2fefe448090344e4a844a4a5eda82a9906590295190f989c476fce9f422db152

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+Coffee is a plant (Coffea) and the name of the drink that is made from this plant. The coffee plant is a bush or tree that can grow up to ten meters (about 32 feet) high, but is usually cut shorter. Coffee plants originally grew in Africa, and now also grow in South America, Central America and Southeast Asia. They are an important crop for the economies of many countries.
+The first branded coffee to be sold commercially to the public was Nes Café in 1879.
+The drink is made from the seeds of the coffee plant, called coffee beans. Coffee is usually served hot, and is a popular drink in many countries. Coffee contains a chemical called caffeine, a mild drug that keeps people awake.
+
+To make a drink from coffee beans, the beans must first be specially prepared by drying the beans and then roasting. The beans are dried a short time after they are picked. This preserves them and makes them ready to be packed or roasted. Before the beans are made into a drink, they must be roasted or ground (crushed into tiny pieces in a coffee mill). When the ground coffee is placed into boiling water, the flavour and dark brown colour of the beans goes into the water. Making coffee is called brewing coffee. There are several different ways that coffee can be brewed.
+
+There are two main types of coffee plants. The Coffea Arabica, the most common. Most of the world's coffee is made from Arabica beans,[1] and the Coffea Robusta, which is easier to grow in places where Arabica will not grow.
+
+Robusta is cheaper and has more caffeine than Arabica[2] and it is used in many commercial coffee products. But Robusta tastes bitter and acidic, so people only drink it with other things. Better quality Robustas are in some espresso blends.
+
+In the past, people gave names to new Arabica coffees from the port they came from. The two oldest Arabica coffees are "Mocha" and "Java". Today, names are more specific. They tell us the country, region, and sometimes even the property where they come from.
+
+Some sorts of coffee taste better if the beans are "aged". This means that after they are picked, the beans are dried and then kept from three to eight years. This "aging" gives the coffee a less acidic taste.[3] Coffee that has been aged is often mixed or "blended" with other coffee that is not aged.
+
+"Roasting" is one of the important stages in making coffee beans into coffee. When a coffee bean is roasted, it grows nearly two times bigger and changes from green to yellow to brown.
+
+The length of time that the coffee beans are roasted makes the coffee taste different. Some types of coffee, such as Mocha and Java, are roasted for a short time. It is easy to tell from the flavour where the coffee is from. When coffee is roasted for a long time, it is harder to tell the different types apart. Green coffee beans can be bought and roasted at home in the oven.
+
+Before the coffee is made into a drink, it is "ground" in a small grinding machine called a "coffee mill". The coffee mill breaks the beans into very small pieces. Coffee is turned into a drink in several different ways. For some ways of making coffee, such as "espresso" it is best to have the coffee ground into fine powder but for other types of coffee-making, such as "filtered coffee", the coffee is in larger pieces to stop it going through the filter. Finely ground coffee makes a stronger taste.
+
+Coffee is made into a drink by putting the coffee into boiling water. This is called "brewing" coffee. 
+There are many ways to brew coffee.  Four of the most popular are:
+
+"Instant coffee" is a very quick way to make a cup of coffee to drink. It is made in a factory and sold in jars or packets. First, strong coffee is made using ground coffee and boiling water. Then, the coffee grounds are filtered out. The coffee liquid is dried out until nothing is left except granules (little crunchy pieces), or fine powder. This is then put into jars or packets. As soon as a spoonful of "instant coffee" is added to boiling water, it dissolves in the water to make coffee to drink.  The taste can be very different from fresh coffee. Part of the reason for the different taste is that Robusta coffee beans are usually used for making instant coffee. Robusta coffee beans do not cost as much as Arabica.
+
+The United States buys the most coffee; Germany is next. People in Finland drink the most coffee for each person. In Canada, the United States and Europe, some restaurants sell mainly coffee; they are referred to as "cafés" or "coffeehouses". Cafés often sell food, but the type of food is different from one country to another.
+
+In some countries, for example, those in northern Europe, people like having coffee parties. At these parties, people have coffee and cake.
+
+In many countries, people drink coffee at work; in the United States and England, for example, people drink it in the morning. In other countries, such as Mexico, people drink it in the evening to help them stay awake.
+
+Coffee contains the drug caffeine. Caffeine is a mild stimulant which helps to keep people awake.  Caffeine, like many drugs, can be addictive and can cause health problems.[8]
+
+Some studies have looked at the health risks of coffee. In February 2003, there was a study in Denmark of 18,478 women to find out if coffee had an effect on pregnancy and birth. It was found that if a woman drank between four and seven cups of coffee a day, it did not seem to make a big change to the number of babies that were born dead, (stillborn). But the women in the study who drank eight or more cups of coffee a day had three times as much chance of having a stillborn baby.[9][10]
+
+For this, and other reasons, some people drink coffee substitutes or decaffeinated coffee instead.
+
+The BMJ quotes a study that concluded  that there are health benefits for drinking up to four coffee cups per day. However, drinking coffee is not recommended for pregnant women and for  women who are in danger of fractured bones. According to the BMJ not everyone agrees with these findings[11]

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+A rock is a naturally occurring solid. It is made of minerals (which are crystalline), or other mineral-like substances. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. That means the Earth's crust is made of rock. The different minerals in the rocks make different kinds of rock.
+
+Rock is often covered by soil or water. It is beneath the oceans, lakes, and rivers of the earth, and under the polar icecaps. Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.
+
+Rocks are classified by their minerals and chemical make-up. The processes that formed them are also noted. Rocks may be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Rock types may change in a so-called 'rock cycle'.
+
+Igneous rocks are formed when molten magma cools, either above or below the surface. They are divided into two main categories: plutonic rock and volcanic rock. Plutonic or intrusive rocks are made when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust (example granite). Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or ejecta (examples pumice and basalt).[1]
+
+Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks on Earth. They form at or near the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rock is formed in layers which were laid down one by one on top of another. Some of the layers are thin, some are thick. Layers are made by deposition of sediment, organic matter, and chemical precipitates.
+
+Deposition is followed by squeezing of sediment under its own weight, and cementation. This process is called 'consolidation': it turns the sediment into a more or less hard substance.
+
+The approximate amounts of different kinds of sedimentary rock are:
+
+Only sedimentary rocks have fossils.
+
+Metamorphic rocks are formed by rocks coming under great pressure and high temperatures. These temperatures and pressures are found under mountains and volcanoes, especially when continental plates move together. These conditions change the make-up of the original minerals.[1]
+
+Rocks have had an impact on human life. They have been used by humans for over two million years. The mining of rocks for their metals has been one of the most important things in human advancement. Rocks are mined for building materials of all kinds.

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+Cairo (Arabic: القاهرة‎, usually transliterated as Al-Qāhirah) is the capital and largest city in Egypt. The city name can be translated as the one who won. Cairo is sometimes called "Mother of the World" (Um al Dunya).[4]
+
+Cairo has 7,947,121 people. About 17,290,000 people live in its urban area. This makes it the biggest city of the Arab World.[5] It also is the city with the biggest urban area in Africa
+
+The city is on the Nile River.
+
+The city of Cairo has a hot desert climate (BWh), meaning it has a hot, sunny and dry climate a year long. The city, however, has more humidity than other cities with the hot desert climate (BWh).
+
+The area around the city was an important focal point of Ancient Egypt.
+
+In 968, the Fatimids entered Egypt and they made Cairo the capital of their caliphate.[8]
+
+The Al Azhar mosque and university was made in 972.  This became the world's oldest university.  It is the most widely known seminary in the Islamic world.[4]
+
+In 1992, Cairo was devastated by a 5.8 magnitude earthquake that caused 545 deaths, injuring 6,512, and made 50,000 people homeless, the most destructive since 1847.
+
+The great pyramids of Giza and the step pyramid of Sakkara are just outside of the city.[4]
+
+The Egyptian Museum holds the world’s largest collection of antiquities from the time of the ancient Pharaohs.  Many treasures from the tomb of King Tutankhamun are in this museum.[4]
+
+People from Cairo are called 'Cairenes'.
+
+Abidjan, Ivory Coast ·
+Abuja, Nigeria ·
+Accra, Ghana ·
+Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ·
+Algiers, Algeria ·
+Antananarivo, Madagascar ·
+Asmara, Eritrea ·
+Bamako, Mali ·
+Bangui, Central African Republic ·
+Banjul, Gambia ·
+Bissau, Guinea-Bissau ·
+Bloemfontein (One of 3), South Africa ·
+Brazzaville, Congo Republic ·
+Bujumbura, Burundi ·
+Cairo, Egypt ·
+Cape Town (One of 3), South Africa ·
+Conakry, Guinea ·
+Dakar, Senegal ·
+Djibouti, Djibouti ·
+Dodoma, Tanzania ·
+Freetown, Sierra Leone ·
+Gaborone, Botswana ·
+Gitega, Burundi ·
+Harare, Zimbabwe ·
+Jamestown, Saint Helena ·
+Kampala, Uganda ·
+Khartoum, Sudan ·
+Kigali, Rwanda ·
+Kinshasa, Congo Democratic Republic ·
+Libreville, Gabon ·
+Lilongwe, Malawi ·
+Lobamba, Swaziland ·
+Lomé, Togo ·
+Luanda, Angola ·
+Lusaka, Zambia ·
+Moroni, Comoros ·
+Malabo, Equatorial Guinea ·
+Maseru, Lesotho ·
+Mamoudzou, Mayotte ·
+Maputo, Mozambique ·
+Mogadishu, Somalia ·
+Mbabane, Swaziland ·
+Monrovia, Liberia ·
+Nouakchott, Mauritania ·
+Niamey, Niger ·
+N'Djamena, Chad ·
+Nairobi, Kenya ·
+Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso ·
+Port Louis, Mauritius ·
+Porto-Novo, Benin ·
+Praia, Cape Verde ·
+Pretoria (One of 3), South Africa ·
+Rabat, Morocco ·
+Saint-Denis, Réunion ·
+São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe ·
+Tripoli, Libya ·
+Tunis, Tunisia ·
+Victoria, Seychelles ·
+Windhoek, Namibia ·
+Yaoundé, Cameroon ·
+Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast

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+A Tumulus (one tumulus, several Tumuli) is a certain type of grave. The word comes from Latin. This way of burying people was common in the Stone age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. There are different layouts. Sometimes sarcophaguses were used, at other times, urns were placed in the grave. There are layouts with one or with multiple chambers. Sometimes the location is privileged, and stone circles can be found nearby.
+

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+Calcite is one of the most common minerals on the Earth's surface. It is a often part of sedimentary rocks, especially limestone. It is also the primary mineral in metamorphic marble.
+
+It is a chemical or biochemical calcium carbonate with the formula CaCO3. It is a carbonate mineral. It can be a vein mineral in deposits from hot springs, and in caverns as stalactites and stalagmites.
+

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+Calcium is a chemical element. Its symbol on the periodic table (a list of all the elements) is Ca. Its atomic number is 20. (The atomic number says where Calcium sits in the periodic table.) It has 20 protons and 20 electrons (if is an atom, see ion). The most common isotopes are Ca-40 and Ca-44. Its mass number is about 40.08.
+Calcium is very important in the human body, for making bones and for other purposes.
+
+Calcium is a soft white-gray metal. It is a solid and is opaque. It is an alkaline earth metal.  Its melting point is hotter than most other reactive metals.  It is a little harder than lead. It has two allotropes.  It does not conduct electricity as well as copper, but is much lighter in weight.
+
+It reacts with water to produce hydrogen and calcium hydroxide. It reacts with water very fast when it is powdered. When it is in a chunk, it starts reacting slowly because calcium hydroxide makes a coating that does not dissolve on the calcium. If a little acid is added to calcium hydroxide, it dissolves it, making the calcium react very fast. It burns when powdered to make a reddish flame. This makes calcium oxide. It also makes calcium nitride when heated. It can react with halogens to make calcium halides like calcium chloride with chlorine.
+
+Calcium forms chemical compounds in the +2 oxidation state. Calcium compounds are colorless. Most calcium compounds are not toxic. They are needed in the human body, actually. They are unreactive as far as calcium ions go. Calcium oxide was used to make limelights, which have a flame heating calcium oxide and makes it glow very bright.
+
+Calcium hydroxide
+
+Calcium chloride
+
+Calcium sulfate hydrated (with water)
+
+Calcium nitrate
+
+Calcium is not found as a metal in the ground; it is too reactive.[5] Calcium carbonate, also known as calcite, is the most common calcium mineral.
+
+It is important to know how cells work. Many cells have calcium channels on their surface. These are openings where calcium ions can enter the cell. The cell is told to act and it opens the channels. Once in the cell calcium ions activates many proteins to do specific things. For example, when it goes into muscle cells, it makes them contract (shorten so the muscle pulls.) When it goes into nerve cells, it triggers electrical impulses that send a messages. When it goes into white blood cells it makes them fight germs.
+
+Calcium ions are important to cells, but too many calcium ions can be bad. If a cell gets more calcium ion than it needs it can die. This is why the amount of calcium ion in cells is highly regulated. Conversely, not enough calcium ion is bad. Cells must have the right amount to function properly.
+
+Sometimes cells are unhealthy and need to die in for the body to replace them with new, healthy cells. This keeps the whole organism healthy. Cells know when they should die and can trigger reactions to end their life cycles in many ways. When this happens it is called apoptosis, also known as a 'programmed cell death' (planned cell death.) One way cells accomplish apoptosis by taking in toxic levels of calcium ions.
+
+Calcium is very important for the human body.
+
+Bones contain most of the calcium ion in the human body. If we need more calcium for our blood, muscles, or other tissue, it comes from the bones. If we have extra calcium it goes into bones.
+
+Calcium as an element is not found in the human body, just calcium ions in the form of chemical compounds.
+
+Organisms need to keep calcium ion levels very well controlled. High calcium levels are bad, and low calcium levels are bad.
+
+The body controls this by changing
+
+The control of calcium in the body is called calcium metabolism. Too little calcium can cause osteoporosis.
+
+The body controls calcium levels with many hormones. Calcitonin, Parathyroid hormone (acronym PTH), and Vitamin D are the most important hormones in calcium metabolism. (Vitamin D works as a hormone but it is called a vitamin.)
+
+Calcium metal is made by electrolysis of melted calcium chloride. It has to be very hot to melt it. The calcium metal is liquid.
+
+
+
+Calcium is used in the reduction of other metals. It can also be used to make alloys with other metals.
+
+Calcium compounds are also important in chemistry. It is important for making things. It is a part of cement which is needed to make concrete (a hard substance that many buildings are made from.)
+
+Calcium is part of calcium oxide. Calcium oxide is used to make paper, pottery, food, and to purify water (make it good to drink.) Calcium carbonate is used as a calcium supplement. Calcium permanganate can be used as a rocket propellant.
+
+Calcium is toxic as an element. It reacts with water and makes a strong base, calcium hydroxide. Calcium compounds are not toxic unless the anion is toxic. Calcium permanganate is only toxic because of the permanganate, not the calcium.  Like other alkaline earth metals calcium burns easily and brightly.

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+A calculator is a machine which allows people to do math operations more easily. For example, most calculators will add, subtract, multiply, and divide.
+Some also do square roots, and more complex calculators can help with calculus and draw function graphs. Calculators are found everywhere. A smartphone or other computer can also act as a calculator.
+
+Some calculators, like the abacus, will work without batteries.  Others, like the electronic calculator, require batteries.  There are two types of electronic calculators: simple calculators, which can only add, subtract, multiply and divide, and sometimes take square roots; and scientific calculators, which can do many other things, such as calculate factorials and trigonometry functions.
+
+There are different ways to write mathematics on a calculator. For example, after pressing "3" and then "+" and then "2" and then "=" (or "ENTER") the number "5" will be displayed on the screen. This is called infix notation. Many more advanced calculators use postfix notation, that is, "3 4 +" instead of "3 + 4 =". The third way of noting things, "+ 3 4", called prefix notation, is rarely found on calculators.
+
+A pocket calculator is a small calculator that helps people do arithmetic. It is so small that it can be put in a pocket. Its most common use is for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.  Many pocket calculators are powered by solar cells.  They are commonly seen in schools and businesses around the world and can be used quickly and efficiently for simple mathematical problems. Other names are 'miniature calculator' or 'mini calculator'.
+
+A scientific calculator can do more things. It can often use exponents, pi, trigonometric ratios, and the order of operations. Scientific calculators can also use bigger numbers. They tend to cost more than pocket calculators. Most are programmable. The user can make a program directly with the calculator, or transfer one from a computer.
+
+Media related to Calculators at Wikimedia Commons

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+
+
+Apiformes (from Latin 'apis')
+
+
+
+Bees are flying insects of the Hymenoptera, which also includes ants, wasps and sawflies. There are about 20,000 species of bees.[1] Bees collect pollen from flowers. Bees can be found on all continents except Antarctica.
+
+Bees fall into four groups:
+
+The European Honey Bee (called Apis mellifera by Biologists), is kept by humans for honey. Keeping bees to make honey is called Beekeeping, or apiculture.
+
+The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were pollinated by insects such as  big beetles, long before bees first appeared. Bees are different because they are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that make pollination easier. Bees are generally better at the task than other pollinating insects such as beetles, flies, butterflies and pollen wasps. The appearance of such floral specialists is believed to have driven the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves.
+
+Bees, like ants, are a specialized form of wasp. The ancestors of bees were wasps in a family which preyed on other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the capture of prey insects that were covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. Similar behaviour could be switched to pollen collection. This same evolutionary scenario has occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the group known as "pollen wasps" also evolved from predatory ancestors.
+
+A recently reported bee fossil, of the genus Melittosphex, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea, sister-group to the modern bees", and dates from the Lower Cretaceous (~100 mya).[2] Features of its morphology  place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits of the legs which betray its origin.[3] The issue is still under debate, and the phylogenetic relationships among bee families are poorly understood.
+
+Like other insects, the body of a bee can be divided into three parts: the head, thorax (the middle part), and abdomen (the back part). Also like other insects, bees have three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Many bees are hairy and have yellow and black or orange and black warning colors.
+
+Many bees have stings (like a hollow needle) on the rear of their bodies. If they get confused, angry, or scared they may sting, and inject venom, which hurts. Once a worker bee has stung it dies after a short while, but other types of bee and wasp can sting again. Some people are allergic to bee stings and can even die from them.
+
+Some bees are eusocial insects; this means they live in organized groups called colonies. Honey bees, the kind of bee used in beekeeping, are eusocial. The home of a bee colony is called a hive. One hive is made up of only one queen.
+
+There are three kinds of bees in a honey bee colony. A queen bee is the most important bee in the colony because she will lay the eggs. The queen bee only uses her stinger to sting other queen bees. The queen is usually the mother of the worker bees. She ate a special jelly called royal jelly from when she was young. Worker bees are females too, and they are the bees that collect pollen from flowers and will fight to protect the colony. Workers do a waggle dance to tell the others where they have found nectar; Karl von Frisch discovered this.
+
+Drone bees (males) mate with the queen bee so that she can lay eggs.  The only function of the male drone is to mate.  They do no other work in the hive.

