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+Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. It was published in 1852. It greatly influenced many people's thoughts about African Americans and slavery in the United States. It also strengthened the conflict between the Northern and Southern United States. This led to the American Civil War. The book's effect was so powerful that Lincoln said when he met Stowe at the beginning of the Civil War, "So this is the little lady who made this big war."[1][2]
+The main character of the novel is Uncle Tom, a patiente sentimental novel showed the effects of slavery. It also said that Christian love is stronger than slavery.[3][4]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin was the most popular novel of the 19th century,[5] and the second best-selling book of the century (the first one was the Bible).[6] It helped abolitionism spread in the 1850s.[7]
+In these days, it has been praised as a very important help to anti-slavery. However, it has also been criticized for making stereotypes about black people.[8][9][10]
+Harriet Beecher Stowe was born in Connecticut. She was an abolitionist. Stowe wrote her novel because of the 1850 passage of the second Fugitive Slave Act. This law punished people who helped slaves run away. It also made the North stop and return the South's black runaways. Mrs. Edward Beecher wrote to Harriet ("Hattie"), "If I could use a pen as you can, I would write something that will make this whole nation feel what an accursed thing slavery is."[11] At that time, Stowe was a wife with six children who sometimes wrote for magazines.[11] Her son, Charles Stowe, said that his mother read this letter out loud to her children.[11] When she finished the letter, she stood up, and with "an expression on her face that stamped itself on the mind of her child",[11] she said, "I will write something...I will if I live."[2][11] That is how Uncle Tom's Cabin began.
+According to Stowe, she began thinking about Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly as she was in a church in February 1851.[2] She had a vision of a Christian black man being beaten and praying for the people who were beating him as he died.[2] She was also partly inspired to write her novel by the autobiography of Josiah Henson. Henson was a black man who had run away and helped many black slaves.[12] She was also helped by the book American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses by Theodore Dwight Weld and the Grimké sisters.[13] Stowe also said that she got lots of ideas for Uncle Tom's Cabin by talking to runaway slaves when she was living in Cincinnati, Ohio.
+In her book A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853), Stowe wrote about the stories that inspired her when she was writing Uncle Tom's Cabin.[14] However,  later research showed that Stowe did not actually read many of the stories inside the book until after her novel was published.[14]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin began in a series in an anti-slavery newspaper, The National Era. The National Era had also printed other works Stowe had written. Because everybody liked the story so much, John P. Jewett of Boston asked Stowe to turn the serial into a book. Stowe was not sure if people would like to read the story as a book. However, she finally agreed. John Jewett, sure that the book would be popular, asked Hammatt Billings to engrave six pictures for the book.[15] In March 20, 1852, the finished book came out.[2] By June it was selling ten thousand copies a week. By October American sales alone were 150 thousand copies.[2] In the first year it was published, 300,000 copies of the book were sold, and it was translated into many important languages.
+A Kentucky farmer named Arthur Shelby is afraid of losing his farm because of debts. Even though he and his wife, Emily Shelby, are kind to their slaves, he decides to sell two of them: Uncle Tom, a middle-aged man with a wife and children, and Harry, the son of his wife's maid Eliza. Emily Shelby is shocked and unhappy because she promised Eliza that she would not sell her son. George Shelby, her son, is unhappy because he admires Uncle Tom as his friend and Christian.
+When Eliza hears about Mr. Shelby's plans to sell her son, she decides to run away with her only son. She writes a letter saying sorry to Mrs. Shelby and runs away that night.
+Meanwhile, Uncle Tom is sold and put into a boat, which sails down the Mississippi River. There, he makes friends with a girl called Evangeline ("Eva"). When Eva falls into the water and he saves her, Eva's father, Augustine St. Clare, buys Tom. Eva and Tom become good friends because they both love Jesus very deeply.
+During Eliza's escape, she meets her husband, George Harris, who had run away before her. They decide to try to run away to Canada. However, they are hunted by a slave hunter named Tom Loker. Tom Loker finally traps Eliza and her family, so that George shoots Loker. Eliza is worried that Loker might die and go to hell. Because of this, she persuades her husband to take him to a Quaker town to get better. The gentle Quakers change Tom Loker greatly.
+In St. Clare's house, St. Clare argues with his sister, Miss Ophelia. She thinks that slavery is wrong, but is prejudiced against blacks. St. Clare buys Topsy, a black child, and challenges Miss Ophelia to educate her. Miss Ophelia tries, but fails.
+After Tom has lived with St. Clare for about two years, Eva becomes very sick. She has a vision of heaven before she dies. Because of her death, many people change. Miss Ophelia loses her prejudice of black people, Tospy decides to become "good", and St. Clare decides to free Tom.
+St. Clare, however, is hurt when he tries to stop a fight at a tavern and dies. Because of this, he cannot keep his promise to free Tom. His wife sells Tom to a plantation owner named Simon Legree. Legree takes Tom to Louisiana. There, he meets other slaves, including Emmeline (who Legree bought at the same time that he bought Tom). Legree begins to hate Tom when Tom disobeys his order to whip the other slaves. Legree beats him, and decides to destroy Tom's faith in God. However, Tom secretly continues to read the Bible and help the other slaves. At the plantation, Tom meets Cassy, another black slave. Her two children had been sold, and she had killed her third child because she was afraid that her child would be sold, too.
+Loker has been changed because of the Quakers. George, Eliza, and Harry have finally reached Canada and become free. Meanwhile, Uncle Tom feels so unhappy that he almost gives up, but he has two visions of Jesus and Eva. He decides to continue to be a Christian, even if he has to die. Cassy and Emmeline, with Tom’s encouragement, run away. They cleverly use Legree’s superstitious fears to help them. When Tom does not tell Legree where they are, Legree tells his men to beat him to death. Tom forgives the two men who beat him as he dies, and they feel sorry and become Christians. George Shelby comes just as Tom is dying to free him. He is very angry and sad. However, Tom, saying smilingly, “Who,—who,—who shall separate us from the love of Christ?” dies.[16]
+Uncle Tom, the title character of the story, is a patient, noble, unselfish black slave. Stowe wanted him to be a “noble hero”: in the book, he stands up for what he believes in. Even though they do not want to, even his enemies admire him.[17]
+Recently, however, his name has also been used negatively. People often think of "Uncle Tom" as an old black man trying to make his masters happy, as people have criticized his quiet acceptance of slavery.[18] However, others argue that this is not true. First of all, Uncle Tom is not really old - he is only eight years older than Mr. Shelby, which shows that he is probably around fifty.[9][18] Also, Tom is not happy with slavery.[18] His acceptance is not because of stupidity or because he likes slavery. It is because of his religious faith, which tells him to love everyone. Wherever Uncle Tom goes, he loves and spreads comfort and kindness. He helps slaves escape, such as Eliza, Emmeline and Cassy. He also refuses to beat other slaves. Because of this, he is beaten himself. Stowe was not trying to make Tom an example for blacks but for white and black people.[18] She says that if white people were to be loving and unselfish like Uncle Tom, slavery would be impossible.[18]
+Eliza Harris is Mrs. Shelby's favorite maid, George Harris' wife, and Harry's mother. Eliza is a brave, intelligent, and very beautiful young slave. Eliza loves her son, Harry, very much. It is possible her love for him was even greater because she lost two of her first infant children. Her motherly love is shown when she bravely escapes with her son. Perhaps the most well-known part of Uncle Tom's Cabin is the part where Eliza escapes on the Ohio River with Harry.
+This escape is said to have been inspired by a story heard in the Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati by John Rankin to Stowe's husband Calvin, a professor at the school. In Rankin's story, in February, 1838, a young slave woman had escaped across the frozen Ohio River to the town of Ripley, Ohio with her child in her arms and stayed at his house before she had gone further towards the north.[19]
+Eva "Evangeline" St. Clare is St. Clare and Marie's angelic daughter. She enters the story when Tom saves her from drowning when he was going to be sold. Eva asks her father to buy Tom. She says, "I want to make him happy".[16] Through her, Tom becomes St. Clare's leading coachman and Eva's "especial attendant (helper)...Tom had...orders to let everything else go, and attend to Miss Eva whenever she wanted him,—orders which our readers may fancy (imagine) were far from disagreeable to him."[16] She is very beautiful: "Her form was the perfection of childish beauty...Her face was remarkable less for its perfect beauty of features than for a singular (strange) and dreamy earnestness (seriousness) of expression...all marked her out (made her different) from the other children, and made every one turn and look after her".[16]
+To Tom, she "...seemed something almost divine; and whenever her golden head and deep blue eyes peered (looked) out upon him...he half believed that he saw one of the angels stepped out of his New Testament."[16] He says that "She's got the Lord's mark in her forehead."[16] Eva is an almost perfect, Christ-like child. She is very sad about slavery. She does not see the difference between blacks and whites. She talks very much about love and forgiveness. Even Topsy is touched by her love. Eva becomes one of the most important people in Tom's life.
+"The higher circle in the family...agreed that she was no lady...they were surprised that she should be any relation of the St. Clares...She sewed and stitched away, from daylight till dark, with the energy of one who is pressed on by some immediate urgency; and then, when the light faded (went away)...out came the ever-ready knitting-work, and there she was again, going on as briskly (busily) as ever. It really was a labor to see her."[16]
+Ophelia St. Clare is perhaps the most complicated female character in the novel. St. Clare calls her, "...desperately ... good; it tires me to death to think of it." She does not like slavery. However, she does not like to be touched or come close to any black person as a human being. When she first saw Eva "...shaking hands and kissing" with the blacks, she declared that it had "...fairly turned her stomach (made her feel sick)."[16] She adds, "I want to be kind to everybody, and I wouldn't have anything hurt; but as to kissing...How can she?"[16]
+She has a "clear, strong, active mind",[16] and is very practical. However, she has a warm heart, which she shows in her love for St. Clare and Eva. Ophelia hates slavery, but has a deep prejudice against blacks. St. Clare, as a challenge to her, buys Topsy. He tells her to try educating her. At first she tries to teach and help Topsy simply because of duty. However, Stowe says that duty is not enough: there must be love. Eva's death changes Ophelia. When Topsy cries, "She said she loved me...there an't (is not) nobody left now...!"[16] Ophelia gently says, as "honest tears" fell down her face, "Topsy, you poor child...I can love you, though I am not like that dear little child. I hope I've learnt something of the love of Christ from her. I can love you...and I'll try to help you to grow up a good Christian girl."[16] Stowe thought that there were many people like Miss Ophelia St. Clare, who did not like slavery but could not think of blacks as people. She wanted to write about such problems through Miss Ophelia.
+Uncle Tom's Cabin's most important theme is the evil of slavery.[21] Every part in Uncle Tom's Cabin develops the characters and the story. But most importantly, it always tries to show the reader that slavery is evil, un-Christian, and should not be allowed.[22] One way Stowe showed the evil of slavery was how it forced families from each other.[23]
+Stowe thought mothers were the "model for all of American life".[24] She also believed that only women could save[25] the United States from slavery. Because of this, another very important theme of Uncle Tom's Cabin is the moral power and sanctity of women. White women like Mrs. Bird, St. Clare’s mother, Legree’s mother, and Mrs. Shelby try to make their husbands help their slaves. Eva, who is the "ideal Christian",[26] says that blacks and whites are the same. Black women like Eliza are brave and pious. She escapes from slavery to save her son, and by the end of the novel, has made her whole family come together again. Some critics said that Stowe's female characters are often unrealistic.[27] However, Stowe's novel made many people remember "the importance of women's influence" and helped the women's rights movement later.[28]
+Stowe's puritanical religious beliefs are also one of the biggest themes in the novel. She explores what Christianity is like. She believed that the most important thing in Christianity was love for everyone. She also believed that Christian theology shows that slavery is wrong.[29] This theme can be seen when Tom urges St. Clare to "look away to Jesus" after St. Clare's daughter Eva dies. After Tom dies, George Shelby says, "What a thing it is to be a Christian."[30] Because Christian themes are so important, and because Stowe often directly spoke in the novel about religion and faith, the novel is written in the "form of a sermon."[31]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin is written in a sentimental[32] and melodramatic style. This style was often used in the 19th century sentimental novel and domestic fiction (also called women's fiction). These genres were the most popular novels of Stowe's time. It usually had female characters and a style that made readers feel sympathy and emotion for them.[33] Stowe's novel is different from other sentimental novels because she writes about a large theme like slavery. It is also different because she has a man (Uncle Tom) as the main character. However, she still tried to make her readers have strong feelings when they read Uncle Tom's Cabin, like making them cry when Eva died.[34] This kind of writing made readers react powerfully. For instance, Georgiana May, a friend of Stowe's, wrote a letter to the writer. In the letter, she said that "I was up (awake) last night long after one o'clock, reading and finishing Uncle Tom's Cabin. I could not leave it any more than I could have left a dying child."[35] Another reader said that she thought about the book all the time and even thought about changing her daughter's name to Eva.[36] The death of Eva affected lots of people. In 1852, 300 baby girls in Boston were named Eva.[36]
+Even though many readers were very moved, literary critics did not like the style in Uncle Tom's Cabin and other sentimental novels. They said these books were written by women and had "women's sloppy (messy) emotions."[37] One literary critic said that if the novel not been about slavery, "it would be just another sentimental novel".[38] Another said the book was a "piece of hack (messy) work."[39] In The Literary History of the United States, George F. Whicher called Uncle Tom's Cabin "Sunday-school fiction".[40]
+However, in 1985 Jane Tompkins wrote differently about Uncle Tom's Cabin in her book In Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction.[37] Tompkins praised Uncle Tom's Cabin's style. She said that sentimental novels showed how women's emotions changed the world in a good way. She also said that the popular domestic novels written in the 19th century, like Uncle Tom's Cabin, were intelligently written. She also said that Uncle Tom's Cabin shows a "critique of American society far more devastating (powerful) than any ... by better-known critics such as Hawthorne and Melville."[40]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin has had a very great influence. There are not many novels in history that changed society so powerfully.[41] When it was published, Uncle Tom's Cabin, people who defended slavery were very angry and protested against it. Some people even wrote books against it. Abolitionists praised it very much. As a best-seller, the novel greatly influenced later protest literature.
+As soon as it was published, Uncle Tom's Cabin made people in the American South very angry.[42] The novel was also greatly criticized by people who supported slavery.
+A famous novelist from the South, William Gilmore Simms, said that the book was not true.[43] Others called the novel criminal and said it was full of lies.[44] A person who sold books in Mobile, Alabama had to leave town for selling the novel.[42] Stowe received threatening letters. She even received a package with a slave's cut ear once.[42] Many Southern writers, like Simms, soon began writing their own books about slavery.[45]
+Some critics said that Stowe had never actually went to a Southern plantation and she did not know much about Southern life. They said that because of this, she made wrong descriptions about the South. However, Stowe always said she made the characters of her book by stories she was told by slaves that ran away to Cincinnati, Ohio, where she lived. It is reported: "She observed firsthand (herself) several incidents (happenings) which ... [inspired] her to write [the] famous anti-slavery novel. Scenes she observed (saw) on the Ohio River, including seeing a husband and wife being sold apart, as well as newspaper and magazine accounts and interviews, contributed material to the ... plot."[46]
+In 1853, Stowe published A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin. This was to show the people who had criticized the novel's description of slavery that it was true. In the book, Stowe writes about the important characters in Uncle Tom's Cabin and about people in real life who were like them. Through this book, she writes a more "aggressive attack on slavery in the South than the novel itself had".[14] Like the novel, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin was also a best-seller. However, many of the works in A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin was read by Stowe after she published her novel.[14]
+Even though there were such criticisms, the novel was still very popular. Stowe's son says that when Abraham Lincoln met her in 1862 Lincoln said, "So this is the little lady who started this great war."[1] Historians are not sure if Lincoln really said this or not. In a letter that Stowe wrote to her husband a few hours after meeting with Lincoln, she does not say anything about this sentence.[47] After this, many writers have said that this novel helped make the North angry at slavery and at the Fugitive Slave Law.[47] It greatly helped the abolitionist movement.[7] Union general and politician James Baird Weaver said that the book made him help in the abolitionist movement.[48]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin also interested many people in England. The first London edition came out in May 1852.[42] It sold 200,000 copies.[42] Some of this interest was because at that time the British people did not like the United States. A writer said, "The evil passions which 'Uncle Tom' gratified in England were not hatred or vengeance [of slavery], but national jealousy and national vanity. We have long been smarting (hurting) under the conceit of America – we are tired of hearing her boast that she is the freest and the most enlightened country that the world has ever seen. Our clergy hate her voluntary system – our Tories hate her democrats – our Whigs hate her ... All parties hailed Mrs. Stowe as a revolter from the enemy."[49] Charles Francis Adams, the American minister to Britain during the war, said later that, "Uncle Tom's Cabin; or Life among the Lowly, published in 1852, influenced the world more quickly, powerfully, and dramatically than any other book ever printed."[50]
+Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published in Russia at the end of 1857 and was soon recognized as a classic of world literature.[51] Many people saw a very strong link between the world of Uncle Tom’s Cabin and the serfdom that still existed in Russia in 1850s.[51] In his letter to an abolitionist Maria Weston Chapman, Nikolay Turgenev wrote, “Many of the scenes described in the book seem like an exact depiction of equally frightful scenes in Russia.”[51] Uncle Tom's Cabin served as an educational tool for Russian and Russo-Soviet elite in the post emancipation period, and it also became part of Soviet children literature.[51]
+The book has been translated into almost every language. For example, it was translated into Chinese. Its translator Lin Shu made this the first Chinese translation of an American novel. It was also translated into Amharic. Its 1930 translation was made to help Ethiopia end the suffering of blacks in that nation.[52] The book was read by so many people that Sigmund Freud believed that some of his patients had been influenced by reading about the whipping of slaves in Uncle Tom's Cabin.[53]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin was the first widely read political novel in the United States.[54] It greatly influenced American literature and protest literature. Some later books that were greatly influenced by Uncle Tom's Cabin are The Jungle by Upton Sinclair and Silent Spring by Rachel Carson.[55]
+However, even though Uncle Tom's Cabin was very important, many people thought the book was a mix of "children's fable and propaganda".[56] Many critics called the book "merely (only) a sentimental novel".[38] George Whicher wrote in his Literary History of the United States that "Nothing attributable to Mrs. Stowe or her handiwork can account for the novel's enormous (great) vogue (popularity); its author's resources ... of Sunday-school fiction were not remarkable ... melodrama, humor, and pathos … compounded (made up) her book."[40]
+Other critics, though, have praised the novel. Edmund Wilson said that "To expose oneself in maturity (when one has grown up) to Uncle Tom's Cabin may … prove a startling (surprising) experience."[56] Jane Tompkins said that the novel is one of the classics of American literature. She suggested that literary critics think badly of the book because it was simply too popular when it came out.[40]
+Through the years, people have wondered what Stowe was trying to say with the novel. Some of her themes can be seen easily, like the evil of slavery. However, some themes are harder to see. For example, Stowe was a Christian and active abolitionist, and put lots of her religious beliefs in her book.[57] Some have said that Stowe wrote in her novel what she thought was a solution to the problem that worried many people who did not like slavery. This problem was: was doing things that were not allowed justified if they did it to fight evil? Was it right to use violence to stop the violence of slavery? Was breaking laws that helped slavery right? Which of Stowe's characters should be followed: the patient Uncle Tom or the defiant George Harris?[58] Stowe thought that God's will would be followed if each (every) person sincerely (truly) examined his principles and acted on (followed) them.[58]
+People have also thought Uncle Tom's Cabin expressed the ideas of the Free Will Movement.[59] In this idea, the character of George Harris symbolizes the free labor. The complex character of Ophelia shows the Northerners who allowed slavery, even though they did not like it. Dinah is very different from Ophelia. She acts by passion. In the book, Ophelia changes. Like Ophelia, the Republican Party (three years later) declared that the North must change itself. It said that the North must stop slavery actively.[59]
+Feminist theory can also be seen in Stowe's book. The novel can be seen as criticizing slavery's patriarchal nature.[60] For Stowe, families were related by blood, not by family-like relations between masters and slaves. Stowe also saw the nation as a bigger "family". So, the feelings of nationality came from sharing the same race. Because of this, she supported the idea that freed slaves should live together in a colony.
+The book has also been seen as trying to show that masculinity was important in stopping slavery.[61] Abolitionists began to change the way they thought of violent men. They wanted men to help stop slavery without hurting their self-image or their position in society. Because of this, some abolitionists followed some of the principles of women's suffrage, peace, and Christianity. They praised men for helping, working together, and having mercy. Other abolitionists were more traditional: they wanted men to act more forcefully. All the men in Stowe's book show either patient men or traditional men.[61]
+Recently, some people have begun criticizing the book for what they thought were racist descriptions of the book's black characters. They criticized the way Stowe wrote about the characters' looks, speech, behavior, and the passive nature of Uncle Tom.[62] The book's use of common stereotypes about African Americans[8] is important because Uncle Tom's Cabin was the best-selling novel in the world in the 19th century.[6] Because of this, the book (together with images in the book[63] and related stage productions) helped make a great number of people accept such stereotypes.[62]
+Among the African-American stereotypes in Uncle Tom's Cabin are:[10]
+These stereotypes made many people think much more lightly of the historical importance of Uncle Tom's Cabin as a "vital antislavery tool."[10] This change in the way people looked at Uncle Tom's Cabin began in an essay by James Baldwin. This essay was titled "Everybody’s Protest Novel." In the essay, Baldwin called Uncle Tom’s Cabin a "very bad novel".[64] He said it was not well-written.[64]
+In the 1960s and '70s, the Black Power and Black Arts Movements strongly criticized the book. They said that the character of Uncle Tom was a part of "race betrayal". They said that Tom made slaves look worse than slave owners.[64] Criticisms of the other stereotypes in the book also increased during this time.
+However, people such as Henry Louis Gates Jr. have begun studying Uncle Tom's Cabin again. He says that the book is a "central document in American race relations and a significant (important) moral and political exploration of the character of those relations."[64]

