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= Homarus gammarus = Homarus gammarus , known as the European lobster or common lobster , is a species of clawed lobster from the eastern Atlantic Ocean , Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea . It is closely related to the American lobster , H. americanus . It may grow to a length of 60 cm ( 24 in ) and a mass of 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) , and bears a conspicuous pair of claws . In life , the lobsters are blue , only becoming " lobster red " on cooking . Mating occurs in the summer , producing eggs which are carried by the females for up to a year before hatching into planktonic larvae . Homarus gammarus is a highly esteemed food , and is widely caught using lobster pots , mostly around the British Isles . = = Description = = Homarus gammarus is a large crustacean , with a body length up to 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) and weighing up to 5 – 6 kilograms ( 11 – 13 lb ) , although the lobsters caught in lobster pots are usually 23 – 38 cm ( 9 – 15 in ) long and weigh 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 9 lb ) . Like other crustaceans , lobsters have a hard exoskeleton which they must shed in order to grow , in a process called ecdysis ( moulting ) . This may occur several times a year for young lobsters , but decreases to once every 1 – 2 years for larger animals . The first pair of pereiopods is armed with a large , asymmetrical pair of claws . The larger one is the " crusher " , and has rounded nodules used for crushing prey ; the other is the " cutter " , which has sharp inner edges , and is used for holding or tearing the prey . Usually , the left claw is the crusher , and the right is the cutter . The exoskeleton is generally blue above , with spots that coalesce , and yellow below . The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking . This occurs because , in life , the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex , but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking , releasing the red pigment . The closest relative of H. gammarus is the American lobster , Homarus americanus . The two species are very similar , and can be crossed artificially , although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap . The two species can be distinguished by a number of characteristics : The rostrum of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside , which are lacking in H. gammarus . The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red @-@ tipped , while those of H. gammarus are white or white @-@ tipped . The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red , while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red . = = Life cycle = = Female H. gammarus reach sexual maturity when they have grown to a carapace length of 80 – 85 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) , whereas males mature at a slightly smaller size . Mating typically occurs in summer between a recently moulted female , whose shell is therefore soft , and a hard @-@ shelled male . The female carries the eggs for up to 12 months , depending on the temperature , attached to her pleopods . Females carrying eggs are said to be " berried " and can be found throughout the year . The eggs hatch at night , and the larvae swim to the water surface where they drift with the ocean currents , preying on zooplankton . This stage involves three moults and lasts for 15 – 35 days . After the third moult , the juvenile takes on a form closer to the adult , and adopts a benthic lifestyle . The juveniles are rarely seen in the wild , and are poorly known , although they are known to be capable of digging extensive burrows . It is estimated that only 1 larva in every 20 @,@ 000 survives to the benthic phase . When they reach a carapace length of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , the juveniles leave their burrows and start their adult lives . = = Distribution = = Homarus gammarus is found across the north @-@ eastern Atlantic Ocean from northern Norway to the Azores and Morocco , not including the Baltic Sea . It is also present in most of the Mediterranean Sea , only missing from the section east of Crete , and along only the north @-@ west coast of the Black Sea . The northernmost populations are found in the Norwegian fjords Tysfjorden and Nordfolda , inside the Arctic Circle . The species can be divided into four genetically distinct populations , one widespread population , and three which have diverged due to small effective population sizes , possibly due to adaptation to the local environment . The first of these is the population of lobsters from northern Norway , which have been referred to as the " midnight @-@ sun lobster " . The populations in the Mediterranean Sea are distinct from those in the Atlantic Ocean . The last distinct population is found in the Netherlands : samples from the Oosterschelde were distinct from those collected in the North Sea or English Channel . Attempts have been made to introduce H. gammarus to New Zealand , alongside other European species such as the edible crab , Cancer pagurus . Between 1904 and 1914 , one million lobster larvae were released from hatcheries in Dunedin , but the species did not become established there . = = Ecology = = Adult H. gammarus live on the continental shelf at depths of 0 – 150 metres ( 0 – 492 ft ) , although not normally deeper than 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They prefer hard substrates , such as rocks or hard mud , and live in holes or crevices , emerging at night to feed . The diet of H. gammarus mostly consists of other benthic invertebrates . These include crabs , molluscs , sea urchins , starfish and polychaete worms . The three clawed lobster species Homarus gammarus , H. americanus and Nephrops norvegicus are hosts to the three known species of the animal phylum Cycliophora ; the species on H. gammarus has not been described . Homarus gammarus is susceptible to the disease gaffkaemia , caused by the bacterium Aerococcus viridans . Although it is frequently found in American lobsters , the disease has only been seen in captive H. gammarus , where prior occupation of the tanks by H. americanus could not be ruled out . = = Human consumption = = Homarus gammarus is traditionally " highly esteemed " as a foodstuff and was mentioned in " The Crabfish " a seventeenth century English folk song . It may fetch very high prices and may be sold fresh , frozen , canned or powdered . Both the claws and the abdomen of H. gammarus contain " excellent " white meat , and most of the contents of the cephalothorax are edible . The exceptions are the gastric mill and the " sand vein " ( gut ) . The price of H. gammarus is up to three times higher than that of H. americanus , and the European species is considered to have a better flavour . Lobsters are mostly fished using lobster pots , although lines baited with octopus or cuttlefish sometimes succeed in tempting them out , to allow them to be caught in a net or by hand . In 2008 , 4 @,@ 386 t of H. gammarus were caught across Europe and North Africa , of which 3 @,@ 462 t ( 79 % ) was caught in the British Isles ( including the Channel Islands ) . The minimum landing size for H. gammarus is a carapace length of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) . Aquaculture systems for H. gammarus are under development , and production rates are still very low . = = Taxonomic history = = Homarus gammarus was first given a binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae , published in 1758 . That name was Cancer gammarus , since Linnaeus ' concept of the genus Cancer at that time included all large crustaceans . H. gammarus is the type species of the genus Homarus Weber , 1795 , as determined by Direction 51 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature . Prior to that direction , confusion arose because the species had been referred to by several different names , including Astacus marinus Fabricius , 1775 and Homarus vulgaris H. Milne @-@ Edwards , 1837 , and also because Friedrich Weber 's description of the genus had been overlooked until rediscovered by Mary Rathbun , rendering any prior assignments of type species ( for Homarus H. Milne @-@ Edwards , 1837 ) invalid for Homarus Weber , 1795 . The type specimen of Homarus gammarus was a lectotype selected by Lipke Holthuis in 1974 . It came from 57 ° 53 ′ N 11 ° 32 ′ E , near Marstrand , Sweden ( 48 kilometres or 30 miles northwest of Gothenburg ) , but both it and the paralectotypes have since been lost . The common name for H. gammarus preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is " European lobster " , but the species is also widely known as the " common lobster " . = Frank Headlam = Air Vice Marshal Frank Headlam , CB , CBE ( 15 July 1914 – 23 December 1976 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born and educated in Tasmania , he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934 . He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II . In April 1941 , he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron , which operated Lockheed Hudsons . The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December , and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific . After returning to Australia in February 1942 , Headlam held staff appointments and training commands , finishing the war a group captain . Headlam served as Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in 1946 , and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950 . In 1950 – 51 , during the Malayan Emergency , he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing and , later , RAF Tengah . He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel , in 1957 and 1959 – 60 , receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958 . Promoted air vice marshal , he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command in 1961 – 62 , AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi , Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 – 66 , and AOC Support Command in 1966 – 67 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965 . Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971 , he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later . = = Early career = = The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda Headlam , Frank Headlam was born on 15 July 1914 in Launceston , Tasmania . He was schooled at Clemes College , Hobart , and matriculated in 1932 . Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934 . He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School ( FTS ) at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935 . After completing a conversion course , Headlam was assigned to the Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook . No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre @-@ war RAAF , Seaplane Squadron was part of No. 1 FTS and operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats and de Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplanes , among other types . During this posting Headlam was promoted to flying officer , on 1 July 1935 , and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with " strong air forces , naval forces ( including submarines ) , and fixed defences , Australia may be made practically invulnerable " . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , this paper " in effect , defined the ' anti @-@ lodgment ' concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking " . Headlam completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 FTS . He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937 . Commencing in July 1938 , he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF 's first Long Specialist Navigation Course , run by Flight Lieutenants Bill Garing and Alister Murdoch at Point Cook . The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention , including a twelve @-@ day , 10 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 700 mi ) round @-@ Australia trip by three Avro Ansons , one of which was piloted by Headlam , in November . The following month , Headlam led the three Ansons on a six @-@ day journey back and forth over Central Australia . He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction . On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , as a flight commander . He served initially with No. 2 Squadron , before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August . Both units operated Ansons . = = World War II = = Following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south @-@ eastern Australia . Headlam continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940 , when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer . On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940 . Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul 's Anglican Church in Frankston ; the couple would have a son and a daughter . Headlam was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941 , and raised to wing commander on 1 July . Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons , the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December , when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin , Northern Territory , in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific . On 7 December , this detachment established itself at Penfui , near Koepang in Dutch Timor , while No. 2 Squadron 's eight remaining Hudsons were stationed at Darwin on standby . The following day , aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific , one of the Penfui @-@ based Hudsons attacked the Japanese pearler Nanyo Maru , which was suspected of being a radio ship , and forced it aground . By 12 December , Headlam had transferred to Penfui as commanding officer of the base , as well as No. 2 Squadron . During January 1942 , No. 2 Squadron 's aircraft were dispersed at Penfui , Boeroe Island , and Darwin . The Penfui detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of Celebes . Two Hudsons shot down or damaged three Japanese floatplanes that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January ; the next day both Hudsons were themselves shot down by Mitsubishi Zeros . Penfui was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942 , and attacked regularly thereafter , damaging some aircraft . The intact Hudsons were withdrawn to Darwin but Headlam and his staff remained at Penfui to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia . On 18 February , Headlam was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to demolish the airfield with assistance from Sparrow Force . He returned to Darwin the following day , just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese . Four of No. 2 Squadron 's Hudsons were destroyed in the attack ; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters , where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor . Headlam remained in Darwin as Controller of Operations at Headquarters North @-@ Western Area Command until 12 May 1942 , when he was posted to Nhill , Victoria , as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School , operating Ansons . No. 97 ( Reserve ) Squadron was formed from the school 's personnel in June . On 20 July 1943 , Headlam took command of No. 2 Air Observer School ( AOS ) , also operating Ansons , at Mount Gambier , South Australia . He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943 , and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 AOS , operating Ansons and Fairey Battles out of Port Pirie , on 9 December . After handing over command of No. 3 AOS , he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha , Victoria , on 2 October 1944 . He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North @-@ Western Area Command on 12 January 1945 . = = Post @-@ war career = = Headlam became Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in January 1946 . Posted to Britain at the end of the year , he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College , Andover , and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London . On his return to Australia , in November 1947 , he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters . In November 1950 , Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing from Group Captain Paddy Heffernan . Headquartered at RAF Changi , Singapore , No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency : No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron , flying Avro Lincolns , and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The Lincolns conducted area bombing missions over communist @-@ held territory , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . The Dakotas were tasked with courier flights , VIP transport and medical evacuations across South East Asia , and in Malaya with airlifting troops and cargo , dropping supplies to friendly forces and despatching propaganda leaflets . Headlam was slightly injured on 20 December , when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co @-@ piloting on a supply drop crash @-@ landed at Kampong Aur in Pahang , following engine failure . In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF Tengah , Singapore , in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing . Headlam handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951 . On 19 February 1952 , Headlam became senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Eastern Area Command in Penrith , New South Wales . During his term as SASO , the RAAF began re @-@ equipping with English Electric Canberra jet bombers and CAC Sabre jet fighters . The Air Force also underwent a major organisational change , as it transitioned from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system to one based on function , resulting in the establishment of Home ( operational ) , Training , and Maintenance Commands . Eastern Area Command , considered a de facto operational headquarters owing to the preponderance of combat units under its control , was reorganised as Home Command in October 1953 . Headlam was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1954 New Year Honours for his " exceptional ability and devotion to duty " . He was promoted to acting air commodore in May . His appointment as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II was announced on 7 October 1954 . Headlam was promoted to substantive air commodore on 1 January 1955 . In November he was posted to RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , and the following year undertook studies at the Imperial Defence College . Returning to Australia , he served as acting Air Member for Personnel at the Department of Air , Canberra , from 19 March to 21 October 1957 , between the terms of Air Vice Marshals Fred Scherger and Allan Walters , and again from 24 August 1959 to 28 March 1960 , between the terms of Walters and Air Vice Marshal Bill Hely . In this role Headlam occupied a seat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that comprised its senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . He was also one of two RAAF representatives to serve on a committee , chaired by businessman William John Allison , examining conditions of defence service ; the committee 's recommendations led to a doubling of flight pay , among other improvements . Headlam 's other positions at the Department of Air included Air Commodore Plans from October 1957 to January 1959 , and Director General Plans and Policy from January to August 1959 . The latter assignment put him in charge of the RAAF 's Directorate of Intelligence . Headlam was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1958 Queen 's Birthday Honours , gazetted on 3 June . In May 1960 he became acting Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . On 30 January 1961 , Headlam joined the staff of Operational Command ( OPCOM ) , the successor organisation to Home Command , responsible for the direction of RAAF operational units . He took over as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) OPCOM from Air Vice Marshal Val Hancock in April . Headlam was promoted to air vice marshal on 29 May . On 17 July 1962 , he was posted to RAAF Base Butterworth , Malaya , and took up the appointment of AOC No. 224 Group RAF in Singapore one week later . He was succeeded as AOC OPCOM by Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch . As AOC No. 224 Group , Headlam had overall responsibility for regional air defence and offensive air operations during the Brunei Rebellion in December 1962 , and the subsequent Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia that officially began the following month . Divorced from his first wife in 1956 , he married widowed social worker Vernon Spence at the Sydney registry office on 20 January 1964 . He handed over No. 224 Group to Air Vice Marshal Christopher Foxley @-@ Norris on 30 November . Returning to Australia , Headlam became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) on 26 January 1965 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) " in recognition of distinguished service in the Borneo Territories " on 22 June . His tenure as DCAS coincided with the most significant rearmament program the Air Force had undertaken since World War II , and with manpower shortages stemming from this expansion and from Australia 's increasing involvement in the security of South East Asia . The first RAAF helicopters were committed to the Vietnam War towards the end of his term , and he travelled to Saigon with the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Sir John Wilton , in March 1966 to plan the deployment . The year before , Wilton had recommended to Air Marshal Murdoch , the Chief of the Air Staff , that two Iroquois be sent to Vietnam for familiarisation purposes ; Murdoch had rebuffed Wilton , and the RAAF helicopter squadron was considered underprepared for its army co @-@ operation role when it finally did deploy . Headlam succeeded Air Vice Marshal Douglas Candy as AOC Support Command , Melbourne , on 8 August 1966 . Support Command had been formed in 1959 , by merging the RAAF 's former Training and Maintenance Commands . On 1 January 1968 , Headlam was posted to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff . He served as an Extra Gentleman Usher to the Queen from 17 November 1970 to 5 June 1971 . = = Retirement = = Returning to Australia in June 1971 , Headlam took resettlement leave before retiring from the Air Force on 3 August . He made his home in Melbourne , where he died aged 62 on 23 December 1976 , after a lengthy battle with cancer . Survived by his children and his second wife , he was given a private funeral and cremated at Springvale Crematorium . = M @-@ 82 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 82 is a state trunkline in the Lower Peninsula in the US state of Michigan that travels between Fremont and Howard City . The section between Newaygo and Howard City travels through Fremont and along the southern edge of Manistee National Forest . The current version of M @-@ 82 is actually the second in the state ; the first usage appeared in the Upper Peninsula by 1919 . The Lower Peninsula routing has been in use since the 1920s . Various extensions and truncations have shifted the terminus as far west as New Era or Hesperia in the past . The current route was finalized in the late 1970s = = Route description = = M @-@ 82 begins at a junction with M @-@ 120 and B @-@ 96 west of Fremont . This junction is at a tripoint of county lines . M @-@ 120 forms the north – south Newaygo – Oceana and Newaygo – Muskegon county lines . B @-@ 96 , which forms the east – west Oceana – Muskegon county line runs due west of the intersection . M @-@ 82 exits the intersection to the east . The highway runs along 48th Street through rural farms into the community of Fremont . The road , now called Main Street , passes through the downtown area and M @-@ 82 turns south along Stewart Avenue out of town . The highway rounds a curve and transitions to 72nd Street running eastward through more farm land . As the trunkline approaches Newaygo , the terrain becomes more wooded near the Muskegon River . M @-@ 82 follows Fremont Street east to a junction with M @-@ 37 . The two highways merge and run concurrently over the river and into downtown on State Street . South of downtown , M @-@ 82 turns east again , independent of M @-@ 37 , and runs along 82nd Street on the southern edge of the Manistee National Forest . The east end of M @-@ 82 is at exit 118 on US 131 / M @-@ 46 west of Howard City . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , as a part of its maintenance responsibilities , tracks the volume of traffic using its roadways . These levels are expressed in terms of a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a calculation of the traffic along a segment of road for any average day of the year . In 2009 , the department 's measurements indicated that a segment of M @-@ 82 west of Fremont had the peak volume for the highway at 16 @,@ 532 vehicles daily . The traffic nadir was 4 @,@ 018 vehicles east of Newaygo . In addition , MDOT has not had any section of the highway listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = =

