19d9d50b1d145ac113e0fb8cebdd31a27d31a1d818a0bad3f9ab1384835b13c1

ensimple/5981.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+
+
+in ASEAN  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam) is a country in Southeast Asia. The long-form name of the country is the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The neighboring countries of Vietnam are China, Laos and Cambodia. Vietnam is one of five remaining countries that believe in communism. The capital of Vietnam is Hanoi. The biggest city is Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon). There are about 94,444,200 people living in Vietnam.
+
+After the Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French colonial rule during the First Indochina War between the Viet Minh and the French in 2 September 1945. Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France under the new name of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, but was fought by French colonialists. In 1954, the Vietnamese declared victory in Dien Bien Phu which took place between March and May 1954 and culminated in a major French defeat. Then Vietnam was divided into two political states, North Vietnam (officially the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and South Vietnam (officially the Republic of Vietnam). Conflicts between the two sides intensified in the so-called Vietnam War with strong influence from the US in South Vietnam. The war ended in 1975 with a North Vietnamese victory.
+
+Vietnam was then united under a communist government. In 1986, the government launched a number of economic and political reforms that began Vietnam's path to integration into the world economy.[10] By 2000, it had established diplomatic relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnam's economic growth has been among the highest in the world,[10] and in 2011 it had the highest global growth generator index among 11 major economies.[11] Its successful economic reforms resulted in its becoming a member of the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of economic cooperation between Asia and the Pacific and the International de la Francophonie Organization.
+
+In Vietnam, the approximate population is 97,094,658.[13] 25.2% of these people are aged between 0-14, with 11,954,354 being male and 10,868,610 being female. 69.3% of the population are between the ages of 15-64. The male-to-female ratio is almost evenly split, with 31,301,879 being male and 31,419,306 being female. 5.5% are 65 and over, with 1,921,652 being male and 3,092,589 being female. So within the older two categories, there are more women than men.[14] 
+The population is not from one origin. There are many ethnic tribes that developed in the history of Vietnam. This makes Vietnam's history and culture very diverse. It's not the same as a country where every family landed on the country's shores in the same century. French and Chinese colonization didn't involve an excessive migration of people to Vietnam. 
+Nowadays, the blend of cultures has been increasing with the influence of globalization and world interest. Many Vietnamese that have been living overseas are described as the Viet Kieu. The population has several communities in many countries around the world.
+
+The length of the country, from North to South, is 1,650 kilometers (1,025 miles).[15] "At its narrowest point, Vietnam is only 30 miles (48 kilometers) wide".[16]
+
+The country is covered in rainforests that are currently going through rapid deforestation. It borders the South China Sea to the east, Laos and Cambodia to the west, and China to the north. The country is slightly larger than Malaysia.The country is slightly smaller than Japan
+
+Vietnam's history has long been characterized by the neighborhood of China in the north. For about 1,000 years, northern Vietnam belonged to China, but from 938 the country became independent and later expanded southward at the expense of the Champa kingdom. In the 19th century the country was colonized by France and during the Second World War, the country was occupied by Japan. After this war, the colonial empire did not have the resources to restore the regime and lost the military battle against the liberation forces. This led to the division of the country, which in turn led to the Vietnam War with major human and material losses for the country. The war ended on 30 April 1975 by the fact that North Vietnam took the southern part. After experimental planning in the 1970s and 1980s, the economy was reformed in a market economy direction.
+
+About 5000 years ago, the two ethnic tribes of the Lac Viet and Au Viet lived together in many areas with other inhabitants. Due to increasing needs to control floods, fights against invaders, and culture and trade exchanges, these tribes living near each other tended to gather together and integrate into a larger mixed group.
+
+Among these Lac Viet tribes was the Van Lang, which was the most powerful tribe. The leader of this tribe later joined all the tribes together to found Van Lang Nation in 2897 BC, addressing himself as the King Hung. The next generations followed in their father's footsteps and kept this appellation. Based on historical documents, researchers correlatively delineated the location of Van Lang Nation to the present day regions of North and north of Central Vietnam, as well as the south of present-day Kwangsi (China). The Van Lang Nation lasted to the 3rd century B.C.
+
+Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 1st and 7th centuries.
+
+The Dong Son civilization that covered much of Southeast Asia was also the beginning of Vietnam's history. In 221 BC, the Qins invaded the land of the Viet tribes. Thuc Phan, leader of the alliance of Au-Viet tribes managed to expel the enemies and declared himself King An Duong Vuong and his territory Au Lac Nation (257-207 BC). In 208 BC, a Qin Dynasty general named Triệu Đà invaded Au Lac. An Duong Vuong failed this time. As a result, the northern feudalist took turns dominating the country over the next eleven centuries, establishing their harsh regime in the country and dividing the country into administrative regions and districts with unfamiliar names. However, the country's name of Au Lac could not be erased from the people's minds in their everyday life.
+
+In 207 BC Triệu Đà established a state called Nam Việt which encompassed southern China and the Red River Delta. The historical significance of the original Nam Việt remains controversial because some historians consider it a Chinese occupation while others believe it was an independent era. For most of the period from 111 BCE to the early 10th century, Vietnam was under the rule of successive Chinese dynasties. Sporadic independence movements were attempted, but were quickly suppressed by Chinese forces.
+
+The kings of Champa (Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese) started construction of Hindu temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 4th century AD.[17][18]
+
+Hội An was founded as a trading port by the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Hoàng sometime around 1595.
+
+Work on Imperial City, Huế started in 1804.
+
+In September 1858, France occupied Đà Nẵng. Cochinchina was a French colony from 1862 to 1948.
+
+In 1930 Nguyễn Ái Quốc established the Vietnamese Independence League (Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội) which is also known as the Việt Minh.
+
+The Japanese took over Vietnam in World War II. The Việt Minh fought against both the Japanese and the Vichy French.
+
+When the Japanese were defeated, the Vietnamese people, led by the Việt Minh started the August Revolution.
+
+On 2 September 1945, Nguyễn Ái Quốc (who was now calling himself Hồ Chí Minh, meaning 'Hồ (a common last name) with the will of light') read the Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Ba Ðình Square, in Hànội. It was based on the American Declaration of Independence.
+
+Hồ Chí Minh led the Việt Minh in a war for independence from France.
+
+The "Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina" (République Autonome de Cochinchine) was proclaimed 1 June 1946 to frustrate the Việt Minh's desire to rule all of Vietnam.
+
+The War between France and the Việt Minh lasted from 1946 to 1954. The French were defeated in 1954 after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
+
+The nation was then divided into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. After independence was achieved, the French gave the land of the Mekong delta that was part of Cambodia to South Vietnam. The anti-communist United States had a lot of influence in the South, and the communist and nationalist Việt Minh controlled the North. Hồ Chí Minh was extremely popular in the whole nation, as he was the only remaining leader after years of fighting, so he became President of the Democratic Republic of (North) Việtnam. It was agreed that the nation would be reunited by elections in 1956. But, the Americans and the Southern government stopped the elections from happening because they expected Hồ Chí Minh to win because communist North Vietnam refused to hold free elections. Dwight Eisenhower said he thought Hồ would win with around 80% of the vote if elections were held because of the majority of the population being in the north added with Ho's few supporters in the South.[19]
+
+Soon, the USA was at war with Vietnam. This war was known as the American War, the Vietnam War, or the Second Indochinese War. Soon, South Vietnam became a military dictatorship with some basic freedoms. The Southern army removed the controversial[20] Ngo Dinh Diem from power and killed him.
+
+On 2 September 1969, Independence Day, President Hồ Chí Minh died of heart failure.
+
+On 30 April 1975, the National Liberation Front with the help of the N.V.A.[19] overtook Sàigòn and quickly renamed it Hồ Chí Minh City, which is the capital of Vietnam. The nation was fully reunified as Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 2 July 1976.
+
+Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces. There are also five city municipalities which have province authority.
+
+Bac Ninh
+Ha Nam
+Hai Duong
+Hung Yen
+Nam Dinh
+Ninh Binh
+Thai Binh
+Vinh Phuc
+Hanoi (municipality)
+Hai Phong (municipality)
+
+Ha Tinh
+Nghe An
+Quang Binh
+Quang Tri
+Thanh Hoa
+Thua Thien-Hue
+
+Bac Giang
+Bac Kan
+Cao Bang
+Ha Giang
+Lang Son
+Lao Cai
+Phu Tho
+Quang Ninh
+Thai Nguyen
+Tuyen Quang
+Yen Bai
+
+Dien Bien
+Hoa Binh
+Lai Chau
+Son La
+
+Dak Lak
+Dak Nong
+Gia Lai
+Kon Tum
+Lam Dong
+
+Binh Dinh
+Binh Thuan
+Khanh Hoa
+Ninh Thuan
+Phu Yen
+Quang Nam
+Quang Ngai
+Da Nang (municipality)
+
+Vung Tau (Ba Ria-Vung Tau)
+Binh Duong
+Binh Phuoc
+Dong Nai
+Tay Ninh
+Ho Chi Minh (municipality)
+
+An Giang
+Bac Lieu
+Ben Tre
+Ca Mau
+Dong Thap
+Hau Giang
+Kien Giang
+Long An
+Soc Trang
+Tien Giang
+Tra Vinh
+Vinh Long
+Can Tho (municipality)
+
+The provinces of Vietnam are divided (by the government) into provincial cities and provinces.
+
+Media said in 2011 that investment in science and technology was 2% of GDP.[21]
+
+"Vietnam provides no incentives for students to return to Vietnam from their foreign graduate programmes" was the opinion (in 2011) of French physicist Pierre Darriulat.[21][22]

ensimple/5982.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+
+
+in ASEAN  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam) is a country in Southeast Asia. The long-form name of the country is the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The neighboring countries of Vietnam are China, Laos and Cambodia. Vietnam is one of five remaining countries that believe in communism. The capital of Vietnam is Hanoi. The biggest city is Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon). There are about 94,444,200 people living in Vietnam.
+
+After the Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French colonial rule during the First Indochina War between the Viet Minh and the French in 2 September 1945. Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France under the new name of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, but was fought by French colonialists. In 1954, the Vietnamese declared victory in Dien Bien Phu which took place between March and May 1954 and culminated in a major French defeat. Then Vietnam was divided into two political states, North Vietnam (officially the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and South Vietnam (officially the Republic of Vietnam). Conflicts between the two sides intensified in the so-called Vietnam War with strong influence from the US in South Vietnam. The war ended in 1975 with a North Vietnamese victory.
+
+Vietnam was then united under a communist government. In 1986, the government launched a number of economic and political reforms that began Vietnam's path to integration into the world economy.[10] By 2000, it had established diplomatic relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnam's economic growth has been among the highest in the world,[10] and in 2011 it had the highest global growth generator index among 11 major economies.[11] Its successful economic reforms resulted in its becoming a member of the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of economic cooperation between Asia and the Pacific and the International de la Francophonie Organization.
+
+In Vietnam, the approximate population is 97,094,658.[13] 25.2% of these people are aged between 0-14, with 11,954,354 being male and 10,868,610 being female. 69.3% of the population are between the ages of 15-64. The male-to-female ratio is almost evenly split, with 31,301,879 being male and 31,419,306 being female. 5.5% are 65 and over, with 1,921,652 being male and 3,092,589 being female. So within the older two categories, there are more women than men.[14] 
+The population is not from one origin. There are many ethnic tribes that developed in the history of Vietnam. This makes Vietnam's history and culture very diverse. It's not the same as a country where every family landed on the country's shores in the same century. French and Chinese colonization didn't involve an excessive migration of people to Vietnam. 
+Nowadays, the blend of cultures has been increasing with the influence of globalization and world interest. Many Vietnamese that have been living overseas are described as the Viet Kieu. The population has several communities in many countries around the world.
+
+The length of the country, from North to South, is 1,650 kilometers (1,025 miles).[15] "At its narrowest point, Vietnam is only 30 miles (48 kilometers) wide".[16]
+
+The country is covered in rainforests that are currently going through rapid deforestation. It borders the South China Sea to the east, Laos and Cambodia to the west, and China to the north. The country is slightly larger than Malaysia.The country is slightly smaller than Japan
+
+Vietnam's history has long been characterized by the neighborhood of China in the north. For about 1,000 years, northern Vietnam belonged to China, but from 938 the country became independent and later expanded southward at the expense of the Champa kingdom. In the 19th century the country was colonized by France and during the Second World War, the country was occupied by Japan. After this war, the colonial empire did not have the resources to restore the regime and lost the military battle against the liberation forces. This led to the division of the country, which in turn led to the Vietnam War with major human and material losses for the country. The war ended on 30 April 1975 by the fact that North Vietnam took the southern part. After experimental planning in the 1970s and 1980s, the economy was reformed in a market economy direction.
+
+About 5000 years ago, the two ethnic tribes of the Lac Viet and Au Viet lived together in many areas with other inhabitants. Due to increasing needs to control floods, fights against invaders, and culture and trade exchanges, these tribes living near each other tended to gather together and integrate into a larger mixed group.
+
+Among these Lac Viet tribes was the Van Lang, which was the most powerful tribe. The leader of this tribe later joined all the tribes together to found Van Lang Nation in 2897 BC, addressing himself as the King Hung. The next generations followed in their father's footsteps and kept this appellation. Based on historical documents, researchers correlatively delineated the location of Van Lang Nation to the present day regions of North and north of Central Vietnam, as well as the south of present-day Kwangsi (China). The Van Lang Nation lasted to the 3rd century B.C.
+
+Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 1st and 7th centuries.
+
+The Dong Son civilization that covered much of Southeast Asia was also the beginning of Vietnam's history. In 221 BC, the Qins invaded the land of the Viet tribes. Thuc Phan, leader of the alliance of Au-Viet tribes managed to expel the enemies and declared himself King An Duong Vuong and his territory Au Lac Nation (257-207 BC). In 208 BC, a Qin Dynasty general named Triệu Đà invaded Au Lac. An Duong Vuong failed this time. As a result, the northern feudalist took turns dominating the country over the next eleven centuries, establishing their harsh regime in the country and dividing the country into administrative regions and districts with unfamiliar names. However, the country's name of Au Lac could not be erased from the people's minds in their everyday life.
+
+In 207 BC Triệu Đà established a state called Nam Việt which encompassed southern China and the Red River Delta. The historical significance of the original Nam Việt remains controversial because some historians consider it a Chinese occupation while others believe it was an independent era. For most of the period from 111 BCE to the early 10th century, Vietnam was under the rule of successive Chinese dynasties. Sporadic independence movements were attempted, but were quickly suppressed by Chinese forces.
+
+The kings of Champa (Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese) started construction of Hindu temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 4th century AD.[17][18]
+
+Hội An was founded as a trading port by the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Hoàng sometime around 1595.
+
+Work on Imperial City, Huế started in 1804.
+
+In September 1858, France occupied Đà Nẵng. Cochinchina was a French colony from 1862 to 1948.
+
+In 1930 Nguyễn Ái Quốc established the Vietnamese Independence League (Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội) which is also known as the Việt Minh.
+
+The Japanese took over Vietnam in World War II. The Việt Minh fought against both the Japanese and the Vichy French.
+
+When the Japanese were defeated, the Vietnamese people, led by the Việt Minh started the August Revolution.
+
+On 2 September 1945, Nguyễn Ái Quốc (who was now calling himself Hồ Chí Minh, meaning 'Hồ (a common last name) with the will of light') read the Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Ba Ðình Square, in Hànội. It was based on the American Declaration of Independence.
+
+Hồ Chí Minh led the Việt Minh in a war for independence from France.
+
+The "Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina" (République Autonome de Cochinchine) was proclaimed 1 June 1946 to frustrate the Việt Minh's desire to rule all of Vietnam.
+
+The War between France and the Việt Minh lasted from 1946 to 1954. The French were defeated in 1954 after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
+
+The nation was then divided into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. After independence was achieved, the French gave the land of the Mekong delta that was part of Cambodia to South Vietnam. The anti-communist United States had a lot of influence in the South, and the communist and nationalist Việt Minh controlled the North. Hồ Chí Minh was extremely popular in the whole nation, as he was the only remaining leader after years of fighting, so he became President of the Democratic Republic of (North) Việtnam. It was agreed that the nation would be reunited by elections in 1956. But, the Americans and the Southern government stopped the elections from happening because they expected Hồ Chí Minh to win because communist North Vietnam refused to hold free elections. Dwight Eisenhower said he thought Hồ would win with around 80% of the vote if elections were held because of the majority of the population being in the north added with Ho's few supporters in the South.[19]
+
+Soon, the USA was at war with Vietnam. This war was known as the American War, the Vietnam War, or the Second Indochinese War. Soon, South Vietnam became a military dictatorship with some basic freedoms. The Southern army removed the controversial[20] Ngo Dinh Diem from power and killed him.
+
+On 2 September 1969, Independence Day, President Hồ Chí Minh died of heart failure.
+
+On 30 April 1975, the National Liberation Front with the help of the N.V.A.[19] overtook Sàigòn and quickly renamed it Hồ Chí Minh City, which is the capital of Vietnam. The nation was fully reunified as Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 2 July 1976.
+
+Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces. There are also five city municipalities which have province authority.
+
+Bac Ninh
+Ha Nam
+Hai Duong
+Hung Yen
+Nam Dinh
+Ninh Binh
+Thai Binh
+Vinh Phuc
+Hanoi (municipality)
+Hai Phong (municipality)
+
+Ha Tinh
+Nghe An
+Quang Binh
+Quang Tri
+Thanh Hoa
+Thua Thien-Hue
+
+Bac Giang
+Bac Kan
+Cao Bang
+Ha Giang
+Lang Son
+Lao Cai
+Phu Tho
+Quang Ninh
+Thai Nguyen
+Tuyen Quang
+Yen Bai
+
+Dien Bien
+Hoa Binh
+Lai Chau
+Son La
+
+Dak Lak
+Dak Nong
+Gia Lai
+Kon Tum
+Lam Dong
+
+Binh Dinh
+Binh Thuan
+Khanh Hoa
+Ninh Thuan
+Phu Yen
+Quang Nam
+Quang Ngai
+Da Nang (municipality)
+
+Vung Tau (Ba Ria-Vung Tau)
+Binh Duong
+Binh Phuoc
+Dong Nai
+Tay Ninh
+Ho Chi Minh (municipality)
+
+An Giang
+Bac Lieu
+Ben Tre
+Ca Mau
+Dong Thap
+Hau Giang
+Kien Giang
+Long An
+Soc Trang
+Tien Giang
+Tra Vinh
+Vinh Long
+Can Tho (municipality)
+
+The provinces of Vietnam are divided (by the government) into provincial cities and provinces.
+
+Media said in 2011 that investment in science and technology was 2% of GDP.[21]
+
+"Vietnam provides no incentives for students to return to Vietnam from their foreign graduate programmes" was the opinion (in 2011) of French physicist Pierre Darriulat.[21][22]

