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+Water intoxication
+(see also Dihydrogen monoxide parody)
+
+
+
+Water (H2O) is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and almost colorless chemical substance and covers over 70% of Earth's surface. No known life can live without it.
+
+Lakes, oceans, seas, and rivers are made of water. Precipitation is water that falls from clouds in the sky. It may be rain (liquid) if it is warm, or it may be frozen if it is cold. If water gets very cold (below 0 °C (32 °F)), it freezes and becomes ice, the frozen variant of water.  If water gets very hot (above 100 °C (212 °F)), it boils and becomes steam or water vapor.
+
+Water has been present on Earth since its earlier days and is constantly moved around it by the water cycle.[17] Water is very important for life, probably essential.[18]  However, some studies suggest that by 2025 more than half the people around the world will not have enough fresh water.[19]
+
+Water is a fluid. Water is the only chemical substance on Earth that exists naturally in three states. People know of over 40 anomalies about water.[20][21] Unlike most other liquids such as alcohol or oil, when water freezes, it expands by about 9%.[22][23][24] This expansion can cause pipes to break if the water inside them freezes.
+
+Water is a molecule made of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. Its chemical formula is H2O.
+Like other liquids, water has a surface tension, so a little water can make drops on a surface, rather than always spreading out to wet the surface.[25] Things having something to do with water may have "hydro" or "aqua" in their name, such as hydropower or aquarium, from the Greek and Latin names for water. It is also called the universal solvent, because it dissolves many things.
+
+In small amounts, water appears to have no colour but in large amounts (such as seas or lakes), it has a very light blue color.
+
+Plants and animals (including people) are mostly water inside, and must drink water to live. It gives a medium for chemical reactions to take place, and is the main part of blood. It keeps the body temperature the same by sweating from the skin.  Water helps blood carry nutrients from the stomach to all parts of the body to keep the body alive.  Water also helps the blood carry oxygen from the lungs to the body.  Saliva, which helps animals and people digest food, is mostly water. Water helps make urine. Urine helps remove bad chemicals from the body. The human body is between 60% and 70% water, but this value differs with age; i.e. a foetus is 95% water inside.
+
+Water is the main component of drinks like milk, juice, and wine. Each type of drink also has other things that add flavor or nutrients, things like sugar, fruit, and sometimes alcohol. Water that a person can drink is called "potable water" (or "drinking water"). The water in oceans is salt water, but lakes and rivers usually have unsalted water. Only about 3% of all the water on earth is fresh water. The rest is salt water.[26][27]
+
+Many places, including cities and deserts, don't have as much water as people want. They build aqueducts to bring water there.
+
+Though people can survive a few months without food, they can only survive for a day or two without water.  A few desert animals can get enough water from their food, but the others must drink.
+Water has no smell,taste or color
+
+Water is also used for recreational purposes, see list of water sports.
+
+Water is used as both the coolant and the neutron moderator in most nuclear reactors. This may be ordinary water (called light water in the nuclear industry) or heavy water.
+
+The dihydrogen monoxide parody involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name "dihydrogen monoxide" (DHMO) and listing some of its harmful effects in an alarming way. Some examples include talking about how "it causes burning, suffocation and corrosion," when it's actually just talking about hot water, drowning and rust. Sometimes the parody calls for it to be banned and/or labelled as dangerous.
+
+The prank works because it takes advantage of people's misunderstanding. Calling water by an unfamiliar name and making it sound like a harmful chemical can make people think it's dangerous, if they don't know that you're just talking about water.
+
+"Dihydrogen monoxide" is an alternative chemical name for water, but nobody uses it. The word "dihydrogen" means two hydrogens, and "monoxide" means one oxygen. Water's chemical formula has two hydrogens and one oxygen.
+
+The parody gained most of its popularity in the 1990s, when a 14-year-old named Nathan Zohner collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility. Zohner fooled a lot of people, which has led to his project being used in lessons about critical thinking and the scientific method.
+
+The website DHMO.org is a joke website which lists the harmful effects of water (DHMO), answers questions, and calls for it to be banned among other things.
+
+A BBC short item  explains that every molecule on Earth has existed for billions of years, and all of them came from elsewhere. Water is alien because it arrived on asteroids and comets. It is the second most common molecule in the universe. Why is it not a gas? It is made of two very light elements. Ice floating on water is also an oddity. Also, hot water freezes faster than cold, and no-one knows why this is. Molecules of water can move up against the force of gravity (that's due to surface adhesion).[28]
+
+Much of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation.[30]
+
+On 22 July 2011, a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor containing "140 trillion times more water than all of Earth's oceans combined" around a quasar located 12 billion light years from Earth. According to the researchers, the "discovery shows that water has been prevalent in the universe for nearly its entire existence".[31][32]
+
+Water has been detected in interstellar clouds in our galaxy, the Milky Way.[33] Water probably exists in abundance in other galaxies, too. Its components, hydrogen fiji water  and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Most other planetary systems are likely to have similar ingredients.

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+Chemistry is a branch of  science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how these things work together and change.
+
+Before 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. Today chemists have discovered 118 different elements. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium.
+
+Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions.  With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars.  Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes.
+
+There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which  chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit.
+
+A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.
+
+The basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined together to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.
+
+One very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions.  For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O.  This relationship is known as the "Law of constant proportions" and leads to the idea of "stoichiometry", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds.  For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom.  In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom.  These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O  (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).
+
+Because atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the amount of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of "moles".  A "mole" of any element contains the same number of atoms:  602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.
+
+Moles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 · 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.
+
+Acids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H+ ions when in water, and bases release OH− ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H+ ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, H2O. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.
+
+Chemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.
+
+Many chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly.

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+Organic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds that contain carbon. Carbon has the ability to form a chemical bond with a wide variety of chemical elements and other carbon atoms. This allows a nearly unlimited number of combinations, called organic compounds. The subject of carbon compounds is called organic chemistry because all known organisms, or living things, are made up of water and carbon compounds. Organic chemistry largely involves the synthesis, or formation, of organic products by chemical reaction using different reactants and reagents, the substances used up during a reaction. Several different areas of chemistry expand on the concepts and principles of organic chemistry, including biochemistry, microbiology, and medicine.
+
+The term organic originates from Jons Jacob Berzelius, a 19th century Swedish scientist, who used the term to refer to substances present in living things. During Berzelius’ time, the vital force theory was popular. This theory stated that a life force was needed to produce the organic compounds found only in living things. The vital force theory began losing support after an 1828 experiment conducted by Friedrich Wöhler. His work showed that urea, an organic compound, could be created from ammonium cyanate, an inorganic compound.
+
+The study of hydrocarbons is a very large part of organic chemistry.  Hydrocarbons are molecules containing only the elements carbon and hydrogen in the form of chains.  Hydrocarbons can be classified into two categories based on the presence of a benzene ring, a circular type of hydrocarbon.  Aliphatic hydrocarbons do not contain a benzene ring and aromatic hydrocarbons do.[1]
+
+Organic chemistry reactions happen because electrons are not shared evenly in a chemical bond. Some atoms or molecules, like oxygen, nitrogen, and negatively charged anions, are nucleophilic because they have extra electrons and want to be around positive charges. Others, such as H+ and other positively charged cations, are electrophilic and want to be around negative charges. When an organic molecule has a positive charge, it is called a carbocation. It is also an electrophile. When nucleophiles and electrophiles mix, a reaction can occur.
+
+A reaction mechanism is a series of smaller reactions that form an overall reaction. Two basic mechanism types are substitution and elimination reactions. They are very important in the study of organic chemistry mechanisms because many more complicated mechanisms use them.[2]
+
+Nucleophilic substitution occurs when an atom or group of atoms detaches from an organic molecule and is replaced by another. If the leaving and adding happens at the same time, it is called a SN2 reaction. If the leaving group breaks away from the organic molecule and forms a carbocation before substitution occurs, it is called an SN1 reaction.
+
+Elimination occurs when two groups are broken off of an organic molecule by a strong acid and the resulting charges form a double bond. Usually one of the groups is a nucleophile and the other is a hydrogen atom.  If both groups are pulled off at the same time, it is called an E2 reaction. If one group is pulled off first and forms a carbocation before the second group is removed, it is called an E1 reaction.
+
+Stereochemistry is the study of molecules in space. It looks into the arrangement of atoms inside of molecules in space relative to one another and how they will interact. Molecules that have the same chemical make up but are arranged differently are called isomers. Famous chemist Louis Pasteur was an early researcher of stereochemistry.
+
+A central part of the study of sterochemistry is chirality. Put simply, chirality looks at the symmetry in chemical molecules. If an object cannot be superimposed onto its mirror image, then it is a chiral object. If it can, it is called achiral.
+
+Spectroscopy is the study of the interactions between light energy and matter. We are able to see colors because of energy absorption by organic and inorganic compounds. When a plant undergoes photosynthesis, it traps energy from the sun, and this is an example of an interaction between energy and organic compounds.
+
+Spectroscopy is used to identify organic molecules in unknown compounds. There are many types of spectroscopy, but most important to organic chemistry are infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

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+Chemistry is a branch of  science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how these things work together and change.
+
+Before 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. Today chemists have discovered 118 different elements. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium.
+
+Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions.  With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars.  Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes.
+
+There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which  chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit.
+
+A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.
+
+The basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined together to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.
+
+One very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions.  For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O.  This relationship is known as the "Law of constant proportions" and leads to the idea of "stoichiometry", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds.  For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom.  In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom.  These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O  (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).
+
+Because atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the amount of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of "moles".  A "mole" of any element contains the same number of atoms:  602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.
+
+Moles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 · 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.
+
+Acids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H+ ions when in water, and bases release OH− ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H+ ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, H2O. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.
+
+Chemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.
+
+Many chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly.

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+Chemistry is a branch of  science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how these things work together and change.
+
+Before 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. Today chemists have discovered 118 different elements. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium.
+
+Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions.  With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars.  Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes.
+
+There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which  chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit.
+
+A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.
+
+The basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined together to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.
+
+One very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions.  For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O.  This relationship is known as the "Law of constant proportions" and leads to the idea of "stoichiometry", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds.  For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom.  In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom.  These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O  (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).
+
+Because atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the amount of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of "moles".  A "mole" of any element contains the same number of atoms:  602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.
+
+Moles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 · 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.
+
+Acids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H+ ions when in water, and bases release OH− ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H+ ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, H2O. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.
+
+Chemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.
+
+Many chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly.

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+Alberta is a province in western Canada. It is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia on the west, Saskatchewan on the east, the US state of Montana on the south and the Northwest Territories to the North.
+
+Alberta is the fourth largest Canadian province with an area of 642,317 km².[1] Alberta has more or less than 3,305,800 people making it the fourth most populous province in Canada.
+
+The capital of Alberta is Edmonton lying near the middle of Alberta. The city of Calgary, Alberta’s other major centre, is located about 300 kilometres to the south.
+
+Canada became a country in 1867. It was much smaller than it is now, and did not include the parts of the country to the west. From 1670 to 1870, parts of Alberta were included in "Rupert's Land," land owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company in support of it’s trading monopoly over a vast area of Canada and parts of the United States. Northern part of Alberta was part of the what was then called "Northwestern Territories."
+
+Alberta was made a province of Canada in 1905, at the same time as Saskatchewan.
+
+The Aboriginal peoples of Canada are referred to as First Nations or by the Name of their Nation. Mixed (European/Aboriginal) People are called Metis.
+
+Some parts of Alberta get a lot of snow in the winter. Alberta is very cold in the winter. There is a dry part of Alberta in the south.
+
+Alberta has a huge amount of oil (in the Athabasca Oil Sands) and natural gas.
+
+There are also a lot of farms in Alberta. Farmers grow several different types of crops Farmers mainly grow wheat. There are also a lot of cows on Alberta farms, and Alberta beef is exported.
+
+There is diesel fuel in Alberta.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

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+
+
+The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), also known as the robust chimpanzee, is a species of great ape. The common chimpanzee is often called the chimpanzee (or simply "chimp"), though this can be used to refer to both species in the genus Pan: the common chimpanzee and the closely related bonobo. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing show both species of chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to modern humans.
+
+The common chimpanzee is more robust than the bonobo, weighing between 40 and 65 kg (88 and 143 lb) and measuring approximately 1.3 to 1.6 m (4 ft 3 in to 5 ft 3 in) from head to tail. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old, but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several more years; it reaches puberty at the age of eight to 10, and its lifespan in captivity is about 50 years.
+
+The common chimpanzee lives in groups which range from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a male-dominated, strict hierarchy, so disputes can generally be settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them for acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts, and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees.
+
+The common chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range in the forests and savannahs of West and Central Africa. The biggest threats to the common chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching and disease.
+
+Jane Goodall discovered that chimps hunt and eat smaller primates such as Colobus monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus.[2] The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours.[2] The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as one-third of the colobus population in the park each year.[3] This alone was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior.
+
+Also startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence within chimpanzee troops. Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance,[3] sometimes going as far as cannibalism.[4][5]
+
+She says of this revelation, "During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings. […] Then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal—that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature".[4] These findings revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour. They were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner.
+
+If they can, male chimpanzees try to kill the male members of neighbouring groups. Males work together when they spot a chance to make a lightning raid on an isolated male from the other group. They kill him. In Gombe, Tanzania, a group in the 1970s was seen to kill seven of their neighbours one by one, until all were gone. It can take years for this to happen but, when it does, the remaining females and the neighbouring territory are added to the now larger group. Attacks like this are carefully planned, done only when success is likely, and carried out in silence. Their behaviour is quite different from any other behaviour known in chimpanzees:
+
+The advantage for the males that triumph is to breed more children. Their tribe also holds a larger territory, and so has access to more food.[8] Several authors have drawn a connection between this behaviour and the origins of human warfare.[6][9][10]

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+
+
+Chimpanzees are great apes. They live in Africa.
+
+The common chimpanzee lives in West and Central Africa. The bonobo lives in the rain forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The two species are on opposite sides of the Congo River.
+
+Chimpanzees mainly eat fruit, leaves, flowers, seeds, bark, honey, insects, bird eggs, and meat. They spend a lot of time with other chimpanzees from their group, acting up, playing, and chatting. Sometimes they will groom each other; combing and looking through each other's thick fur; picking out the dirt and insects. Grooming helps chimps feel comfortable and friendly.
+
+Like gorillas and orangutans, chimpanzees can walk on two feet, but they prefer to move about on all four legs. On the ground, they walk on their hind feet and knuckles.[1][2][3] They have hands that look like human hands, but their thumbs are shorter than those of humans. At night, chimpanzees sleep in nests that they make on tree branches. They bend twigs and tuck in leaves to make a soft platform to rest in a place that is safe from enemies on the ground. The gestation period of chimpanzees lasts between six and eight months. Usually only one offspring is produced; they rarely have twins. Chimpanzees live up to 60 years in the wild.[4]
+
+Jane Goodall has studied chimpanzees since 1960. She observed how chimpanzees use tools in several ways. They will pick up rocks to crack nuts for a meal. They also strip down twigs and stick them into a termite mound to collect a tasty snack. Some have been known to make a sponge from leaves in order to hold more drinking water. The chimp chews leaves to soften them up, dips them in rainwater, and then squeezes the water into its mouth. Chimpanzees are also known to think ahead and solve problems.[5][6]
+
+The behavior described in this section refers to the common chimpanzee. At present there is no evidence that the bonobo has a similar level of aggressive behavior.
+
+Chimpanzees attack Colobus monkeys by working as a team to corner them in the high branches of the trees. Then they tear the monkey apart and eat it.[7] It is thought the main benefit is that meat is a more rich source of nutrition than their usual vegetarian diet.
+
+If they can, male chimpanzees try to kill the male members of neighboring groups. Males work together when they spot a chance to make a lightning raid on an isolated male from the other group. They kill him. In Gombe, Tanzania, a group in the 1970s was seen to kill seven of their neighbors one by one, until all were gone. It can take years for this to happen but, when it does, the remaining females and the neighboring territory are added to the now larger group. Attacks like this are carefully planned, done only when success is likely, and carried out in silence.
+
+The advantage for the males that triumph is to breed more children. Their tribe also holds a larger territory, and so has access to more food.[8] Several authors have drawn a connection between this behaviour and the origins of human warfare.[9][10][11]
+
+Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology studied chimpanzees in Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. The project followed four groups of chimpanzees for twenty years. They found that female chimpanzees patrolled territory and fought with chimpanzees from other groups too, not just males. The scientists wondered if human beings have been imagining that male chimpanzees do all the fighting because we think of human warfare being done mostly by men.[12][13][14]
+
+Chimpanzees show their emotions with their faces and sounds. They make hooting sounds to express the discovery of food, and the face of a chimpanzee with a scowling face and lips pressed is to express annoyance. This means the chimpanzee may attack. Or, the chimpanzee may bare its teeth to express that it is afraid or that a more dominant chimp is approaching.[4]p74/5
+
+According to a genome study done by the Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium, humans share either 96% or 95% of their DNA with chimpanzees. However, this applies only to single nucleotide polymorphisms, that is, changes in single base pairs only. The full picture is rather different.
+
+24% of the chimpanzee genome does not align with the human genome, and so cannot be directly compared. There are 3% further alignment gaps, 1.23% SNP differences, and 2.7% copy number variations totaling at least 30% differences between chimpanzee and Homo sapiens genomes. On the other hand, 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee proteins.[15]

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+
+
+The bonobo, Pan paniscus, is a great ape and the smaller of the two species making up the genus Pan (the other is Pan troglodytes, the common chimpanzee). The bonobo is sometimes called the dwarf or pygmy chimpanzee.[2] Although the name "chimpanzee" is sometimes used to refer to both species together, it is usually understood to mean the common chimpanzee, while Pan paniscus is usually referred to as the bonobo.
+
+The bonobo lives in rain forest, in a 500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi) area south of the Congo River. This is in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central Africa.
+
+The bonobo has high levels of sexual behavior. Sex functions in conflict appeasement, affection, social status, excitement, and stress reduction. It occurs in virtually all partner combinations and in a variety of positions. This may explain the lower levels of aggression in the bonobo as compared to the common chimpanzee and other apes. Bonobos are matriarchal and a male's rank in the social hierarchy is often determined by his mother's rank.
+
+The two chimpanzee species are separated by the huge Congo River. Its formation 1.5–2 million years ago may have led to the speciation of the bonobo. Their population is between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals. The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened by habitat destruction, human population growth and commercial poaching. The bonobo lives for about 40 years in captivity,[3] though its lifespan in the wild is unknown.