= = = Previous designation = = = The first usage of M @-@ 82 was in the Upper Peninsula by July 1 , 1919 . The trunkline started at M @-@ 25 and ran north of Newberry to the vicinity of Eight Mile Corner . It was later replaced by M @-@ 48 in 1926 .

= = = Current designation = = = The current M @-@ 82 dates back to 1926 . It ran from US 31 in Hart to the northern junction of US 131 and M @-@ 46 in Howard City . The highway was routed through Ferry , Hesperia and Fremont , replacing M @-@ 41 . In late 1936 , M @-@ 46 was extended along the section between Newaygo and Howard City , forming a M @-@ 46 / M @-@ 82 concurrency to fill a gap in the M @-@ 46 routing . This concurrent section became just M @-@ 46 in 1938 , shortening M @-@ 82 back to the northern M @-@ 37 junction in Newaygo . The highway was moved to a new alignment west of Ferry in late 1947 or early 1948 . Instead of heading northwesterly to Hart , it was continued west to end in Shelby . Two realignments in 1963 and 1964 rerouted the western end of the highway again . This time it was realigned to run from Hesperia to New Era , bypassing Ferry . A larger change around 1969 reconfigured the highway designations in Oceana County . M @-@ 20 replaced M @-@ 82 west of Hesperia , to end at New Era instead of Muskegon . The new M @-@ 120 designation replaced M @-@ 20 south of Hesperia . M @-@ 82 now ran from Hesperia to Newaygo only . The length of the highway was increased in 1973 when the eastern end was moved back to Howard City . M @-@ 46 was rerouted to follow the US 131 freeway south of Howard City to Cedar Springs , and replaced M @-@ 57 between Cedar Springs and Casnovia . This freed up the Newaygo to Howard City highway for a return to the M @-@ 82 designation . The last change came in 1978 when the concurrency with M @-@ 120 was eliminated in favor of M @-@ 120 . The M @-@ 82 designation was truncated at this time to the junction west of Fremont , resulting in the current highway routing . = = Major intersections = = = Shikamaru Nara = Shikamaru Nara ( 奈良 シカマル , Nara Shikamaru ) is a fictional character in the Naruto manga and anime series created by Masashi Kishimoto . In the anime and manga , Shikamaru is a ninja affiliated with the village of Konohagakure . He is a member of Team 10 , a group of ninja consisting of himself , Choji Akimichi , Ino Yamanaka , and team leader Asuma Sarutobi . Shikamaru is portrayed as a lazy character , unwilling to apply his prodigious intelligence ; Kishimoto has noted that he likes Shikamaru due to his easygoing nature . Outside of the Naruto anime and manga , Shikamaru has appeared in four of the feature films in the series , as well as several other media relating to the series , including video games and original video animations . Numerous anime and manga publications have commented on Shikamaru 's character . Many reviewers commented on his laziness and intelligence , and noted his transformation into a leader ; Anime News Network celebrated Shikamaru 's emergence as " an unlikely hero " in the Naruto storyline . Shikamaru has also been highly popular with the Naruto reader base , placing high in several popularity polls . Merchandise based on Shikamaru has been released , including action figures , key chains , and patches . = = Creation and conception = = Masashi Kishimoto has noted that he likes Shikamaru due to his easygoing nature despite being a genius , and contrasted him against Sasuke Uchiha 's intelligent but abrasive personality . Kishimoto also comically remarked that he would marry Shikamaru if he were a girl , noting that Shikamaru would likely be successful in life . When designing Shikamaru 's Part II appearance , Kishimoto wanted to give Shikamaru a unique appearance despite drawing him with a vest that several other ninja wear in the series . As a result , he drew his forehead protector on his arm in order to not obscure his hair . = = Appearances = =

= = = In Naruto = = = Shikamaru first major appearance in the series is during the Chunin Exams , bi @-@ yearly exams for ninja who wish to advance in rank . He is part of Team 10 alongside Choji Akimichi and Ino Yamanaka . He is a highly unenthusiastic person , and he attempts to go through life with minimum effort . Contrary to his lazy tendencies , Shikamaru is extremely intelligent ; his teacher , Asuma Sarutobi , determined that Shikamaru 's IQ was over 200 . Shikamaru 's abilities are based on the Shadow Imitation Technique ( 影真似の術 , Kagemane no Jutsu , English TV : " Shadow Possession Jutsu " ) , the signature technique of his clan , with which he merges his shadow with an opponent 's shadow , making them immobilized and forced to mimic Shikamaru 's movements . As the series progresses , Shikamaru becomes able to manipulate his shadow in new ways . By Part II of the series , Shikamaru is capable of utilizing multiple shadow @-@ based techniques at once and can lift his shadow from the ground in order to interact with physical objects ; for instance , he can pierce enemies with the shadow tendrils or use them to throw weapons . Shikamaru approaches the exams with a sense of apathy ; when he battles the Sunagakure ninja Temari , he defeats her but forfeits his match to her , due to his chakra being low . Despite this loss , he is the only ninja among his peers to be promoted to the rank of Chunin , as the overseers of the exams were impressed by the insight and intelligence he demonstrated against Temari . As a Chunin , Shikamaru is appointed the leader of a team to prevent Sasuke Uchiha from defecting to the village of Otogakure . Although Shikamaru 's team manages to defeat the Otogakure ninja barring their way , Sasuke manages to escape . In Part II of the series , Shikamaru is assigned the task of locating two members of the criminal organization Akatsuki . While his team manages to find their targets , the immortal Akatsuki member Hidan kills Asuma Sarutobi during the course of the battle despite Shikamaru 's best efforts . After Asuma 's funeral , Shikamaru sets out with the surviving members of Team 10 to avenge their mentor with the aid of Kakashi Hatake . As the other deal with Hidan 's partner Kakuzu , Shikamaru avenges Asuma by defeating Hidan and making sure the Akatsuki member 's body is never found . Following the fight , Shikamaru vows to protect Kurenai Yuhi and Asuma 's newborn daughter . He is later assigned to the Fourth Division alongside Temari and Chōji . He is named a proxy general under Gaara . In the series epilogue , stating his personal desire during the series of final battles , Shikamaru becomes advisor to the Seventh Hokage Naruto after marrying Temari and gaining a son in Shikadai Nara .

