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Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC), commonly known as Dartmouth, is the naval academy of the United Kingdom and the initial officer training establishment of the British Royal Navy. It is located on a hill overlooking the port of Dartmouth, Devon, England. Royal Naval officer training has taken place in Dartmouth since 1863. The buildings of the current campus were completed in 1905. Earlier students lived in two wooden hulks moored in the River Dart. Since 1998, BRNC has been the sole centre for Royal Naval officer training.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] The training of naval officers at Dartmouth dates from 1863, when the wooden hulk was moved from Portland and moored in the River Dart to serve as a base. In 1864, after an influx of new recruits, "Britannia" was supplemented by . Prior to this, a Royal Naval Academy (later Royal Naval College) had operated for more than a century from 1733 to 1837 at Portsmouth, a major naval installation.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] The original "Britannia" was replaced by the in 1869, which was renamed "Britannia." The foundation stone for a new building at the college was laid by King Edward VII in March 1902. Sir Aston Webb designed the shore-based college at Dartmouth, which was built by Higgs and Hill and practically completed in 1905. The first term of cadets entered at the R.N. College Osborne were transferred to Dartmouth in September 1905.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] The college was originally known as the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth (BRNC). As a Royal Naval shore establishment, it was later known also by the ship name HMS "Britannia (a battleship called operated from 1904 to 1918). The college was re-named HMS Dartmouth in 1953, when the name "Britannia" was given to the newly launched royal yacht .

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] The training ship moored in the River Dart at Sandquay, a "Sandown" class minehunter formerly known as , continues to bear the name Hindostan". As cadets at the college will be aware, there are 187 steps down from the college to Hindostan's mooring at Sandquay. Cadets originally joined the Royal Naval College, Osborne, at the age of 13 for two years' study and work before joining Dartmouth. The Royal Naval College, Osborne closed in 1921.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] During the Second World War, after six Focke-Wulf aircraft bombed the College in September 1942, students and staff moved activities to Eaton Hall in Cheshire until the autumn of 1946. Two bombs had penetrated the College's main block, causing damage to the quarterdeck and surrounding rooms. Britannia Royal Naval College became the sole naval college in the United Kingdom following the closures of the Royal Naval Engineering College, Manadon, in 1994 and of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, in 1998.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] Prospective cadets entrants must have at least 72 UCAS points. They then proceed to the Admiralty Interview Board, where they are tested mentally and physically. Several mental aptitude tests are administered, along with a basic physical fitness test and a medical examination. Officer cadets, as they are known until passing out from the college, can join between the ages of 18 and 32. While most cadets join BRNC after finishing university, some join directly from secondary school.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] All spend between 30 and 49 weeks at the college, depending on specialisation. A large contingent of foreign and Commonwealth students are part of the student body. The Royal Fleet Auxiliary sends its officer cadets to BRNC for a 10-week initial officer training course, before they start at a maritime college. King George V and King George VI were naval cadets at Dartmouth.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] The first "significant encounter" between Prince Philip of Greece and the then Princess Elizabeth took place at Dartmouth in July 1939, where Philip was a naval cadet. The Prince of Wales and the Duke of York also attended Dartmouth. Prince William spent a brief period at the College after leaving Sandhurst as part of his training with all three of Britain's Armed Forces.

Britannia Royal Naval College [SEP] Sheikh Mubarak Ali Yousuf Suoud Al-Sabah, a member of the Royal Family of Kuwait, attended the Royal Navy Young Officer Course at Britannia Royal Naval College in 2002. List below based on listing compiled by historian Colin Mackie; additional references are given in the list.

Ares [SEP] Ares (; , "Áres" ) is the Greek god of war. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, the son of Zeus and Hera. In Greek literature, he often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war, in contrast to his sister, the armored Athena, whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship.

Ares [SEP] The Greeks were toward Ares: although he embodied the physical valor necessary for success in war, he was a dangerous force, "overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering." His sons Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror) and his lover, or sister, Enyo (Discord) accompanied him on his war chariot. In the "Iliad," his father Zeus tells him that he is the god most hateful to him.