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

ensimple/1085.html.txt

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+People's Republic of China
+ Republic of China (Taiwan)
+ Singapore (one of four official languages)
+ Wa State (alongside the Wa language)
+
+Information:
+     Countries identified Chinese as a primary, administrative or native language
+     Countries with more than 5,000,000 Chinese speakers
+     Countries with more than 1,000,000 Chinese speakers
+     Countries with more than 500,000 Chinese speakers
+     Countries with more than 100,000 Chinese speakers
+
+The Chinese language is the group of languages used by Chinese people in China and elsewhere. It forms part of a language family called the Sino-Tibetan family of languages.
+
+Chinese includes many regional language varieties, the main ones being Mandarin, Wu, Yue and Min. These are not mutually intelligible[4] and many of the regional varieties are themselves a number of non-mutually-intelligible subvarieties.[5] As a result, many linguists refer to these varieties as separate languages.[6]
+
+'Chinese' can refer to the written or the spoken languages. Although there are many spoken Chinese languages, they use the same writing system.[7] Differences in speaking are reflected in differences in writing. Official China adopts a similar policy to the one in the Soviet Union, using one official language so people can understand each other. The Standard Chinese language is referred to as Mandarin in English, "Pǔtōnghuà" or "common to everybody speech" in mainland China and "Guóyǔ" or "language of the whole country" in Taiwan. All official documents are written in Mandarin and Mandarin is taught all over China. It is also a standard for language teaching in some other countries.
+
+Chinese is used by the Han people in China and other ethnic groups in China who are declared Chinese by the Chinese government. Chinese is almost always written in Chinese characters. They are symbols that have meaning, called logograms. They also give some indication of pronunciation, but the same character can get very different pronunciations among the different kinds of Chinese.  Since Chinese characters have been around for at least 3500 years, people in places far from each other say them differently, just as "1, 2, 3" can be read differently in different languages.
+
+Chinese people needed to write down pronunciations in dictionaries. Chinese does not have an alphabet, so how to write down sounds was a big problem in the beginning. Nowadays the Mandarin language uses Hanyu Pinyin to represent the sounds in Roman letters.
+
+All the Chinese languages (or dialects) use tones. This means that they use high and low pitches to help make differences in meaning clear.
+
+The Chinese language is like a big tree. The base of the tree started thousands of years ago. It now has several main limbs. Some people call "just a branch" what other people call a main limb, so you can say there are six or seven main limbs. Each of these main limbs splits off into branches about the way there are branches of English spoken in Great Britain, the United States, Australia, India, and so forth.  Just as the Romance languages all come from the area around Rome and are based on Latin, the Chinese languages all have some common source, so they keep many common things among them.
+
+Here are the main seven main groups of languages/dialects of Chinese by size:
+
+In 1956, the government of the People's Republic of China made public a set of simplified Chinese characters to make learning, reading and writing the Chinese language easier. In Mainland China and Singapore, people use these simpler characters. In Hong Kong, Taiwan and other places where they speak Chinese, people still use the more traditional characters. The Korean language also uses Chinese characters to represent certain words. The Japanese language uses them even more often. These characters are known in Korean as Hanja and in Japanese as Kanji.
+
+A Chinese person with a good education today knows 6,000-7,000 characters. About 3,000 Chinese characters are needed to read a Mainland newspaper. However, people who have learned only the 400 most frequently used characters can read a newspaper—but they will have to guess some less-used words.
+
+Here are some samples of some words and sentences in Mandarin Chinese. Simplified Characters are on the left, and Traditional characters are on the right. The pronunciation is given in the pinyin system, which may not always be as simple as it looks for those who have not studied it.
+
+The Traditional Characters are now used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Chinese from Mainland China uses the Simplified Characters, but may recognize Traditional Characters.
+
+Before 1956, Chinese was written using only Traditional Characters. At that time most Chinese people could not read or write at all. The government of the People's Republic of China thought that the Traditional characters were very hard to understand. They also thought that if they made the characters simpler more people could learn how to read and write. Today, many people in China can read and write with the new Simplified Characters.

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+
+
+Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758[3][4]
+
+Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are domesticated mammals, not natural wild animals. They were originally bred from wolves. They have been bred by humans for a long time, and were the first animals ever to be domesticated. There are different studies that suggest that this happened between 15.000 and 100.000 years before our time. The dingo is also a dog, but many dingos have become wild animals again and live independently of humans in the range where they occur (parts of Australia).
+
+Today,  some dogs are used as pets, others are used to help humans do their work. They are a popular pet because they are usually playful, friendly, loyal and listen to humans. Thirty million dogs in the United States are registered as pets.[5] Dogs eat both meat and vegetables, often mixed together and sold in stores as dog food. Dogs often have jobs, including as police dogs, army dogs, assistance dogs, fire dogs, messenger dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, or rescue dogs.
+
+They are sometimes called "canines" from the Latin word for dog - canis. Sometimes people also use "dog" to describe other canids, such as wolves. A baby dog is called a pup or puppy. A dog is called a puppy until it is about one year old.
+
+Dogs are sometimes referred to as "man's best friend" because they are kept as domestic pets and are usually loyal and like being around humans.  Dogs like to be petted, but only when they can first see the petter's hand before petting; one should never pet a dog from behind.
+
+August 26 is National Dog Day.[6] While March 26 is National Puppy Day.[7]
+
+Dogs have four legs and make a "bark," "woof," or "arf" sound. Dogs often chase cats, and most dogs will fetch a ball or stick.
+
+Dogs can smell and hear better than humans, but cannot see well in color because they are color blind. Due to the anatomy of the eye, dogs can see better in dim light than humans. They also have a wider field of vision.
+
+Like wolves, wild dogs travel in groups called packs. Packs of dogs are ordered by rank, and dogs with low rank will submit to other dogs with higher rank. The highest ranked dog is called the alpha male. A dog in a group helps and cares for others. Domesticated dogs often view their owner as the alpha male.[8]
+
+Different dog breeds have different lifespans. In general, smaller dogs live longer than bigger ones.[9] The size and the breed of the dog change how long the dog lives, on average. Breeds such as the Dachshund usually live for fifteen years, Chihuahuas can reach age twenty. The Great Dane, on the other hand has an average lifespan of six to eight years; some Great Danes have lived for ten years.
+
+All dogs are descended from wolves, by domestication and artificial selection. This is known because DNA genome analysis has been done to discover this.[10][11] They have been bred by humans. The earliest known fossil of a domestic dog is from 31,700 years ago in Belgium.[12] Dogs have lived with people for at least 30,000 years. In 2013, a study was published that showed that the skull and teeth of a canid, dated to 33,000 years ago, had characteristics closer to a dog than to a wolf, and the authors conclude that "this specimen may represent a dog in the very early stages of domestication, i.e. an “incipient” dog."  The researchers go on to suggest that it was, however, a line that did not lead to modern dogs.[13] Genetically, this material is closer to that of a modern dog than to that of a wolf.[14] Other signs of domestication are that sometimes, dogs were buried together with humans.[15] Evidence of this is a tomb in Bonn, where a man of about 50 years of age, a woman of about 25 years of age, the remains of a dog, plus other artifacts were found. Radiocarbon dating showed that the human bones were between 13.300 and 14.000 years old.
+
+Dogs are often called "man's best friend" because they fit in with human life. Man refers to humankind and not just guys (Old English). Dogs can serve people in many ways. For example, there are guard dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, guide dogs for blind people, and police dogs. There are also dogs that are trained to smell for diseases in the human body or to find bombs or illegal drugs. These dogs sometimes help police in airports or other areas. Sniffer dogs (usually beagles) are sometimes trained for this job. Dogs have even been sent by Russians into outer space, a few years before any human being. The first dog sent up was named Laika, but she died within a few hours.
+
+A search and rescue dog searches for victims in the debris of a collapsed building in Tehran
+
+Dog herding sheep
+
+A guide dog
+
+Many dogs are used for hunting
+
+Guard dogs in Cameroon
+
+There are at least 800 breeds (kinds) of dogs. Dogs whose parents were the same breed will also be that breed: these dogs are called purebred or pure pedigree dogs. Dogs with parents from different breeds no longer belong to one breed: they are called mutts, mixed-breed dogs, hybrids, or mongrels. Some of the most popular breeds are sheepdogs, collies, poodles and retrievers. It is becoming popular to breed together two different breeds of dogs and call the new dog's breed a name that is a mixture of the parents' breeds' two names. A puppy with a poodle and a pomeranian as parents might be called a Pomapoo. These kinds of dogs, instead of being called mutts, are known as designer dog breeds. These dogs are normally used for prize shows and designer shows.
+They can be guide dogs.
+
+Golden Retriever
+
+Boxer
+
+Dobermann
+
+Dalmatian
+
+Briard
+
+Scottish Terrier
+
+Maltese
+
+Dachshund
+
+German Shepherd
+
+Pug

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+Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family.
+
+Native Americans used tobacco before Europeans arrived in the Americas.  The earliest know use of tobacco comes  from  nicotine residue from a  pipe in the Southeastern United States.  It is Radiocarbon dated  at  1685-1530 BC. [2] Europeans in the Americas learned to smoke and brought it back to Europe, where it became very popular. At that time tobacco was usually smoked in a pipe.
+
+The Europeans who moved to America started to farm tobacco so that they could sell it in Europe. This became one of the main causes of the African slave trade. In 1610 a European man called John Rolfe arrived in the American state of Virginia and set up a tobacco farm which made him very rich. Rolfe was the first  non-native farmer to use nicotiana tabacum, which is the type of tobacco most commonly smoked today. He also married Pocahontas, a Native American woman who became famous when she went to live in London.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries tobacco made farmers very rich and towns quickly grew in the states of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1883 one third of United States tax money came from tobacco.
+
+In 1864 the first American tobacco factory opened to produce 20 million cigarettes annually. By 1964 the cigarette contained over 500 added chemicals. Today tobacco manufacturers are still not required by law to list the 500+ ingredients.
+
+Tobacco users (especially smokers) risk many very serious and often deadly illnesses, such as cancer, strokes, heart disease, and lung disease. The United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature (early) death worldwide". There are over 4800 chemicals in tobacco, including arsenic. Sixty-four of them are known to cause cancer. Smoking can also make men lose erections, and make their penises a bit smaller.[3]
+