ensimple/5983.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
+When writing articles here:
+
+Evolution is a scientific theory used by biologists. It explains how animals and plants changed over a long time, and how they have come to be the way they are.
+
+Earth is very old, about 4.5 billion years. By studying the layers of rock that make up Earth's crust, scientists can find out about its past. This kind of research is called historical geology.
+
+We know that living things have changed over time, because we can see their remains in the rocks. These remains are called 'fossils'. So we know that the animals and plants of today are different from those of long ago. And the further we go back, the more different the fossils are.
+
+How has this come about? Evolution has taken place. That evolution has taken place is a fact, because it is overwhelmingly supported by many lines of evidence. At the same time, evolutionary questions are still being actively researched by biologists.
+
+The theory of evolution is the basis of modern biology. Nothing in biology makes sense without it.
+
+From a collection of Wikipedia's articles:
+
+See the pages of the Wikimedia Foundation Governance wiki, too.
+
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+norsk nynorsk (Norwegian Nynorsk)  •                                   
+română (Romanian)  •                     
+srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски (Serbo-Croatian)  •                     
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+ไทย (Thai)  •                      
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+اردو (Urdu)  •                        
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+
+List of all Wikipedias – 
+Languages working together – 
+Start a Wikipedia for a new language

ensimple/5984.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Vikidia is an encyclopedia made with a wiki, using MediaWiki.  Its goals are to be readable by a child from 8 to 13 years old and to allow easy understanding by people learning French, Italian, Spanish, English, Russian, Catalan, Basque, Armenian and Sicilian.
+
+It was inspired by WikiKids, a Dutch website, much in the style of the larger and better known Wikipedia. The major difference is in the fact that these sites are meant for minors. They are for children from the age of 8 to about 13 and everything in between, although there is no age limit.
+
+As in Wikipedia, Vikidia is an open wiki, so everybody is allowed to edit the articles.  But Vikidia is also a wiki for children, so all inappropriate or shocking content, especially vandalism, is quickly removed by the site's administrators.
+
+Vikidia helps children to contribute, and some schools and teachers[1] have involved their classes to write articles as a school project.
+
+The Simple English Wikipedia is much like Vikidia, but it is written for mature people learning English with a lesser focus on children.
+
+WikiKids and Vikidia were started in November 2006.
+
+The Dutch WikiKids now has around  28,500 articles, while French Vikidia has around 30,000 articles in March 2020.
+
+The Spanish version of Vikidia was started in May 2008, the Italian one in 2011, the Russian one in 2012, the English one in 2014, the Catalan one in 2015, the Basque one and the Armenian one both in 2018.

ensimple/5985.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Vikidia is an encyclopedia made with a wiki, using MediaWiki.  Its goals are to be readable by a child from 8 to 13 years old and to allow easy understanding by people learning French, Italian, Spanish, English, Russian, Catalan, Basque, Armenian and Sicilian.
+
+It was inspired by WikiKids, a Dutch website, much in the style of the larger and better known Wikipedia. The major difference is in the fact that these sites are meant for minors. They are for children from the age of 8 to about 13 and everything in between, although there is no age limit.
+
+As in Wikipedia, Vikidia is an open wiki, so everybody is allowed to edit the articles.  But Vikidia is also a wiki for children, so all inappropriate or shocking content, especially vandalism, is quickly removed by the site's administrators.
+
+Vikidia helps children to contribute, and some schools and teachers[1] have involved their classes to write articles as a school project.
+
+The Simple English Wikipedia is much like Vikidia, but it is written for mature people learning English with a lesser focus on children.
+
+WikiKids and Vikidia were started in November 2006.
+
+The Dutch WikiKids now has around  28,500 articles, while French Vikidia has around 30,000 articles in March 2020.
+
+The Spanish version of Vikidia was started in May 2008, the Italian one in 2011, the Russian one in 2012, the English one in 2014, the Catalan one in 2015, the Basque one and the Armenian one both in 2018.

ensimple/5986.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Vikidia is an encyclopedia made with a wiki, using MediaWiki.  Its goals are to be readable by a child from 8 to 13 years old and to allow easy understanding by people learning French, Italian, Spanish, English, Russian, Catalan, Basque, Armenian and Sicilian.
+
+It was inspired by WikiKids, a Dutch website, much in the style of the larger and better known Wikipedia. The major difference is in the fact that these sites are meant for minors. They are for children from the age of 8 to about 13 and everything in between, although there is no age limit.
+
+As in Wikipedia, Vikidia is an open wiki, so everybody is allowed to edit the articles.  But Vikidia is also a wiki for children, so all inappropriate or shocking content, especially vandalism, is quickly removed by the site's administrators.
+
+Vikidia helps children to contribute, and some schools and teachers[1] have involved their classes to write articles as a school project.
+
+The Simple English Wikipedia is much like Vikidia, but it is written for mature people learning English with a lesser focus on children.
+
+WikiKids and Vikidia were started in November 2006.
+
+The Dutch WikiKids now has around  28,500 articles, while French Vikidia has around 30,000 articles in March 2020.
+
+The Spanish version of Vikidia was started in May 2008, the Italian one in 2011, the Russian one in 2012, the English one in 2014, the Catalan one in 2015, the Basque one and the Armenian one both in 2018.

ensimple/5987.html.txt

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+A village is a place where people live, normally in the countryside. It is usually larger than a hamlet and smaller than a town or city.  In some places, it may be a kind of local government. The dwellings in a village are clustered fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape.
+
+In the past, villages were where most people lived. Villages were a usual form of community for societies that do subsistence agriculture, and for some non-agricultural societies. After the industrial revolution, when people started making a lot of things in factories, people lived more in towns. Moving to towns is called urbanization. When villages grow a lot they can grow into towns and then cities. This is what happened to Dubai and Chicago.[1]
+
+In The U.K. the biggest difference between a hamlet and a village is that many villages have a church.[2]
+
+The word "village" is not used in most states. However, in twenty  US states, a "village" is a sort of local government, similar to a city but with less power and for a smaller place. But this is not so in all the United States. In many states, there are villages which are bigger than the smallest cities in the state. The difference is not the population, it is how much power the different sorts of places have, and what they do for people living there.
+
+In New York state, a village is a place which is usually called a town.
+
+In many states, a "village" is only a place where people live, with no legal power, similar to a hamlet in New York state. The name for these is "unincorporated villages".

ensimple/5988.html.txt

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+Paris (nicknamed the "City of light") is the capital city of France, and the largest city in France. The area is 105 square kilometres (41 square miles), and around 2.15 million people live there. If suburbs are counted, the population of the Paris area rises to 12 million people.
+
+The Seine river runs through the oldest part of Paris, and divides it into two parts, known as the Left Bank and the Right Bank. It is surrounded by many forests.
+
+Paris is also the center of French economy, politics, traffic and culture. Paris has many art museums and historical buildings. As a traffic center, Paris has a very good underground subway system (called the Metro). It also has two airports. The Metro was built in 1900, and its total length is more than 200 km (120 mi).
+
+The city has a multi-cultural style, because 20% of the people there are from outside France.[source?] There are many different restaurants with all kinds of food. Paris also has some types of pollution like air pollution and light pollution.
+
+Julius Caesar conquered the Celtic "Parisii" tribe in 51 BC. The Romans called the place Lutetia of the Parisii, or "Lutetia Parisiorum".[3][4][5] The place got a shorter name, "Paris", in 212 AD.[6]
+
+As the Roman Empire began to fall apart in the West, the Germanic tribe called the Franks moved in, taking it in 464. In 506, their king Clovis I made it his capital. Charlemagne moved his capital to Aachen in Germany, but Paris continued as an important town and was attacked by the Vikings twice. When Hugh Capet became king of France in 987, he again made Paris his capital. For a long time, the kings only controlled Paris and the surrounding area, as much of the rest of France was in the hands of barons or English. During the Hundred Years' War, the English controlled Paris from 1420 to 1437.
+
+During the Protestant Reformation, a huge massacre of French Protestants started there in 1572, called the Saint Bartholomew Day Massacre. Paris saw many other troubles over the years of the "Ancien Régime" (Old Kingdom), then in 1789, the French Revolution began in Paris, leading to more massacres.
+
+Paris was the Capital of the French Empire which, as well as France, covered Spain, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Italy, most of Germany and some of Austria, Croatia, Slovenia and Poland. The Empire ruled by Napoleon was from 1804-1814/1815. The Russian army seized Paris from Napoleon in 1814, and the Prussian army captured it in 1871. The next time it was captured was by the Nazi Germans in 1940. The Allies freed the city in 1944 and it has not since been captured.
+
+Paris has an oceanic climate in the Köppen climate classification. It has warm summers and cold winters, and rainfall year-round.
+
+Paris has much to offer for sightseeing. Here are five very famous examples:
+
+Because the city of Paris is roughly only 6 miles across, visitors have a wide range of options when it comes to transportation. While much of the more well-known attractions are in the center of the city and are best experienced by walking, there are many destinations that require other means of transport. While taxis offer a fast and relatively inexpensive means of travel, Paris’ public transportation system offers an enjoyable, stress-free way to explore the city.
+
+The Paris Métro system was built in 1900 by engineer Fulgence Bienvenüe and architect Hector Guimard. The Métro covers over 124 miles with 300 stations[14] and 16 lines. Servicing over 6 million residents and tourists every day, the Métro was designed to be an efficient and reliable alternative to the congestion of traffic. Every building in Paris is less than 500 meters from a train station, so accessibility is never a problem. The 16 Métro lines are identified by their final destinations. A rider can simply select the appropriate line and take it in the direction s/he wants. The Métro stations are well marked, and there are ticket booths at most entrances.
+
+There are five airports that serve Paris: Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly Airport, Beauvais-Tillé Airport and Paris–Le Bourget Airport, and Châlons Vatry Airport.
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·

ensimple/5989.html.txt

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+A town is usually a place with a lot of houses, but not a city. As with cities, there is more than one way to say what a town is in different countries. In some places, it is a kind of local government.  When they say "town" people are normally thinking of a big, important place. It may even be a city.
+
+Generally, the difference between towns and villages or hamlets is the sort of economy they have. People in towns usually get money from industry (factories etc.), commerce (shops etc.) and public service (working for the town), not agriculture (growing food).
+
+The number of people who live in a place does not tell us if it is a town or a village. In many areas of the world, like India, a big village can have many more people than a small town. It is also difficult to say if a place is a town because today, some towns are becoming bigger.
+
+Sometimes a place is a city because it got the name "city" by law. However, people often call a place a "town" if it is small.
+
+In the Middle Ages, a place became a town by means of a charter, which gave it town privileges.
+
+In the United States of America, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county (same as a "parish" in Louisiana). In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place with a lot of people.
+
+In the six New England states, a town is a smaller part of the county.  In all six, towns do things that, in most other states, the counties do.  In many of these towns, town meetings are the main form of government, so citizens can say what happens where they live by direct democracy. In these states, the towns are really more important than the county. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, counties are only on the map and have no power. In the other four states, counties are mostly places with law powers. The counties with other functions are mostly in New Hampshire and Vermont.
+
+In Alabama, whether or not a place is a "town" or a "city" is based on how many people live there. A place with 2,000 people or more is a city. A place with less than 2,000 people is a town (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-6).  For legislative purposes, places are put into eight categories based on the number of people. Class 8 includes all towns, and it includes all cities with that have less than 6,000 people (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-12).
+
+All incorporated places in Kansas are called cities. Once a city is incorporated in Kansas, it will continue to be a city no matter what. There are three categories for cities:
+
+In Louisiana, a "town" is a place that has a city government, and it has 1,001–4,999 people living there.[1]
+
+In New York, a town is also a smaller part of the county, but it is less important than in New England. In New York, a town gives people more direct power than its county, giving almost all town services to places not in towns, called hamlets, and some services to places in towns, called villages. In New York, a town usually has some hamlets and villages. But, because villages have power without towns (they are independent) they can be in two towns or even two counties. Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation (a special place for American Indians) or a city lives in a town, and perhaps in one of the town's hamlets or villages.
+
+In Utah, the terms "town" and "city" is based on the number of people living there. A place with 1,000 or more people is a city. A place with less than 1,000 people is a town. Cities are divided into five different categories based on the number of people.[2]
+
+In Virginia, a town is similar to a city, but it can have a smaller number of people in it. By Virginia law cities are independent of counties (they have power without counties), towns are part of a county.
+
+Wyoming law says towns are incorporated places that have less than 4,000 people living there. Places with 4,000 or more people are "first-class cities".[3]
+
+In England and Wales, the name "city" is only for places that have a Royal Charter (a special document) saying they can have that name.
+
+In the past, cities usually had a cathedral.  Some English people think that a place with a cathedral must be a city, but it is not true today.  For example, Northampton, Blackburn and Middlesbrough  are all towns with a cathedral.
+
+In the past, a place was usually a town, not a village, when it had a regular market or fair (a market, but not so often). There are some English villages (for example Kidlington, Oxfordshire) larger than some small towns (e.g. Middleham, North Yorkshire).

ensimple/599.html.txt

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+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

ensimple/5990.html.txt

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+A port is a place at the edge of an ocean, river, or lake for ships to load and unload their cargo. Persons on ships can get on or off ships at a port. It is also called a harbour or harbor. This kind of port is the same as sea port.
+
+A good port is easy to get to over water or land. It is also in a place that is not easily hurt by bad weather, like strong wind or big waves.
+
+Some ports are important for trade; other ports are important to a country's navy.
+
+If a port is visited by ships that can go on the ocean, it is called a "sea port" or just a "port". If a port is visited only by river boats like barges, it is called a "river port".
+
+If a port is on a lake, river, or canal that goes to a sea or ocean, that port can be called an "inland port".
+
+A fishing port is a port or harbour used by people who are fishing.
+
+A warm water port is a port where the water does not freeze in winter time.
+
+A cruise home port is a port where people get on and off cruise-ships. It is also where the cruise ship gets its supplies, like fresh water, fuel, and food. The Port of Miami, Florida is called the "Cruise Capital of the World". Port Everglades, Florida and the Port of San Juan, Puerto Rico also have big cruise ports.
+
+A port of call is a place where a ship stops before it has finished its trip.
+
+A cargo port is a port that is used to move things people want to buy or sell.

ensimple/5991.html.txt

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+A town is usually a place with a lot of houses, but not a city. As with cities, there is more than one way to say what a town is in different countries. In some places, it is a kind of local government.  When they say "town" people are normally thinking of a big, important place. It may even be a city.
+
+Generally, the difference between towns and villages or hamlets is the sort of economy they have. People in towns usually get money from industry (factories etc.), commerce (shops etc.) and public service (working for the town), not agriculture (growing food).
+
+The number of people who live in a place does not tell us if it is a town or a village. In many areas of the world, like India, a big village can have many more people than a small town. It is also difficult to say if a place is a town because today, some towns are becoming bigger.
+
+Sometimes a place is a city because it got the name "city" by law. However, people often call a place a "town" if it is small.
+
+In the Middle Ages, a place became a town by means of a charter, which gave it town privileges.
+
+In the United States of America, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county (same as a "parish" in Louisiana). In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place with a lot of people.
+
+In the six New England states, a town is a smaller part of the county.  In all six, towns do things that, in most other states, the counties do.  In many of these towns, town meetings are the main form of government, so citizens can say what happens where they live by direct democracy. In these states, the towns are really more important than the county. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, counties are only on the map and have no power. In the other four states, counties are mostly places with law powers. The counties with other functions are mostly in New Hampshire and Vermont.
+
+In Alabama, whether or not a place is a "town" or a "city" is based on how many people live there. A place with 2,000 people or more is a city. A place with less than 2,000 people is a town (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-6).  For legislative purposes, places are put into eight categories based on the number of people. Class 8 includes all towns, and it includes all cities with that have less than 6,000 people (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-12).
+
+All incorporated places in Kansas are called cities. Once a city is incorporated in Kansas, it will continue to be a city no matter what. There are three categories for cities:
+
+In Louisiana, a "town" is a place that has a city government, and it has 1,001–4,999 people living there.[1]
+
+In New York, a town is also a smaller part of the county, but it is less important than in New England. In New York, a town gives people more direct power than its county, giving almost all town services to places not in towns, called hamlets, and some services to places in towns, called villages. In New York, a town usually has some hamlets and villages. But, because villages have power without towns (they are independent) they can be in two towns or even two counties. Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation (a special place for American Indians) or a city lives in a town, and perhaps in one of the town's hamlets or villages.
+
+In Utah, the terms "town" and "city" is based on the number of people living there. A place with 1,000 or more people is a city. A place with less than 1,000 people is a town. Cities are divided into five different categories based on the number of people.[2]
+
+In Virginia, a town is similar to a city, but it can have a smaller number of people in it. By Virginia law cities are independent of counties (they have power without counties), towns are part of a county.
+
+Wyoming law says towns are incorporated places that have less than 4,000 people living there. Places with 4,000 or more people are "first-class cities".[3]
+
+In England and Wales, the name "city" is only for places that have a Royal Charter (a special document) saying they can have that name.
+
+In the past, cities usually had a cathedral.  Some English people think that a place with a cathedral must be a city, but it is not true today.  For example, Northampton, Blackburn and Middlesbrough  are all towns with a cathedral.
+
+In the past, a place was usually a town, not a village, when it had a regular market or fair (a market, but not so often). There are some English villages (for example Kidlington, Oxfordshire) larger than some small towns (e.g. Middleham, North Yorkshire).

