6f15368608dc647db99209f7234981168dac7532a050d264a9110f68b055e6d7

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+San Francisco is a city in the U.S. state of California. It is famous for the Golden Gate Bridge. With a population of 744,041, San Francisco is the 13th largest city in the United States, and the 4th largest city in California behind Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Jose. It is in the northern part of California, between the Pacific Ocean and the San Francisco Bay. The urbanized San Francisco Bay Area surrounds it. San Francisco was founded in 1776 by the Spanish conquerors. It was called "Yerba Buena" which is Spanish for "Good Herb", because mint grew there in abundance.[10] After the Mexican-American War, Yerba Buena was taken over by the United States. In 1848 it was renamed "San Francisco" and became a city in 1850. The city is famous for its many internet companies and being home to a large gay population.
+
+San Francisco has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb in the Köppen climate classification). The record high temperature is 41.1°C (106°F) on September 1, 2017. The record low temperature is -4.4°C (24°F) on December 9, 1972.
+
+
+

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+San Francisco is a city in the U.S. state of California. It is famous for the Golden Gate Bridge. With a population of 744,041, San Francisco is the 13th largest city in the United States, and the 4th largest city in California behind Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Jose. It is in the northern part of California, between the Pacific Ocean and the San Francisco Bay. The urbanized San Francisco Bay Area surrounds it. San Francisco was founded in 1776 by the Spanish conquerors. It was called "Yerba Buena" which is Spanish for "Good Herb", because mint grew there in abundance.[10] After the Mexican-American War, Yerba Buena was taken over by the United States. In 1848 it was renamed "San Francisco" and became a city in 1850. The city is famous for its many internet companies and being home to a large gay population.
+
+San Francisco has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb in the Köppen climate classification). The record high temperature is 41.1°C (106°F) on September 1, 2017. The record low temperature is -4.4°C (24°F) on December 9, 1972.
+
+
+

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+Blood is a liquid in humans and many animals except insects. Blood is pushed through the organism by the heart, and brings nutrients and oxygen to our tissues. It also takes away waste and carbon dioxide from tissues. [1]
+
+Blood of vertebrates is made up of blood plasma and various cells — red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Platelets help blood to clot. Hemoglobin is in red blood cells. White blood cells help fight infections and heal wounds.
+
+Blood plasma is the yellow liquid in which blood cells float. Plasma is made up of nutrients, electrolytes (salts), gases, non-protein hormones, waste, lipids, and proteins.
+These proteins are albumin, antibodies (also called immunoglobulins), clotting factors, and protein hormones. Plasma that does not have the protein fibrinogen is called serum and cannot clot. Adults have about 3 liters of plasma. Plasma is a liquid, mostly water (90%). Plasma takes up 55% of  volume.
+
+Another name for red blood cell is erythrocyte. 'Erythro' means red; 'cyte' means cell. RBC is an acronym for red blood cells.
+
+RBCs carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around our body. Cells in our body need oxygen to live. Cells also make carbon dioxide as a waste.  RBCs bring oxygen into the body and carbon dioxide out.
+
+RBCs are filled with haemoglobin. This is a protein. It is made to carry a large amount of oxygen. Haemoglobin has iron in it. The iron and oxygen gives haemoglobin its red color. This is why blood is red. Erythropoietin promotes the creation of RBCs. Blood type antigens are carried on the surface of red cells.
+
+RBCs also help the blood stay normal pH. The blood needs a to be at a pH of 7.4. If it is much more or less than 7.4 a person can get very sick or die. RBCs are a buffer for the blood pH. Buffer means that it stops changes in pH. The proteins and the carbon dioxide in the RBC are buffers for the blood.
+If you do not have enough RBCs, you will die.
+
+White blood cells are a big part of the immune system. They attack things that do not belong in the body. They kill germs such as bacteria and viruses. They kill cancer cells. White blood cells also help to fight other toxic substances.
+
+White blood cells find where the germs are, and start to destroy them. WBCs arrive in the blood. They also go out of the blood in places where there is infection. WBCs do this to fight the germs that make the infection. If they go out of the blood to fight an infection, they may return in the lymphatic system. So WBCs are in lymph nodes.
+
+Another name for white blood cell is leukocyte. Leuko means white. -cyte means cell. WBC is an acronym for white blood cell. There are three main kinds of WBCs. They are lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes. Some of the WBCs mature into cells which do similar work in the tissues.
+
+The different WBCs work in different ways.  Some WBCs kill and eat germs and cancer cells.  Some WBCs make antibodies that mark a cell so other WBCs will kill it.  Some WBCs make chemicals. They release these chemicals to fight things that do not belong in the body. These chemicals cause inflammation in a part of the body. When a germ makes someone sick, the body shows it. If a bacteria gets under someone's skin and causes an infection, the skin gets red, hot, and painful. This redness, heat, and pain are signs of inflammation. This shows that WBCs are fighting the infection and killing the bacteria.
+
+Platelets help make blood clot.[2] A clot is when the liquid blood becomes solid. The body makes blood clot when the skin is cut. This stops blood from going out of the skin too much.
+
+For blood to be able to clot is essential. But, rarely, some blood clots are bad. If a blood clot happens in a blood vessel going to the brain, it can cause a stroke. If it happens in a blood vessel going to the heart, it can cause a heart attack. This does not usually happen to young, healthy people.
+
+Platelets are not the only things that make clots. There are proteins in the blood that help make clots. Both platelets and clotting proteins are needed to make good clots.
+
+Blood is mesodermal in origin.  Blood cells are made in the bone marrow and in the spleen. The bone marrow is the soft material in the middle of bones. Special cells in the bone marrow make most of the blood cells in your body.
+
+Plasma proteins are made mostly by the liver. The water and electrolytes in plasma come from the food and water that you eat.
+
+Although blood is a fluid, in some respects it is a kind of connective tissue. Its cells  originate in bone marrow and the spleen, and in the blood there are potential molecular fibres in the form of fibrinogen. These are activated when a blood clot forms.

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+
+
+The wild boar (Sus scrofa) belongs to the family of the real pig (Suidae) from the order of artiodactyls. They live today in almost every part of the world, even many countries that are not their natural habitats.[1]
+
+Wild boars are omnivorous and easily adapt to changes. They were hunted in Europe from long ago for many of their body parts, and were shown in the mythology of many ancient civilizations. Greek, Phoenician, and Persian mythology showed them as fierce, sometimes evil, while others showed them as brave, powerful animals. Again, others saw them as parasitic. Even today many people see wild boars very differently.
+
+The hair of the boar was often used when making the toothbrush until the 1930s.[2] The hair for the bristles usually came from the neck area of the boar. The brushes were popular because the bristles were soft. However, this was not the best material for oral hygiene because the hairs dried slowly and usually held bacteria.
+
+The body of the wild boar, when seen from the side, often looks very big. This impression is partly because, compared to the large body mass, the legs of the wild boar are short and do not look very strong. The wild boar's head is very large. Its eyes are high up on the head, while the ears are small with bristles around it. Its tail can move very quickly, and the wild boar often uses it to show when his mood. If seen from the front, the body looks quite narrow. The wild boar has 44 teeth in its jaw, which helps its strong bite. The male and the female wild boars' snout shapes are different.
+
+A wild boar usually gives birth to about 4 – 6 piglets at a time. Piglets weigh from about 750 – 1000g when they are first born. They are fully weaned after 3 – 4 months. They begin eating solid foods such as worms and grubs after about 2 weeks.[3]

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+
+
+The wild boar (Sus scrofa) belongs to the family of the real pig (Suidae) from the order of artiodactyls. They live today in almost every part of the world, even many countries that are not their natural habitats.[1]
+
+Wild boars are omnivorous and easily adapt to changes. They were hunted in Europe from long ago for many of their body parts, and were shown in the mythology of many ancient civilizations. Greek, Phoenician, and Persian mythology showed them as fierce, sometimes evil, while others showed them as brave, powerful animals. Again, others saw them as parasitic. Even today many people see wild boars very differently.
+
+The hair of the boar was often used when making the toothbrush until the 1930s.[2] The hair for the bristles usually came from the neck area of the boar. The brushes were popular because the bristles were soft. However, this was not the best material for oral hygiene because the hairs dried slowly and usually held bacteria.
+
+The body of the wild boar, when seen from the side, often looks very big. This impression is partly because, compared to the large body mass, the legs of the wild boar are short and do not look very strong. The wild boar's head is very large. Its eyes are high up on the head, while the ears are small with bristles around it. Its tail can move very quickly, and the wild boar often uses it to show when his mood. If seen from the front, the body looks quite narrow. The wild boar has 44 teeth in its jaw, which helps its strong bite. The male and the female wild boars' snout shapes are different.
+
+A wild boar usually gives birth to about 4 – 6 piglets at a time. Piglets weigh from about 750 – 1000g when they are first born. They are fully weaned after 3 – 4 months. They begin eating solid foods such as worms and grubs after about 2 weeks.[3]

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+on the European continent  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+San Marino is one of the smallest countries in the world. It is found in southern Europe and is fully surrounded by Italy (this is called an enclave, and only the Vatican City, Lesotho and San Marino are like this). Fewer than 30,000 people live there. Its total area is 61 km2.  Its capital is the City of San Marino.
+
+San Marino is the world's oldest republic that still exists. It was started on 3 September in A.D. 301 by a skilled builder called Saint Marinus. Its written constitution was adopted on October 8, 1600. The very small nation was recognized by Napoleon's France in 1797, and by the other European nations at the 1815 Congress of Vienna.
+
+Even though it is an independent country, it depends very much on Italy. Since the 19th century, when Italy was unified, San Marino has been fully surrounded by Italy.
+
+The biggest industry in San Marino is tourism. Selling postage stamps is an important source of income, too. San Marino is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is used in San Marino.
+
+People in San Marino speak the Italian language. Most people in San Marino believe in Roman Catholicism.
+
+San Marino is covered by the Apennine mountain range, and it has a rugged terrain. The highest point in the country is Monte Titano.  There are no bodies of water of any significant size. San Marino has no natural level ground. It is hilly terrain.
+
+San Marino is the third smallest country in Europe, Only Vatican City and Monaco are smaller.
+
+Two rivers flow through San Marino. There is no major water transport, and no major port or harbour.
+
+These are the 9 castelli (municipalities) of San Marino:
+
+The cuisine of San Marino is strongly similar to Italian, especially that of the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions. It has a number of its own unique dishes and products. Its best known is probably the Torta Tre Monti ("Cake of the Three Mountains" or "Cake of the Three Towers"), a wafer layered cake covered in chocolate.  It shows The Three Towers of San Marino. The country also has a small wine industry.
+

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+Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language.  It is a sacred language of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and the origin of most Indian languages. Today, about 14,000 people in India use it as their daily language.[1] It is one of the 22 official languages of India[3] and an official language of the state of Uttarakhand.[4]
+
+Sanskrit is a standardized dialect of Old Indo-Aryan. Its linguistic ancestry can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European. The Indo-Aryan migration theory proposes that the Indo-Aryans migrated from the Central Asian steppes into South Asia during the early part of the 2nd millennium BC, bringing with them the Indo-Aryan languages.[5] The main script used to write Sanskrit is Devanāgarī, but it can be written in the scripts of various Indian languages and is sometimes written by the Latin alphabet.
+
+[1]William Jones, working as a judge in India in the 18th century, studied Sanskrit and realized similarities of Sanskrit to Latin and Greek and dravidian language base from to sanskrit.
+
+Sanskrit literature includes poetry and drama. There is also scientific, technical, philosophical and religious texts.[6][7] Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns and chants.
+
+The language has a very complex grammar, with eight grammatical cases, the grammatical genders, and three grammatical numbers.

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+Unemployment or Joblessness is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed.
+
+The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society.
+
+A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done).[1]
+

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+Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language.  It is a sacred language of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and the origin of most Indian languages. Today, about 14,000 people in India use it as their daily language.[1] It is one of the 22 official languages of India[3] and an official language of the state of Uttarakhand.[4]
+
+Sanskrit is a standardized dialect of Old Indo-Aryan. Its linguistic ancestry can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European. The Indo-Aryan migration theory proposes that the Indo-Aryans migrated from the Central Asian steppes into South Asia during the early part of the 2nd millennium BC, bringing with them the Indo-Aryan languages.[5] The main script used to write Sanskrit is Devanāgarī, but it can be written in the scripts of various Indian languages and is sometimes written by the Latin alphabet.
+
+[1]William Jones, working as a judge in India in the 18th century, studied Sanskrit and realized similarities of Sanskrit to Latin and Greek and dravidian language base from to sanskrit.
+
+Sanskrit literature includes poetry and drama. There is also scientific, technical, philosophical and religious texts.[6][7] Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns and chants.
+
+The language has a very complex grammar, with eight grammatical cases, the grammatical genders, and three grammatical numbers.