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+
+
+Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born scientist.[4] He worked on theoretical physics.[5] He developed the theory of relativity.[3][6] He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics. His famous equation is 
+
+
+
+E
+=
+m
+
+c
+
+2
+
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}
+
+ (E = energy, m = mass, c = speed of light).
+
+At the beginning of his career, Einstein did not think that Newtonian mechanics was enough to reconcile (bring together) the laws of classical mechanics and the laws of the electromagnetic field. Between 1902–1909 he developed the theory of special relativity to correct that. Einstein also thought that Isaac Newton's idea of gravity was not completely correct. So, he extended his ideas on special relativity to include gravity. In 1916 he published a paper on general relativity with his theory of gravitation.
+
+In 1933, Einstein was visiting the United States. In Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power. Einstein, being of Jewish ethnicity, did not return to Germany due to Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies.[7] He lived in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940.[8] On the beginning of World War II, he sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining to him that Germany was in the process of making a nuclear weapon; so Einstein recommended that the US should also make one. This led to the Manhattan Project, and the US became the first nation in history to create and use the atomic bomb (not on Germany though but Japan). Einstein and other physicists like Richard Feynman who worked on the Manhattan project later regretted that the bomb was used on Japan.[9]
+
+Einstein lived in Princeton and was one of the first members invited to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he worked for the remainder of his life. He is widely considered one of the greatest scientists of all time. His contributions helped lay the foundations for all modern branches of physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity.
+
+Einstein was born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany, on 14 March 1879.[10] His family was Jewish, but was not very religious. However, later in life Einstein became very interested in his Judaism. Einstein did not begin speaking until he was 2 years old. According to his younger sister, Maja, "He had such difficulty with language that those around him feared he would never learn".[11] When Einstein was around 4 years old, his father gave him a magnetic compass. He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always pointed north. The needle was in a closed case, so clearly nothing like wind could be pushing the needle around, and yet it moved. So in this way Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics. His compass gave him ideas to explore the world of science.
+
+When he became older, he went to a school in Switzerland. After he graduated, he got a job in the patent office there. While he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist.
+
+Einstein married with a 20-year-old Serbian woman Mileva Marić in January 1903.
+
+In 1917, Einstein became very sick with an illness that almost killed him. His cousin Elsa Löwenthal nursed him back to health. After this happened, Einstein divorced Mileva in 14 February 1919, and married Elsa on 2 June 1919.
+
+Einstein's first daughter was "Lieserl" (no one knows her real name). She was born in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Austria-Hungary in the first months of 1902. She spent her very short life (believed to be less than 2 years) in the care of Serbian grandparents. It is believed she died from scarlet fever.[12] Some believe she may have been born with the disorder called Down syndrome, although it never proves. No one knew her very existence until 1986, when Einstein's granddaughter discovered a shoe box containing 54 love letters (most of them from Einstein), exchanged between Mileva and Einstein from 1897 to September 1903.[13]
+
+Einstein's two sons were Hans Albert Einstein and Eduard Tete Einstein. Hans was born in Bern, Switzerland in May 1904 and Eduard was born in Zürich, Switzerland in July 1910. Eduard died at 55 years old of a stroke in Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich . He had spent his life in and out of asylums due to his Schizophrenia.
+
+Just before the start of World War I, he moved back to Germany, and became head of a school there. He lived in Berlin until the Nazi government came to power. The Nazis hated people who were Jewish or who came from Jewish families. They accused Einstein of helping to create "Jewish physics," and German physicists tried to prove that his theories were wrong.
+
+In 1933, under death threats from the Nazis and hated by the Nazi-controlled German press, Einstein and Elsa moved to Princeton, New Jersey in the United States, and in 1940 he became a United States citizen.
+
+During World War II, Einstein and Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to say that the United States should invent an atomic bomb so that the Nazi government could not beat them to the punch. He was the only one who signed the letter. However, he was not part of the Manhattan Project, which was the project that created the atomic bomb.[14]
+
+Einstein, a Jew but not an Israeli citizen, was offered the presidency in 1952 but turned it down, stating "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it."[15] Ehud Olmert was reported to be considering offering the presidency to another non-Israeli, Elie Wiesel, but he was said to be "very not interested".[16]
+
+He taught physics at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey until his death on 18 April 1955 of a burst aortic aneurysm. He was still writing about quantum physics hours before he died.
+He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
+
+The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905, in the paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. It says that both distance measurements and time measurements change near the speed of light. This means that as one get closer to the speed of light (nearly 300,000 kilometres per second), lengths appear to get shorter, and clocks tick more slowly. Einstein said that special relativity is based on two ideas. The first is that the laws of physics are the same for all observers that are not moving in relation to each other.
+
+Things going in the same direction at the same speed are said to be in an "inertial frame".
+
+People in the same "frame" measure how long something takes to happen. Their clocks keep the same time. But in another "frame" their clocks move at a different rate. The reason this happens is as follows. No matter how an observer is moving, if he measures the speed of the light coming from that star it will always be the same number.
+
+Imagine an astronaut were all alone in a different universe. It just has an astronaut and a spaceship. Is he moving? Is he standing still? Those questions do not mean anything. Why? Because when we say we are moving we mean that we can measure our distance from something else at various times. If the numbers get bigger we are moving away. If the numbers get smaller we are moving closer. To have movement you must have at least two things. An airplane can be moving at several hundred kilometers per hour, but passengers say, "I am just sitting here."
+
+Suppose some people are on a spaceship and they want to make an accurate clock. At one end they put a mirror, and at the other end they put a simple machine. It shoots one short burst of light toward the mirror and then waits. The light hits the mirror and bounces back. When it hits a light detector on the machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another short burst of light toward the mirror, and when that light comes back the machine says, "Count = 2." They decide that a certain number of bounces will be defined as a second, and they make the machine change the seconds counter every time it has detected that number of bounces. Every time it changes the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a porthole under the machine. So somebody outside can see the light flashing every second.
+
+Every grade school child learns the formula d=rt (distance equals rate multiplied by time). We know the speed of light, and we can easily measure the distance between the machine and the mirror and multiple that to give the distance the light travels. So we have both d and r, and we can easily calculate t. The people on the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they are satisfied that they can measure time well using their new light clock.
+
+Now this spaceship happens to be going very fast. They see a flash from the clock on the space ship, and then they see another flash. Only the flashes do not come a second apart. They come at a slower rate. Light always goes at the same speed, d = rt. That is why the clock on the spaceship is not flashing once a second for the outside observer.
+
+Special relativity also relates energy with mass, in Albert Einstein's E=mc2 formula.
+
+E=mc2, also called the mass-energy equivalence, is one of the things that Einstein is most famous for. It is a famous equation in physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to energy or energy changes to mass. The "E" in the equation stands for energy. Energy is a number which you give to objects depending on how much they can change other things. For instance, a brick hanging over an egg can put enough energy onto the egg to break it. A feather hanging over an egg does not have enough energy to hurt the egg.
+
+There are three basic forms of energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, and rest energy. Two of these forms of energy can be seen in the examples given above, and in the example of a pendulum.
+
+
+
+A cannonball hangs on a rope from an iron ring. A horse pulls the cannonball to the right side. When the cannonball is released it will move back and forth as diagrammed. It would do that forever except that the movement of the rope in the ring and rubbing in other places causes friction, and the friction takes away a little energy all the time. If we ignore the losses due to friction, then the energy provided by the horse is given to the cannonball as potential energy. (It has energy because it is up high and can fall down.) As the cannonball swings down it gains more and more speed, so the nearer the bottom it gets the faster it is going and the harder it would hit you if you stood in front of it. Then it slows down as its kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy. "Kinetic energy" just means the energy something has because it is moving. "Potential energy" just means the energy something has because it is in some higher position than something else.
+
+When energy moves from one form to another, the amount of energy always remains the same. It cannot be made or destroyed. This rule is called the "conservation law of energy". For example, when you throw a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the ball as you release it. But the energy that was in your hand, and now the energy that is in the ball, is the same number. For a long time, people thought that the conservation of energy was all there was to talk about.
+
+When energy transforms into mass, the amount of energy does not remain the same. When mass transforms into energy, the amount of energy also does not remain the same. However, the amount of matter and energy remains the same. Energy turns into mass and mass turns into energy in a way that is defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc2.
+
+The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass. Mass is the amount of matter there is in some body. If you knew the number of protons and neutrons in a piece of matter such as a brick, then you could calculate its total mass as the sum of the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (Electrons are so small that they are almost negligible.) Masses pull on each other, and a very large mass such as that of the Earth pulls very hard on things nearby. You would weigh much more on Jupiter than on Earth because Jupiter is so huge. You would weigh much less on the Moon because it is only about one-sixth the mass of Earth. Weight is related to the mass of the brick (or the person) and the mass of whatever is pulling it down on a spring scale – which may be smaller than the smallest moon in the solar system or larger than the Sun.
+
+Mass, not weight, can be transformed into energy. Another way of expressing this idea is to say that matter can be transformed into energy. Units of mass are used to measure the amount of matter in something. The mass or the amount of matter in something determines how much energy that thing could be changed into.
+
+Energy can also be transformed into mass. If you were pushing a baby buggy at a slow walk and found it easy to push, but pushed it at a fast walk and found it harder to move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby buggy. Then if you tried to run and found that moving the buggy at any faster speed was like pushing against a brick wall, you would be very surprised. The truth is that when something is moved then its mass is increased. Human beings ordinarily do not notice this increase in mass because at the speed humans ordinarily move the increase in mass in almost nothing.
+
+As speeds get closer to the speed of light, then the changes in mass become impossible not to notice. The basic experience we all share in daily life is that the harder we push something like a car the faster we can get it going. But when something we are pushing is already going at some large part of the speed of light we find that it keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get it going faster. It is impossible to make any mass go at the speed of light because to do so would take infinite energy.
+
+Sometimes a mass will change to energy. Common examples of elements that make these changes we call radioactivity are radium and uranium. An atom of uranium can lose an alpha particle (the atomic nucleus of helium) and become a new element with a lighter nucleus. Then that atom will emit two electrons, but it will not be stable yet. It will emit a series of alpha particles and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what we call lead. By throwing out all these particles that have mass it has made its own mass smaller. It has also produced energy.[17]
+
+In most radioactivity, the entire mass of something does not get changed to energy. In an atomic bomb, uranium is transformed into krypton and barium. There is a slight difference in the mass of the resulting krypton and barium, and the mass of the original uranium, but the energy that is released by the change is huge. One way to express this idea is to write Einstein's equation as:
+
+E = (muranium – mkrypton and barium) c2
+
+The c2 in the equation stands for the speed of light squared. To square something means to multiply it by itself, so if you were to square the speed of light, it would be 299,792,458 meters per second, times 299,792,458 meters per second, which is approximately 
+(3•108)2 =
+(9•1016 meters2)/seconds2=
+90,000,000,000,000,000 meters2/seconds2
+So the energy produced by one kilogram would be:
+E = 1 kg • 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters2/seconds2
+E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 kg meters2/seconds2
+or
+E = 90,000,000,000,000,000 joules
+or
+E = 90,000 terajoule
+
+About 60 terajoules were released by the atomic bomb that exploded over Hiroshima.[18] So about two-thirds of a gram of the radioactive mass in that atomic bomb must have been lost (changed into energy), when the uranium changed into krypton and barium.
+
+The idea of a Bose-Einstein condensate came out of a collaboration between S. N. Bose and Prof. Einstein. Einstein himself did not invent it but, instead, refined the idea and helped it become popular.
+
+The concept of zero-point energy was developed in Germany by Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in 1913.
+
+In classical physics, momentum is explained by the equation:
+
+where
+
+When Einstein generalized classical physics to include the increase of mass due to the velocity of the moving matter, he arrived at an equation that predicted energy to be made of two components. One component involves "rest mass" and the other component involves momentum, but momentum is not defined in the classical way. The equation typically has values greater than zero for both components:
+
+where
+
+There are two special cases of this equation.
+
+A photon has no rest mass, but it has momentum. (Light reflecting from a mirror pushes the mirror with a force that can be measured.) In the case of a photon, because its m0 = 0, then:
+
+The energy of a photon can be computed from its frequency ν or wavelength λ. These are related to each other by Planck's relation, E = hν = hc/λ, where h is the Planck constant (6.626×10−34 joule-seconds). Knowing either frequency or wavelength, you can compute the photon's momentum.
+
+In the case of motionless particles with mass, since p = 0, then:
+
+which is just
+
+Therefore, the quantity "m0" used in Einstein's equation is sometimes called the "rest mass." (The "0" reminds us that we are talking about the energy and mass when the speed is 0.) This famous "mass-energy relation" formula (usually written without the "0"s) suggests that mass has a large amount of energy, so maybe we could convert some mass to a more useful form of energy. The nuclear power industry is based on that idea.
+
+Einstein said that it was not a good idea to use the classical formula relating momentum to velocity, p = mv, but that if someone wanted to do that, he would have to use a particle mass m that changes with speed:
+
+In this case, we can say that E = mc2 is also true for moving particles.
+
+The General Theory of Relativity was published in 1915, ten years after the special theory of relativity was created. Einstein's general theory of relativity uses the idea of spacetime. Spacetime is the fact that we have a four-dimensional universe, having three spatial (space) dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension. Any physical event happens at some place inside these three space dimensions, and at some moment in time. According to the general theory of relativity, any mass causes spacetime to curve, and any other mass follows these curves. Bigger mass causes more curving. This was a new way to explain gravitation (gravity).
+
+General relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is light bending when it comes near a massive object. This explanation was proven correct during a solar eclipse, when the sun's bending of starlight from distant stars could be measured because of the darkness of the eclipse.
+
+General relativity also set the stage for cosmology (theories of the structure of our universe at large distances and over long times). Einstein thought that the universe may curve a little bit in both space and time, so that the universe always had existed and always will exist, and so that if an object moved through the universe without bumping into anything, it would return to its starting place, from the other direction, after a very long time. He even changed his equations to include a "cosmological constant," in order to allow a mathematical model of an unchanging universe. The general theory of relativity also allows the universe to spread out (grow larger and less dense) forever, and most scientists think that astronomy has proved that this is what happens. When Einstein realized that good models of the universe were possible even without the cosmological constant, he called his use of the cosmological constant his "biggest blunder," and that constant is often left out of the theory. However, many scientists now believe that the cosmological constant is needed to fit in all that we now know about the universe.
+
+A popular theory of cosmology is called the Big Bang. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe was formed 15 billion years ago, in what is called a "gravitational singularity". This singularity was small, dense, and very hot. According to this theory, all of the matter that we know today came out of this point.
+
+Einstein himself did not have the idea of a "black hole", but later scientists used this name for an object in the universe that bends spacetime so much that not even light can escape it. They think that these ultra-dense objects are formed when giant stars, at least three times the size of our sun, die. This event can follow what is called a supernova. The formation of black holes may be a major source of gravitational waves, so the search for proof of gravitational waves has become an important scientific pursuit.
+
+Many scientists only care about their work, but Einstein also spoke and wrote often about politics and world peace. He liked the ideas of socialism and of having only one government for the whole world. He also worked for Zionism, the effort to try to create the new country of Israel.
+
+Einstein's family was Jewish, but Einstein never practiced this religion seriously. He liked the ideas of the Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza and also thought that Buddhism was a good religion.[source?]
+
+Even though Einstein thought of many ideas that helped scientists understand the world much better, he disagreed with some scientific theories that other scientists liked. The theory of quantum mechanics discusses things that can happen only with certain probabilities, which cannot be predicted with better precision no matter how much information we might have. This theoretical pursuit is different from statistical mechanics, in which Einstein did important work. Einstein did not like the part of quantum theory that denied anything more than the probability that something would be found to be true of something when it was actually measured; he thought that it should be possible to predict anything, if we had the correct theory and enough information. He once said, "I do not believe that God plays dice with the Universe."
+
+Because Einstein helped science so much, his name is now used for several different things. A unit used in photochemistry was named for him. It is equal to Avogadro's number multiplied by the energy of one photon of light. The chemical element Einsteinium is named after the scientist as well.[19] In slang, we sometimes call a very smart person an "Einstein."
+
+Most scientists think that Einstein's theories of special and general relativity work very well, and they use those ideas and formulas in their own work. Einstein disagreed that phenomena in quantum mechanics can happen out of pure chance. He believed that all natural phenomena have explanations that do not include pure chance. He spent much of his later life trying to find a "unified field theory" that would include his general relativity theory, Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, and perhaps a better quantum theory. Most scientists do not think that he succeeded in that attempt.
+
+Röntgen (1901) · 
+Lorentz / Zeeman (1902) · 
+Becquerel / P. Curie / M. Curie (1903) · 
+Rayleigh (1904) · 
+Lenard (1905) · 
+Thomson (1906) · 
+Michelson (1907) · 
+Lippmann (1908) · 
+Marconi / Braun (1909) · 
+van der Waals (1910) · 
+Wien (1911) · 
+Dalén (1912) · 
+Kamerlingh Onnes (1913) · 
+Laue (1914) · 
+W. L. Bragg / W. H. Bragg (1915) · 
+Barkla (1917) · 
+Planck (1918) · 
+Stark (1919) · 
+Guillaume (1920) · 
+Einstein (1921) · 
+N. Bohr (1922) · 
+Millikan (1923) · 
+M. Siegbahn (1924) · 
+Franck / Hertz (1925)
+
+Perrin (1926) · 
+Compton / C. Wilson (1927) · 
+O. Richardson (1928) · 
+De Broglie (1929) · 
+Raman (1930) · 
+Heisenberg (1932) · 
+Schrödinger / Dirac (1933) · 
+Chadwick (1935) · 
+Hess / C. D. Anderson (1936) · 
+Davisson / Thomson (1937) · 
+Fermi (1938) · 
+Lawrence (1939) · 
+Stern (1943) · 
+Rabi (1944) · 
+Pauli (1945) · 
+Bridgman (1946) · 
+Appleton (1947) · 
+Blackett (1948) · 
+Yukawa (1949) · 
+Powell (1950)
+
+Cockcroft / Walton (1951) · 
+Bloch / Purcell (1952) · 
+Zernike (1953) · 
+Born / Bothe (1954) · 
+Lamb / Kusch (1955) · 
+Shockley / Bardeen / Brattain (1956) · 
+Yang / T. D. Lee (1957) · 
+Cherenkov / Frank / Tamm (1958) · 
+Segrè / Chamberlain (1959) · 
+Glaser (1960) · 
+Hofstadter / Mössbauer (1961) · 
+Landau (1962) · 
+Wigner / Goeppert-Mayer / Jensen (1963) · 
+Townes / Basov / Prokhorov (1964) · 
+Tomonaga / Schwinger / Feynman (1965) · 
+Kastler (1966) · 
+Bethe (1967) · 
+Alvarez (1968) · 
+Gell-Mann (1969) · 
+Alfvén / Néel (1970) · 
+Gabor (1971) · 
+Bardeen / Cooper / Schrieffer (1972) · 
+Esaki / Giaever / Josephson (1973) · 
+Ryle / Hewish (1974) · 
+A. Bohr / Mottelson / Rainwater (1975)
+
+Richter / Ting (1976) · 
+P. W. Anderson / Mott / Van Vleck (1977) · 
+Kapitsa / Penzias / R. Wilson (1978) · 
+Glashow / Salam / Weinberg (1979) · 
+Cronin / Fitch (1980) · 
+Bloembergen / Schawlow / K. Siegbahn (1981) · 
+K. Wilson (1982) · 
+Chandrasekhar / Fowler (1983) · 
+Rubbia / van der Meer (1984) · 
+von Klitzing (1985) · 
+Ruska / Binnig / Rohrer (1986) · 
+Bednorz / Müller (1987) · 
+Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger (1988) · 
+Ramsey / Dehmelt / Paul (1989) · 
+Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor (1990) · 
+de Gennes (1991) · 
+Charpak (1992) · 
+Hulse / J. Taylor (1993) · 
+Brockhouse / Shull (1994) · 
+Perl / Reines (1995) · 
+D. Lee / Osheroff / R. Richardson (1996) · 
+Chu / Cohen-Tannoudji / Phillips (1997) · 
+Laughlin / Störmer / Tsui (1998) · 
+'t Hooft / Veltman (1999) · 
+Alferov / Kroemer / Kilby (2000)
+
+Cornell / Ketterle / Wieman (2001) · 
+Davis / Koshiba / Giacconi (2002) · 
+Abrikosov / Ginzburg / Leggett (2003) · 
+Gross / Politzer / Wilczek (2004) · 
+Glauber / Hall / Hänsch (2005) · 
+Mather / Smoot (2006) · 
+Fert / Grünberg (2007) · 
+Nambu / Kobayashi / Maskawa (2008) · 
+Kao / Boyle / Smith (2009) · 
+Geim / Novoselov (2010) · 
+Perlmutter / Riess / Schmidt (2011) · 
+Wineland / Haroche (2012) · 
+Englert / Higgs (2013) · 
+Akasaki / Amano / Nakamura (2014) · 
+Kajita / McDonald (2015) · 
+Thouless / Haldane / Kosterlitz (2016) · 
+Weiss / Barish / Thorne (2017) · 
+Ashkin / Mourou / Strickland (2018) · 
+Mayor / Peebles / Queloz (2019)