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+Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. It was published in 1852. It greatly influenced many people's thoughts about African Americans and slavery in the United States. It also strengthened the conflict between the Northern and Southern United States. This led to the American Civil War. The book's effect was so powerful that Lincoln said when he met Stowe at the beginning of the Civil War, "So this is the little lady who made this big war."[1][2]
+The main character of the novel is Uncle Tom, a patiente sentimental novel showed the effects of slavery. It also said that Christian love is stronger than slavery.[3][4]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin was the most popular novel of the 19th century,[5] and the second best-selling book of the century (the first one was the Bible).[6] It helped abolitionism spread in the 1850s.[7]
+In these days, it has been praised as a very important help to anti-slavery. However, it has also been criticized for making stereotypes about black people.[8][9][10]
+Harriet Beecher Stowe was born in Connecticut. She was an abolitionist. Stowe wrote her novel because of the 1850 passage of the second Fugitive Slave Act. This law punished people who helped slaves run away. It also made the North stop and return the South's black runaways. Mrs. Edward Beecher wrote to Harriet ("Hattie"), "If I could use a pen as you can, I would write something that will make this whole nation feel what an accursed thing slavery is."[11] At that time, Stowe was a wife with six children who sometimes wrote for magazines.[11] Her son, Charles Stowe, said that his mother read this letter out loud to her children.[11] When she finished the letter, she stood up, and with "an expression on her face that stamped itself on the mind of her child",[11] she said, "I will write something...I will if I live."[2][11] That is how Uncle Tom's Cabin began.
+According to Stowe, she began thinking about Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly as she was in a church in February 1851.[2] She had a vision of a Christian black man being beaten and praying for the people who were beating him as he died.[2] She was also partly inspired to write her novel by the autobiography of Josiah Henson. Henson was a black man who had run away and helped many black slaves.[12] She was also helped by the book American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses by Theodore Dwight Weld and the Grimké sisters.[13] Stowe also said that she got lots of ideas for Uncle Tom's Cabin by talking to runaway slaves when she was living in Cincinnati, Ohio.
+In her book A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853), Stowe wrote about the stories that inspired her when she was writing Uncle Tom's Cabin.[14] However,  later research showed that Stowe did not actually read many of the stories inside the book until after her novel was published.[14]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin began in a series in an anti-slavery newspaper, The National Era. The National Era had also printed other works Stowe had written. Because everybody liked the story so much, John P. Jewett of Boston asked Stowe to turn the serial into a book. Stowe was not sure if people would like to read the story as a book. However, she finally agreed. John Jewett, sure that the book would be popular, asked Hammatt Billings to engrave six pictures for the book.[15] In March 20, 1852, the finished book came out.[2] By June it was selling ten thousand copies a week. By October American sales alone were 150 thousand copies.[2] In the first year it was published, 300,000 copies of the book were sold, and it was translated into many important languages.
+A Kentucky farmer named Arthur Shelby is afraid of losing his farm because of debts. Even though he and his wife, Emily Shelby, are kind to their slaves, he decides to sell two of them: Uncle Tom, a middle-aged man with a wife and children, and Harry, the son of his wife's maid Eliza. Emily Shelby is shocked and unhappy because she promised Eliza that she would not sell her son. George Shelby, her son, is unhappy because he admires Uncle Tom as his friend and Christian.
+When Eliza hears about Mr. Shelby's plans to sell her son, she decides to run away with her only son. She writes a letter saying sorry to Mrs. Shelby and runs away that night.
+Meanwhile, Uncle Tom is sold and put into a boat, which sails down the Mississippi River. There, he makes friends with a girl called Evangeline ("Eva"). When Eva falls into the water and he saves her, Eva's father, Augustine St. Clare, buys Tom. Eva and Tom become good friends because they both love Jesus very deeply.
+During Eliza's escape, she meets her husband, George Harris, who had run away before her. They decide to try to run away to Canada. However, they are hunted by a slave hunter named Tom Loker. Tom Loker finally traps Eliza and her family, so that George shoots Loker. Eliza is worried that Loker might die and go to hell. Because of this, she persuades her husband to take him to a Quaker town to get better. The gentle Quakers change Tom Loker greatly.
+In St. Clare's house, St. Clare argues with his sister, Miss Ophelia. She thinks that slavery is wrong, but is prejudiced against blacks. St. Clare buys Topsy, a black child, and challenges Miss Ophelia to educate her. Miss Ophelia tries, but fails.
+After Tom has lived with St. Clare for about two years, Eva becomes very sick. She has a vision of heaven before she dies. Because of her death, many people change. Miss Ophelia loses her prejudice of black people, Tospy decides to become "good", and St. Clare decides to free Tom.
+St. Clare, however, is hurt when he tries to stop a fight at a tavern and dies. Because of this, he cannot keep his promise to free Tom. His wife sells Tom to a plantation owner named Simon Legree. Legree takes Tom to Louisiana. There, he meets other slaves, including Emmeline (who Legree bought at the same time that he bought Tom). Legree begins to hate Tom when Tom disobeys his order to whip the other slaves. Legree beats him, and decides to destroy Tom's faith in God. However, Tom secretly continues to read the Bible and help the other slaves. At the plantation, Tom meets Cassy, another black slave. Her two children had been sold, and she had killed her third child because she was afraid that her child would be sold, too.
+Loker has been changed because of the Quakers. George, Eliza, and Harry have finally reached Canada and become free. Meanwhile, Uncle Tom feels so unhappy that he almost gives up, but he has two visions of Jesus and Eva. He decides to continue to be a Christian, even if he has to die. Cassy and Emmeline, with Tom’s encouragement, run away. They cleverly use Legree’s superstitious fears to help them. When Tom does not tell Legree where they are, Legree tells his men to beat him to death. Tom forgives the two men who beat him as he dies, and they feel sorry and become Christians. George Shelby comes just as Tom is dying to free him. He is very angry and sad. However, Tom, saying smilingly, “Who,—who,—who shall separate us from the love of Christ?” dies.[16]
+Uncle Tom, the title character of the story, is a patient, noble, unselfish black slave. Stowe wanted him to be a “noble hero”: in the book, he stands up for what he believes in. Even though they do not want to, even his enemies admire him.[17]
+Recently, however, his name has also been used negatively. People often think of "Uncle Tom" as an old black man trying to make his masters happy, as people have criticized his quiet acceptance of slavery.[18] However, others argue that this is not true. First of all, Uncle Tom is not really old - he is only eight years older than Mr. Shelby, which shows that he is probably around fifty.[9][18] Also, Tom is not happy with slavery.[18] His acceptance is not because of stupidity or because he likes slavery. It is because of his religious faith, which tells him to love everyone. Wherever Uncle Tom goes, he loves and spreads comfort and kindness. He helps slaves escape, such as Eliza, Emmeline and Cassy. He also refuses to beat other slaves. Because of this, he is beaten himself. Stowe was not trying to make Tom an example for blacks but for white and black people.[18] She says that if white people were to be loving and unselfish like Uncle Tom, slavery would be impossible.[18]
+Eliza Harris is Mrs. Shelby's favorite maid, George Harris' wife, and Harry's mother. Eliza is a brave, intelligent, and very beautiful young slave. Eliza loves her son, Harry, very much. It is possible her love for him was even greater because she lost two of her first infant children. Her motherly love is shown when she bravely escapes with her son. Perhaps the most well-known part of Uncle Tom's Cabin is the part where Eliza escapes on the Ohio River with Harry.
+This escape is said to have been inspired by a story heard in the Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati by John Rankin to Stowe's husband Calvin, a professor at the school. In Rankin's story, in February, 1838, a young slave woman had escaped across the frozen Ohio River to the town of Ripley, Ohio with her child in her arms and stayed at his house before she had gone further towards the north.[19]
+Eva "Evangeline" St. Clare is St. Clare and Marie's angelic daughter. She enters the story when Tom saves her from drowning when he was going to be sold. Eva asks her father to buy Tom. She says, "I want to make him happy".[16] Through her, Tom becomes St. Clare's leading coachman and Eva's "especial attendant (helper)...Tom had...orders to let everything else go, and attend to Miss Eva whenever she wanted him,—orders which our readers may fancy (imagine) were far from disagreeable to him."[16] She is very beautiful: "Her form was the perfection of childish beauty...Her face was remarkable less for its perfect beauty of features than for a singular (strange) and dreamy earnestness (seriousness) of expression...all marked her out (made her different) from the other children, and made every one turn and look after her".[16]
+To Tom, she "...seemed something almost divine; and whenever her golden head and deep blue eyes peered (looked) out upon him...he half believed that he saw one of the angels stepped out of his New Testament."[16] He says that "She's got the Lord's mark in her forehead."[16] Eva is an almost perfect, Christ-like child. She is very sad about slavery. She does not see the difference between blacks and whites. She talks very much about love and forgiveness. Even Topsy is touched by her love. Eva becomes one of the most important people in Tom's life.
+"The higher circle in the family...agreed that she was no lady...they were surprised that she should be any relation of the St. Clares...She sewed and stitched away, from daylight till dark, with the energy of one who is pressed on by some immediate urgency; and then, when the light faded (went away)...out came the ever-ready knitting-work, and there she was again, going on as briskly (busily) as ever. It really was a labor to see her."[16]
+Ophelia St. Clare is perhaps the most complicated female character in the novel. St. Clare calls her, "...desperately ... good; it tires me to death to think of it." She does not like slavery. However, she does not like to be touched or come close to any black person as a human being. When she first saw Eva "...shaking hands and kissing" with the blacks, she declared that it had "...fairly turned her stomach (made her feel sick)."[16] She adds, "I want to be kind to everybody, and I wouldn't have anything hurt; but as to kissing...How can she?"[16]
+She has a "clear, strong, active mind",[16] and is very practical. However, she has a warm heart, which she shows in her love for St. Clare and Eva. Ophelia hates slavery, but has a deep prejudice against blacks. St. Clare, as a challenge to her, buys Topsy. He tells her to try educating her. At first she tries to teach and help Topsy simply because of duty. However, Stowe says that duty is not enough: there must be love. Eva's death changes Ophelia. When Topsy cries, "She said she loved me...there an't (is not) nobody left now...!"[16] Ophelia gently says, as "honest tears" fell down her face, "Topsy, you poor child...I can love you, though I am not like that dear little child. I hope I've learnt something of the love of Christ from her. I can love you...and I'll try to help you to grow up a good Christian girl."[16] Stowe thought that there were many people like Miss Ophelia St. Clare, who did not like slavery but could not think of blacks as people. She wanted to write about such problems through Miss Ophelia.
+Uncle Tom's Cabin's most important theme is the evil of slavery.[21] Every part in Uncle Tom's Cabin develops the characters and the story. But most importantly, it always tries to show the reader that slavery is evil, un-Christian, and should not be allowed.[22] One way Stowe showed the evil of slavery was how it forced families from each other.[23]
+Stowe thought mothers were the "model for all of American life".[24] She also believed that only women could save[25] the United States from slavery. Because of this, another very important theme of Uncle Tom's Cabin is the moral power and sanctity of women. White women like Mrs. Bird, St. Clare’s mother, Legree’s mother, and Mrs. Shelby try to make their husbands help their slaves. Eva, who is the "ideal Christian",[26] says that blacks and whites are the same. Black women like Eliza are brave and pious. She escapes from slavery to save her son, and by the end of the novel, has made her whole family come together again. Some critics said that Stowe's female characters are often unrealistic.[27] However, Stowe's novel made many people remember "the importance of women's influence" and helped the women's rights movement later.[28]
+Stowe's puritanical religious beliefs are also one of the biggest themes in the novel. She explores what Christianity is like. She believed that the most important thing in Christianity was love for everyone. She also believed that Christian theology shows that slavery is wrong.[29] This theme can be seen when Tom urges St. Clare to "look away to Jesus" after St. Clare's daughter Eva dies. After Tom dies, George Shelby says, "What a thing it is to be a Christian."[30] Because Christian themes are so important, and because Stowe often directly spoke in the novel about religion and faith, the novel is written in the "form of a sermon."[31]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin is written in a sentimental[32] and melodramatic style. This style was often used in the 19th century sentimental novel and domestic fiction (also called women's fiction). These genres were the most popular novels of Stowe's time. It usually had female characters and a style that made readers feel sympathy and emotion for them.[33] Stowe's novel is different from other sentimental novels because she writes about a large theme like slavery. It is also different because she has a man (Uncle Tom) as the main character. However, she still tried to make her readers have strong feelings when they read Uncle Tom's Cabin, like making them cry when Eva died.[34] This kind of writing made readers react powerfully. For instance, Georgiana May, a friend of Stowe's, wrote a letter to the writer. In the letter, she said that "I was up (awake) last night long after one o'clock, reading and finishing Uncle Tom's Cabin. I could not leave it any more than I could have left a dying child."[35] Another reader said that she thought about the book all the time and even thought about changing her daughter's name to Eva.[36] The death of Eva affected lots of people. In 1852, 300 baby girls in Boston were named Eva.[36]
+Even though many readers were very moved, literary critics did not like the style in Uncle Tom's Cabin and other sentimental novels. They said these books were written by women and had "women's sloppy (messy) emotions."[37] One literary critic said that if the novel not been about slavery, "it would be just another sentimental novel".[38] Another said the book was a "piece of hack (messy) work."[39] In The Literary History of the United States, George F. Whicher called Uncle Tom's Cabin "Sunday-school fiction".[40]
+However, in 1985 Jane Tompkins wrote differently about Uncle Tom's Cabin in her book In Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction.[37] Tompkins praised Uncle Tom's Cabin's style. She said that sentimental novels showed how women's emotions changed the world in a good way. She also said that the popular domestic novels written in the 19th century, like Uncle Tom's Cabin, were intelligently written. She also said that Uncle Tom's Cabin shows a "critique of American society far more devastating (powerful) than any ... by better-known critics such as Hawthorne and Melville."[40]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin has had a very great influence. There are not many novels in history that changed society so powerfully.[41] When it was published, Uncle Tom's Cabin, people who defended slavery were very angry and protested against it. Some people even wrote books against it. Abolitionists praised it very much. As a best-seller, the novel greatly influenced later protest literature.
+As soon as it was published, Uncle Tom's Cabin made people in the American South very angry.[42] The novel was also greatly criticized by people who supported slavery.
+A famous novelist from the South, William Gilmore Simms, said that the book was not true.[43] Others called the novel criminal and said it was full of lies.[44] A person who sold books in Mobile, Alabama had to leave town for selling the novel.[42] Stowe received threatening letters. She even received a package with a slave's cut ear once.[42] Many Southern writers, like Simms, soon began writing their own books about slavery.[45]
+Some critics said that Stowe had never actually went to a Southern plantation and she did not know much about Southern life. They said that because of this, she made wrong descriptions about the South. However, Stowe always said she made the characters of her book by stories she was told by slaves that ran away to Cincinnati, Ohio, where she lived. It is reported: "She observed firsthand (herself) several incidents (happenings) which ... [inspired] her to write [the] famous anti-slavery novel. Scenes she observed (saw) on the Ohio River, including seeing a husband and wife being sold apart, as well as newspaper and magazine accounts and interviews, contributed material to the ... plot."[46]
+In 1853, Stowe published A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin. This was to show the people who had criticized the novel's description of slavery that it was true. In the book, Stowe writes about the important characters in Uncle Tom's Cabin and about people in real life who were like them. Through this book, she writes a more "aggressive attack on slavery in the South than the novel itself had".[14] Like the novel, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin was also a best-seller. However, many of the works in A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin was read by Stowe after she published her novel.[14]
+Even though there were such criticisms, the novel was still very popular. Stowe's son says that when Abraham Lincoln met her in 1862 Lincoln said, "So this is the little lady who started this great war."[1] Historians are not sure if Lincoln really said this or not. In a letter that Stowe wrote to her husband a few hours after meeting with Lincoln, she does not say anything about this sentence.[47] After this, many writers have said that this novel helped make the North angry at slavery and at the Fugitive Slave Law.[47] It greatly helped the abolitionist movement.[7] Union general and politician James Baird Weaver said that the book made him help in the abolitionist movement.[48]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin also interested many people in England. The first London edition came out in May 1852.[42] It sold 200,000 copies.[42] Some of this interest was because at that time the British people did not like the United States. A writer said, "The evil passions which 'Uncle Tom' gratified in England were not hatred or vengeance [of slavery], but national jealousy and national vanity. We have long been smarting (hurting) under the conceit of America – we are tired of hearing her boast that she is the freest and the most enlightened country that the world has ever seen. Our clergy hate her voluntary system – our Tories hate her democrats – our Whigs hate her ... All parties hailed Mrs. Stowe as a revolter from the enemy."[49] Charles Francis Adams, the American minister to Britain during the war, said later that, "Uncle Tom's Cabin; or Life among the Lowly, published in 1852, influenced the world more quickly, powerfully, and dramatically than any other book ever printed."[50]
+Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published in Russia at the end of 1857 and was soon recognized as a classic of world literature.[51] Many people saw a very strong link between the world of Uncle Tom’s Cabin and the serfdom that still existed in Russia in 1850s.[51] In his letter to an abolitionist Maria Weston Chapman, Nikolay Turgenev wrote, “Many of the scenes described in the book seem like an exact depiction of equally frightful scenes in Russia.”[51] Uncle Tom's Cabin served as an educational tool for Russian and Russo-Soviet elite in the post emancipation period, and it also became part of Soviet children literature.[51]
+The book has been translated into almost every language. For example, it was translated into Chinese. Its translator Lin Shu made this the first Chinese translation of an American novel. It was also translated into Amharic. Its 1930 translation was made to help Ethiopia end the suffering of blacks in that nation.[52] The book was read by so many people that Sigmund Freud believed that some of his patients had been influenced by reading about the whipping of slaves in Uncle Tom's Cabin.[53]
+Uncle Tom's Cabin was the first widely read political novel in the United States.[54] It greatly influenced American literature and protest literature. Some later books that were greatly influenced by Uncle Tom's Cabin are The Jungle by Upton Sinclair and Silent Spring by Rachel Carson.[55]
+However, even though Uncle Tom's Cabin was very important, many people thought the book was a mix of "children's fable and propaganda".[56] Many critics called the book "merely (only) a sentimental novel".[38] George Whicher wrote in his Literary History of the United States that "Nothing attributable to Mrs. Stowe or her handiwork can account for the novel's enormous (great) vogue (popularity); its author's resources ... of Sunday-school fiction were not remarkable ... melodrama, humor, and pathos … compounded (made up) her book."[40]
+Other critics, though, have praised the novel. Edmund Wilson said that "To expose oneself in maturity (when one has grown up) to Uncle Tom's Cabin may … prove a startling (surprising) experience."[56] Jane Tompkins said that the novel is one of the classics of American literature. She suggested that literary critics think badly of the book because it was simply too popular when it came out.[40]
+Through the years, people have wondered what Stowe was trying to say with the novel. Some of her themes can be seen easily, like the evil of slavery. However, some themes are harder to see. For example, Stowe was a Christian and active abolitionist, and put lots of her religious beliefs in her book.[57] Some have said that Stowe wrote in her novel what she thought was a solution to the problem that worried many people who did not like slavery. This problem was: was doing things that were not allowed justified if they did it to fight evil? Was it right to use violence to stop the violence of slavery? Was breaking laws that helped slavery right? Which of Stowe's characters should be followed: the patient Uncle Tom or the defiant George Harris?[58] Stowe thought that God's will would be followed if each (every) person sincerely (truly) examined his principles and acted on (followed) them.[58]
+People have also thought Uncle Tom's Cabin expressed the ideas of the Free Will Movement.[59] In this idea, the character of George Harris symbolizes the free labor. The complex character of Ophelia shows the Northerners who allowed slavery, even though they did not like it. Dinah is very different from Ophelia. She acts by passion. In the book, Ophelia changes. Like Ophelia, the Republican Party (three years later) declared that the North must change itself. It said that the North must stop slavery actively.[59]
+Feminist theory can also be seen in Stowe's book. The novel can be seen as criticizing slavery's patriarchal nature.[60] For Stowe, families were related by blood, not by family-like relations between masters and slaves. Stowe also saw the nation as a bigger "family". So, the feelings of nationality came from sharing the same race. Because of this, she supported the idea that freed slaves should live together in a colony.
+The book has also been seen as trying to show that masculinity was important in stopping slavery.[61] Abolitionists began to change the way they thought of violent men. They wanted men to help stop slavery without hurting their self-image or their position in society. Because of this, some abolitionists followed some of the principles of women's suffrage, peace, and Christianity. They praised men for helping, working together, and having mercy. Other abolitionists were more traditional: they wanted men to act more forcefully. All the men in Stowe's book show either patient men or traditional men.[61]
+Recently, some people have begun criticizing the book for what they thought were racist descriptions of the book's black characters. They criticized the way Stowe wrote about the characters' looks, speech, behavior, and the passive nature of Uncle Tom.[62] The book's use of common stereotypes about African Americans[8] is important because Uncle Tom's Cabin was the best-selling novel in the world in the 19th century.[6] Because of this, the book (together with images in the book[63] and related stage productions) helped make a great number of people accept such stereotypes.[62]
+Among the African-American stereotypes in Uncle Tom's Cabin are:[10]
+These stereotypes made many people think much more lightly of the historical importance of Uncle Tom's Cabin as a "vital antislavery tool."[10] This change in the way people looked at Uncle Tom's Cabin began in an essay by James Baldwin. This essay was titled "Everybody’s Protest Novel." In the essay, Baldwin called Uncle Tom’s Cabin a "very bad novel".[64] He said it was not well-written.[64]
+In the 1960s and '70s, the Black Power and Black Arts Movements strongly criticized the book. They said that the character of Uncle Tom was a part of "race betrayal". They said that Tom made slaves look worse than slave owners.[64] Criticisms of the other stereotypes in the book also increased during this time.
+However, people such as Henry Louis Gates Jr. have begun studying Uncle Tom's Cabin again. He says that the book is a "central document in American race relations and a significant (important) moral and political exploration of the character of those relations."[64]

