+Theogonis seems to be referring to a different version of the myth: In that version, the jar contained blessings rather than evils. This version seems to follow a tradition before Hesiod, which was preserved by 2nd century writer  Babrius.[11] According to Babrius, the gods sent a jar containing blessings to humans. A "foolish man" (not Pandora) opened the jar, and most of the blessings were lost forever. Only hope remained, "to promise each of us the good things that fled."
+
+Attic red-figure painters seem to have had a tradition which was independent of the literary sources: Sometimes, they add to the literary version, sometimes they ignore it altogether.
+
+There are many ways in which the figure of Pandora can be interpreted. Erwin Panofsky wrote a monography on the subject.[12] According to M. L. West, the story of Pandora and the jar is older than Hesiod's versions. This also explains the confusion and problems of Hesiod's version and that it is inconclusive.[13] According to West, Pandoora was married to Prometheus in these versions. West cites Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, which preserved the older version. In one version of the story, the jar may have contained only good things for mankind. West also writes that it may have been that Epimetheus and Pandora and their roles were transposed in the pre-Hesiodic myths. This is called a "mythic inversion". He remarks that there is a curious correlation between Pandora being made out of earth in Hesiod's story, to what is in Apollodorus that Prometheus created man from water and earth.[13][14] Hesiod's myth of Pandora's jar, then, could be an summary of many different early myths.
+
+There are different questions that need to be discussed. The Greek original text speaks about elpis. Usually, this word is translated into English as Hope, but it could be translated differently. Expectation is another possible translation, which is more neutral. One can expect good things, as well as bad things. Hope has a positive connotation.
+
+Elpis is everything that remains in the jar, when Pandora closed it again, so does the jar give elpis to mankind, or does it keep elpis away from it? -Another question to ask is wheter  elpis remaining in the jar a good thing, or a bad one, for mankind?
+
+The first question might confuse the non-specialist. But as with most ancient Greek words, elpis can be translated a number of ways. A number of scholars prefer the neutral translation of "expectation." But expectation of what? Classical authors use the word elpis to mean "expectation of bad," as well as "expectation of good." Statistical analysis demonstrates that the latter sense appears five times more than the former in all of ancient Greek literature.[15] Others hold the minority view that elpis should be rendered, "expectation of evil" (vel sim).[16]
+
+How one answers the first question largely depends on the answer to the second question: should we interpret the jar to function as a prison, or a pantry?[17] The jar certainly serves as a prison for the evils that Pandora released – they only affect mankind once outside the jar. Some have argued that logic dictates, therefore, that the jar acts as a prison for Elpis as well, withholding it from men.[18] If one takes elpis to mean expectant hope, then the myth's tone is pessimistic: All the evils in the world were scattered from Pandora's jar, while the one potentially mitigating force, Hope, remains locked securely inside.[19]
+
+This interpretation raises yet another question, complicating the debate: are we to take Hope in an absolute sense, or in a narrow sense where we understand Hope to mean hope only as it pertains to the evils released from the jar? If Hope is imprisoned in the jar, does this mean that human existence is utterly hopeless? This is the most pessimistic reading possible for the myth. A less pessimistic interpretation (still pessimistic, to be sure) understands the myth to say: countless evils fled Pandora's jar and plague human existence; the hope that we might be able to master these evils remains imprisoned inside the jar. Life is not hopeless, but each of us is hopelessly human.[20]
+
+It is also argued that hope was simply one of the evils in the jar, the false kind of hope, and was no good for mankind, since, later in the poem, Hesiod writes that hope is empty (498) and no good (500) and makes mankind lazy by taking away his industriousness, making him prone to evil.[21]
+
+In Human, All Too Human, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche argued that "Zeus did not want man to throw his life away, no matter how much the other evils might torment him, but rather to go on letting himself be tormented anew. To that end, he gives man hope. In truth, it is the most evil of evils because it prolongs man's torment."[22]
+
+An objection to the hope is good/the jar is a prison interpretation counters that, if the jar is full of evils, then what is expectant hope – a blessing – doing among them? This objection leads some to render elpis as the expectation of evil, which would make the myth's tone somewhat optimistic: although humankind is troubled by all the evils in the world, at least we are spared the continual expectation of evil, which would make life unbearable.[16]
+
+The optimistic reading of the myth is expressed by M. L. West. Elpis takes the more common meaning of expectant hope. And while the jar served as a prison for the evils that escaped, it thereafter serves as a residence for Hope. West explains, "It would be absurd to represent either the presence of ills by their confinement in a jar or the presence of hope by its escape from one."[23] Hope is thus preserved as a benefit for humans.[24]
+
+An incorrect etymology of Pandora's name, "all-gifted", was provided in Works and Days. Pandora means "all-giving", but not "all-gifted." Some paintings in vases, from the fifth century before Christ, indicate that the beliefs about the goddess Pandora lasted after the time of Hesiod. Another name of Pandora was found in a kylix (circa 460 BC), Anesidora, that means "she who sends up gifts." This vase painting depicts Hephaestus and Athenae finishing the touches on the first woman, like in the Theogony. The epithet anesidora is also used to name Gaia or Demeter.
+
+Pandora/Anesidora possibly would have taken on aspects of Gaea and Demeter. Pandora would incarnate the fertility of the Earth and its capacity to bear grain and fruits for the benefit of the Humans. Over time this "all-giving" goddess somehow devolved into an "all-gifted" mortal woman. T. A. Sinclair, commenting on Works and Days[25] argues that Hesiod shows no awareness of the mythology of such a divine "giver". A.H. Smith,[26] however, notes that in Hesiod's account Athena and the Seasons brought wreaths of grass and spring flowers to Pandora, indicating that Hesiod was conscious of Pandora's original "all-giving" function. Jane Ellen Harrison sees in Hesiod's story "evidence of a shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in Greek culture. As the life-bringing goddess Pandora is eclipsed, the death-bringing human Pandora arises."[27] Thus Harrison concludes "in the patriarchal mythology of Hesiod her great figure is strangely changed and diminished. She is no longer Earth-Born, but the creature, the handiwork of Olympian Zeus." (Harrison 1922:284) Robert Graves, quoting Harrison,[28] asserts of the Hesiodic episode that "Pandora is not a genuine myth, but an anti-feminist fable, probably of his own invention." H.J.Rose wrote that the myth of Pandora is decidedly more illiberal than that of epic in that it makes Pandora the origin of all of Man's woes with her being the exemplification of the bad wife.[29]
+
+The Hesiodic myth did not, however, completely obliterate the memory of the all-giving goddess Pandora. A scholium to line 971 of Aristophanes' The Birds mentions a cult "to Pandora, the earth, because she bestows all things necessary for life".[30]
+
+In fifth-century Athens Pandora made a prominent appearance in what, at first, appears an unexpected context, in a marble relief or bronze appliqués as a frieze along the base of the Athena Parthenos the culminating experience on the Acropolis; there Jeffrey M. Hurwit has interpreted her presence as an "anti-Athena" reinforcing civic ideologies of patriarchy and the "highly gendered social and political realities of fifth-century Athens."[30] Interpretation has never come easy: Pausanias (i.24.7) merely noted the subject and moved on. Jeffrey Hurwit has argued that Pandora represents an "anti-Athena", similarly a child of no mother, an embodiment of the need for the patriarchal rule that the virginal Athena, rising above her sex, defended.
+
+The humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam translated Hesiod from Greek to Latin, in the 16th century.  The Greek word pithos is used for a large jar, used for example for storing wine.[31] It can also refer to a funerary jar.[32] Pyxis, on the other hand, is a box. Usually, it is said that Erasmus swapped the words when he translated, so Pandora's jar became Pandora's box.[33][34] The phrase "Pandora's box" has endured ever since.
+
+A pithos from Crete, ca. 675 BC; Louvre
+
+An Attic pyxis, 440–430 BC; British Museum