Ares [SEP] An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality. His value as a war god is placed in doubt: during the Trojan War, Ares was on the losing side, while Athena, often depicted in Greek art as holding Nike (Victory) in her hand, favoured the triumphant Greeks. Ares plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives, though his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to.

Ares [SEP] When Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation. He is well known as the lover of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who was married to Hephaestus, god of craftsmanship. The most famous story related to Ares and Aphrodite shows them exposed to ridicule through the wronged husband's device. The counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars, who as a father of the Roman people was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as a guardian deity.

Ares [SEP] During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars. Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares. Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures later became virtually indistinguishable.

Ares [SEP] The etymology of the name "Ares" is traditionally connected with the Greek word ("arē"), the Ionic form of the Doric ("ara"), "bane, ruin, curse, imprecation". There may also be a connection with the Roman god of war, Mars, via hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *"M̥rēs"; compare Ancient Greek μάρναμαι ("marnamai"), "I fight, I battle".

Ares [SEP] Walter Burkert notes that "Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war." R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name. The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek , "a-re", written in the Linear B syllabic script.

Ares [SEP] The adjectival epithet, "Areios," was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare: "Zeus Areios", "Athena Areia", even "Aphrodite Areia". In the "Iliad", the word "ares" is used as a common noun synonymous with "battle." Inscriptions as early as Mycenaean times, and continuing into the Classical period, attest to Enyalios as another name for the god of war.

Ares [SEP] Ares was one of the Twelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by the "Iliad" and "Odyssey." Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from the battlefield at Troy: This ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks' association of Ares with the Thracians, whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people. Thrace was Ares's birthplace, his true home, and his refuge after the affair with Aphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods.

Ares [SEP] A late-6th-century BC funerary inscription from Attica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares's sway: In Sparta, Ares was viewed as a model soldier: his resilience, physical strength, and military intelligence were unrivaled. An ancient statue, representing the god in chains, suggests that the martial spirit and victory were to be kept in the city of Sparta. That the Spartans admired him is indicative of the cultural divisions that existed between themselves and other Greeks, especially the Athenians (see Pelopponesian War).

Ares [SEP] Ares was also worshipped by the inhabitants of Tylos. It is not known if he was worshipped in the form of an Arabian god (or which one) or if he was worshipped in his Greek form. According to Herodotus' "Histories", the Scythians worshipped a god he equated with the Greek Ares; unlike most other Scythian gods, he does not offer the indigenous name for this deity.

Ares [SEP] While ranking beneath Tabiti, Api and Papaios in the divine hierarchy, this god was apparently worshipped differently from other Scythian gods, with statues and complex altars devoted to him. This type of worship is noted to be present among the Alans. Noting how Greek mythological Amazons are devotees of Ares and most likely based on Scythian warriors, some researchers have considered the possibility that a Scythian warrior women cult of this deity existed.

Ares [SEP] Others have also posited that the "Sword of Mars" alludes to the Huns having adopted this deity. The birds of Ares ("Ornithes Areioi") were a flock of feather-dart-dropping birds that guarded the Amazons' shrine of the god on a coastal island in the Black Sea. Although Ares received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war, the god had a formal temple and cult at only a few sites.

Ares [SEP] At Sparta, however, each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum. The chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares. Just east of Sparta stood an archaic statue of Ares in chains, to show that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city.

Ares [SEP] The Temple of Ares in the agora of Athens, which Pausanias saw in the second century AD, had been moved and rededicated there during the time of Augustus. Essentially, it was a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor. From archaic times, the Areopagus, the "mount of Ares" at some distance from the Acropolis, was a site of trials. Paul the Apostle later preached about Christianity there. Its connection with Ares, perhaps based on a false etymology, is etiological myth.

Ares [SEP] A second temple to Ares has been located at the archaeological site of Metropolis in what is now Western Turkey. Deimos ("Terror" or "Dread"), and Phobos ("Fear"), are his companions in war. According to Hesiod, they were also his children, born to him by Aphrodite. Eris, the goddess of discord, or Enyo, the goddess of war, bloodshed, and violence, was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares.

Ares [SEP] In at least one tradition, Enyalius, rather than another name for Ares, was his son by Enyo.