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+Lake Baikal is a huge lake in Siberia, Russia. It is the biggest fresh water reservoir in the world. The lake is near Irkutsk.
+Baikal is about 636 kilometres (395 mi) long. It is 20 to 80 kilometres (12 to 50 mi) wide. At it’s deepest point, it is 1,700 meters (5,600 ft) deep. With this depth it is the deepest lake on Earth.[3][4] The lake is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It holds about 20% of the world's unfrozen surface fresh water,[5]
+The lake has fish that exist only here and nowhere else. It is home to more than 1,700 species of plants and animals, two-thirds of which can be found nowhere else in the world.[6]
+Lake Baikal fills an ancient rift valley, just as Lake Tanganyika does in East Africa.
+At the Baikal Rift Zone, the Earth's crust pulls apart.[7] It is the deepest lake in the world at 1,642 m (5,387 ft). The bottom of the lake is 1,186.5 m (3,893 ft) below sea level, but below this lies some 7 km (4.3 mi) of sediment. This means the rift floor is 8–11 km (5.0–6.8 mi) below the surface: the deepest continental rift on Earth.[7]
+In geological terms, the rift is young and active – it widens about two cm per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; there are hot springs in the area and notable earthquakes every few years.
+Baikal's age is 25–30 million years: it is one of the oldest lakes. It is unique among large, high-latitude lakes, because its sediments have not been scoured by overriding continental ice sheets. U.S. and Russian studies of core sediment in the 1990s gave a detailed record of climatic variation over the past 250,000 years. Longer and deeper sediment cores are expected soon. Lake Baikal is the only confined freshwater lake in which evidence of gas hydrates exists.[8][9][10]
+The lake is completely surrounded by mountains. The Baikal Mountains on the north shore and the taiga are protected as a national park. It has 27 islands; the largest, Olkhon, is 72 km (45 mi) long and is the third-largest lake-bound island in the world. The lake is fed by as many as 330 inflowing rivers.[5] It is drained through a single outlet, the Angara River.
+Despite its great depth, the lake's waters are well-mixed and well-oxygenated throughout the water column, compared to the stratification that occurs in such bodies of water as Lake Tanganyika and the Black Sea.
+Lake Baikal has over 1000 species of plants[11] and 1550 species and varieties of animals. Over 60% of animals are endemic; that means of 52 species of fish 27 are endemic.
+The omul fish (Coregonus autumnalis migratorius) is local to Lake Baikal. It is fished, smoked, and sold on all markets around the lake. For many travellers on the Trans-Siberian railway, purchasing smoked omul is one of the highlights of the long journey.
+Baikal also hosts a species of seals, Baikal seal or nerpa.
+Bears and deer can be watched and hunted by Baikal coasts.
+In 1986, Baikalskyi[12] and Barguzinskyi[13] became Biosphere Reserves. The ecosystems are part of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
+Media related to Lake Baikal at Wikimedia Commons

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+Lake Baikal is a huge lake in Siberia, Russia. It is the biggest fresh water reservoir in the world. The lake is near Irkutsk.
+Baikal is about 636 kilometres (395 mi) long. It is 20 to 80 kilometres (12 to 50 mi) wide. At it’s deepest point, it is 1,700 meters (5,600 ft) deep. With this depth it is the deepest lake on Earth.[3][4] The lake is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It holds about 20% of the world's unfrozen surface fresh water,[5]
+The lake has fish that exist only here and nowhere else. It is home to more than 1,700 species of plants and animals, two-thirds of which can be found nowhere else in the world.[6]
+Lake Baikal fills an ancient rift valley, just as Lake Tanganyika does in East Africa.
+At the Baikal Rift Zone, the Earth's crust pulls apart.[7] It is the deepest lake in the world at 1,642 m (5,387 ft). The bottom of the lake is 1,186.5 m (3,893 ft) below sea level, but below this lies some 7 km (4.3 mi) of sediment. This means the rift floor is 8–11 km (5.0–6.8 mi) below the surface: the deepest continental rift on Earth.[7]
+In geological terms, the rift is young and active – it widens about two cm per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; there are hot springs in the area and notable earthquakes every few years.
+Baikal's age is 25–30 million years: it is one of the oldest lakes. It is unique among large, high-latitude lakes, because its sediments have not been scoured by overriding continental ice sheets. U.S. and Russian studies of core sediment in the 1990s gave a detailed record of climatic variation over the past 250,000 years. Longer and deeper sediment cores are expected soon. Lake Baikal is the only confined freshwater lake in which evidence of gas hydrates exists.[8][9][10]
+The lake is completely surrounded by mountains. The Baikal Mountains on the north shore and the taiga are protected as a national park. It has 27 islands; the largest, Olkhon, is 72 km (45 mi) long and is the third-largest lake-bound island in the world. The lake is fed by as many as 330 inflowing rivers.[5] It is drained through a single outlet, the Angara River.
+Despite its great depth, the lake's waters are well-mixed and well-oxygenated throughout the water column, compared to the stratification that occurs in such bodies of water as Lake Tanganyika and the Black Sea.
+Lake Baikal has over 1000 species of plants[11] and 1550 species and varieties of animals. Over 60% of animals are endemic; that means of 52 species of fish 27 are endemic.
+The omul fish (Coregonus autumnalis migratorius) is local to Lake Baikal. It is fished, smoked, and sold on all markets around the lake. For many travellers on the Trans-Siberian railway, purchasing smoked omul is one of the highlights of the long journey.
+Baikal also hosts a species of seals, Baikal seal or nerpa.
+Bears and deer can be watched and hunted by Baikal coasts.
+In 1986, Baikalskyi[12] and Barguzinskyi[13] became Biosphere Reserves. The ecosystems are part of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
+Media related to Lake Baikal at Wikimedia Commons

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+Lake Constace or Lake of Constance (German: Bodensee) is a large Lake on the river Rhine. It is on the border between Germany and Switzerland and Austria. It is the third largest lake in Central Europe after Lake Balaton and Lake Geneva. It is made of two smaller lakes (called Obersee and Untersee (Upper and lower lake) respectively). These are joined by a small part of river in Constance.
+The lake covers about 564 km2 (218 sq mi) of total area.
+There are three big islands in the lake. The islands Lindau and Mainau are in the Obersee. Reichenau is in the Untersee. The Obersee is about 63 km (39 mi) long, from Bregenz to Bodman-Ludwigshafen. It is about 14 km (9 mi) wide at its widest point between Romanshorn and Friedrichshafen. The deepest point is 254 m (833 ft) deep, between Fischbach and Uttwil (just off Constance).
+The lake forms the border between Austria, Germany and Switzerland. On much of its length, this border has not been defined. Switzerland thinks the border runs through the middle of the lake. Austria thinks the lake is a condominium of all the countries. A condominium is a space that is governed by all countries taking part in it. Germany has no clear view.
+Other legal issues, like navigation and fishing are governed by separate treaties. About 62% of the lake's shoreline belongs to Germany, about 33% to Switzerland, and the remaining 11% to Austria.
+In 1963, the whole lake froze. This has not happened since then.

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+Digestion is the process in which breakdown of food from larger to smaller food .
+Digestion occurs in three phases. Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can be got at by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use. Finally, the nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream. Once in the blood stream the nutrients are taken to the liver, which is a kind of chemical factory for the body.
+After we swallow food, it travels down a muscular tube to the stomach. There, it is mashed into a mixture like soup. The mixture passes into the small intestine, where tiny bits of food pass into the bloodstream. The food that is still left goes into the large intestine. Finally, waste products leave the body. Digestion usually takes about 18 hours. Food stays in the stomach for about three hours.[1] If uncoiled, the small intestine would be about six meters (20 feet) long.[2] Many digestive tracts are about as long as a bus.[2]
+Food slowly enters the small intestine from the stomach. This is where nutrients are taken into the blood. It then enters the large intestine. Water is taken away from it. The food that is left is called feces. The feces are stored in the rectum until the waste can leave the body through the anus.

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+Swan Lake is a romantic ballet in four acts. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote the music. In 1871 he wrote a little ballet about swans for his nieces and nephews. He used some of the music from this ballet for Swan Lake.  The story of the ballet is based on a German fairy tale. This tale was probably tweaked by Tchaikovsky and his friends during the ballet's early discussion stages.
+Swan Lake is about a prince named Siegfried. He falls in love with the Swan princess, Odette. She is a swan by day, but a young woman at night. She is under a magic spell that can only be broken by a man who will make a promise to love her for all time. Siegfried makes the promise. He is tricked though by the magician who cast the spell. The ballet ends with the deaths of Siegfried and Odette.
+The ballet was first performed on 4 March 1877 at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, Russia. Critics looked upon it as a failure for many reasons. In 1895 some changes were made to the ballet. It was then performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia. This time the critics thought Swan Lake a great success. Most performances today are based on this 1895 version.[3]
+Act 1: 1. Scène—The curtain rises on Prince Siegfried's birthday party. He is 21. On the next evening a grand ball will be held. He is to select a bride from six visiting princesses. Wolfgang, his tutor, introduces a band of peasants to the merrymakers. 2. Valse. 3. Scène. The Queen Mother enters. She thinks Siegfried is frivolous. The Queen Mother leaves. Benno encourages the Prince to continue the fun. 4. Pas de trois.—Dances for the peasants. 5. Pas de deux.—Dances for the merrymakers. 6. Pas d'action.—Wolfgang is drunk and collapses. 7. Sujet.—The sun sets. Siegfried suggests a final dance. 8. Danse des coupes.—The merrymakers dance a polonaise holding their goblets. 9. Finale.—A flock of swans flies overhead. Benno suggests a hunt. The Prince agrees. They set off.
+Act 2: 10. Scène.—A lake shimmering in the moonlight is seen. Siegfried and his friends watch a flock of swans glide across the lake's surface. 11. Scène.—The hunters take aim. The birds are transformed into maidens. Their leader asks Siegfried why he troubles  them. She says that she is the Princess Odette. She and her companions have all been changed into swans by her wicked stepmother. They are watched by her stepmother's companion Von Rothbart in the guise of an owl. Only a marriage vow can break the spell that keeps her a swan by day and a maiden by night. 12. Scène.—Siegfried says he loves Odette. She promises to attend tomorrow's ball. She warns him that her stepmother is very dangerous. 13. Danse des cygnes. 14 Scène.— Dawn breaks. Odette and her friends return to the lake as swans.
+Act 3: Guests arrive in Siegfried's castle for the selection of the Prince's  bride. 16. Danse du corps de ballet and des nains.—All dance, including a group of dwarves. 17. Scène.—La sortie des invités et la Valse. The six princesses arrive. 18. Scène. Siegfried does not choose a bride from among the six princesses. Von Rothbart enters with his daughter Odile. She is disguised as Odette. 19. Pas de six. The princesses dance. 20. Danse hongroise. 21. Danse espagnole. 22. Danse napolitaine. 23. Danse Mazurka. 24. Scène.—Siegfried chooses Odile as his bride, believing she is Odette. Von Rothbart flees the hall as an owl. Siegfried rushes into the night to find Odette.
+Act 4: 25. Entr'acte. 26. Scène.—Odette's friends await her return to the lake. 27. Danse des petits cygnes. 28. Scène. Odette collapses into her companions' arms. She tells them what has happened. A storm rises. Siegfried reaches Odette. 29. Scène finale.—He begs her to forgive him. She dies of grief in his arms. He throws her crown upon the waters. The waves overwhelm him. The swans are seen gliding away across the lake.
+In 1871 Tchaikovsky was passing the summer in the Ukraine with his sister Alexandra Davydova. It was in her home at Kamenka that he wrote a short ballet about swans for her children to perform. The story of the ballet was based on "The Lake of Swans", a German fairy tale.[4] Tchaikovsky used a musical theme from this children's ballet in the mature Swan Lake. Little else is known of this ballet for children.[5]
+In 1875 Vladimir Begitchev asked Tchaikovsky to write a ballet about swans. Begitchev was the official in charge of the repertory of the Imperial Theatres. Tchaikovsky accepted his invitation to write the ballet. He told Rimsky-Korsakov, "I accepted the work, partly because I want the money, but also because I have long had the wish to try my hand at this kind of music." In August he had completed sketches for two acts. He finished the ballet on 10 April 1876.[6]
+It is uncertain who wrote the libretto of the ballet. Both Begitchev and the dancer Vasily Geltzer were credited in the programme.[7] They likely based it upon discussions with the artists who met at Begitchev's salon. They also used tales from Johann Musäus's Volksmärchen der Deutschen (1782–86), a collection of German fairy and folk tales.[8]
+Tchaikovsky had no experience writing ballet music for the professional theatre when he accepted Begitchev's invitation. In 1875  he began work on Swan Lake. It was his first ballet. He studied the ballet music of other writers. He liked the music and ballets of Leo Delibes. Tchaikovsky thought Delibes's music was pretty and tuneful. Tchaikovsky however would base Swan Lake on a symphonic scale. Writing the music for Swan Lake was a way for Tchaikovsky to avoid the reality of being a homosexual in czarist Russia. Russia was a repressive state. Homosexuals were sent to prison, exiled, or banished. Symphonies did not ease the stress in the way ballet music did; he had to put too much of his inner life into symphonies. He was hired to write Swan Lake in May 1875. He completed the music in April 1876.[9] The official responsible for the music at the Bolshoi Theatre thought Tchaikovsky's music impossible to understand.[2] A leitmotif in Tchaikovsky's little ballet music for his nieces and nephews came to be called the "Song of the Swans". Tchaikovsky used this leitmotif in Swan Lake.[9][10]
+John Warrack points out that Tchaikovsky put the drama in the story into music: "By making B the key of the tragedy, he initiates a musical "plot" with the dark forces of Rothbart tending to drag the tonality down into flatter keys. The main action, on the other hand, lies on the key area of A." Tchaikovsky balanced all the musical components of the work. "The divertissements are in his lightest, most appealing musical manner", Warrack writes, "The dances that further the plot have rather greater musical substance, while the scenes of narrative and action are in what was found his "symphonic" manner."[11] Critics said Tchaikovsky's music was "too noisy, too 'Wagnerian' and too symphonic".[12]
+Rehearsals for Swan Lake began before Tchaikovsky finished the score, and took place over 11 months. Everyone involved in the production had never heard such a complex score for a ballet. They described the music as "undanceable". Even the conductor threw his hands up in despair over the music.[13]
+The choreographer Julius Reisinger was incompetent, and the sets lacked a cohesiveness because they were designed by three different men.[13] In addition, the Bolshoi Theatre was suffering at the time from problems including the lack of a ballet master who could develop a production based on the score.[14] The role of Odette was not given to a first rate dancer but instead to a second rate talent. The reason may have been political.[15]
+Swan Lake was first performed on 4 March 1877 at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.[16] Julius Reisinger designed the dances. Pauline Karpakova danced Odette.[17] She put some numbers she liked from other ballets into Swan Lake.[18] The ballet was a failure.[2] In 1883 the Bolshoi dropped the ballet from its repertory. At that time, the sets were falling apart. It was not until 1901 that Alexander Gorsky staged a new production of Swan Lake for the Bolshoi.[19]
+Swan Lake (1877)
+The Sleeping Beauty (1890)
+The Nutcracker (1892)
+The first performance of Swan Lake was a disaster. Herman Laroche wrote, "I must say that I had never seen a poorer presentation on the Bolshoi stage. The costumes, decor, and machines did not hide in the least the emptiness of the dances. Not a single balletomane got out of it even five minutes of pleasure." He praised the music. He wrote that Tchaikovsky was "in excellent humour ... he was fully at the height of his genius." Tchaikovsky's brother Modest wrote, "The poverty of the production, meaning the décor and costumes, the absence of outstanding performers, the Ballet Master's weakness of imagination, and, finally, the orchestra ... all of this together permitted [Tchaikovsky] with good reason to cast the blame for the failure on others." The ballet was a moderate success with theatre-goers however. It was presented 33 times between its première at the Bolshoi in 1877 and its final performance in 1883.[20]
+Tchaikovsky died on 6 November 1893. People started to take more interest in his music after his death. Lev Ivanov was the assistant Ballet Master at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg. He designed new dances for Act 2. This act was presented on 1 March 1894 in a concert at the Mariinsky in memory of Tchaikovsky. Pierina Legnani danced Odette. The revised act was a great success. It was presented again with even greater success.  Marius Petipa was the Ballet Master at the Mariinsky. He was impressed with the success of these two presentations. He made the decision to stage the complete ballet at the Mariinsky.[21] He designed the dances for Acts 1 and 3 while Ivanov designed the dances for Acts 2 and 4.[22]
+Riccardo Drigo was the conductor of the Mariinsky orchestra. He dropped some numbers from the ballet. He orchestrated three piano numbers from Tchaikovsky's Op. 72. He then put them in the ballet. These three numbers were "L'Espiègle", "Valse Bluette", and "Un poco di Chopin". He then put a number into Act 3 which he may have written himself.[22]
+Tchaikovsky's brother Modest changed the ballet's story a little for the revision. He gave the ballet a happy ending.[23]  The new Swan Lake was presented on 27 January 1895 at the Mariinsky. Pierina Legnani danced both Odette and Odile. The ballet was a great success.[22][24] This version of the ballet is the one generally seen today.[22]
+Swan Lake is famous for the 32 fouettés en tournant in Act 3. These fouettés are danced at the end of the "Black Swan" pas de deux by the ballerina playing Odile.  The pas was an afterthought of Tchaikovsky's. It was not included in the original production. It consists of the opening adagio followed by a variation for the male dancer. This is followed by a variation for the ballerina. The whole concludes with a brisk movement for both dancers that includes the fouettés. Pierina Legnani first danced the fouettés in the Mariinsky production of 1895.  Ballet-goers were uncertain about the 32 fouettés. Some thought they were just a stunt. Others found them exciting. These ballet-goers went to every performance to count the number of turns.[24]
+Swan Lake became known in Europe and the United States not long after the revised version was presented at the Mariinsky Theatre in 1895. It was first presented in Europe at Prague in June 1907. It was first presented in the United States at the Metropolitan Opera House in December 1911.[25] Diaghilev's Ballets Russes presented a two-act Swan Lake in London in 1911.  The Ballets Russes presented a one-act version in London in 1925. The complete Swan Lake was first presented in England by the Sadler's Wells Ballet in November 1934.[25] Ballerinas portraying Odette include Mathilde Kchessinska, Anna Pavlova, and Margot Fonteyn. Pavel Gerdt was the Prince Siegfried of the 1895 St. Petersburg production. Nijinsky and Rudolph Nureyev have also performed Prince Siegfried.
+The score used in this comparison is Tchaikovsky's score.[26] It may be different from Riccardo Drigo's score which is usually performed today.  The titles for each number are taken from the original published score. Some of the numbers are titled simply as musical indications, those that are not are translated from their original French titles.
+Moderato assai — Allegro non troppo — Tempo I
+Pas de deux for Mme. Anna Sobeshchanskaya fashioned from the original music by Léon Minkus (AKA the Tchaikovsky Pas de Deux)

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+Sparta is a city in Greece. It is the capital of the Laconia prefecture. It is in the south of Peloponnese peninsula. During antiquity, it was extremely powerful. Today, it is a small city. 16,726 people lived there according to the 2001 census. The word Spartan is used to describe somebody who lives a simple life or somebody who suffered a lot without crying or showing that they suffered.[1] It can also mean a life of simplicity, without anything fancy or costly.[2]
+Sparta is in the mountainous region of Laconia.[3]:225 This is in the south-east of the Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Evrotas River.[3]:225 The river flows through a valley with mountains on each side. To the west is the Taygetus Range (highest point 2407 m) and to the east is the Parnon Range (highest point 1935 m).  Because the ancient Spartans had such good natural defenses, they did not need city walls.[3]:225
+In Ancient Greece Sparta was a city-state with a very strong army and a government that was well led.  Sparta was known as one of the strongest city-states in Greece.  Only the strongest survived in Sparta, male or female.  The Spartans killed weak children.  If they believed that a baby was too weak, they left it out to die of exposure beside a slope on Mount Taygetus.[3]:240  This place was called the Apothetae, which meant 'the place of rejection'.[3]:240
+Sparta had a government with checks and balances.  The executive branch was led by two kings.  The legislative branch was led by the citizens. and the judicial branch was controlled by the elders.  There was also a committee of five men who were in charge of the education process that young boys and girls went through.  Boys and girls were taken from their parents at the age of 7.  Boys went to live in barracks with other boys their age.  Girls went to school to learn gymnastics, wrestling, and other activities.
+Laconophilia is love or liking of Sparta and of the Spartan culture. Sparta was often admired when it ruled. Long ago, "Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered (thought) the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice".[4]  Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as a good state, strong, brave, and free.
+Sparta was also seen as a model of social purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.[5]
+Adolf Hitler thought Sparta was very good. He said in 1928 that Germany should be like them by making smaller "the number allowed to live". The Spartans had created "the first racialist state".[6]
+Young Spartans boys were taken from their homes at the age of seven to begin a military life.  The Spartans became soldiers at age 20, citizens at age 30, and retired at age 60. Men trained hard to become warriors of the Spartan army.  Women were encouraged to keep healthy so that they could produce healthy, fit babies to grow up to be strong.  Spartans saw little moral value in the concept of childbirth; unless the child was fit to become a Spartan, he would die.
+Spartan men married when they were 30 years old.[7] Plutarch writes of the strange custom of the Spartans for their wedding night:
+The custom was to capture women for marriage...The...'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl.  She first shaved her head...then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark.  The bridegroom...first had dinner...then would slip in...lift her and carry her to the bed.[8]
+The husband kept on visiting his wife in secret for some time after the marriage.  Only Spartans did these customs. Some people think that the cutting off of the wife's hair was a ceremony that showed she was going into a new life.[9]
+Sparta conquered the people of Messenia and Lakonia (the surrounding countryside) at around 680–560 BC. These people became known as the helots. They were not slaves: they were serfs. They had a lower position in society, like serfs in mediaeval Europe.[7]
+Helots spent their lives farming their Spartan masters kleros (land granted to Spartan citizens). The Spartan poet Tyrtaios says helots were allowed to marry and keep half the fruits of their labor.[10] At most times, the helots outnumbered their Spartan masters 10 to 1. They rebelled often, but they were never able to overthrow their oppressors.
+Once a Spartan reached the age of 20, he or she would then become a homoios.  A homoios was a member of the ruling class (a citizen).  Both men and women were citizens.  Sparta was an unusual society for women's rights, because women were considered to be equal.
+The Spartan army used the phalanx formation.  This contributed to the many battles Sparta won.  Their most famous loss is the Battle of Thermopylae where 300 Spartans held off a large Persian army for a week.