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+Florence (Italian: Firenze) is the capital city of the region of Tuscany (Toscana), in Italy. From 1865 to 1870 the city was also the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Florence is on the Arno River. The city has a population of around 400,000 people, and a suburban population of over 2,000,000 persons. The greater area has some 956,000 people. The city was a center of medieval European trade and finance. It is often considered the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance and was long ruled by the Medici family. Florence is also famous for its fine art and architecture. It is said that, of the 1,000 most important European artists of the second millennium, 350 lived or worked in Florence.
+
+Bridges:
+
+Museums:
+
+Palaces:
+
+Churches:
+
+The football team of Florence is the Fiorentina.
+
+The food of Florence is based more on peasant eating rather than expensive cooking. Most of foods are based on meat. The whole animal was usually eaten. Many kinds of tripe, (trippa) and (lampredotto) were commonly served. They are still sold at the food carts in the city. Antipasti include crostini toscani, sliced bread topped with a chicken liver-based pâté. Also common are sliced meats (mainly prosciutto and salami). They are often served with melon when it is in season. Tuscan bread has no salt or butter. It is used often in Florentine meals. It is very common in the local soups, ribollita and pappa al pomodoro, Both soups are usually served with local olive oil. The bread is also used in the salad of bread and fresh vegetables called panzanella that is served in summer. The most famous main course is the bistecca alla fiorentina. It is a huge steak of Chianina beef that is cooked over hot charcoal. It is served very rare with the tagliata, sliced rare beef served on a bed of arugula, often with slices of parmesan cheese on top.
+
+Florence has a mixed Mediterranean climate and humid subtropical climate, with hot and humid summers and cool and damp winters. Florence is especially hot from June to August (surrounded by hills in a valley cut by the Arno river). Summer temperatures are higher than those along coastlines. Winter has some snow.
+
+Florence seen from the campanile (belltower)
+
+The Ponte Vecchio (old bridge)
+
+This is a 1542 copy by Bastiano da Sangallo of Michaelangelo's 1506 cartoon for the Florence Town Hall The Battle of Casacina which would have been opposite De Vinci's  The Battle of Anghiari-but it was never even put on the wall
+
+This is a copy of by Peter Paul Rubens of Leonardo da Vinci's 1503 painting for the Florence Town Hall The Battle of Anghiari which was damaged and then covered by a wall around 1560; possibly this is a copy of the "Cartoon' {outline} of the painting]]
+

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+
+
+Whales are a large marine mammal species which live in the ocean. Like other mammals, they breathe oxygen from the air, have a small amount of hair, and are warm blooded.
+
+There are two basic kinds of whales, and about 100 species.[1]
+
+People use the word whale in different ways.  Some use it for all Cetaceans including dolphins and porpoises.  These people say that dolphins and porpoises were also whales, because they are also Cetaceans.  Others separate out the dolphins and porpoises: common English-speaking people have never called them or thought of them as whales unless they are very large.  Actually, there is no clear line between whales and dolphins.
+
+Whales have been killed for meat and oil by whalers.  However, many countries have laws saying not to kill whales anymore.  Some countries, such as Iceland and Japan, do not have these laws.  In other countries, such as the USA, only Eskimos and some American Indians may legally kill whales such as the blue whale and beluga whale.
+
+Baleen whales eat plankton and krill. Plankton are clouds of very small fish floating in the water. The whales' mouths are very large. They open their mouths very wide and hold a big mouthful of sea water. Their throats stretch very wide to make the space inside their mouth even bigger. Then they close their mouth and squeeze out the seawater. The food does not escape because, instead of teeth, these whales have filters called baleen. Baleen is long, hard strips that act like a strainer. The water goes through the baleen. Animals and plants in the water are trapped and swallowed, while the water goes back out.[2] This is very different from the way that toothed whales eat.
+
+Toothed whales eat larger fish or meat and are like big dolphins.  They have sharp teeth and usually have a big forehead.  Inside the big forehead is a chamber to make and direct sounds.  They make all kinds of sounds, including sounds so loud they can shock fish.  They can use echolocation to locate things that they can not see.  Some toothed whales, such as the sperm whale, are almost never called dolphins.  Some of them are always called dolphins.  Others are like dolphins in some ways and like whales in others.
+
+Cetaceans are divided into two suborders:
+
+Both cetaceans and artiodactyl are now classified under the super-order  Cetartiodactyla, which includes both whales and hippopotamuses. Whales are the hippopotamus's closest living relatives.[3]
+
+All cetaceans, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals of the Artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates). Both are related to Indohyus (an extinct semi-aquatic deer-like ungulate) from which they split around 54 million years ago.[4][5]
+Primitive whales probably first took to the sea about 50 million years ago and became fully aquatic about 5-10 million years later.[6] Pakicetus is an important transitional species.
+
+Scientists from the University of Plymouth studied many animals that dive and hold their breath, from insects to whales, and they found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen for their size, and this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals.  They said this may be why modern whales and extinct diving animals like plesiosaurs became so large.[7][8]
+
+Because of where they live (and unlike many animals), whales are conscious breathers: they decide when to breathe. Whales breathe through blowholes. Baleen whales have two and toothed whales have one. These are on the top of the head: the animal breathes while most of their body is underwater. Breathing first shoots out extra water from the blowhole, making a jet into the air, followed by inhaling air into the lungs.
+
+All mammals sleep, including whales, but they cannot stay in an unconscious state for too long, because they need to be conscious to breathe. It is thought that only one hemisphere (half) of their brains sleeps at a time, so that whales are never completely asleep, but still get the rest they need.[9] Whales are thought to sleep around eight hours a day.
+
+A baby whale is called a "calf". One calf is born every two or three years. Gestation takes up to a year. Nursing continues for more than a year in many species; there is a strong bond between mother and calf. Reproductive maturity occurs at seven to ten years. This mode of reproduction produces few offspring, but increases their chance of surviving. The effect of hunting is severe on these animals, who replace their numbers slowly.[10]
+
+Whales are known to teach, learn, cooperate, scheme, and even grieve.[11]
+
+Breaching is what happens when a whale jumps into the air and then purposefully flops down on the water with a great splash. Sometimes it twirls in the air when it does this. Scientists are not sure whether breaching is done to play, to clean the whale's skin of things that are stuck to it, or to tell other whales something.[12]
+
+There are a number of other behaviors on the surface which are not well understood.[13] 'Logging' is when a whale swims slowly at the surface of the ocean with very little movement. When a whale does this, it looks like a log in the water. Some scientists think this is a kind of rest or sleep for whales. 'Spyhopping' is when a whale sits straight up in the water with its head straight up and out of the water. It will sometimes turn around in circles as it spyhops. Some scientists think this might be because whales are trying to see what is happening above water. 'Lobtailing' is done when a whale faces downward in the water. It then slaps the water with a thunderous sound. Scientists think this might be done to warn other whales of danger, or as a method of feeding.[14]

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+Health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease" according to the World Health Organization (WHO).[1][2] Physical is about the body. Mental is about how people think and feel. Social talks about how people live with other people. It is about family, work, school, and friends.
+
+Physical fitness refers to good body health. It is dependent on genetic determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors. That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or polluted your water and the air around you is and also how good your social and medical system is. It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery. A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help. How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman. A physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height. The relation between their height and weight is called their Body Mass Index. A taller person can be heavier and still be fit. If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health.[3]Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people.[4]
+
+Mental health refers to a person's emotional and psychological well-being. "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life."
+
+One way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions. Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health.It’s normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time-to-time. For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems. However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).[5]
+
+Public health refers to trying to stop a disease that is unhealthy to the community, and does not help in long life or promote your health. This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of society, public and private clubs, communities and individuals.
+
+It is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person. Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases. To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice:  Hand washing, regular check-ups,  vaccination programmes, drinking clean water and using condoms. When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease. Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and child-birth, is also very important.

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+A nativity scene is a three-dimensional depiction of the Nativity of Jesus. It is also called a crib, manger or crèche. Typically, a large scale scene includes: the Holy Family, the angels, the Magi, the ox and the donkey, and an assortment of shepherds, villagers, servants and others.
+
+There are two types of scenes: static representations of figures made of clay or other material and living scenes. Static scenes are often displayed on a table top in the home. In living scenes, humans and animals portray the characters in the scene.
+
+St. Francis of Assisi is said to have created the first nativity scene in 1223 (a "living" one) near Greccio, Italy.[1][2] It was a "hit". The scene's popularity inspired communities throughout Catholic countries to stage similar scenes.
+
+In the modern world, nativity scenes have provoked controversy. Animals are said to be abused in living scenes and objections have been placed against static scenes displayed on public lands. In addition, outdoor scenes are often the target of vandals. Theft or destruction of outdoor figures is not uncommon.

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+A nativity scene is a three-dimensional depiction of the Nativity of Jesus. It is also called a crib, manger or crèche. Typically, a large scale scene includes: the Holy Family, the angels, the Magi, the ox and the donkey, and an assortment of shepherds, villagers, servants and others.
+
+There are two types of scenes: static representations of figures made of clay or other material and living scenes. Static scenes are often displayed on a table top in the home. In living scenes, humans and animals portray the characters in the scene.
+
+St. Francis of Assisi is said to have created the first nativity scene in 1223 (a "living" one) near Greccio, Italy.[1][2] It was a "hit". The scene's popularity inspired communities throughout Catholic countries to stage similar scenes.
+
+In the modern world, nativity scenes have provoked controversy. Animals are said to be abused in living scenes and objections have been placed against static scenes displayed on public lands. In addition, outdoor scenes are often the target of vandals. Theft or destruction of outdoor figures is not uncommon.

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+A nativity scene is a three-dimensional depiction of the Nativity of Jesus. It is also called a crib, manger or crèche. Typically, a large scale scene includes: the Holy Family, the angels, the Magi, the ox and the donkey, and an assortment of shepherds, villagers, servants and others.
+
+There are two types of scenes: static representations of figures made of clay or other material and living scenes. Static scenes are often displayed on a table top in the home. In living scenes, humans and animals portray the characters in the scene.
+
+St. Francis of Assisi is said to have created the first nativity scene in 1223 (a "living" one) near Greccio, Italy.[1][2] It was a "hit". The scene's popularity inspired communities throughout Catholic countries to stage similar scenes.
+
+In the modern world, nativity scenes have provoked controversy. Animals are said to be abused in living scenes and objections have been placed against static scenes displayed on public lands. In addition, outdoor scenes are often the target of vandals. Theft or destruction of outdoor figures is not uncommon.

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+Santorini is a Greek island. The capital is Thira. Santorini is 63 miles from the island of Crete. The total population is 13,600.
+
+Santorini is considered an active volcano.[1]
+
+Human presences on the island seem to have existed since the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. The excavations at Akrotiri have confirmed that human activity on the island continued until the eruption of the volcano around 1500 B.C, which entirely buried the island beneath very thick layers of pozzuolona. At that point, all traces of human activity vanished from the island until the end of the 13th century B.C.
+
+According to Herodotus, the island was initially called Strongyle (the Round One). Then later, because of its beauty, it was named Kalliste (the Fairest One). The Phoenicians settled in Kalliste, and after the Phoenicians, the Lacedaemonians arrived and renamed the island after their leader, Theras. In the 9th century B.C. Thera, became an important stopping point of that era in the travel routes between the East and the West. The Phoenician alphabet was adopted at this time for writing in the Greek language. Interestingly though, the conservative Therans, did not follow the cultural development of their counterparts in the other Cycladic islands. At about 630 B.C the Therans reached the north coast of the African continent where they founded Cyrene, the only Theran colony. From as early on as the 6th century B.C. Thera had its own coinage. During the Classical period in Greece [5th and 4th century B.C.] Thera did not play any significant role in the events of that Hellenic time. During the Peloponesian War Thera sided with Sparta, as expected. In Hellenistic times the island's strategic position made Thera an important base for the war campaigns in the Aegean of the successors to Alexander the Great.
+
+During the Roman Empire, Thera was little more than a small, insignificant island. However, when Christianity reached the island early, an organized church was established by the 4th century A.D. The island had neither political nor military significance in Byzantine times, although Alexius I Comnenus [1081 - 1118] founded the church of the Panagia Episkopi at Gonia. After the fall of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade [1204], the Duchy of Naxos was founded and Thera became the seat of one of the four Catholic Bishops of the Duchy. The name Santorini was given at that time by the Crusaders, named after a small chapel of Agia Irini [Santa Irene] which some say was at Perissa and others say it was at Riva on Therasia.
+
+In the years under Frankish rule [1207 - 1579], Santorini experienced the development of a thriving cotton cultivation and viticulture, but the island suffered as much from piratical raids as it did from the rivalries between the local Latin rulers as well as the Duke and the Sultan.
+
+The Turkish dominion [1579 - 1821] resulted in the abolition of piracy and the development of international trade. The Santorinians created close contacts with the great harbours of the Eastern Mediterranean (Alexandria, Constantinople, Odessa) where they founded important communities.
+
+In 1821, Santorini with its shipping power, took part in the fight for independence from the Turks, and in 1830, the island became part of the independent Greek state. Up until the beginning of the 20th century shipping, textiles, tomato production and viticulture were all flourishing markets, but the change from sail to steam-driven ships and the relocation of the island's factories to mainland Greece had a negative effect on the island's economy. After the 1956 earthquake there was a huge decrease in the population resulting in an economic catastrophe. Towards the end of the 1970s however, tourism began to develop, bringing economic relief to the island. 
+The present-day crescent shape of the island is a consequence of the activity of the volcano in prehistoric times. The island itself owes its very existence to the volcano.
+
+The last huge eruption of the volcano dates back 3,600 years, to the late Bronze Age. Thirty million cubic meters of lava in the form of pumice and ash were blown to a height of up to 36 kilometers above the island. Pumice deposits, dozens of meters thick, buried one of the most prosperous pre-historic settlements of that period, feeding the myth of the lost Atlantis.
+
+The mild activity of the volcano after this major eruption continues into the present (the most recent eruption occurred in 1950) building up two small islands within the caldera, Palea and Nea Kameni. These islands represent the volcano's most recent activity.
+
+The marvelous dry climate and continuous sunshine create year around conditions which are perfect for observation, photographs and videos under an extraordinary variety of natural lights and colours that give the visitor the exceptional advantage of reaching the interior of the volcano by boat.
+
+Since the 1st of January 2002, the Euro (EUR) is the currency of Greece. Notes in circulation are 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 euro while coins are in denominations of 1 euro, 2 euro, 1 cent, 2 cents, 5 cents, 10 cents and 20 cents. A currency converter is available here.
+
+The banks on Santorini are open 8.00 am-2.30 pm Monday to Thursday and 8.00 am-2.00 pm on Friday. ATMs are available in almost all villages on Santorini. Most accept Visa and MasterCards as well as debit cards of internationally recognised networks.
+
+The electricity supply in Greece is alternating current, 220-250 volts, 50 cycles. Appliances for 110 or 120 volts may be operated by using step down transformers of 220 - 250/110 volts connected to each outlet.
+
+Bottled water is recommended for drinking. Tap water can be used for washing, bathing and cleaning your teeth. In the area of Oia the tap water that comes from the local desalination plant is drinkable.
+
+There is a taxi stand in the square of Fira. Taxi fares are based on a catalogue issued by the Ministry of Transport, and not based on the taxi's meter. KTEL buses carry out daily bus routes to almost all destinations. The KTEL terminal is also in the square of Fira next to the taxis.
+
+ELTA is the official name of the postal service and their colours are blue and yellow. The main postal offices on Santorini are in Fira, Emporio and Oia. Postal agencies are in Pyrgos, Kamari and Perissa. Mailboxes are available in all the villages of Santorini. A standard letter or postcard less than 20 grams sent anywhere in Europe or abroad costs €0.65 (as per April 2007). Courier services are also available.
+
+Most hotels provide internet access for their guests. Internet cafés are available mostly in Fira.
+
+Santorini National Airport,an airport that serves as both military and civil airport, is north of the village of Kamari.  The airlines that run here include Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines.  To get to and from the airport you can use buses, taxis, hotel car-pickups and rental cars.
+
+Media related to Santorini at Wikimedia Commons

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+The Saône is a river in eastern France. It is a right tributary of the Rhône river. It starts in the Vosges department amd joins the Rhône in the city of Lyon.
+
+Two French departments has the name of the river in their names: Haute-Saône and Saône-et-Loire, both in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.
+
+The Saône river has a length of 480 km (298.3 mi) and a drainage basin with an area of 29,950 km2 (11,564 sq mi).[1]
+
+Its average yearly discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is 470 m3/s (17,000 cu ft/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or in the Metropolitan Lyon.[2]
+
+Average monthly discharge (m3/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or (13 years)[2]
+
+The Saône river starts  in the commune of Vioménil in the Vosges department, at an altitude of about 405 m (1,329 ft).[3] The river flows in general to the south-southwest.
+
+The Saône river flows through the 3 regions and 6 departments. It flows through the following communes, among others:[1]
+
+The Saône river flows into the Rhône river as a right tributary in the city of Lyon.[4]
+
+The main tributaries, over 40 km long,  of the Saône river are:[1]
+
+Left tributaries:
+
+
+
+
+
+Right tributaries:
+
+The source of the Saône in Vioménil.
+
+The Saône in Gray.
+
+View over the Saône, Lyon.
+
+The Saône river in Lyon by night.
+
+Confluence of Saône and Doubs rivers.