Ares [SEP] Ares may also be accompanied by Kydoimos, the demon of the din of battle; the Makhai ("Battles"); the "Hysminai" ("Acts of manslaughter"); Polemos, a minor spirit of war, or only an epithet of Ares, since it has no specific dominion; and Polemos's daughter, Alala, the goddess or personification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry.

Ares [SEP] Ares's sister Hebe ("Youth") also draws baths for him. According to Pausanias, local inhabitants of Therapne, Sparta, recognized Thero, "feral, savage," as a nurse of Ares. The union of Ares and Aphrodite created the gods Eros, Anteros, Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, and Adrestia. While Eros's and Anteros's godly stations favored their mother, Adrestia preferred to emulate her father, often accompanying him to war. Other versions include Alcippe as one of his daughters.

Ares [SEP] Upon one occasion, Ares incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his son, Halirrhothius, because he had raped Alcippe, a daughter of the war-god. For this deed, Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of the Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in Athens. Ares was acquitted. This event is supposed to have given rise to the name Areopagus (or Hill of Ares), which afterward became famous as the site of a court of justice.

Ares [SEP] Accounts tell of Cycnus (Κύκνος) of Macedonia, a son of Ares who was so murderous that he tried to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travellers. Heracles slaughtered this abominable monstrosity, engendering the wrath of Ares, whom the hero wounded in conflict.

Ares [SEP] One of the roles of Ares was expressed in mainland Greece as the founding myth of Thebes: Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus, for the dragon's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartoi. To propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride Harmonia, a daughter of Ares's union with Aphrodite. In this way, Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes.

Ares [SEP] In the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous, the Sun-god Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite enjoying each other secretly in the hall of Hephaestus, her husband. He reported the incident to Hephaestus. Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act, Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace.

Ares [SEP] But Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge, so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all who were present mocked the two. Once the couple was released, the embarrassed Ares returned to his homeland, Thrace, and Aphrodite went to Paphos.

Ares [SEP] In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon by his door to warn them of Helios's arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty. Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. The furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into a rooster which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning.

Ares [SEP] In one archaic myth, related only in the "Iliad" by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, the Aloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, a lunar year. " And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants' stepmother, had not told Hermes what they had done," she related. "

Ares [SEP] In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month." Ares was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him, and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other. In Nonnus's "Dionysiaca" Ares also killed Ekhidnades, the giant son of Echidna, and a great enemy of the gods. Scholars have not concluded whether the nameless Ekhidnades ("of Echidna's lineage") was entirely Nonnus's invention or not.

Ares [SEP] In the "Iliad", Homer represented Ares as having no fixed allegiances, rewarding courage on both sides: he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans ("Iliad" V.830–834, XXI.410–414), but Aphrodite persuaded Ares to side with the Trojans. During the war, Diomedes fought with Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly (V.590–605).

Ares [SEP] Athene or Athena, Ares's sister, saw his interference and asked Zeus, his father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield, which Zeus granted (V.711–769). Hera and Athena encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares (V.780–834). Diomedes thrust with his spear at Ares, with Athena driving it home, and Ares's cries made Achaeans and Trojans alike tremble (V.855–864). Ares fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.

Ares [SEP] When Hera mentioned to Zeus that Ares's son, Ascalaphus, was killed, Ares overheard and wanted to join the fight on the side of the Achaeans, disregarding Zeus's order that no Olympic god should enter the battle, but Athena stopped him (XV.110–128). Later, when Zeus allowed the gods to fight in the war again (XX.20–29), Ares was the first to act, attacking Athena to avenge himself for his previous injury. Athena overpowered him by striking Ares with a boulder (XXI.391–408).

Ares [SEP] In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art, Ares's symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is the vulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars, a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology.

St. Maria im Kapitol [SEP] St. Maria im Kapitol (St. Mary's in the Capitol) is an 11th-century Romanesque church located in the Kapitol-Viertel in the old town of Cologne, Germany. The Roman Catholic church is based on the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, was dedicated to St. Mary and built between 1040 and 1065. It is one of twelve Romanesque churches built in Cologne during this period.