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+Lake Erie is one of the Great Lakes in North America. It is the second to the last in the Great Lake system before water flows into the St. Lawrence River. Like Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario, Lake Erie is part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. In 1813 a naval battle was fought on the lake.
+Most of the water that flows into Lake Erie flows through a small river, the Detroit River, that moves water down from Lake St. Clair past Detroit, Michigan. Some more water flows into Lake Erie from other rivers, including the Maumee and the Cuyahoga. At the foot of the Maumee is Toledo, Ohio. At the bend of the Cuyahoga is Cleveland, Ohio.
+Water that flows out of Lake Erie flows past Buffalo, New York, and into the Niagara River.   The river pours over Niagara Falls, one of the largest waterfalls in North America, and then into the lowest of all the Great Lakes, Lake Ontario.

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+Hunting is going out to find and kill animals. Animals and some humans, hunt for food. People have hunted at least since the stone age. They used spears, and now people mostly use guns and bows. Some people kill the animals for fur, to make clothes and shelter, or to decorate their homes, or to sell. Fox hunting is sometimes a sport.
+Many places have rules that limit hunting. Hunting can be good by keeping animal populations from getting too high. Hunting too much, though, can kill off species of animals, making them extinct. Hunting once made the dodo, a bird, become extinct.
+Before they invented herding people got meat by hunting.  Boar hunting and fox hunting became became popular in early modern times.  Another form of hunting is not to use guns, bows and arrows or spears, but by animal trapping.

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+(traditional):
+(recent):
+Bats are mammals in the order Chiroptera. Bats are nocturnal – they are active during the night, dusk, or dawn and they sleep during the day.
+Most use echolocation to catch prey and to find their way about. As nighttime animals, bats avoid direct competition with birds, few of which are nocturnal.
+Bats usually live in caves or trees. In North America and in Europe they sometimes live in people's houses or barns. They are protected animals in the U.K.
+Bats are a successful group. They are the second largest order of mammals: there are more than 1,200 species of bats. This means that 20% of all living mammal species – one in five – are bats.[1][2]
+About 70% of bats are insectivores, which is the basal form of life for this group. The common pipistrelle is a successful example. Most of the rest are fruit-eaters (fruit bats). A few species suck blood, and a few large ones are carnivorous.
+Bats live everywhere except the Arctic, Antarctic and a few oceanic islands. They usually roost in caves, old buildings, or trees.
+Traditionally, bats are divided into two groups. Microbats mostly use echo-location and catch insects, but just a few eat fish or drink blood. Megabats do not echolocate, but instead eat fruit or nectar.
+The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate. The traditional subdivision between Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera reflects the view that these groups of bats have evolved independently of each other for a long time, from a common ancestor which was already capable of flight.
+The hypothesis was that flight only evolved once in mammals. Most molecular biological evidence supports the view that bats form a single or monophyletic group.[2]
+There are few fossilized remains of bats, as bats are terrestrial and light-boned.[3] An Eocene bat, Onychonycteris, was found in the 52-million-year-old Green River Formation in Wyoming, United States, in 2003.[2][4] It could fly, but the well-preserved skeleton showed the cochlea of the inner ear could not achieve the great hearing ability of modern bats. This was evidence that flight in bats developed before echolocation. The team said it lacked ear and throat features not only of echolocating bats today, but also in other known fossil species. Fossil remains of other Eocene bats, Icaronycteris, Archaeonycteris, Palaeochiropteryx, Hassianycteris and Australonycteris all show a similar mixture of basal and derived traits,[5] as expected by mosaic evolution.
+All Eocene bats had long tails. This feature is also found in early flying insects in the Carboniferous, in early pterosaurs and in Archaeopteryx and other dinobirds. The tail helped to keep their flight stable, which means it kept on course, and did not dart about much. To dart about quickly requires special advanced brains and reflexes, which later bats, birds and pterosaurs had, but early ones did not. It requires more brains to control unstable flight than it does for stable flight. That early bats had long tails was predicted by John Maynard Smith before any fossil early bats were found.[6][7]
+Onychonycteris had longer hind legs and shorter forearms, similar to climbing mammals that hang under branches such as sloths and gibbons. This palm-sized bat had broad, short wings, suggesting it could not fly as fast or as far as later bat species. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, Onychonycteris likely alternated between flaps and glides while in the air. Such physical characteristics suggest this bat did not fly as much as modern bats do, rather flying from tree to tree and spending most of its waking day climbing or hanging on the branches of trees.[2]
+An interesting thing about bats is that even though they can see with their eyes, they also use their ears to help them 'see' in the dark. Because of this, they can fly into very dark places where no eye could see. This way of sensing is called echolocation. Echolocation means they use echoes to find where things are.
+Echolocation is like sonar, which submarines and ships use to find things underwater. This is how it works: when a bat flies, it makes lots of sounds. We cannot hear these sounds (they are too high-pitched), but bats can hear them. Biologists have instruments to record them, and then play them back at a lower frequency so humans can hear them.
+When a bat makes its noises, the sound waves move away from the bat. If they hit something, they bounce back to the bat (this bounce is called an echo.) If nothing bounces back, the bat knows there is nothing in front. They use this echolocation to catch their food, like butterflies or dragonflies. When a bat begins its nightly exploration, it usually sends out about 10 calls per second. From the echo they know what is in front. When they get an echo from something good to eat, the calls increase up to 200 calls per second. This increase of sounds is called a feeding buzz. The bat makes a feeding buzz to sense all the quick moves of the insect it is trying to catch.
+Hearing and understanding the echoes that go back to the bat takes special structures in the bat's brain. Because of this, many scientists, doctors, and even the U.S. army study bats carefully. The U.S. army spends hundreds of thousands of dollars every year to study echolocation in bats.
+Bats also have reasonably good eyesight, and can see their prey and where they are flying if it's not too dark. There are lots of stories about bats flying right into people, but this is not true. They can see in the light very well, and in the dark, they can see much better than us. So the expression "blind as a bat" is not very scientific. [8]
+Some bats use echolocation to communicate with each other to find food in groups. Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior studied the bat Molossus molossus, which hunts insects in groups. They found the bats could understand echolocation noises made by other bats and even tell which other bat in their group had made the sound, like people recognizing each other's voices.[9]
+Bats fly with their hands. In fact, the name of the order of bats, Chiropetera, means 'hand-wings' in Greek.[10]
+Bat and bird wings are different. Birds do not have long finger-like bones in their wings like bats. Birds can not move each of their fingers, but bats can. Because of this, bats can change their direction while flying or fly in any pattern they want: this makes it easier to catch their food. A bat flies as if they are "swimming" through the air – pushing both wings down and backward.
+A bird's wing has lots of feathers, while a bat's wing is mostly a stretchy, thin skin called a patagium. This thin membrane of skin stretches between each finger bone, connects to the bat's ankle, and connects to the bat's tail (if it has one). A bat folds its wings next to its body when not flying.
+Bats have one claw (sometimes called a bat thumb) that sticks out of the top of the wing. They use their "thumb" to climb and crawl. Interestingly, bats also use their thumbs to clean their ears.
+Bats' wings have a lot of maneuverability (they can change direction well) – more than a bird, in fact – but they do not have a lot of lift. Because of this, bats usually have to climb up onto a tree or jump up into the air for the boost before they start flapping their wings.
+Even though bats are very small, they live a long time.  Some bats can live forty years.  Scientists think this is because their immune systems are very good at fighting viruses.  Bats fight viruses without having inflammation in their bodies. Doctors think inflammation causes harm to the body, so they think this could be why bats live a long time.[11]
+Because bats rest in large groups with many other bats, they can pass diseases to each other easily.  This means that over thousands of generations, viruses and other germs have placed selective pressure on bats, killing bats with weak immune systems and leaving bats with good immune systems to survive and have young.[11]
+Many viruses that start in bats later change and become dangerous diseases in humans, for example Ebola and SARS-CoV-2.[11][12]
+Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen. They pollinate flowers and sometimes spread their seeds. Many tropical plants completely depend on bats.
+Most microbats (7 out of 10 bat species) are insectivorous, that is, they eat insects. Some microbats eat small vertebrate animals (small mammals or fish), blood, or even other bats. There are only a few species of vampire bats, which eat blood from cattle.
+Most bats rest, sleep and hibernate in an upside-down position. They hang on to branches or rocks with their feet. To do this they have a locking mechanism on the tendons in their feet which stops them from slipping.[13] The advantage of this is that the energy they spend hanging on is greatly reduced. Once the tendons are locked, the muscles in their legs and feet can relax. Even dead bats stay hanging.[14]
+In the United Kingdom all bats are protected by law, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine.
+Austin, Texas is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony (under the Congress Avenue bridge), an estimated 1,500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats, who eat an estimated 10 to 30 tons of insects each night, and attract 100,000 tourists each year.
+In Sarawak, Malaysia bats are protected species, but the large naked bat and greater nectar bat are eaten by the local communities.
+In the West, bats are associated with vampires, who are said to be able to change into bats. Bats are also a symbol of ghosts, death and disease. However bats are said to be lucky in some European countries, such as Poland.
+The bat is used in fiction by both villains like Dracula and heroes like Batman. Kenneth Oppel wrote a series of novels, beginning with Silverwing, which feature bats as good characters.
+A megabat.
+A colony of microbats.
+A microbat.

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+The domestic goat (Capra hircus or Capra aegagrus hircus) is a domesticated mammal. It comes from the wild goat. A male goat is called a buck and a castrated goat is called a whether, a female is called a doe. Young goats are called kids.
+People eat their meat, drink their milk, and use their fur and skin. With goat milk, cheese can be made, along with other dairy products like yogurt. Some farmers use goats to eat plants the farmers do not want, such as weeds. Other times, the goats are used to keep grasses and other plants from getting too tall. This also benefits the goat because they get plenty of food to eat.
+The domestic goat has cloven hooves, a long beard on its chin, a short tail that turns up, and horns that grow up from the head in an arc. The hair is straight with a woolly coat under it during winter. Goats have rectangular irises. They are one of the few species to have these unique eyes.[1]
+The domestic goat is about 70-120 cm (28-48 inches). They weigh from 45-54 kg (100-120 lb.) during adulthood.
+The diet of the domestic goat includes eating grass, leaves, shrubs, root vegetables, and other kinds of plants.[2] Some ranchers use goats to clear brush and unwanted plants from their pastures. Goats living in the desert, where plants are quite hard to find, have been seen climbing trees to get food.
+Domestic goats are smart and active. They enjoy playing with other goats and climbing. They are social animals that live in groups commonly called herds.

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1	+ Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+A lake (from Latin lacus) is a large body of water (larger and deeper than a pond) within a body of land. As a lake is separated from the ocean, it is not a sea. Some lakes are very big, and people in the past sometimes called them seas. Lakes do not flow like rivers, but many have rivers flowing into and out of them.
+Most lakes on the surface of the Earth are fresh water and most are in the Northern Hemisphere. More than 60% of the lakes of the world are in Canada. Finland is known as The Land of the Thousand Lakes (there are 187,888 lakes in Finland, of which 60,000 are large).[1]
+Many lakes are man-made reservoirs built to produce electricity, for recreation, or to use the water for irrigation or industry, or in houses.
+If there are not rivers flowing out of the lake (see Endorheic basin), or they are few and small, the lake loses water only by evaporation or because the water flows through the soil pores. Where the water evaporates rapidly and the soil around the lake has a high salt level, as in very dry places, the water of the lake has a high concentration of salt and the lake is called a salt lake. Examples of salt lakes are the Great Salt Lake, the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and the Dead Sea.

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+Lake Huron is one of North America's five Great Lakes. It is the third one up from the mouth. Like Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior, it is also part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. The Huronian glaciation, billions of years ago, is named for the lake.
+Lake Huron is more than 200 miles (325 km) long and is as much as 750 feet (230 m) deep. Many boats and ships go back and forth on Lake Huron, carrying useful things such as iron ore.
+Lake Huron borders the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of Michigan. There are no large cities on Lake Huron, but there are some small cities such as Sarnia, Ontario and Bay City, Michigan.
+The water that flows out of Lake Huron goes through a river that flows past Detroit, Michigan. The water then flows into Lake Erie on its way to the ocean.
+On 1996 an hurricane-like storm appeared on Lake Huron, while the National Hurricane Center was not sure to call it a hurricane or not. Because the storm formed over Lake Huron and that it did not get a name from the NHC, many people nicknamed the storm, "Hurricane Huron".

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+Cigarettes can be any dried leaf that people roll in thin paper to smoke, but the word is most often used to refer  ones with dried tobacco leaves. The nicotine in the tobacco can be addictive to people. The nicotine from cigarettes makes people want to smoke more, even if they do not like the taste or its other effects. The smoke also has other things that are bad for people's health. Many countries have laws saying who can smoke tobacco cigarettes and where they can smoke them. They can cause lung cancer, heart disease and many other diseases. Most packs of cigarettes have warning labels on them. Until the mid-1950s, cigarettes were advertised as being healthy or at least not harmful. Tobacco companies used images of doctors in their advertisements to falsely convince the public that cigarettes were safe. Cigarettes were advertised as a remedy for throat irritation, the common cold, obesity, indigestion, and even asthma. Today, all of the major tobacco companies admit that cigarettes are harmful to health.
+Smokers have symptoms such as frequent coughing, chest pain, and breathlessness. Doctors say that people should not smoke, as it can harm almost every organ in the body.[1]
+Cigarette smoke contains many harmful substances. Among them are nicotine, tar, carcinogens and carbon monoxide.

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1	+ A reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce. Humans and other animals use their reproductive systems to have sexual intercourse as well as reproduce.
2	+
3	+ The illustrations here show only human reproductive systems. Other mammals have similar reproductive systems.

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+Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes in North America. It has a surface area of 22,300 square miles (58,000 square kilometers). It is 307 by 118 miles (494 by 190 kilometers) wide. Lake Michigan is the 5th largest lake in the world.
+Lake Michigan is surrounded by the U.S. states of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan. It is the only Great Lake that is not partly in Canada.[1] The largest city on the shore of Lake Michigan is Chicago.
+The earliest time that people lived near the lake was 800 CE. The word "Michigan" originally meant the lake itself. It is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning "great water".[2]
+The first person to reach the deepest part of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump. Klump reached the bottom with a submarine as part of a 1985 research expedition.[3]
+Twelve million people live along Lake Michigan's shores. They are mainly in the Chicago and Milwaukee areas.
+Media related to Lake Michigan at Wikimedia Commons

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1	+ Lake Ontario is the smallest of the Great Lakes in North America, but its maximum death (802ft; 244m) is deeper than lake Erie's (210ft) and Lake Huron's (750ft).
2	+
3	+ It forms most of the border between Ontario in Canada and New York in the United States of America. Its inlet is the Niagara River (from Niagara Falls), and its outlet is the Saint Lawrence River. Nearly 9 million Canadians live near Lake Ontario. It is the only Great Lake that does not touch the U.S. state of Michigan, the "Great Lakes State".
4	+
5	+
6	+
7	+
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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+Croatia (/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ (listen) kroh-AY-shə) is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. It was one of the republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It became independent in 1991. It joined the European Union on 1 July 2013.
+A very long time ago, in this territory lived Illyrian people. They were ruled by Rome. In the seventh century AD, northern Slavic people came to live in the Balkan peninsula. Austria-Hungary made Croatia free from the Ottoman Empire and was ruled in today's Croatia until 1918. In 1918 it became a part of Yugoslavia which was taken over in World War II.
+After a small war with Italy a fascist dictatorship formed the Independent State of Croatia in 1941. It was not independent for long. Like all other countries in Central Europe the Nazi Germany had strong influence (see also Jasenovac concentration camp).
+In 1945, Croatia became a part of new, communist Yugoslavia (Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) which collapsed in 1991.  Croatia is now independent for the second time.
+Dalmatia is part of Croatia. Today Croatia is popular for tourists.  The country's reliable economy makes it possible for Croatia to join the European Union on 1 July 2013.[4]
+Croatia is located in Central and Southeast Europe, bordering Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the south-east,  Montenegro to the south-east, the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters, but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum.[5]
+Croatia is the 127th largest country in the world.[6] The highest point is the Dinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet). Thousands of islands are part of Croatia. 48 have people living there year round. The largest islands are Cres and Krk.[6] Major rivers are the Sava, Drava, Kupa and Danube.
+There are many deep caves in Croatia. 49 of which are deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes.
+Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate. Average temperature ranges between −3 °C (27 °F) (in January) and 18 °C (64 °F) (in July). The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar. The warmest are at the Adriatic coast.
+There are several ecoregions in Croatia. The coastline, forests, mountains, and rivers give Croatia diverse flora and fauna. There are more than a thousand endemic species.
+Croatia is home to the only known aquatic cave vertebrate—the olm.
+There are 444 protected areas of Croatia. Those include eight national parks, two strict reserves, and ten nature parks. The oldest national park in Croatia is the Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
+Croatia adopted its constitution in 1990.[7] It declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991.
+The President of the Republic is the head of state. The President is directly elected to a five-year term. The Constitution limits the President to a maximum of two terms. Zoran Milanović became president in 2020.[8]
+The Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government. Since 2016, the prime minister of the government is Andrej Plenković.
+Croatia is one of the richest countries of the Balkan Peninsula and of the former Yugoslavia's countries. But Croatia had also the highest cost prices of the whole Central Europe. The average monthly salary/wages in Croatia standing on 739 euro or nearly $1000 USD.[9]
+The retirement age for men is 65 years and for women 60 years.[10]
+The health care enjoys relative strong protection for the country's inhabitants.
+The education is free and required until the child reaches the age of 15. Many choose to continue their studies in high school until the age of 18.[11]
+After the war that devastated the country, Croatia has rebuilt its infrastructure, revitalizing its image as a Mediterranean country with crystal clear waters, medieval cities that mix western and eastern architecture, respect for the environment and traditions with the arrival of tourism. Dubrovnik has become the most characteristic symbol of this new Croatia that is strongly committed to European tourism. It is developing a type of tourism based on sustainability, in which culture, gastronomy and nature coexist with the visitor, offering them the experience of discovering Croatia as part of it.
+There are many reasons to visit Croatia. Its six UNESCO World Heritage sites : Dubrovnik's Old Town (undoubtedly one of the most beautiful cities in Europe), the Diocletian's Palace in Split , the historic core of Trogir , the Cathedral of St. James of Sibenik , the Plitvice Lakes National Park , or the Episcopal Ensemble of the Euphrasian Basilica in the Historic Center of Porec (Istria) . We could name the wonders of Croatia one by one, but we prefer that you go into our Guide and discover for yourself each town, each city and every corner.
+The nature is another attractive source of tourism in Croatia. Its eight National Parks and ten Natural Parks with their varied fauna and flora show all their splendor, with a coastline that winds from the Istria Peninsula to the south of Dalmatia, leaving beautiful coves, beaches, and cliffs. The islands, such as Hvar or Korcula , in Dalmatia or Rab and Losinj in Kvarner Bay , which are sometimes grouped together in archipelagos as interesting as those of Brijuni or Kornati, they host millions of tourists who seek peace or the possibility of practicing nudism, so associated with Croatia, in its crystalline waters. More than a thousand islands and islets that make up the Adriatic Coast, a paradise for those who love sailing and seek to cross the Adriatic by Sailboat .
+The variety of the tourist offer in Croatia goes beyond the beautiful cities Dubrovnik, Zagreb or Split.[12] It is an ideal country to spend your holidays, practicing adventure sports, hiking , scuba diving , traveling through its islands by sailboat , enjoying its gastronomy or its excellent wines and getting lost with routes in the magical corners that history has left in its streets.
+How do you imagine the nightlife in Croatia? beer is cheap, and the bartenders shake and prepare the latest cocktails while the DJ's mix the latest in the world, from Slavic music to soul, rock, electronic, jazz, international and beyond.
+It's just that, after a day of tanning on the beach, there is nothing better than going out to explore the nightlife of the city, going from Irish pubs to big parties, cocktail bars, rock clubs, and discos, just to start.
+To find the best places, you just have to follow the Croatian migration patterns. When everyone is working hard during the winter, the nightlife is found in big cities like Zagreb, Split, Rijeka, and Zadar.[13]
+When the weather starts to heat up, the inhabitants of the big cities rush to the clubs, bars, and discos of the islands and beaches, especially in Hvar and the Pag Islands.
+So what time does the fun start? In the big cities, the most avant-garde music, art, and fashion are served in multipurpose cafes/bars/discos, which open from noon and remain open until midnight.

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+The Suez Canal (Arabic: قناة السويس, Qanā al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt. It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula. The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 300 m wide (984 ft). It runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea. It was built by a French company. The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.
+The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa. This saves time and fuel. It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.
+In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build. The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony.
+The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world. The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers. The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean. Later, they bought shares in the company.
+The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal. But they did not finish it. The Panama Canal was finished later.
+The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967. A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars. The canal reopened in 1975.
+About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping. Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal. In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.

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+Lake Superior is a lake in Canada and the United States.
+The Ojibwe Native Americans call it Gitchigume. Lake Superior is in between Ontario and Minnesota to the north and Wisconsin and Michigan in the south, and is the largest of North America's Great Lakes. It is the world's third largest lake, and the world's largest freshwater lake (by area). Its outlet is the St. Marys River to Lake Huron. The Soo Locks allow carrying large amounts of iron ore and other cargo to the other Great Lakes.
+Over 80 species of fish live in Lake Superior.