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+The Saône is a river in eastern France. It is a right tributary of the Rhône river. It starts in the Vosges department amd joins the Rhône in the city of Lyon.
+
+Two French departments has the name of the river in their names: Haute-Saône and Saône-et-Loire, both in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.
+
+The Saône river has a length of 480 km (298.3 mi) and a drainage basin with an area of 29,950 km2 (11,564 sq mi).[1]
+
+Its average yearly discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is 470 m3/s (17,000 cu ft/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or in the Metropolitan Lyon.[2]
+
+Average monthly discharge (m3/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or (13 years)[2]
+
+The Saône river starts  in the commune of Vioménil in the Vosges department, at an altitude of about 405 m (1,329 ft).[3] The river flows in general to the south-southwest.
+
+The Saône river flows through the 3 regions and 6 departments. It flows through the following communes, among others:[1]
+
+The Saône river flows into the Rhône river as a right tributary in the city of Lyon.[4]
+
+The main tributaries, over 40 km long,  of the Saône river are:[1]
+
+Left tributaries:
+
+
+
+
+
+Right tributaries:
+
+The source of the Saône in Vioménil.
+
+The Saône in Gray.
+
+View over the Saône, Lyon.
+
+The Saône river in Lyon by night.
+
+Confluence of Saône and Doubs rivers.

ensimple/5277.html.txt

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+The Saône is a river in eastern France. It is a right tributary of the Rhône river. It starts in the Vosges department amd joins the Rhône in the city of Lyon.
+
+Two French departments has the name of the river in their names: Haute-Saône and Saône-et-Loire, both in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.
+
+The Saône river has a length of 480 km (298.3 mi) and a drainage basin with an area of 29,950 km2 (11,564 sq mi).[1]
+
+Its average yearly discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is 470 m3/s (17,000 cu ft/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or in the Metropolitan Lyon.[2]
+
+Average monthly discharge (m3/s) at Couzon-au-Mont-d'Or (13 years)[2]
+
+The Saône river starts  in the commune of Vioménil in the Vosges department, at an altitude of about 405 m (1,329 ft).[3] The river flows in general to the south-southwest.
+
+The Saône river flows through the 3 regions and 6 departments. It flows through the following communes, among others:[1]
+
+The Saône river flows into the Rhône river as a right tributary in the city of Lyon.[4]
+
+The main tributaries, over 40 km long,  of the Saône river are:[1]
+
+Left tributaries:
+
+
+
+
+
+Right tributaries:
+
+The source of the Saône in Vioménil.
+
+The Saône in Gray.
+
+View over the Saône, Lyon.
+
+The Saône river in Lyon by night.
+
+Confluence of Saône and Doubs rivers.

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+São Tomé is the capital city of São Tomé and Príncipe. It is the largest city in the country.  The city has a population of 56,166 people. Its name is Portuguese for "Saint Thomas."  São Tomé is important as a port. It is located on Ana Chaves Bay in the north east of São Tomé Island.
+
+The city was founded by Portugal in 1485. It is centred on a sixteenth century cathedral. Another early building is Fort São Sebastião. It was built in 1575 and is now the São Tomé National Museum. In 1599, the city as well as the islands were captured by the Dutch for two days and again in 1641 for a year. São Tomé was the colony's capital until 1753. It has been the national capital since 1852.
+
+São Tomé is known for its role in the forced conversion of Jews during the Inquisition. When King Manuel I of Portugal wanted to force the Jews to convert, he took away their children and had them sent to this remote island.
+
+Features of the town include the Presidential Palace, the Fisherman's Church, and a cinema. The city is also home to two markets, a radio station, a hospital, and an international airport. São Tomé also serves as the center of the island's road and bus networks.
+
+Abidjan, Ivory Coast ·
+Abuja, Nigeria ·
+Accra, Ghana ·
+Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ·
+Algiers, Algeria ·
+Antananarivo, Madagascar ·
+Asmara, Eritrea ·
+Bamako, Mali ·
+Bangui, Central African Republic ·
+Banjul, Gambia ·
+Bissau, Guinea-Bissau ·
+Bloemfontein (One of 3), South Africa ·
+Brazzaville, Congo Republic ·
+Bujumbura, Burundi ·
+Cairo, Egypt ·
+Cape Town (One of 3), South Africa ·
+Conakry, Guinea ·
+Dakar, Senegal ·
+Djibouti, Djibouti ·
+Dodoma, Tanzania ·
+Freetown, Sierra Leone ·
+Gaborone, Botswana ·
+Gitega, Burundi ·
+Harare, Zimbabwe ·
+Jamestown, Saint Helena ·
+Kampala, Uganda ·
+Khartoum, Sudan ·
+Kigali, Rwanda ·
+Kinshasa, Congo Democratic Republic ·
+Libreville, Gabon ·
+Lilongwe, Malawi ·
+Lobamba, Swaziland ·
+Lomé, Togo ·
+Luanda, Angola ·
+Lusaka, Zambia ·
+Moroni, Comoros ·
+Malabo, Equatorial Guinea ·
+Maseru, Lesotho ·
+Mamoudzou, Mayotte ·
+Maputo, Mozambique ·
+Mogadishu, Somalia ·
+Mbabane, Swaziland ·
+Monrovia, Liberia ·
+Nouakchott, Mauritania ·
+Niamey, Niger ·
+N'Djamena, Chad ·
+Nairobi, Kenya ·
+Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso ·
+Port Louis, Mauritius ·
+Porto-Novo, Benin ·
+Praia, Cape Verde ·
+Pretoria (One of 3), South Africa ·
+Rabat, Morocco ·
+Saint-Denis, Réunion ·
+São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe ·
+Tripoli, Libya ·
+Tunis, Tunisia ·
+Victoria, Seychelles ·
+Windhoek, Namibia ·
+Yaoundé, Cameroon ·
+Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast

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+Firefighters or firemen are people whose job is to put out fires and rescue people. Besides fires, firefighters rescue people and animals from car wrecks, collapsed buildings, stuck elevators and many other emergencies. Firefighting is a job which requires bravery, strength, quick thinking and a wide range of skills.
+
+Firefighters are based at a building called a fire station (also known as a firehouse or fire hall). When their help is needed, they drive a vehicle called a fire engine or fire truck to the scene responding code 1 code 2 or code 3.These vehicles can pump water and foam to put out fires. Fire engines also carry ladders, cutting tools and lots of different types of rescue equipment. Most carry first aid kits to help people who are injured or hurt.
+
+Firefighters wear heavy clothing to protect them from the heat when they are fighting with a fire. This is called bunker gear or turnout gear. They wear a breathing apparatus to protect themselves from breathing in smoke.
+
+Depending on the country, the agency firefighters work for is called a fire department, fire service, fire and rescue service or fire brigade. Fire departments are usually government agencies that are funded by taxes and look after a local area. Some sites employ their own firefighters, such as airports and some factories.
+
+Some fire departments employ firefighters who work full-time and wait at the fire station to be called out. They have to work both in the daytime and at night, though they can usually have a rest if they have nothing to do at night. Villages and small towns usually have part-time firefighters who have other jobs outside of the fire service. These firefighters will drive from their home or workplace to the fire station when their help is needed. They may be volunteers, or they may be paid for doing this (known as retained firefighters in the UK).
+
+In some places such as large US cities, it is common for the fire department to run the emergency medical services. In those departments, such as the New York City Fire Department, most of the fire department's calls are medical emergencies rather than fires. Although these are usually dealt with by full-time paramedics, many firefighters are trained in first aid and they may assist in medical emergencies, even bringing the fire engine to the scene.

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+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

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+The Christmas tree is a tradition associated with the celebration of Christmas. It is normally an evergreen coniferous tree that is cut and brought into the home. In Europe, the tree is traditionally a Norway spruce tree.
+
+The tree is decorated with Christmas lights and colourful ornaments during the days around Christmas. An angel or a star is often placed at the top of the tree. Fir trees outside the home may be decorated in a similar fashion. The custom of the Christmas tree has its origin among the Protestant peoples of Northern Europe. It is not a religious symbol.
+
+Media related to Christmas trees at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/5281.html.txt

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+The Christmas tree is a tradition associated with the celebration of Christmas. It is normally an evergreen coniferous tree that is cut and brought into the home. In Europe, the tree is traditionally a Norway spruce tree.
+
+The tree is decorated with Christmas lights and colourful ornaments during the days around Christmas. An angel or a star is often placed at the top of the tree. Fir trees outside the home may be decorated in a similar fashion. The custom of the Christmas tree has its origin among the Protestant peoples of Northern Europe. It is not a religious symbol.
+
+Media related to Christmas trees at Wikimedia Commons
+

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+Sarah Bernhardt (23 October 1844 – 26 March 1923) was a French stage actress, and has often been called "the most famous actress in the history of the world".[2] Bernhardt made her fame on the stages of Europe in the 1870s, and was soon working in Europe and the United States. She developed a reputation as a serious actress, getting the nickname "The Divine Sarah."
+
+She was born in Paris as Marie Henriette Bernardt, the daughter of Julie Bernardt and a Dutch father. She added the letter "H" to her first and last name, and used the name of Edouard Bernardt, her mother's brother, as the name of her father. This was probably done to hide the fact that her father was unknown.
+
+Bernhardt's career started in 1862, when she was a student at the Comédie-Française. She was not very successful there, and left to become a courtesan by 1865. She became famous in Europe in the 1870s, and was soon in demand all over Europe and in New York.[3] She may have been the most famous actress of the 19th century.[4] She coached many young women in the art of acting, including Liane de Pougy.
+
+In 1905, while performing in Rio de Janeiro, Bernhardt hurt her right knee during the final scene when she jumped from a high wall. The leg never healed properly, showing signs of bruising. By 1915, gangrene had set in and her entire right leg was amputated, meaning she was in a wheelchair for several months. Nonetheless, she continued her career. She carried out a successful tour of America in 1915, and died on returning to France. On 26 March 1923, Bernhardt died of uremia following kidney failure. She is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.[5]
+
+Sarah Bernhardt has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1751 Vine Street.

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+Sarajevo is the capital city of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has an estimated population of 436,000 people in the urban area including some municipalities from City of East Sarajevo which is the part of Republika Srpska entity. The city has people living in it from many different cultures. It has mosques, synagogues, and churches. The 1984 Winter Olympics were held in Sarajavo.
+
+During the Siege of Sarajevo, parts of the city were destroyed. Most of the city is now recovered and rebuilt.
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·
+
+
+

ensimple/5284.html.txt

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+Nicolas Sarkozy, born on 28 January 1955 in Paris, France,
+[2] is a French politician. He was the  23rd President of France and, because of that position, ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra from 16 May 2007 to 15 May 2012 succeeding Jacques Chirac.
+
+He was the leader of the UMP, and was elected President of the French Republic on 6 May 2007. He defeated Ségolène Royal, of the Socialist Party.
+
+Sarkozy was known for his conservative law and order politics and his admiration for a new economic model for France during his presidency. He wanted a more liberalised economy for France because he saw the United States and the United Kingdom as positive examples. Until 26 March 2007, he was the Minister of the Interior of France. His nickname Sarko was  used by both supporters and opponents. On 6 May 2012, Sarkozy was defeated in the 2012 election by Socialist François Hollande by a margin of 3.2%, or 1,139,983 votes. After leaving the office, Sarkozy pretended to retire from political life. As a former president, Sarkozy is entitled to de jure membership in the Constitutional Council.