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+Vilnius is the capital city of Lithuania. It is also the largest city in that country. Vilnius is the largest city and the capital of Lithuania, with a population of 553,904 (850,700 together with Vilnius County) as of December 2005.[2] It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County. Vilnius lies 312 kilometres (194 mi) from the Baltic Sea and Klaipėda, the chief Lithuanian seaport. Vilnius is connected by highways to other major Lithuanian cities, such as Kaunas (102 km/63 mi away), Šiauliai (214 km/133 mi away) and Panevėžys (135 km/84 mi away).
+
+See History of Vilnius
+
+According to the 2001 census by the Vilnius Regional Statistical Office, there were 542,287 inhabitants in the Vilnius city municipality, of which 57.8% were Lithuanians, 18.7% Poles, 14% Russians, 4.0% Belarusians, 1.3% Ukrainians and 0.5% Jews.
+
+The climate of Vilnius is considered as Humid Continental or Hemiboreal by Köppen climate classification.[3] Summers can be hot, with temperatures above thirty degrees Celsius throughout the day. Winters can be very cold, with temperatures rarely reaching above freezing
+
+Vilnius is a cosmopolitan city with diverse architecture. There are more than 40 churches in Vilnius. Restaurants, hotels and museums have sprouted since Lithuania declared independence.
+
+Like most medieval towns, Vilnius was developed around its Town Hall. The Old Town, the historical centre of Vilnius, is one of the largest in Europe (3.6 km²). The most valuable historic and cultural sites are concentrated here. The main sights of the city are Gediminas Castle and Cathedral Square, symbols of the capital. The Old Town of Vilnius was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994. In 1995, the first bronzecast of Frank Zappa in the world was installed near the center of Vilnius with the permission of the government.
+
+Vilnius is the major economic centre of Lithuania and one of the largest financial centres of the Baltic states.
+
+The city has many universities. The biggest are:
+
+Specialized higher schools with the university status are:
+
+Vilnius is the Roman Catholic center of the country, with the main church institutions and Archdiocesan Cathedral located here. There are many churches in the city as there are many monasteries and religion schools. The Church architecture in the city includes Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical styles, these styles can be foundin the Old Town. Vilnius is considered one of the main centers of the Polish Baroque movement in architecture of churches. Vilnius has been home to an Eastern Orthodox Christian presence since the thirteenth century. A famous Russian Orthodox monastery, named for the Holy Spirit, is located near the Gate of Dawn.  St. Paraskeva's Orthodox Church in the Old Town is the site of the baptism of Hannibal, the great-grandfather of Pushkin, by Tsar Peter the Great in 1705. A  number of Protestant and other Christian groups are present in Vilnius, most notably the Lutheran Evangelicals and the Baptists.
+
+Once widely known as Yerushalayim De Lita (the "Jerusalem of Lithuania"), Vilnius once was comparable only to Jerusalem, Israel, as a world center for the study of the Torah, and for its large Jewish population. That is why one part of Vilnius was named Jeruzalė. At the end of the 19th century, the number of synagogues in Vilnius was more than hundred.
+
+Islam came to Lithuania in the 14th century from Crimea and Kazan, through the Tatars. Tatars in Lithuania have maintained their religious practices: currently, about 3,000 Tatar Muslims live in Lithuania. There are same few groups of pre-Christian pagan in the city.
+
+The city of Vilnius is made up of 21 elderates that are based on neighbourhoods:
+
+Vilnius is the starting point of the Vilnius-Kaunas-Klaipėda motorway that runs across Lithuania and connects the three major cities. The Vilnius-Panevėžys motorway is a branch of the Via-Baltica.
+
+Vilnius International Airport serves most Lithuanian international flights to many major European destinations.
+
+Vilnius has a  public transportation system. There are over 60 bus and 19 trolleybus routes, the trolleybus network is one of the biggest in Europe. Over 250 buses and 260 trolleybuses transport about 500,000 people every day. In the end of year 2007 a new electronic monthly ticket system was introduced.
+
+Vilnius has 14 sister cities.
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·

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+Vincent Wilien van Gogh [1] (30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890)[2] was a Dutch post-impressionist painter. His work had a great influence on modern art because of its striking colours and emotional power. He suffered from delusions and fits of mental illness. When he was 37, he died by committing suicide.
+
+When he was a young man, Van Gogh worked for a company of art dealers. He traveled between The Hague, London and Paris. After that, he taught in England. He then wanted to become a pastor and spread the Gospel, and from 1879 he worked as a missionary in a mining place in Belgium. He began drawing the people there, and in 1885, he painted his first important work, The Potato Eaters. He usually painted in dark colors at this time. In March 1886, he moved to Paris and found out about the French impressionists. Later, he moved to the south of France, and the colors in his art became brighter. His special style of art was developed and later fully grown during the time he stayed in Arles in 1888.
+
+He was born Vincent Willem van Gogh on 30 March 1853 in Groot-Zundert, Netherlands.[2] His father, Theodorus van Gogh, was a pastor.[2] His mother, Anna Cornelia Carbentus, was an artist.[2] Van Gogh was brought up in a religious and cultured family.[3] He was very emotional and he did not have a great deal of self-confidence. He was also a replacement child.[4] He was born a year after the death of his brother, also named Vincent.[4] He even had the same birthday.[4] Living at the church rectory Vincent walked past the grave of his dead brother every day. There has been speculation that van Gogh suffered later psychological trauma as a result,[5] but this cannot be proved.[5]
+
+Between 1860 and 1880, when he finally decided to become an artist, van Gogh had had two sad romances. He also had worked unsuccessfully in a bookstore, as an art salesman, and a preacher. He remained in Belgium, where he had preached, to study art. The works of his early Dutch period are sad, sharp, and one of the most famous pictures from here is The Potato Eaters, painted in 1885. In that year, van Gogh went to Antwerp where he found the works of famous artists and bought a lot of Japanese prints.[6]
+
+In 1886 he went to Paris to join his brother Theo, who was the manager of Goupil's gallery. In Paris, van Gogh studied with Cormon. He also met Pissarro, Monet, and Gauguin. This helped the colors of his paintings lighten and be painted in short strokes from the paintbrush. His nervous temper made him a difficult companion and night-long discussions combined with painting all day made him very unhealthy. He decided to go south to Arles where he hoped his friends would join him and help found a school of art. Gauguin did join him, but it did not help. Near the end of 1888, Gauguin left Arles. Van Gogh followed him with an open razor, but was stopped by Gauguin. Instead, he cut his own ear lobe off. After that, van Gogh began to get fits of madness and was sent to the asylum in Saint-Remy for medical treatment.[6] He painted over 1,000 portraits.
+
+In May of 1890, he regained his health and went to live in Auvers-sur-Oise.  However, two months later on 27 July, he was shot in a hunting accident with two kids. [7] He died two days later, with Theo at his side.[7]  Theo reported his last words as "La tristesse durera toujours", which meant, "The sadness will last forever" in French.[8]
+
+During his brief career he had only sold one painting. After his death, Van Gogh's finest works were all sold in less than three years. His mother threw away a lot of his paintings during his life and even after his death. But she lived long enough to see him become a world famous painter. He was not well known when he was alive, and most people did not appreciate his art. But he became very famous after his death. Today, many people consider him to be one of the greatest painters in the history and an important influence on modern art. Van Gogh did not begin painting until he was almost 30. Most of his famous works were done in his last two years. He made more than 2,000 artworks, with 900 paintings and 1,100 drawings and sketches. Today, many of his pieces – portraits, landscapes and sunflowers – are some of the most famous and costly works of art in the world. Legendary folk rock musician Don McLean named his song Vincent (Don McLean song) after him.
+
+Irises, 1882

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+Vincent Wilien van Gogh [1] (30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890)[2] was a Dutch post-impressionist painter. His work had a great influence on modern art because of its striking colours and emotional power. He suffered from delusions and fits of mental illness. When he was 37, he died by committing suicide.
+
+When he was a young man, Van Gogh worked for a company of art dealers. He traveled between The Hague, London and Paris. After that, he taught in England. He then wanted to become a pastor and spread the Gospel, and from 1879 he worked as a missionary in a mining place in Belgium. He began drawing the people there, and in 1885, he painted his first important work, The Potato Eaters. He usually painted in dark colors at this time. In March 1886, he moved to Paris and found out about the French impressionists. Later, he moved to the south of France, and the colors in his art became brighter. His special style of art was developed and later fully grown during the time he stayed in Arles in 1888.
+
+He was born Vincent Willem van Gogh on 30 March 1853 in Groot-Zundert, Netherlands.[2] His father, Theodorus van Gogh, was a pastor.[2] His mother, Anna Cornelia Carbentus, was an artist.[2] Van Gogh was brought up in a religious and cultured family.[3] He was very emotional and he did not have a great deal of self-confidence. He was also a replacement child.[4] He was born a year after the death of his brother, also named Vincent.[4] He even had the same birthday.[4] Living at the church rectory Vincent walked past the grave of his dead brother every day. There has been speculation that van Gogh suffered later psychological trauma as a result,[5] but this cannot be proved.[5]
+
+Between 1860 and 1880, when he finally decided to become an artist, van Gogh had had two sad romances. He also had worked unsuccessfully in a bookstore, as an art salesman, and a preacher. He remained in Belgium, where he had preached, to study art. The works of his early Dutch period are sad, sharp, and one of the most famous pictures from here is The Potato Eaters, painted in 1885. In that year, van Gogh went to Antwerp where he found the works of famous artists and bought a lot of Japanese prints.[6]
+
+In 1886 he went to Paris to join his brother Theo, who was the manager of Goupil's gallery. In Paris, van Gogh studied with Cormon. He also met Pissarro, Monet, and Gauguin. This helped the colors of his paintings lighten and be painted in short strokes from the paintbrush. His nervous temper made him a difficult companion and night-long discussions combined with painting all day made him very unhealthy. He decided to go south to Arles where he hoped his friends would join him and help found a school of art. Gauguin did join him, but it did not help. Near the end of 1888, Gauguin left Arles. Van Gogh followed him with an open razor, but was stopped by Gauguin. Instead, he cut his own ear lobe off. After that, van Gogh began to get fits of madness and was sent to the asylum in Saint-Remy for medical treatment.[6] He painted over 1,000 portraits.
+
+In May of 1890, he regained his health and went to live in Auvers-sur-Oise.  However, two months later on 27 July, he was shot in a hunting accident with two kids. [7] He died two days later, with Theo at his side.[7]  Theo reported his last words as "La tristesse durera toujours", which meant, "The sadness will last forever" in French.[8]
+
+During his brief career he had only sold one painting. After his death, Van Gogh's finest works were all sold in less than three years. His mother threw away a lot of his paintings during his life and even after his death. But she lived long enough to see him become a world famous painter. He was not well known when he was alive, and most people did not appreciate his art. But he became very famous after his death. Today, many people consider him to be one of the greatest painters in the history and an important influence on modern art. Van Gogh did not begin painting until he was almost 30. Most of his famous works were done in his last two years. He made more than 2,000 artworks, with 900 paintings and 1,100 drawings and sketches. Today, many of his pieces – portraits, landscapes and sunflowers – are some of the most famous and costly works of art in the world. Legendary folk rock musician Don McLean named his song Vincent (Don McLean song) after him.
+
+Irises, 1882