= = = Appearances in other media = = = Besides the Naruto anime and manga , Shikamaru is featured in seven of the featured films in the series : in the second film , he aids Naruto Uzumaki and Sakura Haruno in fighting against Haido , a utopian idealist seeking to rule the world with a power called Gelel ; in the fourth , Shikamaru appears in a brief sequence , fighting against a large group of stone soldiers ; in the fifth , Shikamaru is sent alongside Kakashi and Sai in search of the base of the Land of Sky , who plans to invade Konoha ; in the sixth , Shikamaru , alongside Sakura and Sai battle the chimera beast summoned by Hiruko ; in the eight , Shikamaru participates in the battle against the demon Satori ; in the ninth , the Limited Tsukuyomi universe presents a portly Shikamaru , the exact opposite of his teammate , Choji , who becomes the team strategist instead ; and in the tenth , Shikamaru leads the team consisting of himself , Naruto , Sakura , Sai , and Hinata Hyuga that is sent to rescue Hinata 's younger sister , Hanabi , who was kidnapped by Toneri Otsutsuki . He is also present in the third original video animation , in which he participates in a tournament . Shikamaru is a playable character in nearly all Naruto video games , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , he utilizes variations of his Shadow Imitation Technique not seen in the anime or manga . Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX 2 marks the first appearance of Shikamaru in his Part II appearance in a video game . A light novel titled Shikamaru Hiden : A Cloud Drifting in Silent Darkness , written by Takashi Yano and illustrated by Kishimoto , stars Shikamaru as the main character and narrator . The novel is set two years after the Fourth Ninja War , focusing on Shikamaru 's assignment as organizer of the newly formed Shinobi Union to capture a rogue ninja who rules over the distant Land of Silence and attempts to establish a new world order ruled by the common people . It also explores his growing relationship with Temari , culminating in him struggling to name his child with her , years after the end of the novel . = = Reception = = Shikamaru has ranked highly in the Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity polls for the series , continuously placing in the top ten and reaching fourth place in one poll . The last such poll was in 2011 , in which Shikamaru was in ninth place , behind Sasori and ahead of Hinata . Merchandise based on Shikamaru has also been released , including action figures , key chains , and patches in both his Part I and Part II appearance . NTT customers voted him as their sixteenth favorite black haired male anime character . CyberConnect2 CEO Hiroshi Matsuyama referred to Shikamaru as one of his favorite characters from Naruto . Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have commented on Shikamaru 's character . IGN stated that Shikamaru was one of their favorite characters in the series , and referred to him as " the poster child for any card @-@ carrying member of Generation X " due to his general lack of enthusiasm and his unwillingness to utilize his potential . In a review of episode 110 , IGN praised how Shikamaru managed to transcend his lazy nature in order to take on the mantle of a leader when assigned to lead a team in order to retrieve Sasuke Uchiha and agreed that the decision to make him Chunin was fair . Anime News Network also commented on this development , calling Shikamaru 's emergence as " an unlikely hero " one of the highlights of the arc . In a subsequent review of episode 135 , in which the mission to retrieve Sasuke has failed and the members of Shikamaru 's team were critically injured , IGN lauded the " great moment " in the episode in which Shikamaru began to cry after learning his friends will recover , and declared that he will be a better leader for the sake of his friends . Mania Entertainment 's Justin Rich celebrated his " sheer intellect " , calling him " one of the most fascinating characters in the series " and " one of the few truly brilliant fighters in shōnen anime " . Dani Moure , another reviewer from the same site , noted about his battle with Temari during the Chunin Exams that it was " one of the better fights involving the supporting players " . = Meridian , Mississippi = Meridian is the sixth largest city in the state of Mississippi , in the United States . It is the county seat of Lauderdale County and the principal city of the Meridian , Mississippi Micropolitan Statistical Area . Along major highways , the city is 93 mi ( 150 km ) east of Jackson , Mississippi ; 154 mi ( 248 km ) west of Birmingham , Alabama ; 202 mi ( 325 km ) northeast of New Orleans , Louisiana ; and 231 mi ( 372 km ) southeast of Memphis , Tennessee . Established in 1860 , at the intersection of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad and Southern Railway of Mississippi , Meridian 's economy was built on the railways and goods transported on them , and it became a strategic trading center . During the American Civil War , General William Tecumseh Sherman burned much of the city to the ground in the Battle of Meridian ( February , 1864 ) . Rebuilt after the war , the city entered a " Golden Age " it become the largest city in Mississippi between 1890 and 1930 , and a leading center for manufacturing in the South , with 44 trains arriving and departing daily . Union Station , built in 1906 , is now a multi @-@ modal center , giving access to the Meridian Transit System , Greyhound Buses , and Trailways , averaging 242 @,@ 360 passengers per year . Although the economy slowed with the decline of the railroad industry , the city has diversified , with healthcare , military , and manufacturing employing the most people in 2010 . The population within the city limits , according to 2008 census estimates , is 38 @,@ 232 , but a population of 232 @,@ 900 in a 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) radius and 526 @,@ 500 in a 65 @-@ mile ( 105 km ) radius , of which 104 @,@ 600 and 234 @,@ 200 people respectively are in the labor force , feed the economy of the city . The area is served by two military facilities , Naval Air Station Meridian and Key Field , which provide over 4 @,@ 000 jobs . NAS Meridian is home to the Regional Counter @-@ Drug Training Academy ( RCTA ) and the first local Department of Homeland Security in the state . Key Field is named after brothers Fred and Al Key , who set a world endurance flight record in 1935 . The field is now home to the 186th Air Refueling Wing of the Air National Guard and a support facility for the 185th Aviation Brigade of the Army National Guard . Rush Foundation Hospital is the largest non @-@ military employer in the region , employing 2 @,@ 610 people . Among the city 's many arts organizations and historic buildings are the Riley Center , the Meridian Museum of Art , Meridian Little Theatre , and the Meridian Symphony Orchestra . Meridian was home to two Carnegie libraries , one for whites and one for African Americans . The Carnegie Branch Library , now demolished , was one of a number of Carnegie libraries built for blacks in the Southern United States during the segregation era . The city has been selected as the future location of the Mississippi Arts and Entertainment Center ( MAEC ) . Jimmie Rodgers , the " Father of Country Music " , was born in Meridian . Highland Park houses a museum which displays memorabilia of his life and career , as well as railroad equipment from the steam @-@ engine era . The park is also home to the Highland Park Dentzel Carousel , a National Historic Landmark . It is the world 's only two @-@ row stationary Dentzel menagerie in existence . Other notable natives include Miss America 1986 Susan Akin , James Chaney – an activist who was killed in the Mississippi civil rights workers murders in 1964 , and Hartley Peavey , founder of Peavey Electronics headquartered in Meridian . The federal courthouse was the site of the 1966 @-@ 1967 trial of suspects in the murder of Chaney and two other activists ; it was the first time a white jury convicted a white official of a civil rights killing . = = History = = Previously inhabited by the Choctaw Native Americans , the area now called Meridian was obtained by the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830 during the period of Indian Removal . After the treaty was ratified , European @-@ American settlers began to move into the area . After receiving a federal land grant of about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) , Richard McLemore , the first settler of Meridian , began offering free land to newcomers to attract more settlers to the region and develop the area . Most of McLemore 's land was bought in 1853 by Lewis A. Ragsdale , a lawyer from Alabama . John T. Ball , a merchant from Kemper County , bought the remaining 80 acres ( 0 @.@ 32 km2 ) . Ragsdale and Ball , now known as the founders of the city , began laying out lots for new development on their respective land sections . There was much competition over the proposed name of the settlement . Ball and the more industrial residents of the city supported the name " Meridian , " believing the term to be synonymous with " junction " ; the more agrarian residents of the city preferred " Sowashee " ( meaning " mad river " in a Native American language ) , from the name of a nearby creek ; and Ragsdale proposed " Ragsdale City . " Ball erected a station house on the Mobile and Ohio Railroad – the sign on which would alternate between " Meridian " and " Sowashee " each day . Eventually the continued development of the railroads led to an influx of railroad workers who overruled the others in the city and left " Meridian " on the station permanently . The town was officially incorporated as Meridian on February 10 , 1860 . Meridian was a small village at the start of the American Civil War in 1861 . Its strategic position at the railroad junction led to the Confederate construction of several military installations to support the war . During the Battle of Meridian in 1864 , General William Tecumseh Sherman led troops into the city , destroying the railroads in every direction , as well as an arsenal and immense storehouses ; his forces burned much of the buildings to the ground . Sherman is reported to have said afterwards , " Meridian , with its depots , store @-@ houses , arsenal , hospitals , offices , hotels , and cantonments no longer exists . " Despite the destruction , the railroad lines in the city were rapidly repaired , back in operation 26 working days after the battle . Race relations remained tense during the Reconstruction era , with the riot of 1871 following a fire that damaged many businesses . The town boomed in the aftermath of the Civil War , and experienced its " Golden Age " from 1880 to 1910 . The railroads in the area provided for a means of transportation and an influx of industries , which caused a population boom . As the population rose , commercial activity increased in the downtown area . Between 1890 and 1930 , Meridian was the largest city in Mississippi and a leading center for manufacturing in the South . Many of the city 's historic buildings were built during and just after this era , including the Grand Opera House in 1890 , the Wechsler School in 1894 , two Carnegie libraries in 1913 , and the Threefoot Building , Meridian 's tallest skyscraper , in 1929 . The city continued to grow thanks to a commission government 's efforts to bring in 90 new industrial plants in 1913 and a booming automobile industry in the 1920s . Even through the stock market crash of 1929 and the following Great Depression , the city continued to attract new businesses . With escapism becoming popular in the culture during the depth of the Depression , the S. H. Kress & Co. building , built to " provide luxury to the common man , " opened in downtown Meridian , as did the Temple Theater , which was used as a movie house . The federal courthouse was built in 1933 as a WPA project . After a brief slowdown of the economy at the end of the Depression , the country entered World War II , which renewed the importance of railroads . The rails were essential to transport gasoline and scrap metal to build military vehicles , so Meridian became the region 's rail center again . This renewed prosperity continued until the 1950s , when the automobile and Interstate Highway System became more popular than passenger rails . The decline of the railroad industry caused significant job losses , resulting in a population decline as workers left for other areas . During the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s , Meridian was home to a Council of Federated Organizations ( COFO ) office and several other activist organizations . James Chaney and other local residents , along with Michael Schwerner , his wife Rita , and Andrew Goodman , volunteers from the North , worked to create a community center , holding classes to help prepare African Americans in the area to regain the power to vote . Whites in the area resented the activism , and racial tension often resulted in violence . In June 1964 , Chaney , Schwerner , and Goodman went to Neshoba County , Mississippi , to meet with members of a black church that had been bombed and burned . The three disappeared that night on their way back to Meridian . Following a massive FBI investigation , their murdered bodies were found two months later , buried in an earthen dam . Seven Klansmen , including a deputy sheriff , were convicted in the federal courthouse in Meridian of " depriving the victims of their civil rights " and three were acquitted in the Mississippi civil rights workers murders trial . It was the first time that a white jury had convicted " a white official in a civil rights killing . " In 2005 , the case was reopened by the state , which brought charges in the case for the first time . Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to 60 years in prison . Meridian later honored Chaney by renaming a portion of 49th Avenue after him and holding an annual memorial service . Starting in the 1960s and following the construction of highways that made commuting easier , residents began to move away from downtown in favor of new housing subdivisions to the north . After strip commercial interests began to move downtown , the city worked to designate several areas as historic districts in the 1970s and 80s to preserve the architectural character of the city . The Meridian Historic Districts and Landmarks Commission was created in 1979 , and the Meridian Main Street program was founded in 1985 . Meridian Main Street organized several projects to revitalize downtown , including the construction of a new Amtrak Station in 1997 based on the design of the historic train station used during Meridian 's Golden Age ; it had been demolished . Other projects included the renovation of the Rosenbaum Building in 2001 and Weidmann 's Restaurant in 2002 , as well as support for integrated urban design . Meridian Main Street , along with The Riley Foundation , helped renovate and adapt the historic Grand Opera House in 2006 for use as the " Mississippi State University Riley Center for Education and the Performing Arts . " After ownership of the Meridian Main Street was transferred to the Alliance for Downtown Meridian in late 2007 , the two organizations , along with the Meridian Downtown Association , spearheaded the downtown revitalization effort . The Alliance serves as an umbrella organization , allowing the other two organizations to use the its support staff and housing , and in turn the Alliance serves as a liaison between the organizations . Plans were underway to renovate the Threefoot Building , but newly elected Mayor Cheri Barry killed the plans in early 2010 . Today , the Alliance helps to promote further development and restoration downtown ; its goal is to assist businesses such as specialty shops , restaurants , and bars because these help downtown become more active during the day and at night . The Meridian Downtown Association is primarily focused on increasing foot traffic downtown by organizing special events , and the Meridian Main Street program supports existing businesses downtown .