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+("Strength from Many Peoples")
+
+Mountain: UTC-7/-6, Lloydminster and nearby areas
+
+Saskatchewan is a province of Canada. About 1 million people live in Saskatchewan. Most of its population lives in the southern part of the province. The primary industry in Saskatchewan is agriculture (farming).
+
+Saskatchewan is known for its wide horizons. The land is very flat in the south, so you can sometimes see far away. Not all the land is flat prairie. There are beautiful scenic woodlands and forests in the central and northern regions and parklands with lakes for fishing. The province is marked by and named after the North and South Saskatchewan rivers that run through it. The province is nicknamed The Land of Living Skies.
+
+The largest city in Saskatchewan is Saskatoon, followed by the province's capital, Regina. Saskatchewan is (approximately) a quadrilateral (four-sided object) bounded on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the American states of Montana and North Dakota.
+
+Saskatchewan was founded on September 1, 1905, the same date that Alberta was founded. The province's colors are gold, red, green, white, brown, yellow, and black. Gold for the wheat, red for the Prairie Lily which is the provincial flower, green for the forests, white for the snow, brown for the fresh cut fields, yellow for the canola and sunflowers, and black for the coal and oil.
+

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+Satan (meaning "the enemy" or "the trouble-maker" in Hebrew), sometimes called the Devil, is a figure found in the writings of the Abrahamic religions. Muslims, Christians and Jews believe that he tempts people to do bad things. His role is to question and tempt people's faith. They also say that he was once an angel named Lucifer.
+
+In Satanism, Satan is thought to be just a metaphor for what humans want. In Theistic Satanism, Satan is considered to be a good force.
+
+In Islam, a shayṭān is any sort of evil creature. The Qu'ran describes Satan as arrogant. The story about him begins in surah Baqarah. It states that Satan views himself as a greater entity than God's other creations because he was created from fire. After this, the Qu'ran states:
+
+In the Bahá'í Faith, Satan is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths and religions, but rather signifies the lower nature of humans.  `Abdu'l-Bahá explains: "This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan — the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside." All other evil spirits described in various faith traditions—such as fallen angels, demons, and jinns—are also metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God. Actions, that are described as "satanic" in some Bahá'í writings, denote humans deeds caused by selfish desires.
+
+Many people believe that Satan was first an angel called Lucifer that left Heaven and took many other angels with him. He did this because he thought he was as powerful as God.[7]
+

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+
+
+Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is the second largest planet in the Solar System, after Jupiter. Saturn is one of the four gas giant planets, along with Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune.
+
+Inside Saturn is probably a core of iron, nickel, silicon and oxygen compounds, surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, then a layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium and finally, an outer gaseous layer.[4]
+
+Saturn has 67 known moons orbiting the planet. 38 are officially named and 29 are waiting to be named.[5] The largest moon is Titan, which is larger in volume than the planet Mercury. Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System. The largest moon is Jupiter's moon, Ganymede. There is also a very large system of rings around Saturn. These rings are made of ice with smaller amounts of rocks and dust. Some people believe that the rings were caused from a moon impact or other event. Saturn is about 1,433,000,000 km (869,000,000 mi) on average from the Sun. Saturn takes 29.6 Earth years to revolve around the Sun.
+
+Saturn was named after the Roman god Saturnus (called Kronos in Greek mythology).[6] Saturn's symbol is ♄ which is the symbol of Saturnus' sickle.[7]
+
+Saturn is an oblate spheroid, meaning that it is flattened at the poles, and it swells out around its equator.[8] The planet's equatorial diameter is 120,536 km (74,898 mi), while its polar diameter (the distance from the north pole to the south pole) is 108,728 km (67,560 mi); a 9% difference.[9] Saturn has a flattened shape due to its very fast rotation, once every 10.8 hours.
+
+Saturn is the only planet in the Solar System that is less dense than water. Even though the planet's core is very dense, it has a gaseous atmosphere, so the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3. This means if Saturn could be placed in a large pool of water, it would float.[10]
+
+The outer part of Saturn's atmosphere is made up of about 96% hydrogen, 3% helium, 0.4% methane and 0.01% ammonia. There are also very small amounts of acetylene, ethane and phosphine.[11]
+
+Saturn's clouds show a banded pattern, like the cloud bands seen on Jupiter. Saturn's clouds are much fainter and the bands are wider at the equator. Saturn's lowest cloud layer is made up of water ice, and is about 10 km (6 mi) thick.[11] The temperature here is quite low, at 250 K (-10°F, -23°C). However scientists do not agree about this. The layer above, about 77 km (48 mi) thick, is made up of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, and above that is a layer of ammonia ice clouds 80 km (50 mi) thick.[11] The highest layer is made up of hydrogen and helium gases, which extends between 200 km (124 mi) and 270 km (168 mi) above the water cloud tops. Auroras are also known to form in Saturn in the mesosphere.[11] The temperature at Saturn's cloud tops is extremely low, at 98 K (-283 °F, -175 °C). The temperatures in the inner layers are much higher than the outside layers because of the heat produced by Saturn's interior.[12]
+Saturn's winds are some of the fastest in the Solar System, reaching 1,800 km/h (1,118 mph),[13] ten times faster than winds on Earth.[14]
+
+Saturn's atmosphere is also known to form oval shaped clouds, similar to the clearer spots seen in Jupiter. These oval spots are cyclonic storms, the same as cyclones seen on Earth. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope found a very large white cloud near Saturn's equator. Storms like the one in 1990 were known as Great White Spots. These unique storms only exist for a short time and only happen about every 30 Earth years, at the time of the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.[15]
+Great White Spots were also found in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960. If this cycle continues, another storm will form in about 2020.[16]
+
+The Voyager 1 spacecraft found a hexagonal cloud pattern near Saturn's north pole at about 78°N. The Cassini−Huygens probe later confirmed it in 2006. Unlike the north pole, the south pole does not show any hexagonal cloud feature. The probe also discovered a hurricane-like storm locked to the south pole that clearly showed an eyewall. Until this discovery, eyewalls had only been seen on Earth.[17]
+
+Saturn's interior is similar to Jupiter's interior. It has a small rocky core about the size of the Earth at its center.[8] It is very hot; its temperature reaches 15,000 K (26,540 °F (14,727 °C)). Saturn is so hot that it gives out more heat energy into space than it receives from the Sun.[12] Above it is a thicker layer of metallic hydrogen, about 30,000 km (18,641 mi) deep. Above that layer is a region of liquid hydrogen and helium.[18] The core is heavy, with about 9 to 22 times more mass than the Earth's core.[19]
+
+Saturn has a natural magnetic field that is weaker than Jupiter's. Like the Earth's, Saturn's field is a magnetic dipole. Saturn's field is unique in that it is perfectly symmetrical, unlike any other known planet.[20] This means the field is exactly in line with the planet's axis.[20] Saturn generates radio waves, but they are too weak to be detected from Earth.[21] The moon Titan orbits in the outer part of Saturn's magnetic field and gives out plasma to the field from the ionised particles in Titan's atmosphere.[22]
+
+Saturn's average distance from the Sun is over 1,400,000,000 km (869,000,000 mi), about nine times the distance from the Earth to the Sun. It takes 10,759 days, or about 29.8 years, for Saturn to orbit around the Sun.[23] This is known as Saturn's orbital period.
+
+Voyager 1 measured Saturn's rotation as being 10 hours 14 minutes at the equator, 10 hours 40 minutes closer to the poles, and 10 hours 39 minutes 24 seconds for the planet's interior.[24] This is known as its rotational period.
+
+Cassini measured the rotation of Saturn as being 10 hours 45 minutes 45 seconds ± 36 seconds.[25] That is about six minutes, or one percent, longer than the radio rotational period measured by the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft, which flew by Saturn in 1980 and 1981.
+
+Saturn's rotational period is calculated by the rotation speed of radio waves released by the planet. The Cassini−Huygens spacecraft discovered that the radio waves slowed down, suggesting that the rotational period increased.[25] Since the scientists do not think Saturn's rotation is actually slowing down, the explanation may lie in the magnetic field that causes the radio waves.[25]
+
+Saturn is best known for its planetary rings which are easy to see with a telescope. There are seven named rings; A, B, C, D, E, F, and G rings.[26] They were named in the order they were discovered, which is different to their order from the planet. From the planet the rings are: D, C, B, A, F, G and E.[26]:57
+
+Scientists believe that the rings are material left after a moon broke apart.[26]:60 A new idea says that it was a very large moon, most of which crashed into the planet. This left a large amount of ice to form the rings, and also some of the moons, like Enceladus, which are thought to be made of ice.[26]:61
+
+The rings were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610, using his telescope. They did not look like rings to Galileo, so he called them "handles". He thought that Saturn was three separate planets that almost touched one another. In 1612, when the rings were facing edge on with the Earth, the rings disappeared, then reappeared again in 1613, further confusing Galileo.[27] In 1655, Christiaan Huygens was the first person to recognise Saturn was surrounded by rings. Using a much more powerful telescope than Galilei's, he noted Saturn "is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching...".[27] In 1675, Giovanni Domenico Cassini discovered that the planet's rings were in fact made of smaller ringlets with gaps. The largest ring gap was later named the Cassini Division. In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell showed that the rings cannot be solid, but are made of small particles, each orbiting Saturn on their own, otherwise, it would become unstable or break apart.[28] James Keeler studied the rings using a spectroscope in 1895 which proved Maxwell's theory.[29]
+
+The rings range from 6,630 km (4,120 mi) to 120,700 km (75,000 mi) above the planet's equator. As proved by Maxwell, even though the rings appear to be solid and unbroken when viewed from above, the rings are made of small particles of rock and ice. They are only about 10 m (33 ft) thick; made of silica rock, iron oxide and ice particles.[26]:55 The smallest particles are only specks of dust while the largest are the size of a house. The C and D rings also seem to have a "wave" in them, like waves in water.[26]:58 These large waves are 500 m (1,640 ft) high, but only moving slowly at about 250 m (820 ft) each day.[26]:58 Some scientists believe that the wave is caused by Saturn's moons.[30] Another idea is the waves were made by a comet hitting Saturn in 1983 or 1984.[26]:60
+
+The largest gaps in the rings are the Cassini Division and the Encke Division, both visible from the Earth. The Cassini Division is the largest, measuring 4,800 km (2,983 mi) wide.[31] However, when the Voyager spacecrafts visited Saturn in 1980, they discovered that the rings are a complex structure, made out of thousands of thin gaps and ringlets. Scientists believe this is caused by the gravitational force of some of Saturn's moons. The tiny moon Pan orbits inside Saturn's rings, creating a gap within the rings. Other ringlets keep their structure due to the gravitational force of shepherd satellites, such as Prometheus and Pandora. Other gaps form due to the gravitational force of a large moon farther away. The moon Mimas is responsible for clearing away the Cassini gap.[31]
+
+Recent data from the Cassini spacecraft has shown that the rings have their own atmosphere, free from the planet's atmosphere. The rings' atmosphere is made of oxygen gas, and it is produced when the Sun's ultraviolet light breaks up the water ice in the rings. Chemical reaction also occurs between the ultraviolet light and the water molecules, creating hydrogen gas. The oxygen and hydrogen atmospheres around the rings are very widely spaced.[32] As well as oxygen and hydrogen gas, the rings have a thin atmosphere made of hydroxide. This anion was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope.[33]
+
+The Voyager space probe discovered features shaped like rays, called spokes.[34] These were also seen later by the Hubble telescope. The Cassini probe photographed the spokes in 2005.[34] They are seen as dark when under sunlight, and appear light when against the unlit side. At first it was thought the spokes were made of microscopic dust particles but new evidence shows that they are made of ice.[35]
+They rotate at the same time with the planet's magnetosphere, therefore, it is believed that they have a connection with electromagnetism. However, what causes the spokes to form is still unknown. They appear to be seasonal, disappearing during solstice and appearing again during equinox.[36]
+
+Saturn has 53 named moons, and another nine which are still being studied.[37] Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than 10 km (6 mi) in diameter and 13 moons are less than 50 km (31 mi).[38] Seven moons are large enough to be a near perfect sphere caused by their own gravitation. These moons are Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas.[39] Titan is the largest moon, larger than the planet Mercury, and it is the only moon in the Solar System to have a thick, dense atmosphere.[40][41] Hyperion and Phoebe are the next largest moons, larger than 200 km (124 mi) in diameter.
+
+In December 2004 and January 2005 a man-made satellite called the Cassini−Huygens probe took lots of close photos of Titan. One part of this satellite, known as the Huygens probe, then landed on Titan. Named after the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, it was the first spacecraft to land in the outer Solar System.[42] The probe was designed to float in case it landed in liquid.[42]
+Enceladus, the sixth largest moon, is about 500 km (311 mi) in diameter. It is one of the few outer solar system objects that shows volcanic activity.[43] In 2011, scientists discovered an electric link between Saturn and Enceladus. This is caused by ionised particles from volcanos on the small moon interacting with Saturn's magnetic fields.[43] Similar interactions cause the northern lights on Earth.[44]
+
+Saturn was first explored by the Pioneer 11 spacecraft in September 1979. It flew as close as 20,000 km (12,427 mi) above the planet's cloud tops. It took photographs of the planet and a few of its moons, but were low in resolution. It discovered a new, thin ring called the F ring. It also discovered that the dark ring gaps appear bright when viewed towards the Sun, which shows the gaps are not empty of material. The spacecraft measured the temperature of the moon Titan.[45]
+
+In November 1980, Voyager 1 visited Saturn, and took higher resolution photographs of the planet, rings and moons. These photos were able to show the surface features of the moons. Voyager 1 went close to Titan, and gained much information about its atmosphere. In August, 1981, Voyager 2 continued to study the planet. Photos taken by the space probe showed that changes were happening to the rings and atmosphere. The Voyager spacecrafts discovered a number of moons orbiting close to Saturn's rings, as well as discovering new ring gaps.
+
+On July 1, 2004, the Cassini−Huygens probe entered into orbit around Saturn. Before then, it flew close to Phoebe, taking very high resolution photos of its surface and collecting data. On December 25, 2004, the Huygens probe separated from the Cassini probe before moving down towards Titan's surface and landed there on January 14, 2005. It landed on a dry surface, but it found that large bodies of liquid exist on the moon. The Cassini probe continued to collect data from Titan and a number of the icy moons. It found evidence that the moon Enceladus had water erupting from its geysers.[46] Cassini also proved, in July 2006, that Titan had hydrocarbon lakes, located near its north pole. In March 2007, it discovered a large hydrocarbon lake the size of the Caspian Sea near its north pole.[47]
+
+Cassini observed lightning occurring in Saturn since early 2005. The power of the lightning was measured to be 1,000 times more powerful than lightning on Earth. Astronomers believe that the lightning observed in Saturn is the strongest ever seen.[48]
+
+Notes
+