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+Farming is growing crops or keeping animals by people for food and raw materials. Farming is a part of agriculture.
+
+Agriculture started thousands of years ago, but no one knows for sure how old it is.[1] The development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution whereby people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in what became cities.
+
+Agriculture and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, The Levant and Mesopotamia).[2] The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew. People probably started agriculture slowly by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land.
+
+Agriculture is not only growing food for people and animals, but also growing other things like flowers and nursery plants, manure or dung, animal hides (skins or furs), leather, animals, fungi, fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, and flax), biofuel , and drugs (biopharmaceuticals, marijuana, opium).
+
+Many people still live by subsistence agriculture, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years.
+
+In rich countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more.
+
+This kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kill bugs), and herbicides (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the soil or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by erosion (blowing or washing away), salt buildup, or loss of structure. Irrigation (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education.
+
+AGRICULTURE TECHNIQUE
+
+Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and nutritional value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and drought, and are easier to harvest. Centuries of artificial selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. The crops produce better yield with other techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, irrigation).
+
+Some companies have been searching for new plants in poor countries, and genetically modify these plants to improve them. They then try to patent the seeds and sell them back to the poor countries.
+
+New plants were created with genetic engineering. One example of genetic engineering is modifying a plant to resist a herbicide.
+
+
+
+It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture.
+
+Agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food.
+
+There are some serious problems that people face trying to grow food today.
+These include:
+
+The major crops produced in the world in 2002, are maize (corn), wheat, rice, and cotton.
+
+See also: List of vegetables, List of herbs, List of fruit

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+A calculator is a machine which allows people to do math operations more easily. For example, most calculators will add, subtract, multiply, and divide.
+Some also do square roots, and more complex calculators can help with calculus and draw function graphs. Calculators are found everywhere. A smartphone or other computer can also act as a calculator.
+
+Some calculators, like the abacus, will work without batteries.  Others, like the electronic calculator, require batteries.  There are two types of electronic calculators: simple calculators, which can only add, subtract, multiply and divide, and sometimes take square roots; and scientific calculators, which can do many other things, such as calculate factorials and trigonometry functions.
+
+There are different ways to write mathematics on a calculator. For example, after pressing "3" and then "+" and then "2" and then "=" (or "ENTER") the number "5" will be displayed on the screen. This is called infix notation. Many more advanced calculators use postfix notation, that is, "3 4 +" instead of "3 + 4 =". The third way of noting things, "+ 3 4", called prefix notation, is rarely found on calculators.
+
+A pocket calculator is a small calculator that helps people do arithmetic. It is so small that it can be put in a pocket. Its most common use is for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.  Many pocket calculators are powered by solar cells.  They are commonly seen in schools and businesses around the world and can be used quickly and efficiently for simple mathematical problems. Other names are 'miniature calculator' or 'mini calculator'.
+
+A scientific calculator can do more things. It can often use exponents, pi, trigonometric ratios, and the order of operations. Scientific calculators can also use bigger numbers. They tend to cost more than pocket calculators. Most are programmable. The user can make a program directly with the calculator, or transfer one from a computer.
+
+Media related to Calculators at Wikimedia Commons

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+Kolkata (spelled Calcutta before 1 January 2001) is the capital city of the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the second largest city in India after Mumbai.[2] It is on the east bank of the River Hooghly.[3] When it is called Calcutta, it includes the suburbs. This makes it the third largest city of India. This also makes it the world's 8th largest metropolitan area as defined by the United Nations.[4] Kolkata served as the capital of India during the British Raj until 1911. Kolkata was once the center of industry and education. However, it has witnessed political violence and economic problems since 1954. Since 2000, Kolkata has grown due to economic growth. Like other metropolitan cities in India, Kolkata struggles with poverty, pollution and traffic congestion.
+
+The discovery of the nearby Chandraketugarh,[5] an archaeological site has proved that people have lived there for over two millennia.[6] The history of Kolkata begins when the English East India Company arrived in 1690. Job Charnock, an administrator with the Company is traditionally known as the founder of this city.[7] However some academics say that Charnock is not the city's founder.[8]
+
+At that time Kolkata, ruled by the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah, had three villages. They were Kalikata, Govindapur and Sutanuti. The British in the late 17th century wanted to build a fort near Govindapur. This was to become more powerful than Dutch, the Portuguese, and the French. In 1702, the British completed the construction of old Fort William,[9] which was used to station its troops and as a regional base. Calcutta was declared a Presidency City, and later became the headquarters of the Bengal Presidency.[10] When regular fights with French forces started, in 1756 the British began to upgrade their fortifications. When this was protested, the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah attacked and captured Fort William. This led to the infamous Black Hole incident.[11] A force of Company sepoys and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the next year.[11] Calcutta became the capital of British India in 1772,. However, the capital shifted to the hilly town of Shimla during the summer months every year, starting from the year 1864.[12] Richard Wellesley, the Governor General between 1797–1805, helped in the growth of the city and its public architecture. This led to the description of Calcutta as "The City of Palaces".[13] The city was a centre of the British East India Company's opium trade during the 18th and 19th century; locally produced opium was sold at auction in Kolkata, to be shipped to China.[14]

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+The Gregorian calendar is the calendar that is used throughout most of the world. It began being used in 1582. It replaced the previous Julian calendar because the Julian calendar had an error: it added a leap year (with an extra day every four years) with no exceptions. The length of the Julian year was exactly 365.25 days (365 days and 6 hours), but the actual time it takes for the Earth to go around the Sun once is closer to 365.2425 days (about 365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes). This difference is about eleven minutes each year.[1]
+
+This made the seasons get out of track, since the real first day of spring in western Europe (the equinox - day and night the same length) was happening earlier and earlier before the traditional March 21 as the centuries went by. By the 1500s, it was starting around March 11, ten days 'too early' according to the calendar. So what they did was to move the calendar forward ten days in 1582, and at the same time to make sure it did not happen again. To do this, they made an exception to the previous 'leap year rule' (add February 29 every four years). There would be no February 29 for every year that ends in 00 - unless it could be divided by 400. So the year 2000 was a leap year, because it could be divided by 400, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 would be common years, with no February 29.
+
+It was first suggested by the Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and was made official by Pope Gregory XIII, for whom it was named, on February 24, 1582. The official change took place the following October, when Thursday, 4th was followed by Friday, 15th.
+
+The months of the Gregorian calendar year are, in order:
+
+If February has 28 days, then the year is 365 days long.
+If February has 29 days, then the year is called a leap year and it is 366 days long. A leap year usually happens once every four years. Some examples of leap years are 2004, 2008, and 2012. The next leap year is 2020.
+
+Not every country started using the new calendar immediately. Spain, Portugal, and Italy started to use the new calendar on Friday, October 15, 1582, following Julian Thursday, October 4, 1582.[2] In Europe's Protestant countries, people feared that the new calendar was an attempt by the Catholic Church to silence their movement. The England and the rest of the British Empire adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752; by which time it was necessary to correct by eleven days (Wednesday, September 2, 1752 being followed by Thursday, September 14, 1752).[1][3]
+
+In the USSR, the October Revolution of 1917 was celebrated in November. In 1917 the Russian Empire still used the old Julian calendar. Changing the calendar meant 365 days after the revolution started was now in November 1918.[4]
+
+In 1923 some Eastern Orthodox Churches changed to the Gregorian calendar. Christmas Day is the same as the Catholic and Protestant churches, but the date of Easter continues to be worked out differently.
+
+The Russian Orthodox Church, as well as some other Eastern Orthodox Churches such as Georgian and Serbian, did not want this change, so Russian Christmas Day is about two weeks after the rest of Europe.
+
+Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar's way of working out leap years on January 1, 1873, but the months have numbers instead of names. Japan also starts year one with each new reign, but uses reign names not the name an emperor might be best known by in the west. For example, the reign names Meiji year 1=1868, Taisho 1=1912, Showa (Emperor Hirohito) 1=1926, Heisei (Emperor Akihito) 1=1989, and so on. The "Western calendar" (西暦, seireki) using western year numbers, is also widely accepted by civilians and to a lesser extent by government agencies.
+
+Some old dates in Britain were written and documented with two different years. This is because Britain did not start a new year until March 25, so for a few months it was one year in Britain and the next year in other countries.[note 1][5]
+
+The letters OS (for Old Style) and NS (for New Style) were used to help determine the year being used. For example, King Charles I died on January 30, 1649. In "Old Style" it is correct to say that Charles I died January 30, 1648 (OS). Using "New Style", as we determine dates now, the correct date and year would be February 9, 1649.[5][6]
+
+In the old calendar the year started on March 25. [note 1] This became April 5, and was used as the first day of the year for working out taxes and rents. Taxes and rents went on using the old way of working out leap years so in 1800 the year started on April 6. But it was not changed in 1900, so the tax year in the United Kingdom still begins on April 6.
+
+People sometimes use the term N.S. or New Style to mean the Gregorian calendar, with Old Style (or O.S.) meaning the Julian calendar.

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+A calendar is a tool for organizing days. People use calendars to say when something happened, and for planning things that have not happened yet. The calendar gives the days names and numbers, called calendar dates. The dates are usually made based on how things in the sky seem to move. The year and month are based on motions of the Sun and moon. By knowing what day something happened or will happen, people have an easier life. Since the beginning of history, knowing when the seasons would start for crops was very important for farmers and people who eat.
+
+Calendar systems have a beginning time or era. The calendar era is often a religion-based event, such as the birth of Jesus, but it may be a political event such as a coronation or the founding of a state. Dates that are counted from the coronation are called "regnal".
+
+The three principal calendars most used today are the Gregorian, Hebrew, and Islamic calendars. Other calendar systems from many different parts of the world are also used.
+
+Calendars are based on three natural things:
+
+The Earth turns all the way around its axis about 24 hours. It is called the Solar Day.  Days of most calendars are strongly based on the Solar Day.
+
+The Moon turns all the way around the Earth about 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 2 seconds.  Months of some calendars are still strongly based on the Moon.  These are called Lunar calendars, which lasts about 354-355 days.  Solar calendars ignore the moon, and depend entirely on the Sun.
+
+The Earth goes all the way around the Sun in about 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds.  This is called the Tropical Year.  Years of most calendars are strongly based on the Tropical Year.
+

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+The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BCE (708 AUC), was a reform of the Roman calendar.[1] It was first used in 1 January 45 BCE. It was the main calendar in most of the world, until Pope Gregory XIII replaced that with the Gregorian calendar in 4 October 1582.
+
+During the 20th and 21st centuries, the date according to the Julian calendar is 13 days behind the Gregorian date.
+
+The Julian calendar has two types of year: common years of 365 days and leap years of 366 days. There is a simple cycle of three common years followed by a leap year and this pattern repeats forever. However, the rule was not followed in the first years after the of the reform in 45 BCE. Due to a counting error, every 3rd year was a leap year instead of the 4th. The leap years were:[2]
+
+However, in 8 BCE (746 AUC), emperor Augustus Caesar corrected the problem. The next leap year was 7 CE (160 AUC).
+
+With the simple cycle, the length of the Julian year is exactly 365.25 days (365 days and 6 hours), but the actual time it takes for the Earth to go around the Sun once is closer to 365.2422 days (about 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds). This difference is about 365.25 - 365.2422 = 0.0078 days (11 minutes and 14 seconds) each year, although Greek astronomers knew that.[3] This made the seasons get out of track, since the real first day of spring in western Europe (the equinox - day and night the same length) was happening earlier and earlier before the traditional 21 March as the centuries went by. By the 1500s, it was starting around 11 March, ten days 'too early' according to the calendar.
+
+The first step of the reform was to realign the 25 December with the Winter solstice by making 46 BCE (708 AUC) 445 days long. In ordinary Roman calendar, the common year had 355 days and the leap year (one year after the common year) had 378 days. The 46 BCE was a leap year, according to the calendar. Julius Caesar added 67 more days by adding two extra months (those are called Prior and Posterior in letters of Cicero) between November and December.

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+Calgary is the biggest city in Alberta, Canada. More than 1,000,000 people live in Calgary. The city is in the southern half of Alberta near the Rocky Mountains.
+
+There are many oil and gas businesses in Calgary. There are many skyscrapers in the City.
+
+Around Calgary there are many farms where cows are raised.
+
+Calgary has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification). It has long, cold, dry winters. The summers are warm with moderate rainfall. Sometimes a wind called a Chinook blows through Calgary. This wind can make some days in winter less cold.
+
+Calgary has a famous event called The Calgary Stampede every year.. They rent many rides and have a huge festival for the city to join. The Calgary Stampede is the largest rodeo in the world. At the Stampede, cowboys can win much money. Cowboys also race with chuckwagons at the Stampede. Chuckwagons are carts with four wheels pulled by horses. In 1988, the Winter Olympics were held in Calgary.
+
+Calgary has many museums, such as the Glenbow Museum and the Aero Space Museum. The Calgary Flames (an NHL ice hockey team) play in Calgary.
+
+Calgary Stations
+
+CBRT CBC
+
+CFCN CTV Television Network
+
+CICT Global Television Network
+
+CTV Two

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+California is a state in the western United States. It is the third largest state in size and largest state in terms of population. Its largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. The capital is Sacramento. It became a state on September 9, 1850. It is bordered by Arizona to the southeast, Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south.
+
+The geography of California varies depending on region. Southwestern California has small mountain ranges and the cities of San Diego and Los Angeles. Southeastern California has the Mojave Desert and Death Valley, the lowest place in the United States. The eastern part of the state has the highest point in the United States outside of Alaska, Mount Whitney, in the Sierra Nevada mountain range.[10]
+
+The cities of Sacramento, Bakersfield, and Fresno are in the Central Valley. The valley has the Sierra Nevada to the east and the Pacific Coast Ranges to the west. It is California's single most productive agricultural region and one of the most productive in the world. It produces more than half the fruit, vegetables and nuts grown in the United States.[11] More than seven million acres (28,000 km2) of the valley are irrigated by an extensive system of reservoirs and canals.[12]
+
+The west-central part of the state has some small mountains and the cities of San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland. Northern California has the Cascade Range, the Klamath Mountains, and the Modoc Plateau.[13] Far northern California does not have many people, but the San Francisco region and the Sacramento region are often thought of as part of northern California.
+
+The state is a leader in three businesses: farming, movie-making, and high technology, mostly software and websites. Aerospace used to be a large industry there, but it has been downsized in the last 20 years.
+
+There are many earthquakes in California. They happen when two earth crusts shift underground. Californians need to be prepared for earthquakes and often store extra food, water, flashlights, and first aid supplies in case of such an emergency.
+
+California has more people than any other state in the United States. If California was a separate country, it would have the sixth largest economy in the world. California is probably the state with the most ethnic groups. It also has many different geographic features – mountains, deserts, and coasts. It is often called The Golden State. The state flower is the golden poppy. The post office uses "CA" as a shorthand for California, and the Associated Press uses "Calif." or "Cali."
+
+West Coast hip hop is popular. West Coast rappers include Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Tupac, Kendrick Lamar and Sacramento native Mozzy, just to name a few.
+
+In-N-Out Burger is popular food in California.
+
+In 2019, Gavin Newsom became the governor of California. Before him, the governor was Jerry Brown.
+
+On November 4, 1992, Dianne Feinstein became one of California's United States senators. On January 3, 2017, Kamala Harris became the other one.
+
+California was more conservative during the 1960s and 1980s when its former governor, Ronald Reagan, ran for president as a Republican. Today, California is more liberal and less conservative.
+
+The first explorers and settlers of Coastal California were Native Americans. In the past, the area that was called "California" was not just today's California. This area covered the Mexican lands south of it, as well as Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona and Wyoming. The Spanish called the part of the land that later became part of the United States Alta California (Upper California) when it was split from what became Baja California (Lower California). In these early times, the borders of the Sea of Cortez and the Pacific coast were not well known, so the old maps wrongly showed California to be an island. The name comes from Las sergas de Espladián (Adventures of Spladian), a 16th-century book by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, where there is an island paradise called California.
+
+The first European who visited parts of the coast, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, came from Portugal in 1542. The first European who saw the entire coast was Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, and he decided that the British owned it. But starting in the late 1700s, Spanish religious leaders of the Roman Catholic Church ("missionaries") got large gifts of land in the area north of Baja California, from the Spanish king and queen. These religious people set up small towns and villages, the famous California Missions. When Mexico was no longer controlled by Spain, the Mexican government took over the villages, and they soon became empty.
+
+In 1846, as the Mexican-American War was starting, some Americans in California hoped to create a California Republic. These men flew a "Bear flag" that had a golden bear with a star on it. This Republic ended suddenly, however, when Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into San Francisco Bay. He said that California was now part of the United States. After the war with Mexico ended, California was split between the two countries. The Mexican portion became the Mexican states of Baja California Norte (north) and Baja California Sur (south). ("Baja" means "lower" in Spanish.) The western part of the part given to the United States became today's state of California.
+
+In 1848, there were about 4,000 Spanish-speaking people in today's California on the American side. (Today the state has a total of nearly 40,000,000 people.) In 1849, gold was suddenly found and the number of people went up very fast as the Gold Rush took hold. In 1850, California became a state in the Union (the United States).
+
+During the American Civil War (1861-1865), many people in California, especially in the southern part of California, thought the South was right. Some people in Southern California even wanted Southern California to leave the rest of the state and join the Confederate States of America. However, this did not happen. California joined the war to and helped the North (the Union) and sent many troops east to fight the Confederacy.[14]
+
+At first, travel between the far west and the east coast of the United States was dangerous and took a lot of time. Going by land was very difficult, because there were no roads and no trains, and many Native Americans were attacking American people heading West in wagons. The only other way was to travel by boat around the Cape Horn, at the southern end of South America. This took months, since the trip was thousands of miles long and the Panama Canal had not yet been built either. But in 1869, the connection got better quickly, because the first railroad across the continent was finished. Meanwhile, more people in California were learning that the land there was very good to grow fruit and other crops. Oranges were grown in many parts of California. This was the beginning of the huge farming business that California has today.
+
+In 1900, there were only a million people in California and 105,000 in Los Angeles. Today, California has more people than any other U.S. state. Starting in 1965, the variety of people became much greater as many different people from around the world came to the United States and often decided to live in California. California is thought to be a very liberal state, but there are still a lot of people who are Republicans and view Ronald Reagan as a hero. Technology is very advanced and many new cultural trends begin there. Engineering and computers play a big part in the state's life. For over a hundred years, film has been one of the most important businesses in California. By the 1950s, television had also become an important business in California. The vast majority of California’s immigrants were born in Latin America (50%) or Asia (40%). California has sizable populations of immigrants from dozens of countries; the leading countries of origin are Mexico (4.1 million), China (969,000), the Philippines (857,000), Vietnam (524,000), and India (507,000).