= = = Hotels = = = Given Meridian 's site as a railroad junction , its travelers have attracted the development of many hotels . Even before Meridian reached its " Golden Age , " several large hotels , including the Great Southern and the Grand Avenue hotels , were built before the start of the 20th century . With the growth of the railroads and the construction of the original Union Station in 1906 , many hotels were constructed for passengers and workers . The Elmira Hotel was constructed in 1905 , and the Terminal Hotel was constructed in 1910 . Hotel Meridian was constructed in 1907 , and Union Hotel was built in 1908 . Union Hotel was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 , and both Hotel Meridian and Grand Avenue Hotel were listed as contributing properties to the Meridian Urban Center Historic District . As the city grew , the hotels reflected ambitions of the strong economy , as evidenced by the eleven @-@ story skyscraper Lamar Hotel built in 1927 . Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 , the Lamar Hotel was adapted for use as a county annex building . In 1988 it was listed as a Mississippi Landmark . The E.F. Young Hotel was built in 1931 . A staple in the African @-@ American business district that developed west of the city 's core , the hotel was one of the only places in the city during the years of segregation where a traveling African American could find a room . As the city suburbs developed in the 1960s and ' 70s , most hotels moved outside of downtown . Rehabilitation of the Riley Center in 2006 has increased demand and a push for a new downtown hotel . The Threefoot Building has been proposed for redevelopment for this purpose , but restoration efforts stalled with a change in city administrations . The Threefoot Preservation Society was formed in 2013 to raise public awareness and support for the building 's renovation , featuring tours of the first floor and anniversary events .

= = = Historic districts = = = Meridian has nine historic districts that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Meridian Downtown Historic District is a combination of two older districts , the Meridian Urban Center Historic District and the Union Station Historic District . Many architectural styles are present in the districts , most from the late 19th and early 20th centuries , including Queen Anne , Colonial Revival , Italianate , Art Deco , Late Victorian , and Bungalow . The districts are : 1 East End Historic District — roughly bounded by 18th St , 11th Ave , 14th St , 14th Ave , 5th St , and 17th Ave . 2 Highlands Historic District — roughly bounded by 15th St , 34th Ave , 19th St , and 36th Ave . 3 Meridian Downtown Historic District — runs from the former Gulf , Mobile and Ohio Railroad north to 6th St between 18th and 26th Ave , excluding Ragsdale Survey Block 71 . 4 Meridian Urban Center Historic District — roughly bounded by 21st and 25th Aves , 6th St , and the railroad . 5 Union Station Historic District — roughly bounded by 18th and 19th Aves , 5th St , and the railroad . 6 Merrehope Historic District — roughly bounded by 33rd Ave , 30th Ave , 14th St , and 8th St. 7 Mid @-@ Town Historic District — roughly bounded by 23rd Ave , 15th St , 28th Ave , and 22nd St. 8 Poplar Springs Road Historic District — roughly bounded by 29th St , 23rd Ave , 22nd St , and 29th Ave . 9 West End Historic District — roughly bounded by 7th St , 28th Ave , Shearer 's Branch , and 5th St. = = Government and infrastructure = = Meridian has operated under the mayor @-@ council or " strong mayor " form of government since 1985 . A mayor is elected every four years by the population at @-@ large . The five members of the city council are elected every four years from each of the city 's five wards , considered single @-@ member districts . The mayor , the chief executive officer of the city , is responsible for administering and leading the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of city government . The city council is the legislative arm of the government , setting policy and annually adopting the city 's operating budget . City Hall , which has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places , is located at 601 23rd Avenue . The current mayor is Percy Bland . Members of the city council include Dr. George M. Thomas , representative from Ward 1 , Kenneth Dustin Markham , representative from Ward 2 , Barbara Henson , representative from Ward 3 , Kim Houston , representative from Ward 4 , and Randy Hammon , representative from Ward 5 . The council clerk is Pam McInnis . In total , the city employs 570 people . The city established a Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) shortly after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , becoming the only local DHS in the state . The team oversees an area of nine counties . Upon receiving $ 2 @.@ 5 million in grants from the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency and other organizations , the department began training law enforcement offices from other Southern states in passenger rail rescue as well as offering civilian classes in basic handguns , Boy Scout first aid and hunting , and firearms training . The DHS helps during times of crisis such as Hurricane Ivan in September 2005 , when the department helped establish and support shelters for 700 evacuees . The city now serves as the leader of one of the task forces in the Mississippi DHS , a combination of three nine @-@ county teams . Headed by police chief Lee Shelbourn since 2009 , the Meridian Police Department consists of 115 full @-@ time officers as well as part @-@ time and reserve staff available . In 2009 , the department 's Criminal Investigations Division responded to 4000 cases , 2000 of which were felonies . In 2000 , 2094 crimes were reported , up slightly from 2008 crimes the preceding year . Meridian has been described as " the safest city in Mississippi with more than 30 @,@ 000 people . " The East Mississippi Correctional Facility is located in unincorporated Lauderdale County , near Meridian . It is operated by the GEO Group on behalf of the Mississippi Department of Corrections . The chief of the Meridian Fire Department is Anthony Clayton . The fire department responded to more than 1600 calls in 2009 , including 123 structural fires and 609 emergency service calls . The Mississippi Department of Mental Health operates the East Mississippi State Hospital in Meridian . The United States Postal Service operates the Meridian , North Meridian , and the West Meridian Station post offices . In state politics , the Mississippi Senate district map divides the city into three sections . The northern tip of the city is in the 31st State Senate District and seats Terry Clark Burton ( R ) . A strip of the city from the southwest corner up to the northeast corner comprises part of the 32nd State Senate District and seats Sampson Jackson , II ( D ) . The western and southeastern portions of the city lie in the 33rd State Senate District and seats Videt Carmichael ( R ) . In the Mississippi House of Representatives districts , the city is divided into four districts . The southern and eastern portions of the city reside in House District 81 and are represented by Steven A. Horne ( R ) . The city 's core makes up the entirety of House District 82 and is represented by Wilbert L. Jones ( D ) . Surrounding House District 82 is House District 83 , represented by Greg Snowden ( R ) . The western section of the city , along with a small section in the north , lie in House District 84 and are represented by Tad Campbell ( R ) . On the national level , the city is located in Mississippi 's 3rd congressional district , represented by Gregg Harper ( R ) , who has been in office since 2009 . Lauderdale County , home to Meridian , has voted for the Republican candidate in every United States presidential election since 1972 . Prior to the shift to the Republican Party , white area voters supported Democratic Party candidates , as for decades since the late nineteenth century , it was a one @-@ party state . = = Demographics = = The city 's growth has reflected the push and pull of many social and economic factors . The total population increased in each census from the city 's founding until 1970 , although varying from rates as high as 165 % to as low as 0 @.@ 2 % . In the 1970 census the population decreased , then slightly increased by 1980 , after which the population slowly declined , increasing again since the turn of the 21st century . Between 1980 and 2000 , the population declined more than 14 % . As of the census of 2000 , the city 's population was 39 @,@ 968 , and the population density was 885 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square mile ( 342 @.@ 0 / km2 ) . In 2008 , the city was the sixth largest in the state . The population increased as of 2010 . Meridian is the principal city in the Meridian micropolitan area , which as of 2009 consisted of three counties – Clarke , Kemper , and Lauderdale – and had a population of 106 @,@ 139 . There is a population of 232 @,@ 900 in a 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) radius and 526 @,@ 500 in a 65 @-@ mile ( 105 km ) radius . While the overall population growth of the city has varied , there has been a steady growth in the number and percentage of non @-@ white residents . The only decline in this group was between 1960 and 1970 , when the city 's overall population declined markedly . In the 2010 Census , the racial makeup of the city was 61 @.@ 55 % African American , 35 @.@ 71 % White , 0 @.@ 9 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , < 0 @.@ 02 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 59 % from other races , and 0 @.@ 89 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 @.@ 75 % of the population . According to the 2000 Census , of the 17 @,@ 890 housing units inside city limits , 15 @,@ 966 were occupied , 10 @,@ 033 of them by families . 31 @.@ 1 % of occupied households had children under the age of 18 , 36 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 23 @.@ 3 % consisted of a female householder with no husband present , and 37 @.@ 2 % were non @-@ families . 33 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 14 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 39 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 06 . The average household size has steadily decreased since 1970 , when it was 3 @.@ 04 . Meridian 's median age has increased from 30 @.@ 4 in 1970 to 34 @.@ 6 in 2000 . The median income for a household in the city was $ 25 @,@ 085 , and the median income for a family was $ 31 @,@ 062 . Males had a median income of $ 29 @,@ 404 versus $ 19 @,@ 702 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 15 @,@ 255 . About 24 @.@ 6 % of families and 28 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 40 @.@ 8 % of those under age 18 and 22 @.@ 0 % of those age 65 or over .