St. Maria im Kapitol [SEP] Measuring 100 m x 40 m and encompassing 4,000 square metres of internal space, St. Maria is the largest of the Romanesque churches in Cologne. Like many of the latter, it has an east end which is trefoil in shape, with three apses. It has a nave and aisles and three towers to the west. It is considered the most important work of German church architecture of the Salian dynasty. Maria im Kapitol is said to have been built by Plectrudis, wife of Pippin in the 8th century.

St. Maria im Kapitol [SEP] The foundations of a Roman temple from the late 1st century AD, dedicated to the Capitoline Triad, and those of a church from the year 690 AD, can be visited in the church's crypt. The church's works of art include:

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] MS "Achille Lauro was a cruise ship based in Naples, Italy. Built between 1939 and 1947 as MS "Willem Ruys, a passenger liner for the Rotterdamsche Lloyd, she was hijacked by members of the Palestine Liberation Front in 1985. In other incidents, she also suffered two serious collisions (in 1953 with the and in 1975 with the cargo ship "Youseff") and four onboard fires or explosions (in 1965, 1972, 1981, and 1994).

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] In the last of these, in 1994, the ship caught fire and sank in the Indian Ocean off Somalia. Ordered in 1938 to replace the aging ships on the Dutch East Indies route, her keel was laid in 1939 at De Schelde shipyard in Vlissingen, Netherlands, for Rotterdamsche Lloyd (now Nedlloyd). Interrupted by World War II and two bombing raids, the ship was finally launched in July 1946, as "Willem Ruys".

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] The ship was named after the grandson of the founder of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd who was taken hostage and shot during the war. "Willem Ruys" was completed in late 1947. At that time, the Rotterdamsche Lloyd had been granted a royal prefix in honour of its services during the war. " Willem Ruys" was in length, in beam, had a draught of , and measured 21,119 gross register tons. Eight Sulzer engines drove two propellers. She could accommodate 900 passengers.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] She featured a superstructure very different from other liners of that era; "Willem Ruys" pioneered low-slung aluminium lifeboats, within the upper-works' flanks. The next ship to adopt this unique arrangement was the in 1961. Today, all cruise ships follow this layout, with fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) used for lifeboat hulls. As "Willem Ruys", the ship began her maiden voyage on 5 December 1947.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] Together with her main competitor and running mate, the MS "Oranje" of the Netherland Line, she became a popular fixture on the Dutch East Indies route. However, when the East Indies gained independence from The Netherlands in 1949, passengers' numbers decreased. The former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, had travelled aboard "Willem Ruys" as a fresh graduate upon completing his studies in the United Kingdom.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] On 6 January 1953, "Willem Ruys" collided in the Red Sea with running mate , which was heading in the opposite direction. At that time, it was common for passenger ships to pass each other at close range to entertain their passengers. During the (later heavily criticized) abrupt and fast approach of "Oranje", "Willem Ruys" made an unexpected swing to the left, resulting in a collision. " Oranje" badly damaged her bow.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] Due to the possibility that she would be impounded for safety reasons, she was unable to call at Colombo as scheduled, and went directly to Jakarta. " Willem Ruys" suffered less damage. There was no loss of life involved. Later, it was determined that miscommunication on both ships had caused the collision. During 1957, the English diplomat, author and diarist Harold Nicolson and his wife, the author and poet Vita Sackville-West, toured the Far East for two months aboard "Willem Ruys".

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] The voyage is documented in "Journey to Java", his published journal of the trip, which provides a detailed account of first class travel on the vessel in the 1950s. After repairs, Royal Rotterdam Lloyd decided to release "Willem Ruys" on the North Atlantic run. First, she was placed on the New York service, and later Canada was included. In 1958, the Royal Rotterdamsche Lloyd and the Netherland Line signed a co-operative agreement to create a round-the-world passenger service.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] The joint fleet would sail under the banner of "The Royal Dutch Mail Ships". Together with "Oranje" and "Johan van Oldenbarneveldt", "Willem Ruys" underwent an extensive refit to prepare her for this new service. She made two charter trips to Montreal for the Europa-Canada service. Then, from 20 September 1958, until 25 February 1959, she underwent a major facelift at the Wilton-Fijenoord shipyard in Amsterdam, turning her from a passenger liner into a cruise ship.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] Her original four class distinctions became First and Tourist Class. A hundred new cabins were installed and air-conditioning was extended throughout all accommodations. The Javanese crew members were replaced by Europeans, who required upgraded crew accommodation. Externally, she was fitted with a new glazed in Tourist Class Wintergarden, her forward funnel was heightened and stabilizers were fitted. "