ensimple/1090.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+
+
+(traditional):
+
+(recent):
+
+Bats are mammals in the order Chiroptera. Bats are nocturnal – they are active during the night, dusk, or dawn and they sleep during the day.
+
+Most use echolocation to catch prey and to find their way about. As nighttime animals, bats avoid direct competition with birds, few of which are nocturnal.
+
+Bats usually live in caves or trees. In North America and in Europe they sometimes live in people's houses or barns. They are protected animals in the U.K.
+
+Bats are a successful group. They are the second largest order of mammals: there are more than 1,200 species of bats. This means that 20% of all living mammal species – one in five – are bats.[1][2]
+
+About 70% of bats are insectivores, which is the basal form of life for this group. The common pipistrelle is a successful example. Most of the rest are fruit-eaters (fruit bats). A few species suck blood, and a few large ones are carnivorous.
+
+Bats live everywhere except the Arctic, Antarctic and a few oceanic islands. They usually roost in caves, old buildings, or trees.
+
+Traditionally, bats are divided into two groups. Microbats mostly use echo-location and catch insects, but just a few eat fish or drink blood. Megabats do not echolocate, but instead eat fruit or nectar.
+
+The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate. The traditional subdivision between Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera reflects the view that these groups of bats have evolved independently of each other for a long time, from a common ancestor which was already capable of flight.
+
+The hypothesis was that flight only evolved once in mammals. Most molecular biological evidence supports the view that bats form a single or monophyletic group.[2]
+
+There are few fossilized remains of bats, as bats are terrestrial and light-boned.[3] An Eocene bat, Onychonycteris, was found in the 52-million-year-old Green River Formation in Wyoming, United States, in 2003.[2][4] It could fly, but the well-preserved skeleton showed the cochlea of the inner ear could not achieve the great hearing ability of modern bats. This was evidence that flight in bats developed before echolocation. The team said it lacked ear and throat features not only of echolocating bats today, but also in other known fossil species. Fossil remains of other Eocene bats, Icaronycteris, Archaeonycteris, Palaeochiropteryx, Hassianycteris and Australonycteris all show a similar mixture of basal and derived traits,[5] as expected by mosaic evolution.
+
+All Eocene bats had long tails. This feature is also found in early flying insects in the Carboniferous, in early pterosaurs and in Archaeopteryx and other dinobirds. The tail helped to keep their flight stable, which means it kept on course, and did not dart about much. To dart about quickly requires special advanced brains and reflexes, which later bats, birds and pterosaurs had, but early ones did not. It requires more brains to control unstable flight than it does for stable flight. That early bats had long tails was predicted by John Maynard Smith before any fossil early bats were found.[6][7]
+
+Onychonycteris had longer hind legs and shorter forearms, similar to climbing mammals that hang under branches such as sloths and gibbons. This palm-sized bat had broad, short wings, suggesting it could not fly as fast or as far as later bat species. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, Onychonycteris likely alternated between flaps and glides while in the air. Such physical characteristics suggest this bat did not fly as much as modern bats do, rather flying from tree to tree and spending most of its waking day climbing or hanging on the branches of trees.[2]
+
+An interesting thing about bats is that even though they can see with their eyes, they also use their ears to help them 'see' in the dark. Because of this, they can fly into very dark places where no eye could see. This way of sensing is called echolocation. Echolocation means they use echoes to find where things are.
+
+Echolocation is like sonar, which submarines and ships use to find things underwater. This is how it works: when a bat flies, it makes lots of sounds. We cannot hear these sounds (they are too high-pitched), but bats can hear them. Biologists have instruments to record them, and then play them back at a lower frequency so humans can hear them.
+
+When a bat makes its noises, the sound waves move away from the bat. If they hit something, they bounce back to the bat (this bounce is called an echo.) If nothing bounces back, the bat knows there is nothing in front. They use this echolocation to catch their food, like butterflies or dragonflies. When a bat begins its nightly exploration, it usually sends out about 10 calls per second. From the echo they know what is in front. When they get an echo from something good to eat, the calls increase up to 200 calls per second. This increase of sounds is called a feeding buzz. The bat makes a feeding buzz to sense all the quick moves of the insect it is trying to catch.
+
+Hearing and understanding the echoes that go back to the bat takes special structures in the bat's brain. Because of this, many scientists, doctors, and even the U.S. army study bats carefully. The U.S. army spends hundreds of thousands of dollars every year to study echolocation in bats.
+
+Bats also have reasonably good eyesight, and can see their prey and where they are flying if it's not too dark. There are lots of stories about bats flying right into people, but this is not true. They can see in the light very well, and in the dark, they can see much better than us. So the expression "blind as a bat" is not very scientific. [8]
+
+Some bats use echolocation to communicate with each other to find food in groups. Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior studied the bat Molossus molossus, which hunts insects in groups. They found the bats could understand echolocation noises made by other bats and even tell which other bat in their group had made the sound, like people recognizing each other's voices.[9]
+
+Bats fly with their hands. In fact, the name of the order of bats, Chiropetera, means 'hand-wings' in Greek.[10]
+
+Bat and bird wings are different. Birds do not have long finger-like bones in their wings like bats. Birds can not move each of their fingers, but bats can. Because of this, bats can change their direction while flying or fly in any pattern they want: this makes it easier to catch their food. A bat flies as if they are "swimming" through the air – pushing both wings down and backward.
+
+A bird's wing has lots of feathers, while a bat's wing is mostly a stretchy, thin skin called a patagium. This thin membrane of skin stretches between each finger bone, connects to the bat's ankle, and connects to the bat's tail (if it has one). A bat folds its wings next to its body when not flying.
+
+Bats have one claw (sometimes called a bat thumb) that sticks out of the top of the wing. They use their "thumb" to climb and crawl. Interestingly, bats also use their thumbs to clean their ears.
+
+Bats' wings have a lot of maneuverability (they can change direction well) – more than a bird, in fact – but they do not have a lot of lift. Because of this, bats usually have to climb up onto a tree or jump up into the air for the boost before they start flapping their wings.
+
+Even though bats are very small, they live a long time.  Some bats can live forty years.  Scientists think this is because their immune systems are very good at fighting viruses.  Bats fight viruses without having inflammation in their bodies. Doctors think inflammation causes harm to the body, so they think this could be why bats live a long time.[11]
+
+Because bats rest in large groups with many other bats, they can pass diseases to each other easily.  This means that over thousands of generations, viruses and other germs have placed selective pressure on bats, killing bats with weak immune systems and leaving bats with good immune systems to survive and have young.[11]
+
+Many viruses that start in bats later change and become dangerous diseases in humans, for example Ebola and SARS-CoV-2.[11][12]
+
+Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen. They pollinate flowers and sometimes spread their seeds. Many tropical plants completely depend on bats.
+
+Most microbats (7 out of 10 bat species) are insectivorous, that is, they eat insects. Some microbats eat small vertebrate animals (small mammals or fish), blood, or even other bats. There are only a few species of vampire bats, which eat blood from cattle.
+
+Most bats rest, sleep and hibernate in an upside-down position. They hang on to branches or rocks with their feet. To do this they have a locking mechanism on the tendons in their feet which stops them from slipping.[13] The advantage of this is that the energy they spend hanging on is greatly reduced. Once the tendons are locked, the muscles in their legs and feet can relax. Even dead bats stay hanging.[14]
+
+In the United Kingdom all bats are protected by law, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine.
+
+Austin, Texas is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony (under the Congress Avenue bridge), an estimated 1,500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats, who eat an estimated 10 to 30 tons of insects each night, and attract 100,000 tourists each year.
+
+In Sarawak, Malaysia bats are protected species, but the large naked bat and greater nectar bat are eaten by the local communities.
+
+In the West, bats are associated with vampires, who are said to be able to change into bats. Bats are also a symbol of ghosts, death and disease. However bats are said to be lucky in some European countries, such as Poland.
+
+The bat is used in fiction by both villains like Dracula and heroes like Batman. Kenneth Oppel wrote a series of novels, beginning with Silverwing, which feature bats as good characters.
+
+A megabat.
+
+A colony of microbats.
+
+A microbat.

ensimple/1091.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+Christopher Columbus  (1451–1506) was a Genoese trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451.  "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name.  His real name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo; his name  in Spanish was Cristóbal Colón.[1]
+
+In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamas, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is credited with the discovery of the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World.
+
+When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+Columbus died on 20 May 1506, in Valladolid, Spain.
+
+Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada.[2][3] This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived.[4][5] However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, discovered America in context of European history.
+
+Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.[1]
+
+However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.[1]
+
+In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the Santa María (the Holy Mary), the Pinta (the Painted), and the Santa Clara (nicknamed the Niña: the Little Girl).[6]
+
+The three ships were very small.  Historians think that the largest ship, the Santa María, was only about 60 feet (18 metres) long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.[7][8]
+
+Columbus's other ships were even smaller.  Historians think they were about 50–60 feet (15–18 metres) long.[8]
+
+On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador Island ("Holy Savior").  He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island.  They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew.  Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians."  He claimed their land as Spain's.[9]
+
+Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola.  On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort.  This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere.  He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas").  He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.[10]
+
+On the day he landed in the Bahamas, Columbus wrote about the Arawaks and Taíno:
+
+Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings.  He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold.  However, they could not.[12]
+
+According to Encyclopædia Britannica:
+
+Columbus thought the world looked like this
+
+Replica of the Santa Maria
+
+Painting of Columbus landing in the New World
+
+Drawing of Columbus landing on Hispaniola
+
+Route of Columbus's first voyage
+
+Letter from Columbus (1493)
+
+On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World.  He had 17 ships and 1,200 men.  These men included soldiers and farmers.  There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.[13]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.  He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.
+
+Then he went back to the Navidad fort.  He found the fort burned down.  Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there.  The rest had disappeared.  Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.[10]
+
+While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms.  They made the Arawaks give them food.  They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women.  This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards.  However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses.  This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.[14]
+
+Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad.  He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months.  If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death.  Historian Carl Lehrburger says that about 10,000 natives died this way.[15]  Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also.  If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.[16]
+
+There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over.  To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men.  However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them.[12] Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).[16]
+
+In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade.  He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno.  Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves.  They took 600 and let 400 go.  Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip.  Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived.  This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.[17]
+
+Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves.  In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:
+
+Columbus went on another voyage in 1498.  King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands.  On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent.[19]  Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.[16]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean).  He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde.  From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad.  He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.[20]
+
+On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola.  He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy.  They thought there would be more gold in the New World.  Some of them had rebelled while he was gone.  Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged.  He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola.  However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain.  In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola.  She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do.  When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.[16]
+
+When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the Encomienda system in Hispaniola.  Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler.  Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village.  Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler.  Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, and then forcing them to work on that land.[16]
+
+On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 12, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.
+
+Columbus died of heart failure and arthritis in Valladolid, Spain, at the possible age of 54.
+
+Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy.  Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born.  Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa.  However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal.  Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.[1]
+
+Columbus wrote that he first went to sea when he was 14 years old.[21]
+
+In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo.  She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.[22]
+
+In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra.  They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.[23]
+
+Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World.  First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China.  Other people had called this belief absurd.  Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.[24]
+
+Second, Columbus wanted to find gold.  Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times.  In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world."[25]  This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person – and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.
+
+When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico.  They grabbed as much gold as they could.  The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.
+
+In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.[26]
+
+The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.[27]

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+Table salt is a mineral composed mainly of sodium chloride (NaCl). This is a chemical compound, one of many salts. Salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite.
+
+When salt (sodium chloride) is mixed with water, the salt dissolves into the water, creating a saline solution. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%.
+
+Salt can be made by either evaporation or can be mined. To get sea salt, man-made holes are built then filled with sea water. The water evaporates and leaves salt behind.

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+Chocolate is a food made from cacao beans. It is used in many desserts like pudding, cakes, candy, ice cream, and Easter eggs. It can be in a solid form like a candy bar or it can be in a liquid form like hot chocolate. Commercial chocolate has sugar and sometimes milk added.
+
+Dark chocolate has less sugar, and a more bitter taste. It was originally used to make drinking chocolate. Chocolate can also make S'mores.
+
+There are three main types of chocolate: white chocolate, milk chocolate, and dark chocolate. White chocolate tastes much sweeter than the other two types, because it has more of the sweeter ingredients in it. White chocolate does not have any cocoa in it. It is mostly made of cocoa butter. Milk chocolate is sweet, but not as sweet as white chocolate. Milk chocolate has some cocoa. Dark chocolate is the least sweet and has the strongest chocolate flavor.It also has the least amount of sweet ingredients which is what makes it  a bit bitter.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Dark chocolate has up to 60-85 percent cocoa.
+
+Chocolate is safe to eat unless it is eaten in large amounts. Some animals, like dogs and cats, become sick even if they eat only a little chocolate.[1] People with diabetes can also get sick from eating chocolate. Dark chocolate contains ingredients that lower blood pressure and fight diseases. Small amounts of dark chocolate have been found to lower the risk of heart disease because of polyphenol in chocolate. It is necessary to moderate the amount of chocolate you eat.[2]
+
+Making chocolate is a process that has many steps. First, the cocoa beans are collected and put in piles or containers to make them ferment. Fermentation makes the sugar in the beans turn into alcohol. Then the beans are dried and cleaned. Chocolate makers must cook the beans, and then crush them to make the cocoa butter and the chocolate liquor come out of them. Then the chocolate maker mixes different ingredients together to make the different kinds of chocolate. Dark or bittersweet chocolate is made from sugar, cocoa butter, and chocolate liquor. Milk chocolate uses all of those ingredients plus milk and vanilla. White chocolate does not contain chocolate liquor, but only cocoa butter, along with sugar, milk and vanilla. After these ingredients are put together, the chocolate maker is still not finished. One of the last things to be done is something called conching. Conching means crushing the chocolate very finely and keeping it warm so that it is liquid. Before chocolate is conched, it feels very rough in the mouth instead of smooth. Conches use heavy rollers that plow back and forth through the chocolate paste under regulated speeds and temperatures. Conching for several hours to several days makes good chocolate. The last step in making chocolate is called tempering. The chocolate is heated, and then shaken, and then cooled a few times.[3]
+
+There are a number of ingredients in chocolate. The most notable of these are caffeine and theobromine. These two chemicals are closely related and are found in all cocoa beans. In any bean, the amount of each chemical varies depending on the genetics of the tree and the stresses placed on the tree during the growing season. It takes two hours to make chocolate.
+
+The cacao tree was first found to be useful for its seeds about two thousand years ago. Early Central Americans and Mexicans used the seeds from the cacao tree to make a drink that tasted bitter, not sweet. Only the important people could drink it. The word for "chocolate" in almost every language comes from its name in the Nahuatl language of Mexico, chocolatl.
+
+Later on, this drink was made sweeter and made into what is known today as hot chocolate. It was made popular by Spanish explorers who brought it from North America to Spain.[4] When chocolate was sweetened and made into candy, it became a very popular treat for many Europeans. At first, only the rich could afford chocolate. Now, many people enjoy it. Most cocoa today is made in Africa.

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+Cholera is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.[1]  It infects the small intestine.
+
+There are many types (strains) of the Vibrio cholera bacteria.  Some of them cause more serious illnesses than others.  Because of this, some people who get cholera have no symptoms; others have symptoms that are not very bad, and others have very bad symptoms.[2]
+
+The most common symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea.[3]  In the worst cases, diarrhea can be so bad that people can die in a few hours from dehydration.[4]
+
+Cholera is a very old disease.  Writings about cholera (written in Sanskrit) have been found from the 5th century BC.[5]  Throughout history, there have been many outbreaks and epidemics of cholera.
+
+Cholera still affects many people throughout the world.  Estimates from 2010 say that between 3 million and 5 million people get cholera every year, and 58,000–130,000 people die from the disease every year.[3][6]  Today, cholera is considered a pandemic.[3][7]  However, it is most common in developing countries,[8] especially in children.[3]
+
+People usually get cholera by eating food or drinking water that is unclean.  When people have cholera, they have a lot of diarrhea, and the cholera bacteria stays alive in their feces.  In developing countries, often there is not good sanitation.  Cholera can spread if this diarrhea gets into water that other people use.[9]  For example, if sewage (human waste) gets into a river, people can get cholera if they:
+
+Cholera is very rarely spread directly from person to person.[12]
+
+Cholera's main symptoms are very bad diarrhea and vomiting clear fluid.[12]  These symptoms usually start suddenly.  They start half a day to five days after the person gets infected.  (This is called cholera's "incubation period".)[13]
+
+If they do not get treatment, about half of people with very bad cholera die.[12]  People with very bad cholera can have so much diarrhea that they do not have enough water and electrolytes (salts) left in their bodies to survive.[12]  Cholera has been nicknamed the "blue death" because a person dying of cholera may lose so many body fluids that their skin turns bluish-gray.[14]
+
+Other symptoms may include:[12]
+
+If people with cholera get good, quick medical treatment, less than 1% die from the disease.  However, if cholera is not treated, at least half of people with the disease (50% to 60%) die.[12][15]
+
+Some strains of the Vibrio cholera bacteria have different genes than others, which make them more dangerous.  These more dangerous strains of cholera bacteria caused the 2010 epidemic in Haiti and the 2004 outbreak in India.  A person who gets these strains of cholera can die within two hours of getting sick.[4]  This means there is very little time to get the person treated.
+
+There is no cure for cholera.  However, there are different treatments that can help.  For example:
+
+There is a cholera vaccine that can be taken by mouth.  It provides some protection from cholera for about six months.[3]
+
+People can also do some other things to prevent cholera.  For example:[19][20]
+
+Governments could stop outbreaks or epidemics from happening by improving sanitation.  For example, cholera is very uncommon in developed countries because they have good sanitation and because they add chemicals to their water to kill germs.  Even after people start to get cholera, it is possible for governments to stop the disease from spreading, though:[16]
+
+Cholera probably started in the Indian subcontinent.  As early as the 5th century BC, people in the Ganges River delta area wrote about cholera.[12]  The disease first spread to Russia in 1817 by trade routes (over both land and sea).  Later, cholera spread to the rest of Europe, and from Europe to North America and the rest of the world.[12]
+
+Seven cholera pandemics have happened in the past 200 years.  The latest started in Indonesia in 1961.[22]  There have also been many serious outbreaks.  The worst outbreak in recent history happened in Haiti after the earthquake there in 2010.  Between October 2010 and August 2015, more than 700,000 Haitians got cholera, and over 9,000 died.[23]  The outbreak was caused by a United Nations base where Nepalese soldiers were living.[24]  The soldiers would dump human waste into the Artibonite River, which many Haitians used for drinking, cooking, and bathing.[24][25]
+
+Since cholera became common in the 19th century, it has killed tens of millions of people.[26]  Just in Russia, between 1847 and 1851, more than one million people died of cholera.[27]  During the second pandemic, which lasted from 1827-1835, the disease killed 150,000 Americans.[28]  Between 1900 and 1920, in India, up to eight million people died of cholera.[29]
+
+in 1854, an English doctor named John Snow was the first person to realize that contaminated water caused cholera.  Today, countries in Europe and North America filter and add chlorine to their water supplies.  This has made cholera very uncommon in these countries.[12]

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+Unemployment or Joblessness is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed.
+
+The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society.
+
+A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done).[1]
+

ensimple/1096.html.txt

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+Unemployment or Joblessness is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed.
+
+The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society.
+
+A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done).[1]
+

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+Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin (1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849; pronounced SHOH-pen) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist. He is considered one of the greatest Romantic piano composers.[1] Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, a village in the Duchy of Warsaw. A famous child prodigy, he grew up in Warsaw where he completed his music education and composed many of his mature works before leaving Poland in 1830 at age 20, shortly before the November 1830 Uprising.
+
+After the Uprising, he lived in Paris as part of Poland's Great Emigration. During the last 19 years of his life, Chopin performed only about 30 times, usually in a salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano. After a romantic relationship with Polish women, including an abortive engagement, from 1837 to 1847 he carried on a relationship with the French writer Amandine Dupin, better known as George Sand.
+
+Since he composed many piano pieces, he was called the poet of the piano. Most of Chopin's works are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces and some songs to Polish lyrics. His piano works are often technically difficult, especially because deep expression is involved along with the importance of considering each detail in his music. Chopin also created the instrumental ballade, along with the addition of new ideas to the piano sonata, mazurka, waltz, nocturne, polonaise, étude, impromptu, scherzo and prélude.  All of Chopin's works involve the piano.
+
+Chopin suffered from poor health most of his life and died of tuberculosis in Paris in 1849 at age 39.