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+
+
+Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is the second largest planet in the Solar System, after Jupiter. Saturn is one of the four gas giant planets, along with Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune.
+
+Inside Saturn is probably a core of iron, nickel, silicon and oxygen compounds, surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, then a layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium and finally, an outer gaseous layer.[4]
+
+Saturn has 67 known moons orbiting the planet. 38 are officially named and 29 are waiting to be named.[5] The largest moon is Titan, which is larger in volume than the planet Mercury. Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System. The largest moon is Jupiter's moon, Ganymede. There is also a very large system of rings around Saturn. These rings are made of ice with smaller amounts of rocks and dust. Some people believe that the rings were caused from a moon impact or other event. Saturn is about 1,433,000,000 km (869,000,000 mi) on average from the Sun. Saturn takes 29.6 Earth years to revolve around the Sun.
+
+Saturn was named after the Roman god Saturnus (called Kronos in Greek mythology).[6] Saturn's symbol is ♄ which is the symbol of Saturnus' sickle.[7]
+
+Saturn is an oblate spheroid, meaning that it is flattened at the poles, and it swells out around its equator.[8] The planet's equatorial diameter is 120,536 km (74,898 mi), while its polar diameter (the distance from the north pole to the south pole) is 108,728 km (67,560 mi); a 9% difference.[9] Saturn has a flattened shape due to its very fast rotation, once every 10.8 hours.
+
+Saturn is the only planet in the Solar System that is less dense than water. Even though the planet's core is very dense, it has a gaseous atmosphere, so the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3. This means if Saturn could be placed in a large pool of water, it would float.[10]
+
+The outer part of Saturn's atmosphere is made up of about 96% hydrogen, 3% helium, 0.4% methane and 0.01% ammonia. There are also very small amounts of acetylene, ethane and phosphine.[11]
+
+Saturn's clouds show a banded pattern, like the cloud bands seen on Jupiter. Saturn's clouds are much fainter and the bands are wider at the equator. Saturn's lowest cloud layer is made up of water ice, and is about 10 km (6 mi) thick.[11] The temperature here is quite low, at 250 K (-10°F, -23°C). However scientists do not agree about this. The layer above, about 77 km (48 mi) thick, is made up of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, and above that is a layer of ammonia ice clouds 80 km (50 mi) thick.[11] The highest layer is made up of hydrogen and helium gases, which extends between 200 km (124 mi) and 270 km (168 mi) above the water cloud tops. Auroras are also known to form in Saturn in the mesosphere.[11] The temperature at Saturn's cloud tops is extremely low, at 98 K (-283 °F, -175 °C). The temperatures in the inner layers are much higher than the outside layers because of the heat produced by Saturn's interior.[12]
+Saturn's winds are some of the fastest in the Solar System, reaching 1,800 km/h (1,118 mph),[13] ten times faster than winds on Earth.[14]
+
+Saturn's atmosphere is also known to form oval shaped clouds, similar to the clearer spots seen in Jupiter. These oval spots are cyclonic storms, the same as cyclones seen on Earth. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope found a very large white cloud near Saturn's equator. Storms like the one in 1990 were known as Great White Spots. These unique storms only exist for a short time and only happen about every 30 Earth years, at the time of the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.[15]
+Great White Spots were also found in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960. If this cycle continues, another storm will form in about 2020.[16]
+
+The Voyager 1 spacecraft found a hexagonal cloud pattern near Saturn's north pole at about 78°N. The Cassini−Huygens probe later confirmed it in 2006. Unlike the north pole, the south pole does not show any hexagonal cloud feature. The probe also discovered a hurricane-like storm locked to the south pole that clearly showed an eyewall. Until this discovery, eyewalls had only been seen on Earth.[17]
+
+Saturn's interior is similar to Jupiter's interior. It has a small rocky core about the size of the Earth at its center.[8] It is very hot; its temperature reaches 15,000 K (26,540 °F (14,727 °C)). Saturn is so hot that it gives out more heat energy into space than it receives from the Sun.[12] Above it is a thicker layer of metallic hydrogen, about 30,000 km (18,641 mi) deep. Above that layer is a region of liquid hydrogen and helium.[18] The core is heavy, with about 9 to 22 times more mass than the Earth's core.[19]
+
+Saturn has a natural magnetic field that is weaker than Jupiter's. Like the Earth's, Saturn's field is a magnetic dipole. Saturn's field is unique in that it is perfectly symmetrical, unlike any other known planet.[20] This means the field is exactly in line with the planet's axis.[20] Saturn generates radio waves, but they are too weak to be detected from Earth.[21] The moon Titan orbits in the outer part of Saturn's magnetic field and gives out plasma to the field from the ionised particles in Titan's atmosphere.[22]
+
+Saturn's average distance from the Sun is over 1,400,000,000 km (869,000,000 mi), about nine times the distance from the Earth to the Sun. It takes 10,759 days, or about 29.8 years, for Saturn to orbit around the Sun.[23] This is known as Saturn's orbital period.
+
+Voyager 1 measured Saturn's rotation as being 10 hours 14 minutes at the equator, 10 hours 40 minutes closer to the poles, and 10 hours 39 minutes 24 seconds for the planet's interior.[24] This is known as its rotational period.
+
+Cassini measured the rotation of Saturn as being 10 hours 45 minutes 45 seconds ± 36 seconds.[25] That is about six minutes, or one percent, longer than the radio rotational period measured by the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft, which flew by Saturn in 1980 and 1981.
+
+Saturn's rotational period is calculated by the rotation speed of radio waves released by the planet. The Cassini−Huygens spacecraft discovered that the radio waves slowed down, suggesting that the rotational period increased.[25] Since the scientists do not think Saturn's rotation is actually slowing down, the explanation may lie in the magnetic field that causes the radio waves.[25]
+
+Saturn is best known for its planetary rings which are easy to see with a telescope. There are seven named rings; A, B, C, D, E, F, and G rings.[26] They were named in the order they were discovered, which is different to their order from the planet. From the planet the rings are: D, C, B, A, F, G and E.[26]:57
+
+Scientists believe that the rings are material left after a moon broke apart.[26]:60 A new idea says that it was a very large moon, most of which crashed into the planet. This left a large amount of ice to form the rings, and also some of the moons, like Enceladus, which are thought to be made of ice.[26]:61
+
+The rings were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610, using his telescope. They did not look like rings to Galileo, so he called them "handles". He thought that Saturn was three separate planets that almost touched one another. In 1612, when the rings were facing edge on with the Earth, the rings disappeared, then reappeared again in 1613, further confusing Galileo.[27] In 1655, Christiaan Huygens was the first person to recognise Saturn was surrounded by rings. Using a much more powerful telescope than Galilei's, he noted Saturn "is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching...".[27] In 1675, Giovanni Domenico Cassini discovered that the planet's rings were in fact made of smaller ringlets with gaps. The largest ring gap was later named the Cassini Division. In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell showed that the rings cannot be solid, but are made of small particles, each orbiting Saturn on their own, otherwise, it would become unstable or break apart.[28] James Keeler studied the rings using a spectroscope in 1895 which proved Maxwell's theory.[29]
+
+The rings range from 6,630 km (4,120 mi) to 120,700 km (75,000 mi) above the planet's equator. As proved by Maxwell, even though the rings appear to be solid and unbroken when viewed from above, the rings are made of small particles of rock and ice. They are only about 10 m (33 ft) thick; made of silica rock, iron oxide and ice particles.[26]:55 The smallest particles are only specks of dust while the largest are the size of a house. The C and D rings also seem to have a "wave" in them, like waves in water.[26]:58 These large waves are 500 m (1,640 ft) high, but only moving slowly at about 250 m (820 ft) each day.[26]:58 Some scientists believe that the wave is caused by Saturn's moons.[30] Another idea is the waves were made by a comet hitting Saturn in 1983 or 1984.[26]:60
+
+The largest gaps in the rings are the Cassini Division and the Encke Division, both visible from the Earth. The Cassini Division is the largest, measuring 4,800 km (2,983 mi) wide.[31] However, when the Voyager spacecrafts visited Saturn in 1980, they discovered that the rings are a complex structure, made out of thousands of thin gaps and ringlets. Scientists believe this is caused by the gravitational force of some of Saturn's moons. The tiny moon Pan orbits inside Saturn's rings, creating a gap within the rings. Other ringlets keep their structure due to the gravitational force of shepherd satellites, such as Prometheus and Pandora. Other gaps form due to the gravitational force of a large moon farther away. The moon Mimas is responsible for clearing away the Cassini gap.[31]
+
+Recent data from the Cassini spacecraft has shown that the rings have their own atmosphere, free from the planet's atmosphere. The rings' atmosphere is made of oxygen gas, and it is produced when the Sun's ultraviolet light breaks up the water ice in the rings. Chemical reaction also occurs between the ultraviolet light and the water molecules, creating hydrogen gas. The oxygen and hydrogen atmospheres around the rings are very widely spaced.[32] As well as oxygen and hydrogen gas, the rings have a thin atmosphere made of hydroxide. This anion was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope.[33]
+
+The Voyager space probe discovered features shaped like rays, called spokes.[34] These were also seen later by the Hubble telescope. The Cassini probe photographed the spokes in 2005.[34] They are seen as dark when under sunlight, and appear light when against the unlit side. At first it was thought the spokes were made of microscopic dust particles but new evidence shows that they are made of ice.[35]
+They rotate at the same time with the planet's magnetosphere, therefore, it is believed that they have a connection with electromagnetism. However, what causes the spokes to form is still unknown. They appear to be seasonal, disappearing during solstice and appearing again during equinox.[36]
+
+Saturn has 53 named moons, and another nine which are still being studied.[37] Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than 10 km (6 mi) in diameter and 13 moons are less than 50 km (31 mi).[38] Seven moons are large enough to be a near perfect sphere caused by their own gravitation. These moons are Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas.[39] Titan is the largest moon, larger than the planet Mercury, and it is the only moon in the Solar System to have a thick, dense atmosphere.[40][41] Hyperion and Phoebe are the next largest moons, larger than 200 km (124 mi) in diameter.
+
+In December 2004 and January 2005 a man-made satellite called the Cassini−Huygens probe took lots of close photos of Titan. One part of this satellite, known as the Huygens probe, then landed on Titan. Named after the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, it was the first spacecraft to land in the outer Solar System.[42] The probe was designed to float in case it landed in liquid.[42]
+Enceladus, the sixth largest moon, is about 500 km (311 mi) in diameter. It is one of the few outer solar system objects that shows volcanic activity.[43] In 2011, scientists discovered an electric link between Saturn and Enceladus. This is caused by ionised particles from volcanos on the small moon interacting with Saturn's magnetic fields.[43] Similar interactions cause the northern lights on Earth.[44]
+
+Saturn was first explored by the Pioneer 11 spacecraft in September 1979. It flew as close as 20,000 km (12,427 mi) above the planet's cloud tops. It took photographs of the planet and a few of its moons, but were low in resolution. It discovered a new, thin ring called the F ring. It also discovered that the dark ring gaps appear bright when viewed towards the Sun, which shows the gaps are not empty of material. The spacecraft measured the temperature of the moon Titan.[45]
+
+In November 1980, Voyager 1 visited Saturn, and took higher resolution photographs of the planet, rings and moons. These photos were able to show the surface features of the moons. Voyager 1 went close to Titan, and gained much information about its atmosphere. In August, 1981, Voyager 2 continued to study the planet. Photos taken by the space probe showed that changes were happening to the rings and atmosphere. The Voyager spacecrafts discovered a number of moons orbiting close to Saturn's rings, as well as discovering new ring gaps.
+
+On July 1, 2004, the Cassini−Huygens probe entered into orbit around Saturn. Before then, it flew close to Phoebe, taking very high resolution photos of its surface and collecting data. On December 25, 2004, the Huygens probe separated from the Cassini probe before moving down towards Titan's surface and landed there on January 14, 2005. It landed on a dry surface, but it found that large bodies of liquid exist on the moon. The Cassini probe continued to collect data from Titan and a number of the icy moons. It found evidence that the moon Enceladus had water erupting from its geysers.[46] Cassini also proved, in July 2006, that Titan had hydrocarbon lakes, located near its north pole. In March 2007, it discovered a large hydrocarbon lake the size of the Caspian Sea near its north pole.[47]
+
+Cassini observed lightning occurring in Saturn since early 2005. The power of the lightning was measured to be 1,000 times more powerful than lightning on Earth. Astronomers believe that the lightning observed in Saturn is the strongest ever seen.[48]
+
+Notes
+

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+
+
+About 350.
+
+Willows are a family of trees and shrubs which may be called sallows or osiers. Their latin name is Salix.
+
+Willows have many differences in size and type of growth, but are very much alike in other respects. There are about 350 species of this plant, usually found on moist soils in cooler zones in the Northern Hemisphere. Many hybrids are known, both naturally occurring and in cultivation, because willows are very fertile between their own species.
+
+Willows have watery bark sap, charged with salicylic acid (defence against herbivory). They have soft, usually pliant (bendy), tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots. The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and are hard to kill. Roots readily sprout from aerial parts of the plant.
+
+Willows are dioecious, with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants. The catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves.
+
+Weeping Willow in Auckland, New Zealand
+
+Salix herbacea, Dwarf Willow, Sweden
+
+Willow catkin(Salix discolor)
+
+Young male catkin