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] Willem Ruys" was now able to accommodate 275 first class, and 770 tourist class passengers, although there were many interchangeable cabins which had additional berths fitted, which could increase the maximum passenger number to 1167. Her new specifications would see her tonnage increase from 21,119 to 23,114 gross register ton. On 7 March 1959, "Willem Ruys" went off on her new world service to Australia and New Zealand.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] She departed from Rotterdam, sailing via Southampton, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, Fremantle, Melbourne, Sydney, New Zealand, returning via the Panama Canal. The Royal Dutch Mail Ships ("Willem Ruys", "Johan van Oldenbarnevelt" and "Oranje") became a popular alternative to the British liners. At the end of 1964, due to a strong drop in passenger numbers, "Willem Ruys" was laid up in Rotterdam and put up for sale.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] In 1965, she was sold to the Flotta Lauro Line, or Star Lauro, (now MSC Cruises) and renamed "Achille Lauro" after the company's owner. She was extensively rebuilt and modernized after an August 1965 onboard explosion, and entered service in 1966 carrying passengers to Sydney, Australia. The ship played a role in evacuating the families of British servicemen caught up in unrest in Aden, and made one of the last northbound transits through the Suez Canal before its closure during the Six-Day War.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] "Achille Lauro" was converted to a cruise ship in early 1972, during which time she suffered a disastrous fire. A 1975 collision with the cargo ship "Youseff" resulted in the sinking of the latter, and another onboard fire in 1981 took her out of service for a time. She was laid up in Tenerife when Lauro Lines went bankrupt in 1982. The Chandris Line took possession of her under a charter arrangement in 1985, shortly before the hijacking.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] On 7 October 1985, four members of the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) took control of the liner off Egypt as she was sailing from Alexandria to Port Said. Holding the passengers and crew hostage, they directed the vessel to sail to Tartus, Syria, and demanded the release of 50 Palestinians then in Israeli prisons. After being refused permission to dock at Tartus, the hijackers killed disabled Jewish-American passenger Leon Klinghoffer and then threw his body overboard.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] The ship then headed back towards Port Said, and after two days of negotiations, the hijackers agreed to abandon the liner in exchange for safe conduct and were flown towards Tunisia aboard an Egyptian commercial airliner. This plane, however, was intercepted by US fighter aircraft and directed to land in Sicily, where the hijackers were to be tried for murder, but could not be extradited. The hijackers were later given passage to Yugoslavia after being paroled by the Italians and escaped.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] The ship continued in service; she was reflagged in 1987 when the Lauro Line was taken over by the Mediterranean Shipping Company to become StarLauro. On 30 November 1994, she caught fire off the coast of Somalia while "en route" to South Africa. At that time, Italian officials said the fire had been caused by a discarded cigarette, but it actually began in the engine room after one of the engines exploded. Because of a lack of supervision, the fire burned out of control before its discovery.

MS Achille Lauro [SEP] The crew tried to battle the fire for several hours but were unsuccessful. The vessel was abandoned and sank on 2 December 1994.

Đại Từ District [SEP] Đại Từ is a rural district of Thái Nguyên Province in the Northeast region of Vietnam. As of 2003 the district had a population of 163,637 . The district covers an area of 578 km². The district capital lies at Hùng Sơn.

Đại Từ District [SEP] Hùng Sơn, Quân Chu, An Khánh, Bản Ngoại, Bình Thuận, Cát Nê, Cù Vân, Đức Lương, Hà Thượng, Hoàng Nông, Khôi Kỳ, Ký Phú, La Bằng, Lục Ba, Minh Tiến, Mỹ Yên, Na Mao, Phú Cường, Phú Lạc, Phú Thịnh, Phú Xuyên, Phúc Lương, Phục Linh, Quân Chu, Tân Linh, Tân Thái, Tiên Hội, Vạn Thọ, Văn Yên, Yên Lãng

M25 motorway [SEP] The M25 or London Orbital Motorway is a motorway encircling almost all of Greater London, England. It is one of the most important roads in Britain, one of the busiest, and upon opening was the longest ring road or orbital road in Europe at . The route does not include the Dartford Crossing, as this part of the route is made up of the A282. There had been plans to build orbital or ring roads around London since the early 20th century.