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+
+
+See below
+
+Chordata is a phylum (group) of animals which have a notochord. The group includes vertebrates, with some closely related invertebrates.
+
+Appendicularia (formerly Larvacea)
+
+Thaliacea
+
+Ascidiacea
+
+Cephalochordata
+
+Myxini
+
+Conodonta†
+
+Cephalaspidomorphi†
+
+Hyperoartia
+
+Pteraspidomorphi†
+
+Placodermi†
+
+Chondrichthyes
+
+Acanthodii†
+
+Actinopterygii
+
+Amphibia
+
+Mammalia
+
+Aves
+
+Note: Lines show likely evolutionary relationships.  Extinct groups are marked with a "†". Extinct animals are ones that have completely died out.
+
+According to a long-standing theory, the origin of chordates may be found in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates). Adult tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are motile, and have some features found in early vertebrates.  The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism.[1][2][3] Genome analysis shows that tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.[4]

ensimple/1099.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+
+
+See below
+
+Chordata is a phylum (group) of animals which have a notochord. The group includes vertebrates, with some closely related invertebrates.
+
+Appendicularia (formerly Larvacea)
+
+Thaliacea
+
+Ascidiacea
+
+Cephalochordata
+
+Myxini
+
+Conodonta†
+
+Cephalaspidomorphi†
+
+Hyperoartia
+
+Pteraspidomorphi†
+
+Placodermi†
+
+Chondrichthyes
+
+Acanthodii†
+
+Actinopterygii
+
+Amphibia
+
+Mammalia
+
+Aves
+
+Note: Lines show likely evolutionary relationships.  Extinct groups are marked with a "†". Extinct animals are ones that have completely died out.
+
+According to a long-standing theory, the origin of chordates may be found in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates). Adult tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are motile, and have some features found in early vertebrates.  The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism.[1][2][3] Genome analysis shows that tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.[4]

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+Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
+
+There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery.[1] There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents.[2] Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
+
+During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law.[3] Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.[4]
+
+The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe.[5][6]  According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war.  Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.
+
+Slavery has existed for a long time.[7] Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves.[8] They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people.[8] Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.[8] This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.[9]
+
+In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of  Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
+
+In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants.[10] Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.
+
+In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.
+
+Roman slaves played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services. They could work at highly skilled jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.
+
+Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.
+
+Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.[11]
+
+After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom.
+
+Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated.[12] It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process.[12] But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”.[12] Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.[12]
+
+For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans.[13] Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.[13]
+
+Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves.[14] At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.[14]
+
+Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[15] The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[16] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[17][18] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[19] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[20] Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.[21][unreliable source?]
+
+Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well.[4] The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.
+
+One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.[22]
+
+Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.
+
+Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[23]  In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China.[24] They included 69 children.[25] The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.[24]
+
+In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour.[26][27] Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007.[28] In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population.[29][30][31] Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining.  According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.[32]
+
+In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour.[33][34] The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.[35][36]
+
+Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
+
+An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.

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+Albert II (French: Albert Félix Humbert Théodore Christian Eugène Marie, Dutch: Albert Felix Humbert Theodoor Christiaan Eugène Marie, German: Albert Felix Humbert Theodor Christian Eugen Maria) (born Stuyvenberg Castle, Brussels, 6 June 1934)[1] was the King of the Belgians and a constitutional monarch. He is the younger son of King Leopold III (1901-1983) and his first wife, Princess Astrid of Sweden (1905-1935). On 21 July 2013, King Albert II abdicated and gave the throne to his son, Philippe of Belgium.
+
+He married, in Brussels, on 2 July 1959, Princess Paola (born 1937).
+
+He and the Queen have three children:
+
+After his announced abdication on 21 July 2013 it was decided that he would be styled as His Majesty King Albert II.[2] This is the same form of address given to his father, Leopold III, after his abdication.

ensimple/1100.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+
+
+See below
+
+Chordata is a phylum (group) of animals which have a notochord. The group includes vertebrates, with some closely related invertebrates.
+
+Appendicularia (formerly Larvacea)
+
+Thaliacea
+
+Ascidiacea
+
+Cephalochordata
+
+Myxini
+
+Conodonta†
+
+Cephalaspidomorphi†
+
+Hyperoartia
+
+Pteraspidomorphi†
+
+Placodermi†
+
+Chondrichthyes
+
+Acanthodii†
+
+Actinopterygii
+
+Amphibia
+
+Mammalia
+
+Aves
+
+Note: Lines show likely evolutionary relationships.  Extinct groups are marked with a "†". Extinct animals are ones that have completely died out.
+
+According to a long-standing theory, the origin of chordates may be found in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates). Adult tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are motile, and have some features found in early vertebrates.  The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism.[1][2][3] Genome analysis shows that tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.[4]

ensimple/1101.html.txt

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+
+
+Brassica oleracea, or wild cabbage, is a species of Brassica native to coastal southern and western Europe.
+
+Its tolerance of salt and lime, and its dislike of competition from other plants, restrict it to limestone sea cliffs, like the chalk cliffs on both sides of the English Channel.
+
+B. oleracea is believed to have been cultivated for several thousand years. It has been bred into a wide range of cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and more. Some of which are hardly recognisable as being members of the same genus, let alone species.[1]
+
+The plant is used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It is rich in essential nutrients including vitamin C.
+
+The cultivars of B. oleracea are grouped into seven major cultivar groups, of which the Acephala Group remains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance:
+
+All are in the same species. However, artificial selection has brought about genetic differences between the groups.[2]
+
+In places such as the Channel Islands and Canary Islands where the frost is minimal, and plants can grow all year round, some cultivars can grow up to 3 meters tall. These "tree cabbages" yield fresh leaves throughout the year, and the plant is not destroyed as with a normal cabbage. Their woody stalks are sometimes dried and made into walking sticks.[3]
+
+Some (notably brussels sprouts and broccoli) contain high levels of sinigrin which may help prevent bowel cancer.

ensimple/1102.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea, in the family Brassicaceae. Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage, whose white flower head is eaten. Cauliflower is very nutritious, and may be eaten cooked, raw or pickled. It is a popular vegetable in Poland where it is eaten in a soup with cream or fried with bread crumbs.
+

ensimple/1103.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea, in the family Brassicaceae. Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage, whose white flower head is eaten. Cauliflower is very nutritious, and may be eaten cooked, raw or pickled. It is a popular vegetable in Poland where it is eaten in a soup with cream or fried with bread crumbs.
+

ensimple/1104.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+
+
+Brassica oleracea, or wild cabbage, is a species of Brassica native to coastal southern and western Europe.
+
+Its tolerance of salt and lime, and its dislike of competition from other plants, restrict it to limestone sea cliffs, like the chalk cliffs on both sides of the English Channel.
+
+B. oleracea is believed to have been cultivated for several thousand years. It has been bred into a wide range of cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and more. Some of which are hardly recognisable as being members of the same genus, let alone species.[1]
+
+The plant is used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It is rich in essential nutrients including vitamin C.
+
+The cultivars of B. oleracea are grouped into seven major cultivar groups, of which the Acephala Group remains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance:
+
+All are in the same species. However, artificial selection has brought about genetic differences between the groups.[2]
+
+In places such as the Channel Islands and Canary Islands where the frost is minimal, and plants can grow all year round, some cultivars can grow up to 3 meters tall. These "tree cabbages" yield fresh leaves throughout the year, and the plant is not destroyed as with a normal cabbage. Their woody stalks are sometimes dried and made into walking sticks.[3]
+
+Some (notably brussels sprouts and broccoli) contain high levels of sinigrin which may help prevent bowel cancer.

ensimple/1105.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+
+
+Brassica oleracea, or wild cabbage, is a species of Brassica native to coastal southern and western Europe.
+
+Its tolerance of salt and lime, and its dislike of competition from other plants, restrict it to limestone sea cliffs, like the chalk cliffs on both sides of the English Channel.
+
+B. oleracea is believed to have been cultivated for several thousand years. It has been bred into a wide range of cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and more. Some of which are hardly recognisable as being members of the same genus, let alone species.[1]
+
+The plant is used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It is rich in essential nutrients including vitamin C.
+
+The cultivars of B. oleracea are grouped into seven major cultivar groups, of which the Acephala Group remains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance:
+
+All are in the same species. However, artificial selection has brought about genetic differences between the groups.[2]
+
+In places such as the Channel Islands and Canary Islands where the frost is minimal, and plants can grow all year round, some cultivars can grow up to 3 meters tall. These "tree cabbages" yield fresh leaves throughout the year, and the plant is not destroyed as with a normal cabbage. Their woody stalks are sometimes dried and made into walking sticks.[3]
+
+Some (notably brussels sprouts and broccoli) contain high levels of sinigrin which may help prevent bowel cancer.

ensimple/1106.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+
+
+Brassica oleracea, or wild cabbage, is a species of Brassica native to coastal southern and western Europe.
+
+Its tolerance of salt and lime, and its dislike of competition from other plants, restrict it to limestone sea cliffs, like the chalk cliffs on both sides of the English Channel.
+
+B. oleracea is believed to have been cultivated for several thousand years. It has been bred into a wide range of cultivars, including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, and more. Some of which are hardly recognisable as being members of the same genus, let alone species.[1]
+
+The plant is used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It is rich in essential nutrients including vitamin C.
+
+The cultivars of B. oleracea are grouped into seven major cultivar groups, of which the Acephala Group remains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance:
+
+All are in the same species. However, artificial selection has brought about genetic differences between the groups.[2]
+
+In places such as the Channel Islands and Canary Islands where the frost is minimal, and plants can grow all year round, some cultivars can grow up to 3 meters tall. These "tree cabbages" yield fresh leaves throughout the year, and the plant is not destroyed as with a normal cabbage. Their woody stalks are sometimes dried and made into walking sticks.[3]
+
+Some (notably brussels sprouts and broccoli) contain high levels of sinigrin which may help prevent bowel cancer.

ensimple/1107.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+Christianity is the largest world religion by number of adherents (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus to be son of God, the second person of the Trinity.[1] It is a monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God.[2]. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Though there are many religious people and sects that call themselves Christians, true Christian Faith is rooted in Salvation by Faith, through Grace Alone. Trinity, the diviniy of Christ etc. are foundational truths.
+
+To most of the people of his time Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to earth to die on a cross for their sins. The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time.[3] His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible.  Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred.[4] The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.
+
+God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin[5] and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.
+
+The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.
+
+Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion.[6][7] Christianity started out as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.
+
+Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.[12][13]
+
+The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Joshua is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.
+
+Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.[14]
+
+There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[15] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[16] and will return again[17] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
+
+Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.[18][19]
+
+Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology.[20][21] From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards.[22] Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that several times Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples, and one time before "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[23] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remember by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week
+
+Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and forever death. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.
+
+Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved,[24] it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church.[25] Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.[26]
+
+Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace.[27] Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[28] Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.[29]
+
+Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God.[30] The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.
+
+Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.
+
+Some main Christian creeds are:
+
+Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above.[31] A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.[32]
+
+The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and yet Christian believe that there is only one God. This idea, called Trinity, was started at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and developed during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church[33]. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.
+Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[34]
+
+Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[35]
+
+An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[36]. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.
+
+Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.
+
+There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.[37]
+
+Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God.[38] There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever.[39] Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.[40]
+
+Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
+
+Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
+
+Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.
+
+The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did
+
+The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.
+
+The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.
+
+In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass." [42] The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
+
+The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.
+
+Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.[43]
+
+These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
+
+Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.[44]
+
+The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.[45]
+
+People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.[46]
+
+Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called “doctrine”) or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.
+
+The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.
+
+In the 15th century the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.
+
+With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around to 2.2 billion,[13][47] split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[48] The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America.[49] It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.[50] However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain,[51] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[52][53][54] South Korea,[55] Taiwan[56] and Macau[57]).
+
+In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades.[58] Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches,[59] while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.[60]
+
+Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways.[61] One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.[61]
+
+The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[62] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[63] And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

ensimple/1108.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+Christianity is the largest world religion by number of adherents (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus to be son of God, the second person of the Trinity.[1] It is a monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God.[2]. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Though there are many religious people and sects that call themselves Christians, true Christian Faith is rooted in Salvation by Faith, through Grace Alone. Trinity, the diviniy of Christ etc. are foundational truths.
+
+To most of the people of his time Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to earth to die on a cross for their sins. The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time.[3] His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible.  Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred.[4] The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.
+
+God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin[5] and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.
+
+The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.
+
+Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion.[6][7] Christianity started out as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.
+
+Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.[12][13]
+
+The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Joshua is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.
+
+Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.[14]
+
+There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[15] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[16] and will return again[17] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
+
+Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.[18][19]
+
+Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology.[20][21] From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards.[22] Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that several times Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples, and one time before "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[23] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remember by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week
+
+Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and forever death. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.
+
+Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved,[24] it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church.[25] Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.[26]
+
+Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace.[27] Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[28] Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.[29]
+
+Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God.[30] The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.
+
+Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.
+
+Some main Christian creeds are:
+
+Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above.[31] A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.[32]
+
+The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and yet Christian believe that there is only one God. This idea, called Trinity, was started at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and developed during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church[33]. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.
+Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[34]
+
+Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[35]
+
+An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[36]. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.
+
+Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.
+
+There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.[37]
+
+Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God.[38] There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever.[39] Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.[40]
+
+Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
+
+Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
+
+Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.
+
+The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did
+
+The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.
+
+The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.
+
+In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass." [42] The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
+
+The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.
+
+Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.[43]
+
+These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
+
+Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.[44]
+
+The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.[45]
+
+People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.[46]
+
+Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called “doctrine”) or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.
+
+The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.
+
+In the 15th century the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.
+
+With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around to 2.2 billion,[13][47] split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[48] The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America.[49] It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.[50] However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain,[51] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[52][53][54] South Korea,[55] Taiwan[56] and Macau[57]).
+
+In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades.[58] Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches,[59] while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.[60]
+
+Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways.[61] One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.[61]
+
+The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[62] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[63] And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

ensimple/1109.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+Christianity is the largest world religion by number of adherents (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus to be son of God, the second person of the Trinity.[1] It is a monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God.[2]. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Though there are many religious people and sects that call themselves Christians, true Christian Faith is rooted in Salvation by Faith, through Grace Alone. Trinity, the diviniy of Christ etc. are foundational truths.
+
+To most of the people of his time Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to earth to die on a cross for their sins. The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time.[3] His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible.  Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred.[4] The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.
+
+God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin[5] and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.
+
+The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.
+
+Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion.[6][7] Christianity started out as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.
+
+Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.[12][13]
+
+The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Joshua is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.
+
+Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.[14]
+
+There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[15] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[16] and will return again[17] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
+
+Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.[18][19]
+
+Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology.[20][21] From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards.[22] Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that several times Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples, and one time before "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[23] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remember by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week
+
+Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and forever death. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.
+
+Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved,[24] it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church.[25] Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.[26]
+
+Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace.[27] Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[28] Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.[29]
+
+Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God.[30] The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.
+
+Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.
+
+Some main Christian creeds are:
+
+Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above.[31] A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.[32]
+
+The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and yet Christian believe that there is only one God. This idea, called Trinity, was started at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and developed during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church[33]. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.
+Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[34]
+
+Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[35]
+
+An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[36]. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.
+
+Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.
+
+There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.[37]
+
+Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God.[38] There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever.[39] Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.[40]
+
+Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
+
+Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
+
+Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.
+
+The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did
+
+The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.
+
+The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.
+
+In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass." [42] The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
+
+The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.
+
+Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.[43]
+
+These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
+
+Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.[44]
+
+The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.[45]
+
+People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.[46]
+
+Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called “doctrine”) or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.
+
+The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.
+
+In the 15th century the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.
+
+With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around to 2.2 billion,[13][47] split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[48] The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America.[49] It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.[50] However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain,[51] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[52][53][54] South Korea,[55] Taiwan[56] and Macau[57]).
+
+In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades.[58] Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches,[59] while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.[60]
+
+Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways.[61] One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.[61]
+
+The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[62] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[63] And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+Albinism is a condition some people and animals are born with. This condition is caused by a lack of pigment (colour) in their hair, eyes, and skin. A person or animal with albinism is called an albino. Many albino people prefer to be called a "person with albinism". There are ten different types of albinism.
+
+People with albinism can have white or light blonde hair. They can have very pale skin. Their eyes are blue, or rarely pink-ish. People with albinism can have problems such as bad vision and getting sunburnt easily. This is because people with albinism have less pigments in their eyes, skin and hair.[1]
+
+Albinism is rare in the United States. One out of every 20,000 people in the United States has albinism. There are about 15,945 people in the United States who have albinism.[2]
+
+Vision problems in albinism include nystagmus (irregular fast movements of the eyes), strabismus (where the eyes fail to balance) and refractory errors (like being near-sighted or far-sighted).
+
+In most environments, Albino animals are more easily seen and so may be attacked by predators. They lack the camouflage that the non-albino members of their species have. Also, where colour is a factor in mate selection, they may be at a disadvantage there, too.
+
+Albinism is a hereditary condition. It is usually inherited in a recessive pattern; it means, both parents have to give the albinism gene to a child to cause albinism.[1] Parents pass on pairs of genes to their children. One of the pairs of genes is in charge of making melanin. If both of these genes are flawed, then little or no pigment is made. If only one gene is flawed then pigment can still be made.[3]