ensimple/697.html.txt

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+in South America  (grey)
+
+Bolivia (officially called Republic of Bolivia) is a country in South America.  It is land locked by Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Peru, and Chile.  Jeanine Áñez became the president of Bolivia in November 2019, after longtime president Evo Morales was overthrown.
+The population of Bolivia is 10.67 million (2013).[8]
+
+Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar. The main languages are Spanish and Quechua, but there are other languages too.
+
+Bolivia used to be a colony of Spain. The silver mines in Bolivia made most of Spain's money, and Spain used Bolivians as slaves to work in the mines.
+After many wars, Simón Bolívar helped Bolivia to be an independent country.
+
+Bolivia is 424,135 mi² (1,098,581 km²).[9] This means that Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country (after Ethiopia). It is the same sort of size as Mauritania.
+
+Bolivia is a landlocked nation, which means every border of Bolivia is a border with another country, and so it does not have a sea. It used to own some of the Pacific coast, but it lost it in 1879 in the War of the Pacific. The west of Bolivia is on the Andes mountain range. The highest mountain in Bolivia is called Nevado de Sajama and it is near the city of Oruro. Although this part of the country is very high with lots of mountains, there are also parts of Bolivia which are very flat, and parts of the country which are very near sea level. There is also a bit of Bolivia covered by the Amazon rainforest, and a big lake which is the highest lake in the world. This lake is called Lake Titicaca.
+
+The major cities are La Paz, El Alto, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba.  For other places in Bolivia see List of cities in Bolivia.
+
+The population of Bolivia is approximately 10,907,778 people. The ethnic composition of the country is like the following:
+
+Bolivia suffers from poverty. Over 65% of the population lives below the poverty line.[10]
+
+Bolivia is divided into nine departments.  The departments are divided into 112 provinces.  The provinces are divided into 339 municipalities and into native community lands.[11]
+
+Bolivian culture has many Inca, Aymara and other native influences in religion, music and clothing. There is a big festival in Oruro, which is called "El carnaval de Oruro". People in Bolivia like playing football, and football, which is often played in the street. Zoos are also very popular, but they do not have much money.
+
+The Cantuta (often spelled kantuta or qantuta) (Cantua buxifolia or Fuchsia buxifolia) is a flower found in the Yungas, and is the national flower of Bolivia along with the patujú (Heliconia rostrata) found in the tropical regions of Bolivia.