M25 motorway [SEP] The first major plans were proposed by Patrick Abercrombie in the 1944 "Greater London Plan", which evolved into the London Ringways project in the early 1960s. What became the M25 was originally part of two separate projects, Ringway 3 in the north and Ringway 4 in south. Planning for the two separate ringways began around 1966, but by the time the first sections had opened in 1975, it was announced that the work would be combined into a single orbital motorway.

M25 motorway [SEP] The M25 was one of the first motorways to be constructed with environmental concerns in mind, and the project had almost 40 individual public inquiries. Although all parts of the road were built as planned, some of the proposals drew protest, including the section over the North Downs, and around Epping Forest which required an extension of Bell Common Tunnel. The final section was opened by the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 1986.

M25 motorway [SEP] Although public and government opinion of the M25 was generally positive during construction and up to opening, it quickly came apparent that the motorway had insufficient capacity to cope with the traffic. As a consequence of the public inquiries, a significant number of junctions were built to serve local roads, resulting in new offices and retail parks near them. These attracted more traffic onto the M25 than designed, which has been a regular point of criticism.

M25 motorway [SEP] Since opening, it has been progressively widened, particularly in the stretch near Heathrow Airport, and is still frequently congested. This has led to traffic management schemes including variable speed limits and upgrades to smart motorway. The M25 has remained a significant part of cultural life around London, and raves were held near it up to the early 1990s. The M25 almost completely encircles Greater London, passing through five counties.

M25 motorway [SEP] Junctions 1A–5 are in Kent, 6–14 are in Surrey, 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–25 are in Hertfordshire, and 26–31 are in Essex. Policing of the road is carried out by an integrated group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces. Primary destinations signed ahead on the motorway include the Dartford Crossing, Sevenoaks, Gatwick Airport, Heathrow Airport, Watford, Stansted Airport and Brentwood.

M25 motorway [SEP] To the east of London the two ends of the M25 are joined to complete a loop by the non-motorway A282 Dartford Crossing of the River Thames between Thurrock and Dartford. The crossing consists of twin two-lane tunnels and the four-lane QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge. with a main span of . Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a charge, its level depending on the kind of vehicle.

M25 motorway [SEP] The road is not under motorway regulations so that other traffic can cross the Thames east of the Woolwich Ferry; the only crossing further to the east is a passenger ferry between Gravesend, Kent, and Tilbury, Essex. At Junction 5, the clockwise carriageway of the M25 is routed off the main north–south dual carriageway onto the main east–west dual carriageway with the main north–south carriageway becoming the A21.

M25 motorway [SEP] In the opposite direction, to the east of the point where the M25 diverges from the main east–west carriageway, that carriageway becomes the M26 motorway. From here to Junction 8, the M25 follows the edge of the North Downs close to several historic buildings such as Chevening, Titsey Place, Hever Castle and Chartwell. The interchange with the M23 motorway near Reigate is a four-level stack; one of only a few examples in Britain. Past this, the M25 runs close to the Surrey Hills AONB.

M25 motorway [SEP] To the west, the M25 runs along the edge of Heathrow, with Windsor Castle nearby on the opposite side. North of this, it crosses the Chiltern Main Line via the Chalfont Viaduct, a 19th-century railway bridge. Red kites can often be seen overhead to the north of this, up to Junction 21. The northern section of the M25 passes close to All Saints Pastoral Centre near London Colney, Waltham Abbey and Copped Hall.

M25 motorway [SEP] This section also features two cut-and-cover tunnels, including the Bell Common Tunnel. The northeastern section of the motorway passes close to North Ockendon, the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25. It then runs close to the Rainham Marshes Nature Reserve before reaching the northern end of the Dartford Crossing. In 2004, following an opinion poll, the London Assembly proposed aligning the Greater London boundary with the M25. "

M25 motorway [SEP] Inside the M25" and "outside/beyond the M25" are colloquial, looser alternatives to "Greater London" sometimes used in haulage.