= = = Religion = = = The population of Meridian and its surrounds is fairly observant , with 65 @.@ 2 % of Lauderdale County identifying as affiliated with some type of religious congregation , compared with the national average of 50 @.@ 2 % . Of the affiliated in 2000 , 30 @,@ 068 ( 59 @.@ 0 % ) were in the Southern Baptist Convention , 9 @,@ 469 ( 18 @.@ 6 % ) were with the United Methodist Church , and 1 @,@ 872 ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) were associated with the Catholic Church . Immigrant Jews from Germany and eastern Europe were influential in commercial development of the city , building businesses and services . Congregation Beth Israel was founded in 1868 , just before the city 's " Golden Age . " Meridian once had the largest Jewish community in the state , with 575 Jewish people living in the city in 1927 . Today , fewer than 40 Jews live in Meridian , most of whom are elderly . = = Geography and climate = = Meridian is located in the North Central Hills region of Mississippi in Lauderdale County . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 45 @.@ 9 sq mi ( 119 km2 ) , of which 45 @.@ 1 sq mi ( 117 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 8 sq mi ( 2 @.@ 1 km2 ) is water . Along major highways , the city is 93 mi ( 150 km ) east of Jackson , Mississippi ; 154 mi ( 248 km ) west of Birmingham , Alabama ; 202 mi ( 325 km ) northeast of New Orleans , Louisiana ; 231 mi ( 372 km ) southeast of Memphis , Tennessee ; and 297 mi ( 478 km ) west of Atlanta , Georgia . The area surrounding the city is covered with cotton and corn fields along with oak and pine forests , and its topography consists of clay hills and the bottom lands of the head waters of the Chickasawhay River . The natural terrain of the area has been modified in the urban core of the city by grading , but it maintains its gentle rolling character in the outlying areas . Numerous small creeks are found throughout the city and small lakes and woodlands lie in the northern and southern portions of the city . Sowashee Creek runs through the southern portion of the city and branches off into Gallagher 's Creek , which flows through the center of the city . Loper 's Creek runs through the far @-@ western part of the city while smaller creeks including Shearer 's Branch , Magnolia Creek , and Robbins Creek are dispersed throughout the city . Meridian is in the humid subtropical climate zone . The average high temperature during summer ( June through August ) is around 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the average low is around 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . In winter ( December through February ) the average maximum is around 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and minimum 35 ° F ( 2 ° C ) . The warmest month is July , with an average high of 92 @.@ 9 ° F ( 33 @.@ 8 ° C ) , and the coldest month of the year is January with an average low of 34 @.@ 7 ° F ( 1 @.@ 5 ° C ) . The average annual precipitation in the city is 58 @.@ 65 in ( 1 @,@ 490 mm ) . Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year , and the wettest month of the year is March , in which an average of 6 @.@ 93 in ( 176 mm ) of rain falls . Much rainfall is delivered by thunderstorms which are common during the summer months but occur throughout the year . Severe thunderstorms - which can produce damaging winds and / or large hail in addition to the usual hazards of lightning and heavy rain - occasionally occur . These are most common during the spring months with a secondary peak during the Fall months . These storms also bring the risk of tornadoes . = = Economy = = Early on , the economy depended greatly upon the railroads in the area . The city was the largest in Mississippi around the start of the 20th century , with five major rail lines and 44 trains coming in and out daily . The city 's economy not only depended on the rails but the goods , such as timber and cotton , transported on them . With these rail @-@ based industries , the city was a great economic power in the state and region from about 1890 through 1930 . Though its economy slowed with the decline of the railroading industry in the 1950s , the city has adapted , moving from a largely rail @-@ based economy to a more diversified one , with healthcare , military , and manufacturing employing the most people . Along with Lauderdale County and the city of Marion , Meridian is served by the East Mississippi Business Development Corporation , which was formed in 1996 by a group of business leaders from the area . While as of April 2010 , the city 's civilian labor force was only 15 @,@ 420 people , there is a population of 232 @,@ 900 in a 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) radius and 526 @,@ 500 in a 65 @-@ mile ( 105 km ) radius , of which 104 @,@ 600 and 234 @,@ 200 people respectively are in the labor force . The city thus serves as a hub of employment , retail , health care , and culture activities . Eighty percent of Lauderdale County 's workers reside in the county while 90 % live within 45 miles . In April 2010 , there were 6 @,@ 260 people employed in the healthcare field in Lauderdale County . Rush Hospital is the largest healthcare organization in the region , employing 2 @,@ 610 people , followed by East Mississippi State Hospital with 1 @,@ 500 and Anderson Hospital with 1 @,@ 475 . There are three hospitals in Meridian , as well as many other healthcare @-@ related facilities . Jeff Anderson Regional Medical Center provides cardiovascular surgery , a Level II newborn intensive @-@ care unit , and a health and fitness center . Rush Foundation Hospital and the related Rush Health Systems operate a Specialty Hospital of Meridian , which offers long @-@ term care for non @-@ permanent patients who require more recovery time in a hospital setting . Riley Hospital has two centers for stroke treatment and rehabilitation services . Other healthcare facilities in Meridian include the Alliance Health Center and East Mississippi State Hospital , the latter of which has been in operation since 1882 . Retail is another major employer in the county , with 5 @,@ 280 people employed in April 2010 . Nearly $ 2 billion annually is spent on retail purchases in the city . The 633 @,@ 685 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 58 @,@ 871 m2 ) Bonita Lakes Mall offers over one hundred shopping venues , including department stores , specialty shops , restaurants , eateries , and United Artists Theatres . Phase I of the construction of Meridian Crossroads , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 34 @,@ 800 m2 ) shopping center in the Bonita Lakes area , was completed in November 2007 , providing a major boost to retail in the area . Also , the shopping district on North Hills Street has continued to expand , and in March 2007 , additional retail and office space was opened near the Highway 19 Walmart Supercenter . The area is also served by two military facilities , Naval Air Station Meridian and Key Field , which supply over 4 @,@ 000 jobs to residents of the surrounding area . NAS Meridian provides training for naval carrier pilots and other enlisted personnel . Also housed at the base is the Regional Counter @-@ Drug Training Academy ( RCTA ) , which provides narcotics training for law enforcement in many southeastern states . Containing the first local Department of Homeland Security in the state , the city is the leader in a nine county regional response team and a twenty @-@ nine county regional response task force . Key Field is the site of the famous flight by brothers Fred and Al Key , who set a world endurance flight record in 1935 . Key Field is now home to the 186th Air Refueling Wing of the Air National Guard and a support facility for the 185th Aviation Brigade of the Army National Guard . The site also contains an exhibit reviewing the history of aviation , and is the home of Meridian 's Aviation Museum . The total manufacturing employment of Lauderdale County in April 2010 was 2 @,@ 850 people . Peavey Electronics Corporation , which has manufactured guitars , amplifiers , and sound equipment since 1965 , operates its headquarters in the city . Other businesses in the area include Avery Dennison , Structural Steel Services , Sara Lee , Tower Automotive , and Teikuro Corporation . The city is also home to four industrial parks . In downtown , the MSU Riley Center provides revenue from tourism , arts , and entertainment sales . The Riley Center attracts more than 60 @,@ 000 visitors to downtown Meridian annually for conferences , meetings , and performances . Loeb 's Department Store on Front St has remained a Mississippi clothing landmark , having passed through four generations of family ownership . The store has been selling fine men 's and women 's clothing since 1887 , when the store was first opened by Alex Loeb . = = Culture = =