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+Ballet is a type of dance. It is only done by dancers who have had special training. The dancers are employed by a dance company, and they perform in theatres. The first reference to ballet is found in a work of Domenico da Piacenza, who lived in the early 14th century. The ballet's first complete United States performance was on 24 December 1944, by the San Francisco Ballet.
+
+Ballet involves the creation of the dance itself, often a type of imaginary story.The story is told with the help of dance and mime. Ballet is a form of expression. It presents a story in a new form to the audience. The creation of dance is called choreography set by professional dancers. The choreography is learnt by the dancers under the supervision of a trainer, called a ballet master or mistress. Ballet is always performed to music, and in many cases the music was specially composed for a particular ballet. Ballet is a major part of theatre, and a popular example is The Nutcracker which was fist performed on the 24th of December by the San Francisco ballet company.
+
+Ballet grew out of Renaissance spectacles which, rather like big pop music events today, used every type of performance art. These Italian ballets were further developed in France. Le Ballet Comique de la Reine (The Queen's Ballet Comedy) was performed in Paris in 1581. It was staged by Balthazar de Beaujoyeux, a violinist and dancing master at the court of Catherine de Medici. It was danced by amateurs in a hall. The royal family were watching at one end and the others in galleries on three sides. Poetry and songs came with the dances.[1]
+
+The basis of classical ballet was formed in the Court of Louis XIV in France, in the 17th century.[2]p40 Even his title (the 'Sun King') came from a role he danced in a ballet. Louis founded the first ballet company, the Ballet de l'Opera de Paris. Many of the ballets presented at his court were created by the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and the choreographer Pierre Beauchamp. Also during this time, the playwright Molière invented the comedie-ballet.[1]
+
+In the early 19th century ballet technique was codified (sorted out and written down) by Carlo Blasis (1797–1878) of Naples. His dance classes, four hours long, were famous for being the toughest training there was at that time. 'Romantic ballet' flourished in France in the first half of the 19th century.
+
+Ballet with a more athletic style was developed in Imperial Russia of the late 19th century. This company performed in the Mariinsky Theatre at St. Petersburg. The three famous Tchaikovsky ballets, Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker, date from that time. The next stage was the Diaghilev ballet. Diageilev was a great impresario (showman). In 1909 he founded Les Ballets Russes de Sergei Diaghilev, considered by many to be the greatest ballet company of all time.
+
+His dancers included the legendary Nijinsky and the Imperial primaballerina Karsavina; also Pavlova, Danilova and Spessivtseva. His choreographers included Fokine, Massine and Balanchine; his composers included Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Ravel and Debussy; his set designers included Picasso, Cezanne, Matisse, Utrillo, Bakst  and Braque; and the ballets created changed the course of ballet history.
+
+Later in the 20th century, permanent ballet companies were set up in English-speaking countries. The Royal Ballet in London was started, and in New York a company called the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo was founded (1938–1962).
+
+Technique is the physical ability to perform whatever steps a dance may need.[3] Specific methods for refining technique are named after the ballet master or mistress who started them, such as the Vaganova method after Agrippina Vaganova, the Balanchine method after George Balanchine, and the Cecchetti method after Enrico Cecchetti.
+

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+Skydiving is parachuting from an airplane for fun. Skydiving can be done individually and with groups of people.  Training is required.  Unlike most paratroopers, skydivers often wait until they are low, before opening the parachute.  The jump can also be made from a helicopter or a balloon that is high enough in the sky.  Skydiving can be an exciting sport.
+
+Skydiving includes free falling (usually from an aeroplane) through the air prior to opening a parachute.   Typically skydives are carried out from around 4,000m (or 12,500ft) offering 40 to 50 seconds of freefall time.  Longer free fall times can be achieved by exiting an aircraft at altitudes much higher than 4,000m, but such jumps require pressurized oxygen within the aircraft as well as bottled oxygen for very high skydives. During a skydive, total freedom and control of the air can be enjoyed as well as many complex and spectacular manoeuvres including flat turns, somersaults and formation skydiving. Skydiving can be enjoyed either as an individual - doing solo(alone) jumps - or as part of a team carrying out formation skydiving. Generally, the term ‘skydive’ refers to the time spent in freefall from exiting an aircraft to deploying a parachute but skydiving does include some disciplines such as accuracy landings and canopy formation flying which concentrate on the time spent once a canopy has been deployed.
+
+
+

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+The word savanna comes from a Panamanian word for prairie or plains. 
+They are covered with tall grasses. They may have scattered bushes and trees, but not enough to keep grasses from growing.  The most common definition of savanna is the tropical grassland, such as in Africa. They have seasonal rains and dry periods.  All savanna plants and trees can survive periods of drought.[1] Most savannas  get enough rain to support a forest, but the forest never happens because something keeps the trees from growing.  This can be animals that graze and knock over trees (like elephants in Africa), or fires that kill most kinds of trees.  Instead there is lots of grasses and other plants that can regrow from the roots.[2]
+
+The savannas of Africa are the best known savannas. Some herbivores found in the savanna are antelopes, impalas, gazelles, buffalos, wildebeests, zebras, rhinos, giraffes, elephants, and warthogs. There is also a large number of carnivores, including cats (lions, leopards, cheetahs, servals), dogs (jackals, wild dogs), and hyenas. The vegetation in the Eastern African is also rich with grass and some scattered trees, mostly acacia trees.  The dry season is the winter, from December to February it may not rain at all.  But in the summer there is lots of rain.[1]
+
+In North America, the word savanna is also used to describe the tall grass prairies that have scattered trees, typically oaks.  This is a temperate climate (colder than the tropics).  It is called an oak savanna since the oak tree is the main tree.  At least half of the view of the sky must be open.  If there are more trees, then it is called a grove or a woodland.  If there are fewer trees, it is a prairie. (If there are many kinds of trees and brush and very little grass, then it is a forest).  Oak savannas are found in California and Oregon on the west coast.  In the southwest it is found in Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico.  In the midwest it is found in the tall-grass prairie.  Often a grove or a savanna is east of a river, which stopped the fire often enough to let trees grow.  Large oak trees will survive grass fires.  The savannas in the midwest of the United States are kept open by regular fires, not because it is too dry for many trees.[3]
+
+Brazil's cerrado is an open woodland of short twisted trees. The are many kinds of plants and animals here, many that don't exist anywhere else on earth.
+The llanos of the Orinoco basin of Venezuela and Colombia are grass savannas, some parts of it get flooded every year.
+
+Northern Australia also has a savanna. Eucalyptus trees are the main tree in the Australian savanna. There are many species of kangaroos but not much else.[1]

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+The word savanna comes from a Panamanian word for prairie or plains. 
+They are covered with tall grasses. They may have scattered bushes and trees, but not enough to keep grasses from growing.  The most common definition of savanna is the tropical grassland, such as in Africa. They have seasonal rains and dry periods.  All savanna plants and trees can survive periods of drought.[1] Most savannas  get enough rain to support a forest, but the forest never happens because something keeps the trees from growing.  This can be animals that graze and knock over trees (like elephants in Africa), or fires that kill most kinds of trees.  Instead there is lots of grasses and other plants that can regrow from the roots.[2]
+
+The savannas of Africa are the best known savannas. Some herbivores found in the savanna are antelopes, impalas, gazelles, buffalos, wildebeests, zebras, rhinos, giraffes, elephants, and warthogs. There is also a large number of carnivores, including cats (lions, leopards, cheetahs, servals), dogs (jackals, wild dogs), and hyenas. The vegetation in the Eastern African is also rich with grass and some scattered trees, mostly acacia trees.  The dry season is the winter, from December to February it may not rain at all.  But in the summer there is lots of rain.[1]
+
+In North America, the word savanna is also used to describe the tall grass prairies that have scattered trees, typically oaks.  This is a temperate climate (colder than the tropics).  It is called an oak savanna since the oak tree is the main tree.  At least half of the view of the sky must be open.  If there are more trees, then it is called a grove or a woodland.  If there are fewer trees, it is a prairie. (If there are many kinds of trees and brush and very little grass, then it is a forest).  Oak savannas are found in California and Oregon on the west coast.  In the southwest it is found in Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico.  In the midwest it is found in the tall-grass prairie.  Often a grove or a savanna is east of a river, which stopped the fire often enough to let trees grow.  Large oak trees will survive grass fires.  The savannas in the midwest of the United States are kept open by regular fires, not because it is too dry for many trees.[3]
+
+Brazil's cerrado is an open woodland of short twisted trees. The are many kinds of plants and animals here, many that don't exist anywhere else on earth.
+The llanos of the Orinoco basin of Venezuela and Colombia are grass savannas, some parts of it get flooded every year.
+
+Northern Australia also has a savanna. Eucalyptus trees are the main tree in the Australian savanna. There are many species of kangaroos but not much else.[1]

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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+The word savanna comes from a Panamanian word for prairie or plains. 
+They are covered with tall grasses. They may have scattered bushes and trees, but not enough to keep grasses from growing.  The most common definition of savanna is the tropical grassland, such as in Africa. They have seasonal rains and dry periods.  All savanna plants and trees can survive periods of drought.[1] Most savannas  get enough rain to support a forest, but the forest never happens because something keeps the trees from growing.  This can be animals that graze and knock over trees (like elephants in Africa), or fires that kill most kinds of trees.  Instead there is lots of grasses and other plants that can regrow from the roots.[2]
+
+The savannas of Africa are the best known savannas. Some herbivores found in the savanna are antelopes, impalas, gazelles, buffalos, wildebeests, zebras, rhinos, giraffes, elephants, and warthogs. There is also a large number of carnivores, including cats (lions, leopards, cheetahs, servals), dogs (jackals, wild dogs), and hyenas. The vegetation in the Eastern African is also rich with grass and some scattered trees, mostly acacia trees.  The dry season is the winter, from December to February it may not rain at all.  But in the summer there is lots of rain.[1]
+
+In North America, the word savanna is also used to describe the tall grass prairies that have scattered trees, typically oaks.  This is a temperate climate (colder than the tropics).  It is called an oak savanna since the oak tree is the main tree.  At least half of the view of the sky must be open.  If there are more trees, then it is called a grove or a woodland.  If there are fewer trees, it is a prairie. (If there are many kinds of trees and brush and very little grass, then it is a forest).  Oak savannas are found in California and Oregon on the west coast.  In the southwest it is found in Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico.  In the midwest it is found in the tall-grass prairie.  Often a grove or a savanna is east of a river, which stopped the fire often enough to let trees grow.  Large oak trees will survive grass fires.  The savannas in the midwest of the United States are kept open by regular fires, not because it is too dry for many trees.[3]
+
+Brazil's cerrado is an open woodland of short twisted trees. The are many kinds of plants and animals here, many that don't exist anywhere else on earth.
+The llanos of the Orinoco basin of Venezuela and Colombia are grass savannas, some parts of it get flooded every year.
+
+Northern Australia also has a savanna. Eucalyptus trees are the main tree in the Australian savanna. There are many species of kangaroos but not much else.[1]

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+A scientist is a person who studies or has mastered the field in science. A scientist tries to understand how our world, or other things, work. Scientists make observations, ask questions and do extensive research work in finding the answers to many questions others may not know about. Scientist has searched many things
+
+Scientists may work in laboratories for governments, companies, schools and research institutions. Some scientists teach at universities and other places and train people to become scientists. Scientists often make experiments to find out more about reality, and sometimes may repeat experiments or use control groups. Scientists who are doing applied science try to use scientific knowledge to improve the world.
+
+Scientists can work in different areas of science. 
+Here are some examples:
+

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+Knowledge means the things which are true, as opposed to opinion. Information which is correct is knowledge. Knowledge can always be supported by evidence. If a statement is not supported by evidence, then it is not knowledge. The evidence makes it justified;        .
+
+Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. This was the point of Ryle's distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how".[1]  It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic.[2] In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology. The philosopher Plato defined knowledge as "justified true belief". This definition is the subject of the Gettier problems.
+
+All knowledge is a claim to be true, but the claim can be incorrect. The only claims (propositions) which are certainly true are circular, based on how we use words or terms. We can correctly claim that there are 360 degrees in a circle, since that is part of how circles are defined. The point of Aristotle's syllogism was to show that this kind of reasoning had a machine-like form:
+
+But actually, in the real world, not all swans are white.
+
+The most widely accepted way to find reliable knowledge is the scientific method. Yet one thing all philosophers of science agree is that scientific knowledge is just the best we can do at any one time. All scientific knowledge is provisional, not a claim of absolute truth.
+
+Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.
+
+In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.[3]
+In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).
+
+In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God (2:239) and various hadith encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning 'knowledgeable'.

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+Soap is a chemical compound resulting from the reaction of an alkali (commonly sodium or potassium hydroxide) with a fatty acid. Soaps are the metallic salts of long chain fatty acids. When mixed with water during bathing or washing, they help people and clothes get clean by lowering the chance of dirt and oil to get to the skin or fabric. Soaps are made from animal fats or vegetable oils. There are two basic steps in making soap. They are called Saponification and Salting-out of soap. Some people like to make their own soap.[1]
+
+Soap cleans very well in soft water. It is not toxic to water life. It can be broken down by bacteria. However, it is slightly soluble in water, so it is not often used in washing machines. It does not work well in hard water. It cannot be used in strongly acidic solutions. Mild hand soaps are only basic enough to remove unwanted skin oils. For other forms of oil, dishwashing soap is strong enough to remove almost all forms of oil without damaging petroleum products such as plastics. It does not damage skin either.
+
+Soap has been made in many ways. Humanity has used soap-like things for thousands of years. The earliest recorded evidence of the making of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in Ancient Babylon[2] and Sumeria.[3] They were soap solutions, or soapy water.  People made them by mixing ashes with water and fat and boiling them.[3] The Babylonians used water, alkali and cassia to make soap.[4]
+
+A recipe for solid soap appeared in about 800 c.e.  Gauls added salt to the soap solution to make the solid soap fall out.[3]
+
+The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) suggests that ancient Egyptians bathed often and had animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to make a soap-like substance. Egyptian documents say that a soap-like substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.