M25 motorway [SEP] The Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area; it states a requirement of "a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom" to be made "in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area", defined in Section 362 as "the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)". The M25 was originally built mostly as a dual three-lane motorway.

M25 motorway [SEP] Much of this has since been widened to dual four lanes for almost half, to a dual five-lanes section between Junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane section between Junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress of minor sections with plans for smart motorways in many others. Two motorway service areas are on the M25, and two others are directly accessible from it.

M25 motorway [SEP] Those on the M25 are Clacket Lane between Junctions 5 and 6 (in the south-east) and Cobham between Junctions 9 and 10 (in the south-west). Those directly accessible from it are South Mimms off Junction 23 (to the north of London) and Thurrock off Junction 31 (to the east of London). As is common with other motorways, the M25 is equipped with emergency ("SOS") telephones.

M25 motorway [SEP] These connect to two Highways England operated control centres at Godstone (for Junctions 1 to 15 inclusive) and South Mimms (for 16–31). The Dartford Crossing has a dedicated control centre. There is an extensive network of closed circuit television (CCTV) on the motorway so incidents can be easily identified and located. A number of 4×4 vehicles patrol the extent of the motorway, and attempt to keep traffic moving where possible, and assisting the local police.

M25 motorway [SEP] They can act as a rolling roadblock when there are obstacles on the road. When completed, the M25 only had street lighting for of its length. Originally, low pressure sodium (SOX) lighting was the most prominent technology used, but this has been gradually replaced with high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting. the motorway has more than 10,000 streetlights. The M25 has a number of pollution control valves along it length, which can shut off drainage in the event of a chemical or fuel spill.

M25 motorway [SEP] The idea of a general bypass around London was first proposed early in the 20th century. An outer orbital route around the capital had been suggested in 1913, and was re-examined as a motorway route in Sir Charles Bressey's and Sir Edwin Lutyens' "The Highway Development Survey, 1937". Sir Patrick Abercrombie's "County of London Plan, 1943" and "Greater London Plan, 1944" proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital.

M25 motorway [SEP] The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the Outer London Defence Ring, a concentric series of tanks and pillboxes designed to slow down a potential German invasion of the capital during World War II. This was marked as the D Ring on Abercombie's plans. Following the war, 11 separate county councils told the Ministry of Transport that an orbital route was "first priority" for London. Plans stalled because the route was planned to pass through several urban areas, which attracted criticism.

M25 motorway [SEP] The original D Ring through northwest London was intended to be a simple upgrade of streets. In 1951, Middlesex County Council planned a route for the orbital road through their county, passing through Eastcote and west of Bushey, connecting with the proposed M1 motorway, but it was rejected by the Ministry two years later. An alternative route via Harrow and Ealing was proposed, but this was abandoned after the council released the extent of property demolition.

M25 motorway [SEP] In 1964, the London County Council announced the London Ringways plan, that would consist of four concentric motorway rings around London. The following year, the transport minister Barbara Castle announced that the D ring would be essential to build. The component parts of what became the M25 came from Ringway 3 / M16 motorway in the north and Ringway 4 in the south. The Ringways plan was hugely controversial owing to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads, (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2).

M25 motorway [SEP] Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including West Cross Route), against stiff opposition, before the overall plan was postponed in February 1972. In April 1973, the Greater London Council elections resulted in a Labour Party victory; the party then formally announced the cancellation of the Ringways running inside Greater London. This did not affect the routes that would become the M25, because they were planned as central government projects from the outset. There was no individual public inquiry into the M25 as a whole.

M25 motorway [SEP] Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with 39 separate public inquiries relating to sections of the route. The need for the ministry to negotiate with local councils means that more junctions with local traffic were built than originally proposed. A report in 1981 showed that M25 had potential to attract office and retail development along its route, negating the proposed traffic improvements and making Central London a less desirable place to work.

M25 motorway [SEP] None of the motorway was prevented from being built by objections at the public enquiries. However, as a consequence of the backlash against the Ringways, and criticism at the public inquiries, the motorway was built with environmental concerns in mind. New features included additional earth mounds, cuttings and fences that reduced noise, and over two million trees and shrubs to hide the view of the road. Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, began in 1973.