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1	+ Lake Tanganyika is large lake in the Great Rift Valley of central Africa. The lake is divided between four countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Tanzania and Zambia. It is the longest fresh water lake in the world and the second deepest.
2	+

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+Lake Titicaca (Quechua: Titiqaqa Qucha, "Titiqaqa Lake") is a large, deep lake in the Andes mountains. The eastern part is in Bolivia and the western part of it is in Peru. It is the largest lake in South America.[2][3][4]
+Lake Titicaca is at 3,812 m (12,507 ft) above sea level.[5][6] It is often called the "highest navigable lake" in the world. It means that it is the highest lake that boats use for trade. There are many other lakes in the world that are higher. The lake has 41 islands. Some of the islands are home to many people.
+Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 species of water animals.[7]
+Several threatened species such as the huge Titicaca water frog and the Titicaca grebe, a bird which cannot fly, only live in or near the lake.[8][9]
+Since 2000, the water level of Lake Titicaca has gone down. This is because of shorter rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers.[10][11] The Global Nature Fund (GNF) says that the natural life in and around Lake Titicaca is under threat from water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans.[12]
+The "Floating Islands" are small islands made by the Uros (or Uru) people. They use layers of cut totora, a thick reed that grows in Lake Titicaca.[13] The Uros make the islands by continuously bending over the reeds that grow in the lake.[14]
+Legend says that the Uru people came from the Amazon river area, and moved to Lake Titicaca. The local people did not allow them to have their own land.[13] They then built the reed islands, which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake for safety.
+The islands are a golden colour. Many are about 15 by 15 m (50 by 50 ft) big. The largest are about half the size of a football field.[13][15] Each island has a few houses. The people living together on an island are usually all related.[13] Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings, also made out of reeds.
+As of 2011[update], about 1,200 Uros lived on 60 islands.[13] They are mostly in the west corner of the lake near Puno, a large port town in Peru.[15] The islands have become one of Peru's tourist attractions. This means that the Uros can earn money by bringing visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling crafts.[13][15]
+Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca. The people living here speak the Quechua language. About 4,000 people live in 10 communities on the nearly circular 15 km2 (6 sq mi) island. It has two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth). Both peaks have ancient ruins on the top. The hillsides planted with wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle and sheep also graze on the hillsides.
+Taquile is a hilly island located 45 km (28 mi) east of Puno. About 2,200 people live here. It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century. In 1970, it became property of the Taquile people, who have inhabited the island since then. There are pre-Inca ruins on the highest part of the island.
+Taquile is famous for its weaving and knitting. "Taquile and Its Textile Art" were honoured by UNESCO with the label "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity".
+Isla del Sol (Spanish for "island of the sun") is one of the largest islands of the lake. It is a rocky, hilly island. There are no cars or paved roads on the island. About 800 families live here.
+There are over 180 ruins on the island. Most of these are from the Inca period around the 15th century AD. Among the ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock, a labyrinth-like building called Chicana, Kasa Pata, and Pilco Kaima. The island is also mentioned in Inca mythology.
+Isla de la Luna (Spanish for “island of the moon”) lies east of the bigger Isla del Sol. Legends say that this is where Viracocha told the moon to rise.[16]
+Archaeological excavations[17] show that the Tiwanaku peoples (around 650–1000 AD) built a large temple on the Island of the Moon.[18] The buildings on the island today were built by the Inca on top of the earlier Tiwanaku ones.
+Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of Lake Titicaca.[19] Suriki is the last place where they still make reed boats.

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1	+ Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza (also known as Ukerewe and Nalubaale) is a lake in Africa. It is bordered and governed by the countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The lake is in the western part of Africa's Great Rift Valley.
2	+
3	+ Lake Victoria is 68,800 square kilometres (26,560 mi²) in size. It is Africa's largest lake, and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It was named for Queen Victoria.
4	+

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+A democracy means rule by the people.[1] The name is used for different forms of government, where the people can take part in the decisions that affect the way their community is run. In modern times, there are different ways this can be done:
+To become a stable democracy, a state usually undergoes a process of democratic consolidation.
+A democracy is the opposite of a dictatorship, a type of government in which the power is centralized on the hands of a single person who rules the nation, lacks political pluralism, the people has no participation in the local politics and little to no freedom of expression.
+After people hold an election, the candidates that won are determined. The way this is done can be simple: The candidate with the most votes gets elected. Very often, the politicians being elected belong to a political party. Instead of choosing a person, people vote for a party. The party with the most votes then picks the candidates.
+Usually, the people being elected need to meet certain conditions: They need to have a certain age or a government body needs to determine that they are suitably qualified to perform the job.
+Not everyone can vote in an election. Suffrage is only given to people who are citizens. Some groups may be excluded, for example prisoners.
+For some elections, a country may make voting compulsory. Someone who does not vote, and who does not give a good reason usually has to pay a fine
+Democracy may be direct or indirect.
+In a direct democracy, everyone has the right to make laws together. One modern example of direct democracy is a referendum, which is the name for the kind of way to pass a law where everyone in the community votes on it. Direct democracies are not usually used to run countries, because it is hard to get millions of people to get together all the time to make laws and other decisions. There is not enough time.
+In an indirect, or representative democracy, people choose representatives to make laws for them. These people can be mayors, councilmen, members of Parliament, or other government officials. This is a much more common kind of democracy. Large communities like cities and countries use this method, but it may not be needed for a small group.
+This kind of government was developed long ago by the ancient Greeks in classical Athens.  They had everyone who was a citizen (not slaves, women, foreigners, and children) get together in one area.  The assembly would talk about what kinds of laws they wanted and voted on them. The Council would suggest the laws. All citizens were allowed in the assembly.
+The Council were picked by draws (lottery). The participants in the Council would change every year and the number of people in the Council was at the most 500. For some offices the Athenian citizens would pick a leader by writing the name of their favorite candidate on a piece of stone or wood. The person with the most votes became the leader.
+In the Middle Ages, there were many systems in which there were elections, although only a few people could join in at this time. The Parliament of England began from the Magna Carta, a document which said that the King's power was limited, and protected certain rights of the people. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.
+However, only a few people could actually join in. Parliament was chosen by only a few percent of the people (in 1780, fewer than 3% of people joined in).[4] The ruler also had the power to call parliaments. After a long time, the power of Parliament began to grow. After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the English Bill of Rights 1689 made Parliament more powerful.[4] Later, the ruler became a symbol instead of having real power.[5]
+Democratic consolidation is the process by which a new democracy matures. Once mature, it is unlikely to revert to dictatorship rule without an external shock.
+The idea is that unconsolidated democracies suffer from intermittent elections which are not free and fair. In other words, powerful groups are able to prevent the system working fairly.[6]

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+Digestion is the process in which breakdown of food from larger to smaller food .
+Digestion occurs in three phases. Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can be got at by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use. Finally, the nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream. Once in the blood stream the nutrients are taken to the liver, which is a kind of chemical factory for the body.
+After we swallow food, it travels down a muscular tube to the stomach. There, it is mashed into a mixture like soup. The mixture passes into the small intestine, where tiny bits of food pass into the bloodstream. The food that is still left goes into the large intestine. Finally, waste products leave the body. Digestion usually takes about 18 hours. Food stays in the stomach for about three hours.[1] If uncoiled, the small intestine would be about six meters (20 feet) long.[2] Many digestive tracts are about as long as a bus.[2]
+Food slowly enters the small intestine from the stomach. This is where nutrients are taken into the blood. It then enters the large intestine. Water is taken away from it. The food that is left is called feces. The feces are stored in the rectum until the waste can leave the body through the anus.

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1	+ A reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce. Humans and other animals use their reproductive systems to have sexual intercourse as well as reproduce.
2	+
3	+ The illustrations here show only human reproductive systems. Other mammals have similar reproductive systems.

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+A fever is when a person's body temperature is hotter than 37.5 degrees Celsius (99.5 Fahrenheit). Normal body temperature for humans varies based on a variety of factors, including age and level of physical activity.[1]  It is typically cited as 37 degrees Celsius (98.6 F), but naturally varies from person to person by at least .5 degrees Celsius. The actual measurement of body temperature will vary based on the location of the measurement.  For a temperature taken from under the tongue, the measurement may be lower. Rectal temperatures will read about 0.3 C (0.55 F) higher, and armpit temperatures will read about the same amount lower.
+When people are ill, their body's immune system fights the disease, and so the body temperature rises. Fever is a defensive measure of the body against the germs: the life cycles of the germs are disrupted when the body temperature rises.
+About 38 °C (100.4 F) degrees is called a low-grade fever, and above 39.5 °C (103 F) degrees is a high-grade fever.
+Children usually have a higher fever than adults; their immune system is less mature. Infants have the highest normal temperature, which decreases as people age. Some animals, especially small ones like rabbits and cats, also have a higher normal temperature than humans.
+Sometimes, high-grade fever can be a medical emergency. At or above 42 °C (107.6 F) organs start taking damage that may not be repairable. While most fevers are caused by Infection, whether bacterial or viral, some fevers can be caused by cancers, including leukemia,[2] lymphoma,[3] and renal cell carcinoma.[4]

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+Finland (Finnish: Suomi) is a country in Northern Europe and is a member state of the European Union. Finland is one of the Nordic countries and is also part of Fennoscandia. Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are Sweden to the west, Norway to the north, Russia to the east and Estonia to the south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of western and southern coast is on the shore of the Baltic Sea.
+The capital of Finland is Helsinki; the second largest city is Tampere. The official currency of the country is the euro (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The president of Finland is Sauli Niinistö. 5.5 million people live in Finland. Finnish and Swedish both are the official languages of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became independent of Russia on 6 December 1917.
+The most important cities and towns in Finland are Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa, Turku, Oulu, Lahti, Kuopio, Jyväskylä and Pori.
+Finland is a highly industrialised First World country. The most important Finnish industrial products are paper, and steel products such as machines and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called Nokia.
+Finland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index more times than any other country.
+The people of Finland are called Finns.  Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue.  About six percent of Finns have the Swedish language as their mother tongue.  They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on Åland (Finnish Ahvenanmaa)
+Finns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like saunas and nature. Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important festivals that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and Christmas.
+The most popular sports in Finland are ice hockey, skiing, track and field and association football (soccer). Finns have also won events in swimming, motor sports and gymnastics.
+There is a group of a few thousand Samis (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in Norway and Sweden. Many Sami people farm reindeers. Originally Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were nomads, but nowadays they live in regular houses.
+Very few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country.[7]
+Most of Finland is covered by pine forest. The swan, which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland. It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the European Union are in Finland.
+The national animal of Finland is the brown bear. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family.
+There are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. Fishing is a popular sport. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland.
+Many islands in the Baltic Sea belong to Finland, too. Thousands of islands are part of the Åland archipelago. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland.
+The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long.
+The weather in Finland varies widely by season.  Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +35 °C.  Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -30 °C.  Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland.
+People first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an ice age, after a glacier that covered the ground had receded.
+Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the Finnish language that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the Iron Age. (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500–800 years ago).
+The first residents in Finland hunted animals, as "hunter-gatherers".  Some people started to farm crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age.
+The ancient Finns were pagans. The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was Ukko. He was a god of sky and thunder, much like Odin, another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon Odin, all the way east to Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans.
+Around a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity.  During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as bear worship.
+From the Middle Ages Finland was a part of Sweden. Then, in the year 1809, Russia took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became autonomous. The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the markka), their own stamps and own customs. However, Finland did not have its own army.
+During the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland:
+the Social Democrats organised the general strike of 1905 (12–19 November [O.S. 30 October – 6 November]). The Red Guards were formed. On 12 August [O.S. 30 July] 1906, Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called Suomenlinna), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours.
+On 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a communist revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the Soviet Union. There were communists in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland
+This attempt at revolution caused the Finnish civil war. The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system
+Stalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a capitalist country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a communist state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the Winter War.  The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of Karelia and other parts of Finland.
+Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the Continuation War in Finland. However, Finland was not a fascist or an antisemitic country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship.
+While Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway, burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the Lapland War.  Finland remained independent.
+After the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like paper and steel. More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had Internet connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes mobile phones, Nokia, is from Finland.
+Finland joined the European Union in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the euro in 2002.
+Finland has a mixed economy. Free market controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium.[8]
+In 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product.[9]
+The largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was Nokia. Two forest industries Stora Enso and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets.[10]
+Elections are organized to select 200 members to the Parliament of Finland. Also selected are the president of Finland, members of town and city councils and Finnish members to the European Parliament. The elections are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a political party. All the other elections are proportional. The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties.[11] The right to vote is universal and equal.  In general elections everybody has one vote.

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+A flowers is the reproductive part of flowering plants. A flower is a special part of the plant. Flowers are also called the bloom or blossom of a plant. Flowers have petals. Inside the part of the flower that has petals are the parts which produce pollen and seeds.
+In all plants, a flower is usually its most colourful part. We say the plant 'flowers', 'is flowering' or 'is in flower' when this colourful part begins to grow bigger and open out. There are many different kinds of flowers in different areas in the world. Even in the coldest places, for example the Arctic, flowers can grow during a few months.
+Flowers may grow separately on the plant, or they may grow together in an inflorescence.
+To investigate the structure of a flower, it must be dissected, and its structure summarised by a floral diagram or a floral formula. Then its family can be identified with the aid of a flora, which is a book designed to help you identify plants.
+Flowers have four basic parts, from the outside in they are:
+Although this arrangement is typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure.[1] The modifications produced in the evolution of flowering plants are used by botanists to find relationships among plant species.
+Flowers are an important evolutionary advance made by flowering plants. Some flowers are dependent upon the wind to move pollen between flowers of the same species. Their pollen grains are light-weight. Many others rely on insects or birds to move pollen. Theirs are heavier. The role of flowers is to produce seeds, which are contained in fruit. Fruits and seeds are a means of dispersal. Plants do not move, but wind, animals and birds spread the plants across the landscape.
+Since the ovules are protected by carpels, it takes something special for fertilisation to happen. Angiosperms have pollen grains comprising just three cells. One cell is responsible for drilling down through the integuments, and creating a passage for the two sperm cells to flow down. The megagametophyte is a tiny haploid female plant which includes the egg. It has just seven cells. Of these, one is the egg cell; it fuses with a sperm cell, forming the zygote. Another cell joins with the other sperm, and dedicates itself to forming a nutrient-rich endosperm. The other cells take auxiliary roles. This process of "double fertilisation" is unique and common to all angiosperms.
+Flowers are modified leaves possessed only by the flowering plants (angiosperms), which are relatively late to appear in the fossil record.
+The earliest known fossils of flowers and flowering plants are from 130 million years ago, in the Lower Cretaceous.[2][3]
+The flowering plants have long been assumed to have evolved from within the gymnosperms; but the known gymnosperms form a clade which is distinct from the angiosperms. It has been concluded that the two clades diverged (split) some 300 million years ago.[4]
+Flowers have long been admired and used by humans. Most people think that flowers are beautiful. Many people also love flowers for their fragrances (scents). People enjoy seeing flowers growing in gardens. People also enjoy growing flowers in their backyards, outside their homes. People often wear flowers on their clothes or give flowers as a gift during special occasions, holidays, or rituals, such as the birth of a new baby (or a Christening), at weddings (marriages), at funerals (when a person dies). People often buy flowers from businesses called florists.
+Some parents name their girl children after a flower. Some common flower names are: Rose, Lily, Daisy, Holly, Hyacinth, Jasmine, Blossom.
+People also eat some types of flowers. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, comes from the crocus flower. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Dandelion can be made into wine.
+Honey is flower nectar that has been collected and processed by bees. Honey is often named for the type of flower that the bees are using (for example, clover honey). Some people put flowers from nasturtiums, chrysanthemums, or carnations in their food. Flowers can also be made into tea. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, and jasmine are used to make tea.
+Flowers were used to signal meanings in the time when social meetings between men and women was difficult. Lilies made people think of life. Red roses made people think of love, beauty, and passion. In Britain, Australia and Canada, poppies are worn on special holidays as a mark of respect for those who served and died in wars. Daisies made people think of children and innocence.

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+The Magic Flute (German: Die Zauberflöte, K. 620) is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder.
+It premiered in Vienna on 30 September 1791 at Schikaneder's theater, the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden. The story has traditional fairy tale themes and Masonic elements.
+Prince Tamino has got lost in the forest and now finds himself in a country which is ruled by the Queen of the Night. A huge monster chases him and he is very frightened. He falls down in a faint. Three ladies who work for the Queen of the Night come and kill the monster. Then they see the handsome prince and they argue about which one of them will stay to look after him.
+The three ladies go off and Papageno enters. Papageno is a birdcatcher whose job is to catch birds for the Queen of the Night. He is a happy, simple young man. Tamino wakes up, sees him and asks him who he is. Papageno introduces himself. He has not noticed the dead monster. Tamino sees that the monster is dead and asks him who killed it. Papageno suddenly notices it and then decides to pretend that he killed it himself. The three ladies hear what he says and they come and punish him by giving him a stone instead of bread and wine, and by padlocking his mouth so that he cannot speak. Then they give Tamino a portrait of Princess Pamina. She is the daughter of the Queen of the Night. They tell him that Pamina has been captured by an evil man called Sarastro. In fact, Sarastro is a good man, and he is looking after Pamina because her mother, the Queen of the Night, is evil. The prince does not know this. He is already in love with the princess just from looking at her picture, and decides to go and rescue her.
+The three ladies give the Prince a magic flute which will protect him if he finds himself in danger.  They promise Papageno that he, too, will find a lovely wife for himself if he goes with Tamino.  They take off his padlock and give him a set of magic bells which will help him if he is in danger.  They are told that three lovely boys will show them the way.
+In the next scene we see Princess Pamina who is being guarded by a cruel Moor called Monostatos.  He has tied the princess up.  Papageno arrives and both men are frightened of one another.  Monostatos runs away, Papageno unties the rope around the princess and tells her about the prince who is on his way to rescue her.
+In the next scene Tamino finds himself in a holy place.  The three boys have guided him there.  They tell him he must be patient and silent.  He meets a priest who tells him he must not think that Sarastro is cruel.  He tells him that Pamina is alive.  Tamino is very happy to hear this, takes his flute and plays.  The animals from the forest come round him.  Pamina and Papagena are caught by Monostatos.  He is about to tie them up, but Papageno plays his magic bells and, when they hear the music, Monostatos and all the animals cannot help dancing and they disappear, still dancing.  Sarastro enters.  He tells Pamina once more that she must stay with him to learn how to live a good, virtuous  life.  She must not become evil like her mother.  Monostatos enters with Tamino whom he has caught.  Tamino and Pamina see one another and embrace.  Sarastro says that Monostatos must have a beating.  He says that Tamino and Pamina cannot have one another yet.  First they will have to go to the temple and go through some trials to show that they are good.
+Sarastro explains to the priests that Tamino and Pamina will have to go through the trials to show that they are worthy of one another.  If they can do this then they will be able to defeat the evil power of the Queen of the Night.
+Tamino and Papageno go through the trials together.  Tamino remains calm and brave.  Papageno is frightened and finds it difficult to keep quiet, but he continues because he has been promised that a girl called Papagena will be waiting for him.
+In the first trial the Three Ladies try to make them think that the dark place they are in will lead them to death.  In the second trial they see Monostatos about to rape Pamina.  The Queen of the Night explains why she wants power.  She says that Tamino and Pamina will be cursed unless Sarastro is killed.  Tamino realizes that this is all part of the trial and he must not do anything.  Papageno is given food and drink by Papagena who is disguised as an old lady.  Tamino plays his flute.  Pamina appears but turns her back on him. The Queen of the Night sings a very famous song in this section. It is famous because it reaches the highest ranges of a female voice.
+Tamino and Pamina have to go through the last trial together.  Papagena enters and dances, then, when Papageno promises to be true, she throws off her disguise and disappears.  Pamina thinks her mother is going to use her dagger, but at the last moment the boys save her and take her to Tamino.  Tamino plays the flute as they go together through fire and water.  The chorus sing in triumph.
+Papageno cannot call Papagena back with his shepherd pipe.  The three boys remind him about his magic bells.  He plays them and Papagena appears.  They are united.
+In the last scene Monostatos and the Queen of the Night enter to do battle, but they are defeated.  Good triumphs over evil.
+Mozart belonged to a group of Freemasons.  The Magic Flute is full of Masonic symbols.  For example: the number three is an important number in masonry and there are lot of things in the opera that happen in threes:  there are three long chords at the beginning of overture, and the three chords appear again in the scene in the temple.  Even the key is E flat major which has a key signature of three flats.  There are three ladies, three young boys and three trials.  The scenery used in the early productions make it look as if the story comes from Egypt or somewhere in the Orient.  Mozart and Schickaneder meant this to have a Masonic meaning. The trials are similar to the rituals in Masonic ceremonies.

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+The Magic Flute (German: Die Zauberflöte, K. 620) is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder.
+It premiered in Vienna on 30 September 1791 at Schikaneder's theater, the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden. The story has traditional fairy tale themes and Masonic elements.
+Prince Tamino has got lost in the forest and now finds himself in a country which is ruled by the Queen of the Night. A huge monster chases him and he is very frightened. He falls down in a faint. Three ladies who work for the Queen of the Night come and kill the monster. Then they see the handsome prince and they argue about which one of them will stay to look after him.
+The three ladies go off and Papageno enters. Papageno is a birdcatcher whose job is to catch birds for the Queen of the Night. He is a happy, simple young man. Tamino wakes up, sees him and asks him who he is. Papageno introduces himself. He has not noticed the dead monster. Tamino sees that the monster is dead and asks him who killed it. Papageno suddenly notices it and then decides to pretend that he killed it himself. The three ladies hear what he says and they come and punish him by giving him a stone instead of bread and wine, and by padlocking his mouth so that he cannot speak. Then they give Tamino a portrait of Princess Pamina. She is the daughter of the Queen of the Night. They tell him that Pamina has been captured by an evil man called Sarastro. In fact, Sarastro is a good man, and he is looking after Pamina because her mother, the Queen of the Night, is evil. The prince does not know this. He is already in love with the princess just from looking at her picture, and decides to go and rescue her.
+The three ladies give the Prince a magic flute which will protect him if he finds himself in danger.  They promise Papageno that he, too, will find a lovely wife for himself if he goes with Tamino.  They take off his padlock and give him a set of magic bells which will help him if he is in danger.  They are told that three lovely boys will show them the way.
+In the next scene we see Princess Pamina who is being guarded by a cruel Moor called Monostatos.  He has tied the princess up.  Papageno arrives and both men are frightened of one another.  Monostatos runs away, Papageno unties the rope around the princess and tells her about the prince who is on his way to rescue her.
+In the next scene Tamino finds himself in a holy place.  The three boys have guided him there.  They tell him he must be patient and silent.  He meets a priest who tells him he must not think that Sarastro is cruel.  He tells him that Pamina is alive.  Tamino is very happy to hear this, takes his flute and plays.  The animals from the forest come round him.  Pamina and Papagena are caught by Monostatos.  He is about to tie them up, but Papageno plays his magic bells and, when they hear the music, Monostatos and all the animals cannot help dancing and they disappear, still dancing.  Sarastro enters.  He tells Pamina once more that she must stay with him to learn how to live a good, virtuous  life.  She must not become evil like her mother.  Monostatos enters with Tamino whom he has caught.  Tamino and Pamina see one another and embrace.  Sarastro says that Monostatos must have a beating.  He says that Tamino and Pamina cannot have one another yet.  First they will have to go to the temple and go through some trials to show that they are good.
+Sarastro explains to the priests that Tamino and Pamina will have to go through the trials to show that they are worthy of one another.  If they can do this then they will be able to defeat the evil power of the Queen of the Night.
+Tamino and Papageno go through the trials together.  Tamino remains calm and brave.  Papageno is frightened and finds it difficult to keep quiet, but he continues because he has been promised that a girl called Papagena will be waiting for him.
+In the first trial the Three Ladies try to make them think that the dark place they are in will lead them to death.  In the second trial they see Monostatos about to rape Pamina.  The Queen of the Night explains why she wants power.  She says that Tamino and Pamina will be cursed unless Sarastro is killed.  Tamino realizes that this is all part of the trial and he must not do anything.  Papageno is given food and drink by Papagena who is disguised as an old lady.  Tamino plays his flute.  Pamina appears but turns her back on him. The Queen of the Night sings a very famous song in this section. It is famous because it reaches the highest ranges of a female voice.
+Tamino and Pamina have to go through the last trial together.  Papagena enters and dances, then, when Papageno promises to be true, she throws off her disguise and disappears.  Pamina thinks her mother is going to use her dagger, but at the last moment the boys save her and take her to Tamino.  Tamino plays the flute as they go together through fire and water.  The chorus sing in triumph.
+Papageno cannot call Papagena back with his shepherd pipe.  The three boys remind him about his magic bells.  He plays them and Papagena appears.  They are united.
+In the last scene Monostatos and the Queen of the Night enter to do battle, but they are defeated.  Good triumphs over evil.
+Mozart belonged to a group of Freemasons.  The Magic Flute is full of Masonic symbols.  For example: the number three is an important number in masonry and there are lot of things in the opera that happen in threes:  there are three long chords at the beginning of overture, and the three chords appear again in the scene in the temple.  Even the key is E flat major which has a key signature of three flats.  There are three ladies, three young boys and three trials.  The scenery used in the early productions make it look as if the story comes from Egypt or somewhere in the Orient.  Mozart and Schickaneder meant this to have a Masonic meaning. The trials are similar to the rituals in Masonic ceremonies.