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+in ASEAN  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+Cambodia or Kampuchea (officially called Kingdom of Cambodia) is a country in Southeast Asia. It is near Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. About 13 million people live in Cambodia. The people of Cambodia are called Cambodians or Kampuchea. Khmer is the official language. The country has recently emerged from a long civil war and the rule of the Khmer Rouge. It is part of ASEAN, Association of South East Asian Nations.
+
+The ancestors of Cambodia had an empire called Angkor centered in the northwest of present-day Cambodia. The Angkor civilization is the world's largest pre-industrial civilization. One of the buildings from Angkor is a Hindu/Buddhist temple called Angkor Wat which is the world's largest religious structure. This empire was later destroyed due to ecological and environmental problems as well as failing infrastructure. Theravada Buddhism came to the country in the 13th century via monks from Sri Lanka. Since then, Buddhism has been the official religion.
+
+Cambodia is set entirely in the tropic zone. The Mekong River runs through the middle of the country and is the most important source of water in the country. The country is the size of Missouri.
+
+In Cambodia, people play many sports. Some sports that are enjoyed that come from the West include golf, rugby and soccer. Traditional Cambodian sports are buffalo racing, dragon boat racing and bokator Khmer martial art also known as pradal serey. Cambodia attended its first Olympic Games in 1956 and participated in two more before warfare and civil strife interrupted its attendance. The country returned to regular participation with the 1996 Summer Games. Cambodia managed fourth in soccer in the 1972 Southeast Asian games.
+Cambodia hosted the GANEFO games in the 1960s.
+
+The culture of Cambodia has been influenced by Hinduism. Today most people in Cambodia practice Buddhism. A lot of their customs revolve around Buddhism.
+
+The food of Cambodia includes tropical fruits, rice, noodles and various soups. Cambodians like to eat a rice noodle soup called 'kah-tieu' in the morning. Cambodians are famous for a type of 'kah-tieu' called 'kah-tieu Phnom Penh' which has shrimp, beef balls, fried garlic, pork broth and chicken. Cambodians also eat a red curry noodle soup with rice vermicelle noodles. Curry is also eaten with rice or French bread in Cambodia. Cambodian food is similar to Vietnamese and Southern Thai food.
+
+Cambodia also has a mystical tattoo called a yantra tattoo that is popular with soldiers. A yantra tattoo has ancient Khmer and Pali (An ancient Indian language) writing. A yantra tattoo is usually done by a religious person or monk. The tattoo artist guarantees that the person cannot receive any physical harm as long as they follow certain conditions. A person is supposed to not talk to anyone for three days and three nights. Another alternative is to follow the five Buddhist percepts. Movie star actress Angelina Jolie is known to have a yantra tattoo.
+
+Cambodians celebrate the Cambodian New Year in April. It is based on Theravada Buddhism. The date depends on astrological signs but are usually are on April 13-15 or April 14-16.
+
+The Cambodian flag includes a three-towered temple called Angkor Wat. It is the most famous monument in the country. Many tourists visit the temple. The Cambodian flag has three horizontal bands. There are two blue bands on the top and the bottom. There is a red band that is twice the height of each blue band. The red band represents the nation. The temple represents the structure of the universe.[6]
+
+Cambodia is divided into 25 provinces including the capital. The provinces are divided into 159 districts and 26 municipalities. The districts and municipalities are then divided into communes and quarters.
+
+People in Cambodia use many different types of transportation. Transportation in Cambodia include: boat, car, motorcycle, elephant, train and airplane.
+
+The Cambodian economy has been growing rapidly in recent years. Cambodia is set to build its first skyscraper, Gold Tower 42. Cambodia is also building a satellite city next to Phnom Penh which is called Camko City. Camko City is being constructed by Korean companies to modernize Phnom Penh so as to make it appealing to foreign investors and businesses. Cambodia is also one of the most corrupted nations in the world and has been pressured by international communities to fix it.
+
+Cambodia has foreign relations with most nations. It is part of ASEAN. Cambodia has border issues with Vietnam and Thailand over lost territories. Cambodia is one of a few nations with good relations with both Koreas. South Korean president Lee Myung Bak was an economic advisor to Cambodian prime minister Hun Sen and former Cambodian King Norodom Sihanouk was a good friend with former North Korean leader Kim Il-sung.
+
+The Khmer (Cambodians) account for the vast majority of the population. Ethnic minorities include Chinese, Vietnamese, Muslim Cham-Malays, Laotians, and various native peoples of the rural highlands.
+
+Although much of Cambodia is heavily forested, the central lowland region is covered with rice paddies, fields of dry crops such as corn (maize) and tobacco, tracts of tall grass and reeds, and thinly wooded areas. Savanna grassland occur in the plains, with the grasses reaching a height of 5 feet (1.5 metres). In the eastern highlands the high plateaus are covered with grasses and deciduous forests. Broad-leaved evergreen forests grow in the mountainous areas to the north, with trees 100 feet (30 metres) high emerging from thick undergrowths of vines, rattans, palms, bamboos, and assorted woody and herbaceous ground plants. In the southwestern highlands, open forests of pines are found at the higher elevations, while the rain-drenched seaward slopes are blanketed with virgin rainforests growing to heights of 150 feet (45 metres) or more. Vegetation along the coastal strip ranges from evergreen forests to nearly impenetrable mangroves.

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+Chamaeleon is a constellation in the southern sky.
+
+Media related to Chamaeleon at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/809.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+Chamaeleon is a constellation in the southern sky.
+
+Media related to Chamaeleon at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/81.html.txt

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+A or a is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, a or α, is used as a lower case vowel.[1]
+
+When it is spoken,  ā is said as a long a, a diphthong of ĕ and y. A is similar to  alpha of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it stands for the same sound.
+
+"Alpha and omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G. In binary numbers, the letter A is 01000001.
+
+A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital a at the start of a sentence if writing.
+
+The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph.[2] This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head.
+
+This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.
+
+The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like æ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word pad. Other sounds of this letter are in the words father, which developed into another sound, such as in the word ace.
+
+In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.
+
+In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.

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+Cameroon (officially called the Republic of Cameroon) is a country in west Africa. Its capital is Yaoundé. The largest city in Cameroon is Douala. The population of Cameroon is about 20 million. Cameroon's president is Paul Biya. They speak nearly 250 languages in Cameroon. French and English are the official languages.
+
+At 475,442 square kilometres (183,569 sq mi), Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country.[7] It is about the size of Papua New Guinea.[1][8] The country is in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.  The country's neighbours are Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south.
+
+The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 regions. On 12 November 2008, the President changed the divisions from provinces to regions.[9]  Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.
+
+The regions are divided into 58 divisions. These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers.
+
+Some of the largest cities in Cameroon are:
+
+The official languages of Cameroon are French and English. It is part of both the British Commonwealth and La Francophonie. Most people speak French.

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+Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri (10 August 1810 – 6 June 1861), better known as Cavour (Italian: [kaˈvur]), was an Italian politician and statesman. He was an important person in the movement toward the Italian unification.
+
+Cavour was born in Turin during Napoleonic rule. Until 1831, he was a military officer.[4] Later, he decided to travel in Europe to learn more about the effects of the Industrial Revolution. The trips helped him to know and understand the principles of the British Liberal system.
+
+After four years, he returned to Piedmont. He took charge of agriculture and the economy in general. He worked for the spread of schools. During that time, his business and banking activities made him one of the richest men in the Piedmont.[5]
+
+From 1832 to 1848, Cavour was the mayor of Grinzane (now called Grinzane Cavour to honor him).[6] In 1847, he founded the newspaper Il Risorgimento. According to him, the process of economic and social development, which he had promoted for years, could be implemented only after a deep restructuring of  political institutions.[5]
+
+In 1850, Cavour became famous because he advocating the "Siccardi Law" that diminished the privileges of the Catholic clergy. In the same year, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Massimo D'Azeglio, chose him as Minister of Agriculture, Trade and Navy. Later he also became Minister of Finance. After D'Azeglio resigned on November 4, 1852, Cavour became Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia.[7]
+
+Cavour's political program wanted to become the Kingdom of Sardinia a constitutional State based on moderate and progressive liberalism and so he dedicated himself to a radical renewal of the economy. He modernised and supported agriculture, strengthened the industrial system and promoted trade with the major European powers.[8] However, his liberal program was criticized by both the "Historical Left", which cared for the poorest citizens, both the "Historical Right", which considered him as a destroyer of conservative traditions.[5]
+
+In 1858, he signed a treaty of alliance between the Kingdom of Sardinia and the French Empire against the Austrian Empire. The next year, the Second Italian War of Independence, the Piedmontese and the French defeated the Austrians, who then controlled Italy.[7]
+
+After the Armistice of Villafranca and Giuseppe Garibaldi's expedition in the South (1860-1861), the unification of Italy was completed. Cavour became the first president of the united Italy. He was also the first Minister of Foreign Affairs.[7] He was the leader of the Liberal parliamentary group. He died of an illness in Turin.[7]

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+Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri (10 August 1810 – 6 June 1861), better known as Cavour (Italian: [kaˈvur]), was an Italian politician and statesman. He was an important person in the movement toward the Italian unification.
+
+Cavour was born in Turin during Napoleonic rule. Until 1831, he was a military officer.[4] Later, he decided to travel in Europe to learn more about the effects of the Industrial Revolution. The trips helped him to know and understand the principles of the British Liberal system.
+
+After four years, he returned to Piedmont. He took charge of agriculture and the economy in general. He worked for the spread of schools. During that time, his business and banking activities made him one of the richest men in the Piedmont.[5]
+
+From 1832 to 1848, Cavour was the mayor of Grinzane (now called Grinzane Cavour to honor him).[6] In 1847, he founded the newspaper Il Risorgimento. According to him, the process of economic and social development, which he had promoted for years, could be implemented only after a deep restructuring of  political institutions.[5]
+
+In 1850, Cavour became famous because he advocating the "Siccardi Law" that diminished the privileges of the Catholic clergy. In the same year, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Massimo D'Azeglio, chose him as Minister of Agriculture, Trade and Navy. Later he also became Minister of Finance. After D'Azeglio resigned on November 4, 1852, Cavour became Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia.[7]
+
+Cavour's political program wanted to become the Kingdom of Sardinia a constitutional State based on moderate and progressive liberalism and so he dedicated himself to a radical renewal of the economy. He modernised and supported agriculture, strengthened the industrial system and promoted trade with the major European powers.[8] However, his liberal program was criticized by both the "Historical Left", which cared for the poorest citizens, both the "Historical Right", which considered him as a destroyer of conservative traditions.[5]
+
+In 1858, he signed a treaty of alliance between the Kingdom of Sardinia and the French Empire against the Austrian Empire. The next year, the Second Italian War of Independence, the Piedmontese and the French defeated the Austrians, who then controlled Italy.[7]
+
+After the Armistice of Villafranca and Giuseppe Garibaldi's expedition in the South (1860-1861), the unification of Italy was completed. Cavour became the first president of the united Italy. He was also the first Minister of Foreign Affairs.[7] He was the leader of the Liberal parliamentary group. He died of an illness in Turin.[7]

ensimple/813.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri (10 August 1810 – 6 June 1861), better known as Cavour (Italian: [kaˈvur]), was an Italian politician and statesman. He was an important person in the movement toward the Italian unification.
+
+Cavour was born in Turin during Napoleonic rule. Until 1831, he was a military officer.[4] Later, he decided to travel in Europe to learn more about the effects of the Industrial Revolution. The trips helped him to know and understand the principles of the British Liberal system.
+
+After four years, he returned to Piedmont. He took charge of agriculture and the economy in general. He worked for the spread of schools. During that time, his business and banking activities made him one of the richest men in the Piedmont.[5]
+
+From 1832 to 1848, Cavour was the mayor of Grinzane (now called Grinzane Cavour to honor him).[6] In 1847, he founded the newspaper Il Risorgimento. According to him, the process of economic and social development, which he had promoted for years, could be implemented only after a deep restructuring of  political institutions.[5]
+
+In 1850, Cavour became famous because he advocating the "Siccardi Law" that diminished the privileges of the Catholic clergy. In the same year, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Massimo D'Azeglio, chose him as Minister of Agriculture, Trade and Navy. Later he also became Minister of Finance. After D'Azeglio resigned on November 4, 1852, Cavour became Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia.[7]
+
+Cavour's political program wanted to become the Kingdom of Sardinia a constitutional State based on moderate and progressive liberalism and so he dedicated himself to a radical renewal of the economy. He modernised and supported agriculture, strengthened the industrial system and promoted trade with the major European powers.[8] However, his liberal program was criticized by both the "Historical Left", which cared for the poorest citizens, both the "Historical Right", which considered him as a destroyer of conservative traditions.[5]
+
+In 1858, he signed a treaty of alliance between the Kingdom of Sardinia and the French Empire against the Austrian Empire. The next year, the Second Italian War of Independence, the Piedmontese and the French defeated the Austrians, who then controlled Italy.[7]
+
+After the Armistice of Villafranca and Giuseppe Garibaldi's expedition in the South (1860-1861), the unification of Italy was completed. Cavour became the first president of the united Italy. He was also the first Minister of Foreign Affairs.[7] He was the leader of the Liberal parliamentary group. He died of an illness in Turin.[7]

ensimple/814.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+A truck (or lorry in British English) is a motor vehicle used to transport goods. The word "truck" comes from the Greek word "trochos", which means "wheel".  Most trucks use diesel fuel.
+
+Light trucks are trucks the size of cars. They are used by individuals and also companies. In the United States, a truck is a light truck if it weighs less than 6,300 kg (13,000 lb). Light trucks are only a little heavier than vans or pickup trucks, but require a special driver's license.
+
+Medium trucks are heavier than light trucks but lighter than heavy trucks. In the United States, a truck is a medium truck if it weighs between 6,300 kg (13,000 lb) and 15,000 kg (33,000 lb). Trucks that are used for local delivery and public service (dump trucks, garbage trucks) are normally around this size. Medium trucks have usually two axles: one at front and one at rear. The rear wheels may be coupled (that is: two wheels hitched together) to enable heavier load, but they may also be single.
+
+Heavy trucks are the heaviest trucks that are allowed on the road. In the U.K. they are known as lorries. Usually heavy trucks have three axles: one at front and two at rear, and the rear axles have coupled wheels to enable heavy loads. Often heavy trucks pull trailers. They can be either full trailers which have both front and rear axles or boggies and their own brakes, and are connected to the towing truck with a towbar, or semi-trailers, which are attached to a special kind of a truck called tractor unit with a turntable coupling ("fifth wheel"). A semi-trailer is a kind of trailer which has wheels only in the back and the front rides on the back of the tractor unit. The tractor unit has an engine and the semi-trailer does not. Driving a heavy truck requires a professional driver's license. Truck drivers are called truckers.
+
+The laws of various countries say what kind of vehicle combinations are allowed. A semi-trailer can be converted into a full trailer with using a dolly. A dolly is a small trailer which has only a bogie (= set of wheels), fifth wheel coupling for the semi-trailer and a towbar. Using a dolly, the semi-trailer can now be hitched to an ordinary cargo-carrying truck and does not need a tractor unit.
+
+A heavy truck-trailer combination is often called big rig or eighteen-wheeler.
+
+The largest heavy trucks are the Australian road trains which may have up to four semi-trailers coupled to a tractor in a train-like fashion and may carry up to 200 tonnes of cargo.
+
+Light van
+
+Medium car carrier
+
+Heavy dump truck
+
+Road train in Australia
+
+Daimler-Lastwagen, 1896
+
+Box trucks or Dry vans ("tilts" in the UK) have walls and a roof, making a closed cargo room. The rear has doors. Some have a side door.
+
+Concrete mixers have a turning drum on back. Turning it one way mixes the concrete. Turning it the other way pushes the concrete out. The concrete goes down "chutes" (like large pipes with an open top). On most trucks the concrete comes out the back. Some new types have the concrete goes over the cab and down chutes in the front. Concrete is very heavy and hard to mix. Concrete mixers have to be very heavy duty.
+
+Dump trucks ("tippers" in the UK) carry sand, gravel, and dirt. Most dump trucks have an open-top box bed with an opening "tail-gate" door on the back. The body lifts up at the front. The load falls out the tailgate and is "dumped" on the ground behind the truck.
+
+Flatbed trucks have a flat body with no sides. There is a wall between the cab and the body. The load will not move forward and hit the cab. The truck can be loaded from the side or top.  Nothing covers the load. Some trucks have sides that can be taken off or folded down. Many times the load is covered with tarps.
+
+Garbage trucks pick up garbage and trash from homes and some businesses. Most were loaded from the rear. Now some load from the front or side. The same type of truck is often used for recycling.
+
+Semi-tractors ("artics" in the UK) have no bodies. They have a "fifth wheel" that carries weight. A semi-trailer has no front wheels. The front of the trailer goes on the fifth wheel. The semi-tractor carries weight from the trailer and pulls the trailer
+
+Tank trucks ("tankers" in the UK) are designed to carry liquids or gases. They usually have a round tank that is long (a cylinder) lying on its side. There are many types of tanks because there are many liquids and gases. Most tankers are built for only one liquid.
+
+Wreckers ("recovery lorries" in the UK and sometimes "tow trucks" in the US) are used to lift and tow broken cars and trucks. They usually have a boom with a cable. Cars are often carried on special flatbeds.
+
+Box truck
+
+Concrete mixer unloading
+
+Flatbed
+
+Rear loading garbage truck
+
+Semi-tractors
+
+Tank truck
+
+Wrecker
+
+Carroll, John; Davies, Peter (2015). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Tractors and Trucks. Hermes House. pp. 282–301. ISBN 978-1-84309-689-4.

ensimple/815.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+A truck (or lorry in British English) is a motor vehicle used to transport goods. The word "truck" comes from the Greek word "trochos", which means "wheel".  Most trucks use diesel fuel.
+
+Light trucks are trucks the size of cars. They are used by individuals and also companies. In the United States, a truck is a light truck if it weighs less than 6,300 kg (13,000 lb). Light trucks are only a little heavier than vans or pickup trucks, but require a special driver's license.
+
+Medium trucks are heavier than light trucks but lighter than heavy trucks. In the United States, a truck is a medium truck if it weighs between 6,300 kg (13,000 lb) and 15,000 kg (33,000 lb). Trucks that are used for local delivery and public service (dump trucks, garbage trucks) are normally around this size. Medium trucks have usually two axles: one at front and one at rear. The rear wheels may be coupled (that is: two wheels hitched together) to enable heavier load, but they may also be single.
+
+Heavy trucks are the heaviest trucks that are allowed on the road. In the U.K. they are known as lorries. Usually heavy trucks have three axles: one at front and two at rear, and the rear axles have coupled wheels to enable heavy loads. Often heavy trucks pull trailers. They can be either full trailers which have both front and rear axles or boggies and their own brakes, and are connected to the towing truck with a towbar, or semi-trailers, which are attached to a special kind of a truck called tractor unit with a turntable coupling ("fifth wheel"). A semi-trailer is a kind of trailer which has wheels only in the back and the front rides on the back of the tractor unit. The tractor unit has an engine and the semi-trailer does not. Driving a heavy truck requires a professional driver's license. Truck drivers are called truckers.
+
+The laws of various countries say what kind of vehicle combinations are allowed. A semi-trailer can be converted into a full trailer with using a dolly. A dolly is a small trailer which has only a bogie (= set of wheels), fifth wheel coupling for the semi-trailer and a towbar. Using a dolly, the semi-trailer can now be hitched to an ordinary cargo-carrying truck and does not need a tractor unit.
+
+A heavy truck-trailer combination is often called big rig or eighteen-wheeler.
+
+The largest heavy trucks are the Australian road trains which may have up to four semi-trailers coupled to a tractor in a train-like fashion and may carry up to 200 tonnes of cargo.
+
+Light van
+
+Medium car carrier
+
+Heavy dump truck
+
+Road train in Australia
+
+Daimler-Lastwagen, 1896
+
+Box trucks or Dry vans ("tilts" in the UK) have walls and a roof, making a closed cargo room. The rear has doors. Some have a side door.
+
+Concrete mixers have a turning drum on back. Turning it one way mixes the concrete. Turning it the other way pushes the concrete out. The concrete goes down "chutes" (like large pipes with an open top). On most trucks the concrete comes out the back. Some new types have the concrete goes over the cab and down chutes in the front. Concrete is very heavy and hard to mix. Concrete mixers have to be very heavy duty.
+
+Dump trucks ("tippers" in the UK) carry sand, gravel, and dirt. Most dump trucks have an open-top box bed with an opening "tail-gate" door on the back. The body lifts up at the front. The load falls out the tailgate and is "dumped" on the ground behind the truck.
+
+Flatbed trucks have a flat body with no sides. There is a wall between the cab and the body. The load will not move forward and hit the cab. The truck can be loaded from the side or top.  Nothing covers the load. Some trucks have sides that can be taken off or folded down. Many times the load is covered with tarps.
+
+Garbage trucks pick up garbage and trash from homes and some businesses. Most were loaded from the rear. Now some load from the front or side. The same type of truck is often used for recycling.
+
+Semi-tractors ("artics" in the UK) have no bodies. They have a "fifth wheel" that carries weight. A semi-trailer has no front wheels. The front of the trailer goes on the fifth wheel. The semi-tractor carries weight from the trailer and pulls the trailer
+
+Tank trucks ("tankers" in the UK) are designed to carry liquids or gases. They usually have a round tank that is long (a cylinder) lying on its side. There are many types of tanks because there are many liquids and gases. Most tankers are built for only one liquid.
+
+Wreckers ("recovery lorries" in the UK and sometimes "tow trucks" in the US) are used to lift and tow broken cars and trucks. They usually have a boom with a cable. Cars are often carried on special flatbeds.
+
+Box truck
+
+Concrete mixer unloading
+
+Flatbed
+
+Rear loading garbage truck
+
+Semi-tractors
+
+Tank truck
+
+Wrecker
+
+Carroll, John; Davies, Peter (2015). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Tractors and Trucks. Hermes House. pp. 282–301. ISBN 978-1-84309-689-4.