M25 motorway [SEP] The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (Junctions 23 to 24) opened in September 1975. It was provisionally known at the M16 and was given the temporary general purpose road designation A1178. A section of the North Orbital Road between Rickmansworth and Hunton Bridge was proposed in 1966, with detailed planning in 1971. The road was constructed to motorway standards, and opened as part of the A412 in October 1976. It eventually became part of the M25's route.

M25 motorway [SEP] The section to the south, from Heathrow Airport to Rickmansworth had five separate routes proposed when a public inquiry was launched in 1974. The Department of Transport sent out 15,000 questionnaires about the preferred route, with 5,000 replies. A route was fixed in 1978, with objections delaying the start of construction in 1982.

M25 motorway [SEP] The southern section of what became the M25 through Surrey and Kent was first conceived to be an east-west road south of London to relieve the A25, and running parallel to it, with its eastern end following the route of what is now the M26. It was originally proposed as an all-purpose route, but was upgraded to motorway standard by Castle in 1966. It was the first section of the route announced as M25 from the beginning.

M25 motorway [SEP] The first section from Godstone to Reigate (Junctions 6 to 8) was first planned in 1966 and opened in February 1976. A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (Junctions 1 to 3) was constructed between May 1974 and April 1977.

M25 motorway [SEP] In 1975, following extensive opposition towards some parts of Ringway 3 through Middlesex and South London, the transport minister John Gilbert announced that the north section of Ringway 3 already planned would be combined with the southern section of Ringway 4, forming a single orbital motorway to be known as the M25, and the M16 designation was dropped. This scheme required two additional sections to join what were two different schemes, from Swanley to Sevenoaks in the southeast and Hunton Bridge to Potters Bar in the northwest.

M25 motorway [SEP] The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled. The section from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed in stages from June 1979 onwards, with the final section between Waltham Cross (Junction 25) to Theydon Garnon (Junction 27) opening in January 1984. This section, running through Epping Forest attracted opposition and protests.

M25 motorway [SEP] In 1973, local residents had parked combine harvesters in Parliament Square in protest against the road, draped with large banners reading "Not Epping Likely". As a consequence of this, the Bell Common Tunnel that runs in this area is twice as long as originally proposed. The most controversial section of the M25 was that between Swanley and Sevenoaks (Junctions 3 to 5) in Kent across the Darenth Valley, Badgers Mount and the North Downs.

M25 motorway [SEP] An 1800-member group named Defend Darenth Valley and the North Downs Action Group (DANDAG) argued that the link was unnecessary, it would damage an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and it would be primarily be used by local traffic as a bypass for the old A21 road between Farnborough and Sevenoaks. After a length inquiry process, chaired by George Dobry QC, the transport minister Kenneth Clarke announced the motorway would be built as proposed.

M25 motorway [SEP] The section from the M40 motorway to the 1970s North Orbital Road construction (Junctions 16 to 17) opened in January 1985. It used part of the Chalfont Viaduct, restricting the motorway's width to three lanes in each direction. The Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between Junctions 22 to 23 (London Colney and South Mimms).

M25 motorway [SEP] To avoid the threat of road protesters, the ceremony was held a quarter of a mile from the nearest bridge. The total estimated cost of the motorway was around £1 billion. It required of concrete, of asphalt and involved the removal of of spoil. Upon completion, it was the longest orbital motorway in the world at . At the opening ceremony, Thatcher announced that 98 miles had been constructed while the Conservatives were in office, calling it "a splendid achievement for Britain".

M25 motorway [SEP] A 58-page brochure was published, commemorating the completion of the motorway. The M25 was initially popular with the public. In the 1987 general election, the Conservatives won every constituency that the motorway passed through, in particular gaining Thurrock from Labour. Coach tours were organised for a trip around the new road. However, it quickly became apparent that the M25 suffered from chronic congestion.

M25 motorway [SEP] A report in "The Economist" said it "had taken 70 years to plan [the motorway], 12 to build it and just one to find it was inadequate". Thatcher rebuked the negative response, calling it "carping and criticism". Traffic levels quickly exceeded the maximum design capacity. Two months before opening, the government admitted that the three-lane section between Junctions 11 and 13 was inadequate, and that it would have to be widened to four.