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+Leonardo da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian man who lived in the time of the Renaissance.  He is famous for his paintings,[1] but he was also a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician, and a writer.
+Leonardo wanted to know everything about nature. He wanted to know how everything worked. He was very good at studying, designing and making all sorts of interesting things.[2]
+
+Many people think that Leonardo was one of the greatest painters of all time. Other people think that he was the most talented person ever to have lived.[1] The art historian Helen Gardner said that no-one has ever been quite like him because he was interested in so many things that he seems to have had the mind of a giant, and yet what he was like as a person is still a mystery.[3]
+
+Leonardo was born at Vinci which is a small town near Florence, Italy. He was trained to be an artist by the sculptor and painter Verrocchio. He spent most of his life working for rich Italian noblemen. In his last years, he lived in a beautiful home given to him by the King of France.
+
+Two of his pictures are among the best-known paintings in the world: the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He did many drawings. The best-known drawing is Vitruvian Man.  Leonardo was often thinking of new inventions. He kept notebooks with notes and drawings of these ideas.  Most of his inventions were never made. Some of his ideas were a helicopter, a tank, a calculator, a parachute, a robot, a telephone, evolution, and solar power.[source?]
+
+Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452,[4] in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the valley of the Arno River. His grandfather, Antonio da Vinci, wrote down the details of the birth. Leonardo's parents were not married. His father was a Notary, Ser Piero da Vinci.[5][6] His mother, Caterina, was a servant. She may have been a slave from the Middle East.[7][8] or from China.[9] His father later on took custody of Leonardo and his mother remarried and had 5 more children.[10] Leonardo's full name was "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", which means "Leonardo, the son of Messer (Mister) Pierdaom Vinci".
+
+Leonardo spent his first five years living in a farm house with his mother. Then he lived at Vinci with his father, his father's new wife Albiera, his grandparents and uncle, Francesco.[11]  When Leonardo grew up, he only wrote down two memories from his childhood. He remembered that when he was lying outside in his cradle a large bird flew from the sky and hovered over him. Its tail feathers brushed his face.[11] Leonardo's other important memory was how he found a cave while exploring in the mountains. He was terrified that some great monster might be hiding there. But he was also very excited and wanted to find out what was inside.[11]
+
+Leonardo started painting while he was still a boy. Giorgio Vasari wrote about Leonardo's life shortly after his death. He tells many interesting stories about how clever Leonardo was. He says that Leonardo painted a round wooden shield with a picture of snakes spitting fire. Messer Piero took his son's painting to Florence and sold it to an art dealer.[12]
+
+In 1466, when Leonardo was fourteen, his father took him to Florence, to be an apprentice to the artist Verrocchio.
+
+Florence was a very exciting place for a young person who wanted to be an artist. Many famous artists had lived in Florence, starting with Cimabue and Giotto in the 1200s. Everywhere a person looked there were famous and beautiful artworks. The huge cathedral had an enormous new dome. The church of St John had doors that gleamed with gold and were said to be the most beautiful doors in the world. Another church had statues all around it by the most famous sculptors, including one by Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio.
+
+If an artist was lucky, they would find a rich patron who would buy lots of their paintings. The richest family in Florence were the Medici. They had built themselves the finest palace in Florence, and liked buying paintings, statues and other beautiful things. They were also interested in the study of literature and philosophy. Many young artists hoped to get work from the Medici and their friends.
+
+Verrocchio had a big workshop that was one of the busiest in Florence. Leonardo was learning to be an artist, so he had to learn drawing, painting, sculpting and model making. While he was at the workshop, he was able to learn all sorts of other useful skills: chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry.[13][14][15]
+
+Leonardo was not the only young painter at Verrocchio's workshop. Many other painters were trained there, or often visited. Some of them later became famous: Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Botticelli. These artists were all just a few years older than Leonardo.[11][16]
+
+Giorgio Vasari tells an interesting story from this time of Leonardo's life. Verrocchio was painting a large picture of the Baptism of Christ. He gave Leonardo the job of painting one of the angels holding Jesus' robe on the left side of the picture. Vasari said that Leonardo painted the angel so beautifully that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again.[12] When the painting is examined closely it is possible to see that many other parts of the picture, such as the rocks, the brown stream and the background may have been painted by Leonardo as well.[6] Verrocchio made a bronze statue of David at this time. It is believed that he used Leonardo as his model.[6]
+
+In about 1472, when he was twenty, Leonardo joined the Guild of St Luke, an organisation of artists and doctors of medicine. Even after his father set him up in his own workshop, Leonardo still enjoyed working at Verrocchio's workshop.[11] Leonardo's earliest known work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno River valley. It has the date 5 August 1473. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery.[16]
+
+When Vasari writes about Leonardo, he uses words like "noble", "generous", "graceful" and "beautiful". Vasari tells us that as an adult Leonardo was a tall handsome man. He was so strong that he could bend horseshoes with his bare hands. His voice was so beautiful that it charmed everyone that heard it. Almost everyone wanted to be his friend. He loved animals, was a vegetarian and would buy birds at the market and set them free.[17]
+
+Very little is known about Leonardo's life and work between 1472 and 1481. He was probably busy in Florence.[6] In 1478, he had an important commission to paint an altarpiece for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. The painting was to be the Adoration of the Magi (The Three Wise Men). The painting was never finished because Leonardo was sent away to Milan.
+
+Leonardo was a very talented musician.[18] In 1482, he made a silver lyre (a musical instrument) in the shape of a horse's head. At that time there was a new ruler in the city of Milan, in the north of Italy. Duke Ludovico il Moro was making other rulers nervous. Lorenzo Medici sent Leonardo to Milan as an ambassador. Lorenzo de' Medici wanted Leonardo to give Ludovico the lyre as a present from him.[19] Leonardo wrote a letter to the Duke of Milan, telling him about all the clever and useful things that he could do, like making war machines. He wrote in the letter that he could "also paint". Leonardo did not know at the time that it was for painting that he would be mostly remembered.[16][20] Leonardo stayed in Milan and worked for the Duke between 1482 and 1499. Part of his work was to design festivals and carnival processions. In Leonardo's note books are drawings of theatre costumes, amazing helmets and scenes that might be for the theatre.
+
+Leonardo, like most other well-known artists of his time, had servants, young students and older assistants in his workshop. One of his young students was a boy whose name was Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno. He was a handsome boy with beautiful long golden curls. He looked perfect as an artist's model for an angel. But he was such a difficult and dishonest boy that Leonardo called him "Salai" or "Salaino" which means "the little devil". Leonardo wrote in his notebook that Salai was very greedy, that he was a liar and that he had stolen things from the house at least five times.[21] Salai stayed in Leonardo's household for thirty years as a pupil and a servant.
+
+Leonardo's most important work for Duke Ludovico was to make a huge statue of the previous ruler, Francesco Sforza, on horseback. He started with the horse. After studying horses and drawing designs, he made a huge horse of clay. It was called the "Gran Cavallo". It was going to be cast in bronze. It was going to be the biggest bronze horse that had been made for more than a thousand years. Unfortunately, the bronze horse was never made. In 1494, Ludovico gave the bronze to be made into cannons because the French army was invading Milan.[16] The huge clay horse was still standing when the French army invaded again in 1499. This time it was used for target practice and was completely destroyed.[16]
+
+While Leonardo was working for Duke Ludovico, he had two important painting commissions. One was to do an oil painting to go in a big altarpiece for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. Leonardo did the painting twice. He left one with the monks in Milan, and took the other painting to France where it is now in the Louvre Museum. The paintings are both called the Virgin of the Rocks. They show a scene of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus in a rocky mysterious landscape. Mary and Jesus are meeting with John the Baptist. There is a story (which is not in the Bible but is part of Christian tradition) about how the baby John and the baby Jesus met on the road to Egypt. In this scene John is praying and the baby Jesus raises his hand to bless John. The paintings have a strange eerie light with soft deep shadows. In the background is a lake and mountains in the mist. No painting like this had ever been done before.[16]
+
+Leonardo's other important painting in Milan is even more famous. It is the Last Supper. The painting shows the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples, before his capture and death. Leonardo chose to paint the moment when Jesus has said "one of you will betray me". Leonardo tells the story of the surprise and upset that this caused to the twelve followers of Jesus.[16] He tells the story through the actions and faces of the people in the painting. Some of them are talking, some of them have stood up, some are raising their hands in horror.
+
+The novelist Matteo Bandello saw Leonardo at work. Bandello wrote that on some days he would paint from morning till night without stopping to eat. Then for three or four days he would not paint at all. He would often just stand and look at the painting.[22] Vasari said that the prior of the convent was very annoyed. He asked Ludovico to tell Leonardo to work faster. Vasari said that Leonardo was worried because he did not think that he could paint the face of Jesus well enough. Leonardo told the Duke that he might use the face of the prior as his model for Judas, the traitor.[12]
+
+When it was finished, everyone that saw it said that the painting was a masterpiece.[12] But Leonardo had not used proper fresco for the painting. He had used tempera over gesso, which is not usually used for wall painting. Soon the painting started to grow mold and flake off the wall. In a hundred years it was "completely ruined".[6]
+Even though in some places the paint has fallen right off the wall, the painting is so popular that it is printed and copied more that any other religious painting in the world.
+
+In 1499, Ludovico il Moro was overthrown. Leonardo left Milan with his servant Salai and a friend, Luca Pacioli, who was a mathematician. They went to Venice. Leonardo worked as a military architect and engineer. Because Venice is a city on many islands, Leonardo tried to think of ways to defend the city from a naval attack.[6][11]
+
+In 1500, Leonardo went back to Florence, taking his "household" of servants and apprentices with him. The monks from the monastery of The Holy Annunciation gave Leonardo a home and a large workshop. In 2005, some buildings which were used by the Department of Military Geography were being restored. The restorers discovered that part of the building was Leonardo's studio.[23]
+
+Leonardo started work on a new painting. He drew a large "cartoon". (This means a drawing that is a plan for the painting.) The cartoon showed the Virgin Mary sitting on the knee of her mother, St Anne. Mary holds the baby Jesus in her arms. Jesus stretches out his hands to his young cousin John the Baptist. Vasari says that everyone was so amazed by the beautiful drawing that "men and women, young and old" came in large groups to see it "as if they were attending a great festival".[12] The drawing is now in the National Gallery, London. Even though it is old and faded and is kept in a dark room, people go to the gallery to sit in front of it every day. Like many of Leonardo's projects, the painting was never done.
+
+In 1502 and 1503, Leonardo worked for Cesare Borgia, a powerful noble who was the son of Pope Alexander VI. Leonardo travelled around Italy with Borgia, as a military architect and engineer.[6] Late in 1503, Leonardo returned to Florence. He rejoined the Guild of St Luke.
+
+He was given a very important commission. The Signoria (Town Council) of the City of Florence wanted two large frescos painted on the walls of the most important room of the Signoria Palace. Michelangelo was to paint The Battle of Cascina and Leonardo was to paint The Battle of Anghiari.[6]  Leonardo began the project by studying and drawing the faces of angry men and fighting horses. These drawings can still be seen in his notebooks. But unfortunately, this was to be another failure for Leonardo. When he painted the picture on the wall, instead of using fresco, he mixed the paints with oil. The paint would not dry. Leonardo lit some fires to dry it, and the painting melted. Peter Paul Rubens drew a copy of the middle part. After a time, the town council covered it up and got somebody else to paint the wall. Michelangelo did not finish his painting either, because the Pope called him to Rome.[6]
+
+In about 1503 Leonardo began painting the portrait of a woman known as Mona Lisa, the most famous portrait that has ever been painted. He continued working on it for many years. It is a small picture, painted in oil on a wooden panel. It shows the face, upper body and hands of a woman. She is very plainly dressed. For a portrait, a woman would usually put on her best clothes and jewellery. Mona Lisa has a dark dress and a fine black veil over her head. Leonardo often left symbols in his paintings that give clues about the person. The unusual thing about this picture is the smile. The smile is the clue to her name: Mona Lisa Giacondo. Giacondo means "the joking one". (Mona is short for Madonna which means "My Lady".)
+
+The reason why the painting is so famous is that it seems to be full of mystery. Mona Lisa's eyes look out at the viewer. But no-one can guess what she is thinking. Her eyes and her mouth seem to be smiling. This is very unusual in a portrait painting. Most people in portraits look very serious. It is hard to tell what Mona Lisa's exact expression is. When a person wants to read another person's feelings, they look at the corners of their mouth and eyes. But Leonardo has painted soft shadows in the corners of Mona Lisa's mouth and eyes, to disguise her expression. The soft shadows are also found on the sides of her face, her neck and hands. The way that Leonardo uses shadow is called "sfumato" (which is an Italian word for "smoke"). Vasari said that the picture was so beautifully painted that every other artist who looked at it thought that they could never paint so well.[12]
+
+In 1506, Leonardo went back to Milan with his pupils, and lived in his own house in Porta Orientale. Some of the pupils became painters: Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco D'Oggione.[11] D'Oggione made several copies of the Last Supper. Luini made a copy of the Virgin of the Rocks. Boltraffio (and the others) painted many Madonna and Child pictures which can still be seen in art galleries and churches. One of pupils was a young nobleman called Count Francesco Melzi. Melzi never became a very good painter, but he loved Leonardo and stayed with him until the day he died.
+
+In September 1513 Leonardo went to Rome and lived there until 1516. He lived in the Vatican. The three greatest painters of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were all working in Rome at the same time.[6] Even though their names are often said together as if they were friends, they were not. Leonardo at this time was in his sixties, Michelangelo was middle-aged. He was not friendly to either Leonardo or Raphael. Raphael was a very clever young painter who learnt a lot by looking at the pictures painted by Leonardo and Michelangelo. But neither of them was ever his teacher.
+
+In October 1515, King Francis I of France captured Milan.[22] On December 19, there was a meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, in Bologna. Leonardo went to the meeting with Pope Leo.[11][24][25]
+Leonardo made an amazing toy to entertain King Francis. It was a life-sized mechanical lion that could walk. It had doors in its chest which opened, and a bunch of lilies came out. Lilies were the royal symbol of the French Kings.[12]
+
+In 1516, Francis I invited Leonardo to go to France with him. He gave Leonardo a beautiful house called Clos Lucé (sometimes called "Cloux"). It is near the king's palace, Chateau Amboise. Leonardo spent the last three years of his life at Clos Lucé, with his faithful friend and apprentice, Count Melzi. The king gave Leonardo a pension of 10,000 scudi.[6] One of the last paintings that Leonardo did was a picture of John the Baptist. His model was Salai, with his beautiful long curling hair.
+
+When Leonardo was dying, he asked for a priest to come, so that he could make his confession and receive Holy Communion.[12]
+Leonardo died at Clos Lucé, on May 2, 1519. King Francis had become a close friend. Vasari says that the King held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died. In his will, he asked that sixty beggars should follow his casket in procession. He was buried in the Chapel of the Chateau Amboise.
+
+Leonardo had never married and had no children of his own. In his will, he left his money, his books and most of his paintings to Count Melzi. Leonardo also remembered his other pupil Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards near Milan. Leonardo's left to his serving woman a black cloak with a fur edge.[26] Salai was the owner of Leonardo's most famous oil painting, the Mona Lisa. He still owned it a few years later when he died, after fighting in a duel.[27]
+
+King Francis said: "There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher."[28][29]
+
+Leonardo did not paint very many pictures. But he drew hundreds of quick sketches, plans, maps and detailed drawings. This is the way that he recorded all the interesting things that he saw, studied and thought about.
+
+Some of Leonardo's drawings are "studies" for paintings. In these drawings Leonardo planned the things he was going to paint. Some studies are plans for whole paintings. One of these paintings is the large beautiful drawing of the Madonna and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist that is now in the National Gallery, London.
+
+Many of the studies show "details" that Leonardo wanted to get just right. One study shows a very detailed perspective drawing of the ruined buildings in the background of the painting of the Magi. Other studies show hands, faces, drapery, plants, horses and babies.[30]
+The earliest drawing by Leonardo that has a date on it, is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.[11][30]
+
+Leonardo studied things all his life. He did not go to university to study. He studied by looking at things in the world around him. He looked at things to see how they were made and how they worked. He drew the things that he saw and the discoveries that he made into his notebooks, and made notes about them. Many of his notebooks are now in museums. There are 13,000 pages of notes and drawings. Many of these are scientific studies.[16]
+
+Leonardo's notebooks are hard to read because he wrote backwards in "mirror writing". Some people think that perhaps he was trying to keep his work secret. This is not true. Leonardo wrote (and sometimes drew) with his left hand. In those days pens were made from a quill (a large feather) that was cut with a pen-knife on the end. It is hard for a left-handed person to write with a quill in the ordinary way, but quite easy to write backwards.
+
+It is likely that Leonardo planned to publish the studies in his notebooks. He organized many pages carefully, with one study taking up the front and back of each page. There is a page with drawings and writing about the human heart and a page about the womb and the fetus.[31] One page shows drawings of the muscles of a shoulder and another page shows how an arm works.[32]
+
+The notebooks were not published in Leonardo's lifetime. After he died, they were divided between different people who had known him. They are nearly all in museums or libraries such as Windsor Castle, the Louvre, and the British Library. The Biblioteca Ambrosiana (a library) in Milan has the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus.[16]
+
+Some of the things that Leonardo studied are:[2]
+
+Many of the drawings and notes in Leonardo's notebooks are designs, plans and inventions.
+
+Some of the things that Leonardo designed are:[2]
+
+Study of a skull
+
+Study of a horse for the Duke's statue
+
+Study of a sedge plant
+
+Rhombicuboctahedron published in Pacioli's book
+
+A parabolic compass.
+
+A Helicopter.
+
+Cannons.
+
+Walking on water.
+
+Modern model of Leonardo's parachute.
+
+Modern model of a bridge designed by Leonardo.
+
+Modern model of a tank by Leonardo
+
+Modern model of a flywheel
+
+ISBN 978-88-96036-65-5

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+Wine is an alcoholic drink. The word wine is usually used to talk about drinks made from the juice of grapes, although people sometimes call alcoholic drinks made from the juice of other fruits (such as plums or blackberries) "wine". This article only deals with wine made from grapes.
+
+Wine is made by the fermentation of the sugar in grapes. There are two main types of wine, red wine and white wine.  Red wine is made from red grapes in contact with their skins, and white wine is made from red and white grapes, but without any skin contact. Rosé wine is made by leaving red grapes in skin contact for a very short time. The colour comes only from the skin, so if you have short skin contact, the wine will not turn red but only "pink" (rose wine).  Wine sometimes has bubbles in it; this wine is called sparkling wine. The most popular sparkling wines are champagne, which comes from France and spumante, from Italy.
+
+People have been making wine for about 5000 years.
+
+Wine is a popular drink in many countries. The countries that drink the most wine (using numbers from the year 2000) are:
+
+However, if you make a list of countries where the average person drinks the most wine, the list is different:
+
+Luxembourg, France, Italy, Portugal, Croatia, Switzerland, Spain, Argentina, Uruguay, and Slovenia.
+
+Wine is made in many countries. The countries that make the most wine (using 2015 numbers) are:
+
+Italy, France, Spain, USA, Argentina, Chile, Australia, South Africa, China and Germany.

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+The violin is a string instrument which has four strings and is played with a bow.[1] The strings are usually tuned to the notes G, D, A, and E.[2]  It is held between the left collar bone (near the shoulder) and the chin. Different notes are made by fingering (pressing on the strings) with the left hand while bowing with the right. Unlike guitar, it has no frets or other markers on the fingerboard.
+
+The violin is the smallest and highest pitched string instrument typically used in western music.[3] A person who plays the violin is called a violinist. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier.
+
+The violin is important in European and Arabian music. No other instrument has played such an important part in Europe. The modern violin is about 400 years old. Similar string instruments have been around for almost 1000 years. By the time the modern orchestras started to form in the 17th century, the violin was nearly fully developed. It became the most important orchestral instrument - in fact, nearly half of the instruments in the orchestra is made up of violins, which are divided into two parts: "first violins" and "second violins". Nearly every composer wrote for the violin, whether as a solo instrument, in chamber music, in orchestral music, folk music, and even in jazz.
+
+The violin is sometimes called a “fiddle”.  Someone who plays it is a “fiddler”. To "fiddle" means "to play the fiddle". This word can be used as a nickname for the violin. It is properly used when talking about folk music.
+
+The word “violin” is related to the word “viol”. The violin was not made directly from the instruments called viols. The word violin comes from the Middle Latin word vitula. It means stringed instrument.[4] This word is also believed to be the source of the Germanic “fiddle”.[5] The modern European violin changed over time from many different bowed stringed instruments. They were brought from the Middle East[6] and the Byzantine Empire.[7][8]  Most likely, the first makers of violins took ideas from three kinds of current instruments. They are the rebec, in use since the 10th century,[9] the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio.[10] These instruments were held under the chin and bowed.
+
+In the 17th century, there were several families of luthiers who were very good at making instruments. The most famous violin makers were Stradivarius, Amati, and Guarneri.  Some of the instruments that these luthiers made are still here today. They are kept in museums all around the world. They are some of the best instruments in existence.[11] They can have prices over one million dollars.[12]
+
+The biggest part of the violin is the wooden body. This acts as a resonating box. It makes the vibrating strings sound louder. Many of the parts of the violin are named after parts of the body. The front is called the “belly”. The back is called the “back”. The sides are the “ribs”. The strings go from near the top of the “neck” down the “fingerboard” and on to the “tail piece”. The strings go across the bridge halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the tailpiece. The bridge is not fixed onto the violin. It is held in place by the strings. The strings keep it in place because they are so tight. If the strings are completely loosened, the bridge will not stay on. The bridge helps to send the vibrations of the strings down to the body of the instrument. Inside the body there is a “soundpost”. This is a small piece of wood. It looks like a small finger. It goes from the belly to the back. The soundpost is also held in place by the strings. In the middle of the belly there are two long, curved holes. They are called “f holes”. This is because of their shape. The top of the strings are wound around pegs.  The violin can be tuned by turning the pegs. The very top of the neck is called the scroll. Violins today also have a chinrest. This helps to hold the violin against the player's shoulder. A shoulder rest can also be used. These are now made of foam. They have special legs to hold them on to the violin.  Many beginners prefer to use a sponge and an elastic band instead.
+
+To make it easier to tune the violin, many people find it helpful to have “adjusters” for “fine tuning” when the string is only slightly out of tune.  These adjusters go through holes in the tailpiece.  They stop the strings from slipping when being tuned.
+
+Strings used to be made of gut. They are now mostly made of steel or nylon. Adjusters can only be used with some strings. The front of the violin body is made of spruce. The back and sides of the body are made of maple. The bow can be made of several kinds of wood. An example would be pernambuco. Some players today use bows made of carbon fibre. The bow is strung with horsehair (horsehair is hair that comes from the back of the horse's head also known as the mane or from the horse's tail).
+
+It takes years of practice to become a good violinist.  A beginner will start with pieces and or exercises that do not require precise or complicated technique in right or left hand.  Some examples of pieces that do not require great technique are Twinkle Twinkle Little Star by Mozart, Children's Song (A German folk tune), and Over the Rainbow.  During these "simple" songs, the violinist will develop fundamental skills necessary for all other techniques, such as proper bow and violin holding.  As the musician develops more and more confidence and skill in both left and right hand, pieces and exercises will become progressively more difficult.  When necessary, they will also learn techniques and skills that will enhance their playing.  Vibrato, smooth bow changes in the right hand, and shifting.
+
+The violinist has to learn to put the fingers in exactly the right place so that the music is “in tune”. This is called intonation. The musician will also learn vibrato. This changes the intonation of each note slightly by making it a little bit sharper (higher), then a little bit flatter (lower), producing a kind of wobble. This is important in many styles of music to create mood.
+
+Besides plucking (pizzicato), there are many special effects. Some of them are glissando, portamento, and harmonics. There is also double stopping, chords, and scordatura tuning.
+
+The violin can be played either standing or sitting down. When playing solo music the violinist normally stands. When playing in chamber music or in orchestras the violinist sits, but this was not always the case. When sitting, the violinist may have to turn his or her right leg in so that it does not get in the way of the bow.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries, composers wrote a lot of music for solo violin. Many of these composers were from Italy. They were themselves violinists. Some of these violinists are Corelli, Vitali, Vivaldi, Veracini, Geminiani, Locatelli and Tartini.
+In Germany, Schmelzer and Biber wrote some very virtuoso violin music. Later, in the early 18th century, Bach and Handel wrote many masterpieces for the violin.
+
+In the Classical music period, the great composers Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote solo works for the violin. They also wrote a large amount of chamber music, especially string quartets.
+
+In the Romantic period many virtuoso violin works were written. These include concertos by Mendelssohn, Saint-Saëns, Brahms, Bruch, Wieniawski, Tchaikovsky, and Dvořák. In the 20th century, many virtuoso works were written. These include Elgar, Sibelius, Szymanowski, Bartók, Stravinsky, Berg, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Hindemith, and Penderecki. In the 19th century, Niccolò Paganini was the most famous violinist. He composed and played violin music that was harder than anything that had been written before. People compared him to the devil because he could play so brilliantly and because he looked thin and moved his body about in strange ways.[13]
+
+In recent years the violin has also been used in jazz playing. Stéphane Grappelli was especially famous for this.
+
+Some of the most famous violinists of the last century are Fritz Kreisler, Jascha Heifetz, David Oistrakh, Yehudi Menuhin, Ida Haendel, and Isaac Stern. Today some of the greatest players include Itzhak Perlman, Maxim Vengerov, Vadim Repin, Nigel Kennedy, Hilary Hahn, Joshua Bell and fiddler Sara Watkins.
+