ensimple/816.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Campania is a region of the south of Italy. The capital is Napoli. The population in 2004 was about 5,701,931.

ensimple/817.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Campania is a region of the south of Italy. The capital is Napoli. The population in 2004 was about 5,701,931.

ensimple/818.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Campania is a region of the south of Italy. The capital is Napoli. The population in 2004 was about 5,701,931.

ensimple/819.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+A concentration camp (or internment camp) is a place where a government forces people to live without trial.  Usually, those people belong to groups the government does not like. The term means to confine (keep in a secure manner) "enemy citizens in wartime or terrorism suspects".
+
+Some governments put people in concentration camps because they belong to a certain religion, race, or ethnic group.
+
+Usually, people are sent to concentration camps without having had a trial or being found guilty of a crime.
+
+Sometimes, governments send people to concentration camps to do forced labor or to be killed.  For example,  concentration camps were run by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II.  The Nazis used concentration camps to kill millions of people in The Holocaust and force many others to work as slaves.  However, many other countries have used concentration camps during wars or times of trouble.
+
+The first modern concentration camps in the United States were created in 1838.  Around this time, the United States was getting bigger.  However, Native Americans lived in the lands that the United States wanted to take over.[1]
+
+In 1830, the United States Congress and President Andrew Jackson had passed a law called the Indian Removal Act.  This law said that all Native Americans had to leave the United States and move to "Indian Territory," west of the Mississippi River.[1]  However, many Cherokee people would not leave their lands.  In May 1838, the United States government decided to force the Cherokee to leave the United States.[1]
+
+First, soldiers forced about 17,000 Cherokee people, and 2,000 of their African-American slaves, into concentration camps, where they had to live during the summer of 1838.[2][3]  353 Cherokee people died in the camps from dysentery and other diseases.[4]  Finally, the Cherokee were forced to travel to the area that is now Oklahoma.  (At the time, Oklahoma was not in the United States.)  The government also forced other Native American tribes to leave their lands and move west.[1]
+
+Soon, many people from the United States started to move west.  Now the United States was moving into Native American lands again.  Starting around the 1860s, many Native American tribes fought back.  These fights are now called the Indian Wars.[5]  The United States government reacted by forcing Native Americans to leave their lands again and move into concentration camps.[5][6]  The government called these camps "Indian reservations."  (They were called "reservations" because some land had been put aside, or "reserved," for the Native Americans.)  However, Native Americans were not allowed to leave their reservations.  On some reservations, many people, especially children, died from hunger and sickness.[6]
+
+During the American Civil War in the 1860s, soldiers who had been captured were sometimes put in camps.  These camps were meant to be prisoner of war (POW) camps, with good conditions.  However, as the war went on, both the Union and the Confederacy captured more enemy soldiers.[7]  The camps became very crowded, with terrible conditions.  There was not enough food, and many men died from hunger.  Also, there was also very little sanitation, which made it easy for diseases to spread.  Many prisoners died from these diseases.[7]
+
+The deadliest prisoner of war camp during the Civil War was Andersonville prison.[7]  Andersonville was run by the Confederate States Army.  At Andersonville, about one quarter of the prisoners died.
+
+Conditions at the Union's prisoner of war camps were also very bad.[7]  At four different Union camps, at least 15% of the prisoners in the camps died.[7]  At a camp called Fort Pulaski, Union soldiers starved 600 Confederate prisoners of war on purpose.  46 of them died.[8]  The Union soldiers did this to get revenge for how Union prisoners were treated at Andersonville Prison.[8]
+
+By the end of the Civil War, about 30,000 Union soldiers, and about 26,000 Confederate soldiers, had died in prisoner of war camps.[7]
+
+In the late 1800s, Cuba was a colony of the Spanish Empire.  This meant Spain controlled Cuba.  When Cuban people tried to rebel and fight for independence from 1895 to 1898, Spain created concentration camps and sent many Cuban people to live in them.  This was called the "Reconcentrado" ("Reconcentration") Policy.[9]
+
+The people fighting for Cuban independence were guerrilla fighters.  They did not wear military uniforms and could hide themselves in groups of civilians.  They could also camp and hunt, without needing help from anybody to survive.[9]  To keep the guerrilla fighters from being able to do these things, the Spanish government decided to put Cuban people in concentration camps.  The idea was that in the camps, Cuban people could be 'protected' by the Spanish Army until the Spanish Empire won the war.[9]  However, this idea did not work.  At least 30% of the Cuban people in the camps died from hunger, disease, bad sanitation, and not having medicines.  Also, the concentration camps did not help the Spanish win the war.[9]
+
+Between 1900 and 1902, the British Empire, led by Lord Kitchener, used concentration camps.[10]  At the time, they were fighting the Boer people in the Second Boer War in South Africa. At first, the British were not able to beat the Boers.  They reacted by putting the Boer fighters' family members into concentration camps.  They did this so these family members could not give food or help to the Boer fighters.[10]  The British soldiers also burned down the Boers' houses and farms, and destroyed all the crops they could find.[10]  They did this so the Boer fighters would not be able to find food or shelter anywhere.
+
+Russia used prison camps, especially in places in the Arctic or Siberia, a long way from the main cities.  The first prison camp in Russia was built in 1918.[11]  However, after the Soviet Union was formed in the 1922, the Soviet government started sending many more people to forced labor camps.[12]  By 1936, there were 5,000,000 inmates in these camps.[13]
+
+These camps are called zone in Russian.  They are also commonly called "gulags". GULAG is an acronym for the Russian words "Main Camp Administration" (ru: Главное управление лагерей и мест заключения; Glavnoe upravlenye lagerey i mest zaklyucheniya).  This was the government agency that was in charge of the prison camps while Josef Stalin led the Soviet Union.[11]  However, people who do not speak Russian often use the word "gulag" to talk about any forced labor camp in Russia or the Soviet Union.
+
+People sent to the gulags included:[13]
+
+During World War II, Nazi Germany created many concentration camps, slave labor camps, and extermination camps (death camps).  Nazi Germany's leader, Adolf Hitler, thought that certain groups of people were inferior (not as good as others).  He even thought there were groups of people who did not deserve to live - he called them "life unworthy of life."[14]  These three groups were Jews, Roma people, and people with disabilities.  Hitler wanted his Nazis to kill every Jew, Roma, and disabled person in Europe.[15][16][17][18]
+
+Hitler also wanted to get rid of other groups he did not like, including people who he thought might challenge or fight the Nazi government.  These people included socialists, communists, people of certain religions, and members of resistance movements (groups who tried to fight the Nazis any way they could).[18]
+
+The Nazis sent many of these people to concentration camps to work as slave labor.[18]  After a few years, some camps were set up just to kill people. These are now called "extermination camps" or "death camps."  At these camps, people were killed in gas chambers, shot, worked to death, and marched to death.[17]  Many people also died from disease and starvation in the camps.[18]
+
+More than half of the Jewish people who died in the Holocaust died at Nazi concentration camps.[19]  Just in the Auschwitz camps, at least 1.1 million people died (about 1,000,000 Jews and about 75,000 non-Jewish people, like Poles).[20][21]  Towards the end of World War II, the Nazis killed up to 20,000 people a day in the camps' gas chambers.[22]
+
+With Nazi Germany's support, the Ustaše government of the new Independent State of Croatia (ISC) created concentration camps and extermination camps.[23][24]  Mainly, the camps were for Serbs.  The ISC hated Serbs and thought of them as the ISC's biggest enemy.[25]  However, the Ustaše also helped the Nazis with the "Final Solution" by killing many Jews in these camps.[23]  Other people the Ustaše forced into the camps included Roma, Croats, Yugoslavians who had fought against the ISC, and people who broke rules and laws set by the ISC.[23]
+
+During World War II, the United States forced over 110,000 Japanese-Americans into internment camps.[26][27]
+
+On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.  In February 1942, the United States government ordered that nobody with Japanese ancestry could live on the West Coast.[28]  The government, led by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, thought that Japanese-American people might be spies for Japan, or might try to hurt the United States.[28]
+
+About 80% of the Japanese-American people who lived in the continental United States were forced to leave their homes and live in internment camps.[29]  More than three out of every five of these people were born in the United States, and were United States citizens.[26][30]  About half of the people sent to the camps were children.[31]
+
+After Canada declared war on Japan, it also forced people with Japanese ancestry into internment camps.[32]
+
+In the 1980s, the United States government admitted that Japanese-Americans were not a danger to the country during World War II.[33]  In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed a law that apologized for the internment camps.  The law said "there was no ... reason for the internment ... [and] the internment was caused by racial prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of [government] leadership[.]"[34]
+
+During World War II, Italy's fascist government (led by Benito Mussolini) was Nazi Germany's ally.  Italy had taken over Yugoslavia, Greece, and the southeast part of France.  The Nazis told Italy to put Jews from these areas in concentration camps and then send them to the Nazis' death camps.  However, Italy refused.  The Italian military and police would not help kill or deport Jews.[35]
+
+However, in 1943, after Mussolini had lost power, Nazi Germany took over northern and central Italy.  They also put Mussolini back in power.  The Nazis created concentration camps to hold Italian Jews and other prisoners until they could be sent to death camps.[35]  In one of these concentration camps, called La Risiera di San Sabba, the Nazis tortured and murdered about 5,000 people.  Many of these people were "political prisoners" - people who disagreed with the government.[35]
+
+The number of Nazi German occupation government's prison camps, were "around 500"[36] or 709[37] including some death camps.[38]
+
+When Josef Stalin and the Soviet Union invaded Poland at the start of World War II, the Red Army deported at least 1.5 million Poles at gunpoint.[39]  They were forced to get into cattle wagons (train cars), which took them to Siberia.  Whole families were deported to concentration camps, including children and the elderly.[39]
+
+During the war, the Soviet Union also used gulags to hold prisoners of war from Nazi Germany and its allies.[13]
+
+During the 1970s and 1980s, many military dictatorships in Latin America set up concentration camps to imprison, torture, and kill their political opponents (people who disagreed with them).  For example:
+
+The Soviet Union kept using forced labour camps after World War II.  In fact, the people they sent to the gulags after the war included Soviet soldiers and civilians who had been taken prisoner by the Nazis, or used as slave workers in Nazi Germany.[13]
+In 1973, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, a Russian author, wrote The Gulag Archipelago about his experiences in a Soviet work camp.[44]
+
+In the 1990s there were several concentration camps during the Yugoslav Wars.
+
+Since January 2002, the United States has run the Guantánamo Bay prison camp.  Some people have called Guantánamo a concentration camp or a gulag.  These people have included Fidel Castro,[45] the leader of Amnesty International,[46] and other activist groups like CounterPunch.[47]
+
+The Pacific Solution is the name given to the Australian government policy of transporting asylum seekers to detention centres on island nations in the Pacific Ocean, rather than allowing them to land on the Australian mainland.
+
+Often said to be "the world's largest blockade",[48] Gaza is blockaded by the state of Israel to the north, east, and west, and by the state of Egypt to the south. Hamas is a terrorist organisation originated in Gaza. They are Gaza's leading dictators.[49] In addition to preventing Palestinins from exit of camp. Since 2007, Israel and Egypt have implemented a crushing blockade, preventing weapons from being smuggling in, while supplying  basic goods like spices, candles, fishing equipment, baby chicks, and even cement.[50] Israel's military has been active in the region to ensure Israel's safety.[51][52]
+
+View of the destroyed Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
+
+Mass grave for Lakota killed at Pine Ridge in the Wounded Knee Massacre
+
+Photo of Andersonville Prison in 1864
+
+Prisoner beds at Fort Pulaski, where Confederate POWs were starved on purpose
+
+A child in a British concentration camp during the Second Boer War
+
+Boer women and children in a camp during the Second Boer War (1900-1902)
+
+Prisoners' bodies are burned after they are killed in the gas chambers at Auschwitz concentration camp
+
+Ustaše soldiers kill prisoners near Jasenovac concentration camp
+
+Heart Mountain internment camp for Japanese-Americans in 1943
+
+Fence at a gulag called Perm-36, opened in 1943
+
+A former torture center in Argentina (now a memorial)[53]

ensimple/82.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+MediaWiki is the name of the software that runs all of the Wikimedia projects.  MediaWiki was released in 2003.  It is free server-based software which is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL).  The software is licensed under the GPL. This means it is free content, or open source.
+
+MediaWiki is designed to be run on a large web server farm for a website that gets millions of hits per day.  MediaWiki is a very powerful, scalable software and a feature-rich wiki implementation, that uses PHP to process and display data stored in its MySQL database.  Pages use MediaWiki's Wikitext format, so that users without knowledge of XHTML or CSS can edit them easily.
+
+When a user submits an edit to a page, MediaWiki writes it to the database, but without deleting the previous versions of the page, thus allowing easy reverts in case of vandalism or spamming. MediaWiki can manage image and multimedia files, too, which are stored in the filesystem. For large wikis with lots of users, MediaWiki supports caching and can be easily coupled with Squid proxy server software.
+
+All Wikimedia projects run on MediaWiki version  1.35.0-wmf.41 (21c7485).[2]
+
+Because MediaWiki is flexible, many websites that want people to contribute information use MediaWiki rather than other types of wiki software. Those operated by Wikia are among them.
+
+There are also some websites that use MediaWiki as a content management system.[3]
+
+In MediaWiki, a system administrator can choose to install extensions which are provided on the main MediaWiki website. Some are from the MediaWiki developers, while others are from programmers from all around the world.
+
+Most extensions can be download from Wikimedia's Subversion repository. However, there are some other extensions that other people host themselves.
+
+Some extensions had been added to the main software along the development of MediaWiki.[4] For example, the Makesysop extension is an extension to promote a user into an administrator or a bureaucrat.
+
+There were a total of 2124 extensions as of October 4, 2013.[5]
+
+In the default installation of MediaWiki, the software has 17 namespaces[6](18 actually, but one does not have a namespace), namely:
+
+Additional namespaces can be added using the settings file from the installation of MediaWiki.[7]
+
+As MediaWiki is a complex software, there would always be bugs in the software, especially for new extensions. Therefore, Wikimedia has created a bugzilla website for people who see a bug to tell the developers of MediaWiki.
+
+Some extensions of MediaWiki use the Wikimedia Bugzilla, while some just use the talk pages of the extension page.
+
+Users can customize MediaWiki for different appearance. They may use one of the several "skins". At different times different skins have been default. For example, Wikipedia once used Monobook before adopting the new Vector skin in version 1.16.[8]
+
+A survey done by Wikimedia showed that more people prefer the Vector skin.
+
+More information about the software:

ensimple/820.html.txt

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+A concentration camp (or internment camp) is a place where a government forces people to live without trial.  Usually, those people belong to groups the government does not like. The term means to confine (keep in a secure manner) "enemy citizens in wartime or terrorism suspects".
+
+Some governments put people in concentration camps because they belong to a certain religion, race, or ethnic group.
+
+Usually, people are sent to concentration camps without having had a trial or being found guilty of a crime.
+
+Sometimes, governments send people to concentration camps to do forced labor or to be killed.  For example,  concentration camps were run by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II.  The Nazis used concentration camps to kill millions of people in The Holocaust and force many others to work as slaves.  However, many other countries have used concentration camps during wars or times of trouble.
+
+The first modern concentration camps in the United States were created in 1838.  Around this time, the United States was getting bigger.  However, Native Americans lived in the lands that the United States wanted to take over.[1]
+
+In 1830, the United States Congress and President Andrew Jackson had passed a law called the Indian Removal Act.  This law said that all Native Americans had to leave the United States and move to "Indian Territory," west of the Mississippi River.[1]  However, many Cherokee people would not leave their lands.  In May 1838, the United States government decided to force the Cherokee to leave the United States.[1]
+
+First, soldiers forced about 17,000 Cherokee people, and 2,000 of their African-American slaves, into concentration camps, where they had to live during the summer of 1838.[2][3]  353 Cherokee people died in the camps from dysentery and other diseases.[4]  Finally, the Cherokee were forced to travel to the area that is now Oklahoma.  (At the time, Oklahoma was not in the United States.)  The government also forced other Native American tribes to leave their lands and move west.[1]
+
+Soon, many people from the United States started to move west.  Now the United States was moving into Native American lands again.  Starting around the 1860s, many Native American tribes fought back.  These fights are now called the Indian Wars.[5]  The United States government reacted by forcing Native Americans to leave their lands again and move into concentration camps.[5][6]  The government called these camps "Indian reservations."  (They were called "reservations" because some land had been put aside, or "reserved," for the Native Americans.)  However, Native Americans were not allowed to leave their reservations.  On some reservations, many people, especially children, died from hunger and sickness.[6]
+
+During the American Civil War in the 1860s, soldiers who had been captured were sometimes put in camps.  These camps were meant to be prisoner of war (POW) camps, with good conditions.  However, as the war went on, both the Union and the Confederacy captured more enemy soldiers.[7]  The camps became very crowded, with terrible conditions.  There was not enough food, and many men died from hunger.  Also, there was also very little sanitation, which made it easy for diseases to spread.  Many prisoners died from these diseases.[7]
+
+The deadliest prisoner of war camp during the Civil War was Andersonville prison.[7]  Andersonville was run by the Confederate States Army.  At Andersonville, about one quarter of the prisoners died.
+
+Conditions at the Union's prisoner of war camps were also very bad.[7]  At four different Union camps, at least 15% of the prisoners in the camps died.[7]  At a camp called Fort Pulaski, Union soldiers starved 600 Confederate prisoners of war on purpose.  46 of them died.[8]  The Union soldiers did this to get revenge for how Union prisoners were treated at Andersonville Prison.[8]
+
+By the end of the Civil War, about 30,000 Union soldiers, and about 26,000 Confederate soldiers, had died in prisoner of war camps.[7]
+
+In the late 1800s, Cuba was a colony of the Spanish Empire.  This meant Spain controlled Cuba.  When Cuban people tried to rebel and fight for independence from 1895 to 1898, Spain created concentration camps and sent many Cuban people to live in them.  This was called the "Reconcentrado" ("Reconcentration") Policy.[9]
+
+The people fighting for Cuban independence were guerrilla fighters.  They did not wear military uniforms and could hide themselves in groups of civilians.  They could also camp and hunt, without needing help from anybody to survive.[9]  To keep the guerrilla fighters from being able to do these things, the Spanish government decided to put Cuban people in concentration camps.  The idea was that in the camps, Cuban people could be 'protected' by the Spanish Army until the Spanish Empire won the war.[9]  However, this idea did not work.  At least 30% of the Cuban people in the camps died from hunger, disease, bad sanitation, and not having medicines.  Also, the concentration camps did not help the Spanish win the war.[9]
+
+Between 1900 and 1902, the British Empire, led by Lord Kitchener, used concentration camps.[10]  At the time, they were fighting the Boer people in the Second Boer War in South Africa. At first, the British were not able to beat the Boers.  They reacted by putting the Boer fighters' family members into concentration camps.  They did this so these family members could not give food or help to the Boer fighters.[10]  The British soldiers also burned down the Boers' houses and farms, and destroyed all the crops they could find.[10]  They did this so the Boer fighters would not be able to find food or shelter anywhere.
+
+Russia used prison camps, especially in places in the Arctic or Siberia, a long way from the main cities.  The first prison camp in Russia was built in 1918.[11]  However, after the Soviet Union was formed in the 1922, the Soviet government started sending many more people to forced labor camps.[12]  By 1936, there were 5,000,000 inmates in these camps.[13]
+
+These camps are called zone in Russian.  They are also commonly called "gulags". GULAG is an acronym for the Russian words "Main Camp Administration" (ru: Главное управление лагерей и мест заключения; Glavnoe upravlenye lagerey i mest zaklyucheniya).  This was the government agency that was in charge of the prison camps while Josef Stalin led the Soviet Union.[11]  However, people who do not speak Russian often use the word "gulag" to talk about any forced labor camp in Russia or the Soviet Union.
+
+People sent to the gulags included:[13]
+
+During World War II, Nazi Germany created many concentration camps, slave labor camps, and extermination camps (death camps).  Nazi Germany's leader, Adolf Hitler, thought that certain groups of people were inferior (not as good as others).  He even thought there were groups of people who did not deserve to live - he called them "life unworthy of life."[14]  These three groups were Jews, Roma people, and people with disabilities.  Hitler wanted his Nazis to kill every Jew, Roma, and disabled person in Europe.[15][16][17][18]
+
+Hitler also wanted to get rid of other groups he did not like, including people who he thought might challenge or fight the Nazi government.  These people included socialists, communists, people of certain religions, and members of resistance movements (groups who tried to fight the Nazis any way they could).[18]
+
+The Nazis sent many of these people to concentration camps to work as slave labor.[18]  After a few years, some camps were set up just to kill people. These are now called "extermination camps" or "death camps."  At these camps, people were killed in gas chambers, shot, worked to death, and marched to death.[17]  Many people also died from disease and starvation in the camps.[18]
+
+More than half of the Jewish people who died in the Holocaust died at Nazi concentration camps.[19]  Just in the Auschwitz camps, at least 1.1 million people died (about 1,000,000 Jews and about 75,000 non-Jewish people, like Poles).[20][21]  Towards the end of World War II, the Nazis killed up to 20,000 people a day in the camps' gas chambers.[22]
+
+With Nazi Germany's support, the Ustaše government of the new Independent State of Croatia (ISC) created concentration camps and extermination camps.[23][24]  Mainly, the camps were for Serbs.  The ISC hated Serbs and thought of them as the ISC's biggest enemy.[25]  However, the Ustaše also helped the Nazis with the "Final Solution" by killing many Jews in these camps.[23]  Other people the Ustaše forced into the camps included Roma, Croats, Yugoslavians who had fought against the ISC, and people who broke rules and laws set by the ISC.[23]
+
+During World War II, the United States forced over 110,000 Japanese-Americans into internment camps.[26][27]
+
+On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.  In February 1942, the United States government ordered that nobody with Japanese ancestry could live on the West Coast.[28]  The government, led by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, thought that Japanese-American people might be spies for Japan, or might try to hurt the United States.[28]
+
+About 80% of the Japanese-American people who lived in the continental United States were forced to leave their homes and live in internment camps.[29]  More than three out of every five of these people were born in the United States, and were United States citizens.[26][30]  About half of the people sent to the camps were children.[31]
+
+After Canada declared war on Japan, it also forced people with Japanese ancestry into internment camps.[32]
+
+In the 1980s, the United States government admitted that Japanese-Americans were not a danger to the country during World War II.[33]  In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed a law that apologized for the internment camps.  The law said "there was no ... reason for the internment ... [and] the internment was caused by racial prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of [government] leadership[.]"[34]
+
+During World War II, Italy's fascist government (led by Benito Mussolini) was Nazi Germany's ally.  Italy had taken over Yugoslavia, Greece, and the southeast part of France.  The Nazis told Italy to put Jews from these areas in concentration camps and then send them to the Nazis' death camps.  However, Italy refused.  The Italian military and police would not help kill or deport Jews.[35]
+
+However, in 1943, after Mussolini had lost power, Nazi Germany took over northern and central Italy.  They also put Mussolini back in power.  The Nazis created concentration camps to hold Italian Jews and other prisoners until they could be sent to death camps.[35]  In one of these concentration camps, called La Risiera di San Sabba, the Nazis tortured and murdered about 5,000 people.  Many of these people were "political prisoners" - people who disagreed with the government.[35]
+
+The number of Nazi German occupation government's prison camps, were "around 500"[36] or 709[37] including some death camps.[38]
+
+When Josef Stalin and the Soviet Union invaded Poland at the start of World War II, the Red Army deported at least 1.5 million Poles at gunpoint.[39]  They were forced to get into cattle wagons (train cars), which took them to Siberia.  Whole families were deported to concentration camps, including children and the elderly.[39]
+
+During the war, the Soviet Union also used gulags to hold prisoners of war from Nazi Germany and its allies.[13]
+
+During the 1970s and 1980s, many military dictatorships in Latin America set up concentration camps to imprison, torture, and kill their political opponents (people who disagreed with them).  For example:
+
+The Soviet Union kept using forced labour camps after World War II.  In fact, the people they sent to the gulags after the war included Soviet soldiers and civilians who had been taken prisoner by the Nazis, or used as slave workers in Nazi Germany.[13]
+In 1973, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, a Russian author, wrote The Gulag Archipelago about his experiences in a Soviet work camp.[44]
+
+In the 1990s there were several concentration camps during the Yugoslav Wars.
+
+Since January 2002, the United States has run the Guantánamo Bay prison camp.  Some people have called Guantánamo a concentration camp or a gulag.  These people have included Fidel Castro,[45] the leader of Amnesty International,[46] and other activist groups like CounterPunch.[47]
+
+The Pacific Solution is the name given to the Australian government policy of transporting asylum seekers to detention centres on island nations in the Pacific Ocean, rather than allowing them to land on the Australian mainland.
+
+Often said to be "the world's largest blockade",[48] Gaza is blockaded by the state of Israel to the north, east, and west, and by the state of Egypt to the south. Hamas is a terrorist organisation originated in Gaza. They are Gaza's leading dictators.[49] In addition to preventing Palestinins from exit of camp. Since 2007, Israel and Egypt have implemented a crushing blockade, preventing weapons from being smuggling in, while supplying  basic goods like spices, candles, fishing equipment, baby chicks, and even cement.[50] Israel's military has been active in the region to ensure Israel's safety.[51][52]
+
+View of the destroyed Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
+
+Mass grave for Lakota killed at Pine Ridge in the Wounded Knee Massacre
+
+Photo of Andersonville Prison in 1864
+
+Prisoner beds at Fort Pulaski, where Confederate POWs were starved on purpose
+
+A child in a British concentration camp during the Second Boer War
+
+Boer women and children in a camp during the Second Boer War (1900-1902)
+
+Prisoners' bodies are burned after they are killed in the gas chambers at Auschwitz concentration camp
+
+Ustaše soldiers kill prisoners near Jasenovac concentration camp
+
+Heart Mountain internment camp for Japanese-Americans in 1943
+
+Fence at a gulag called Perm-36, opened in 1943
+
+A former torture center in Argentina (now a memorial)[53]

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+Canada (/ˈkænədə/ (listen); French: [ka.na.dɑ]) is a country in North America. It is north of the United States. Its land reaches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Canada's area is 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), so it is the world's second largest country by total area but only the fourth largest country by land area. It has the world's longest coastline which touches three oceans. Canada has ten provinces and three territories. Most parts of the country have a cold or severely cold winter climate, but areas to the south are warm in summer. Much of the land is forests or tundra, with the Rocky Mountains towards the west. About four fifths of Canada's 36 million people live in urban areas near the southern border with the US, the longest between any two countries in the world. The national capital is Ottawa, and the largest city is Toronto. Other large cities include Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg and Hamilton.
+
+Aboriginal people lived in the places that are now Canada for a long time. In 1537 the French started a colony and the British Empire soon followed. The two empires fought several wars and in the late 18th century only British North America remained with what is more or less Canada today. The country was formed with the British North America Act on July 1, 1867, from several colonies. Over time, more provinces and territories became part of Canada. In 1931, Canada achieved near total independence with the Statute of Westminster 1931, and became completely independent when the Canada Act 1982 removed the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
+
+Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom as its head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level, meaning that citizens have the right to communicate with the government in either English or French. Immigration to Canada has made it one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations. Its economy is the eleventh largest in the world, and relies mainly on natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada's relationship with its neighbor and biggest trading partner, the U.S., has a big impact on its economy and culture.
+
+Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the tenth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations, a member of the Francophonie, and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the G8, the G20, the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.
+
+By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth.[11] It has the longest border with water (coastline) of any country in the world. It is next to the Pacific, Arctic, and Atlantic Oceans. It is the only country in the world to be next to three oceans at once. It has six time zones.[12][13]
+
+Canada is made up of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces are between the 45th and 60th parallels of latitude, and the territories are to the north of the 60th parallel of latitude. Most large cities in Canada are in the southern part of the country, including Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. There are very few people living in the northern part of Canada.
+
+Canada extends from the west coast, across the prairies and central Canada, to the Atlantic provinces. In the north there are three territories, between Alaska and Greenland: the Yukon in the west, then the Northwest Territories, then Nunavut. Four of the five Great Lakes (Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario) are shared between Canada and the United States (Lake Michigan is in the USA), and they make up 16% of the Earth's fresh water. The Saint Lawrence Seaway joins the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, allowing ocean going vessels to travel as far inland as Thunder Bay in Ontario, Canada.
+
+Canada shares land and sea borders with the USA (the lower 48 states and Alaska), Denmark (Greenland), and France (St. Pierre and Miquelon — a small group of islands off the southern coast off the island of Newfoundland).
+
+The geography of Canada is very different from place to place, from high alpine areas in the west, flat grasslands and prairies in the centre, and ancient shield rocks in the east. Canada contains some of the very last untouched boreal forest in the world.
+
+The Canadian Shield is a vast area of ancient Pre-Cambrian rocks lying in an arc around Hudson Bay, covering more than one third of Canada's land area. This is a unique land of lakes, bogs, swamps, trees, and rocks. It is a terrain that is very dangerous and difficult to traverse cross country because of lakes, bogs, swamps, trees, and rocks. Canada has 60% of the world's lakes.
+
+Indigenous peoples lived in what is now Canada for thousands of years before the first Europeans arrived. The indigenous groups are called the First Nations, the Inuit, and the Métis.[14] The Métis are people that come from both First Nations and European families.[14] Together, these three groups are called "Indigenous," "Aboriginal," or "First Peoples." They used to be called "Indians" by the Europeans, but this is now considered rude.
+
+Many people think that the first people to live in Canada came from Siberia by using the Bering land bridge at least 14,000 years ago. The land bridge used to connect Asia and North America.[15][16]
+
+When European people first came to Canada to settle, the number of Indigenous people living in Canada already was between 200,000 and two million.[17][18]
+
+The Vikings were the first Europeans known to land in what is now called Canada, in what is now Newfoundland, led by the Viking explorer Leif Erikson. They did not stay long, however. In the early 16th century, Europeans started exploring Canada's eastern coast, beginning with John Cabot from England in 1497, and later Jacques Cartier in 1534 from France. Alexander Mackenzie later reached the Pacific coast over land, where captains James Cook and George Vancouver went by sea. The Europeans also traded beaver furs to the First Nations.
+
+Parts of Canada were settled by France, and parts by Great Britain. In 1605, Port-Royal was built in Acadia (today called Nova Scotia) by the French, led by Samuel de Champlain, and in 1608 he started settling Quebec. The British took control of the French areas after a battle of the French and Indian War on the Plains of Abraham near Quebec City in 1759.
+
+After the American Revolutionary War, many people in the new United States wanted to stay loyal to Britain. Thousands came north to Canada and settled in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. They were called United Empire Loyalists. During the War of 1812, the United States tried to conquer Canada but were defeated.
+
+On July 1, 1867, Canada was united under a federal government. It included the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Sir John A. Macdonald was the first prime minister. Manitoba, the Yukon territory, and the Northwest Territories became part of Canada in 1870. British Columbia joined in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in 1873.
+
+There were two Red River Rebellions, in 1869-70 and 1885, both led by Louis Riel. He fought for more rights for the Métis people, a mix between French and First Nations. A railroad across the country, the Canadian Pacific Railway, finished in 1885, made it easier for Canadians to move to the west. Many Europeans came to the prairies, so Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.
+
+Canadian soldiers fought in World War I for the British Empire. More Canadians died in this war than any other war. Canada became better known as a country after its success in capturing Vimy Ridge from the Germans in France in 1917. Women were given the right to vote by the end of the war, partly because of the help they gave making weapons while the men fought in Europe. In 1931, Canada became fully independent. Then the government of Canada made all decisions about Canada.
+
+Canadians also fought in World War II. The Dieppe Raid in 1942 went very badly and most of the soldiers were killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. Canadians were important in 1944 at Normandy, and they liberated the Netherlands from the Germans.
+
+In 1949, Newfoundland and Labrador became the 10th province of Canada. In 1956, Canadian Lester Pearson, who later became prime minister, helped end the Suez Crisis. As a result, he won the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1965, Pearson helped Canada get a new flag, the Maple Leaf. Before that, Canadians had used the Red Ensign. In 1982, Canada changed its constitution, including a new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The main part of the Constitution is still the 1867 British North America Act.
+
+Some French Canadians today wish to form their own country, separate from the rest of Canada. The province of Quebec held a referendum (vote) in 1980, but only about 40% wanted to separate. Another referendum was held in 1995, with almost 50% voting in favour of leaving Canada. Since then, fewer people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada, but it is still important to Quebec politics.
+
+Today, about 25% of Canadians speak French as their first language. Many people can speak both French and English. Although most French Canadians live in the province of Quebec, there are French-speaking communities and people all across Canada. For example, 40% of the people in the province of New Brunswick and 20% of those in Manitoba have a strong French background, as do some people in Ontario, mainly along its border with Quebec.
+
+In 1999, Nunavut was created as Canada's third territory, out of the eastern Northwest Territories, in an agreement with the Inuit people.
+
+Canada has a government called a constitutional monarchy.[19] It has a monarch (meaning a king or queen is the head of that country), and is a democracy (meaning the people of that country rule it). The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is officially the Queen of Canada. She appoints a Governor General to represent her in the country, however, the choice of Governor General is made by the prime minister.
+
+The Queen's powers are mostly exercised by the Governor General, currently Julie Payette. The Governor General, like the Canadian sovereign (King/Queen of Canada), is not political and remains above politics, and because of that they do not usually use their powers without the advice of the Prime Minister or other ministers.
+
+The head of government is the Prime Minister. The current prime minister is Justin Trudeau,[20] who replaced Stephen Harper in October 2015. Each province and territory has a premier to lead its government. The day-to-day operations of the government are run by the cabinet. The cabinet is usually formed from the largest party in Parliament.
+
+The Parliament of Canada passes the laws of the country. The governor general, acting on behalf of the monarch, has the right to veto a law (meaning the law cannot go into effect) but this right has not been used for some time. There are five main parties in the Canadian Parliament: the Conservative Party, the New Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party. In addition to the five parties with MPs in Parliament, there are fourteen other smaller parties registered with Elections Canada and several MPs who sit as Independents.
+
+Below is a list of provinces and territories. They are listed by population.
+
+Provinces
+
+Many people from other parts of the world think of Canada as a very cold and snowy place. While it is true that much of Canada is very far north, most Canadians live in the southern parts, where the weather is much milder. Nearly two thirds of Canadians live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the U.S. border.[21] In some cities the temperature can get very cold in the winter, especially in the inland.[22] Warm air systems moving in from the Pacific Ocean bring more rain than snow to the Pacific coast, while colder temperatures further inland do result in snow. Most of Canada can get quite hot in the summer, often over 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit).[23]
+
+Canadians are known to play winter sports such as ice hockey and skiing and snowboarding, and also enjoy many summer sports and games.
+
+Canada has lots of natural resources. Its large amounts of fish have been used for centuries for food and money. Hydroelectric power (electricity by water) is abundant because of Canada's many rivers.[24] Forests of the west are used for wood. Besides these renewable resources, Canada has metal ores and oil deposits. Also, Canada is the leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, aluminum, steel and lead.[25]
+
+Around 35 million people live in Canada. This is almost the same number as in the U.S. state of California. Most people live in the southern parts of Canada.
+
+A large number of immigrants from almost every part of the world come to live in Canada.[26] One example is the former Governor General of Canada, Michaëlle Jean, who came to Canada as a young child with her family from Haiti in 1968. Today, up to 1/5th of the population is an immigrant to Canada.
+
+The Canadian government provides universal health care. The provinces are responsible for health insurance. Five provinces prohibit all extra-billing, while Alberta, British Columbia and Newfoundland allow it in a small number of circumstances, and Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick do not restrict it at all.[27]
+
+In 2020 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported a deterioration in the number of acute care beds available in Ontario hospitals per every 1,000 people in that province. Ontario is Canada's largest province, and is home to Canada's largest city, Toronto. The number of hospital beds available in Ontario is 1.4 per every 1,000 people. This is half the number hospitals beds available in the United States, and the same number available in Mexico.[28]
+
+Notes