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+A saxophone is a family of musical instruments that are made of brass. These are often just called a "sax".  It has seven main keys, including the octave key.  Because it is made from brass it is often included in the brass section alongside true brass instruments like the trumpet or trombone.  However, it is not a true brass instrument but a member of the woodwind family of instruments because it has a reed. It was developed from the clarinet and shares many similarities to the clarinet. The player blows into a reed fitted into the mouthpiece of the instrument. Adolf Sax creates the instrument, but at first, it was heavily disliked because he boasted about it. Conductors  would not add it to their orchestras because of the horrible reputations it had because of Adolf Sax. It started to gain popularity and lose that bad review, in the early 20th century.
+
+The mouth piece is also a way to tune the saxophone. If you are sharp you can pull the mouthpiece out. If you are flat you can push the mouthpiece in. Another way to tune the saxophone is with your mouth. If you are sharp you 'drop your jaw', or loosen up. If you are flat you tighten your embouchure, (mouth).
+
+There are several different kinds of saxophone. In order from low to high pitch they are: tubax, contrabass, bass, baritone, tenor, alto, soprano, sopranino, and soprillo. However, only the baritone, tenor, alto, and soprano are commonly used.
+
+It was invented in 1840 by Adolphe Sax and is used in classical, jazz, and occasionally in rock, pop, and other styles. The big bands of the 1940s and 1950s always used it too. Famous saxophone players were Marcel Mule (classical music), John Coltrane (jazz music), and Charlie Parker (jazz music).
+

ensimple/5298.html.txt

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+A saxophone is a family of musical instruments that are made of brass. These are often just called a "sax".  It has seven main keys, including the octave key.  Because it is made from brass it is often included in the brass section alongside true brass instruments like the trumpet or trombone.  However, it is not a true brass instrument but a member of the woodwind family of instruments because it has a reed. It was developed from the clarinet and shares many similarities to the clarinet. The player blows into a reed fitted into the mouthpiece of the instrument. Adolf Sax creates the instrument, but at first, it was heavily disliked because he boasted about it. Conductors  would not add it to their orchestras because of the horrible reputations it had because of Adolf Sax. It started to gain popularity and lose that bad review, in the early 20th century.
+
+The mouth piece is also a way to tune the saxophone. If you are sharp you can pull the mouthpiece out. If you are flat you can push the mouthpiece in. Another way to tune the saxophone is with your mouth. If you are sharp you 'drop your jaw', or loosen up. If you are flat you tighten your embouchure, (mouth).
+
+There are several different kinds of saxophone. In order from low to high pitch they are: tubax, contrabass, bass, baritone, tenor, alto, soprano, sopranino, and soprillo. However, only the baritone, tenor, alto, and soprano are commonly used.
+
+It was invented in 1840 by Adolphe Sax and is used in classical, jazz, and occasionally in rock, pop, and other styles. The big bands of the 1940s and 1950s always used it too. Famous saxophone players were Marcel Mule (classical music), John Coltrane (jazz music), and Charlie Parker (jazz music).
+

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+Scandinavia is a group of countries in northern Europe. Scandinavia is Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.  Some people also think Finland is part of Scandinavia.  Others also say Iceland and the Faroe Islands should count.[1] Most of the time, "Scandinavia" is used to mean places where people speak Scandinavian languages (also called North Germanic languages). The Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish) are very similar to each other, and many Scandinavians understand some of the other languages.
+
+What people mean when they say "Scandinavia" depends on what they think is important at the time.  Mostly, when people want to talk about about maps, natural land formations and how the economy works, they say Finland is part of Scandinavia but Iceland isn't.  When people want to talk about history and what languages people speak, they say Iceland is part of Scandinavia but Finland isn't.[1]
+
+The Scandinavian Peninsula is a large peninsula reaching west from northern Europe over the north side of the Baltic Sea.  Norway, Sweden and some of Finland are on this peninsula. However, Denmark is considered part of Scandinavia in the ethnic sense more often than Finland is.  This is because Danish is a Scandinavian language but Finnish is not.
+
+Some people like to say "Nordic countries" instead of "Scandinavia" because they think it is more correct about geography, but the Nordic countries include Norway, Sweden, Denmark (including the Faroe Islands), Finland, and Iceland.  These five countries use the Nordic Council to work together on political and cultural activities. Denmark, Sweden, and Finland are also members of the European Union, but only Finland is part of the eurozone, meaning that it uses the Euro as its money. The other Nordic countries still use their own money, called krone or krona (from the word "crowns").  Norway and Iceland, which are not members of the EU, are members of NATO and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Only Denmark is a member of both the EU and NATO.
+
+Most of the Scandinavian Peninsula has only a few people in it. It has large forests of pine, birch, and spruce trees. The western and northern parts are mountainous; the Scandinavian mountains are some of the oldest in the world. The tallest mountain is Galdhøpiggen in Norway.  Denmark (43,098 km2) is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. It is more densely populated, and most of the land is farmland.  Sweden (449,964 km2) is the largest of the Scandinavian countries.  It has the most lakes, and the landscape ranges from plains in the south to mountains in the west (along the border with Norway) to tundra in the north.  The far north of Scandinavia and Finland is called Lapland, where the Sami people live.  Some of them still herd reindeer, but most Sami live in modern houses and have modern jobs, like other Scandinavians.
+
+The most famous group of Scandinavians is the Vikings of the Middle Ages.  The Vikings attacked and raided but they were also traders, traveling to the Ukraine and starting trade routes to the Middle East.
+
+Vikings from Norway were explorers, crossing the North Atlantic in their longships. They came to Iceland and Greenland and built towns and farms there.  The Norwegian explorers also came to the east coast of Canada, where they set up at least one settlement, but it did not last into modern times.[2]
+
+The Vikings from Denmark came to England, where they affected the history and politics and even the English language.  Danish raiders attacked England many times with great violence.  Sometimes the Danes would ask that the English pay them to go away.  These payments were called "Danegeld" (Danish gold).  The priests and bishops of churches on the east coast of England wrote a famous prayer: "deliver us, O Lord, from the wrath of the Norsemen!" "Norsemen" is another way to say "men from the north," or the Danes.[3][4]
+
+Much later, in the 19th century (1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture.  They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans.  They were the first to have the idea of Vikings wearing helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns.  Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not.  Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera Ring des Nibelungen so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.[5][6]
+
+During the 10th through 13th centuries, when the Christian religion spread through Scandiavia, modern countries started to form there. They came together into three kingdoms:
+
+These three Scandinavian kingdoms made the Kalmar Union in 1387 under Queen Margaret I of Denmark. However, in 1523, Sweden left the union. Because of this, civil war broke out in Denmark and Norway. Then, the Protestant Reformation happened, and Catholic and Protestant Christians fought each other. After things settled, the Norwegian Privy Council was abolished: it assembled for the last time in 1537. Denmark and Norway formed another union in 1536, and it lasted until 1814.  It turned into the three modern countries Denmark, Norway and Iceland.
+
+The borders between Denmark, Sweden and Norway came to the shape they have today in the middle of the seventeenth century: In the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro, Denmark–Norway gave some territory to Sweden: the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland, Härjedalen and Idre & Särna and the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel (in Estonia).   The 1658 Treaty of Roskilde forced Denmark–Norway to give the Danish provinces Scania, Blekinge, Halland, Bornholm, and the Norwegian provinces of Båhuslen and Trøndelag to Sweden.  In 1660, the Treaty of Copenhagen forced Sweden to give Bornholm and Trøndelag back to Denmark–Norway.
+
+Finland used to be part of Sweden in medieval times.  During the wars fought by Napoleon, it became part of Russia.
+
+Media related to Scandinavia at Wikimedia Commons

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+Adolf Hitler[2] (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician and the leader of Nazi Germany. He became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, after a democratic election in 1932. He became Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany in 1934.
+
+Hitler led the Nazi Party NSDAP from 1921. When in power the Nazis created a dictatorship called the Third Reich. In 1933, they blocked out all other political parties. This gave Hitler absolute power.
+
+Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in 1939, and this started World War II. Because of Hitler, at least 50 million people died.[3] During World War II, Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of the German Armed Forces and made all the important decisions. This was part of the so-called Führerprinzip.[4] He shot himself in 1945, as the Soviet Army got to Berlin, because he did not want to be captured alive by the Soviet Union.
+
+Hitler and the Nazi regime were responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in  Europe.
+
+Nazi forces committed many war crimes during the war.[5] They were doing what Hitler told them to do. They killed their enemies or put them in concentration camps and death camps. Hitler and his men persecuted and killed Jews and other ethnic, religious, and political minorities. In what is called the Holocaust, the Nazis killed six million Jews, Roma people, homosexuals, Slavs, and many other groups of people.[6]
+
+Hitler's family was born in Waldviertel, in Lower Austria. At the time, the name Hitler changed in this region several times between Hüttler, Hiedler, Hittler and Hitler. The name was commonly in the German-speaking area of Europe in the 19th century.[7] The literature says that this name is descended from the Czech name Hidlar or Hidlarcek.[8]
+
+Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889, as the fourth child of six[9] in Braunau am Inn. This is a small town near Linz in the province of Upper Austria. It is close to the German border, in what was then Austria-Hungary. His parents were Klara Pölzl and Alois Hitler. Because of his father's job, Hitler moved from Braunau to Passau, later to Lambach and finally to Leonding. He attended several Volksschule's.
+
+Hitler's mother, Klara Pölzl, was his father's third wife and also his cousin.[10] Hitler's father died in 1903.
+
+Hitler failed high school exams in Linz twice. In 1905, he left school. He became interested in the anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish), Pan-German teachings of Professor Leopold Poetsch. In September 1907, he went to Vienna and took an entrance examination. On 1 and 2 October, he failed the second examination. Hitler went back to Linz at the end of October. In December 1907, Hitler's mother died and, because of that, he was depressed.[11] Hitler's mother was Catholic, but Hitler hated Christianity.[source?] He also hated Jews.[12]
+
+In 1909, Hitler again went to Vienna to study art. He tried to become a student at the Academy of Arts, but failed the first entrance examination.[11] Hitler said he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna. This town had a large Jewish community.[13]
+
+In 1913, Hitler was 24 years old. At that time, all young Austrian men had to join the army. Hitler did not like the Austrian army, so he left Austria for Germany. He lived in the German city of Munich.[11]
+
+On 16 August 1914, Hitler joined the Bavarian army. He fought for Germany in World War I. Hitler served in Belgium and France in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment. He spent nearly the whole time on the Western Front. He was a runner, one of the most dangerous jobs on the Front.[14] That means he ran from one position to another one to carry messages. On 1 November 1914, Hitler became a Gefreiter (which was like being a private first class in the United States Army, or a lance corporal in the British Army). The government awarded him the Iron Cross Second Class on 2 December 1914.
+
+On 5 October 1916, Hitler was hurt by a bullet shell. Between 9 October and 1 December, he was in the military hospital Belitz.[15] In March 1917, he went back to the front. There, he fought in a battle and was awarded with the Militärverdienstkreuz Third Class with swords.
+
+In March 1918, Hitler participated in the Spring Offensive. On 4 August 1918, Hitler was awarded with the Iron Cross First Class by the Jewish Hugo Gutmann. After Germany surrendered, Hitler was shocked, because the German army still held enemy area in November 1918.[16]
+
+After World War I, Hitler stayed in the army and returned to Munich. There he attended the funeral march of the Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner, who had been killed.[17] In 1919, he participated in a training programme for propaganda speakers from 5 to 12 June and 26 June to 5 July.
+
+Later that year, Hitler joined a small political party called the German Workers Party. He became member number 555.[18] He soon won the support of the party's members. Two years later, he became the party's leader. He renamed the party the National Socialist German Workers Party. It became known as the Nazi Party.
+
+In 1923, Hitler got together several hundred other members of the Nazi Party and tried to take over the Weimar Republic government (1918–34) in the Beer Hall Putsch.[19] The coup failed. The government killed 13 of his men[20] (the 13 dead men were later declared saints in Nazi ideology). They also put Hitler in the Landsberg Prison. They said that he would stay in prison for five years, but they let him leave after nine months.
+
+While Hitler was in prison, he wrote a book with the help of his close friend Rudolf Hess. At first, Hitler wanted to call the book Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice. In the end, he called the  book "Mein Kampf" ("My Struggle").[21]
+
+Mein Kampf brought together some of Hitler's different ideas and explains where they came from:[22]
+
+Hitler may also have been influenced by Martin Luther's On the Jews and their Lies. In Mein Kampf, Hitler says Martin Luther was "a great warrior, a true statesman and a great reformer."[13]
+
+In 1933, Hitler was elected into the German government. He ended freedom of speech, and put his enemies in jail or killed them. He did not allow any other political party except the Nazi party.[19] Hitler and his propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, spread extreme nationalism within Germany. All media had to praise the Nazis. Also, more people were born because Hitler wanted more people of the "master race" (those he called "Aryans"). He made Germany a totalitarian Nazi state.[23]
+
+Despite Poland being carved out of former German territory, Hitler is credited with starting World War II by ordering the German Army to invade Poland.[24] His army took over Poland and most of Europe, including France and a large part of the Soviet Union.
+
+During the war, Hitler ordered the Nazis to kill many people, including women and children. The Nazis killed around six million Jews in The Holocaust. Other people that the Nazis killed were Roma (Gypsies), homosexuals, Slavs such as Russians and Poles, and his political opponents.[25]
+
+Finally, some of the other countries in the world worked together to defeat Germany. Hitler lost all of the land that he had taken. Millions of Germans were killed in the war. At the end of World War II, Hitler gave all people in the Führerbunker the permission to leave it. Many people did and moved to the region of Berchtesgaden. They used planes and truck convoys.
+
+Hitler, the Göbbels family, Martin Bormann, Eva Braun and some other staff remained in the bunker.[26] Hitler married to Eva Braun on 29 April 1945.
+
+Forty hours after Hitler and Eva Braun got married in Berlin, both of them used poison to kill themselves, then Hitler shot himself in the head with his gun.[26] Before this, Hitler ordered that their bodies be burned.[27] This prevented him from being captured alive by soldiers of the Red Army, who were closing in on him.