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+Violence is when someone attacks someone else, often to get them to do something they do not want to do by making them feel pain or fear. Violence can mean anything from one person hitting another to a war between many countries that causes millions of deaths. Different people may see different acts as violent. Laws are created often to control violence.
+
+Violence can be:

ensimple/5999.html.txt

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+Violence is when someone attacks someone else, often to get them to do something they do not want to do by making them feel pain or fear. Violence can mean anything from one person hitting another to a war between many countries that causes millions of deaths. Different people may see different acts as violent. Laws are created often to control violence.
+
+Violence can be:

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+
+
+Apiformes (from Latin 'apis')
+
+
+
+Bees are flying insects of the Hymenoptera, which also includes ants, wasps and sawflies. There are about 20,000 species of bees.[1] Bees collect pollen from flowers. Bees can be found on all continents except Antarctica.
+
+Bees fall into four groups:
+
+The European Honey Bee (called Apis mellifera by Biologists), is kept by humans for honey. Keeping bees to make honey is called Beekeeping, or apiculture.
+
+The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were pollinated by insects such as  big beetles, long before bees first appeared. Bees are different because they are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that make pollination easier. Bees are generally better at the task than other pollinating insects such as beetles, flies, butterflies and pollen wasps. The appearance of such floral specialists is believed to have driven the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves.
+
+Bees, like ants, are a specialized form of wasp. The ancestors of bees were wasps in a family which preyed on other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the capture of prey insects that were covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. Similar behaviour could be switched to pollen collection. This same evolutionary scenario has occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the group known as "pollen wasps" also evolved from predatory ancestors.
+
+A recently reported bee fossil, of the genus Melittosphex, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea, sister-group to the modern bees", and dates from the Lower Cretaceous (~100 mya).[2] Features of its morphology  place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits of the legs which betray its origin.[3] The issue is still under debate, and the phylogenetic relationships among bee families are poorly understood.
+
+Like other insects, the body of a bee can be divided into three parts: the head, thorax (the middle part), and abdomen (the back part). Also like other insects, bees have three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Many bees are hairy and have yellow and black or orange and black warning colors.
+
+Many bees have stings (like a hollow needle) on the rear of their bodies. If they get confused, angry, or scared they may sting, and inject venom, which hurts. Once a worker bee has stung it dies after a short while, but other types of bee and wasp can sting again. Some people are allergic to bee stings and can even die from them.
+
+Some bees are eusocial insects; this means they live in organized groups called colonies. Honey bees, the kind of bee used in beekeeping, are eusocial. The home of a bee colony is called a hive. One hive is made up of only one queen.
+
+There are three kinds of bees in a honey bee colony. A queen bee is the most important bee in the colony because she will lay the eggs. The queen bee only uses her stinger to sting other queen bees. The queen is usually the mother of the worker bees. She ate a special jelly called royal jelly from when she was young. Worker bees are females too, and they are the bees that collect pollen from flowers and will fight to protect the colony. Workers do a waggle dance to tell the others where they have found nectar; Karl von Frisch discovered this.
+
+Drone bees (males) mate with the queen bee so that she can lay eggs.  The only function of the male drone is to mate.  They do no other work in the hive.

ensimple/60.html.txt

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+An airport is a place where airplanes can land or take off. Most airports in the world have only a long strip of level ground called a runway. Many airports have buildings which are used to hold airplanes and passengers. A building that holds passengers waiting for their planes or luggage is called a terminal. The sections between planes and the terminal are called "gates". Airports also have buildings called hangars to hold planes when they are not used. Some airports have buildings to control the airport, like a control tower which tells planes where to go.
+
+An international airport is a large airport that airplanes can use to fly to and from other countries. A domestic airport is an airport which is usually smaller and only has airplanes coming from places in the same country. Most international airports have shops and restaurants for airplane passengers to use.
+
+An airport used by the military is often called an air force base or airbase. An aircraft carrier is a floating airbase.
+
+Airports are made and operated for safety. Today, people must walk through a metal detector, a machine that can tell if metal goes through it. If it makes a noise, the officers will make that person take off all things on them that are metal. They also have X-ray machines that can look into luggage. If officers find items such as weapons, or anything that can be used to kill people, that item (and the person who has it) are taken away and possibly arrested. As well as this, passengers are not allowed to bring bottles or containers with over 100 ml of liquid onto the plane because they could be turned into bombs. Therefore, all water bottles must be emptied before entering the secured area.

ensimple/600.html.txt

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+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

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+The cello is an instrument used to play music. Its name comes from the Italian language, so it is pronounced “chello”. The full word is violoncello, but when speaking, people normally call it the “cello”. A person who plays the cello is called a “cellist”. The cello is a very popular instrument.  It belongs to the string family. It has many uses: as a solo instrument, in chamber music and also in orchestras. It is also occasionally used by pop musicians, e.g. by The Beatles, Björk and Jamiroquai.
+
+The cello came into use in the 16th century.  At that time there was a family of instruments called the viols.  The instruments of the violin family were also developing  and there were lots of experiments with instruments of different shapes and sizes.  The violone was popular as a bass instrument. It was similar to a modern double bass. The name violoncello,  means "little violone". The cello also has 4 strings. The cello developed as the bass instrument in string groups (the double bass was added later, “doubling the bass” i.e. playing the same as the cello an octave lower). It was used to accompany in basso continuo, playing the same as the left hand of the harpsichord player.  When composers started to write concerti grossi (pieces for orchestra and a small group of soloists), they started to give the cello small solos.  In this way the cello started to be used as a solo instrument as well.  Johann Sebastian Bach wrote six very famous suites for solo cello (unaccompanied).  They are among the most beautiful pieces written for the cello.
+
+Other composers started to write works for solo cello.  Joseph Haydn wrote two solo concertos for the instrument.  King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia loved the cello, and he inspired Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven to write music with interesting cello parts.  The cello was now an equal with the other string instruments, no longer just playing a simple bass line.
+
+In the 19th century many famous composers wrote cello music.  A lot of them were cellists themselves e.g. Carl Davidov, David Popper and Julius Klengel.  Some very famous composers who wrote important cello music were: Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, Dvořák, Fauré, Saint-Saëns, Elgar, Sergei Rakhmaninov.  Two  famous pieces written more recently for cello and orchestra are the Cello Symphony by Benjamin Britten  and The Protecting Veil by John Tavener.
+
+The parts of the cello are similar to those of the violin. The strings are tuned to C-G-D-A, (low to high). The cello is played sitting down and holding the instrument between the knees. There is an end-pin which rests on the ground. This is adjustable in height so that the player can put it in a position to make himself/herself comfortable. The cello is normally played with a bow.
+
+The cello has a deep, rich sound. It starts two octaves below middle C, but can go very high. For the highest notes the player can use “thumb position” (a violinist cannot do this). This means that the left thumb is pressing down on one or two strings high up over the fingerboard (“high” means “nearer the bridge” where the high notes are. In fact, it is nearer to the floor). Although cello music is most frequently written in the bass clef, cello music often goes quite high so that the tenor clef is used especially in the solo repertory.
+
+The most famous cellist of the early part of the 1900s was the Spanish cellist Pablo Casals.  He made the cello popular as a solo instrument today. Casals also discovered the famous Suites for cello by J.S. Bach which had been lost.
+
+Some other famous cellists of the last century include Emanuel Feuermann, Gregor Piatigorski,  Paul Tortelier, Jacqueline du Pré and Mstislav Rostropovich.
+
+Cellists of today include Yo-Yo Ma, Julian Lloyd Webber, Octavia Philharmonica, Mischa Maisky, Kirill Rodin, Tim Hugh, Robert Cohen, Ruslan Biryukov, Pieter Wispelwey and Truls Mørk.

ensimple/6001.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The cello is an instrument used to play music. Its name comes from the Italian language, so it is pronounced “chello”. The full word is violoncello, but when speaking, people normally call it the “cello”. A person who plays the cello is called a “cellist”. The cello is a very popular instrument.  It belongs to the string family. It has many uses: as a solo instrument, in chamber music and also in orchestras. It is also occasionally used by pop musicians, e.g. by The Beatles, Björk and Jamiroquai.
+
+The cello came into use in the 16th century.  At that time there was a family of instruments called the viols.  The instruments of the violin family were also developing  and there were lots of experiments with instruments of different shapes and sizes.  The violone was popular as a bass instrument. It was similar to a modern double bass. The name violoncello,  means "little violone". The cello also has 4 strings. The cello developed as the bass instrument in string groups (the double bass was added later, “doubling the bass” i.e. playing the same as the cello an octave lower). It was used to accompany in basso continuo, playing the same as the left hand of the harpsichord player.  When composers started to write concerti grossi (pieces for orchestra and a small group of soloists), they started to give the cello small solos.  In this way the cello started to be used as a solo instrument as well.  Johann Sebastian Bach wrote six very famous suites for solo cello (unaccompanied).  They are among the most beautiful pieces written for the cello.
+
+Other composers started to write works for solo cello.  Joseph Haydn wrote two solo concertos for the instrument.  King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia loved the cello, and he inspired Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven to write music with interesting cello parts.  The cello was now an equal with the other string instruments, no longer just playing a simple bass line.
+
+In the 19th century many famous composers wrote cello music.  A lot of them were cellists themselves e.g. Carl Davidov, David Popper and Julius Klengel.  Some very famous composers who wrote important cello music were: Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, Dvořák, Fauré, Saint-Saëns, Elgar, Sergei Rakhmaninov.  Two  famous pieces written more recently for cello and orchestra are the Cello Symphony by Benjamin Britten  and The Protecting Veil by John Tavener.
+
+The parts of the cello are similar to those of the violin. The strings are tuned to C-G-D-A, (low to high). The cello is played sitting down and holding the instrument between the knees. There is an end-pin which rests on the ground. This is adjustable in height so that the player can put it in a position to make himself/herself comfortable. The cello is normally played with a bow.
+
+The cello has a deep, rich sound. It starts two octaves below middle C, but can go very high. For the highest notes the player can use “thumb position” (a violinist cannot do this). This means that the left thumb is pressing down on one or two strings high up over the fingerboard (“high” means “nearer the bridge” where the high notes are. In fact, it is nearer to the floor). Although cello music is most frequently written in the bass clef, cello music often goes quite high so that the tenor clef is used especially in the solo repertory.
+
+The most famous cellist of the early part of the 1900s was the Spanish cellist Pablo Casals.  He made the cello popular as a solo instrument today. Casals also discovered the famous Suites for cello by J.S. Bach which had been lost.
+
+Some other famous cellists of the last century include Emanuel Feuermann, Gregor Piatigorski,  Paul Tortelier, Jacqueline du Pré and Mstislav Rostropovich.
+
+Cellists of today include Yo-Yo Ma, Julian Lloyd Webber, Octavia Philharmonica, Mischa Maisky, Kirill Rodin, Tim Hugh, Robert Cohen, Ruslan Biryukov, Pieter Wispelwey and Truls Mørk.

ensimple/6002.html.txt

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+The violin is a string instrument which has four strings and is played with a bow.[1] The strings are usually tuned to the notes G, D, A, and E.[2]  It is held between the left collar bone (near the shoulder) and the chin. Different notes are made by fingering (pressing on the strings) with the left hand while bowing with the right. Unlike guitar, it has no frets or other markers on the fingerboard.
+
+The violin is the smallest and highest pitched string instrument typically used in western music.[3] A person who plays the violin is called a violinist. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier.
+
+The violin is important in European and Arabian music. No other instrument has played such an important part in Europe. The modern violin is about 400 years old. Similar string instruments have been around for almost 1000 years. By the time the modern orchestras started to form in the 17th century, the violin was nearly fully developed. It became the most important orchestral instrument - in fact, nearly half of the instruments in the orchestra is made up of violins, which are divided into two parts: "first violins" and "second violins". Nearly every composer wrote for the violin, whether as a solo instrument, in chamber music, in orchestral music, folk music, and even in jazz.
+
+The violin is sometimes called a “fiddle”.  Someone who plays it is a “fiddler”. To "fiddle" means "to play the fiddle". This word can be used as a nickname for the violin. It is properly used when talking about folk music.
+
+The word “violin” is related to the word “viol”. The violin was not made directly from the instruments called viols. The word violin comes from the Middle Latin word vitula. It means stringed instrument.[4] This word is also believed to be the source of the Germanic “fiddle”.[5] The modern European violin changed over time from many different bowed stringed instruments. They were brought from the Middle East[6] and the Byzantine Empire.[7][8]  Most likely, the first makers of violins took ideas from three kinds of current instruments. They are the rebec, in use since the 10th century,[9] the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio.[10] These instruments were held under the chin and bowed.
+
+In the 17th century, there were several families of luthiers who were very good at making instruments. The most famous violin makers were Stradivarius, Amati, and Guarneri.  Some of the instruments that these luthiers made are still here today. They are kept in museums all around the world. They are some of the best instruments in existence.[11] They can have prices over one million dollars.[12]
+
+The biggest part of the violin is the wooden body. This acts as a resonating box. It makes the vibrating strings sound louder. Many of the parts of the violin are named after parts of the body. The front is called the “belly”. The back is called the “back”. The sides are the “ribs”. The strings go from near the top of the “neck” down the “fingerboard” and on to the “tail piece”. The strings go across the bridge halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the tailpiece. The bridge is not fixed onto the violin. It is held in place by the strings. The strings keep it in place because they are so tight. If the strings are completely loosened, the bridge will not stay on. The bridge helps to send the vibrations of the strings down to the body of the instrument. Inside the body there is a “soundpost”. This is a small piece of wood. It looks like a small finger. It goes from the belly to the back. The soundpost is also held in place by the strings. In the middle of the belly there are two long, curved holes. They are called “f holes”. This is because of their shape. The top of the strings are wound around pegs.  The violin can be tuned by turning the pegs. The very top of the neck is called the scroll. Violins today also have a chinrest. This helps to hold the violin against the player's shoulder. A shoulder rest can also be used. These are now made of foam. They have special legs to hold them on to the violin.  Many beginners prefer to use a sponge and an elastic band instead.
+
+To make it easier to tune the violin, many people find it helpful to have “adjusters” for “fine tuning” when the string is only slightly out of tune.  These adjusters go through holes in the tailpiece.  They stop the strings from slipping when being tuned.
+
+Strings used to be made of gut. They are now mostly made of steel or nylon. Adjusters can only be used with some strings. The front of the violin body is made of spruce. The back and sides of the body are made of maple. The bow can be made of several kinds of wood. An example would be pernambuco. Some players today use bows made of carbon fibre. The bow is strung with horsehair (horsehair is hair that comes from the back of the horse's head also known as the mane or from the horse's tail).
+
+It takes years of practice to become a good violinist.  A beginner will start with pieces and or exercises that do not require precise or complicated technique in right or left hand.  Some examples of pieces that do not require great technique are Twinkle Twinkle Little Star by Mozart, Children's Song (A German folk tune), and Over the Rainbow.  During these "simple" songs, the violinist will develop fundamental skills necessary for all other techniques, such as proper bow and violin holding.  As the musician develops more and more confidence and skill in both left and right hand, pieces and exercises will become progressively more difficult.  When necessary, they will also learn techniques and skills that will enhance their playing.  Vibrato, smooth bow changes in the right hand, and shifting.
+
+The violinist has to learn to put the fingers in exactly the right place so that the music is “in tune”. This is called intonation. The musician will also learn vibrato. This changes the intonation of each note slightly by making it a little bit sharper (higher), then a little bit flatter (lower), producing a kind of wobble. This is important in many styles of music to create mood.
+
+Besides plucking (pizzicato), there are many special effects. Some of them are glissando, portamento, and harmonics. There is also double stopping, chords, and scordatura tuning.
+
+The violin can be played either standing or sitting down. When playing solo music the violinist normally stands. When playing in chamber music or in orchestras the violinist sits, but this was not always the case. When sitting, the violinist may have to turn his or her right leg in so that it does not get in the way of the bow.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries, composers wrote a lot of music for solo violin. Many of these composers were from Italy. They were themselves violinists. Some of these violinists are Corelli, Vitali, Vivaldi, Veracini, Geminiani, Locatelli and Tartini.
+In Germany, Schmelzer and Biber wrote some very virtuoso violin music. Later, in the early 18th century, Bach and Handel wrote many masterpieces for the violin.
+
+In the Classical music period, the great composers Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote solo works for the violin. They also wrote a large amount of chamber music, especially string quartets.
+
+In the Romantic period many virtuoso violin works were written. These include concertos by Mendelssohn, Saint-Saëns, Brahms, Bruch, Wieniawski, Tchaikovsky, and Dvořák. In the 20th century, many virtuoso works were written. These include Elgar, Sibelius, Szymanowski, Bartók, Stravinsky, Berg, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Hindemith, and Penderecki. In the 19th century, Niccolò Paganini was the most famous violinist. He composed and played violin music that was harder than anything that had been written before. People compared him to the devil because he could play so brilliantly and because he looked thin and moved his body about in strange ways.[13]
+
+In recent years the violin has also been used in jazz playing. Stéphane Grappelli was especially famous for this.
+
+Some of the most famous violinists of the last century are Fritz Kreisler, Jascha Heifetz, David Oistrakh, Yehudi Menuhin, Ida Haendel, and Isaac Stern. Today some of the greatest players include Itzhak Perlman, Maxim Vengerov, Vadim Repin, Nigel Kennedy, Hilary Hahn, Joshua Bell and fiddler Sara Watkins.
+