ensimple/822.html.txt

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+Canada (/ˈkænədə/ (listen); French: [ka.na.dɑ]) is a country in North America. It is north of the United States. Its land reaches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Canada's area is 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), so it is the world's second largest country by total area but only the fourth largest country by land area. It has the world's longest coastline which touches three oceans. Canada has ten provinces and three territories. Most parts of the country have a cold or severely cold winter climate, but areas to the south are warm in summer. Much of the land is forests or tundra, with the Rocky Mountains towards the west. About four fifths of Canada's 36 million people live in urban areas near the southern border with the US, the longest between any two countries in the world. The national capital is Ottawa, and the largest city is Toronto. Other large cities include Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg and Hamilton.
+
+Aboriginal people lived in the places that are now Canada for a long time. In 1537 the French started a colony and the British Empire soon followed. The two empires fought several wars and in the late 18th century only British North America remained with what is more or less Canada today. The country was formed with the British North America Act on July 1, 1867, from several colonies. Over time, more provinces and territories became part of Canada. In 1931, Canada achieved near total independence with the Statute of Westminster 1931, and became completely independent when the Canada Act 1982 removed the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
+
+Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom as its head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level, meaning that citizens have the right to communicate with the government in either English or French. Immigration to Canada has made it one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations. Its economy is the eleventh largest in the world, and relies mainly on natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada's relationship with its neighbor and biggest trading partner, the U.S., has a big impact on its economy and culture.
+
+Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the tenth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations, a member of the Francophonie, and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the G8, the G20, the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.
+
+By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth.[11] It has the longest border with water (coastline) of any country in the world. It is next to the Pacific, Arctic, and Atlantic Oceans. It is the only country in the world to be next to three oceans at once. It has six time zones.[12][13]
+
+Canada is made up of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces are between the 45th and 60th parallels of latitude, and the territories are to the north of the 60th parallel of latitude. Most large cities in Canada are in the southern part of the country, including Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. There are very few people living in the northern part of Canada.
+
+Canada extends from the west coast, across the prairies and central Canada, to the Atlantic provinces. In the north there are three territories, between Alaska and Greenland: the Yukon in the west, then the Northwest Territories, then Nunavut. Four of the five Great Lakes (Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario) are shared between Canada and the United States (Lake Michigan is in the USA), and they make up 16% of the Earth's fresh water. The Saint Lawrence Seaway joins the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, allowing ocean going vessels to travel as far inland as Thunder Bay in Ontario, Canada.
+
+Canada shares land and sea borders with the USA (the lower 48 states and Alaska), Denmark (Greenland), and France (St. Pierre and Miquelon — a small group of islands off the southern coast off the island of Newfoundland).
+
+The geography of Canada is very different from place to place, from high alpine areas in the west, flat grasslands and prairies in the centre, and ancient shield rocks in the east. Canada contains some of the very last untouched boreal forest in the world.
+
+The Canadian Shield is a vast area of ancient Pre-Cambrian rocks lying in an arc around Hudson Bay, covering more than one third of Canada's land area. This is a unique land of lakes, bogs, swamps, trees, and rocks. It is a terrain that is very dangerous and difficult to traverse cross country because of lakes, bogs, swamps, trees, and rocks. Canada has 60% of the world's lakes.
+
+Indigenous peoples lived in what is now Canada for thousands of years before the first Europeans arrived. The indigenous groups are called the First Nations, the Inuit, and the Métis.[14] The Métis are people that come from both First Nations and European families.[14] Together, these three groups are called "Indigenous," "Aboriginal," or "First Peoples." They used to be called "Indians" by the Europeans, but this is now considered rude.
+
+Many people think that the first people to live in Canada came from Siberia by using the Bering land bridge at least 14,000 years ago. The land bridge used to connect Asia and North America.[15][16]
+
+When European people first came to Canada to settle, the number of Indigenous people living in Canada already was between 200,000 and two million.[17][18]
+
+The Vikings were the first Europeans known to land in what is now called Canada, in what is now Newfoundland, led by the Viking explorer Leif Erikson. They did not stay long, however. In the early 16th century, Europeans started exploring Canada's eastern coast, beginning with John Cabot from England in 1497, and later Jacques Cartier in 1534 from France. Alexander Mackenzie later reached the Pacific coast over land, where captains James Cook and George Vancouver went by sea. The Europeans also traded beaver furs to the First Nations.
+
+Parts of Canada were settled by France, and parts by Great Britain. In 1605, Port-Royal was built in Acadia (today called Nova Scotia) by the French, led by Samuel de Champlain, and in 1608 he started settling Quebec. The British took control of the French areas after a battle of the French and Indian War on the Plains of Abraham near Quebec City in 1759.
+
+After the American Revolutionary War, many people in the new United States wanted to stay loyal to Britain. Thousands came north to Canada and settled in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. They were called United Empire Loyalists. During the War of 1812, the United States tried to conquer Canada but were defeated.
+
+On July 1, 1867, Canada was united under a federal government. It included the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Sir John A. Macdonald was the first prime minister. Manitoba, the Yukon territory, and the Northwest Territories became part of Canada in 1870. British Columbia joined in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in 1873.
+
+There were two Red River Rebellions, in 1869-70 and 1885, both led by Louis Riel. He fought for more rights for the Métis people, a mix between French and First Nations. A railroad across the country, the Canadian Pacific Railway, finished in 1885, made it easier for Canadians to move to the west. Many Europeans came to the prairies, so Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.
+
+Canadian soldiers fought in World War I for the British Empire. More Canadians died in this war than any other war. Canada became better known as a country after its success in capturing Vimy Ridge from the Germans in France in 1917. Women were given the right to vote by the end of the war, partly because of the help they gave making weapons while the men fought in Europe. In 1931, Canada became fully independent. Then the government of Canada made all decisions about Canada.
+
+Canadians also fought in World War II. The Dieppe Raid in 1942 went very badly and most of the soldiers were killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. Canadians were important in 1944 at Normandy, and they liberated the Netherlands from the Germans.
+
+In 1949, Newfoundland and Labrador became the 10th province of Canada. In 1956, Canadian Lester Pearson, who later became prime minister, helped end the Suez Crisis. As a result, he won the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1965, Pearson helped Canada get a new flag, the Maple Leaf. Before that, Canadians had used the Red Ensign. In 1982, Canada changed its constitution, including a new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The main part of the Constitution is still the 1867 British North America Act.
+
+Some French Canadians today wish to form their own country, separate from the rest of Canada. The province of Quebec held a referendum (vote) in 1980, but only about 40% wanted to separate. Another referendum was held in 1995, with almost 50% voting in favour of leaving Canada. Since then, fewer people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada, but it is still important to Quebec politics.
+
+Today, about 25% of Canadians speak French as their first language. Many people can speak both French and English. Although most French Canadians live in the province of Quebec, there are French-speaking communities and people all across Canada. For example, 40% of the people in the province of New Brunswick and 20% of those in Manitoba have a strong French background, as do some people in Ontario, mainly along its border with Quebec.
+
+In 1999, Nunavut was created as Canada's third territory, out of the eastern Northwest Territories, in an agreement with the Inuit people.
+
+Canada has a government called a constitutional monarchy.[19] It has a monarch (meaning a king or queen is the head of that country), and is a democracy (meaning the people of that country rule it). The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is officially the Queen of Canada. She appoints a Governor General to represent her in the country, however, the choice of Governor General is made by the prime minister.
+
+The Queen's powers are mostly exercised by the Governor General, currently Julie Payette. The Governor General, like the Canadian sovereign (King/Queen of Canada), is not political and remains above politics, and because of that they do not usually use their powers without the advice of the Prime Minister or other ministers.
+
+The head of government is the Prime Minister. The current prime minister is Justin Trudeau,[20] who replaced Stephen Harper in October 2015. Each province and territory has a premier to lead its government. The day-to-day operations of the government are run by the cabinet. The cabinet is usually formed from the largest party in Parliament.
+
+The Parliament of Canada passes the laws of the country. The governor general, acting on behalf of the monarch, has the right to veto a law (meaning the law cannot go into effect) but this right has not been used for some time. There are five main parties in the Canadian Parliament: the Conservative Party, the New Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party. In addition to the five parties with MPs in Parliament, there are fourteen other smaller parties registered with Elections Canada and several MPs who sit as Independents.
+
+Below is a list of provinces and territories. They are listed by population.
+
+Provinces
+
+Many people from other parts of the world think of Canada as a very cold and snowy place. While it is true that much of Canada is very far north, most Canadians live in the southern parts, where the weather is much milder. Nearly two thirds of Canadians live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the U.S. border.[21] In some cities the temperature can get very cold in the winter, especially in the inland.[22] Warm air systems moving in from the Pacific Ocean bring more rain than snow to the Pacific coast, while colder temperatures further inland do result in snow. Most of Canada can get quite hot in the summer, often over 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit).[23]
+
+Canadians are known to play winter sports such as ice hockey and skiing and snowboarding, and also enjoy many summer sports and games.
+
+Canada has lots of natural resources. Its large amounts of fish have been used for centuries for food and money. Hydroelectric power (electricity by water) is abundant because of Canada's many rivers.[24] Forests of the west are used for wood. Besides these renewable resources, Canada has metal ores and oil deposits. Also, Canada is the leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, aluminum, steel and lead.[25]
+
+Around 35 million people live in Canada. This is almost the same number as in the U.S. state of California. Most people live in the southern parts of Canada.
+
+A large number of immigrants from almost every part of the world come to live in Canada.[26] One example is the former Governor General of Canada, Michaëlle Jean, who came to Canada as a young child with her family from Haiti in 1968. Today, up to 1/5th of the population is an immigrant to Canada.
+
+The Canadian government provides universal health care. The provinces are responsible for health insurance. Five provinces prohibit all extra-billing, while Alberta, British Columbia and Newfoundland allow it in a small number of circumstances, and Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick do not restrict it at all.[27]
+
+In 2020 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported a deterioration in the number of acute care beds available in Ontario hospitals per every 1,000 people in that province. Ontario is Canada's largest province, and is home to Canada's largest city, Toronto. The number of hospital beds available in Ontario is 1.4 per every 1,000 people. This is half the number hospitals beds available in the United States, and the same number available in Mexico.[28]
+
+Notes

ensimple/823.html.txt

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+The vas deferens (or ductus deferens) [1]  is a duct in a man’s body.  It is also present in other male vertebrates. Its function is to carry sperm away from the testes, towards the penis.
+
+There are two of these ducts, which are tubes surrounded by smooth muscle.  They connect the left and right epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in order to move sperm. Each tube is about 30 centimeters long. During ejaculation the smooth muscle in the wall of the vas deferens contracts. That pushes the sperm toward the penis. The sperm go from the vas deferens into the urethra. Other male sex glands push out at the same time.
+
+There is a surgery called vasectomy that is a method of contraception. The two vasa deferentia (Latin plural) are cut and sealed, so the sperm cannot get out of the body. This is usually permanent, but in some cases it can be reversed.  Sometimes instead of cutting the vas deferentia, the surgeon puts something to block the sperm instead of cutting them.

ensimple/824.html.txt

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+The Panama Canal is a waterway (a canal) in the country of Panama in Central America, that connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Because of the way Panama twists, the entrance to the Pacific Ocean is farther east than the entrance to the Atlantic Ocean. This is the opposite of what one would expect.
+
+The Panama Canal is 77 km (48 miles) long and cuts across the Isthmus of Panama. At each end it uses three pairs of locks for lifting and lowering ships on different water levels. This saves ships 15,000 km (10,000 miles) compared to going around South America. Each year, about 14,000 ships come through the canal. By 2002, around 800,000 ships came through.
+
+The old locks are 110 ft (33.53 m) wide by 1,050 ft (320 m) long and 41.2 feet (12.6 m) deep, with a usable length of 1,000 ft (305 m). The biggest ships that can go through the Panama Canal are called Panamax.
+
+New locks opened in 2016 to allow ships more than twice as big, called New Panamax. They are 55 m (180 ft) wide by 427 m (1,400 ft) long, and 18.3 m (60.0 ft) deep. New channels connect to the new locks.
+
+Ferdinand de Lesseps tried building a Panama Canal in 1880, but couldn't finish it. The project was started again in 1904 by the United States, under the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, who spent ten years and 375 million dollars building it. The Panama Canal was finally finished in 1914, at the cost of approximately 25,000 lives. Most deaths were from disease, and before United States construction of the canal began. The US government owned and operated the canal until 1999 when the Panamanian government started controlling it.

ensimple/825.html.txt

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+The Panama Canal is a waterway (a canal) in the country of Panama in Central America, that connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Because of the way Panama twists, the entrance to the Pacific Ocean is farther east than the entrance to the Atlantic Ocean. This is the opposite of what one would expect.
+
+The Panama Canal is 77 km (48 miles) long and cuts across the Isthmus of Panama. At each end it uses three pairs of locks for lifting and lowering ships on different water levels. This saves ships 15,000 km (10,000 miles) compared to going around South America. Each year, about 14,000 ships come through the canal. By 2002, around 800,000 ships came through.
+
+The old locks are 110 ft (33.53 m) wide by 1,050 ft (320 m) long and 41.2 feet (12.6 m) deep, with a usable length of 1,000 ft (305 m). The biggest ships that can go through the Panama Canal are called Panamax.
+
+New locks opened in 2016 to allow ships more than twice as big, called New Panamax. They are 55 m (180 ft) wide by 427 m (1,400 ft) long, and 18.3 m (60.0 ft) deep. New channels connect to the new locks.
+
+Ferdinand de Lesseps tried building a Panama Canal in 1880, but couldn't finish it. The project was started again in 1904 by the United States, under the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, who spent ten years and 375 million dollars building it. The Panama Canal was finally finished in 1914, at the cost of approximately 25,000 lives. Most deaths were from disease, and before United States construction of the canal began. The US government owned and operated the canal until 1999 when the Panamanian government started controlling it.

ensimple/826.html.txt

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+The Suez Canal (Arabic: قناة السويس, Qanā al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt. It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula. The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 300 m wide (984 ft). It runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea. It was built by a French company. The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.
+
+The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa. This saves time and fuel. It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.
+
+
+
+In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build. The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony.
+
+The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world. The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers. The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean. Later, they bought shares in the company.
+
+The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal. But they did not finish it. The Panama Canal was finished later.
+
+The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967. A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars. The canal reopened in 1975.
+
+About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping. Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal. In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.

ensimple/827.html.txt

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+The Suez Canal (Arabic: قناة السويس, Qanā al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt. It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula. The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 300 m wide (984 ft). It runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea. It was built by a French company. The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.
+
+The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa. This saves time and fuel. It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.
+
+
+
+In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build. The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony.
+
+The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world. The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers. The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean. Later, they bought shares in the company.
+
+The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal. But they did not finish it. The Panama Canal was finished later.
+
+The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967. A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars. The canal reopened in 1975.
+
+About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping. Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal. In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.

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+Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in one or both of the lungs. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers when smoke gets in the lungs. Lung cancer kills 1.8 million people each year, more than any other cancer. It is currently the leading cause of cancer death in men, and the second leading cause of cancer death in women.[1]
+
+The large majority of people who get lung cancer have smoked for many years. However, there are types of lung cancers that appear in otherwise healthy patients who have never smoked.
+
+There are two main types of lung cancer, small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer typically responds well to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and non-small cell lung cancer is more commonly treated with surgical removal of the lung tumor.
+
+Non-small cell lung cancer
+
+Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) account for about 85% to 90% of lung cancer cases. There are three types of non-small cell lung cancer:
+
+
+

ensimple/829.html.txt

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+Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in one or both of the lungs. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers when smoke gets in the lungs. Lung cancer kills 1.8 million people each year, more than any other cancer. It is currently the leading cause of cancer death in men, and the second leading cause of cancer death in women.[1]
+
+The large majority of people who get lung cancer have smoked for many years. However, there are types of lung cancers that appear in otherwise healthy patients who have never smoked.
+
+There are two main types of lung cancer, small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer typically responds well to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and non-small cell lung cancer is more commonly treated with surgical removal of the lung tumor.
+
+Non-small cell lung cancer
+
+Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) account for about 85% to 90% of lung cancer cases. There are three types of non-small cell lung cancer:
+
+
+

ensimple/83.html.txt

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+Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى‎ ‘Īdu l-’Aḍḥā) "Festival " or "Greater Bairam" is a religious festival celebrated by Muslims all over the world. It is when Muslims sacrifice a goat, sheep, cow , camel,and bull sending part of the meat to poor people as a donation. It marks the end of the Pilgrimage hajj for   the millions of Muslims who make the trip to Mecca each year and pray 5 times a day. They like to tell Allah what they are thinking and hope for him to help them, and remember Ibrahim and Ismael's courage and devotion to God.
+
+The festival is to celebrate Ibrahim's (Abraham) willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael, because Allah told him to do so in a dream. Showing that he loved Allah more than his own son. And at the final moment, after taking his son's consent, as he was swinging his axe to kill his son God told an angel  to switch a lamb instead of his son, and this act of sacrificing a lamb is copied by Muslims all over the world on Eid.
+
+Ibrahim was tempted by Satan not to listen to God, and Ibrahim drove Satan away by throwing pebbles at him. This is also still commemorated by Muslims during Hajj.
+
+=='= Eid prayer
+
+The Eid prayer must be offered in congregation.  It consists of two Rakaah (units) with seven Takbirs in the first Raka'ah and five Takbirs in the second Raka'ah.
+
+The sacrifice of an animal, usually a cow, sheep or a goat, is a very important part of Eid. The act repeats what Ibrahim did, and also shows Muslims' devotion to God (Allah).
+
+Muslims celebrate by having a feast, and giving gifts to the poor. In some Muslim traditions gifts are also given to children. In Muslim countries the day is given as a national holiday.

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+Cancer is a type of disease where cells grow out of control, divide and invade other tissues.  In a person without cancer, cell division is under control. In most tissues, healthy cells divide in a controlled way and copy themselves to create new healthy cells.  With cancer, this normal process of cell division goes out of control. Cells change their nature because mutations have occurred in their genes. All the daughter cells of cancer cells are also cancerous.
+
+If the abnormal cells do not invade, but just divide and swell up their original tissue, this is not called "cancer". It is called a tumour. Tumours are usually not a threat to life because they can be cut out. However, some tumours occur in places where they cannot be cut out, and they can be fatal. Some brain tumours are of this type.
+
+The symptoms of cancer are caused by the cancerous cells invading other tissues. This is called metastasis. Metastasis is a process in which cancer cells move through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. When this happens, a person's cancer can be spread throughout his or her body. Eventually those other tissues cannot work as well, and the whole body begins to get worse, and may die.
+
+Cancer can affect anybody at any age. Most types of cancer are more likely to affect people as they get older. This is because as a person's DNA gets older, their DNA may become damaged, or damage that happened in the past may get worse.  One type of cancer that is more common in young men, rather than older people, is testicular cancer (cancer of the testicles).
+
+Cancer is one of the biggest and most researched causes of death in developed countries.
+
+Cancer is one of the most common causes of death around the world. It causes about 12.5% (or one out of every eight) of all deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization.
+
+Different types of cancer have different causes.  Some things are known to cause cancer in a specific body part; other things are known to be able to cause many different types of cancer. For example, using tobacco (smoked or smokeless) can cause many types of cancers, such as lung, mouth, tongue, and throat cancers.[1] Other things that are known to be able to cause cancer - or make a person more likely to get cancer - include: radiation including sunlight and X-rays in large or many doses, and exposure to radiation (for example in a nuclear power plant); chemicals and materials used in building and manufacturing (for example, asbestos and benzene); high-fat or low-fiber diets; air and water pollution; eating very little fruits and vegetables; obesity; not enough physical activity; drinking too much alcohol; and certain chemicals commonly used at home. Some cancers can also be caused by viruses.  Many people who are exposed to these things do get cancer - but some do not.
+
+There are many different kinds of cancers. Some of the most common are:
+
+There is no sure cure for cancer. It can only be cured if all of the cancerous cells are cut out or killed in place. This means that the earlier the cancer is treated, the better the chances are for a cure (because the cancer cells may not have had enough time to copy themselves and spread so much that the person cannot be cured).
+
+There are a few different types of treatments that are used to try to kill cancer cells.  These treatments are:
+
+There are a few reasons why treating cancer is complicated.  For example:
+
+Many, many people in many countries study cancer and work on finding treatments. There has been some good progress in finding treatments, and many cancers are treated with success. Along with looking for different medical treatments to treat cancer, some studies also look for things that people with cancer can do themselves to try to make themselves healthier. For example, one study showed that if a person with lymphedema (a swelling of the arm linked to breast cancer) lifts weights, he may be able to fight his cancer better than somebody who does not lift weights.
+
+Cancer has been around for many thousands of years.  Today, a lot of the medical terms used to describe cancer come from ancient Greek and Latin.  For example, the Latinized Greek word carcinoma is used to describe a malignant tumor - a tumor made up of cancer cells. The Greeks also used the word "karkinos", which would be translated by Aulus Cornelius Celsus into the Latin word cancer. The prefix 'carcino' is still used in medical words like carcinoma and carcinogenic. A famous Greek doctor, Galen, helped create another word that is very important to medicine today by using the word "onkos" to describe all tumours. This is where the word oncology, the branch of medicine that deals with cancer, comes from.[3]
+
+Hippocrates (a very famous ancient doctor who is often called the father of modern medicine) named many kinds of cancer. He called benign tumours (tumors that are not made up of cancer cells) oncos. In Greek, onkos means 'swelling'. He called malignant tumours karkinos. This means crab or crayfish in Greek. He used this term because he thought that if a solid malignant tumor was cut into, its veins looked like a crab: "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives (gets) its name".[4] Hippocrates later added -oma (Greek for 'swelling') after the word 'carcinos'. This is how the word carcinoma came about.
+
+Because the ancient Greeks did not believe in opening up dead bodies to study them, Hippocrates was only able to describe and make drawings of tumors he saw from the outside of the body. He drew tumors that had been on the skin, nose, and breasts.
+
+Hippocrates and other doctors at that time treated people based on the humor theory. This theory said that there were four types of fluid in the body (black, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). Doctors tried to figure out whether these four "humors" (or body fluids) were in balance. They would then use treatments like blood-letting (cutting the patient and letting him bleed so that he would lose blood); laxatives (giving the patient foods or herbs to make him go to the bathroom), and/or changing the patient's diet. The doctors thought that these treatments would work to get the patient's four humors back into the right balance. The humor theory treatment was popular until the 19th century (the 1800s), when cells were discovered. By this time, people had realized that cancer can happen anywhere in the body.
+
+The oldest known document that talks about cancer was discovered in Egypt and is thought to be from about 1600 B.C. The document talks about using surgery to treat eight cases of ulcers of the breast. These were treated by cauterization - by burning them - using a tool called "the fire drill". The document also says about cancer, "There is no treatment".[5]
+
+Another very early type of surgery used to treat cancer was written about in the 1020s.  In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) said that treatment should involve cutting out all diseased tissue.  This included the use of amputation (removing a part of the body completely) or removing veins that ran in the direction of the tumor. Avicenna also suggested that the area that had been treated should be cauterized (or burned) if needed.[6]
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries (the 1500s and 1600s), doctors started to be allowed to dissect bodies (or cut them open after death) in order to figure out the cause of death. Around this time, there were many different ideas about what caused cancer. The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a clot of milk in the part of a woman's breast that produces milk. The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius believed that all disease was caused by chemical processes. He thought that cancer, in particular, was caused by acidic lymph. Nicolaes Tulp, who lived at the same time as Sylvius, believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads and was contagious.[7]
+
+A British surgeon named Percivall Pott was the first person to figure out one of the real causes of cancer. In 1775, he discovered that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps (people who cleaned out chimneys). Other doctors started studying this topic and coming up with other ideas about what causes cancer. Doctors then started working together and coming up with better ideas.
+
+In the 18th century (the 1700s), many people started to use the microscope, and this made a big difference in helping doctors and scientists understand more about cancer. Using the microscope, scientists were able to see that the 'cancer poison' spread from one tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis"). This was first made clear by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan, between 1871 and 1874.[8]
+
+Before the 19th century (the 1800s), using surgery to treat cancer usually had bad results. Doctors did not understand how important hygiene (or keeping things clean) is for preventing disease, especially after surgery. Because things were not kept clean during or after surgery, patients often got infections and died. For example, one well-known Scottish surgeon, Alexander Monro, kept records and found that 58 patients out of every 60 who had surgery for breast tumors died within the next two years.
+
+In the 19th century, surgical hygiene got better because of asepsis. Doctors realized that dirtiness and germs cause infections, so they started to keep things cleaner and do things to kill germs in order to prevent their patients from getting infections. It became more common for people to survive after having surgery. Surgical removal of the tumor (taking the tumor out of the body by doing surgery) became the first-choice treatment for cancer. For this kind of treatment to work, the surgeon doing the operation had to be very good at removing tumors. (This meant that even if people had the same kind of cancer, they could get very different results, with some getting good treatment that worked and others getting treatment that did not work, because of differences in how good different surgeons were.)
+
+In the late 1800s, doctors and scientists started to realize that the body is made up of many kinds of tissues, which in turn are made up of millions of cells. The discovery started the age of cellular pathology (studying cells to learn about diseases and figure out what is wrong with the body).
+
+In the 1890s, French scientists discovered radioactive decay.  Radiation therapy became the first cancer treatment that worked and did not involve surgery.  It required a new multi-disciplinary approach to cancer treatment (people doing different jobs were working together to treat patients).  The surgeon was no longer working by himself - he worked together with hospital radiologists (people who gave and read X-rays) to help patients.  This team approach meant changes in how they worked.  The different people on the team had to communicate with each other and work together, which they were not used to doing.  It also meant that treatment had to be done in a hospital rather than at the patient's home.  Because of this, patients' information had to be put together into files kept at the hospital (called "medical records"). Because this information was now being kept and written down, scientists were able to do the first statistical patient studies using numbers to study questions like how many people who have a certain type of cancer or get a certain treatment survive.
+
+Another important step forward in understanding cancer happened in 1926, when Janet Lane-Claypon published a paper on cancer epidemiology. (Epidemiology is a field of study which looks at how common a disease is, what patterns the disease takes in different kinds of people, and what this means for understanding and treating the disease.) This historic paper was a comparative study, which tries to find out what causes a disease by looking at a group of people who have the disease and figuring out how they are different from another group that does not have the disease. Lane-Clayton's study looked at 1000 people who all had the same background and lifestyle (or way of living): 500 people with breast cancer and 500 control patients (people without breast cancer). These people were the same in many ways, but some got breast cancer and some did not. To figure out what might be causing certain people to get breast cancer, the study looked at what was different about these people when they were compared to (or looked at alongside) the people who did not get cancer.
+
+Lane-Clayton's study was published by the British Ministry of Health. Her work on cancer epidemiology was continued by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill. They used the same ways of studying cancer as Lane-Clayton, but they looked at a different kind of cancer: lung cancer. In 1956, they published their results in a paper called "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking. A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" (also called the British doctors study). Later, Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), and started the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968. By using computers, this unit was able to do something new and very important: it brought together large amounts of cancer data (pieces of information about cancer). This way of studying cancer is very important to cancer epidemiology today, and it has also been very important in shaping what we now know about cancer and what the rules and laws about the disease and public health are today. Over the past 50 years, many different people have done a lot of work to collect data from different doctors, hospitals, areas, states, and even countries. This data is used to study whether different kinds of cancer are more or less common in different areas, environments (for example, in big cities compared to the countryside), or cultures. This helps people who study cancer to figure out what makes people more or less likely to get different kinds of cancer.
+
+Before World War II, doctors and hospitals were getting better at collecting (or getting and keeping) data about their patients who had cancer, but it was rare for this data to be shared with other doctors or hospitals. This changed after WWII, when medical research centers found out that different countries had very different number of cases of cancer. Because of this, many countries created national public health organizations (which studied public health issues in an entire country). These national public health organizations began to bring together health data from many different doctors and hospitals. This helped them figure out some of the reasons why cancer was so much more common in certain places. For example, in Japan, people studying cancer found out that people who had survived the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had bone marrow that was completely destroyed. This helped them realize that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, which was a very important step in figuring out that leukemia (a blood cancer) can be treated with bone marrow transplants.
+
+Since World War II, scientists have kept finding better cancer treatments. However, there are some things that still need to get better. For example, while there are good treatments for many kinds of cancer, there are still no treatments for certain kinds of cancer, or for some cancers once they progress (or get worse) to a certain stage of the disease. Also, the cancer treatments that do exist are not all standardized (there is not one agreed-upon way of giving every treatment which is used each time the treatment is given). Cancer treatments are also not available everywhere in the world.  People need to keep studying cancer epidemiology and forming international partnerships (where different countries work together) to find cures and make cancer treatments available everywhere.