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+Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, was a Jewish teacher and reformer of religion who has become the main and central figure of Christianity. Christians follow the example of Jesus, accept his words to be true, and worship him as the Jewish messiah and incarnation of God. He is one of the most famous, most recognized, and most influential persons in the world's history.[12][13][14][15]
+
+Most historians agree that he was a Jew from a place called Judea, in a town called Nazareth, in what is now Israel. They also agree that he was thought of as a teacher and a healer, and that he was baptized by John the Baptist.  He was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of Pontius Pilate, and Christians believe that he came back to life - "rose again" - three days later.[16][17][18][19][20]
+
+Jesus taught mostly love and forgiveness for others, as well as being humble about one's religion. He talked many times about the kingdom of God, and told others, "The kingdom of God has come near."[21] He said that one must be mild, like a child, and never boast. He taught that people who ignore God and other people do not deserve his blessing, but God would still forgive them if they repented. Jesus opposed the other Jewish priests because they used religion to boast. This led to other Jewish leaders hating Jesus, because Jesus was trying to stop them. Jesus also opposed human authority,[source?] leading to a trial and conviction to death by the Jewish leaders[22] and then to his execution on a cross by Roman authorities.[23]
+
+There are stories about the life of Jesus by different writers. The best known are the four Christian books called the Gospels. They form the beginning of the New Testament, a part of the Bible. The word "gospel" means "good news". They tell a little about his birth and hidden early life, but mostly about his public life: his teachings, miracles, ministry, death, and resurrection (return from death).
+
+Several Jewish and Roman historians, such as Flavius Josephus, Tacitus,[note 1] Pliny the Younger, and Suetonius include Jesus in their writings. They usually only tell of his execution or problems between the Roman government and his followers; they do not talk about his life, since his life was not a problem they had with Jesus.
+
+Manichaeans, Gnostics, Muslims, Bahá'ís, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.[24][25][26] The Quran claims that Jesus was a Muslim.[27] Bahá'í teachings consider Jesus to be a "manifestation of God", a Bahá'í concept for prophets.[28] And also some Hindus consider Jesus to be an avatar or a sadhu.[29] Some Buddhists, including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.[30]
+
+The name Jesus came from the Aramaic name "Yeshua", from Hebrew Yah-shua, meaning "God is salvation (or deliverance)" in English, and was a popular name of the time. Jesus is often called "Jesus Christ" or "Christ". The word Christ comes from the Greek word christos and means "the one marked on the head with oil" or "the anointed one". In Jesus' country, anointing was done to show that a person was chosen to be a king or a leader. Jesus is also called Messiah, which comes from the Hebrew term Mashiakh, and also means "the anointed one".[31]
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that before the birth of Jesus, both Mary, His mother, and the man that she was promised to, Joseph, knew that Jesus was going to be the Messiah or King that had been promised to the Jewish people, in the ancient Jewish books.[32][33][34]
+
+Luke's Gospel tells most of the story. When Jesus was born, the Roman Empire ruled most of the Middle East. The Government wanted every single family to have their name taken down to be taxed, so everyone had to go back to the place where they came from. Joseph came from the small town of Bethlehem, near Jerusalem, so even though Mary was close to giving birth to her baby, they had to travel, with thousands of other people.[35]
+
+When they got to Bethlehem, every room was full. Jesus was placed in a manger as there was no room for them at the inn. Shepherds who were minding their sheep on the hillside came in to see the baby, and went away singing thanks to God for the newborn king.[36]
+
+In the Gospel of Matthew, it says that wise men from a far country saw a new star in the sky and travelled to find the young Jesus because they knew that the Messiah was going to be born under a star, and that the star was a sign that Jesus was born to be a king.[37]
+
+Most Christians celebrate the day that Jesus was born as the holiday of Christmas. Although the Gospels do not say what day Jesus was born, the date chosen was of December 25, because there was already a Roman holiday on that day.[38]
+
+The arrival of Jesus was known by John the Baptist. He baptized Jesus in the Jordan River. During the baptism, the Spirit of God, like a dove, came down upon Jesus, and the voice of God was heard. According to the Bible, the Spirit led Jesus into the desert where he fasted for 40 days. There, he resisted the Devil's temptations. Then Jesus went into Galilee, settled in Capernaum, and began to preach about the Kingdom of God. He was about 30 years old.
+
+Jesus taught mainly by telling stories. He taught that God alone was the true king, and that people should love God and love each other as the scriptures told them to do. And he taught his followers how to pray. Jesus performed miracles that were signs of God's power, such as giving hungry people food and wine, healing sick people, and making dead people alive again. He also set people free from evil spirits.
+
+Jesus gathered together twelve men, known as the Twelve Apostles, whom he chose and trained to spread his message. He had many other disciples, including many women, but because of Jewish customs, the women disciples could not travel to distant places on their own as teachers.
+
+The Bible says Jesus became famous. He went to Jerusalem, where many were visiting the city for Passover. When they heard that he was coming, they greeted him as if he was a king. They thought he would free them from the Roman rule, but Jesus rode into Jerusalem on a donkey, as a sign that he came in peace.
+
+Jesus did certain things which upset the Jewish religious leaders. They thought he showed disrespect for customs that the Jews had kept for many centuries. For example, Jews did no work at all on the 7th day of the week, the Sabbath, because it was a holy day. In John's Gospel, chapter 5, there is the story of Jesus healing a crippled man. Jesus saw a man lying on a mattress. He healed the man, and told him to pick up the mattress and go home. Carrying the mattress on the Sabbath was against religious custom, so the religious leaders argued with Jesus about it. They then watched everything he did, and remembered all the things that were against the religious customs.
+
+In Mark's Gospel, chapter 11, it says that when Jesus arrived in Jerusalem, he went to the Jewish Temple. He became angry at what he saw. There were people selling things there, and money lenders who were cheating poor people. Jesus chased away all the people who were selling things. He said the chief priests and scribes had turned the temple into a den of thieves because they were making money from the poor and taking away homes from poor women who had no other way to pay for the temple worship.[39]
+
+The Gospels say that the temple leaders were angry and wanted to kill him. They told the Roman government that Jesus' followers wanted him to become the king of the country and take it over. The gospels say the Roman governor thought that Jesus should be set free, but that the Jewish leaders said, "If you do that, then you are not the friend of Caesar!" (Caesar was the Roman ruler.)
+
+The Governor sentenced him to death because his followers had claimed he was king. The Roman soldiers killed Jesus by crucifixion. He was nailed up to a high cross by his hands and feet. This was a common way for the Romans to kill rebels and criminals.
+
+Jesus' body was buried in a tomb which belonged to one of his followers. On the day after the Sabbath, early in the morning, women went to treat the body with spice and perfumed oil. But the Gospels say that the body of Jesus was gone, and that he was seen alive afterwards. This is called the Resurrection.
+
+Some people, like the disciple Thomas, said, "I'm not going to believe this, until I have seen it with my own eyes!" But the Bible says that more than 500 people, including Thomas, saw Jesus alive again. There are many stories in the Gospels about what Jesus did after he was resurrected. Finally, the Gospel of Luke says that Jesus took his disciples to a hill, where he blessed them and told them to spread his teaching through all the world, and that then clouds came down, and he was lifted up to Heaven.
+
+Most Christians celebrate the time that the Gospels say he died and was raised from the dead as the holiday of Easter.[note 2]
+
+The Christian Church is founded on Jesus. The things that Christians believe about Jesus are based on the four Gospels of the Bible, and on letters or "Epistles" that were written in the 1st century, explaining Jesus' teachings to his followers.
+
+Jesus did not write these letters. They were mainly written by a Jewish man named Paul. At first he tried to stop Christianity from spreading. Then he became a Christian himself and was an important leader. As Christian churches started in different towns and countries, Paul wrote letters to them. A lot of the ideas that Christians believe are written in Paul's letters. There is also lots of instruction for running churches and families.
+
+There are other letters in the New Testament by other writers including Peter, James, and John. These letters all help to build the beliefs that modern Christians have.
+
+See section: Other views about Jesus
+
+Whether or not Jesus is God has been argued about for a long time. Most Christians, including those from Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant denominations, believe Jesus was both God and man. Jesus is described in different parts of the New Testament as being "the Word of God", "the Son of God", "the Son of Man", and God himself.
+
+These teachings, which are believed by most Christians, are not believed by many other people. The Islamic teaching is that Jesus was a prophet, but he was not part of God or the "Son of God". In Jesus' own time, many Jews became very angry at Jesus for saying that he was the "Son of God" and also because his followers said he was the "Messiah". Most Jews do not believe this.
+
+These Bible verses tell the Christian teaching that Jesus is God:
+
+Jesus is also referred to as "the Son of God".
+
+Many Christians believe that these verses say Jesus is God. All Christians believe that Jesus' death on the cross allows all people to be forgiven by God for their sins (bad things they have done). Most Christians believe that if a person asks God to forgive them He will do so, and they will get to live forever with him in Heaven.[40]
+
+Many Christians believe that, by the teaching of the Bible, Jesus was not only truly God but also truly human and that this was part of God's plan to bring humans closer to understanding him. 
+People who do not have Christian beliefs, have different ideas about Jesus.[41][42]
+
+Verses from the Bible:-
+
+In Matthew's Gospel, Jesus is often called "the Son of Man". Matthew has borrowed these words from the Old Testament where they are often used to show that humankind is very far from God. In the Bible, God is often praised and thanked for helping ordinary humans, who are called "the sons of man". In Psalm 8, the writer, King David, asks God "what is man that you are mindful of him, and the son of man that you care for him?"[note 3]
+
+In Matthew's Gospel, 24:30 Jesus says "Then will appear in heaven the sign of the Son of Man, and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory." Like King David, in Psalm 8, Jesus is making a difference between his ordinary human life and his great power as the Son of God.
+
+One of the best-loved parts of the Old Testament is a song called Psalm 23. It starts:
+
+In the Gospels, Jesus often spoke about himself as being like a shepherd, caring for sheep. He called himself the "Good Shepherd" who would even give his own life, to protect his sheep. He told the Jewish people, referring to non-Jewish or Gentile believers, that he had "other sheep" that do not belong to this flock. (John, 21:16). In one of his last conversations with his disciple Peter, he told him, "Feed my sheep!", in other words "Take care of my people.".
+
+In Judaism, from ancient times, people are seen as  sinful or bad. They need to be forgiven by God. They believed that there were two ways to get God's forgiveness, by prayer and by sacrifice. Prayer could be done anywhere, but sacrifices were done at the temple. A person would bring an animal, often a lamb, or if they were poor, a dove. They would put their hands on the animal to lay their sins on it. Then the animal would be killed, as a punishment for the sin. This type of sacrifice continued until the temple in Jerusalem was destroyed in 71 AD. Paying money to the temple was also a sort of sacrifice. When Jesus drove the traders out of the temple, they were the people who sold lambs and doves, and the people who exchanged Roman money into special temple money.
+
+Part of Christian belief is that Jesus Christ did not just come as a human person so that he could teach a better way of life. Christians also believe that Jesus was the ultimate sacrifice for the sin of humankind, that Jesus is the "Saviour": the one who is here to save. Christians believe that, unlike ordinary people, Jesus was completely pure and free from sin, but that when he died on the cross, he took on himself all the sins of every person who would believe in him, like the lamb sacrificed in the temple.[43]
+
+Based on John's Gospel, Christian teaching is that the death and resurrection of Jesus are the sign of his power to forgive the sins of any person who turns to him and truly asks for forgiveness.[40] The Bible says that sinners who are forgiven should try to live a new life and not go back to their sinful behaviour. Christians believe that knowing about God's love helps people to live a new and better life.
+
+These are three verses from the Bible that are important in this Christian belief:-
+
+"For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life." John's Gospel, 3:16.
+
+Jesus said to him, “I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." John's Gospel, 14:6.
+
+"If we say we have no sins, we are fooling ourselves and not telling the truth. But if we tell our sins humbly to God, then He has promised to listen and to forgive our sins and make us clean from all our badness." from the First Letter of John.
+
+Some people who are not Christians believe that Jesus lived at the time that the Gospels say, but do not believe that Jesus was the "Son of God" or "Savior". They believe that Jesus was an ordinary, but very good person, a teacher and perhaps a prophet.
+
+Mohandas Gandhi said, "I am a Muslim, and a Hindu, and a Christian, and a Jew," even though he was born a Jain.
+
+Muslims believe Jesus (under the name Isa) was the second-to-last Prophet (messenger of God). They believe that Muhammad was the very last Prophet. They believe that both Jesus and Muhammad were ordinary men, chosen by God to be his servant and teach the word of Islam.
+
+Muslims do not believe that Jesus was God or "the Son of God". Islam is strictly monotheistic: it says that there is only one God. Muslims believe that Jesus cannot be part of God, because there is only one God. If someone other than God is worshiped, it is thought to be polytheism (belief in more than one god). It is also thought to be idolatry: idolizing someone other than God.
+
+Islam teaches that Jesus did not die on the cross, but another man disguised as him went on the cross for Isa (Qur'an 4:157). This is very different from Christianity. Jesus' death is a very important part of the Christian belief about salvation. Muslims always say "peace be upon him" after saying Jesus' name as a sign of respect in short and Arabic a.s.
+
+Muslims also accept some other teachings about Jesus. These teachings say that Jesus will return to the earth in the End Of Days; he will then destroy the false messiah or Anti-christ before the day of judgment. Muslims also accept Jesus' claims to be a healer. They believe in the many miracles he is said to have performed, like raising the dead to life and giving sight to the blind. They believe that all his miracles were granted to him from God.
+
+The Qur'an (like the Bible), mentions the virgin birth of Jesus but then it says other things about Mary (Islamic-Maryam). The Bible says that Joseph helped Mary give birth to Jesus, but in Islam there is no Joseph. Instead, Mary walked the desert alone in labor and found a tree. The angel Gabriel (Jibreel) asked if she was hungry, then told her to shake the tree and dates fell for her to eat. Then he asked if she was thirsty and he said look down at your feet and there was water and there she gave birth to Jesus. (Qur'an 19) This is why Muslims fast and how they break their fast. Mary knew she had to go back to her town and when she did, with Jesus in her arms, the people were shouting at her for adultery. Mary wanted to explain herself but the Angel told her not to speak.
+
+Even though Jesus was a Jew and his teaching came out of the Jewish religion, most Jewish people do not believe that Jesus was the Messiah that is promised in the Jewish Scriptures.
+
+In the Gospels, it tells that Jesus made the Jewish teachers very angry with his teachings. It says that part of their anger was because he told them they were "hypocrites" which means that they externally made themselves appear to be living a holy life, but internally their hearts were far from God's.
+
+In the Gospels, the other reason that they became angry was that Jesus acted as if he was the Messiah, and said he was the "Son of God". This meant that he was either a terrible liar, that he was mad and just imagined it, or that it was true. But Jesus did not seem to be mad. So that left only two choices. If Jesus was lying, then he was doing something badly against the Jewish religion. It was because of the claims that Jesus was the "Son of God" that some of the Jewish leaders wanted him killed and they handed him to the Roman rulers. The Romans did not care if Jesus said something that was against the Jewish beliefs. But they knew that people had also said that Jesus was "King of the Jews". The Jewish leaders claimed this was against the Roman Government's laws. Although the Roman leaders did not agree, they had him killed to prevent a possible riot.
+
+Although, today and through history, most Jews do not believe what Christians say about Jesus, there are some Jews who do believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Jewish Scriptures. Jews who believe this are called "Messianic Jews".
+
+Nearly all modern scholars, both Christian and non-Christian agree that Jesus was a real person. Both Christian and non-Christian scholars base their studies of him on the Gospels. They are believed to have been written between 60-90 AD.[44]
+
+By tradition, the Gospels were written by four men, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John who gave their names to these books.[45]
+This is the order in which they are arranged in the New Testament of the Bible, but scholars think that it is not the order in which they were written. The Gospel of Mark was probably written before the Gospel of Matthew. The four Gospels all tell the story of the Life of Jesus, but they do it from four different points of view, because they were written by different people and each writer had reasons to tell it in a different way.
+
+Other scholars have said that leaders in the Early Christian Church made changes to the Gospel writings. These changes are said to have happened at different times, in different ways and for different reasons. For example, one story was left out of many old versions of the Gospels. It is about Jesus rescuing a woman who had committed adultery (had sex outside marriage) and was about to be killed. St. Augustine of Hippo, (354-430 AD) wrote that this was probably was left out because some church leaders thought the story might cause people to act in a sinful way.[46] This story is in all modern Bibles and is thought to contain very important teaching for Christians.[source?] Other differences that can be found in versions of the Gospels are mostly small and do not make a difference to what is known about the life of Jesus and his teaching.[source?]
+
+Mark's Gospel, which is thought by biblical scholars to be the earliest, has the name of a young disciple of the apostle Paul who is mentioned several times in the "Acts of the Apostles" and Paul's Letters. The Gospel was probably written in Rome and is thought by scholars to be from the memories of Jesus' follower or disciple, Peter.[45] It does not tell about Jesus' birth; it starts when he was 30 years old, at the time when the disciples got to know him. It shows Jesus as a man of action: going around the country, teaching and healing people.
+
+Matthew's Gospel was written next. Matthew was one of Jesus' disciples. He was a Jewish man that was hated by other Jews because he worked for the Roman rulers as a tax collector. Matthew tells that one day Jesus saw him sitting at his desk in the market place and said "Follow me".[45]
+Most Biblical scholars believe that Matthew had read Mark's Gospel and decided to fill in some things that Mark left out, because, while Mark wrote his Gospel for the Church of Rome, Matthew wanted to write for Jewish Christians all over the Roman Empire.[45] Matthew was a well-educated Jew, so he knew the Jewish Scriptures, (which Christians also use and call the Old Testament of the Bible). Matthew knew the scripture teachings that the Messiah, or God's anointed one would come. In his Gospel, he often mentions these teachings. He also starts off by giving a list of Jesus' ancestors because this was important to Jewish readers.
+
+The apostle Luke was Greek and a friend of the apostle Paul. He was a doctor. Luke came to know about Jesus from the disciples. Luke writes about the birth and the childhood of Jesus and he says "Mary kept all these things in her heart and thought about them."[45]
+
+Luke was not a Jew and he writes in a way that is easy for other people who are not Jews to understand. He explains Jewish customs and laws. He wrote a second book called the Acts of the Apostles which tells what the disciples did after Jesus had left them.
+
+It is believed by scholars of the Bible that John was a disciple of Jesus and was probably the youngest of the twelve men who were Jesus' main followers.[45] He lived to be an old man and, because of his teaching about Jesus, he was sent to a small island, called Patmos.
+John writes with one particular idea in mind. He wants to prove to the reader that Jesus is God's way of saving humans from the terrible problem of sin or evil. John starts by telling the reader that Jesus was and is God. John says that Jesus is God's Living Communication (or Living Word). Every part of John's Gospel is written to show that Jesus came from God, taught the Message of God and is the way for people to understand God's Love.[40]
+
+The Gospels tell many of the stories that Jesus told when he was teaching people about the way that God loved them and the way they should live. These are called parables. They include the following:
+
+In this story from chapter 10 of Luke's Gospel, Jesus shows what it means to be a good neighbour. Near the Jews lived the people called Samaritans. They did not agree with each other about religious teaching, and were considered enemies. One day, a Jewish man was walking, when some robbers beat him up, robbed him, and left him naked and almost dead, by the road. A Jewish priest came along and saw him. He thought, "If I touch that naked bleeding man, I will be unclean and I will not be able to go to the Temple!" So he pretended that he had not seen him. Another Jew, a Holy Man, came along and acted in the same way. At last a Samaritan came along with a donkey. When he saw the wounded man he stopped. He washed his wounds with wine and olive oil. Then he put him on his donkey and took him to the nearest inn. He paid the innkeeper and said "Keep him until he is well, and whatever is owing, I will pay when I come back this way." Jesus said to the people who were listening "Which one of these people acted like a good neighbour?" They said "He that stopped and helped." Jesus said "You go and act the same way."
+
+In this story from chapter 15 of Luke's Gospel, Jesus tells how a rich man had two sons. They would both get a share of his money, when he died. The younger son said, "Father, give me my money now, so I can go and enjoy myself, while I'm young." He took the money to the city, and spent it all on parties with his friends and other sinful things. Soon he had none left to feed himself and was ashamed. He got a job caring for pigs, a unholy meat to eat, just keep himself from starving. He said to himself, "I'll go home to my father and I will say, 'Father, I have sinned! Please let me be a servant in your house!'" When his father saw him coming, he ran along the road to put his arms around his son. The father said, "Bring the finest clothes! Kill the fattest calf to make a feast!" When the elder brother heard all this, he was angry and said, "I'm a good son to you, but you never even gave me one little goat to have a party with my friends!" The father said, "You have always been with me. I love you greatly, and all I have is yours, but my son who was lost is now found! My son who seemed to be dead is alive! Be happy with me!" Jesus said that this is the way God loves and forgives his people, when they ask for forgiveness.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian
+
+Christmas Eve · Christmas Day · Boxing Day · Decorations · Economics · Gift giving · History
+
+Adoration of the Magi · Adoration of the Shepherds · Advent · Angel Gabriel · The Annunciation · Annunciation to the Shepherds · Bethlehem · Biblical Magi · Christingle · Christmastide · Epiphany · Herod the Great · Jesus · Joseph · Mary · Massacre of the Innocents · Nativity of Jesus · Nativity of Jesus in art · Nativity of Jesus in later culture · Nativity scene · Saint Nicholas · Star of Bethlehem · Twelfth Night
+
+Badalisc  · Belsnickel · Christkind · Ded Moroz · Elves · Father Christmas · Grýla · Joulupukki · Jack Frost · Knecht Ruprecht · Korvatunturi · Krampus · La Befana · Le Père Fouettard · Mrs. Claus · North Pole · Olentzero · Père Noël · Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer · Santa Claus · Santa Claus's reindeer · Santa's workshop · Sinterklaas · Vertep · Yule Lads · Zwarte Piet · Mikulás ·
+
+Advent calendar · Boar's Head Feast · Cards · Christmas hamper · Crackers · Events and celebrations · Films · Flying Santa · Food · Holiday parades · Las Posadas · Lights · Markets · Meals and feasts · NORAD Tracks Santa · Nutcrackers · Ornaments · Plants · Santa Claus parade · Secret Santa · Stamps · Stockings · Tree · Twelve Days of Christmas · Wassailing · Yule Goat · Yule log
+
+Germany · Ireland · Philippines · Poland · Serbia · Ukraine
+
+Albums · Carols · Hit singles  · Hit singles UK  · Songs