ensimple/6003.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital is Richmond and its largest city is Virginia Beach.  The official name of Virginia is the Commonwealth of Virginia.
+
+Virginia is bordered (touching) by West Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia (across the Potomac River) to the north, by Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south, and by Kentucky and West Virginia to the west.
+
+Virginia became a state in 1788 after the American Revolution.
+
+Before it became a state of the United States, Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain. Virginia was founded (started) in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.
+
+The state of West Virginia was part of Virginia until the American Civil War.  Virginia then left (seceded from) the United States and joined the Confederate States of America.  The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia to form a new state which was loyal to the Union.  After the end of the Civil War, Virginia became part of the United States again in 1870, but the counties that had left to start West Virginia did not join Virginia again.
+
+Virginia is the state where eight United States presidents were born.  This is more than any other state.
+
+The first African-American slaves were sent to Virginia.
+
+Virginia has many different industries like local and national government, military, farming, technology and business.[2][3] Many Virginians work for the government because it is next to Washington, D.C.. The Central Intelligence Agency,Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation are in Northern Virginia .  Farming is the main industry in the state making 334,000 jobs.[2] Tomatos, Peanuts, Tobacco, and hay are grown in Virginia. Technology is a fast growing industry. Virginia is 4th in technology workers after after California, Texas, and New York.[4]
+

ensimple/6004.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital is Richmond and its largest city is Virginia Beach.  The official name of Virginia is the Commonwealth of Virginia.
+
+Virginia is bordered (touching) by West Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia (across the Potomac River) to the north, by Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south, and by Kentucky and West Virginia to the west.
+
+Virginia became a state in 1788 after the American Revolution.
+
+Before it became a state of the United States, Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain. Virginia was founded (started) in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.
+
+The state of West Virginia was part of Virginia until the American Civil War.  Virginia then left (seceded from) the United States and joined the Confederate States of America.  The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia to form a new state which was loyal to the Union.  After the end of the Civil War, Virginia became part of the United States again in 1870, but the counties that had left to start West Virginia did not join Virginia again.
+
+Virginia is the state where eight United States presidents were born.  This is more than any other state.
+
+The first African-American slaves were sent to Virginia.
+
+Virginia has many different industries like local and national government, military, farming, technology and business.[2][3] Many Virginians work for the government because it is next to Washington, D.C.. The Central Intelligence Agency,Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation are in Northern Virginia .  Farming is the main industry in the state making 334,000 jobs.[2] Tomatos, Peanuts, Tobacco, and hay are grown in Virginia. Technology is a fast growing industry. Virginia is 4th in technology workers after after California, Texas, and New York.[4]
+

ensimple/6005.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital is Richmond and its largest city is Virginia Beach.  The official name of Virginia is the Commonwealth of Virginia.
+
+Virginia is bordered (touching) by West Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia (across the Potomac River) to the north, by Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south, and by Kentucky and West Virginia to the west.
+
+Virginia became a state in 1788 after the American Revolution.
+
+Before it became a state of the United States, Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain. Virginia was founded (started) in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.
+
+The state of West Virginia was part of Virginia until the American Civil War.  Virginia then left (seceded from) the United States and joined the Confederate States of America.  The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia to form a new state which was loyal to the Union.  After the end of the Civil War, Virginia became part of the United States again in 1870, but the counties that had left to start West Virginia did not join Virginia again.
+
+Virginia is the state where eight United States presidents were born.  This is more than any other state.
+
+The first African-American slaves were sent to Virginia.
+
+Virginia has many different industries like local and national government, military, farming, technology and business.[2][3] Many Virginians work for the government because it is next to Washington, D.C.. The Central Intelligence Agency,Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation are in Northern Virginia .  Farming is the main industry in the state making 334,000 jobs.[2] Tomatos, Peanuts, Tobacco, and hay are grown in Virginia. Technology is a fast growing industry. Virginia is 4th in technology workers after after California, Texas, and New York.[4]
+

ensimple/6006.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+West Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital and largest city is Charleston.  It is often abbreviated W. Va. or simply WV.
+
+West Virginia is bordered by Pennsylvania to the north, by Ohio to the north and west, by Kentucky to the west, by Maryland to the north and east, and by Virginia to the east and south. The Ohio and Potomac Rivers form parts of the boundaries.
+
+West Virginia became a state in 1863.
+
+West Virginia was once a part of Virginia. At the beginning of the American Civil War, Virginia and the other southern states seceded from the United States, which means they chose to not be a part of it anymore.[6] 
+Those in West Virginia who were opposed to slavery were not objecting on moral grounds.[6] They saw it as bad for free labor.[6] While slavery was an issue in other parts of Virginia, in these counties their issues revolved around taxation and being governed from a state capital that was a long way away.[6] The people in Western Virginia had far more in common with their neighboring states of Pennsylvania and Ohio than with the Commonwealth of Virginia.[6] So this was an area of Union support.[6]
+
+On June 20, 1863, West Virginia became the thirty-fifth state of the United States.[7] But it was not an easy process. There had been some discussion of the area becoming a state since the early 1800s.[8] It took three conventions at Wheeling from 1861 to 1863.[8] The process divided friends and communities.[8]
+
+But statehood was not universally accepted in West Virginia. While there were no large scale battles, there was a good deal of guerilla warfare in attempts to undermine the new government.[8] Confederates raided into West Virginia trying to terrorize the citizens. Despite Confederate efforts to topple the state government, Washington provided both economic and political support. Union military successes outside the state helped keep the state government in power. After the war there were bitter resentments between those for and against statehood.[8] Virginia even tried to force West Virginia back into becoming a part of Virginia again in 1871.[source?] But West Virginia remained a sovereign state despite the efforts.[8]
+
+West Virginia is often called the "Mountain State" because it is entirely within the Appalachian Mountain Range, and there are many hills and mountains throughout the state. The highest one is Spruce Knob, which is 4,863 feet above sea level. There are many rivers, including the Ohio, the Potomac, the Kanawha, and the Monongahela.
+

ensimple/6007.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+West Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital and largest city is Charleston.  It is often abbreviated W. Va. or simply WV.
+
+West Virginia is bordered by Pennsylvania to the north, by Ohio to the north and west, by Kentucky to the west, by Maryland to the north and east, and by Virginia to the east and south. The Ohio and Potomac Rivers form parts of the boundaries.
+
+West Virginia became a state in 1863.
+
+West Virginia was once a part of Virginia. At the beginning of the American Civil War, Virginia and the other southern states seceded from the United States, which means they chose to not be a part of it anymore.[6] 
+Those in West Virginia who were opposed to slavery were not objecting on moral grounds.[6] They saw it as bad for free labor.[6] While slavery was an issue in other parts of Virginia, in these counties their issues revolved around taxation and being governed from a state capital that was a long way away.[6] The people in Western Virginia had far more in common with their neighboring states of Pennsylvania and Ohio than with the Commonwealth of Virginia.[6] So this was an area of Union support.[6]
+
+On June 20, 1863, West Virginia became the thirty-fifth state of the United States.[7] But it was not an easy process. There had been some discussion of the area becoming a state since the early 1800s.[8] It took three conventions at Wheeling from 1861 to 1863.[8] The process divided friends and communities.[8]
+
+But statehood was not universally accepted in West Virginia. While there were no large scale battles, there was a good deal of guerilla warfare in attempts to undermine the new government.[8] Confederates raided into West Virginia trying to terrorize the citizens. Despite Confederate efforts to topple the state government, Washington provided both economic and political support. Union military successes outside the state helped keep the state government in power. After the war there were bitter resentments between those for and against statehood.[8] Virginia even tried to force West Virginia back into becoming a part of Virginia again in 1871.[source?] But West Virginia remained a sovereign state despite the efforts.[8]
+
+West Virginia is often called the "Mountain State" because it is entirely within the Appalachian Mountain Range, and there are many hills and mountains throughout the state. The highest one is Spruce Knob, which is 4,863 feet above sea level. There are many rivers, including the Ohio, the Potomac, the Kanawha, and the Monongahela.
+

ensimple/6008.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+
+
+I: dsDNA viruses
+II: ssDNA viruses
+III: dsRNA viruses
+IV: (+)ssRNA viruses
+V: (−)ssRNA viruses
+VI: ssRNA-RT viruses
+VII: dsDNA-RT viruses
+
+A virus is a microscopic parasite that can infect living organisms and cause disease. It can make copies of itself inside another organism's cells. Viruses consist of nucleic acid and a protein coat. Usually the nucleic acid is RNA; sometimes it is DNA. Viruses are able to cause many types of diseases, such as polio, ebola and hepatitis. Virology is the study of viruses.
+
+Viruses reproduce by getting their nucleic acid strand into a prokaryote or eukaryote (cell). The RNA or DNA strand then takes over the cell machinery to reproduce copies of itself and the protein coat. The cell then bursts open, spreading the newly created viruses. All viruses reproduce this way, and there are no free-living viruses.[1][2] Viruses are everywhere in the environment, and all organisms can be infected by them.[3][4][5]
+
+Viruses are so much smaller than bacteria. They were not visible until the invention of the electron microscope. A virus has a simple structure, it has no internal cellular structure, no cell wall or cell membrane, just the protein coat that holds the string of nucleic acid.
+
+With eukaryotic cells, the virus protein coat is able to enter the target cells via certain cell membrane receptors. With prokaryote bacteria cells, the bacteriophage physically injects the nucleic acid strand into the host cell.
+
+Viruses have the following characteristics:
+
+When the host cell has finished making more viruses, it undergoes lysis, or breaks apart. The viruses are released and are then able to infect other cells. Viruses can remain intact for a long time, and will infect cells when the time and conditions are right.
+
+Some special viruses are worth noting. Bacteriophages have evolved to enter bacterial cells, which have a different type of cell wall from eukaryote cell membranes. Envelope viruses, when they reproduce, cover themselves with a modified form of the host cell membrane, thus gaining an outer lipid layer that helps entry. Some of our most difficult-to-combat viruses, like influenza and HIV, use this method.
+
+Viral infections in animals trigger an immune response which usually kills the infecting virus. Vaccines can also produce immune responses. They give an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some viruses (including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis) escape from these immune responses and cause chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but there are some other drugs against viruses.
+
+There are a many genomic structures in viruses. As a group they have more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses,[3] but only about 5,000 of them have been described in detail.[1]49
+
+A virus has either RNA or DNA genes and is called an RNA virus or a DNA virus respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA genomes.[6]96/99
+
+Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they do not have cells. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce many copies of themselves, and they assemble (put together) in the cell.
+
+The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses:[6]75/91
+
+The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.
+
+The body's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system. This has cells and other mechanisms which defend the host from any infection. The cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a general way.[9]
+
+RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses.[10] Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule. A protein complex called dicer sticks to it and chops the RNA into pieces. Then a biochemical pathway, called the RISC complex, starts up. This attacks the viral mRNA, and the cell survives the infection.
+
+Rotaviruses avoid this by not uncoating fully inside the cell and by releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid. The genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.[11][12]
+
+The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.[13]
+
+Vertebrates have a second, more specific, immune system. It is called the adaptive immune system. When it meets a virus, it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and render it non-infectious. Two types of antibodies are important.
+
+The first, called IgM, is highly effective at neutralizing viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called IgG, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past.[14] IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out.[15]
+
+Another vertebrate defence against viruses is cell-mediated immunity. It involves immune cells known as T cells. The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by killer T cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. Cells such as macrophages are specialists at this antigen presentation.[16]
+
+Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration (hiding away); blocking antigen presentation; cytokine resistance; evading natural killer cell activity; escape from apoptosis (cell death), and antigenic shift (changing surface proteins).[17] HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. Other viruses, called neurotropic viruses, move along nerves to places the immune system cannot reach.
+
+Viruses do not belong to any of the six kingdoms. They do not meet all the requirements for being classified as a living organism because they are not active until the point of infection. However, that is just a verbal point.
+
+Obviously, their structure and mode of operation means they have evolved from other living things, and the loss of normal structure occurs in many endoparasites. The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.[18]
+
+A recent project discovered nearly 1500 new RNA viruses by sampling over 200 invertebrate species. "The research team... extracted their RNA and, using next-generation sequencing, deciphered the sequence of a staggering 6 trillion letters present in the invertebrate RNA libraries".[19] The research showed that viruses changed bits and pieces of their RNA by a variety of genetic mechanisms. "The invertebrate virome [shows] remarkable genomic flexibility that includes frequent recombination, lateral gene transfer among viruses and hosts, gene gain and loss, and complex genomic rearrangements".[20]
+
+A group of large viruses infect amoebae. The largest is Pithovirus. Others in order of size are Pandoravirus, then Megavirus, then Mimivirus. They are bigger than some bacteria, and visible under a light microscope.
+
+Viruses are used widely in cell biology.[21] Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria.[22]

ensimple/6009.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+
+
+I: dsDNA viruses
+II: ssDNA viruses
+III: dsRNA viruses
+IV: (+)ssRNA viruses
+V: (−)ssRNA viruses
+VI: ssRNA-RT viruses
+VII: dsDNA-RT viruses
+
+A virus is a microscopic parasite that can infect living organisms and cause disease. It can make copies of itself inside another organism's cells. Viruses consist of nucleic acid and a protein coat. Usually the nucleic acid is RNA; sometimes it is DNA. Viruses are able to cause many types of diseases, such as polio, ebola and hepatitis. Virology is the study of viruses.
+
+Viruses reproduce by getting their nucleic acid strand into a prokaryote or eukaryote (cell). The RNA or DNA strand then takes over the cell machinery to reproduce copies of itself and the protein coat. The cell then bursts open, spreading the newly created viruses. All viruses reproduce this way, and there are no free-living viruses.[1][2] Viruses are everywhere in the environment, and all organisms can be infected by them.[3][4][5]
+
+Viruses are so much smaller than bacteria. They were not visible until the invention of the electron microscope. A virus has a simple structure, it has no internal cellular structure, no cell wall or cell membrane, just the protein coat that holds the string of nucleic acid.
+
+With eukaryotic cells, the virus protein coat is able to enter the target cells via certain cell membrane receptors. With prokaryote bacteria cells, the bacteriophage physically injects the nucleic acid strand into the host cell.
+
+Viruses have the following characteristics:
+
+When the host cell has finished making more viruses, it undergoes lysis, or breaks apart. The viruses are released and are then able to infect other cells. Viruses can remain intact for a long time, and will infect cells when the time and conditions are right.
+
+Some special viruses are worth noting. Bacteriophages have evolved to enter bacterial cells, which have a different type of cell wall from eukaryote cell membranes. Envelope viruses, when they reproduce, cover themselves with a modified form of the host cell membrane, thus gaining an outer lipid layer that helps entry. Some of our most difficult-to-combat viruses, like influenza and HIV, use this method.
+
+Viral infections in animals trigger an immune response which usually kills the infecting virus. Vaccines can also produce immune responses. They give an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some viruses (including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis) escape from these immune responses and cause chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but there are some other drugs against viruses.
+
+There are a many genomic structures in viruses. As a group they have more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses,[3] but only about 5,000 of them have been described in detail.[1]49
+
+A virus has either RNA or DNA genes and is called an RNA virus or a DNA virus respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA genomes.[6]96/99
+
+Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they do not have cells. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce many copies of themselves, and they assemble (put together) in the cell.
+
+The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses:[6]75/91
+
+The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.
+
+The body's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system. This has cells and other mechanisms which defend the host from any infection. The cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a general way.[9]
+
+RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses.[10] Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule. A protein complex called dicer sticks to it and chops the RNA into pieces. Then a biochemical pathway, called the RISC complex, starts up. This attacks the viral mRNA, and the cell survives the infection.
+
+Rotaviruses avoid this by not uncoating fully inside the cell and by releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle's inner capsid. The genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.[11][12]
+
+The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.[13]
+
+Vertebrates have a second, more specific, immune system. It is called the adaptive immune system. When it meets a virus, it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and render it non-infectious. Two types of antibodies are important.
+
+The first, called IgM, is highly effective at neutralizing viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called IgG, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past.[14] IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out.[15]
+
+Another vertebrate defence against viruses is cell-mediated immunity. It involves immune cells known as T cells. The body's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by killer T cells and the virus-specific T-cells proliferate. Cells such as macrophages are specialists at this antigen presentation.[16]
+
+Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration (hiding away); blocking antigen presentation; cytokine resistance; evading natural killer cell activity; escape from apoptosis (cell death), and antigenic shift (changing surface proteins).[17] HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. Other viruses, called neurotropic viruses, move along nerves to places the immune system cannot reach.
+
+Viruses do not belong to any of the six kingdoms. They do not meet all the requirements for being classified as a living organism because they are not active until the point of infection. However, that is just a verbal point.
+
+Obviously, their structure and mode of operation means they have evolved from other living things, and the loss of normal structure occurs in many endoparasites. The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.[18]
+
+A recent project discovered nearly 1500 new RNA viruses by sampling over 200 invertebrate species. "The research team... extracted their RNA and, using next-generation sequencing, deciphered the sequence of a staggering 6 trillion letters present in the invertebrate RNA libraries".[19] The research showed that viruses changed bits and pieces of their RNA by a variety of genetic mechanisms. "The invertebrate virome [shows] remarkable genomic flexibility that includes frequent recombination, lateral gene transfer among viruses and hosts, gene gain and loss, and complex genomic rearrangements".[20]
+
+A group of large viruses infect amoebae. The largest is Pithovirus. Others in order of size are Pandoravirus, then Megavirus, then Mimivirus. They are bigger than some bacteria, and visible under a light microscope.
+
+Viruses are used widely in cell biology.[21] Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria.[22]