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1	+ Jean de La Fontaine (IPA: [ʒɑ̃ də la fɔ̃tɛn]; 8 July 1621 – 13 April 1695)[1] was the first of the French fabulist.[2] He was one of the most widely read French poets of the 17th century. He is known for his fables. These provided a model for later fabulists across Europe. They were also an example for numerous alternative versions in France and in French regional languages.
2	+
3	+ According to Flaubert, he was the only French poet to understand and master the subtleties of the French language before Victor Hugo. A set of postage stamps celebrating La Fontaine and the Fables was issued by France in 1995.

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1	+ Jean de La Fontaine (IPA: [ʒɑ̃ də la fɔ̃tɛn]; 8 July 1621 – 13 April 1695)[1] was the first of the French fabulist.[2] He was one of the most widely read French poets of the 17th century. He is known for his fables. These provided a model for later fabulists across Europe. They were also an example for numerous alternative versions in France and in French regional languages.
2	+
3	+ According to Flaubert, he was the only French poet to understand and master the subtleties of the French language before Victor Hugo. A set of postage stamps celebrating La Fontaine and the Fables was issued by France in 1995.

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+A forest is a piece of land with many trees. Many animals need forests to live and survive. Forests are very important and grow in many places around the world. They are an ecosystem which includes many plants and animals.
+Temperature and rainfall are the two most important things for forests. Many places are too cold or too dry for them. Forests can exist from the equator to near the polar regions, but different climates have different kinds of forests. In cold climates conifers dominate, but in temperate zone and tropical climates forests are mainly made up of flowering plants. Different rainfall also makes different kinds of forest. No forests exist in deserts, just a few trees in places where their roots can get at some underground water.
+The three major forest biomes are coniferous forests, deciduous forests, and tropical rain forests.
+Coniferous forests stretch across Canada, Alaska, Northern Asia, and Northern Europe.  Their main trees are evergreen conifers which produce seeds in cones.
+The weather during the winter is cold, but when snow melts in the spring, some parts of the forest become swamps.  There are not many different types of trees in coniferous forests because of the cold weather, and the poor soil.  Fallen branches, needles, and dead animals do not decay as fast as in warmer regions.  This is why the soil in coniferous forests is not very fertile.  Also, only those trees that have adapted to cold weather and poor soil can survive.  These trees have flexible branches that support heavy snowfalls. Less water evaporates from their leaves because of the shape of their needles.[1]
+Many coniferous trees shade large parts of the soil below them, which keeps many plants from growing on the forest ground.  Some animals that live in the coniferous forests are pine martens, deer, bears, caribou, moose, lynes, heavers, and birds such as grey owls, crossbills, and marblers.
+Deciduous forests mostly grow in the temperate zone of North America, Europe and Asia. They have a moderate climate during the spring, summer, autumn (fall) and winter, with rainfall of at least 500mm a year. Summers are warm and winters are cold, but not as cold as the northern coniferous forests. In the winter, snow covers the ground and the deciduous trees and plants lose their leaves. The decaying leaves help make the soil rich in nutrients. Many insects, spiders, snails, and worms make their homes in this rich soil. Wild flowers and ferns grow almost everywhere in the spring. New leaves capture the energy of the sun and sprout before the tall trees shadow them.[2]
+During the winter, many birds migrate to warmer climate. Many small animals hibernate or aestivate, in other words, slow down their metabolism and sleep or stay in their burrows. Some of the other animals just slow down their metabolism and eat food they stored during the summer and fall months. The trees in winter are bare, but with the coming of spring, leaves sprout, birds return, animals are born, and all the forest animals get busy with their lives. Animals that we may see or hear in this biome include bears, deer, raccoons, otters, beavers, foxes, frogs, squirrels, snakes, salamanders, and birds such as woodpeckers, robins,  owls, blue jays and the small birds usually called tits.
+Some deciduous forests grow in tropical places that do not have a winter but do have a wet season and a dry season.
+Tropical rainforests grow in South America, the Congo, Indonesia and some nearby countries, Hawaii, and eastern Australia. Tropical rainforests are aptly named, as it rains here on about half the days. The only season in a tropical rain forest is summer, so plants grow for all 12 months of the year. Trees are tall and thick in the rain forest and they grow so close together that they seem to form a big umbrella of greenery called a canopy. This blocks out most of the sunlight. The air is muggy as it filters through the dense canopy cover of the trees. The light that filters through this tree cover is dim and green. Only along river banks and in places that have been cleared does enough sunlight allow plants to grow on the forest ground.
+Millions of species of plants and animals live in the world's tropical forests.  Life in the rain forest exists at different levels or layers in the trees.  Each layer has a name, such as 'emergent', 'canopy', 'understory', and 'forest floor.  Animal life is found on all levels.

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+Réunion (French: La Réunion) is an island of France. It is also a region of France and an overseas department of France, meaning France owns the island nation. It is in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Mauritius. Its capital is Saint-Denis. The highest point in La Reunion is La piton des neiges. The island is also famous for its black beaches, even though people think that there are white beaches. The island is 63 kilometres (39 mi) long; 45 kilometres (28 mi) wide; and covers 2,512 square kilometres (970 sq mi). It is similar to the island Hawaii as both are above hotspots in the Earth's crust.
+The Piton de la Fournaise, a shield volcano on the eastern end of Réunion Island, rises more than 2,631 metres (8,632 ft) above sea level and is sometimes called a sister to Hawaiian volcanoes because of the similarity of climate and volcanic nature. It has erupted more than 100 times since 1640 and is under constant monitoring. It most recently erupted on 2 January 2010. Before that, the most noticeable was during April 2007, when the lava flow was estimated at 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) per day.  The Piton de la Fournaise is created by a hotspot volcano, which also created the Piton des Neiges and the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues.
+The Piton des Neiges volcano, the highest point on the island at 3,070 metres (10,070 ft) above sea level, is northwest of the Piton de la Fournaise. Collapsed calderas and canyons are southwest of the mountain. Like Kohala on the Big Island of Hawaii, the Piton des Neiges is an extinct volcano. Despite its name, snow (French: neige) practically never falls on the summit.

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+Martialinae
+Leptanillinae
+Amblyoponinae
+Paraponerinae
+Agroecomyrmecinae
+Ponerinae
+Proceratiinae
+Ecitoninae‡
+Aenictinae‡
+Dorylini‡
+Aenictogitoninae‡
+Cerapachyinae‡*
+Leptanilloidinae‡
+Dolichoderinae
+Aneuretinae
+Pseudomyrmecinae
+Myrmeciinae
+Ectatomminae
+Heteroponerinae
+Myrmicinae
+Formicinae
+A phylogeny of the extant ant subfamilies.[2][3]
+*Cerapachyinae is paraphyletic
+‡ The previous dorylomorph subfamilies were synonymized under Dorylinae by Brady et al. in 2014[4]
+Ants are a kind of insect that live together in big groups. Scientists sometimes use the name Formicidae when talking about all of the different kinds of ants that have lived.[5][6]
+Ants are a lot like wasps and bees. They all came from the same kind of animal a long time ago, but now they are different. There are about 22,000 different kinds of ants, but we only know of 12,500 for sure.[7][8][9] Every kind of ant has a thin part in the middle of their body and two long body parts on their heads called antennae.
+Ants live in groups that can be big or small. Some kinds of ants live in small groups and eat other animals. Some ants work together in very big groups. These groups can have millions of ants in them that travel outside every day in a big area. Ants are small, but they are very strong. Some ants are strong enough to carry things that are as heavy as 20 ants. Some ants are called workers. Workers dig tunnels and carry food back to the colony so that other ants and the queen ant can eat.[10]
+The groups that ants live in are called colonies. A colony has a female ant called a queen which lays eggs. Those eggs will grow into more ants. Big colonies of ants have different kinds of ants that grow from the eggs. These are called different castes of ants. Some are workers which do jobs like carrying and digging, and soldiers which fight other animals. Worker and solider ants are females. Another type of ant are drones which are male ants.[11]
+Really big ant colonies are sometimes called superorganisms. This means the ants work together so well that they are like little parts of one big animal. Ants cannot live by themselves for very long because they need to work with other ants.[12][13]
+Ants have colonies almost everywhere on planet Earth. Places that do not have ants are Antarctica because it's very cold and there's not much food, far away places that ants can't get to, or islands because there's not enough things that ants need there.
+The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the vespoid wasps.
+Phylogenetic analysis suggests that ants arose in the Lower Cretaceous period about 110 to 130 million years ago, or even earlier. One estimate from DNA studies places the origin of ants at ≈140 million years ago (mya).[14] Another study puts it in the Jurassic at 185 ± 36 mya (95% confidence limits).[15]
+After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago ants diversified. They became ecologically dominant about 60 million years ago.[16][17][18]
+In 1966 E.O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma freyi) from the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to more than 80 million years ago, has features of both ants and wasps.[19] Sphecomyrma was probably a ground forager but some suggest that primitive ants were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil.
+During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian super-continent (the northern hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to other insects, representing about 1% of the insect population.
+Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Cainozoic. By the Oligocene and Miocene ants had come to represent 20-40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, approximately one in ten genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).[16][20]p23
+Termites, though sometimes called white ants, are not ants and belong to the order Isoptera. Termites are actually more closely related to cockroaches and mantids. Termites are eusocial but differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction. The similar social structure is attributed to convergent evolution.[21] Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.[22][23]
+The life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female (diploid); if not, it will be male (haploid). Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larval stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is fed and cared for by workers.
+Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the 'social stomach', among themselves.
+Larvae may also be given solid food brought back by foraging workers, and may even be taken to captured prey in some species. The larvae grow through a series of moults and enter the pupal stage.[24]
+The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers, is influenced in some species by the food the larvae get. Genetic influences, and the control of gene expression by the feeding are complex. The determination of caste is a major subject of research.[20]p351, 372[25]
+A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. It then does digging and other nest work, and later, defends the nest and forages. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants that are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes.[26][27]
+Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females can mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens (polygyny). The life history of Harpegnathos saltator is
+exceptional among ants because both queens and some workers
+reproduce sexually.[28]
+The winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae with the breeding females (although some species, like army ants, have wingless queens), and do nothing in life except eat and mate.
+Most ants produce a new generation each year.[29] During the species specific breeding period, new reproductives, winged males and females leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight. Typically, the males take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Females of some species mate with just one male, but in some others they may mate with anywhere from one to ten or more different males.[20] Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females store the sperm they obtain during their nuptial flight to selectively fertilise future eggs.
+The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how new colonies start in most species. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site,[20]p143 a process akin to swarming in honeybees.
+A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through parthenogenesis,[30] and one species, Mycocepurus smithii is known to be all-female.[31]
+Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, and survive only a few weeks.[32] Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times longer than solitary insects of a similar size.[33]
+Ants are active all year long in the tropics but, in cooler regions, survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.[34]
+It may seem strange that ants have uses, but there are some. Some people use ants for food, medicine and rituals. Some species of ants are used for pest control (they eat pests that destroy food for humans). They can damage crops and enter buildings, though. Some species, like the red imported fire ant, live in places where they came to by complete accident.

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+Coordinates: 37°19′55″N 122°01′52″W / 37.33182°N 122.03118°W / 37.33182; -122.03118
+Apple Inc. is a multinational company that makes computer hardware (the Macintoshes), software (macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS), and mobile devices (iPod, iPhone and iPad) like music players. Apple calls its computers Macintoshes or Macs, and it calls its laptops MacBooks. Their popular line of mobile music players is called iPod, their smartphone line is called iPhone and their tablet line is called iPad. Apple sells their products all around the world.[5] Apple Inc. used to be called Apple Computer, Inc., but Apple changed their name after introducing the original iPhone.[6]
+Apple Inc. is a public company and trades on the NASDAQ under the stock ticker AAPL. On March 19, 2015, it became one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
+Apple was started in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak.[7] Before they made the company, they sold "blue boxes", which had telephone buttons on them. People could use them to make telephone calls from payphones without paying any money. It did this by pretending to be a telephone operator. The company's first product is now called the Apple I computer. They were almost ready to sell it, but a problem happened. Steve Wozniak was working for the computer company Hewlett-Packard, and the papers that said he could work there said he had to give everything he invented to the company before he could do what he wanted to do with it. He showed the first Apple I to the boss at Hewlett-Packard, but they did not want his computer. Wozniak was then free to do what he wanted to do with the Apple I. It began selling in 1976. In 1977, they made their second computer, called the Apple II, which later became very successful compared to Apple I.
+One of the most popular products made by Apple is the iPod. It was first sold in 2001, and Apple sold over 100 million in six years.[8] All iPods can play music with good quality. Recent iPod Touches have a high quality LED screens, can take and show good pictures, record, view and edit high definition videos, use the Internet for features such as e-mail, gaming, and blogging, record word and voice memos, and even get office work done. The latest iPod Touch is even made with a 64-bit architecture.
+There are several different types of iPods:
+The red iPod shuffle, iPod nano, and iPod touch models, and a few more products, are part of the "(PRODUCT) RED" program. This means that some of the profits from these iPods goes to the Global Fund to fight AIDS in Africa.[12]
+Apple is most well known for computers. Computers by Apple run the OS X operating system, which is included with every new Mac.
+Apple also makes software for their computers. Some of the software that Apple makes is:
+Most computer users in the world use Microsoft Windows, the rival to Mac OS X. About 10% of computer users use Apple's Macintosh computers. It is not legal to run Apple's Mac OS X on a Windows computer. However, it is allowed to run Windows on modern Macintosh computers. Even though Apple makes their computers to run Mac OS X, they also make software that allows you to install Windows. This software is called Boot Camp.
+Apple is perhaps most famous for its mobile devices, which are small computers that are easy to carry around. They have touchscreens with multi-touch technology instead of a separate keyboard and mouse. Most of these products run an operating system called iOS. It is very similar to the Android software made by Google. iOS can do a lot of different things, and it does so by running "apps", which are programs similar to those on a PC. Users can download and buy more apps for their device from Apple's App Store.
+The iPhone is a mobile phone that can make calls, send text messages, play games and music, show photos and videos (like an iPod), browse the Internet, and do much more. It was one of the first smartphones in the world when the first version was announced in 2007.[25] Apple usually makes and sells a different model every year, with new models being faster and more powerful and having a newer version of iOS than those that come before them. The newest iPhones released are the iPhone 11 and the iPhone 11 Pro which run on iOS 13. Many cellular carriers around the world sell iPhones, including Sprint, Verizon, AT&T, and T-Mobile in the US.
+The iPad is a tablet computer, similar to the iPhone and iPod Touch but with a much larger display - while a typical iPhone has a screen about 4 to 5 inches in size, iPads have screens from 8 to 12 inches big. The first iPad was introduced in 2010 and along with the iPhone, new and better models are made and sold every year. The newest iPads, the iPad Air and iPad Pro came out in 2015. They have new designs and features such as a front and back camera, true tone flash and a new 64-bit processor. They, too, ship with the latest IPad OS software if it is supported.
+The Apple Watch is an example of "wearable technology", because it is worn around the wrist in the same way as a traditional wristwatch. However, it is much more than a wristwatch as not only does it tell the time and date but also tracks the fitness of the person wearing it and monitors the person's health. It can also do many of the same things that an iPhone can do, such as use Apple's Siri personal assistant, but it needs to be "paired" with an iPhone for it to do these things. The Apple Watch has many different designs: there is the standard version, a "Sport" version designed for athletes, and an "Edition" version which is made as a fashion product. These all run "Watch OS", a modified version of iOS.
+The Apple TV is a box that plugs into a TV. It can connect wirelessly to any computer that has the Apple program iTunes on it. The Apple TV can play music and show photos or videos from iTunes on the TV. Like other Apple products, Apple TV is regularly updated with new software and features. The most recent version comes with a new remote control and includes the Siri voice assistant. It uses tvOS, a TV version of iOS.
+Following several campaigns (for example, Green my Apple[26]), Apple has made their products greener. Recently, the new notebook line removed many toxins and improved the products battery life and recharge cycles.
+As of October 26, 2019[update] the following individuals sit on the board of Apple Inc.[31]
+Since the formation of the Apple Computer Company in 1977, Apple has employed over 95,000 people worldwide. The majority of Apple's employees have been in the United States but Apple has substantial manufacturing, sales, marketing, and support organizations worldwide, with some engineering operations in Paris and Tokyo.
+Apple employees include employees of companies Apple owns, and less important, but still relevant companies such as FileMaker Inc. and Braeburn Capital.
+Apple Corps has sued Apple Inc. many times for trademark infringement. In the first case, Apple Inc. agreed not to go into the music industry. Apple Corps believes this agreement was broken when Apple Inc. launched the iTunes Store, Apple's online music store.
+The two companies had trouble in the past, over the use of the Apple name. They made a deal that Apple Computers would not act as a music company. When Apple Computer Inc. began to sell their iPod, and set up their iTunes music store, Apple Corps believed they had broken their agreement, and took them to court. Apple Computers won the case, but the two companies later worked out a new deal. This deal now means that the Beatles music is now on the iTunes store, whereas it was not there before. Apple Computers was then renamed as Apple Inc. because of its mobile technology business. Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, Inc., has said in the past that he loves music from The Beatles, which can be considered to be very ironic.[32]