= = = Arts = = = Known for more than a century of arts , Meridian contains many art and cultural organizations and hosts many cultural events . One of the first art organizations in the city , The Meridian Art League , was established in February 1933 . Art exhibitions were originally held in Lamar Hotel in downtown Meridian , but after a name change to Meridian Art Association in 1949 , exhibitions were held at various locations around the city . After the Carnegie library at 25th Ave and 7th St was closed , the Art Association remodelled the building into the Meridian Museum of Art to serve as a permanent home for exhibits . The museum was opened in 1970 and has since featured rotating exhibitions as well as many educational programs for both students and adults . Over thirty exhibitions are held annually , ranging from traditional decorative arts to ethnographic and tribal materials , photography , crafts , and many other works of art . The collection also includes 18th and 19th century portraits , 20th century photography , and several sculptures . The Meridian Council for the Arts ( MCA ) was founded as Meridian 's and Lauderdale County 's official arts agency in 1978 . MCA operates its Community Art Grants program , the annual Threefoot Festival , several workshops , and other special events each year . MCA is partnered with many arts organizations in the city and county including the Meridian Museum of Art , the Meridian Little Theatre , and the Meridian Symphony Orchestra . Meridian Little Theatre , one of the South 's oldest subscription @-@ based community theatres , was built in 1932 and currently provides entertainment to residents of and visitors to Meridian and Lauderdale County , entertaining over 22 @,@ 000 guests each season , making it Mississippi 's most @-@ attended community theatre . The Meridian Symphony Orchestra ( MSO ) – founded in 1961 – played its first concert in 1962 and its first full season in 1963 . In 1965 the MSO booked its first international soloist , Elena Nikolaidi , to perform with the orchestra . The Orchestra helped the Meridian Public School District develop its own orchestra and strings programs and also helped develop the Meridian Symphony Chorus . The current conductor is Dr. Claire Fox Hillard , who has been with the orchestra since 1991 . The MSO will celebrate its 50th anniversary in February 2011 with a performance from Itzhak Perlman . The city 's former Grand Opera House was built in 1889 by two half brothers , Israel Marks and Levi Rothenberg . During its operation the opera house hosted many famous artists and works , the first being a German company 's rendition of Johann Strauss II 's " The Gypsy Baron " . After closing in the late 1920s due to the Great Depression , the opera house was abandoned for nearly 70 years . A $ 10 million grant in 2000 by the Riley Foundation , a local foundation chartered in 1998 , sparked the building 's restoration while $ 15 million came from a combination of city , county , and federal grants . The opera house 's renovation was completed in September 2006 under the new name " Mississippi State University Riley Center for Education and Performing Arts . " The Riley Center , which includes a 950 @-@ seat auditorium for live performances , a 200 @-@ seat studio theater , and 30 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 2 @,@ 787 m2 ) of meeting space , attracts more than 60 @,@ 000 visitors to downtown Meridian annually for conferences , meetings , and performances . Meridian is rightly considered an architectural treasure trove being one the nations most intact cities from the turn of the last century . Architecture students from around the nation and Canada are known to visit Meridian in groups as part of their coursework due to numerous structures in the city having been designed by noted architects . The only home in the US south designed by noted Canadian born Architect Louis S. Curtiss , famous for inventing the glass curtain wall skyscraper , is extant on Highland Park . The Frank Fort designed Threefoot Building is generally considered one of the best Art Deco skyscrapers in the US and is often compared to Detroit 's famed Fisher Building . Noted California Architect Wallace Neff designed a number of homes in Meridian as well as in the Alabama Black Belt which adjoins the city across the nearby Alabama State line . He had relatives in Meridian and Selma who were executives in the then thriving railroad industry and would take commissions in the area when commissions in California were lean . His work is mostly concentrated in the lower numbered blocks of Poplar Springs Drive where his 2516 Poplar Springs Drive is often compared to the similarly designed Falcon Lair , the Beverly Hills home in Benedict Canyon of Rudolph Valentino . One Neff work was lost to an expansion of Anderson Hospital in 1990 and another in Marion Park burned in the 1950s . The Meridian Post Office with its interior done entirely of bronze and Verde marble is also noteworthy as a very fine example of the type of Post Office structures built in thriving and well to do cities in the 1920s and originally had Lalique lighting which was removed sadly during a 1960s remodeling and which are now in private residences on Poplar Springs Drive and in North Hills . Meridian has also been selected as the future location of the Mississippi Arts and Entertainment Center ( MAEC ) . The Mississippi Legislature approved the idea in 2001 and in 2006 promised $ 4 million in funding if private contributors could raise $ 8 million . The city donated $ 50 @,@ 000 to the cause in September 2007 . The MAEC , as proposed , would be located on 175 acres ( 71 ha ) at Bonita Lakes and consist of an outdoor amphitheatre , an indoor concert hall , and a Hall of Fame honoring Mississippi artists . The Hall of Fame will be located downtown in the old Montana 's building . That property and the adjacent Meridian Hotel building were acquired in July 2010 for $ 300 @,@ 000 . In February 2009 , the MAEC revealed its Walk of Fame outside of the Riley Center in an attempt to promote the planned Hall of Fame . The first star on the walk was dedicated to Jimmie Rodgers , a Meridian native . In September of the same year , the second star was revealed , recognizing B.B. King , a famous blues musician from Mississippi . On June 1 , 2010 , authors Tennessee Williams , Eudora Welty , and William Faulkner were added to the walk . Sela Ward was added to the walk on June 24 , 2010 . The MAEC plans to add many more Mississippi @-@ born stars to the Walk of Fame ; names mentioned include Morgan Freeman , Jimmy Buffett , Elvis Presley , Conway Twitty , and others . Another location in the city used for large productions is the Hamasa Shrine Temple Theater . The Temple Theater houses a 778 @-@ pipe Robert Morgan organ , one of two Theater Organs still in their original installations in the state . With seating for 1800 persons , the silent movie era was a prosperous time for the Temple . At the time , it was one of the largest stages in the United States , second only to the Roxy Theater in New York City . Today , seating 1576 persons , the Temple is used year @-@ round for area events , live stage shows , plays , concerts , Hamasa Shrine functions , and public screenings of classic movies . Highland Park houses a Jimmie Rodgers museum which displays the original guitar of " The Singing Brakeman " and other memorabilia of his life and career , as well as railroad equipment from the steam @-@ engine era . In addition to the museum building itself , there are outside memorials , and a vintage steam locomotive on display . A Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker has been placed in Meridian to honor the city as the birthplace of Jimmie Rodgers and emphasizes his importance to the development of the blues style of music in Mississippi . The city was the first site to receive this designation outside the Mississippi Delta . Also , a Mississippi Country Music Trail marker was placed in Oak Grove Cemetery in honor of Rodgers on June 1 , 2010 . Each year since 1953 , the city has held a festival during May to honor the anniversary of his death . The park is also home to a 19th @-@ century carousel manufactured around 1895 by Gustav Dentzel of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Highland Park Dentzel Carousel has been in operation since 1909 , is a National Historic Landmark , and is the world 's only two @-@ row stationary Dentzel menagerie in existence . Its house is the only remaining original carousel building built from a Dentzel blueprint . Around Town Carousels Abound is a public arts project of 62 carousel horses , representing the historic carousel . Sixty @-@ two pieces have been sponsored by local businesses and citizens , and design of the horses was conceived and painted by local artists . They are placed throughout the city and county .

= = = Recreation = = = The city contains several recreational parks , including Highland Park , Bonita Lakes , and Okatibbee Lake . Highland Park contains picnic shelters , swimming pools , tennis courts , a baseball field , softball fields , and a playground , all open year round to visitors . Bonita Lakes is a city @-@ owned , 3 @,@ 300 @-@ acre ( 13 km2 ) park including three lakes . The park also includes the Long Creek Reservoir and Lakeview Municipal Golf Course , along with nature trails , a jogging and walking track , biking paths , horseback riding trails , pavilions , picnic facilities , boat ramps , paddle boats , concessions , and fishing . Along with the lakes , the Bonita Lakes area includes Bonita Lakes Mall , Bonita Lakes Crossing , and Bonita Lakes Plaza . Okatibbee Lake is a 7 @,@ 150 @-@ acre ( 28 @.@ 9 km2 ) establishment containing a 4 @,@ 144 @-@ acre ( 16 @.@ 77 km2 ) lake which offers boating , fishing , swimming , water skiing , picnicking , hunting , hiking and camping . Splashdown Country Water Park , a 25 @-@ room motel , and cabins are located on the lake . Since 1992 , Meridian has been a host of the State Games of Mississippi , a statewide annual multi @-@ sport event modeled after the Olympic Games . The organization is a member of the National Congress of State Games , which is affiliated with the U.S. Olympic Committee . In its first year 1 @,@ 200 athletes competed in twelve sports , and since then over 70 @,@ 000 athletes have participated in the Games . In 2009 , more than 4500 athletes participated in 27 sports . All competitors in the games can compete in the Southeast Sports Festival while medalists may move up to the bi @-@ annual State Games of America . Originally the games were held in one weekend in June , but as more sports were added , the event was expanded to two weekends . Opening ceremonies always begin on the 3rd Friday of June in downtown Meridian . The games are held at several sports parks , including Northeast Park , Sammie Davidson Complex , and other various fields throughout the city . Northeast Park is an 85 @-@ acre ( 34 ha ) park on Highway 39 that contains ten tennis courts , four softball fields , three soccer fields , an asphalt track , and a large picnic pavilion . The Sammie Davidson Sports Complex includes six tennis courts , four softball fields , and a half @-@ mile track . Other sports fields include the Meridian Jaycee Soccer Complex , Sykes Park , and Phil Hardin Park . There are also several golf courses in the city , including the aforementioned Lakeview Municipal Golf Course , an 18 @-@ hole course open to the public daily . Briarwood County Club , located on Highway 39 North , is a private club with golf , swimming , fishing , and dining facilities . Other golf courses serving the city include Northwood Country Club , Okatibbee Creek Golf Center , and Ponta Creek Golf Course . = = Transportation = =

= = = Railroads and public transit = = = Amtrak 's Crescent line connects Meridian with the cities of New York , New York ; Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; Baltimore , Maryland ; Washington , D.C. ; Charlotte , North Carolina ; Atlanta , Georgia ; Birmingham , Alabama ; and New Orleans , Louisiana . The Union Station Multi @-@ Modal Transportation Center ( MMTC ) is located at 1901 Front Street , part of the Meridian Downtown Historic District , which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Originally built in 1906 , but later demolished in 1966 then rebuilt in 1997 , the station includes several modes of transportation including the Meridian Transit System , Amtrak , Norfolk Southern rail corridor , Greyhound buses , Trailways and other providers of transit services . The number of passengers on Amtrak trains , Greyhound buses , and Meridian Transit System buses averages 242 @,@ 360 per year .

= = = Air = = = The city is served by Meridian Regional Airport , located at Key Field , 2811 Airport Boulevard South , 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of the city . At 10 @,@ 004 foot ( 3 @,@ 049 m ) , the airport 's runway is the longest public runway in Mississippi . The airport , which has been in service since 1930 , offers daily flights to Dallas / Fort Worth , TX . During the Great Depression , residents of the city contemplated abandoning the airport because of the cost of maintenance , but in 1935 Brothers Fred and Al Key , managers of the airport , thought of a way to keep the airport operating . From June 4 until July 1 , 1935 , the brothers flew over the city in their plane , the " Ole Miss . " The record they established in their 27 days aloft , totaling 653 hours and 34 minutes , attracted enough publicity and funds to the city to keep the airport running . Key Field is therefore named after the brothers , whose flight endurance record remains unbroken in conventional flight .