ensimple/601.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

ensimple/6010.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287 – c. 212 BC)[2] was a Greek scientist. He was an inventor, an astronomer, and a mathematician. He was born in the town of Syracuse in Sicily.
+
+His father was Phidias, an astronomer, and he may have been in the family of a king of Syracuse. Syracuse was a rich Greek city, on the seashore in Sicily. When Archimedes was about ten years old, he left Syracuse to study in Alexandria, Egypt. He was in the school of Euclid, a famous mathematician. Not much is known about the personal life of Archimedes, for example, whether he was married or if he had children.
+
+When the Romans invaded Syracuse, they captured Archimedes so they could learn all of the things he knew. About two years after he was drawing a mathematical diagram in the sand and enraged a soldier by refusing to go to meet the Roman general until he had finished working on the problem. The Roman killed him. His last words are supposed to have been "Do not disturb my circles!"
+
+On the Sphere and Cylinder is a work that was published by Archimedes in two volumes in about 225 BC.[3] On the sphere, he showed that the surface area is four times the area of its great circle. In modern terms, this means that the surface area is equal to:
+
+The surface area of a cylinder is equal to:
+
+The volume of the cylinder is:
+
+The volume of the contained ball is two-thirds the volume of a "circumscribed" cylinder.[6] meaning that the volume is
+
+A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request.
+
+Archimedes is also well known for being the first person to understand statics, which is a part of applied mathematics. It has to do with loads that do not move, for example in buildings or bridges. He also understood and wrote about what happens when things float in liquids, which is called buoyancy.
+
+Archimedes' principle: the weight of water displaced by an object equals the amount of buoyancy it gets. It has practical uses. It can be used to measure the density of an object, and hence whether or not it is made of gold.
+
+The story of the golden crown does not appear in the surviving works of Archimedes. Archimedes may have got a solution known in hydrostatics as Archimedes' principle, which he describes in his treatise On Floating Bodies. This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.[7] Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the golden crown to that of solid gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a gold reference sample, then immersing the apparatus in water. The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly. Galileo considered it "probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself".[8]
+
+Archimedes is also famous as an inventor because he made new tools and machines. For example, he made a machine to lift water that could be used by farmers to bring water to their crops. This is called Archimedes' screw.
+
+Archimedes probably also invented a machine to measure distance, an odometer. A cart was built with wheels that turned four hundred times in one mile. A pin on the wheel would hit a 400-tooth gear, so it turned once for every mile. This gear would then make a small stone fall into a cup. At the end of a journey one could count the number of stones in the cup to find the distance.
+
+Archimedes also made a system which one person could pull a large ship with just one rope. This was called the compound pulley. This is an important machine which is even today helps people in everyday life, although the versions we now use are much more complicated. They still work by the same principle, through.
+
+Archimedes also invented or made many machines used in war, for example he made better catapults. This was during the Punic Wars, which were between Rome in what is now Italy and the city of Carthage in what is now North Africa. For many years he helped stop the Roman army from attacking Syracuse, his city. One war machine was called the "claw of Archimedes", or the "iron hand". It was used to defend the city from attacks by ships. Ancient writers said that it was a kind of crane with a hook that lifted ships out of the water and caused their destruction.
+
+Another story about Archimedes is that he burned Roman ships from far away using many mirrors and the light from the sun. This is perhaps possible, but it is perhaps more likely that this was done with flaming missiles from a catapult.
+
+Archimedes is thought to be so important as a mathematician that scientists have honoured him:

ensimple/6011.html.txt

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+Vitamin A is a vitamin, a group of organic chemicals including retinal and several carotenoids. The human body does not make these chemicals, and must take them from food. Carrots and liver are both rich in vitamin A. Many parts of the body need vitamin A. For example, vitamin A helps sight and is good for the immune system. It is also important for a growing embryo.
+
+Too little vitamin A is dangerous to health.[1] People who do not get enough of the vitamin may lose the ability to see in poor light and suffer from a weakened immune system. They may also have problems with memory, because vitamin A is important for the brain. People with malnutrition often have too little vitamin A. This is common in poor countries.
+
+Too much vitamin A is also dangerous to one's health.[1] This is because, vitamin A is not soluble in water, and the human body can not get rid of the excess vitamin A easily through urination.[2]  Too much vitamin A can make someone very sick.  People may get too much vitamin A from taking too many vitamin pills or from eating too much rich food like liver.
+
+If a pregnant woman has too little or too much vitamin A it may cause birth defects in the unborn baby.
+
+vitamin A (retinol ) contain nine conjugated hydrocarbon chain. Vitamin is also necessary for the growth and maintenance of tissues.

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+Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin. It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables. It is one of the water-soluble vitamins.
+
+Vitamin C is important in wound healing. Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy. Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up. Many people died from scurvy on such trips.
+
+Most animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot. Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans. Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs.
+
+Vitamin C was first discovered in 1928. In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy. That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist.
+
+Through history the need for people to eat fresh plant food to help them get through long sieges or long sea trips was known by some wise people but was often forgotten.
+
+The first attempt to prove this idea was by a ship's doctor in the British Royal Navy called James Lind, who at sea in May 1747 gave some crew members lemon juice as well as their normal ships food, while others continued on normal food alone.
+
+The results showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753.
+
+Lind's work was slow to be noticed. In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors.
+
+As well as lemons, limes and oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with different effects. James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration.
+
+It was believed that only humans got scurvy but in 1907, Alex Holst and Theodore Frohlich, two Norwegian chemists found that guinea pigs could also get it if not given fresh food.
+
+In 1928 the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson proved that Eskimo (Inuit) people are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet by eating raw meat.
+
+In 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word vitamin for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health. He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy Vitamin C.
+
+From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called ascorbic acid.
+
+In 1933/1934, the British chemists  Norman Haworth and  Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin.
+It was the first man-made vitamin. This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories. Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.
+
+In 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some animals get scurvy is because their liver cannot make one chemical enzyme that other animals have.
+
+Citrus fruits (such as lime, Indian gooseberry, lemon, orange, and grapefruit) are good sources of vitamin C.
+
+Other foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, sweet peppers, and kiwifruit.
+
+The following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods. Each individual fruit will vary.
+
+The amount of vitamin C in foods of plant origin depends on the kind of plant, the kind of soil where it grew, how much rain and sun it got, the length of time since it was picked, and how it was stored since then.
+Cooking food destroys vitamin C.
+
+Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them. Synthesis is achieved through a sequence of enzyme driven steps, which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. It is carried out either in the kidneys, in reptiles and birds, or the liver, in mammals and perching birds. The loss of an enzyme concerned with ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution and has affected most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so prevalent in the surrounding food sources.
+
+It was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C for humans. The muscle and fat that make up the modern western diet are however poor sources. As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content.
+
+Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.
+
+In 1934, the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche was the first to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon.
+Main producers today are BASF/ Takeda, Roche, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd of the People's Republic of China.
+
+In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress.[1] It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctional.[2] In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries.
+
+Lack of ascorbic acid in the daily diet leads to a disease
+called scurvy, a form of avitaminosis that is characterized by:
+
+A healthy person on a balanced western diet should be able to get all the vitamin C needed to prevent the symptoms of scurvy from their daily diet. People who smoke, those under stress and women in pregnancy have a slightly higher requirement.
+
+The amount of vitamin C needed to avoid deficiency symptoms and maintain health has been set by variously national agencies as follows:
+
+Some researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as Vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows:
+
+High doses (thousands of mg) may result in diarrhoea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately. Some researchers (Cathcart) claim the onset of diarrhoea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies.
+
+The small size of the ascorbic acid molecule means the kidneys cannot retain it in the body. Quite a low level in the blood serum will cause traces to be present in the urine. All vitamin C synthesising mammals have traces in the urine at all times.
+
+In April 1998 Nature reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given great prominence in the world's media. The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms. Almost all mammals manufacture their own vitamin C in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of milligrams per day. Large amounts of the vitamin are used in orthomolecular medicine and no harmful effects have been observed even in doses of 10,000 mg per day or more.
+
+Vitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent scurvy. It also has a reputation for being useful in the treatment of colds and flu. The evidence to support this idea, however, is ambiguous and the effect may depend on the dose size and dosing regime. The Vitamin C Foundation[3] recommends 8 grams of vitamin C every half hour to show an effect on cold symptoms.
+
+Fred R. Klenner, a doctor in Reidsville, North Carolina reported in 1949 that poliomyelitis yielded to repeated megadoses of intravenous vitamin C.
+
+Nobel Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling began actively promoting vitamin C in the 1960s as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease.
+
+A minority of medical and scientific opinion continues to see vitamin C as being a low cost and safe way to treat infectious disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons.
+
+A meta-study of the published research claimed that relatively high levels of vitamin C must be maintained in the body for it to function effectively as an antioxidant.[4]
+
+Some research shows that there are veterinary benefits of vitamin C as well.[5]
+
+One meta-study of the published research examined the effectiveness of ascorbic acid in the treatment of infectious disease and toxins. It was conducted in 2002 by Dr. Thomas Levy, Medical Director of the Colorado Integrative Medical Center in Denver. It claimed that overwhelming scientific evidence exists for its therapeutic role.[6]
+
+Some vitamin C advocates say that vitamin C is not used therapeutically because it cannot be patented. Pharmaceutical companies seek to generate revenue and profit their shareholders. They may be reluctant to research or promote something that will make them little money.[7][8]

ensimple/6013.html.txt

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+A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. They include Vitamin A, many B vitamins (like B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. For example, citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain vitamin C.
+
+The term was coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named vitamine.[1] By convention the word vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids.[2]
+
+Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, and not their structure. Each vitamin name (the word vitamin followed by a letter) refers to a number of vitamer compounds which all show the same biological activity. For example, vitamin A refers to several different chemicals.  Vitamers convert to the active form of the vitamin in the body. They are sometimes inter-convertible to one another as well.
+
+The body does not make these chemicals. They come from other places, usually food. A short term lack of a certain vitamin is usually not a problem, because the body can store vitamins for a short time. Not having a certain vitamin for a longer period of time can lead to different diseases, depending on the vitamin. Probably the best-known of these diseases is scurvy, which results from not having enough Vitamin C. Beriberi and rickets are others.
+
+Today, many drug companies make inexpensive pills that contain various vitamins. They help people avoid those diseases.
+
+Vitamins can be either fat-soluble or water-soluble.  Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) can be stored in the body, and are used when needed.[3]  Water-soluble ones only stay in the body a short time.
+
+Currently there are no vitamins F to J.  These existed at some time.  Today they are no longer seen as vitamins.  Some of them were also false leads, and turned out to be something else.  Others were renamed as B vitamins.  Today, the B vitamins are a whole complex, and not just one vitamin.
+
+The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the 'Koagulation' (clotting) of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through I were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
+The following table lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

ensimple/6014.html.txt

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+A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. They include Vitamin A, many B vitamins (like B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. For example, citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain vitamin C.
+
+The term was coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named vitamine.[1] By convention the word vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids.[2]
+
+Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, and not their structure. Each vitamin name (the word vitamin followed by a letter) refers to a number of vitamer compounds which all show the same biological activity. For example, vitamin A refers to several different chemicals.  Vitamers convert to the active form of the vitamin in the body. They are sometimes inter-convertible to one another as well.
+
+The body does not make these chemicals. They come from other places, usually food. A short term lack of a certain vitamin is usually not a problem, because the body can store vitamins for a short time. Not having a certain vitamin for a longer period of time can lead to different diseases, depending on the vitamin. Probably the best-known of these diseases is scurvy, which results from not having enough Vitamin C. Beriberi and rickets are others.
+
+Today, many drug companies make inexpensive pills that contain various vitamins. They help people avoid those diseases.
+
+Vitamins can be either fat-soluble or water-soluble.  Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) can be stored in the body, and are used when needed.[3]  Water-soluble ones only stay in the body a short time.
+
+Currently there are no vitamins F to J.  These existed at some time.  Today they are no longer seen as vitamins.  Some of them were also false leads, and turned out to be something else.  Others were renamed as B vitamins.  Today, the B vitamins are a whole complex, and not just one vitamin.
+
+The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the 'Koagulation' (clotting) of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through I were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
+The following table lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

ensimple/6015.html.txt

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+Speed is the distance of a moving object in a given amount of time. Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving. The average speed of an object in a certain time is the distance the object travelled divided by the time. Speed is also the distance covered by an object per unit time. Speed=distance/time
+
+To find speed 
+
+
+
+s
+
+
+{\displaystyle s}
+
+,
+
+s
+=
+
+
+{\displaystyle s=}
+
+
+
+
+
+
+d
+
+t
+
+
+{\displaystyle d \over t}
+
+where 
+
+
+
+d
+
+
+{\displaystyle d}
+
+ is the distance and 
+
+
+
+t
+
+
+{\displaystyle t}
+
+ is the time that has gone by.
+
+There are many units of measurement for speed. For example, an object's speed can be measured in
+
+When an object changes speed, it gets faster or slower. If the speed of the object increases, it is called acceleration. If the object gets slower, and the speed decreases, it is called deceleration, or negative acceleration.
+
+Quotations related to Speed at Wikiquote

ensimple/6016.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+Speed is the distance of a moving object in a given amount of time. Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving. The average speed of an object in a certain time is the distance the object travelled divided by the time. Speed is also the distance covered by an object per unit time. Speed=distance/time
+
+To find speed 
+
+
+
+s
+
+
+{\displaystyle s}
+
+,
+
+s
+=
+
+
+{\displaystyle s=}
+
+
+
+
+
+
+d
+
+t
+
+
+{\displaystyle d \over t}
+
+where 
+
+
+
+d
+
+
+{\displaystyle d}
+
+ is the distance and 
+
+
+
+t
+
+
+{\displaystyle t}
+
+ is the time that has gone by.
+
+There are many units of measurement for speed. For example, an object's speed can be measured in
+
+When an object changes speed, it gets faster or slower. If the speed of the object increases, it is called acceleration. If the object gets slower, and the speed decreases, it is called deceleration, or negative acceleration.
+
+Quotations related to Speed at Wikiquote

ensimple/6017.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Vitry-sur-Seine is a town and commune in the southeast suburb of Paris, France. It is in the Île-de-France region and the Val-de-Marne department. About 79,000 people lived there in 1999.
+

ensimple/6018.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+Life is a biological concept regarding the characteristics, state, or mode that separates a living thing from dead matter.
+The word itself may refer to a living being or ongoing processes of which living things are a part of. It may also refer to the period during which something is functional (as between birth and death), the condition of an entity that has been born but yet has to die or that which makes a living thing alive.
+
+The study of life is called biology, and people who study life are called biologists. A lifespan is the average length of life in a species. Most life on Earth is powered by solar energy, the only known exceptions being the chemosynthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, specifically involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. With water, which is essential, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes to form cells. This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the Universe: it is true of all life on Earth today.
+
+Living organisms can be explained as open systems. They are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment. They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce.
+
+Through natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means.[1][2] Many life forms can be found on Earth. The properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.
+
+At present, the Earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open. There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe. None of these have been confirmed so far. The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.[3]
+
+One explanation of life is called the cell theory. The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. All cells must come from pre-existing cells.
+
+Something is often said to be alive if it:
+
+However, not all living things fit every point on this list.
+
+They do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals.
+
+The thermodynamic definition of life is any system which can keep its entropy levels below maximum (usually through adaptation and mutations).
+
+A modern definition was given by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1980,[4] to which they gave the name autopoiesis:
+
+Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems".[5] This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas.
+
+A tree is an example of a plant
+
+Fish are examples of marine life
+
+An Adult citrus root weevil is an example of an insect
+
+Salmonella typhimurium is an example of bacteria
+
+Chromalveolates are a group of protista
+
+Amanita muscaria (Fly agaric) is an example of fungi
+
+The Fungold frog is an example of an amphibian
+
+A Blue Jay is an example of a bird
+
+Humans are an example of people