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+France (/ˈfræns/ (help·info) or /ˈfrɑːns/; French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, French pronunciation: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in Western Europe and that also comprises various overseas islands and territories located in other continents.[10] Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as L’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the shape of its territory. France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
+Metropolitan France is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. France's overseas departments and collectivities also share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel.
+France is the largest country in the European Union and the second largest in Europe. It has been one of the world's foremost powers for many centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonized much of North America; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built one of the largest colonial empires of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands. France is a developed country and possesses the fifth largest economy[11] in the world, according to nominal GDP figures. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[12] France is one of the founding members of the European Union, and has the largest land area of all members. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, NATO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and owns the largest number of nuclear weapons with active warheads and nuclear power plants in the European Union.
+France's official language is French, also being official in 29 other countries. Some francophone countries include Haidi, Belgium, and Nigeria.
+France is located in Western Europe.[13] France shares its borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain.[14] France has two mountain ranges near its borders: the Alps in the east and the Pyrenees in the south.[14] There are many rivers in France, including the Seine and the Loire.[15] In the north and the west of France, there are low hills and river valleys.
+In France there are many different climates.[16] The Atlantic has a major effect on the weather in the north and west. This means the temperature is about the same most of the year. It is in the marine west coast climate region. In the east, winters are cold and the weather is good. Summers are hot and stormy. In the south, winters are cool and wet. Summers are hot and dry.[17] The north has a temperate climate similar to that of the United Kingdom and other Northern European countries.
+France has the second-largest Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the world.[18] It covers 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,637 sq mi). Only the United States has a larger one .
+The name "France" comes from the Latin word Francia ', which means "land of the Franks" or "Frankland".[19]
+The borders of modern France are about the same as those of ancient Gaul. Celtic Gauls inhabited Ancient Gaul. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul for Rome in the 1st century BC.[20] Eventually, the Gauls adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. It became firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries.
+In the 4th century AD, the Germanic tribes, principally the Franks invaded the Gauls. This is how the name Francie appeared. The modern name "France" comes from the name of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to  Christianity rather than Arianism. The French called themselves "the most Christian Kingdom of France".[21]
+The Treaty of Verdun (843), divided Charlemagne's Empire into three parts.[22] The biggest area was Western Francia. It is similar to modern France.
+The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet became King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, unified the country with many wars and dynastic inheritance. The monarchy was the most powerful during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV of France.[23] At that time, France had the largest population in Europe. The country had a big influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment happened in France.  French scientists made big scientific discoveries in the 18th century. France also conquered many overseas possessions in the Americas and Asia.[24]
+France had a monarchy until the French Revolution in 1789. The Great King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793.[25] Thousands of other French citizens were killed. Napoleon Bonaparte took control of the Republic in 1799. He later made himself Emperor of the First Empire (1804–1814). His armies conquered most of continental Europe.[26] The metric system was invented by French scientists during the French revolution.That time 3 estates were developed.
+After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, another  monarchy arose. Later Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte created the Second Empire in 1852. Louis-Napoléon was removed after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. The Third Republic replaced his regime.[27]
+The large French colonial empire in the 19th century included parts of West Africa and Southeast Asia. The culture and politics of these regions were influenced by France. Many ex-colonies officially speak the French language.[28]
+The country actively took part in both the First and Second World Wars, with battles taking place on its soil. During the First World War, millions were killed in the trenches including over a million in the Battle of the Somme.[29] The conditions were extremely difficult for the soldiers on the front. The last surviving veteran was Pierre Picault who died on 20 November 2008 at the age of 109.[30]
+During the Second World War, Nazis occupied France. The Allies landed in Normandy on 6 June 1944 and began the Battle of Normandy. German forces lost France in just a few months.
+The 13 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France includes Corsica (Corse, lower right). The Paris area is expanded. France is divided into (administrative) regions. 22 of them are in Metropolitan France:
+Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolitan regions. It is called collectivité territoriale.
+France also has five overseas regions:
+These four overseas regions have the same status as the metropolitan ones. They are like the overseas American states of Alaska and Hawaii.
+Then France is divided into 101 departments. The departments are divided into 342 arrondissements. The arrondissements are re-divided into 4,032 cantons. The smallest subdivision is the commune (there are 36,699 communes). On January 1, 2008, INSEE counted 36,781 communes in France. 36,569 of them are in metropolitan France and 212 of them are in overseas France.[31][32]
+The government of France is  a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the French Fifth Republic.[33] The constitution declares the nation to be "an indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic". It provides for a separation of powers.[34]
+The French armed forces are divided into four branches:
+France has about 359,000 military personnel.[35][36] France spends 2.6% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on defense. This is the highest in the European Union. France and the UK spend 40% of the EU defence budget. About 10% of France's defence budget is for its nuclear weapons force.
+France is a member of the United Nations.[37] It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and has veto rights.[38] It is also a member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It hosts the headquarters of the OECD, UNESCO and Interpol. In 1953, the United Nations asked France to choose a coat of arms to represent them internationally. The French emblem is now on their passports.
+France was a founding member of the European Union.[39] In the 1960s, France wanted to exclude the United Kingdom from the organisation. It wanted to build its own economic power in continental Europe.  France and Germany became closer after World War II.  This was to try to become the most influential country in the EU.  It limited the influence of the new Eastern European members. France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).[40] However, under President de Gaulle, it left the joint military command. In the early 1990s, France received criticism for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia. France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[41] France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies. For instance it has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in the Ivory Coast and Chad.
+France is a member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries. France has the eighth-largest economy in the world by Gross domestic product (GDP) (which takes into account how much it costs to live in different countries and inflation rates).[42] France and 11 other European Union members jointly launched the euro on 1 January 1999 and started using it in 2002.[43]
+France's economy has nearly 2.9 million registered companies.[44] The government has a considerable influence over railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunications firms (as it owns big companies like SNCF and EDF (French electricity)).[45] France has an important aerospace (design of aircraft and spacecraft) industry led by Airbus.[46] It can also launch rockets from French Guiana.[47]
+France has invested a lot in nuclear power. This made France the smallest producer of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialised countries in the world.[48] As a result, 59 nuclear power plants generate  most of the electricity produced in the country (78% in 2006,[49] up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990).
+France is the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe.[50] France exports wheat, poultry, dairy products, beef, and pork. It is also famous for its wine industry. France received 10 billion euros in 2006 from the European Community as subsidies to its farmers.[51]
+At one time, the Factory Act of 1833 limited the workday for women and children to 11 hours a day.[52]
+On 1 January 2008, it was estimated that 63.8 million people live in France, including in the Overseas Regions of France.[53] 61,875,000 of these live in metropolitan France, the part of the country that is within Europe.[53]
+The major ethnic groups living in France today are descended from Celtic people and Roman people.[54] The significant minority groups living in France are:
+French is the official language of France. It belongs to the Romance language group, which includes Italian and Spanish. Many regional dialects are also used in France. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine in eastern France. French was the language of diplomacy and culture in Europe between the 17th and 19th century and is still widely used.[55]
+Some people in France also speak Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, German, Flemish, and Occitan.
+France is a secular country and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion.[56] The population is about 51% Roman Catholic, and 31% of people are agnostics or atheists. 5% are Muslim, 3% say they are Protestant and 1% say they are Jewish. 10% are from other religions or do not have an opinion about religion.[57][58] There are also Zoroastrian, Unitarian Universalist, Jain and Wiccan communities. Religions founded in France include Raelism.
+According to a Poll in 2007:[59]
+French literature began in the Middle Ages.[60] French was divided into several dialects at the time. Some authors spelled words differently from one other.
+During the 17th century, Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, Molière, Blaise Pascal and René Descartes were the main authors.[61]
+In the 18th and 19th centuries, French literature and poetry reached its best. The 18th century saw writings of authors, essayists and moralists as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
+As for French children's literature in those times, Charles Perrault wrote stories such as "Little Red Riding Hood", "Beauty and the Beast", "Sleeping Beauty" and "Puss in Boots".[62]
+Many famous French novels were written in the 19th century by authors such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas and Jules Verne. They wrote popular novels like The Three Musketeers, The Count of Monte-Cristo, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, The Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Les Misérables. Other 19th century fiction writers include Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal.[63]
+Famous novels were written during the 20th century by Marcel Proust, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre and Michel Houellebecq.
+The Tour de France cycling race in July is one of the best-known sporting events.[64] It is a three-week race of around 3,500 km that covers most of France and ends in the centre of Paris, on the Avenue des Champs-Elysées. Football is another popular sport in France. The French team won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and 2018. They also won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1984 and 2000. France also hosts the 24 Hours of Le Mans car race. France also hosted the Rugby World Cup in 2007 and finished fourth.[65]
+France is closely associated with the Modern Olympic Games. At the end of the 19th century, the Baron Pierre de Coubertin suggested having the Olympic Games again. France hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1900 and 1924, in Paris. France will host the Summer Olympics in 2024, in Paris. France also hosted the Winter Games three times: in 1924 in Chamonix, in 1968 in Grenoble, and in 1992 in Albertville.
+French cuisine has influenced the style of cooking throughout Europe, and its chefs work in restaurants throughout the world.[66]
+The roots of modern haute cuisine lie in chefs like La Varenne (1615–1678) and the notable chef of Napoleon, Marie-Antoine Carême (1784–1833). These chefs developed a lighter style of food compared to the food of the Middle Ages. They used fewer spices, and more herbs and creamy ingredients.
+Typical ingredients like roux and fish stock, and techniques such as marinading, and dishes such as ragout, were invented. Carême was an expert pâtissier (pastry-maker), and this is still a mark of French cooking. He developed basic sauces, his 'mother sauces'; he had over a hundred sauces in his repertoire, based on the half-dozen mother sauces.
+French cuisine was introduced in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846–1935). He was a genius at organisation. He worked out how to run large restaurants, as in a big hotel or a palace; how the staff should be organised; how the menu was prepared. He had methods for everything. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. Escoffier managed the restaurants and cuisine at the Savoy Hotel and Carlton Hotel in London, the Hôtel Ritz Paris, and some of the greatest cruise ships.
+Escoffier, however, left out much of the culinary character to be found in the regions of France.
+Gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally.[67][68][69] In the north of France, people often prefer to use butter to cook. In the south, they prefer olive oil and garlic.[70] In France, each region has its own special dish; choucroute in Alsace, quiche in Lorraine, cassoulet in the Languedoc-Roussillon, and tapenade in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.
+In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by UNESCO to its lists of the world's 'intangible cultural heritage'.[71][72]
+France is the number one tourist destination in the world. In 2007, 81.9 million foreign tourists visited France.[73] Spain comes second (58.5 million in 2006) and the United States come third (51.1 million in 2006).
+Some of the most famous attractions in Paris, are the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe. Another one is Mont Saint Michel, in Normandy.[74]
+A European Disneyland is located in a suburb east of Paris. The resort opened in 1992 and is also a popular tourist destination in Europe.

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+in the African Union  (light blue)
+The Republic of South Africa is a country in the southern region of Africa. About fifty-five million people live there. South Africa is next to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland.
+The biggest city of South Africa is Johannesburg. The country has three capitals for different purposes.  They are Cape Town, Pretoria, and Bloemfontein. This is because the government is based in Pretoria, the parliament is in Cape Town and the Supreme Court is in Bloemfontein.[8]
+There are 11 national languages. They are Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Setswana, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Venda and Tsonga. They are also known as National Lexicography Units (NLUs). Because of all the languages, the country has an official name in each language.
+One of South Africa's most well known people is Nelson Mandela. He was its president from 1994 until 1999. He died in 2013. The current president is Cyril Ramaphosa.
+The first European people to come to South Africa were Portuguese explorers. In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias found what he called the "Cape of Storms". The king of Portugal changed it to "Cape of Good Hope". He called it this because the cape gave the Portuguese a new chance to find a sea route to India.
+In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck colonized the Cape. He started the camp for the Dutch East India Company. This was so that they could give fresh food to ships on their way to the south of Asia. There were very few native people living in the Cape. Because of this, slaves were brought from Indonesia, Madagascar and India to work at the colony. In 1795, Great Britain took the Cape from the Dutch East India Company, to stop France from taking it. The British gave it back in 1803 but then annexed the Cape in 1807 when the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt.
+Diamonds were found in South Africa in 1867. Gold was found in 1884. This made a great number of people to come to South Africa from Europe. They were hoping to make money.
+The First Boer War happened in 1880-1881. The war was between the British and the Boers Republics. At that time, the British had the Cape. The Boer Republics were established when Dutch settlers moved north in the Great Trek. The British lost the war and came back 8 years later in 1899. They won this Second Boer War in 1902. The British had brought many more soldiers the second time. The Boers had no chance of winning. On 31 May 1910 the Union of South Africa was made from the Cape and Natal colonies. It was also made from Orange Free State and the Transvaal. These were two Boer Republics.
+South Africa is found at the southernmost region of Africa, with a long coastline that reaches more than 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi),[9] South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world and is almost the size of Colombia. Njesuthi in the Drakensberg at 3,408 m (11,181 ft) is the highest part in South Africa.
+The back of South Africa is a big and flat. It is a very populated scrubland, the Karoo, which is drier towards the northwest along the Namib desert. The eastern coastline however, is well-watered, which makes a climate kind of like the tropics.
+To the north of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the escarpment of the Highveld. It then turns into the lower lying Bushveld, an area of mixed dry forest and a lot of wildlife. East of the Highveld, beyond the eastern escarpment, the Lowveld reaches towards the Indian Ocean. It has mostly high temperatures, and is also the location of subtropical agriculture.
+South Africa has a mostly temperate climate. It is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, and is located in the climatically milder southern hemisphere. Average elevation is higher towards the north (towards the equator) and further inland. Because of this varied topography and oceanic influence, different parts of South Africa have different climates.
+There is a desert in the southern Namib in the farthest northwest and subtropical climate in the east along the Mozambique border and the Indian ocean. From the east, the land quickly rises over mountains towards the back plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is thought as semi-arid, there is a difference in climate as well as topography.
+The southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with mild, moderately wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also makes much of the wine in South Africa. This region is also mostly known for its wind, which blows almost all year. The wind can sometimes be severe when passing around the Cape of Good Hope mostly gets bad for sailors, making many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall falls more evenly throughout the year, making a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.
+The Orange Free State is mostly flat, because it lies in the center of the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not get subtropical heat. Johannesburg, in the center of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) and gets a yearly rainfall of 740 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.
+South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries,[10] with more than 20,000 different kinds of plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it very rich in plant biodiversity.
+The most common biome in South Africa is the grassland, mostly on the Highveld. This is where grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mostly camel-thorn and whitethorn are more common then plants. Plants become even more less common towards the northwest. This is because of low rainfall. There are many species of water-storing plants like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with more thick growth. There are many numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.[11]
+South Africa's economy is divided. It is divided between First World and Third World standards. The developed part of the economy is similar to that of most nations with wealth (for example, Britain or Australia). The rest of the economy is closer to that of poor nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The main companies in South Africa are mining (mostly for gold and diamonds), car making, and service industries, such as insurance.
+Unemployment is very high. Income inequality is about the same as Brazil. During 1995–2003, the number of older jobs went down. Informal jobs went up. Overall unemployment got worse.[12] The average South African household income went down a lot between 1995 and 2000. As for racial inequality, Statistics South Africa said that in 1995 the average white household earned four times as much as the average black household. In 2000 the average white family was earning six times more than the average black household.[13]
+The action policies have seen a rise in black economic wealth. There is a developing black middle class.[14][15] Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. South Africa suffers from mostly heavy overall regulation compared to developed countries. .[16] Restrictive labor rules have added to the unemployment weakness.[12]
+South Africa is a nation of about 50 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions. The last census was held in 2001 and the next will be in 2011. Statistics South Africa had five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew "not needed" responses, and these results were not counted.[17] The 2009 middle-year estimated figures for the other categories were Black African at 79.3%, White at 9.1%, Colored at 9.0%, and Asian at 2.6%.[18]
+Even though the population of South Africa has grown in the past decade[17][19] (mostly because of immigration), the country had an yearly population growth rate of −0.501% in 2008 (CIA est.), counting immigration. The CIA thinks that in 2009 South Africa's population started to grow again, at a rate of 0.281%. South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, counting about 3 million Zimbabweans.[20][21][22] A series of anti-immigrant riots happened in South Africa beginning on 11 May 2008.[23][24]
+South Africa is divided into 9 provinces. The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further divided into 226 local municipalities.
+1. Johannesburg
+2. Cape Town
+3. Durban
+4. Pretoria
+It may be suggested that there is no single South African culture because of its ethnic diversity. Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures is enjoyed by all and marketed to tourists who wish to taste South African food. Food is not the only thing, music and dance is there too.
+South African food is mostly meat-based and has spawned the South African social gathering known as a braai, or barbecue. South Africa has also developed into a big wine maker. It has some of the best vineyards lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.[27]
+South Africa is the only Western country of Africa.
+Most South African blacks still have poor lives. It is among these people, however, that cultural traditions live most strongly. This is because blacks have become urbanised and Westernised, much parts of traditional culture have fallen. Urban blacks normally speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still important groups of speakers of Khoisan languages who are not in the eleven official languages, but are one of the eight other officially recognized languages.
+Members of middle class, who are mostly white but whose ranks are growing numbers of black, colored and Indian people,[28] have lifestyles similar in many ways to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Members of the middle class often study and work from foreign countries for greater exposure to the markets of the world.
+According to the 2001 national census, Christians accounted for 79.7% of the population. This has Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Roman Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), Anglican (3.8%); members of other Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hinduism about 1.3%, and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 2.3% were other and 1.4% were unspecified.[29][30]
+South Africa's most liked sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket. Other sports that are popular are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, tennis and netball. Soccer is the most liked among youth. There are other sports like basketball, surfing and skateboarding that are becoming more liked.
+Famous boxers from South Africa are Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Gerrie Coetzee and Brian Mitchell. There are football players who have played for major foreign clubs. Some of them are Lucas Radebe and Philemon Masinga (both were of Leeds United), Quinton Fortune (Atletico Madrid and Manchester United), Benni McCarthy (Ajax Amsterdam, F.C. Porto and Blackburn Rovers), Aaron Mokoena (Ajax Amsterdam, Blackburn Rovers and Portsmouth), Delron Buckley (Borussia Dortmund) and Steven Pienaar (Ajax Amsterdam and Everton). South Africa made Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter. Famous current cricket players are Herschelle Gibbs, Graeme Smith, Jacques Kallis, JP Duminy and more. Most of them also participate in the Indian Premier League.
+South Africa has also made many world class rugby players. Some of them are Francois Pienaar, Joost van der Westhuizen, Danie Craven, Frik du Preez, Naas Botha, and Bryan Habana. South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup at their first try. They won the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France. South Africa was only allowed to participate from 1995 since the end of Apartheid. It followed the 1995 Rugby World Cup by hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations. It had the national team, 'Bafana Bafana,' going on to win the tournament. It also hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. and the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship. Both of them were a great success.
+In 2010, South Africa became the first African nation to host the FIFA World Cup. The national team has competed in three World Cups. It bid for the right to stage the 2004 Olympic Games, but finished third to Athens. South Africa is also well known for their cricket team. They are right now the world's number one in test match cricket.
+The main schools span the first seven years of schooling. In the age of Apartheid, schools for blacks were subject to judgment through inadequate funding and so forth. Instruction can take place in Afrikaans as well. Public payment on education was at 5.4% of the 2002-05 GDP.[31]
+South Africa's military is the most powerful in southern Africa. South Africa spends more on its military than any of its neighboring countries do. They have very advanced weapons as a result. South Africa used to have nuclear weapons, but they were taken apart in 1993.

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+A galaxy is a group of many stars, with gas, dust, and dark matter.[1][2][3][4] The name 'galaxy' is taken from the Greek word galaxia meaning milky, a reference to our own galaxy, the Milky Way.
+Gravity holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe.[3] In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups. Gravity holds the galaxy together, and the same applies to  groups of galaxies, such as our Local Group in the Milky Way. The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies. Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity.
+There are various types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and lenticular galaxies, which can all be with or without bars. Then there are irregular galaxies. All galaxies exist inside the universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies[5] and, overall, as many as an estimated 1×1024 stars[6][7] (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).[8]
+There are galaxies of different sizes. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million[3][9] (107) stars up to giants with a hundred trillion[3][10] (1014) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun.
+Star clusters are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies. Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer halo of the Milky Way. One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, Messier 15, has several million stars, packed closely together, with a black hole at its centre. The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies.
+Within galaxy clusters, galaxies move relative to other galaxies. They can and do collide. When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, and can form a burst of new stars. Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.
+Many galaxies continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. This star formation happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up.
+In the astronomical literature, the word 'Galaxy' with a capital G is used for our galaxy, the Milky Way. The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase g. The term Milky Way first came out in the English language in a poem by Chaucer.
+When William Herschel wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name spiral nebula for objects like the Andromeda Galaxy. 200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures within a galaxy.
+There are two main kinds of galaxies, spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. They are classified according to the Hubble Sequence.
+A spiral galaxy is a galaxy that has a spiral shape. Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by astronomers are spiral galaxies (about 77%).[12]
+They are divided into two :
+NGC 1300 and NGC 1672 are examples of barred spiral galaxies.  Whirlpool galaxy and Messier 81 are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies.
+The identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core.  The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born.  "Bulge" in the galactic core has old stars.  This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies.
+An elliptical galaxy is a galaxy that has a ellipsoid (3D of ellipse) shape.  This type of galaxy are dominant in universe, especially in galaxy clusters.  The shape range from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped.  In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class :
+Elliptical galaxy can have a large range size. The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million light year and the smallest (know as "dwarf elliptical galaxy") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way[13] The size of an elliptical galaxy can be measured as an effective radius which defines the area from which half its light comes. The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large. A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 1013 (many trillions) of solar masses.[14]
+A lenticular galaxy is a galaxy seen in a disc shape.  Determining the shape of a lenticular galaxy is difficult because the shape can be between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy.  The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the galactic center.  If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy[15]

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+A giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a mammal which lives in Africa. Giraffes have an even number of toes and are the tallest land animals. Giraffes and Okapi are the family Giraffidae.
+Giraffes have a very long neck and long legs. Giraffes are the tallest land animals on Earth, with necks that can be up to 2-2.4 m (6.6-7.9 ft) in length.[1][2][3] Fully grown giraffes stand 4.3–5.7 m (14.1–18.7 ft) tall, with males taller than females.[4][1][2] The tallest recorded male was 5.88 m (19.3 ft) and the tallest recorded female was 5.17 m (17.0 ft) tall.[5][4] The average weight is 1,192 kg (2,628 lb) for an adult male and 828 kg (1,825 lb) for an adult female.[6] Maximum weights of 1,930 kg (4,250 lb) and having been recorded for males and females, respectively.[1][2] They have a long black tongue, up to 45 cm in length.[1][2] This they use to wrap around leaves and pull them off trees.
+Their fur has a light yellowish tan or off-white colour with brown or russet patches.  No two giraffes have the same pattern. The different sub-species have different coat patterns. Both male and female giraffes have small horn-like stumps on their head, which are covered with skin. The horns are called ossicones. These come from the cartilage displaced from their skull as it develops. These are fur-covered bumps on their skulls, unlike the horns of other animals.
+Giraffes are found in parts of Africa. They live on the savannah, which is the African grassland, or in light woodland. They do not live in thick forests where it is difficult to see predators, such as lions, approaching.The temperature is normally around 70 degrees. Most giraffes live either in East Africa or in Angola and Zambia in southwestern Africa.
+Giraffes eat mostly leaves from tall trees, which they can reach because of their long legs and long necks, as well as fruit. Their rough tongue allows them to eat the acacia leaves protected by thorns. They can go without water for weeks. Like all mammals, giraffes have only seven bones in their necks.
+Giraffes live alone or in loose groups. Young male giraffes foa single baby, which is called "calf". Giraffes give birth while standing, so the baby falls down 2 metres. Giraffe calfs are already 2 m tall and weigh 50-55 kg.[1][2] The calf stays with its mother for 1½ years. Young giraffes become mature when they are 4 years old, and they are fully grown when they are 6 years old. Giraffes can live to 25 years old, and in captivity they can live 35 years.
+Giraffes use their feet to kick predators away, and mature male giraffes use their head and necks to fight for dominance at mating time.
+There are about nine different subspecies of giraffe, with only small differences between them. When giraffes of two different sub-species breed, the young are called hybrids (mixed breeds). Of the nine sub-species of giraffe, only one, the Rothchild's, is endangered.