ensimple/831.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+Cancer is a type of disease where cells grow out of control, divide and invade other tissues.  In a person without cancer, cell division is under control. In most tissues, healthy cells divide in a controlled way and copy themselves to create new healthy cells.  With cancer, this normal process of cell division goes out of control. Cells change their nature because mutations have occurred in their genes. All the daughter cells of cancer cells are also cancerous.
+
+If the abnormal cells do not invade, but just divide and swell up their original tissue, this is not called "cancer". It is called a tumour. Tumours are usually not a threat to life because they can be cut out. However, some tumours occur in places where they cannot be cut out, and they can be fatal. Some brain tumours are of this type.
+
+The symptoms of cancer are caused by the cancerous cells invading other tissues. This is called metastasis. Metastasis is a process in which cancer cells move through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. When this happens, a person's cancer can be spread throughout his or her body. Eventually those other tissues cannot work as well, and the whole body begins to get worse, and may die.
+
+Cancer can affect anybody at any age. Most types of cancer are more likely to affect people as they get older. This is because as a person's DNA gets older, their DNA may become damaged, or damage that happened in the past may get worse.  One type of cancer that is more common in young men, rather than older people, is testicular cancer (cancer of the testicles).
+
+Cancer is one of the biggest and most researched causes of death in developed countries.
+
+Cancer is one of the most common causes of death around the world. It causes about 12.5% (or one out of every eight) of all deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization.
+
+Different types of cancer have different causes.  Some things are known to cause cancer in a specific body part; other things are known to be able to cause many different types of cancer. For example, using tobacco (smoked or smokeless) can cause many types of cancers, such as lung, mouth, tongue, and throat cancers.[1] Other things that are known to be able to cause cancer - or make a person more likely to get cancer - include: radiation including sunlight and X-rays in large or many doses, and exposure to radiation (for example in a nuclear power plant); chemicals and materials used in building and manufacturing (for example, asbestos and benzene); high-fat or low-fiber diets; air and water pollution; eating very little fruits and vegetables; obesity; not enough physical activity; drinking too much alcohol; and certain chemicals commonly used at home. Some cancers can also be caused by viruses.  Many people who are exposed to these things do get cancer - but some do not.
+
+There are many different kinds of cancers. Some of the most common are:
+
+There is no sure cure for cancer. It can only be cured if all of the cancerous cells are cut out or killed in place. This means that the earlier the cancer is treated, the better the chances are for a cure (because the cancer cells may not have had enough time to copy themselves and spread so much that the person cannot be cured).
+
+There are a few different types of treatments that are used to try to kill cancer cells.  These treatments are:
+
+There are a few reasons why treating cancer is complicated.  For example:
+
+Many, many people in many countries study cancer and work on finding treatments. There has been some good progress in finding treatments, and many cancers are treated with success. Along with looking for different medical treatments to treat cancer, some studies also look for things that people with cancer can do themselves to try to make themselves healthier. For example, one study showed that if a person with lymphedema (a swelling of the arm linked to breast cancer) lifts weights, he may be able to fight his cancer better than somebody who does not lift weights.
+
+Cancer has been around for many thousands of years.  Today, a lot of the medical terms used to describe cancer come from ancient Greek and Latin.  For example, the Latinized Greek word carcinoma is used to describe a malignant tumor - a tumor made up of cancer cells. The Greeks also used the word "karkinos", which would be translated by Aulus Cornelius Celsus into the Latin word cancer. The prefix 'carcino' is still used in medical words like carcinoma and carcinogenic. A famous Greek doctor, Galen, helped create another word that is very important to medicine today by using the word "onkos" to describe all tumours. This is where the word oncology, the branch of medicine that deals with cancer, comes from.[3]
+
+Hippocrates (a very famous ancient doctor who is often called the father of modern medicine) named many kinds of cancer. He called benign tumours (tumors that are not made up of cancer cells) oncos. In Greek, onkos means 'swelling'. He called malignant tumours karkinos. This means crab or crayfish in Greek. He used this term because he thought that if a solid malignant tumor was cut into, its veins looked like a crab: "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives (gets) its name".[4] Hippocrates later added -oma (Greek for 'swelling') after the word 'carcinos'. This is how the word carcinoma came about.
+
+Because the ancient Greeks did not believe in opening up dead bodies to study them, Hippocrates was only able to describe and make drawings of tumors he saw from the outside of the body. He drew tumors that had been on the skin, nose, and breasts.
+
+Hippocrates and other doctors at that time treated people based on the humor theory. This theory said that there were four types of fluid in the body (black, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). Doctors tried to figure out whether these four "humors" (or body fluids) were in balance. They would then use treatments like blood-letting (cutting the patient and letting him bleed so that he would lose blood); laxatives (giving the patient foods or herbs to make him go to the bathroom), and/or changing the patient's diet. The doctors thought that these treatments would work to get the patient's four humors back into the right balance. The humor theory treatment was popular until the 19th century (the 1800s), when cells were discovered. By this time, people had realized that cancer can happen anywhere in the body.
+
+The oldest known document that talks about cancer was discovered in Egypt and is thought to be from about 1600 B.C. The document talks about using surgery to treat eight cases of ulcers of the breast. These were treated by cauterization - by burning them - using a tool called "the fire drill". The document also says about cancer, "There is no treatment".[5]
+
+Another very early type of surgery used to treat cancer was written about in the 1020s.  In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) said that treatment should involve cutting out all diseased tissue.  This included the use of amputation (removing a part of the body completely) or removing veins that ran in the direction of the tumor. Avicenna also suggested that the area that had been treated should be cauterized (or burned) if needed.[6]
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries (the 1500s and 1600s), doctors started to be allowed to dissect bodies (or cut them open after death) in order to figure out the cause of death. Around this time, there were many different ideas about what caused cancer. The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a clot of milk in the part of a woman's breast that produces milk. The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius believed that all disease was caused by chemical processes. He thought that cancer, in particular, was caused by acidic lymph. Nicolaes Tulp, who lived at the same time as Sylvius, believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads and was contagious.[7]
+
+A British surgeon named Percivall Pott was the first person to figure out one of the real causes of cancer. In 1775, he discovered that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps (people who cleaned out chimneys). Other doctors started studying this topic and coming up with other ideas about what causes cancer. Doctors then started working together and coming up with better ideas.
+
+In the 18th century (the 1700s), many people started to use the microscope, and this made a big difference in helping doctors and scientists understand more about cancer. Using the microscope, scientists were able to see that the 'cancer poison' spread from one tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis"). This was first made clear by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan, between 1871 and 1874.[8]
+
+Before the 19th century (the 1800s), using surgery to treat cancer usually had bad results. Doctors did not understand how important hygiene (or keeping things clean) is for preventing disease, especially after surgery. Because things were not kept clean during or after surgery, patients often got infections and died. For example, one well-known Scottish surgeon, Alexander Monro, kept records and found that 58 patients out of every 60 who had surgery for breast tumors died within the next two years.
+
+In the 19th century, surgical hygiene got better because of asepsis. Doctors realized that dirtiness and germs cause infections, so they started to keep things cleaner and do things to kill germs in order to prevent their patients from getting infections. It became more common for people to survive after having surgery. Surgical removal of the tumor (taking the tumor out of the body by doing surgery) became the first-choice treatment for cancer. For this kind of treatment to work, the surgeon doing the operation had to be very good at removing tumors. (This meant that even if people had the same kind of cancer, they could get very different results, with some getting good treatment that worked and others getting treatment that did not work, because of differences in how good different surgeons were.)
+
+In the late 1800s, doctors and scientists started to realize that the body is made up of many kinds of tissues, which in turn are made up of millions of cells. The discovery started the age of cellular pathology (studying cells to learn about diseases and figure out what is wrong with the body).
+
+In the 1890s, French scientists discovered radioactive decay.  Radiation therapy became the first cancer treatment that worked and did not involve surgery.  It required a new multi-disciplinary approach to cancer treatment (people doing different jobs were working together to treat patients).  The surgeon was no longer working by himself - he worked together with hospital radiologists (people who gave and read X-rays) to help patients.  This team approach meant changes in how they worked.  The different people on the team had to communicate with each other and work together, which they were not used to doing.  It also meant that treatment had to be done in a hospital rather than at the patient's home.  Because of this, patients' information had to be put together into files kept at the hospital (called "medical records"). Because this information was now being kept and written down, scientists were able to do the first statistical patient studies using numbers to study questions like how many people who have a certain type of cancer or get a certain treatment survive.
+
+Another important step forward in understanding cancer happened in 1926, when Janet Lane-Claypon published a paper on cancer epidemiology. (Epidemiology is a field of study which looks at how common a disease is, what patterns the disease takes in different kinds of people, and what this means for understanding and treating the disease.) This historic paper was a comparative study, which tries to find out what causes a disease by looking at a group of people who have the disease and figuring out how they are different from another group that does not have the disease. Lane-Clayton's study looked at 1000 people who all had the same background and lifestyle (or way of living): 500 people with breast cancer and 500 control patients (people without breast cancer). These people were the same in many ways, but some got breast cancer and some did not. To figure out what might be causing certain people to get breast cancer, the study looked at what was different about these people when they were compared to (or looked at alongside) the people who did not get cancer.
+
+Lane-Clayton's study was published by the British Ministry of Health. Her work on cancer epidemiology was continued by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill. They used the same ways of studying cancer as Lane-Clayton, but they looked at a different kind of cancer: lung cancer. In 1956, they published their results in a paper called "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking. A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" (also called the British doctors study). Later, Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), and started the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968. By using computers, this unit was able to do something new and very important: it brought together large amounts of cancer data (pieces of information about cancer). This way of studying cancer is very important to cancer epidemiology today, and it has also been very important in shaping what we now know about cancer and what the rules and laws about the disease and public health are today. Over the past 50 years, many different people have done a lot of work to collect data from different doctors, hospitals, areas, states, and even countries. This data is used to study whether different kinds of cancer are more or less common in different areas, environments (for example, in big cities compared to the countryside), or cultures. This helps people who study cancer to figure out what makes people more or less likely to get different kinds of cancer.
+
+Before World War II, doctors and hospitals were getting better at collecting (or getting and keeping) data about their patients who had cancer, but it was rare for this data to be shared with other doctors or hospitals. This changed after WWII, when medical research centers found out that different countries had very different number of cases of cancer. Because of this, many countries created national public health organizations (which studied public health issues in an entire country). These national public health organizations began to bring together health data from many different doctors and hospitals. This helped them figure out some of the reasons why cancer was so much more common in certain places. For example, in Japan, people studying cancer found out that people who had survived the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had bone marrow that was completely destroyed. This helped them realize that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, which was a very important step in figuring out that leukemia (a blood cancer) can be treated with bone marrow transplants.
+
+Since World War II, scientists have kept finding better cancer treatments. However, there are some things that still need to get better. For example, while there are good treatments for many kinds of cancer, there are still no treatments for certain kinds of cancer, or for some cancers once they progress (or get worse) to a certain stage of the disease. Also, the cancer treatments that do exist are not all standardized (there is not one agreed-upon way of giving every treatment which is used each time the treatment is given). Cancer treatments are also not available everywhere in the world.  People need to keep studying cancer epidemiology and forming international partnerships (where different countries work together) to find cures and make cancer treatments available everywhere.