= = = Highways = = = Interstate Highways Interstate 20 Runs west through Jackson , Mississippi , eventually terminating near Kent , Texas , and east through Tuscaloosa , Alabama , eventually terminating in Florence , South Carolina . Interstate 59 Joins with I @-@ 20 in the city and runs north through Tuscaloosa , Alabama , ending in Wildwood , Georgia . It also runs south through Hattiesburg , Mississippi , and on to Slidell , Louisiana . U.S. Highways U.S. Highway 11 Runs parallel to Interstate 59 south to New Orleans , Louisiana , and north all the way to the Canada – US border . U.S. Highway 45 Transnational route which runs north through Columbus , Mississippi , to the US @-@ Canada border and south through Quitman , Mississippi , to Mobile , Alabama , and the Gulf of Mexico . U.S. Highway 80 Runs west through Jackson , Mississippi , to Dallas , Texas , and east through Demopolis , Alabama , all the way to Tybee Island , Georgia and the Atlantic Ocean . State Highways Mississippi Highway 19 Runs north to West , Mississippi , and south to the Mississippi @-@ Alabama border , where it continues as Alabama State Route 10 . Mississippi Highway 39 Begins in Meridian and runs north to Shuqualak , Mississippi . Mississippi Highway 145 Formerly US 45 , but now only exists as an alternate route in several cities . Mississippi Highway 493 Begins in Meridian and runs north to Lynville , Mississippi . = = Education = = Early public education in Meridian was based on the 1870 Mississippi Constitution . From 1870 to 1885 , trustees appointed by the City Council served on the Board of School Directors , which had authority to operate the schools . Although there were several schools in the city before 1884 , they were privately owned and only enrolled about 400 students . The city did not build its first publicly owned school until September 1884 . The first public school for blacks in the city was held in facilities rented from St. Paul Methodist Church . The Mississippi Legislature amended the city charter in January 1888 to allow the city to maintain its own municipal school district , and in March of the same year $ 30 @,@ 000 in bonds was approved for the city to build new public schools . From this bond , the Wechsler School was built in 1894 , becoming the first brick public school building in the state built for blacks . From this early district and later additions , the Meridian Public School District grew to its current size , which now includes six elementary schools , 3 middle schools , and 3 high schools . The city also contains several private schools including Lamar School , Calvary Christian School , Community Christian School , and St. Patrick 's Catholic School . The campus of Meridian High School , the main high school in the district , occupies 37 acres ( 15 ha ) , including six buildings and 111 classrooms . The school is made up of grades 10 @-@ 12 and enrolls approximately 1 @,@ 500 students . Meridian is home to two post @-@ secondary educational institutions . Meridian Community College , founded in 1937 , is located at 910 Highway 19 N and offers free tuition for four semesters to graduates from the Meridian Public and Lauderdale County School Districts as well as homeschooled children who reside inside Lauderdale County . Originally known as Meridian Junior College and located at Meridian High School , the college moved to its present location in 1965 . After desegregation laws were passed , MJC merged with T.J. Harris Junior College in 1970 , which had previously enrolled African @-@ American students . The name change from Meridian Junior College to Meridian Community College took place In 1987 " to more accurately reflect the diversity of opportunities it provides for a growing community area . " Mississippi State University also operates a campus in the city . As of the Fall 2008 semester , 763 students from 33 counties throughout the state and several in Alabama attended the college . Meridian is served by the Meridian @-@ Lauderdale County Public Library , located at the corner of 7th Street and 26th Avenue . The city originally had two Carnegie libraries , both built in 1913 – one for blacks and one for whites . A group of women had formed the Fortnightly Book and Magazine Club in the 1880s and began raising money to build a library for the city . The books they collected and shared within the club were later the basis of the library collection for Meridian . With wide support for the library , the club enlisted Israel Marks , a city leader , to approach the national philanthropist Andrew Carnegie for funding assistance . The library for blacks was built at 13th Street and 28th Avenue on land donated by St. Paul Methodist Church , and the library for whites was established in a building originally owned by members of the First Presbyterian Church of Meridian , who sold it to the city on September 25 , 1911 . The African American library was the only library for blacks in the state until after World War I and is the only Carnegie library ever built for African Americans in the country . The two libraries served the city until 1967 , when the institutions became integrated because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , combined their collections , and moved all materials to their current location . The former white library was renovated and converted into the Meridian Museum of Art in 1970 , and the former African @-@ American library was demolished on May 28 , 2008 . = = Media = = The only daily newspaper printed in the city is The Meridian Star , which has been in operation since 1898 . The paper was originally named The Evening Star but was renamed in 1915 and has been Meridian 's only daily newspaper since 1921 . With a daily circulation of about 12 @,@ 000 in March 2010 , the paper serves Lauderdale County as well as adjacent portions of western Alabama and eastern Mississippi . Though the Meridian Star is now the only newspaper printed in the city , there have been a few other historical newspapers . One such paper is the Memo Digest , a ten to twenty page publication published during the 1970s . The Digest focused on issues relevant to the African @-@ American population of the region , gathering a circulation of about 5 @,@ 000 people . Other newspapers in the city have included The Colored Messenger , The State , The Weekly Mercury , The Blade , Weekly Echo , Fair Play , Headlight , Meridian Morning Sun , Teacher and Preacher , and Clarion . The city is the principal city in the Meridian , Mississippi Designated Market Area ( DMA ) , which includes 72 @,@ 180 households with televisions . WTOK @-@ TV broadcasts as an ABC affiliate from the city , headquartered at 815 23rd Avenue . WTOK operates two digital subchannels , WTOK @-@ DT2 , a MyNetworkTV affiliate , and WTOK @-@ DT3 , Meridian 's CW . WGBC @-@ TV , the market 's NBC affiliate , is headquartered at 1151 Crestview Circle . Since January 5 , 2009 , WGBC has also been the market 's FOX affiliate , and it also features some programming from the Retro Television Network ( RTN ) . WGBC operates under a program services agreement with WMDN @-@ TV , the market 's CBS affiliate which operates a local AccuWeather service on its second subchannel . WMAW @-@ TV is the local affiliate of Mississippi Public Broadcasting . The city is also the principal city in the Meridian Arbitron Radio Market , which includes 64 @,@ 500 people over the age of 12 . WJXM ( FM 105 @.@ 7 ) , headquartered at 3436 Highway 45 North , takes the largest share of ratings in the market at 14 @.@ 8 % in Fall 2009 . In the same period , WZKS ( FM 104 @.@ 1 ) was second with 11 @.@ 1 % , and WMOX ( AM 1010 ) was third with 7 @.@ 4 % . Other popular stations in the market include WUCL ( FM 97 @.@ 9 ) , WOKK ( FM 97 @.@ 1 ) , WEXR ( FM 106 @.@ 9 ) , WYHL ( AM 1450 ) , and WKZB ( FM 95 @.@ 1 ) . Mississippi Public Broadcasting can be found on WMAW @-@ FM ( FM 88 @.@ 1 ) . = = Notable people = = Meridian has produced or hosted many famous people in the arts and other areas . For example :

= = = In acting = = = Alvin Childress , who played the lead role in the Amos ' n ' Andy Show , was born in the city in 1907 . Diane Ladd was also born in the city in 1932 @,@ Sela Ward was born in Meridian , in 1956 .

= = = In business and politics = = = Gil Carmichael , Meridian businessman and transportation specialist , was the Republican nominee for the Mississippi Senate in 1966 and 1967 , U.S. Senate in 1972 , governor in 1975 and 1979 , and lieutenant governor in 1983 . Winfield Dunn , former Governor of Tennessee , lived in Meridian John Fleming , current U.S. Representative for Louisiana 's 4th congressional district lived in Meridian ; The late Lieutenant Governor Carroll Gartin , who was born in Meridian , lived in Laurel ; Lewis McAllister , a businessman in Tuscaloosa , Alabama , was the first Republican to serve in the Mississippi House of Representatives since Reconstruction , 1962 @-@ 1968 ; he resided in Meridian prior to 1971 . Gillespie V. Montgomery , former U.S. Representative , lived in Meridian Hartley Peavey , founder of Peavey Electronics which is headquartered in Meridian , is a Meridian native . Tom Stuart from 1973 to 1977 was the first Republican to serve as mayor of Meridian in the 20th century .

= = = In broadcasting = = = Emmy award winning meteorologist Bill Evans ( meteorologist ) ( WABC @-@ TV New York ) was born in Meridian , where he held his first broadcasting jobs .

= = = In literature and comics = = = Novelist Edwin Granberry , who won the 1932 O. Henry Award for Best Short Short Story , was born in Meridian . For 30 years , Granberry wrote the Buz Sawyer comic strip . Meridian is the birthplace of novelist and short story writer Barry Hannah .

= = = In music = = = Classical composer John Luther Adams is a Meridian native . The Island Def Jam rapper Big K.R.I.T. was born in Meridian . K.R.I.T is known for his many mixtapes and albums such as K.R.I.T. Wuz Here and Cadillactica . He has gained a large following for his lyricism and self @-@ produced beats as well as his ability to change his style on songs from slow and conscious tracks ( " The Vent " ) to fiery and upbeat tracks ( " Mt . Olympus " ) . The guitarist @-@ songwriter George Cummings , born in Meridian in 1938 , was a founding member of Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show . Paul Davis , a singer @-@ songwriter best known for the late 1970s and early 1980s pop hits " I Go Crazy " and " ' 65 Love Affair " , was born in Meridian in 1948 ; after retiring from the music business , he returned to the city where he remained until a fatal heart attack in 2008 . Chris Ethridge ( February 10 , 1947 – April 23 , 2012 ) was an American country rock bass guitarist . He was a member of the International Submarine Band ( ISB ) and The Flying Burrito Brothers , and he co @-@ wrote several songs with Gram Parsons . Ethridge worked with Jackson Browne , Judy Collins , Ry Cooder , Whitney Houston , Willie Nelson , Randy Newman , Linda Ronstadt , Leon Russell , Nancy Sinatra , Johnny Winter , and The Byrds . The singer @-@ songwriter Steve Forbert was born in Meridian in 1954 . Jimmie Rodgers , the " Father of Country Music " , was born in the city in 1897 . The Jimmie Rodgers Museum is located in Meridian , and the Jimmie Rodgers Festival has been an annual Meridian event since 1953 . David Ruffin , former lead singer of The Temptations , and his older brother Jimmy Ruffin were born in the surrounding area , Whynot and Collinsville , respectively . George Soulé , the singer @-@ songwriter most famous for the rhythm and blues anthem " Get Involved " , is a resident of Meridian , where he was born in 1945 . Hayley Williams , lead singer of the band Paramore , was also born in the city in 1988 . Singer Al Wilson , born in June 1939 , was a Meridian native .

= = = In sports = = = The city has also been home to several athletes , many of whom have competed at professional levels . Among them are : Dennis Ray " Oil Can " Boyd , former Major League Baseball pitcher ; Negro league baseball catcher Paul Hardy ; professional basketball player Derrick McKey ; Jay Powell , another pitcher ; Joe Stringfellow played in the NFL ; professional basketball player George Wilson

= = = Others = = = Other notable natives of the city include : Susan Akin who won the Miss America beauty pageant in 1986 @,@ James Chaney - one of the victims of the Mississippi civil rights workers murders in 1964 @,@ Fred and Al Key , known as " The Flying Keys " - holders of the world flight endurance record - are Meridian natives . Al Key is also a former mayor of the city . Fred Phelps , leader of the Westboro Baptist Church , = = In popular culture = =

= = = Fictional characters = = = Cullen Bohannon , the protagonist of the AMC series Hell on Wheels , hails from Meridian , Mississippi , where he was a tobacco farmer and later a Confederate soldier during the American Civil War . Dill Harris , one of the characters of the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning novel To Kill a Mockingbird ( 1960 ) , is from Meridian , which is mentioned throughout when referencing Dill 's home . = Papa Stour = Papa Stour is one of the Shetland Islands in Scotland , with a population of under twenty people , some of whom immigrated after an appeal for residents in the 1970s . Located to the west of mainland Shetland and with an area of 828 hectares ( 3 @.@ 2 square miles ) , Papa Stour is the eighth largest island in Shetland . Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves , stacks , arches , blowholes , and cliffs . The island and its surrounding seas harbour diverse populations of wildlife . The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around the island are a Special Area of Conservation . The island has several Neolithic burial chamber sites , as well as the remains of Duke Hakon 's 13th @-@ century house dating from the Norse occupation of the island . The population reached 380 or more in the nineteenth century , when a fishing station was opened at Crabbaberry in West Voe . Subsequently there was a steady decline in population , although the numbers have increased from a low of 16 in the 1970s . Today the main settlement on the island is Biggings , just to the east of which is Housa Voe from where the Snolda ferry arrives from its base at West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland . Crofting , especially sheep rearing , is the mainstay of island life . Numerous shipwrecks have occurred around the coast , and the celebrated poem Da Sang o da Papa Men by Vagaland recalls the drama of the days when Papa Stour was a centre for deep @-@ sea fishing . = = Geography = = Papa Stour is located at the south western end of St Magnus Bay . There are 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) of rugged coastline which is indented by numerous small embayments and four larger ' voes ' . Hamna Voe ( Old Norse : ' harbour bay ' ) in the south is the most sheltered anchorage and the surrounding cliffs contain a natural rock arch . Housa Voe to the east ( Old Norse : ' house bay ' ) is less secluded but is the main harbour for the island and the ferry 's embarkation point . Brei Holm and Maiden Stack guard the harbour entrance to the south . The former is a tidal island and was a leper colony until the 18th century ( although it has been suggested that many of the " lepers " there were suffering from a vitamin deficiency rather than leprosy ) . The latter 's name relates to a story from the 14th century . Lord Thorvald Thoresson is said to have constructed the tiny house at its top , whose ruins are still visible , in order to " preserve " his daughter from men . Unfortunately for his plans , when she left she was found to be pregnant ; in another version of the story , she and her fisherman sweetheart successfully eloped . West Voe , the inner part of which is called ' Robies Noust ' is the main voe in the north coast , the smaller Culla Voe lying immediately to the west . The main settlement on the island today is Biggings , which overlooks Housa Voe and is surrounded by in @-@ bye land to the east of the hill dyke ( which runs south from West Voe ) . To the west the island is bisected by a belt of glacial moraine about one and a half kilometres in length . Much of the rest of the area consists of a shallow stony soil that may be derived from glacial till . There is an almost complete absence of peat on the island and due to the volcanic rocks the soils are relatively fertile . The lack of peat led to ' turf scalping ' for fuel and the bare areas of rock in the interior . The highest point on the island is in the north west at Virda Field , which rises to 87 metres ( 285 feet ) . Virda is possibly from the Old Norse for ' heap of stones ' .