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+Ballet is a type of dance. It is only done by dancers who have had special training. The dancers are employed by a dance company, and they perform in theatres. The first reference to ballet is found in a work of Domenico da Piacenza, who lived in the early 14th century. The ballet's first complete United States performance was on 24 December 1944, by the San Francisco Ballet.
+
+Ballet involves the creation of the dance itself, often a type of imaginary story.The story is told with the help of dance and mime. Ballet is a form of expression. It presents a story in a new form to the audience. The creation of dance is called choreography set by professional dancers. The choreography is learnt by the dancers under the supervision of a trainer, called a ballet master or mistress. Ballet is always performed to music, and in many cases the music was specially composed for a particular ballet. Ballet is a major part of theatre, and a popular example is The Nutcracker which was fist performed on the 24th of December by the San Francisco ballet company.
+
+Ballet grew out of Renaissance spectacles which, rather like big pop music events today, used every type of performance art. These Italian ballets were further developed in France. Le Ballet Comique de la Reine (The Queen's Ballet Comedy) was performed in Paris in 1581. It was staged by Balthazar de Beaujoyeux, a violinist and dancing master at the court of Catherine de Medici. It was danced by amateurs in a hall. The royal family were watching at one end and the others in galleries on three sides. Poetry and songs came with the dances.[1]
+
+The basis of classical ballet was formed in the Court of Louis XIV in France, in the 17th century.[2]p40 Even his title (the 'Sun King') came from a role he danced in a ballet. Louis founded the first ballet company, the Ballet de l'Opera de Paris. Many of the ballets presented at his court were created by the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and the choreographer Pierre Beauchamp. Also during this time, the playwright Molière invented the comedie-ballet.[1]
+
+In the early 19th century ballet technique was codified (sorted out and written down) by Carlo Blasis (1797–1878) of Naples. His dance classes, four hours long, were famous for being the toughest training there was at that time. 'Romantic ballet' flourished in France in the first half of the 19th century.
+
+Ballet with a more athletic style was developed in Imperial Russia of the late 19th century. This company performed in the Mariinsky Theatre at St. Petersburg. The three famous Tchaikovsky ballets, Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker, date from that time. The next stage was the Diaghilev ballet. Diageilev was a great impresario (showman). In 1909 he founded Les Ballets Russes de Sergei Diaghilev, considered by many to be the greatest ballet company of all time.
+
+His dancers included the legendary Nijinsky and the Imperial primaballerina Karsavina; also Pavlova, Danilova and Spessivtseva. His choreographers included Fokine, Massine and Balanchine; his composers included Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Ravel and Debussy; his set designers included Picasso, Cezanne, Matisse, Utrillo, Bakst  and Braque; and the ballets created changed the course of ballet history.
+
+Later in the 20th century, permanent ballet companies were set up in English-speaking countries. The Royal Ballet in London was started, and in New York a company called the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo was founded (1938–1962).
+
+Technique is the physical ability to perform whatever steps a dance may need.[3] Specific methods for refining technique are named after the ballet master or mistress who started them, such as the Vaganova method after Agrippina Vaganova, the Balanchine method after George Balanchine, and the Cecchetti method after Enrico Cecchetti.
+

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+Scandinavia is a group of countries in northern Europe. Scandinavia is Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.  Some people also think Finland is part of Scandinavia.  Others also say Iceland and the Faroe Islands should count.[1] Most of the time, "Scandinavia" is used to mean places where people speak Scandinavian languages (also called North Germanic languages). The Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish) are very similar to each other, and many Scandinavians understand some of the other languages.
+
+What people mean when they say "Scandinavia" depends on what they think is important at the time.  Mostly, when people want to talk about about maps, natural land formations and how the economy works, they say Finland is part of Scandinavia but Iceland isn't.  When people want to talk about history and what languages people speak, they say Iceland is part of Scandinavia but Finland isn't.[1]
+
+The Scandinavian Peninsula is a large peninsula reaching west from northern Europe over the north side of the Baltic Sea.  Norway, Sweden and some of Finland are on this peninsula. However, Denmark is considered part of Scandinavia in the ethnic sense more often than Finland is.  This is because Danish is a Scandinavian language but Finnish is not.
+
+Some people like to say "Nordic countries" instead of "Scandinavia" because they think it is more correct about geography, but the Nordic countries include Norway, Sweden, Denmark (including the Faroe Islands), Finland, and Iceland.  These five countries use the Nordic Council to work together on political and cultural activities. Denmark, Sweden, and Finland are also members of the European Union, but only Finland is part of the eurozone, meaning that it uses the Euro as its money. The other Nordic countries still use their own money, called krone or krona (from the word "crowns").  Norway and Iceland, which are not members of the EU, are members of NATO and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Only Denmark is a member of both the EU and NATO.
+
+Most of the Scandinavian Peninsula has only a few people in it. It has large forests of pine, birch, and spruce trees. The western and northern parts are mountainous; the Scandinavian mountains are some of the oldest in the world. The tallest mountain is Galdhøpiggen in Norway.  Denmark (43,098 km2) is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. It is more densely populated, and most of the land is farmland.  Sweden (449,964 km2) is the largest of the Scandinavian countries.  It has the most lakes, and the landscape ranges from plains in the south to mountains in the west (along the border with Norway) to tundra in the north.  The far north of Scandinavia and Finland is called Lapland, where the Sami people live.  Some of them still herd reindeer, but most Sami live in modern houses and have modern jobs, like other Scandinavians.
+
+The most famous group of Scandinavians is the Vikings of the Middle Ages.  The Vikings attacked and raided but they were also traders, traveling to the Ukraine and starting trade routes to the Middle East.
+
+Vikings from Norway were explorers, crossing the North Atlantic in their longships. They came to Iceland and Greenland and built towns and farms there.  The Norwegian explorers also came to the east coast of Canada, where they set up at least one settlement, but it did not last into modern times.[2]
+
+The Vikings from Denmark came to England, where they affected the history and politics and even the English language.  Danish raiders attacked England many times with great violence.  Sometimes the Danes would ask that the English pay them to go away.  These payments were called "Danegeld" (Danish gold).  The priests and bishops of churches on the east coast of England wrote a famous prayer: "deliver us, O Lord, from the wrath of the Norsemen!" "Norsemen" is another way to say "men from the north," or the Danes.[3][4]
+
+Much later, in the 19th century (1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture.  They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans.  They were the first to have the idea of Vikings wearing helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns.  Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not.  Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera Ring des Nibelungen so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.[5][6]
+
+During the 10th through 13th centuries, when the Christian religion spread through Scandiavia, modern countries started to form there. They came together into three kingdoms:
+
+These three Scandinavian kingdoms made the Kalmar Union in 1387 under Queen Margaret I of Denmark. However, in 1523, Sweden left the union. Because of this, civil war broke out in Denmark and Norway. Then, the Protestant Reformation happened, and Catholic and Protestant Christians fought each other. After things settled, the Norwegian Privy Council was abolished: it assembled for the last time in 1537. Denmark and Norway formed another union in 1536, and it lasted until 1814.  It turned into the three modern countries Denmark, Norway and Iceland.
+
+The borders between Denmark, Sweden and Norway came to the shape they have today in the middle of the seventeenth century: In the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro, Denmark–Norway gave some territory to Sweden: the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland, Härjedalen and Idre & Särna and the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel (in Estonia).   The 1658 Treaty of Roskilde forced Denmark–Norway to give the Danish provinces Scania, Blekinge, Halland, Bornholm, and the Norwegian provinces of Båhuslen and Trøndelag to Sweden.  In 1660, the Treaty of Copenhagen forced Sweden to give Bornholm and Trøndelag back to Denmark–Norway.
+
+Finland used to be part of Sweden in medieval times.  During the wars fought by Napoleon, it became part of Russia.
+
+Media related to Scandinavia at Wikimedia Commons

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+The New Testament is part of the Christian Bible, and the most important religious writing of Christianity. It tells the story of Jesus Christ, his followers, and the beginnings of Christianity. It was written in Koine Greek.
+
+The New Testament is made up of different parts. In total, there are 27 texts in the New Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant Churches have the same texts, but their arrangement varies; the Syriac Churches and the Ethiopian Churches have different versions. The Syriac Churches do not put Peter 2, John 2 and 3, Jude and the Revelations in the New Testament. The Ethopian Churches do not have a common canon.
+
+Each of the Gospels tells the story of Jesus Christ, or the young Messiah, who Christians believe is the "Son of God who is born to save the world from sin". Each of the Gospels tell this same story, with a little more or less detail from the other. The other books tell about the history of the church and explain the Christian faith through letters written to persons and groups that have believed in Jesus
+
+The traditional author is listed after each entry.
+
+Pauline epistles, the 13 or 14 letters believed to be written by Saint Paul the Apostle. They are named for the person or group to which they were sent.
+
+General epistles are other letters which are named for the person traditionally believed to have written them.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+The East-West Schism (sometimes also called Great Schism) describes how Christianity developed into two big branches in the Middle Ages. The Western part later became the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern part is known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the centuries views on politics and theology developed differently in several ways. It is distinct from the earlier schism that separated Oriental Orthodoxy from the church that split in half later.
+
+During the 5th and 6th Centuries the East and West became isolated from each other due to the invasions of the Balkan peninsula.  They also had different languages. Latin was the most important language in the West. The East mainly spoke the Greek language. Because of this, talking to each other was difficult. The West came under Frankish influence (as opposed to Byzantine) in the 700s.
+
+These were just some of the issues plaguing the Eastern and Western Christians that led to the Great Schism. It seems that even after 1054 relations between the east and west were not completely unfriendly, and the common peasant was probably not immediately affected by the schism.
+
+To understand the meaning of East-West Schism, it is useful to understand the meaning of schism. In very simple words, when differences arise among one group of persons or organizations and they divide themselves into two or more groups, this is schism.
+
+The term East-West Schism describes the division which happened in Christianity. The Christian church became divided into two major groups: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Most people accept that it happened in 1054. However, this separation was the result of differences that had begun many years before. One difference was the "filioque clause" in the Nicene Creed. This stated that the Holy Spirit came from the Father and the Son, although the original creed declared that It came from just the Father. One major reason for the division concerned the authority of the pope. The Eastern Orthodox group was of the opinion that the pope's authority over them was only honorary, and the pope had real authority only over the western Christians.
+
+However instances of open division on doctrinal questions as well as daily matters had occurred long before the Great Schism of 1054. Leading up to the schism, Pope Leo IX (1002-1054) sent forth a party led by Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida to talk through the obvious problems between the papacy and Constantinople. Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, rejected the claims put forward by the papal committee. Those from the western side of the church accused Constantinople of having altered the Nicene Creed, and those from the eastern side accused the western church of altering the creed. This in turn led to Cardinal Humbert putting forward a Bull of Excommunication against Michael Cerularius on the altar of the Hagia Sophia, and the Great Schism became official.
+
+The Roman Catholic Church changed the Nicene creed. It inserted a passage that is known as the Filioque. The Creed in its original form reads
+
+In the West, the Creed was changed to read
+
+Some people said that the Holy Spirit was a creature. The filioque became a question of theological controversy since it was added to the Creed without an ecumenical council's approval.
+
+There were many bishops in the church, and in the East the Pope was considered the "first among equals", but Rome claimed that the Pope was the primary Apostolic see, being that of Peter. At first the Eastern Orthodox did not mind the Pope's claim for power over the West - as long as his power stayed in the West. But it came to pass that the Pope decided he also had power over Eastern Christendom as well and he tried to enforce his power on the eastern Patriarchates.  A letter written in 865 by Pope Nicholas claims the Pope's power extends "over all the earth, that is, over every church".  Pope Nicholas also went beyond his powers as stated in Canon 111 of the Council of Sardica (343) when he overturned a verdict and ordered a retrial on a matter concerning Photius and St. Ignatius, two Patriarchs of Constantinople. This was as a result of petitions to Rome by backers of Ignatius.  However, it should be noted that not all the Popes after Nicholas were as extreme - that is, until Pope Leo IX.  When, in 1053 Cerularius attempted friendly relations with Pope Leo IX after a disagreement, a bull (religious legal document) of excommunication (expulsion from the Church) was brought to Constantinople. Each Church excommunicated the other.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+The Smurfs are fictional little blue beings created by Peyo, a Belgian cartoonist. They first appeared in 1958, and later in a cartoon television show created by Hanna-Barbera Productions in the 1980s. On September 12, 1981, they were featured on NBC on Saturday mornings as a cartoon series.[1] The little blue creatures from Belgium became popular among all ages.[1]
+
+A feature movie called The Smurfs was released in 2011.[2] The Smurfs 2 was a sequel released July 31, 2013.[3]
+
+The smurfs are very small.  In cartoons in which they appear with humans, they are small enough to stand on a human hand.
+
+Most Smurfs are male. There are only 3 females in the village: Smurfette, Sassette Smurfling, and Nanny Smurf.
+
+Most Smurfs wear white pants and white Phrygian caps. Papa Smurf, Grandpa Smurf, and some of the Smurflings dress differently. Grandpa Smurf wears yellow clothes and Papa Smurf wears red clothes. The Smurflings are Sassette, Snappy, Slouchy, and Nat. Sassette and Nat do not dress like the other Smurfs at all, while Slouchy and Nat do dress like the others. In some comics, the Smurfs dress differently in color or clothing.
+
+Smurfs live in mushroom-shaped houses in a village in a forest.
+

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+The Smurfs are fictional little blue beings created by Peyo, a Belgian cartoonist. They first appeared in 1958, and later in a cartoon television show created by Hanna-Barbera Productions in the 1980s. On September 12, 1981, they were featured on NBC on Saturday mornings as a cartoon series.[1] The little blue creatures from Belgium became popular among all ages.[1]
+
+A feature movie called The Smurfs was released in 2011.[2] The Smurfs 2 was a sequel released July 31, 2013.[3]
+
+The smurfs are very small.  In cartoons in which they appear with humans, they are small enough to stand on a human hand.
+
+Most Smurfs are male. There are only 3 females in the village: Smurfette, Sassette Smurfling, and Nanny Smurf.
+
+Most Smurfs wear white pants and white Phrygian caps. Papa Smurf, Grandpa Smurf, and some of the Smurflings dress differently. Grandpa Smurf wears yellow clothes and Papa Smurf wears red clothes. The Smurflings are Sassette, Snappy, Slouchy, and Nat. Sassette and Nat do not dress like the other Smurfs at all, while Slouchy and Nat do dress like the others. In some comics, the Smurfs dress differently in color or clothing.
+
+Smurfs live in mushroom-shaped houses in a village in a forest.
+