ensimple/698.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+in South America  (grey)
+
+Bolivia (officially called Republic of Bolivia) is a country in South America.  It is land locked by Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Peru, and Chile.  Jeanine Áñez became the president of Bolivia in November 2019, after longtime president Evo Morales was overthrown.
+The population of Bolivia is 10.67 million (2013).[8]
+
+Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar. The main languages are Spanish and Quechua, but there are other languages too.
+
+Bolivia used to be a colony of Spain. The silver mines in Bolivia made most of Spain's money, and Spain used Bolivians as slaves to work in the mines.
+After many wars, Simón Bolívar helped Bolivia to be an independent country.
+
+Bolivia is 424,135 mi² (1,098,581 km²).[9] This means that Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country (after Ethiopia). It is the same sort of size as Mauritania.
+
+Bolivia is a landlocked nation, which means every border of Bolivia is a border with another country, and so it does not have a sea. It used to own some of the Pacific coast, but it lost it in 1879 in the War of the Pacific. The west of Bolivia is on the Andes mountain range. The highest mountain in Bolivia is called Nevado de Sajama and it is near the city of Oruro. Although this part of the country is very high with lots of mountains, there are also parts of Bolivia which are very flat, and parts of the country which are very near sea level. There is also a bit of Bolivia covered by the Amazon rainforest, and a big lake which is the highest lake in the world. This lake is called Lake Titicaca.
+
+The major cities are La Paz, El Alto, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba.  For other places in Bolivia see List of cities in Bolivia.
+
+The population of Bolivia is approximately 10,907,778 people. The ethnic composition of the country is like the following:
+
+Bolivia suffers from poverty. Over 65% of the population lives below the poverty line.[10]
+
+Bolivia is divided into nine departments.  The departments are divided into 112 provinces.  The provinces are divided into 339 municipalities and into native community lands.[11]
+
+Bolivian culture has many Inca, Aymara and other native influences in religion, music and clothing. There is a big festival in Oruro, which is called "El carnaval de Oruro". People in Bolivia like playing football, and football, which is often played in the street. Zoos are also very popular, but they do not have much money.
+
+The Cantuta (often spelled kantuta or qantuta) (Cantua buxifolia or Fuchsia buxifolia) is a flower found in the Yungas, and is the national flower of Bolivia along with the patujú (Heliconia rostrata) found in the tropical regions of Bolivia.

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+Bologna is the capital and largest city of Emilia-Romagna in Northern Italy. It has about 390,000 inhabitants.
+
+Bologna was founded by the Etruscans with the name Felsina (c. 534 BC) and became a Roman colony in 189 BC.
+
+In the 11th century Bologna began to grow again as a free commune, joining the Lombard League against Frederick Barbarossa in 1164.
+
+The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest existing university in Europe.
+
+After being crushed in the Battle of Zappolino by the Modenese in 1325, Bologna began to decay and asked the protection of the Pope at the beginning of the 14th century.
+
+In 1980, 85 people were killed in a bombing at Bologna Centrale railway station.
+
+Bologna has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification).