ensimple/832.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+Cancer is a type of disease where cells grow out of control, divide and invade other tissues.  In a person without cancer, cell division is under control. In most tissues, healthy cells divide in a controlled way and copy themselves to create new healthy cells.  With cancer, this normal process of cell division goes out of control. Cells change their nature because mutations have occurred in their genes. All the daughter cells of cancer cells are also cancerous.
+
+If the abnormal cells do not invade, but just divide and swell up their original tissue, this is not called "cancer". It is called a tumour. Tumours are usually not a threat to life because they can be cut out. However, some tumours occur in places where they cannot be cut out, and they can be fatal. Some brain tumours are of this type.
+
+The symptoms of cancer are caused by the cancerous cells invading other tissues. This is called metastasis. Metastasis is a process in which cancer cells move through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. When this happens, a person's cancer can be spread throughout his or her body. Eventually those other tissues cannot work as well, and the whole body begins to get worse, and may die.
+
+Cancer can affect anybody at any age. Most types of cancer are more likely to affect people as they get older. This is because as a person's DNA gets older, their DNA may become damaged, or damage that happened in the past may get worse.  One type of cancer that is more common in young men, rather than older people, is testicular cancer (cancer of the testicles).
+
+Cancer is one of the biggest and most researched causes of death in developed countries.
+
+Cancer is one of the most common causes of death around the world. It causes about 12.5% (or one out of every eight) of all deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization.
+
+Different types of cancer have different causes.  Some things are known to cause cancer in a specific body part; other things are known to be able to cause many different types of cancer. For example, using tobacco (smoked or smokeless) can cause many types of cancers, such as lung, mouth, tongue, and throat cancers.[1] Other things that are known to be able to cause cancer - or make a person more likely to get cancer - include: radiation including sunlight and X-rays in large or many doses, and exposure to radiation (for example in a nuclear power plant); chemicals and materials used in building and manufacturing (for example, asbestos and benzene); high-fat or low-fiber diets; air and water pollution; eating very little fruits and vegetables; obesity; not enough physical activity; drinking too much alcohol; and certain chemicals commonly used at home. Some cancers can also be caused by viruses.  Many people who are exposed to these things do get cancer - but some do not.
+
+There are many different kinds of cancers. Some of the most common are:
+
+There is no sure cure for cancer. It can only be cured if all of the cancerous cells are cut out or killed in place. This means that the earlier the cancer is treated, the better the chances are for a cure (because the cancer cells may not have had enough time to copy themselves and spread so much that the person cannot be cured).
+
+There are a few different types of treatments that are used to try to kill cancer cells.  These treatments are:
+
+There are a few reasons why treating cancer is complicated.  For example:
+
+Many, many people in many countries study cancer and work on finding treatments. There has been some good progress in finding treatments, and many cancers are treated with success. Along with looking for different medical treatments to treat cancer, some studies also look for things that people with cancer can do themselves to try to make themselves healthier. For example, one study showed that if a person with lymphedema (a swelling of the arm linked to breast cancer) lifts weights, he may be able to fight his cancer better than somebody who does not lift weights.
+
+Cancer has been around for many thousands of years.  Today, a lot of the medical terms used to describe cancer come from ancient Greek and Latin.  For example, the Latinized Greek word carcinoma is used to describe a malignant tumor - a tumor made up of cancer cells. The Greeks also used the word "karkinos", which would be translated by Aulus Cornelius Celsus into the Latin word cancer. The prefix 'carcino' is still used in medical words like carcinoma and carcinogenic. A famous Greek doctor, Galen, helped create another word that is very important to medicine today by using the word "onkos" to describe all tumours. This is where the word oncology, the branch of medicine that deals with cancer, comes from.[3]
+
+Hippocrates (a very famous ancient doctor who is often called the father of modern medicine) named many kinds of cancer. He called benign tumours (tumors that are not made up of cancer cells) oncos. In Greek, onkos means 'swelling'. He called malignant tumours karkinos. This means crab or crayfish in Greek. He used this term because he thought that if a solid malignant tumor was cut into, its veins looked like a crab: "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives (gets) its name".[4] Hippocrates later added -oma (Greek for 'swelling') after the word 'carcinos'. This is how the word carcinoma came about.
+
+Because the ancient Greeks did not believe in opening up dead bodies to study them, Hippocrates was only able to describe and make drawings of tumors he saw from the outside of the body. He drew tumors that had been on the skin, nose, and breasts.
+
+Hippocrates and other doctors at that time treated people based on the humor theory. This theory said that there were four types of fluid in the body (black, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). Doctors tried to figure out whether these four "humors" (or body fluids) were in balance. They would then use treatments like blood-letting (cutting the patient and letting him bleed so that he would lose blood); laxatives (giving the patient foods or herbs to make him go to the bathroom), and/or changing the patient's diet. The doctors thought that these treatments would work to get the patient's four humors back into the right balance. The humor theory treatment was popular until the 19th century (the 1800s), when cells were discovered. By this time, people had realized that cancer can happen anywhere in the body.
+
+The oldest known document that talks about cancer was discovered in Egypt and is thought to be from about 1600 B.C. The document talks about using surgery to treat eight cases of ulcers of the breast. These were treated by cauterization - by burning them - using a tool called "the fire drill". The document also says about cancer, "There is no treatment".[5]
+
+Another very early type of surgery used to treat cancer was written about in the 1020s.  In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) said that treatment should involve cutting out all diseased tissue.  This included the use of amputation (removing a part of the body completely) or removing veins that ran in the direction of the tumor. Avicenna also suggested that the area that had been treated should be cauterized (or burned) if needed.[6]
+
+In the 16th and 17th centuries (the 1500s and 1600s), doctors started to be allowed to dissect bodies (or cut them open after death) in order to figure out the cause of death. Around this time, there were many different ideas about what caused cancer. The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a clot of milk in the part of a woman's breast that produces milk. The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius believed that all disease was caused by chemical processes. He thought that cancer, in particular, was caused by acidic lymph. Nicolaes Tulp, who lived at the same time as Sylvius, believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads and was contagious.[7]
+
+A British surgeon named Percivall Pott was the first person to figure out one of the real causes of cancer. In 1775, he discovered that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps (people who cleaned out chimneys). Other doctors started studying this topic and coming up with other ideas about what causes cancer. Doctors then started working together and coming up with better ideas.
+
+In the 18th century (the 1700s), many people started to use the microscope, and this made a big difference in helping doctors and scientists understand more about cancer. Using the microscope, scientists were able to see that the 'cancer poison' spread from one tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis"). This was first made clear by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan, between 1871 and 1874.[8]
+
+Before the 19th century (the 1800s), using surgery to treat cancer usually had bad results. Doctors did not understand how important hygiene (or keeping things clean) is for preventing disease, especially after surgery. Because things were not kept clean during or after surgery, patients often got infections and died. For example, one well-known Scottish surgeon, Alexander Monro, kept records and found that 58 patients out of every 60 who had surgery for breast tumors died within the next two years.
+
+In the 19th century, surgical hygiene got better because of asepsis. Doctors realized that dirtiness and germs cause infections, so they started to keep things cleaner and do things to kill germs in order to prevent their patients from getting infections. It became more common for people to survive after having surgery. Surgical removal of the tumor (taking the tumor out of the body by doing surgery) became the first-choice treatment for cancer. For this kind of treatment to work, the surgeon doing the operation had to be very good at removing tumors. (This meant that even if people had the same kind of cancer, they could get very different results, with some getting good treatment that worked and others getting treatment that did not work, because of differences in how good different surgeons were.)
+
+In the late 1800s, doctors and scientists started to realize that the body is made up of many kinds of tissues, which in turn are made up of millions of cells. The discovery started the age of cellular pathology (studying cells to learn about diseases and figure out what is wrong with the body).
+
+In the 1890s, French scientists discovered radioactive decay.  Radiation therapy became the first cancer treatment that worked and did not involve surgery.  It required a new multi-disciplinary approach to cancer treatment (people doing different jobs were working together to treat patients).  The surgeon was no longer working by himself - he worked together with hospital radiologists (people who gave and read X-rays) to help patients.  This team approach meant changes in how they worked.  The different people on the team had to communicate with each other and work together, which they were not used to doing.  It also meant that treatment had to be done in a hospital rather than at the patient's home.  Because of this, patients' information had to be put together into files kept at the hospital (called "medical records"). Because this information was now being kept and written down, scientists were able to do the first statistical patient studies using numbers to study questions like how many people who have a certain type of cancer or get a certain treatment survive.
+
+Another important step forward in understanding cancer happened in 1926, when Janet Lane-Claypon published a paper on cancer epidemiology. (Epidemiology is a field of study which looks at how common a disease is, what patterns the disease takes in different kinds of people, and what this means for understanding and treating the disease.) This historic paper was a comparative study, which tries to find out what causes a disease by looking at a group of people who have the disease and figuring out how they are different from another group that does not have the disease. Lane-Clayton's study looked at 1000 people who all had the same background and lifestyle (or way of living): 500 people with breast cancer and 500 control patients (people without breast cancer). These people were the same in many ways, but some got breast cancer and some did not. To figure out what might be causing certain people to get breast cancer, the study looked at what was different about these people when they were compared to (or looked at alongside) the people who did not get cancer.
+
+Lane-Clayton's study was published by the British Ministry of Health. Her work on cancer epidemiology was continued by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill. They used the same ways of studying cancer as Lane-Clayton, but they looked at a different kind of cancer: lung cancer. In 1956, they published their results in a paper called "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking. A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" (also called the British doctors study). Later, Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), and started the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968. By using computers, this unit was able to do something new and very important: it brought together large amounts of cancer data (pieces of information about cancer). This way of studying cancer is very important to cancer epidemiology today, and it has also been very important in shaping what we now know about cancer and what the rules and laws about the disease and public health are today. Over the past 50 years, many different people have done a lot of work to collect data from different doctors, hospitals, areas, states, and even countries. This data is used to study whether different kinds of cancer are more or less common in different areas, environments (for example, in big cities compared to the countryside), or cultures. This helps people who study cancer to figure out what makes people more or less likely to get different kinds of cancer.
+
+Before World War II, doctors and hospitals were getting better at collecting (or getting and keeping) data about their patients who had cancer, but it was rare for this data to be shared with other doctors or hospitals. This changed after WWII, when medical research centers found out that different countries had very different number of cases of cancer. Because of this, many countries created national public health organizations (which studied public health issues in an entire country). These national public health organizations began to bring together health data from many different doctors and hospitals. This helped them figure out some of the reasons why cancer was so much more common in certain places. For example, in Japan, people studying cancer found out that people who had survived the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had bone marrow that was completely destroyed. This helped them realize that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, which was a very important step in figuring out that leukemia (a blood cancer) can be treated with bone marrow transplants.
+
+Since World War II, scientists have kept finding better cancer treatments. However, there are some things that still need to get better. For example, while there are good treatments for many kinds of cancer, there are still no treatments for certain kinds of cancer, or for some cancers once they progress (or get worse) to a certain stage of the disease. Also, the cancer treatments that do exist are not all standardized (there is not one agreed-upon way of giving every treatment which is used each time the treatment is given). Cancer treatments are also not available everywhere in the world.  People need to keep studying cancer epidemiology and forming international partnerships (where different countries work together) to find cures and make cancer treatments available everywhere.

ensimple/833.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+A knife is a metal tool with a sharpened metal blade that is used to cut all sorts of things. The plural form of "knife" is "knives."
+
+There are many kinds of knives, depending what is to be cut. With the right knife, the cuts you want to make will happen faster and more easily. With the wrong kind of knife, it will take more effort to perform the same amount of work. When a knife is too small to cut something, a saw, axe, or power tool may be needed.
+
+Carrying knives is illegal in many countries, especially if the blade is longer than several inches. Another type of knife which is illegal in many places is the "switchblade," a knife that has a button which when pressed activates a spring to open the knife.

ensimple/834.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A tooth is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. Teeth (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. Chew means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach).
+
+Most vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth.[1] Human children usually have 20 teeth.[1]
+
+Some human babies are born with teeth. Natal teeth are teeth that are present at birth.[2] These are different from neonatal teeth which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life.[2] Natal teeth are not common. They occur in about 1 out of every 2–3 thousand births.[2] They are usually found on the lower jaw. Natal teeth are usually not well attached and may easily wobble.[2]
+
+Deciduous teeth or milk teeth or temporary teeth are the first set of teeth for most mammals.  Humans have 20 of them.[1] The first teeth (called "primary teeth") start to erupt (come through the gums of the jaw) when a baby is about 6 months old.[1] When these teeth erupt it can really hurt. Babies chew on things to make the pain better. This is called teething (verb: to teethe). Most children have all 20 teeth by two or three years of age.
+
+At age 6–7 the permanent teeth start to erupt. By the age of 11–12 most children have 28 adult teeth. The last four teeth, called 'wisdom teeth' or third molars come in by age 17–21 in most people. Some people never grow wisdom teeth. Or they may have only two instead of four.
+
+The outside white part of teeth is called the enamel. The enamel is made of calcium phosphate and is very hard. Under the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is softer than the hard enamel. So it is hurt more by tooth decay (cavities). Under the dentine is the pulp which has the nerves and blood vessels that go to the tooth. This is the part that causes the pain of a toothache. Cementum is outside the dentine where there is no enamel. Cementum holds the tooth to the bone of the jaw.
+
+If they are protected and kept clean, teeth should stay for a person's whole life. Many people lose their teeth early because they do not do the right things to keep teeth healthy.
+
+Some things people can do to keep teeth healthy:
+
+Plaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums).  Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.
+
+Plaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off.
+
+The bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.

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+
+
+Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758[3][4]
+
+Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are domesticated mammals, not natural wild animals. They were originally bred from wolves. They have been bred by humans for a long time, and were the first animals ever to be domesticated. There are different studies that suggest that this happened between 15.000 and 100.000 years before our time. The dingo is also a dog, but many dingos have become wild animals again and live independently of humans in the range where they occur (parts of Australia).
+
+Today,  some dogs are used as pets, others are used to help humans do their work. They are a popular pet because they are usually playful, friendly, loyal and listen to humans. Thirty million dogs in the United States are registered as pets.[5] Dogs eat both meat and vegetables, often mixed together and sold in stores as dog food. Dogs often have jobs, including as police dogs, army dogs, assistance dogs, fire dogs, messenger dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, or rescue dogs.
+
+They are sometimes called "canines" from the Latin word for dog - canis. Sometimes people also use "dog" to describe other canids, such as wolves. A baby dog is called a pup or puppy. A dog is called a puppy until it is about one year old.
+
+Dogs are sometimes referred to as "man's best friend" because they are kept as domestic pets and are usually loyal and like being around humans.  Dogs like to be petted, but only when they can first see the petter's hand before petting; one should never pet a dog from behind.
+
+August 26 is National Dog Day.[6] While March 26 is National Puppy Day.[7]
+
+Dogs have four legs and make a "bark," "woof," or "arf" sound. Dogs often chase cats, and most dogs will fetch a ball or stick.
+
+Dogs can smell and hear better than humans, but cannot see well in color because they are color blind. Due to the anatomy of the eye, dogs can see better in dim light than humans. They also have a wider field of vision.
+
+Like wolves, wild dogs travel in groups called packs. Packs of dogs are ordered by rank, and dogs with low rank will submit to other dogs with higher rank. The highest ranked dog is called the alpha male. A dog in a group helps and cares for others. Domesticated dogs often view their owner as the alpha male.[8]
+
+Different dog breeds have different lifespans. In general, smaller dogs live longer than bigger ones.[9] The size and the breed of the dog change how long the dog lives, on average. Breeds such as the Dachshund usually live for fifteen years, Chihuahuas can reach age twenty. The Great Dane, on the other hand has an average lifespan of six to eight years; some Great Danes have lived for ten years.
+
+All dogs are descended from wolves, by domestication and artificial selection. This is known because DNA genome analysis has been done to discover this.[10][11] They have been bred by humans. The earliest known fossil of a domestic dog is from 31,700 years ago in Belgium.[12] Dogs have lived with people for at least 30,000 years. In 2013, a study was published that showed that the skull and teeth of a canid, dated to 33,000 years ago, had characteristics closer to a dog than to a wolf, and the authors conclude that "this specimen may represent a dog in the very early stages of domestication, i.e. an “incipient” dog."  The researchers go on to suggest that it was, however, a line that did not lead to modern dogs.[13] Genetically, this material is closer to that of a modern dog than to that of a wolf.[14] Other signs of domestication are that sometimes, dogs were buried together with humans.[15] Evidence of this is a tomb in Bonn, where a man of about 50 years of age, a woman of about 25 years of age, the remains of a dog, plus other artifacts were found. Radiocarbon dating showed that the human bones were between 13.300 and 14.000 years old.
+
+Dogs are often called "man's best friend" because they fit in with human life. Man refers to humankind and not just guys (Old English). Dogs can serve people in many ways. For example, there are guard dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, guide dogs for blind people, and police dogs. There are also dogs that are trained to smell for diseases in the human body or to find bombs or illegal drugs. These dogs sometimes help police in airports or other areas. Sniffer dogs (usually beagles) are sometimes trained for this job. Dogs have even been sent by Russians into outer space, a few years before any human being. The first dog sent up was named Laika, but she died within a few hours.
+
+A search and rescue dog searches for victims in the debris of a collapsed building in Tehran
+
+Dog herding sheep
+
+A guide dog
+
+Many dogs are used for hunting
+
+Guard dogs in Cameroon
+
+There are at least 800 breeds (kinds) of dogs. Dogs whose parents were the same breed will also be that breed: these dogs are called purebred or pure pedigree dogs. Dogs with parents from different breeds no longer belong to one breed: they are called mutts, mixed-breed dogs, hybrids, or mongrels. Some of the most popular breeds are sheepdogs, collies, poodles and retrievers. It is becoming popular to breed together two different breeds of dogs and call the new dog's breed a name that is a mixture of the parents' breeds' two names. A puppy with a poodle and a pomeranian as parents might be called a Pomapoo. These kinds of dogs, instead of being called mutts, are known as designer dog breeds. These dogs are normally used for prize shows and designer shows.
+They can be guide dogs.
+
+Golden Retriever
+
+Boxer
+
+Dobermann
+
+Dalmatian
+
+Briard
+
+Scottish Terrier
+
+Maltese
+
+Dachshund
+
+German Shepherd
+
+Pug

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+The wolf (Canis lupus) is a mammal of the order Carnivora. It is sometimes called timber wolf or grey wolf.
+
+It is the ancestor of the domestic dog. A recent study found that the domestic dog is descended from wolves tamed less than 16,300 years ago south of the Yangtze River in China.[2]
+
+There are many different wolf subspecies, such as the Arctic wolf. Some subspecies are listed on the endangered species list, but overall, Canis lupus is IUCN graded as 'least concern'.
+
+Adult wolves are usually 1.4 to 1.8 metres (4.6 to 5.9 ft) in length from nose to tail depending on the subspecies.[3] Wolves living in the far north tend to be larger than those living further south.[4][5] As adults they may weigh typically between 23 to 50 kilograms (51 to 110 lb).[3] The heaviest wolf recorded weighed 86 kilograms (190 lb).[6]
+
+The wolf has a long muzzle, short ears, long legs, and a long bushy tail.
+
+Wolves usually measure 26–38 inches at the shoulder. Wolves have fur made up of two layers. The top layer is resistant to dirt, and the under-layer is water resistant. The color of their fur can be any combination of grey, white, taupe, brown, and black.
+
+Wolves live in groups called "packs". They are pack hunters. The members of the pack are usually family members, often just the parents and offspring. Wolves that are not family may join if they do not have a pack of their own. Packs are usually up to 12 wolves, but they can be as small as two or as large as 25. The leaders are called the parent (breeding) male and the parent (breeding) female. Their territory is marked by scent and howling; they will fight any intruders. Young wolves are called 'pups' or 'whelps'. Adult females usually give birth to five or six pups in a litter.
+
+Wolves make a noise called a howl. They howl to communicate with each other from long distances and to mark the edges of their territory. Wolves have a complicated body language.
+
+Wolves can run very fast and far. A wolf can run 20–30 miles in a day.
+
+Grey wolves can live six to eight years. They can live in captivity for up to 17 years.
+
+Wolves are carnivores and eat mostly medium to large size hoofed animals (unguligrades), but they will also eat rodents, insectivores and foxes. Some wolves have been seen eating salmon, seals, beached whales, lizards, snakes and birds. They also eat moose, bison, deer and other large animals.
+Wolves usually stalk old or sick animals, but they do not always catch what they stalk. They may go days without food. Sometimes only one out of twelve hunts are successful. But the way they eat stays the same. The alpha male and female feed first. Then the other members feed. Sometimes (especially if the prey they have killed is large) wolves may store food and come back that day to feed on it. Wolves have very sharp teeth which helps them tear large chunks of meat from a dead animal. They will eat up to 2/7 their body weight. Wolves will also swallow food and then bring it back up for pups to eat.
+
+Wolves are found in Europe, Asia and North America. They can live in forests, deserts, mountains, tundra, grasslands and sometimes around towns and cities.
+
+The Arctic wolf may be a subspecies of the grey wolf. They live in the Canadian part of the Arctic Circle, as well as Greenland and Iceland.
+
+The habitat of Arctic wolves is very hostile. Not much is known about their lifestyle. They are more friendly than other wolves, but they can still be very aggressive.
+
+Their winter fur is highly resistant to the cold. Wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at −40 °C (−40 °F) by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail. Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur, and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it. Since about 1930, the skull of many Arctic wolves has become smaller. This might be because of hybridization between wolves and dogs.[7] They are 3 feet (0.91 m) tall when they're adults. Adult arctic wolves weigh about 75 to 120 pounds (34 to 54 kg). Arctic wolves live in a group of 7-20 wolves. They may live up to 5–10 years in the wild. They can live for 14 years if they are well cared for in a zoo.
+
+Even though many people think that wolves are terrible, mean creatures, they are actually much gentler than many people imagine. The main reason wolves become violent is because they may be sick or to protect other wolves in the pack. Many people around the world, especially in Canada and Alaska, have huskies for pets: they are a close relative of the wolf.
+
+A few years ago wolves were put back into Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming to breed, because they were becoming endangered. The wolves have been very successful in the park. There had been no wolves there for a long time, because of hunting and poisoned water. Many people were not happy about this because they were afraid that the wolves would eat the sheep and cows near the park. However, wolves only eat livestock when they can not find wild prey.
+
+Wolves in Britain were all killed after centuries of hunting. The last wolves survived in the Scottish Highlands. There is a legend that the last one was killed there in 1743 by a character called MacQueen.
+
+Within the past ten years, there have been studies that are in favour of allowing new wolves to come and live in the English countryside and Scottish Highlands again. One study was in 2007. Researchers from Norway, Britain, and Imperial College London decided that wolves would help add back plants and birds that now are eaten by deer. The wolves would keep the deer population lower. People were generally positive, but farmers living in rural areas wanted to be paid for livestock that were killed by the wolves.[8]
+
+Media related to Canis lupus at Wikimedia Commons