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+Coordinates: 40°40′37″N 117°13′55″E / 40.67693°N 117.23193°E / 40.67693; 117.23193
+The Great Wall of China is an ancient wall in China. The wall is made of cement, rocks, bricks, and powdered dirt. It was finished in 1878[1] and it was meant to protect the north of the empire of China from enemy attacks. It is the longest structure humans have ever built. It is about 21,196 kilometres (13,171 miles) long, 9.1 metres (30 feet) wide and 15 metres (50 feet) high. The earlier sections on the wall are made of compacted dirt and stone. Later in the Ming Dynasty they used bricks. There are 7,000 watch towers, block houses for soldiers and beacons to send smoke signals.
+Nineteen walls have been built that were called the Great Wall of China. The first was built in the 7th century BC. The most famous wall was built between 226–200 BC by the first Emperor of Imperial China, Qin Shai Hong, during the Qin Dynasty. Not much of this wall remains as people have been stealing from it. It was much farther north than the current wall. The current wall was built during the Ming Dynasty.[2] (Qin pronounced like Chin).
+The First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, started the Qin Dynasty. The Xiongnu tribes in the north of China were his enemies. The land in some parts of China is easy to cross, so Qin Shi Huang started building the Great Wall to make it more difficult for the Xiongnu to invade China.
+Other dynasties in China had worked more on the wall and made it longer. The Han, Sui, Northern and Jin Dynasties all repaired, rebuilt or expanded the Great Wall. During the Ming Dynasty, major rebuilding work took place. Sections of the wall were built with bricks and stone instead of earth.
+Builders used materials that were nearby. Some parts of the wall were made of mud, straw, and twigs. Thousands of workers died from giant falling stones, exhaustion, disease, animal attacks, and starvation. The workers who died were buried in and under the Great Wall is a myth.[3]
+Rumours about astronauts being able to see the Great Wall from the moon are scientifically not proven.[4] The Great Wall has shown up in radar images taken from space, but scientists are sure it is not possible for astronauts to see the wall with a naked eye.[5] One astronaut who spoke about the visibility of the Great Wall from space was Neil Armstrong. He said that on the moon, it was very clear that the wall was not visible. However, astronaut William Pogue was able to see the wall from a Low Earth Orbit distance (300-530 km height), but only with binoculars and with lots of practice.[6]
+Media related to Great Wall of China at Wikimedia Commons

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα [eˈlaða] or Ελλάς [eˈlas]), officially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία [eliniˈkʲi ðimokraˈtia]),[8] (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital city is Athens.
+It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West. Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands. 80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
+Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games.
+Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister. The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial. He is the head of state, not head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people. Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis.
+The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population identifies as Christian Orthodox. Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools. Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981 and adopted the Euro in 2001. Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector and its geostrategic importance, it is classified as a middle power.
+Greece's history is one of the richest in the world. The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations. Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas. Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings. During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India.  Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period).  During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
+Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture. The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization.  When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.  It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years. Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
+The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828.  In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
+In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies. During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south.  Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies.  The country was reunited in 1917, when the King abdicated.  In 1920 Greece expanded again, and briefly reached its maximum size.  The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace.  The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies, when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
+In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion. This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power. After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned. Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April. Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete. Greece suffered major damages in the war.
+Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war. The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States. The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
+In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy. Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974. Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981. Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States. In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time. Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
+Greece is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom.  It  is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members. It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers. The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
+Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation. It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
+Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975.  Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973, but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests.  The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus, and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
+There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament.  Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative).  The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR AND ND. Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others. SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
+The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'. As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece.[9] Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011.[9] The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is. All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
+1. Attica — Athens
+2. Central Greece — Lamia
+3. Central Macedonia — Thessaloniki
+4. Crete — Heraklion
+5. East Macedonia and Thrace — Komotini
+6. Epirus — Ioannina
+7. Ionian Islands — Corfu
+8. North Aegean — Mytilene
+9. Peloponnese — Tripoli
+10. South Aegean — Ermoupoli
+11. Thessaly — Larissa
+12. West Greece — Patras
+13. West Macedonia — Kozani
+Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom. The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million. Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country.[10] There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population.[10] Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.[10]
+The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace. The dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority. The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of Macedonia in Greece.[10] The Republic of Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of Macedonia. This is also supported by international organizations.[11]
+The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies. A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978. In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
+There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag. One says that the blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breakaway from tyranny and blue for Greece. There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’ The cross stands for Christianity.
+Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France. Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world. Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece. In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
+Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries. Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them. The pension system is especially expensive.
+This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion, or debt by 170 per-cent of the country's total GDP.[12][13]  Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells.  The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
+About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year. That is more than the country’s entire population. To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports. Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.[14]

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα [eˈlaða] or Ελλάς [eˈlas]), officially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία [eliniˈkʲi ðimokraˈtia]),[8] (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital city is Athens.
+It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West. Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands. 80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
+Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games.
+Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister. The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial. He is the head of state, not head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people. Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis.
+The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population identifies as Christian Orthodox. Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools. Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981 and adopted the Euro in 2001. Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector and its geostrategic importance, it is classified as a middle power.
+Greece's history is one of the richest in the world. The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations. Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas. Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings. During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India.  Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period).  During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
+Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture. The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization.  When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.  It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years. Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
+The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828.  In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
+In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies. During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south.  Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies.  The country was reunited in 1917, when the King abdicated.  In 1920 Greece expanded again, and briefly reached its maximum size.  The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace.  The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies, when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
+In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion. This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power. After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned. Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April. Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete. Greece suffered major damages in the war.
+Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war. The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States. The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
+In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy. Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974. Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981. Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States. In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time. Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
+Greece is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom.  It  is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members. It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers. The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
+Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation. It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
+Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975.  Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973, but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests.  The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus, and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
+There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament.  Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative).  The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR AND ND. Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others. SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
+The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'. As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece.[9] Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011.[9] The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is. All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
+1. Attica — Athens
+2. Central Greece — Lamia
+3. Central Macedonia — Thessaloniki
+4. Crete — Heraklion
+5. East Macedonia and Thrace — Komotini
+6. Epirus — Ioannina
+7. Ionian Islands — Corfu
+8. North Aegean — Mytilene
+9. Peloponnese — Tripoli
+10. South Aegean — Ermoupoli
+11. Thessaly — Larissa
+12. West Greece — Patras
+13. West Macedonia — Kozani
+Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom. The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million. Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country.[10] There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population.[10] Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.[10]
+The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace. The dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority. The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of Macedonia in Greece.[10] The Republic of Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of Macedonia. This is also supported by international organizations.[11]
+The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies. A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978. In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
+There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag. One says that the blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breakaway from tyranny and blue for Greece. There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’ The cross stands for Christianity.
+Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France. Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world. Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece. In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
+Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries. Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them. The pension system is especially expensive.
+This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion, or debt by 170 per-cent of the country's total GDP.[12][13]  Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells.  The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
+About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year. That is more than the country’s entire population. To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports. Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.[14]

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+Influenza, better known as the flu and sometimes called the grippe, is a common childhood illness, but is not as common among adults. It is not limited to humans, most mammals and many birds can also catch influenza. It is caused by several different viruses (see: RNA virus), which is why people can have the flu more than once. The name influenza comes from Italian: influenza, meaning "influence".
+Human Influenza can pass from one person to another very easily. It is most commonly spread by the microscopic droplets of mucus and fluid that are sent into the air when the sick person coughs or sneezes. Symptoms include cough, sore throat, muscle aches and pains, fever, headache, and rarely vomiting and diarrhoea.  Influenza can also lead to other diseases, such as pneumonia. This makes it especially dangerous to young children and elderly people.
+Although there is no cure for  influenza, Antiviral drugs can be used to treat the illness so it is not as severe and does not last as long.
+The  influenza  season runs from late fall to spring because most people catch it in the winter months. When there are more cases of influenza than expected, it will sometimes be called an epidemic. When there are a large number of cases of the same type of influenza all over the world, it is often called a pandemic.
+Small changes that happen as flu is passed from one person to another is the most common way flu viruses change. This is the main reason that people can catch the flu every year.
+The CDC keeps track of the different flu viruses that are circulating, and gives this information to the companies that make flu shots. Since the flu changes so much from year to year, flu shots have to be given for each new flu season.
+Flu shots only protect against the most common flu viruses, and every now and then a slightly different type spreads more than expected. Usually when this happens, the existing flu shot gives some protection so that even if a person who had a flu shot catches it, they do not get as sick.
+Some flu viruses are caught from animals. Bird flu, for example, is usually only caught by people in contact with sick birds (usually chickens). These types of flu virus are usually very limited, and while they can make a person very ill, usually other people do not catch the virus from the sick person.
+Another way that the flu can change is when a person or animal catches two different flu viruses. The two viruses can exchange some of their genetic information, which can create a brand new flu that nobody has ever caught before.
+If an animal flu virus changes in this way to one that can easily pass from human to human, many people become ill because nobody has any immunity to the new virus. Often, a brand new virus is more severe and kills more people.
+New types of flu virus are usually what causes pandemics, and that is the reason many scientists have been following Bird Flu so closely—it kills six people out of every ten who catch it. This would be a very serious problem if it changes enough to spread easily between people.
+This new flu virus got its name because it contains genetic parts that are commonly found in flu viruses that infect pigs.[1] It is not spread by pigs or by eating pork—this is a new human virus being spread by humans.
+Although information is still coming out about swine flu, so far it does not seem to be as severe as bird flu or the flu that caused the influenza pandemic of 1918 (also known as Spanish flu), but it is much too early to predict whether it will cause the next flu pandemic.

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+Lascaux is the name given to a cave in the Vézère Valley of southwestern France. The Lascaux cave is famous for its cave paintings.
+There are a number of caves near the village of Montignac, in the Dordogne département. One of these caves contains some of the best-known Upper Paleolithic art. Most of the paintings are realistic images of large animals. Many of these animals are known from fossil evidence to have lived in the area at the time. The site of Lascaux was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in 1979, under the name of the Vézère Valley.
+Montignac is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Périgueux, and about 25 kilometres (16 mi) from Sarlat-la-Canéda
+Unfortunately, none of the colors used in Lascaux is based on coal. Therefore, a direct dating of the paintings is not possible. Despite this, Lascaux was one of the first sites, where radiocarbon dating was used. That way, the coal in the fireplaces was dated to about 17,000 years ago. H.Breuil himself thought that the site was older, about 31.000 to 22.000 years old.[1]
+Norbert Anjoulat looked at the style and the theme of the paintings, and found these were close to Solutréen, rather than Magdalénien.[2]
+There are some disagreements about dating the site. The paintings seem to date from 17,000 to 15,000 years ago. Artifacts were also found in the cave, which seem to be older.  The original dating was to about 26,000 years ago.
+Most archaeologists believe that the age of about 17,000 years is accurate, for the following reasons:
+The caves were discovered in 1940. By 1955, about 2000 people visited them every day. In 1968, the original cave was closed to the public, and a system of air conditioning was installed. The cave paintings were restored and  replicas of several paintings were created in other caves nearby, known as Lascaux II and Lascaux III. Today, the original cave is no longer accessible to the public.
+In 2000, another problem emerged: Certain kinds of fungi started to grow in the original cave. These are extremely resistant to the usual fungicides used, even to formaldehyde. The fungus lives in symbiosis with a bacterium which is capable of destroying the fungicide. Therefore, the fungicide needs to be combined with an antibiotic to kill the bacterium as well.
+As of 2006, the situation is more or less under control. The original caves are now sprayed with the fungicide/antibiotic every fortnight. Special workers need to clear the cave walls by hand, removing the mycelium which grows despite the treatment.[3][4][5]

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+The Union win
+Abraham Lincoln
+ Ulysses S. Grant
+ George B. McClellan
+ William T. Sherman
+ Winfield Scott
+ Henry Halleck
+ George G. Meade
+ Joseph Hooker
+ Benjamin F. Butler
+ Philip Sheridan
+ William Rosecrans
+ George H. Thomas
+ John Pope
+ Edward Canby
+Jefferson Davis
+ Robert E. Lee
+ Joseph E. Johnston
+ P. G. T. Beauregard
+ A.S. Johnston
+ Samuel Cooper
+ Braxton Bragg
+ John Bell Hood
+ Stonewall Jackson
+ J.E.B. Stuart
+ Jubal Early
+ James Longstreet
+ Edmund K. Smith
+ John C. Pemberton
+The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war in the United States of America. It is sometimes called "The War Between the States." The war was fought because eleven Southern states wanted to leave the United States of America. They formed the Confederate States of America, also called "the Confederacy." The U.S. government and the states that remained loyal to it were called "the Union."
+The main cause of the war was slavery. Slavery was common in the Southern states, including all 11 that joined the Confederate states. It was illegal in most of the Northern states. The Confederate states tried to leave the Union after Abraham Lincoln, who disliked slavery, was elected President of the United States. The Union believed that it was illegal for the states to break away. Five states where slavery was legal stayed in the Union. These were called the "border states." At first, the Union did not plan to end slavery if it won. This changed in 1862.
+The war began on April 12, 1861 when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a fort in South Carolina held by Union soldiers.[2] It lasted four years and caused much damage in the South. Most battles were in northern states until 1862 and in southern states after 1862. After four years of fighting, the Union won the war. After the Union won, slavery was made illegal everywhere in the United States.
+When the United States of America was founded in 1776, most states allowed slavery.  It is mentioned in the United States Constitution. But over the next 84 years, the Northern states decided that slavery was a bad thing and ended it. The Southern states kept slavery legal. Slaves from Africa grew tobacco, cotton and other cash crops in those states, which made a lot of money for businesses in the north and south.
+The United States became divided into slave and free states. By 1860, those groups were angry at each other, but almost no one was talking about ending slavery in the south.  They argued about whether slavery should be allowed to spread to the territories and new states in the west.  In the late 1850s, there was fighting in Kansas between people who wanted Kansas to allow slavery and those who did not.
+Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party won the 1860 United States presidential election. At that time, Lincoln did not want to ban slavery. He thought that banning it would damage the South. Instead, Lincoln and the Republican Party thought it would be enough to not let slavery start in the west.  They thought slavery would die out on its own if no one let it spread to new places.
+Lincoln became president on March 4, 1861.[3]
+After the election, seven Southern states declared their independence from the Union. The outgoing U.S. president, James Buchanan, said this was against the law, but he did nothing to stop them. Lincoln and his Republican party treated this secession as a rebellion. No country ever recognized the Confederacy as its own, separate nation.[4] This was because of diplomacy on the part of the Union, anti-slavery feelings in Europe and the northern blockade of southern ports.[4]
+The first seven states to join the Confederacy were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. Four others joined after fighting began: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. The Confederacy claimed Kentucky and Missouri belonged to them, but these states never joined the Confederacy. Kentucky, Missouri and Maryland were slave states that tried to avoid taking sides. Delaware supported the Union despite being a slave state. Also, the western counties of Virginia chose to remain in the Union, creating a new state called West Virginia.
+Fighting started when the Confederates shot and threw bombs at Fort Sumter, a Union Army fort. Lincoln then asked the Union states to bring soldiers to fight the Confederates.[5]
+The Confederate States said all forts and other federal buildings in the South belonged to them. Fort Sumter was in South Carolina, one of the Confederate States. However, the fort was controlled by the Union. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces attacked the fort. They forced the Union soldiers inside the fort to surrender. After this, President Lincoln asked every Union state for volunteers to join the Union Army. Four more southern slave states joined the Confederates instead of supplying forces to fight against them.
+The United States Navy stopped other ships from going in or out of southern ports.  This stopped the Confederacy from selling its cotton and other goods. It also made it harder for them to buy weapons and military supplies.[6]
+The American Civil War was fought in three important land areas, or "theaters." The Eastern theater was all land east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Western theater included everything between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River and along the river. The Trans-Mississippi theater included territory west of the Mississippi River.
+Both the United States and the Confederacy had their capital cities in the Eastern theater. Washington D.C. had been the capital of the U.S. since 1800.[7] When the South seceded, its first capital was Montgomery, Alabama but they changed it to Richmond, Virginia. Richmond and Washington are only about 90 miles (145 km) apart. One of the first battles of the war was fought in Virginia. This First Battle of Bull Run happened on July 21, 1861. The Confederates won the battle. The Union Army of the Potomac then tried to capture Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign during the spring of 1862. At this time, Robert E. Lee became leader of the Army of Northern Virginia and defeated the Union army. He then won the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862. Lee tried to win the war by invading Maryland. When he lost the Battle of Antietam, he retreated back to Virginia.
+There was much fighting between ships in the American Civil War but the Union had a stronger and bigger navy. Lincoln put the Confederates under a blockade, which meant the Union navy would not let any ships into or out of southern ports. The Confederates used ships called blockade runners to bring things from Europe. The things the Confederates brought included weapons. The navies of each side also fought on the rivers. The ships included ironclads, which were protected by iron on their sides, and cottonclads, which used cotton along their sides. During the Battle of Hampton Roads, the Confederate ironclad Virginia fought against the Union ironclad Monitor. This was the first time in world history that two ironclads fought each other.
+In the Western theater, much of the fighting happened along the Mississippi River. Ulysses S. Grant was an important Union general in the west. The Confederates tried to send their soldiers into the state of Kentucky during the summer of 1861. During the early months of 1862, the Union army made the Confederates retreat from Kentucky and from western Tennessee. The Confederates tried to recapture western Tennessee by attacking Grant's army at the Battle of Shiloh. Grant won the battle. The Confederates then tried to send their soldiers into eastern Kentucky during the fall of 1862. They left Kentucky after losing the Battle of Perryville.
+The North won control of almost all of the Mississippi River by capturing the cities along the river. This happened during the fall of 1862 and spring of 1863. However, the Confederacy still held Vicksburg, an important city and fort. If they held the city, the Confederates could move soldiers and supplies from one side of the river to the other. Grant started the Siege of Vicksburg during the month of May 1863. The siege continued for a long time. On July 4, 1863, the Confederates in Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. This was one of the turning points in the war, because it divided the Confederacy into two parts.
+There were also battles west of the Mississippi river valley, in the Trans-Mississippi theater. For example, two important battles were the Battle of Wilson's Creek and the Battle of Pea Ridge. The Confederates tried to invade New Mexico during February and March 1862 but they were defeated at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. After the Union captured Vicksburg, this area became separated from the rest of the Confederate states. Other battles happened in this area after the capture of Vicksburg.
+During the siege of Vicksburg in the west, another turning point came in the east. After winning some battles, Lee decided to invade the North again. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia went into Pennsylvania. The Confederate Army met the Union Army near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The two armies fought the Battle of Gettysburg. This battle lasted for three days: July 1 to 3, 1863. More soldiers died at Gettysburg than in any other Civil War battle. The Union won the battle. This meant the Confederate Army's had to stop invading the North. Lee and his troops were pushed back into the South.
+After this, President Lincoln decided that Grant was his best general. He put Grant in control of all the Union armies. Lincoln also made William T. Sherman the general in charge of the Union troops in Georgia. Grant led many attacks on Lee's army. These battles were made up the Overland Campaign.
+Meanwhile, Sherman burned Atlanta and Savannah. He did this to try to make the South weaker and to make it harder for Southern people to supply the Confederate Army with food and other necessities. Sherman then marched north through South Carolina and North Carolina. Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston attacked Sherman at the Battle of Bentonville. Sherman won the battle.  Even in the 20th century, southerners remember Sherman's march as destroying many homes, farms and railroads, but Sherman's soldiers are blamed for things that happened far away from where they were.
+Eventually, Lee decided that he had too few soldiers to keep on fighting the Union, which had more soldiers and supplies. Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865, near Appomattox Court House. After Lee surrendered, many other Confederate armies surrendered also. The last Confederate general to surrender was Brigadier General Stand Watie. He surrendered on June 23, 1865, in Oklahoma.
+After the war ended, President Lincoln pardoned all of the Confederate soldiers. This meant the Confederate soldiers would not be arrested or punished for fighting against the Union. The southern states would be allowed to rejoin the United States again, but not immediately. Some Confederates did not want to return to the United States. Some of these people moved to México or Brazil.
+During the war, inflation was a problem in the Union and a bigger problem in the Confederacy whose government paid for the war by printing a large amount of paper money. Prices went up and everything became more expensive. Many people could not afford the higher prices and went hungry because of this. This was one thing that helped lead to the Confederacy's surrender.
+Many soldiers on both sides died during the war. Most of the war was fought in the South. Many railroads, farms, houses and other things were destroyed and most people there became very poor.
+The period after the war, called Reconstruction, lasted from the end of the war until 1877. The Union Army stayed in some Southern states, making them occupied territory. Three important amendments were added on to the United States Constitution. The amendments were proposed (or suggested) by the U.S. government. Although not every American supported them, the amendments got enough support to pass:
+After the war, some of the Union Army's leaders went into politics. Generals Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Harrison and McKinley became presidents. Other veterans were elected to other offices.
+The southern states were allowed to ask to rejoin the union.  Only after that could they send senators and representatives to the United States Congress again and make their own state laws.  During Reconstruction, black Americans built schools and other social infrastructure.  Some of these schools became the historically black colleges that are still in the United States today.  After southern states rejoined the Union, most of them made laws that limited what black people could do.
+The Amnesty Act of 1872 restored the rights to vote and to hold political office for most of the former members of the Confederacy.[8] Some of them also became politicians.

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+Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. In eukaryotes, there are 20 standard amino acids out of which almost all proteins are made.
+In biochemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that has both amine (NH2+R) and carboxyl (C=O) functional groups. In biochemistry, this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula H2NCHRCOOH, where R is one of many side groups (see diagram).
+About 500 amino acids are known.[1] For animals, the most important thing that amino acids do is to make proteins, which are very long chains of amino acids. Every protein has its own sequence of amino acids, and that sequence makes the protein take different shapes, and have different functions. Amino acids are like the alphabet for proteins; even though you only have a few letters, if you connect them, you can make many different sentences.
+Nine of the 20 standard amino acids are "essential" amino acids for humans. They cannot be built (synthesised) from other compounds by the human body, and so must be taken in as food. Others may be essential for some ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species. Herbivores have to get their essential amino acids from their diet, which for some is almost entirely grass. Ruminants such as cows get some amino acids via microbes in the first two stomach chambers.
+An amino acid is an organic chemical. It consists of an α-carbon atom that is covalently bonded to four groups.[2]
+Every amino acid has at least one amino group (-NH2) and one carboxyl group (-COOH), except proline.
+These are the proteinogenic amino acids, which are the building blocks for proteins. They are produced by cellular machinery coded for in the genetic code of any organism.[3]
+* UAG is normally the amber stop codon, but encodes pyrrolysine if a PYLIS element is present.
+** UGA is normally the opal (or umber) stop codon, but encodes selenocysteine if a SECIS element is present.
+† The stop codon is not an amino acid, but is included for completeness.
+†† UAG and UGA do not always act as stop codons (see above).
+‡ An essential amino acid cannot be synthesized in humans. It must be supplied in the diet. Conditionally essential amino acids are not normally required in the diet, but must be supplied to populations which do not make enough of it.
+To these α-amino acids further in biosynthesis processes appearing non-essential ones are structurally (here by using SMILES notation) related:
+OC(=O)C(N)–