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+
+
+Apiformes (from Latin 'apis')
+
+
+
+Bees are flying insects of the Hymenoptera, which also includes ants, wasps and sawflies. There are about 20,000 species of bees.[1] Bees collect pollen from flowers. Bees can be found on all continents except Antarctica.
+
+Bees fall into four groups:
+
+The European Honey Bee (called Apis mellifera by Biologists), is kept by humans for honey. Keeping bees to make honey is called Beekeeping, or apiculture.
+
+The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were pollinated by insects such as  big beetles, long before bees first appeared. Bees are different because they are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that make pollination easier. Bees are generally better at the task than other pollinating insects such as beetles, flies, butterflies and pollen wasps. The appearance of such floral specialists is believed to have driven the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves.
+
+Bees, like ants, are a specialized form of wasp. The ancestors of bees were wasps in a family which preyed on other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the capture of prey insects that were covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. Similar behaviour could be switched to pollen collection. This same evolutionary scenario has occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the group known as "pollen wasps" also evolved from predatory ancestors.
+
+A recently reported bee fossil, of the genus Melittosphex, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea, sister-group to the modern bees", and dates from the Lower Cretaceous (~100 mya).[2] Features of its morphology  place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits of the legs which betray its origin.[3] The issue is still under debate, and the phylogenetic relationships among bee families are poorly understood.
+
+Like other insects, the body of a bee can be divided into three parts: the head, thorax (the middle part), and abdomen (the back part). Also like other insects, bees have three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Many bees are hairy and have yellow and black or orange and black warning colors.
+
+Many bees have stings (like a hollow needle) on the rear of their bodies. If they get confused, angry, or scared they may sting, and inject venom, which hurts. Once a worker bee has stung it dies after a short while, but other types of bee and wasp can sting again. Some people are allergic to bee stings and can even die from them.
+
+Some bees are eusocial insects; this means they live in organized groups called colonies. Honey bees, the kind of bee used in beekeeping, are eusocial. The home of a bee colony is called a hive. One hive is made up of only one queen.
+
+There are three kinds of bees in a honey bee colony. A queen bee is the most important bee in the colony because she will lay the eggs. The queen bee only uses her stinger to sting other queen bees. The queen is usually the mother of the worker bees. She ate a special jelly called royal jelly from when she was young. Worker bees are females too, and they are the bees that collect pollen from flowers and will fight to protect the colony. Workers do a waggle dance to tell the others where they have found nectar; Karl von Frisch discovered this.
+
+Drone bees (males) mate with the queen bee so that she can lay eggs.  The only function of the male drone is to mate.  They do no other work in the hive.

ensimple/70.html.txt

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+Aphrodite (Ancient Greek: Ἀφροδίτη, Aphrodítē) is the Ancient Greek goddess of love, beauty. Aphrodite is one of the Twelve Olympians. The most beautiful and refined of the goddesses, Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, god of fire and metalworking. Aphrodite had numerous affairs with other beings, the most notable of these being Ares, the god of war.
+
+In Homer's Iliad, one of the Oceanids.
+In Hesiod's Theogony, however, Aphrodite is stated to have risen from sea foam, formed at the spot where Uranos' genitals landed, after Kronos castrated him and tossed them into the sea. Aphrodite's cult was centered on the islands of Cythera and Cyprus, both of which were claimed to be her birthplace. Her main festival was the Aphrodisia, which was celebrated annually every midsummer. The Charites (minor goddesses of grace and splendor) attended to Aphrodite and served as her handmaidens. Aphrodite's symbols include the dolphin, myrtle, rose, dove, sparrow, swan and pearl, and the dove, sparrow and swan were her sacred animals. The goddess Venus is her Roman equivalent. Aphrodite was quite often described as very beautiful, and was used as a point of comparison for female beauty.
+
+Eros, Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, Pothos, Anteros, Himeros, Hermaphroditos, Rhode, Eryx, Peitho, Tyche, Eunomia, The Graces, Priapus, and Aeneas. She has 16 children in total.
+
+Aphrodite was very beautiful, which made Zeus afraid that she would be the cause of fights between the other gods. He therefore gave Aphrodite to Hephaestus. Hephaestus was happy to be married to Aphrodite and gave her many pieces of jewelry which were gifts of love, like a belt that when ever she wore it, it would make men be attracted to her. Aphrodite, however, was not attracted to him. So she spent most of her time with Ares, but was also spent time with Adonis and Anchises. She had many children.

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+
+
+Mumbai (previously known as Bombay until 1996) is a natural harbor on the west coast of India, and is the capital city of Maharashtra state. It is India's largest city, and one of the world's most populous cities. It is the financial capital of India. The city is the second most-populous in the world. It has approximately 13 million people.[1] Along with the neighboring cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane, it forms the world's 4th largest urban agglomeration. They have around 19.1 million people.[2]
+
+The seven islands that form Bombay were home to fishing colonies. The islands were ruled by successive kingdoms and indigenous empires before Portuguese settlers took it. Then, it went to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th century, Bombay became a major trading town. It became a strong place for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century. When India became independent in 1947, the city was put into Bombay State. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. It was renamed Mumbai in 1996.[3]
+
+Mumbai generates more than 6% of India's GDP.[4] It accounts for 25% of industrial output, 40% of sea trade, and 70% of capital transactions to India's economy.[5] The Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, the National Stock Exchange of India and many Indian companies and multinational corporations are in the city. It also has the Hindi film and television industry, known as Bollywood.
+
+The Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport is Mumbai's public transport service.
+