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+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+Christianity is the largest world religion by number of adherents (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus to be son of God, the second person of the Trinity.[1] It is a monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God.[2]. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Though there are many religious people and sects that call themselves Christians, true Christian Faith is rooted in Salvation by Faith, through Grace Alone. Trinity, the diviniy of Christ etc. are foundational truths.
+
+To most of the people of his time Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to earth to die on a cross for their sins. The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time.[3] His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible.  Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred.[4] The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.
+
+God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin[5] and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.
+
+The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.
+
+Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion.[6][7] Christianity started out as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.
+
+Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.[12][13]
+
+The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Joshua is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.
+
+Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.[14]
+
+There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[15] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[16] and will return again[17] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
+
+Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.[18][19]
+
+Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology.[20][21] From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards.[22] Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that several times Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples, and one time before "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[23] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remember by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week
+
+Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and forever death. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.
+
+Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved,[24] it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church.[25] Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.[26]
+
+Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace.[27] Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[28] Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.[29]
+
+Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God.[30] The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.
+
+Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.
+
+Some main Christian creeds are:
+
+Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above.[31] A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.[32]
+
+The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and yet Christian believe that there is only one God. This idea, called Trinity, was started at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and developed during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church[33]. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.
+Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[34]
+
+Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[35]
+
+An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[36]. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.
+
+Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.
+
+There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.[37]
+
+Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God.[38] There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever.[39] Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.[40]
+
+Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
+
+Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
+
+Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.
+
+The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did
+
+The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.
+
+The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.
+
+In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass." [42] The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
+
+The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.
+
+Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.[43]
+
+These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
+
+Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.[44]
+
+The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.[45]
+
+People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.[46]
+
+Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called “doctrine”) or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.
+
+The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.
+
+In the 15th century the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.
+
+With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around to 2.2 billion,[13][47] split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[48] The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America.[49] It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.[50] However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain,[51] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[52][53][54] South Korea,[55] Taiwan[56] and Macau[57]).
+
+In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades.[58] Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches,[59] while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.[60]
+
+Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways.[61] One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.[61]
+
+The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[62] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[63] And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+Christianity is the largest world religion by number of adherents (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus to be son of God, the second person of the Trinity.[1] It is a monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God.[2]. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Though there are many religious people and sects that call themselves Christians, true Christian Faith is rooted in Salvation by Faith, through Grace Alone. Trinity, the diviniy of Christ etc. are foundational truths.
+
+To most of the people of his time Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to earth to die on a cross for their sins. The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time.[3] His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible.  Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred.[4] The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.
+
+God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin[5] and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.
+
+The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.
+
+Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion.[6][7] Christianity started out as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.
+
+Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.[12][13]
+
+The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Joshua is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.
+
+Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.[14]
+
+There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[15] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[16] and will return again[17] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
+
+Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.[18][19]
+
+Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology.[20][21] From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards.[22] Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that several times Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples, and one time before "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[23] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remember by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week
+
+Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and forever death. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.
+
+Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved,[24] it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church.[25] Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.[26]
+
+Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace.[27] Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[28] Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.[29]
+
+Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God.[30] The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.
+
+Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.
+
+Some main Christian creeds are:
+
+Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above.[31] A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.[32]
+
+The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and yet Christian believe that there is only one God. This idea, called Trinity, was started at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and developed during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church[33]. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.
+Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[34]
+
+Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[35]
+
+An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[36]. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.
+
+Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.
+
+There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.[37]
+
+Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God.[38] There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever.[39] Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.[40]
+
+Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
+
+Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
+
+Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.
+
+The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did
+
+The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.
+
+The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.
+
+In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass." [42] The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
+
+The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.
+
+Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.[43]
+
+These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
+
+Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.[44]
+
+The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.[45]
+
+People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.[46]
+
+Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called “doctrine”) or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.
+
+The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.
+
+In the 15th century the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.
+
+With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around to 2.2 billion,[13][47] split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[48] The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America.[49] It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.[50] However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain,[51] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[52][53][54] South Korea,[55] Taiwan[56] and Macau[57]).
+
+In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades.[58] Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches,[59] while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.[60]
+
+Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways.[61] One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.[61]
+
+The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[62] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[63] And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+
+
+Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro (born 5 February 1985 in Funchal, Madeira), better known as Cristiano Ronaldo, or by his nickname 'CR7', is a Portuguese footballer. He plays for Serie A club Juventus and the Portuguese national team. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest footballers of all time, and, by some, as the greatest ever.[12][13][14][15][16][17]
+
+Ronaldo was once the most expensive professional football player of all time, after moving from Manchester United to Real Madrid for approximately £80m. At his presentation as a Real Madrid player, 80,000 people greeted him at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. This is the world record, breaking the 25-year record of 75,000 people at Diego Maradona's presentation for Napoli.
+
+He is the first player to win the UEFA Champions League five times.[18] He also holds the record for the most number of goals scored in Real Madrid's history. Until this day, he remains the only player in the history of La Liga to score 30 or more goals in six consecutive seasons. [19]
+
+
+
+Ronaldo was born in Funchal, Madeira Islands.[20] He has one brother named Hugo, and two sisters named Katia and Elma He was diagnosed with a racing heart (Tachycardia) at age 15, but he got surgery to treat it. His father named him "Ronaldo" after former U.S. president Ronald Reagan. He was expelled from school for throwing a chair at a teacher because he disrespected him. In 1997, at age 12, he went on a trial with Sporting CP, who signed him for a fee of £1,500. He then moved from the Madeira Islands to Lisbon, to join the Sporting youth academy. He joined professional football at 16 when he was called up to the A team.
+
+Ronaldo began his professional career at Sporting CP. On 7 October 2002, Ronaldo played his first game in the Portuguese Primeira Liga, against Moreirense. He scored two goals as Sporting won 3–0. Ronaldo came to the attention of Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson in August 2003, when Sporting defeated United 3–1 in the first game ever played at the Estádio José Alvalade in Lisbon. His performance impressed the United players, who told Ferguson to sign him.
+
+On 12 August 2003, Ronaldo joined Manchester United from Sporting CP for a fee of £12.24 million. [21] He was Manchester United's first Portuguese player. He wanted the number 28, the number he wore at Sporting, but was eventually given the number 7. This number had been worn by George Best, Eric Cantona and David Beckham before him.
+
+In the 2007/08 season, he became the only player in the last 25 years to win both the "FIFA World Player of the Year" and the "Young Player of the Year" awards in the same season. In that season, he scored a total of 42 goals and won the European Golden Boot, an award which is given to the top scorer of league matches of every European national league.
+
+Ronaldo scored his first and only hat-trick for Manchester United in a 6–0 win against Newcastle United on 12 January 2008.[22]
+
+He won the first FIFA Puskas Award in 2009, which means he scored the best goal of that year. The goal was a 40-yard strike into the top-left corner against FC Porto on 15 April 2009 in the Champions League quarter finals. That goal was the only goal of the game.[23]
+
+Ronaldo joined Real Madrid on 1 July 2009 for a fee of €94 million, which was a world record transfer fee at the time.[24] He wore the number 9 in his first season as 7 was taken by Raúl González, he had to wait until he left the club in the summer of 2010 to wear number 7.[25]
+
+He made his debut on 29 August 2009, in a La Liga game against Deportivo de La Coruña. He scored a goal and Real Madrid won 3-2.
+
+He became the clubs all-time top scorer when he scored 5 goals against RCD Espanyol in a 6-0 away win. This brought his total goal tally to 230 goals in 203 games. The previous record holder was Raul.
+
+On 18 April 2017, he became the first player to reach 100 goals in the UEFA Champions League, after he scored a hat-trick in a 4-2 extra-time win against Bayern Munich. [26]
+
+On 10 July 2018, He joined Juventus of Italy and signed a 4 year contract worth 112 Million Euros. [27][28] [29]The transfer was the highest paid for a player over 30 years old. People called it "the deal of the century".
+
+He scored his first goals for the club on 16 September against US Sassuolo. Juventus won 2-1 at home. Three days later, on 19 September, he was controversially sent off against Valencia C.F. for apparent "violent behavior". He was crying as he received the red card and said he "did nothing".[30]
+
+Ronaldo began his international career in the 2002 UEFA U-17 Euro. He kept progressing through the youth national teams until his first senior game for Portugal on 20 August 2003 against Kazakhstan. He became Portugal's all time top scorer when he scored twice against Cameroon in March 2014, with Portugal winning 5-1.[31] He won the Euro 2016 and the 2019 UEFA Nations League. Although he had to leave the game early because he got injured in the UEFA Euro 2016 Final, Portugal still won 1-0 in extra time. He has played at 4 FIFA World Cup's: 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018.
+
+Ronaldo is able to play on both wings and also as a striker since he is very strong with both feet, even though he is naturally right footed. He is also one of the world fastest players.[32][33] He has good heading ability because he is over 6 feet tall and jumps high. He is also known for his free kicks; he likes to use the "knuckleball" technique, which is where the ball spins very little and creates an unpredictable motion. He combines this with his high shot power, making it hard for goalkeepers to stop his shots.
+
+Ronaldo has been criticized for "diving" by many people, including his Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson. [34][35]. He has also been criticised for being arrogant, such as complaining for not receiving fouls, having unrealistically high self-confidence, not celebrating with teammates after scoring goals, and getting angry after losing.[36] [37]Examples of this are when he threw a reporters microphone into a lake before a UEFA Euro 2016 match[38], and negative comments made at the Iceland national team after playing against them.[39]
+
+Ronaldo's father, José Aveiro, died of alcohol-related liver disease at age 52 in September 2005 when Ronaldo was 20. [53]Ronaldo said that he does not like to drink alcohol, but has on some very few occasions.[54]
+
+Ronaldo became a father on 17 June 2010 following the birth of his son, named Cristiano. He was born in the United States through an American surrogate he met in a restaurant, and Ronaldo announced that he had full custody. Ronaldo has never publicly revealed information about his son's mother, but he says he will reveal it to Cristiano Jr. when he gets older.[55] Ronaldo was in a relationship with Russian model Irina Shayk from 2010–2015.[56] On 8 June 2017, Ronaldo confirmed on Facebook that he had become the father to twins, Mateo and Eva. They were born in the United States to a surrogate mother.[57][58] In November 2017, his girlfriend Georgina Rodriguez gave birth to their first daughter, Alana.[59]
+
+Ronaldo is a Roman Catholic. He does not have tattoos because it would prevent him from donating blood.[60]
+
+In 2006, He opened his first fashion boutique under the name "CR7" (his initials and shirt number) on the island he was born in, Madeira. In December 2013, Ronaldo opened his own museum called Museu CR7, which has all of his trophies and awards from his career.[61]
+
+A film about his life and career, titled Ronaldo, was released on 9 November 2015.[62][63]
+
+He also has an airport named after him, Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport.[64]
+
+He is currently the most followed Instagram user, with over 200 million followers as of February 2020.[65]
+
+In June 2018, Ronaldo was given a suspended jail sentence of 2 years and a fine of €18.8 million for tax evasion.[66]
+
+In 2017, a woman claimed she was raped by Ronaldo in Las Vegas in 2009. Documents say that Ronaldo paid a woman $375,000 to stay quiet. In July 2019, Las Vegas said they would not charge Ronaldo because there was not enough evidence.[67][68][69]
+
+
+
+Template:UEFA Euro 2016 Team of the Tournament
+
+
+
+Template:FIFA Player of the Year
+
+Template:Portugal Squad 2018 World Cup