ensimple/6019.html.txt

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+Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin (help·info) (22 April 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian lawyer, revolutionary, the leader of the Bolshevik party and of the October Revolution. He was the first leader of the USSR and the government that took over Russia in 1917. Lenin's ideas became known as Leninism.
+
+Lenin was born on 22 April 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire. His mother was a schoolteacher and his father was an education official (technically, his father's job made him and his family noblemen).
+
+Lenin began studying politics in high school. Lenin was good in school and learned the Latin and Greek languages. In 1887, he was thrown out of Kazan State University because he protested against the Tsar who was the king of the Russian Empire. He continued to read books and study ideas by himself, and in 1891 he got a license to become a lawyer.
+
+In the same year that Lenin was expelled from University, his brother Alexander was hanged for his part in a bomb plot to kill Tsar Alexander III, and their sister Anna was sent to Tatarstan. This made Lenin furious, and he promised to get revenge for his brother's death.
+
+While he studied law in St. Petersburg he learned about the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were both philosophers from Germany. Karl Marx's thoughts were called Marxism. To talk or write about Marxism like it was a good thing was illegal in Russia, and Lenin was arrested for that and sent to prison in Siberia. This punishment was harsh because Siberia is known for being very cold and isolated, and almost impossible to escape.
+
+In July 1898, when he was still in Siberia, Lenin married Nadezhda Krupskaya. In 1899 he wrote a book he called The Development of Capitalism in Russia. In 1900, Lenin was set free from prison and allowed to go back home. He then traveled around Europe. He began to publish a Marxist newspaper called Iskra, the Russian word for "spark" or "lightning". He also became an important member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP.
+
+In 1903, Lenin had a major argument with another leader of the party, Julius Martov, which divided the party in two. Lenin wanted to establish socialism right away, rather than establishing capitalism first and then making the transition to socialism. Martov disagreed, he wanted to cling to the Classical Marxist idea that in order to achieve socialism, you must go through capitalism first. People who agreed with Martov were called Mensheviks (meaning "the minority"). The people who agreed with Lenin were called Bolsheviks ("the majority").
+
+In 1907 he traveled around Europe again, and visited many socialist meetings and events. During World War I he lived in big European cities like London, Paris and Geneva. At the beginning of the war, a big left-wing meeting called the Second International included the Bolsheviks. The meeting shut down when a lot of the groups argued whether or not to support the war. Lenin and the Bolsheviks were one of only a few groups who were against the war because of their Marxist ideas.
+
+After Tsar Nicholas II gave up his throne during the February Revolution, Lenin went back to Russia where he was still a very important Bolshevik leader. He wrote that he wanted a revolution by ordinary workers to overthrow the government that had replaced Nicholas II.
+
+In 1917, The Kadets, a right-wing party, and elements of the Okhrana (secret police) started rumors that Lenin had got money from the Germans, because they had sent him through Germany in a special train to reach Russia. That may have made him look bad because a lot of Russians had died fighting Germany in the war. After the July Days, a popular uprising in Petrograd which was crushed by the Russian Provisional Government, he left Russia and went to Finland, where he could hide and carry on with his work on Communism.
+
+In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, headed the Petrograd Soviet and other Soviets all over Russia in a revolution against Kerensky's government, which was known as the October Revolution. They won, and announced that Russia was a socialist country. In November, Lenin was chosen as its leader.
+
+Because Lenin wanted an end to World War I in Russia, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in February 1918.  While the treaty ended the attack by Germany, Russia lost a large amount of land that it used for farming.
+
+The treaty also made Germany's other enemies angry, and together with Russian people who supported the Tsar or Kerensky's government, they attacked Russia. Lenin made rules that as much food as possible was to be given to Bolshevik soldiers in Russia's new Red Army. This meant that they won the war, but ordinary people were starving, and many died of hunger or disease.
+
+After the war, Lenin brought in the New Economic Policy to try and make things better for the country and move from capitalism towards socialism. Some private enterprise was still allowed, but not much. Businessmen, known as nepmen, could only own small industries, not factories. Factories and large industry became public property to be owned by the workers.
+
+A woman named Fanny Kaplan shot Lenin whilst he was making an official visit.  She missed his head and instead the bullet was lodged into his neck.  Fearing that he would be killed by political dissenters, he refused to have the bullet removed until a guaranteed Communist doctor could be found. As a result of his direct refusal to be treated, the bullet was never removed, and is often cited as the reason he started having strokes in May and December 1922 (both of which he recovered from). In March 1923 a stroke paralyzed him and left him unable to speak, and in January 1924 a stroke killed him. Just before he died, Lenin had wanted to get rid of Stalin because he thought he was dangerous to the country and the government.
+
+The city of St. Petersburg had been renamed Petrograd by the Tsar in 1914, but was renamed Leningrad in memory of Lenin in 1924. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 Leningrad was again named St. Petersburg, which it remains to this day.
+
+Before Lenin died, he said he wished to be buried beside his mother.  When he died, Stalin let the people in Russia look at his body.  Because people kept coming they decided not to bury him, and preserved his body instead.  A building was built in Red Square, Moscow over the body so that people could see it. It is called the Lenin Mausoleum. Many Russians and tourists still go there to see his body today.

ensimple/602.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+In  Comics, stories or information are given using pictures, or pictures and words together.  In comics, a story is told with many pictures, mostly in panels.  The first panel is supposed to be read first, and takes place earlier in time than the panels that follow it.
+
+There are many kinds of comics.  Comic strips are short comics which are often found in newspapers.  Comic books are thin comics magazines.  Graphic novels are books of comics.  In Japan, comics are very popular, and Japanese comics are popular around the world. The Japanese word for comics is manga, and people use this word for Japanese comics in English and other languages.
+
+The first comic strips in the United States were funny.  "Comic" is another word for "funny", so they were called "comic strips".  The first comic books were collections of comic strips.  Today, many comics are serious, but they are still called "comics".
+
+In comics, speech is usually shown through word balloons.  There are many different kinds of word balloons, such as the "speech balloon", the "thought balloon" and the "scream balloon".

ensimple/6020.html.txt

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+Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin (help·info) (22 April 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian lawyer, revolutionary, the leader of the Bolshevik party and of the October Revolution. He was the first leader of the USSR and the government that took over Russia in 1917. Lenin's ideas became known as Leninism.
+
+Lenin was born on 22 April 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire. His mother was a schoolteacher and his father was an education official (technically, his father's job made him and his family noblemen).
+
+Lenin began studying politics in high school. Lenin was good in school and learned the Latin and Greek languages. In 1887, he was thrown out of Kazan State University because he protested against the Tsar who was the king of the Russian Empire. He continued to read books and study ideas by himself, and in 1891 he got a license to become a lawyer.
+
+In the same year that Lenin was expelled from University, his brother Alexander was hanged for his part in a bomb plot to kill Tsar Alexander III, and their sister Anna was sent to Tatarstan. This made Lenin furious, and he promised to get revenge for his brother's death.
+
+While he studied law in St. Petersburg he learned about the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were both philosophers from Germany. Karl Marx's thoughts were called Marxism. To talk or write about Marxism like it was a good thing was illegal in Russia, and Lenin was arrested for that and sent to prison in Siberia. This punishment was harsh because Siberia is known for being very cold and isolated, and almost impossible to escape.
+
+In July 1898, when he was still in Siberia, Lenin married Nadezhda Krupskaya. In 1899 he wrote a book he called The Development of Capitalism in Russia. In 1900, Lenin was set free from prison and allowed to go back home. He then traveled around Europe. He began to publish a Marxist newspaper called Iskra, the Russian word for "spark" or "lightning". He also became an important member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP.
+
+In 1903, Lenin had a major argument with another leader of the party, Julius Martov, which divided the party in two. Lenin wanted to establish socialism right away, rather than establishing capitalism first and then making the transition to socialism. Martov disagreed, he wanted to cling to the Classical Marxist idea that in order to achieve socialism, you must go through capitalism first. People who agreed with Martov were called Mensheviks (meaning "the minority"). The people who agreed with Lenin were called Bolsheviks ("the majority").
+
+In 1907 he traveled around Europe again, and visited many socialist meetings and events. During World War I he lived in big European cities like London, Paris and Geneva. At the beginning of the war, a big left-wing meeting called the Second International included the Bolsheviks. The meeting shut down when a lot of the groups argued whether or not to support the war. Lenin and the Bolsheviks were one of only a few groups who were against the war because of their Marxist ideas.
+
+After Tsar Nicholas II gave up his throne during the February Revolution, Lenin went back to Russia where he was still a very important Bolshevik leader. He wrote that he wanted a revolution by ordinary workers to overthrow the government that had replaced Nicholas II.
+
+In 1917, The Kadets, a right-wing party, and elements of the Okhrana (secret police) started rumors that Lenin had got money from the Germans, because they had sent him through Germany in a special train to reach Russia. That may have made him look bad because a lot of Russians had died fighting Germany in the war. After the July Days, a popular uprising in Petrograd which was crushed by the Russian Provisional Government, he left Russia and went to Finland, where he could hide and carry on with his work on Communism.
+
+In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, headed the Petrograd Soviet and other Soviets all over Russia in a revolution against Kerensky's government, which was known as the October Revolution. They won, and announced that Russia was a socialist country. In November, Lenin was chosen as its leader.
+
+Because Lenin wanted an end to World War I in Russia, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in February 1918.  While the treaty ended the attack by Germany, Russia lost a large amount of land that it used for farming.
+
+The treaty also made Germany's other enemies angry, and together with Russian people who supported the Tsar or Kerensky's government, they attacked Russia. Lenin made rules that as much food as possible was to be given to Bolshevik soldiers in Russia's new Red Army. This meant that they won the war, but ordinary people were starving, and many died of hunger or disease.
+
+After the war, Lenin brought in the New Economic Policy to try and make things better for the country and move from capitalism towards socialism. Some private enterprise was still allowed, but not much. Businessmen, known as nepmen, could only own small industries, not factories. Factories and large industry became public property to be owned by the workers.
+
+A woman named Fanny Kaplan shot Lenin whilst he was making an official visit.  She missed his head and instead the bullet was lodged into his neck.  Fearing that he would be killed by political dissenters, he refused to have the bullet removed until a guaranteed Communist doctor could be found. As a result of his direct refusal to be treated, the bullet was never removed, and is often cited as the reason he started having strokes in May and December 1922 (both of which he recovered from). In March 1923 a stroke paralyzed him and left him unable to speak, and in January 1924 a stroke killed him. Just before he died, Lenin had wanted to get rid of Stalin because he thought he was dangerous to the country and the government.
+
+The city of St. Petersburg had been renamed Petrograd by the Tsar in 1914, but was renamed Leningrad in memory of Lenin in 1924. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 Leningrad was again named St. Petersburg, which it remains to this day.
+
+Before Lenin died, he said he wished to be buried beside his mother.  When he died, Stalin let the people in Russia look at his body.  Because people kept coming they decided not to bury him, and preserved his body instead.  A building was built in Red Square, Moscow over the body so that people could see it. It is called the Lenin Mausoleum. Many Russians and tourists still go there to see his body today.

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+Vladímir Vladímirovich Putin (Russian: Влади́мир Влади́мирович Пу́тин, ru-Putin.ogg (help·info)) is a Russian politician. He is currently President of Russia. Putin was born in Leningrad, now Saint Petersburg, on 7 October 1952. He was the Prime Minister of Russia from 1999 to 2000, then President of Russia from March 2000 to May 2008, and Prime Minister again from 2008 to 2012. He became president again in 2012. He originally trained as a lawyer.
+
+Putin was born on 7 October 1952, in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union. His parents were Vladimir Spiridonovich Putin (1911–1999) and Maria Ivanovna Putina (née Shelomova; 1911–1998).
+
+From 1985 to 1990, Putin worked for the KGB, the Soviet Union's secret spy service. Putin worked in Dresden, which was part of the former East Germany. After East Germany collapsed in 1989, Putin was told to come back to the Soviet Union. He chose to go to Leningrad, which is where he went to university. In June 1990, he started working in the International Affairs section of Leningrad State University. In June 1991, he was appointed head of the International Committee of the Saint Petersburg Mayor's office. His job was to promote international relations and foreign investments.
+
+Putin gave up his position in the KGB on August 20, 1991, during the putsch against Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1994, he became First Deputy Chairman of the city of Saint Petersburg. In August 1996, he came to Moscow, and served in a variety of important positions in Boris Yeltsin's government. He was head of the FSB (a newer version of the KGB) from July 1998 to August 1999, and he was Secretary of the Security Council from March to August 1999.
+
+Putin became President of Russia in May 2000.
+
+Putin is the leader of the ruling United Russia party. This party has been winning the Russian elections ever since the fall of the Soviet Union.
+
+Critics of Putin say that he has taken away people's freedoms, and that he has failed to make the country more developed. Russia makes lots of money from selling oil and gas to other counties, but because of corruption, this money is not used for improving living conditions.
+
+Recently, the Russian opposition has held anti-government rallies, campaigned against Putin on the Internet, and published independent reports for general public. Because of censorship in the mass media, it's very difficult to get different information out to the public.
+
+Putin was against invading Libya in 2011. He is also against invading Syria and Iran.
+
+According to the Constitution of Russia, no-one can be president three times in a row.[2] Because of this, Putin didn't put himself forward for the March 2008 election. However, you're allowed to be president as many times as you want, as long as it's not for more than two times in a row. In March 2012, Putin put himself forward for the elections, and won 64% of the vote. This means he will be president of Russia until 2018.[3]
+
+In December 6, 2017 Russia President Vladimir Putin announced he would run for a fourth term in the upcoming election, 2018 Russian Presidential Election.[4]
+
+On March 24, 2014, Putin and Russia were suspended from the G8.[5][6] This was because the United States thought that the Ukraine crisis was Putin's fault.
+
+In July 2020, Russian voters backed a referendum that would allow Putin to serve as president until 2036.[7]
+
+He is a member of the Russian Orthodox Church, and is divorced with two daughters.
+
+Trudeau ·
+ Macron  ·
+ Merkel ·
+ Conte ·
+ Abe ·
+ Putin (suspended) ·
+ Johnson ·
+ Trump

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+VLC media player is a free software media player by the VideoLAN project, also called "VLC" or "VideoLAN Client".
+
+It is a highly portable multimedia player, encoder, and streamer that supports many kinds of audio and video. VLC can repair and play corrupt files, damaged or unfinished.
+
+It is one of the most platform-independent players, available for BeOS, BSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Solaris and Windows CE, and has over 50 million downloads for version 0.8.6.
+
+VLC uses a large number of free decoding and encoding libraries. Many of its codecs are provided by the libavcodec codec library from the FFmpeg project, but it uses mainly its own muxer and demuxers. VLC gained honor as the first player to support playback of encrypted DVDs on Linux by using the libdvdcss DVD library.
+
+VLC was initially the client for the VideoLAN project, and it was originally made by students at the École Centrale de Paris, and was released under the GPL license on the 1 February 2001.  It now has supporters and contributors worldwide.
+
+The icon of VLC is a traffic cones collected by Ecole Centrale's Networking Students' Association.
+
+VLC has a very flexible design, which makes it easier to include modules for new file formats, codecs or streaming methods.  There are more than 300 modules in VLC.  VLC also supports highly personalizable skins through the skins2 interface, Winamp 2 and XMMS skins and can play high definition recordings of D-VHS tapes duplicated to a computer using CapDVHS.exe

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+A railway track or railway line is a set of two parallel rows of long pieces of steel. They are used by trains to transport people and things from one place to another. (In America, people say railroad as well as railway). Often, there is more than one set of tracks on the railway line. For example, trains go east on one track and west on the other one.
+
+The rails are supported by cross pieces set at regular intervals (called sleepers or ties), which spread the high pressure load imposed by the train wheels into the ground. They also maintain the rails at a fixed distance apart (called the gauge). Ties are usually made from either wood or concrete. These often rest on ballast, which is a name for very small pieces of broken up rock that are packed together and keep the railway tracks in place. Tracks are often made better by ballast tampers.
+
+The upper surfaces of the rails are inclined slightly towards each other, typically on a slope of 1/20, and the rims of the train wheels are angled in the same way ("coning"). This helps guide the vehicles of the train along the track. Each wheel also has a flange, which sticks out from one edge all the way around. This makes sure the train does not "derail" (come off the track) and helps guide the train on sharp curves.

ensimple/6024.html.txt

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+A railway track or railway line is a set of two parallel rows of long pieces of steel. They are used by trains to transport people and things from one place to another. (In America, people say railroad as well as railway). Often, there is more than one set of tracks on the railway line. For example, trains go east on one track and west on the other one.
+
+The rails are supported by cross pieces set at regular intervals (called sleepers or ties), which spread the high pressure load imposed by the train wheels into the ground. They also maintain the rails at a fixed distance apart (called the gauge). Ties are usually made from either wood or concrete. These often rest on ballast, which is a name for very small pieces of broken up rock that are packed together and keep the railway tracks in place. Tracks are often made better by ballast tampers.
+
+The upper surfaces of the rails are inclined slightly towards each other, typically on a slope of 1/20, and the rims of the train wheels are angled in the same way ("coning"). This helps guide the vehicles of the train along the track. Each wheel also has a flange, which sticks out from one edge all the way around. This makes sure the train does not "derail" (come off the track) and helps guide the train on sharp curves.