ensimple/1114.html.txt

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+Christopher Columbus  (1451–1506) was a Genoese trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451.  "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name.  His real name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo; his name  in Spanish was Cristóbal Colón.[1]
+
+In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamas, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is credited with the discovery of the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World.
+
+When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+Columbus died on 20 May 1506, in Valladolid, Spain.
+
+Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada.[2][3] This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived.[4][5] However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, discovered America in context of European history.
+
+Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.[1]
+
+However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.[1]
+
+In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the Santa María (the Holy Mary), the Pinta (the Painted), and the Santa Clara (nicknamed the Niña: the Little Girl).[6]
+
+The three ships were very small.  Historians think that the largest ship, the Santa María, was only about 60 feet (18 metres) long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.[7][8]
+
+Columbus's other ships were even smaller.  Historians think they were about 50–60 feet (15–18 metres) long.[8]
+
+On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador Island ("Holy Savior").  He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island.  They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew.  Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians."  He claimed their land as Spain's.[9]
+
+Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola.  On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort.  This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere.  He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas").  He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.[10]
+
+On the day he landed in the Bahamas, Columbus wrote about the Arawaks and Taíno:
+
+Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings.  He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold.  However, they could not.[12]
+
+According to Encyclopædia Britannica:
+
+Columbus thought the world looked like this
+
+Replica of the Santa Maria
+
+Painting of Columbus landing in the New World
+
+Drawing of Columbus landing on Hispaniola
+
+Route of Columbus's first voyage
+
+Letter from Columbus (1493)
+
+On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World.  He had 17 ships and 1,200 men.  These men included soldiers and farmers.  There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.[13]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.  He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.
+
+Then he went back to the Navidad fort.  He found the fort burned down.  Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there.  The rest had disappeared.  Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.[10]
+
+While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms.  They made the Arawaks give them food.  They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women.  This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards.  However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses.  This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.[14]
+
+Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad.  He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months.  If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death.  Historian Carl Lehrburger says that about 10,000 natives died this way.[15]  Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also.  If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.[16]
+
+There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over.  To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men.  However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them.[12] Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).[16]
+
+In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade.  He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno.  Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves.  They took 600 and let 400 go.  Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip.  Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived.  This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.[17]
+
+Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves.  In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:
+
+Columbus went on another voyage in 1498.  King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands.  On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent.[19]  Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.[16]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean).  He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde.  From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad.  He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.[20]
+
+On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola.  He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy.  They thought there would be more gold in the New World.  Some of them had rebelled while he was gone.  Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged.  He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola.  However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain.  In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola.  She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do.  When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.[16]
+
+When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the Encomienda system in Hispaniola.  Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler.  Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village.  Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler.  Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, and then forcing them to work on that land.[16]
+
+On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 12, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.
+
+Columbus died of heart failure and arthritis in Valladolid, Spain, at the possible age of 54.
+
+Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy.  Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born.  Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa.  However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal.  Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.[1]
+
+Columbus wrote that he first went to sea when he was 14 years old.[21]
+
+In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo.  She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.[22]
+
+In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra.  They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.[23]
+
+Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World.  First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China.  Other people had called this belief absurd.  Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.[24]
+
+Second, Columbus wanted to find gold.  Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times.  In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world."[25]  This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person – and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.
+
+When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico.  They grabbed as much gold as they could.  The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.
+
+In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.[26]
+
+The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.[27]

ensimple/1115.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+Christopher Columbus  (1451–1506) was a Genoese trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451.  "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name.  His real name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo; his name  in Spanish was Cristóbal Colón.[1]
+
+In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamas, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is credited with the discovery of the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World.
+
+When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+Columbus died on 20 May 1506, in Valladolid, Spain.
+
+Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada.[2][3] This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived.[4][5] However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, discovered America in context of European history.
+
+Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.[1]
+
+However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.[1]
+
+In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the Santa María (the Holy Mary), the Pinta (the Painted), and the Santa Clara (nicknamed the Niña: the Little Girl).[6]
+
+The three ships were very small.  Historians think that the largest ship, the Santa María, was only about 60 feet (18 metres) long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.[7][8]
+
+Columbus's other ships were even smaller.  Historians think they were about 50–60 feet (15–18 metres) long.[8]
+
+On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador Island ("Holy Savior").  He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island.  They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew.  Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians."  He claimed their land as Spain's.[9]
+
+Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola.  On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort.  This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere.  He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas").  He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.[10]
+
+On the day he landed in the Bahamas, Columbus wrote about the Arawaks and Taíno:
+
+Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings.  He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold.  However, they could not.[12]
+
+According to Encyclopædia Britannica:
+
+Columbus thought the world looked like this
+
+Replica of the Santa Maria
+
+Painting of Columbus landing in the New World
+
+Drawing of Columbus landing on Hispaniola
+
+Route of Columbus's first voyage
+
+Letter from Columbus (1493)
+
+On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World.  He had 17 ships and 1,200 men.  These men included soldiers and farmers.  There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.[13]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.  He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.
+
+Then he went back to the Navidad fort.  He found the fort burned down.  Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there.  The rest had disappeared.  Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.[10]
+
+While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms.  They made the Arawaks give them food.  They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women.  This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards.  However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses.  This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.[14]
+
+Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad.  He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months.  If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death.  Historian Carl Lehrburger says that about 10,000 natives died this way.[15]  Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also.  If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.[16]
+
+There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over.  To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men.  However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them.[12] Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).[16]
+
+In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade.  He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno.  Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves.  They took 600 and let 400 go.  Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip.  Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived.  This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.[17]
+
+Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves.  In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:
+
+Columbus went on another voyage in 1498.  King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands.  On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent.[19]  Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.[16]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean).  He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde.  From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad.  He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.[20]
+
+On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola.  He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy.  They thought there would be more gold in the New World.  Some of them had rebelled while he was gone.  Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged.  He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola.  However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain.  In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola.  She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do.  When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.[16]
+
+When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the Encomienda system in Hispaniola.  Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler.  Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village.  Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler.  Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, and then forcing them to work on that land.[16]
+
+On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 12, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.
+
+Columbus died of heart failure and arthritis in Valladolid, Spain, at the possible age of 54.
+
+Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy.  Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born.  Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa.  However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal.  Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.[1]
+
+Columbus wrote that he first went to sea when he was 14 years old.[21]
+
+In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo.  She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.[22]
+
+In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra.  They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.[23]
+
+Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World.  First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China.  Other people had called this belief absurd.  Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.[24]
+
+Second, Columbus wanted to find gold.  Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times.  In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world."[25]  This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person – and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.
+
+When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico.  They grabbed as much gold as they could.  The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.
+
+In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.[26]
+
+The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.[27]

ensimple/1116.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+Christopher Columbus  (1451–1506) was a Genoese trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451.  "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name.  His real name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo; his name  in Spanish was Cristóbal Colón.[1]
+
+In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamas, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is credited with the discovery of the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World.
+
+When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+Columbus died on 20 May 1506, in Valladolid, Spain.
+
+Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada.[2][3] This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived.[4][5] However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, discovered America in context of European history.
+
+Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.[1]
+
+However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.[1]
+
+In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the Santa María (the Holy Mary), the Pinta (the Painted), and the Santa Clara (nicknamed the Niña: the Little Girl).[6]
+
+The three ships were very small.  Historians think that the largest ship, the Santa María, was only about 60 feet (18 metres) long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.[7][8]
+
+Columbus's other ships were even smaller.  Historians think they were about 50–60 feet (15–18 metres) long.[8]
+
+On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador Island ("Holy Savior").  He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island.  They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew.  Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians."  He claimed their land as Spain's.[9]
+
+Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola.  On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort.  This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere.  He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas").  He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.[10]
+
+On the day he landed in the Bahamas, Columbus wrote about the Arawaks and Taíno:
+
+Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings.  He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold.  However, they could not.[12]
+
+According to Encyclopædia Britannica:
+
+Columbus thought the world looked like this
+
+Replica of the Santa Maria
+
+Painting of Columbus landing in the New World
+
+Drawing of Columbus landing on Hispaniola
+
+Route of Columbus's first voyage
+
+Letter from Columbus (1493)
+
+On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World.  He had 17 ships and 1,200 men.  These men included soldiers and farmers.  There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.[13]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.  He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.
+
+Then he went back to the Navidad fort.  He found the fort burned down.  Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there.  The rest had disappeared.  Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.[10]
+
+While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms.  They made the Arawaks give them food.  They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women.  This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards.  However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses.  This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.[14]
+
+Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad.  He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months.  If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death.  Historian Carl Lehrburger says that about 10,000 natives died this way.[15]  Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also.  If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.[16]
+
+There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over.  To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men.  However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them.[12] Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).[16]
+
+In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade.  He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno.  Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves.  They took 600 and let 400 go.  Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip.  Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived.  This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.[17]
+
+Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves.  In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:
+
+Columbus went on another voyage in 1498.  King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands.  On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent.[19]  Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.[16]
+
+On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean).  He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde.  From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad.  He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.[20]
+
+On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola.  He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy.  They thought there would be more gold in the New World.  Some of them had rebelled while he was gone.  Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged.  He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola.  However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain.  In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola.  She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do.  When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.[16]
+
+When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the Encomienda system in Hispaniola.  Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler.  Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village.  Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler.  Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, and then forcing them to work on that land.[16]
+
+On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 12, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.
+
+Columbus died of heart failure and arthritis in Valladolid, Spain, at the possible age of 54.
+
+Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy.  Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born.  Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa.  However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal.  Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.[1]
+
+Columbus wrote that he first went to sea when he was 14 years old.[21]
+
+In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo.  She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.[22]
+
+In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra.  They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.[23]
+
+Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World.  First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China.  Other people had called this belief absurd.  Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.[24]
+
+Second, Columbus wanted to find gold.  Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times.  In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world."[25]  This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person – and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.
+
+When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there.  This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
+
+The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico.  They grabbed as much gold as they could.  The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.
+
+In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.[26]
+
+The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.[27]

ensimple/1117.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+Christ the Redeemer (Portuguese: Cristo Redentor), is a statue of Jesus Christ in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. From 1931 until 20 30 metres (98 ft) tall. It sits on a  8 metres (26 ft) pedestal on the peak of the 700-metre (2,300 ft)
+
+The first electric railway in Brazil was built in the late 1800s. At that time people would go to the top of the Corcovado Mountain to enjoy the panoramic view of the city below.[1] Construction started in 1926 and took five years.[1] During that time workers balanced themselves on scaffolds with no safety equipment.[1] It was risky work but during the entire construction period, no workers were killed.[1] Many regarded that as a miracle.[1] The statue was finished in 1931.[2] It was built to celebrate the 100 year anniversary of Brazil's independence from Portugal.[3] The statue was built in France by the sculptor Paul Landowski.[3] He never came to Rio to see the sculpture in place.[3]
+
+The statue underwent a $4 million renovation in 2010.[4] Since then it has been damaged by lightning at least two times.[4] Repairs in 2014 added more lightning rods to prevent future damage from lightning.[4]
+
+The statue is maintained by the Archdiocese of Rio de Janeiro.[5]
+

ensimple/1118.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the mother; the other set from the father. Cytologists label chromosomes with numbers.[1]
+
+Chromosomes are present in every cell nucleus with very few and special exceptions. This means they are found in all eukaryotes, since only eukaryotes have cell nuclei. When eukaryote cells divide, the chromosomes also divide.
+
+When a somatic (body) cell (such as a muscle cell) divides, the process is called mitosis. Before mitosis, the cell copies all the chromosomes and then it can divide. When they duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter "X". When they are doubled, the two halves are called chromatids (see diagram). The chromatids are joined at the centromere.
+
+There are 46 chromosomes in a human, 23 pairs. Everyone has a set of chromosomes from their father and a matching set from their mother. They include a pair of sex chromosomes. The mother's eggs always contain an X chromosome, while the father's sperm contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome. That determines the sex of the child. To produce sex cells (gametes), the stem cells go through a different division process called meiosis. This reduces the 23 pairs (diploid) to 23 singles (haploid). These, when combined by fertilisation, produce the new set of 23 pairs.
+
+Different animals have different numbers of chromosomes. If a person does not have the usual number of chromosomes, they may die or have one or more peculiarities. For example, they might get a genetic disorder like Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21) and Klinefelter syndrome (a male with two X chromosomes). Some genetic disorders are more common than others.
+
+Polytene chromosomes are over-sized chromosomes which have developed from standard chromosomes. Specialized cells undergo repeated rounds of DNA replication without cell division (endomitosis). Polytene chromosomes form when multiple rounds of replication produce many sister chromatids that are stuck together in parallel.[2]
+
+Polytene chromosomes are found in Drosophila species and in nonbiting midges of the Chironomidae family. They are also present in another group of arthropods of the class Collembola, a protozoan group Ciliophora, mammalian trophoblasts and antipodal, and suspensor cells in plants.[3]
+
+Polytene cells have a metabolic function. Multiple copies of genes allows a high level of gene expression. In Drosophila melanogaster, for example, the chromosomes of the larval salivary glands undergo many rounds of endoreduplication. This produces large amounts of glue before pupation.
+
+Chromosome puffs (seen in diagram) are diffused uncoiled regions of the polytene chromosome. They are sites of active  transcription.

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+The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the mother; the other set from the father. Cytologists label chromosomes with numbers.[1]
+
+Chromosomes are present in every cell nucleus with very few and special exceptions. This means they are found in all eukaryotes, since only eukaryotes have cell nuclei. When eukaryote cells divide, the chromosomes also divide.
+
+When a somatic (body) cell (such as a muscle cell) divides, the process is called mitosis. Before mitosis, the cell copies all the chromosomes and then it can divide. When they duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter "X". When they are doubled, the two halves are called chromatids (see diagram). The chromatids are joined at the centromere.
+
+There are 46 chromosomes in a human, 23 pairs. Everyone has a set of chromosomes from their father and a matching set from their mother. They include a pair of sex chromosomes. The mother's eggs always contain an X chromosome, while the father's sperm contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome. That determines the sex of the child. To produce sex cells (gametes), the stem cells go through a different division process called meiosis. This reduces the 23 pairs (diploid) to 23 singles (haploid). These, when combined by fertilisation, produce the new set of 23 pairs.
+
+Different animals have different numbers of chromosomes. If a person does not have the usual number of chromosomes, they may die or have one or more peculiarities. For example, they might get a genetic disorder like Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21) and Klinefelter syndrome (a male with two X chromosomes). Some genetic disorders are more common than others.
+
+Polytene chromosomes are over-sized chromosomes which have developed from standard chromosomes. Specialized cells undergo repeated rounds of DNA replication without cell division (endomitosis). Polytene chromosomes form when multiple rounds of replication produce many sister chromatids that are stuck together in parallel.[2]
+
+Polytene chromosomes are found in Drosophila species and in nonbiting midges of the Chironomidae family. They are also present in another group of arthropods of the class Collembola, a protozoan group Ciliophora, mammalian trophoblasts and antipodal, and suspensor cells in plants.[3]
+
+Polytene cells have a metabolic function. Multiple copies of genes allows a high level of gene expression. In Drosophila melanogaster, for example, the chromosomes of the larval salivary glands undergo many rounds of endoreduplication. This produces large amounts of glue before pupation.
+
+Chromosome puffs (seen in diagram) are diffused uncoiled regions of the polytene chromosome. They are sites of active  transcription.