= = = List of outliers = = = In addition to the larger islets mentioned above there are various other isles and skerries around the coast of Papa Stour . They include : Aesha Stack , Boinna Skerry , Borse Skerry , Fogla Skerry , Forewick Holm , Galti Stacks , Holm of Melby , Koda Skerry , Lyra Skerry , Skerries of Quidaness , Skerry of Lambaness , Sula Stack , Swat Skerry , The Horn , Tiptans Skerry and Wilma Skerry . The Ve Skerries lie 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the north west . They include : Helliogoblo , North Skerry , Ormal , Reaverack and The Clubb . In between Papa Stour and Ve Skerries lies the shallow bank of Papa @-@ rof . On 21 June 2008 , Stuart Hill , the owner and only resident of the 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) island of Forewick Holm ( which he has renamed " Forvik Island " ) made a declaration of dependence , creating the Crown Dependency of Forvik . On the basis of a marriage arrangement between King Christian of Norway and King James III of Scotland that dates to 1468 , Hill argued that the island should be considered a British crown dependency , and thus not a part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union . This claim was not recognised by the United Kingdom . = = Geology = = The island is composed of a variety of volcanic and sedimentary rock formations from the Devonian period . At that time the Scottish landmass formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 10 @-@ 25 degrees south of the equator . The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone , laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago , were created as earlier Silurian rocks , uplifted by the formation of Pangaea , eroded and then were deposited into river deltas . The freshwater Lake Orcadie existed on the edges of the eroding mountains , stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth . The structure of Papa Stour is largely made up of ashes and lavas from volcanic activity associated with this period , including bands of solidified volcanic ash and lava ( rhyolite ) , but there is also a Devonian fish bed at Lamba Banks . There are numerous large boulders deposited by Pleistocene glaciation . Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves , stacks , arches , blowholes , cliffs , voes and geos that are amongst the finest in Britain . The ' Holl o Boardie ' is a cave that passes right through the north @-@ west tip of the island . It is nearly half a mile long and wide enough to row through . Kirstan ( or Christie 's ) Hole in the south west is another spectacular cave , part of the roof of which collapsed in 1981 . Yet another is ' Francie 's Hole ' close to Hamna Voe in the west . This was the favourite of John Tudor who wrote of the island in his Victorian memoirs and described the cave as : ... in fairyland , so exquisite is the colouring of the roof and sides and so pellucid is the water ... [ with ] alcoves or recesses like stalls in a church . In 1953 the spectacular headland , ' Da Horn o Papa ' fell into the sea during a storm . The nearby islet of Brei Holm also has caves that can be accessed by small boats when conditions permit . = = Ecology = = Otters , grey seals , killer whales and harbour porpoises are frequently seen on and around Papa Stour . Atlantic puffin , Arctic and common tern , bonxie and Arctic skua , northern fulmar , common guillemot , razorbill , curlew , wheatear , ringed plover and great black @-@ backed gull all breed on the island , and numerous migratory species have been recorded . There is a profusion of wild flowers , including mountain everlasting , spring squill and eyebright as well as the ubiquitous heather . The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around Papa Stour are a Special Area of Conservation . The traditional Shetland Pony is still bred . = = History and archaeology = = Human settlement of the island dates from circa 3000 BC and there are remains of several Neolithic burial chambers known as ' heel @-@ shaped cairns ' . Little is known of the pre @-@ Celtic and Celtic eras , but when the Norse arrived it is likely they found a religious settlement as the name of the island derives from Papey Stóra meaning " Big island of the Papar " ( Celtic monks ) , in distinction to Papa Little some 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) to the west .

= = = Norse period = = = Papa Stour is the subject of a 1299 manuscript written in Old Norse , which is the oldest surviving document from Shetland . It deals with a dramatic incident in the house of Duke Hakon Magnusson , who was later to become King Hakon V of Norway . There is a circle of stones near the beach at Housa Voe , which are the remains of a ' ting ' , or local assembly . This was the scene of a duel , fought and won by Lord Thorvald Thoresson , who was accused of corruption in the 1299 document and was later called ‘ dominus de Papay ’ . ( The story of his unfortunate daughter is referred to above . ) The remains of Duke Hakon 's thirteenth @-@ century house are still visible near Housa Voe .

= = = Scots rule and fishing = = = In 1469 Shetland came under nominal Scottish control , although the Norse ' Lairds of Norway ' kept their Papa Stour estates until the 17th century . In the 16th century merchants from Bremen and Hamburg were operating a summer trading booth to buy fish from the local fleet . By the 18th century , two Scottish lairds , Thomas Gifford of Busta , and Arthur Nicolson of Lerwick , owned the island . They maintained a prosperous Haaf ( Old Norse : ' deep sea ' ) fishing industry , undertaken in the summer months using six @-@ oared boats known as sixareens . In addition to the leper colony on Brei Holm there may have been another at Hilla Fielle overlooking Hamna Voe . A recent archaeological survey was inconclusive but suggests the site may be much older than the supposed 18th century colony . The island church , which overlooks Kirk Sand in the bay of Fore Wick , was founded in 1806 . 300 metres from the present church there may be an older chapel site of Sneeans or Snøyans on the headland between the west end of Kirk Sand and the bay of Tusselby . It is called the ' ald kirk ' by locals and referred to by the Ordnance Survey as " the site of a Romish chapel belonging to about the twelfth century " . There is a tradition that the work there was interfered with by supernatural powers and that each day 's work on the building was destroyed during the night . Eventually the cornerstones were moved overnight by these unearthly agencies to the present site of the church and work was re @-@ commenced there successfully . Excavations in 2004 found little besides large blocks of rhyolite and a piece of whalebone rib , suggesting that the oral tradition may have some truth to it . In the 19th century the Crabbaberry fishing station in West Voe was opened and the island had a population of 360 people or more . However , fuel shortages and a decline in fishing due to the introduction of steam drifters saw a fall in population from the 1870s on . At this time another duel entered the history of Papa Stour . Edwin Lindsay , an Indian army officer and the son of the 6th Earl of Balcarres , was declared insane and sent to the island in disgrace after refusing to fight in one . He spent 26 years as a prisoner before the Quaker preacher Catherine Watson arranged for his release in 1835 . Lindsay 's Well is a spring at the south of the island where he was allowed to bathe . There are good examples of horizontal water mills , also known as Norse or Clack Mills , around Dutch Loch . Originally these were two story buildings with turf roofs , built into banks to give access to the upper floor where the mill @-@ stone was sited . Inside the building there was a fixed lower millstone , and a rotating upper millstone driven by the water falling onto the paddles below . Some were still in use on Papa Stour in the early years of the 20th century , and there is still a working example of one of these mills on the Burn of Clumlie , at Troswick in the south Mainland of Shetland .

= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = = In common with many small Scottish islands , Papa Stour 's population peaked in the 19th century and has experienced a significant decline since then ( see e.g. Mingulay ) . By 1970 the island school had closed and the population had declined to sixteen ' fairly elderly ' residents , but an advertisement in Exchange and Mart reversed the decline . A croft and five sheep were offered free of charge to incomers which brought a flood of applicants . By 1981 the census recorded a population of 33 . However , by 2005 the population had fallen to 20 after serious discord between islanders led to several court cases . A number of people left the island and the school closed . By early 2008 the population had dropped to just nine after a family of seven left . The 2011 census recorded a usually resident population of 15 - during the decade 2011 @-@ 11 Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 . Overview of population trends

= = = Shipwrecks = = = The coasts around Papa Stour have claimed numerous wrecks . In Hamnavoe , Tiptans Skerry alone has sunk Dutch , French , German and Norwegian ships . The Aberdeen trawler Ben Doran A178 , foundered on the Ve Skerries 3 miles northwest of Papa Stour , on the evening of 28 March 1930 while on her way to the village of Scalloway to land her catch . When she grounded weather conditions were fairly good but it was not until the following day that a passing trawler saw , and reported the wreck . By the time that various rescue attempts were launched by the coastguard and local volunteers ( there being no lifeboat in Shetland at that time ) , weather conditions had deteriorated to the point where it was impossible to approach the skerries . A request had been made for the Stromness lifeboat from Orkney , only 120 miles away , to launch , but the request was made too late to be of help . All 9 crew perished in the wreck . Only 3 bodies were recovered , that of James Mitchell , which was returned to Aberdeen , and the bodies of J. Cormack and J.R. Insh , which were buried in Scalloway . The cargo ship SS Highcliffe ran aground in fog on Forewick Holm in February 1940 . On this occasion the conditions were clement and only the ship and cargo were lost . In 1967 the Aberdeen trawler Juniper ran aground in Lyra Sound at the bottom of the 60 metres ( 200 feet ) cliffs . The 12 man crew were rescued by the Aith lifeboat , the coxswain being awarded the RNLI silver medal for this rescue . Papa Stour 's most recent shipwreck occurred on 9 December 1977 when the Aberdeen trawler Elinor Viking A278 , skipper Alec Flett , foundered on the Ve Skerries . The Aith Lifeboat came to the scene but was unable to get near enough to rescue the crew because of the sea conditions . At the request of Alec Webster , Coastguard Station Officer , Lerwick , a volunteer crew in a British Airways Sikorsky S61N helicopter from Sumburgh Airport was scrambled . They managed to winch all the boat 's crew to safety within hours of the grounding , despite the storm force winds . The helicopter crew later received a number of awards for bravery . There was no loss of life , but this incident prompted the building of a lighthouse on the skerries in 1979 , and may also have been the example required for the formation of the present Search and Rescue helicopter unit , based at Sumburgh Airport . = = Economy & Transport = = Crofting is the mainstay of island life . Sheep form the backbone of the agricultural economy but a diversity livestock are kept , including cattle , pigs , goats , chickens , ducks and geese . Vegetable are grown too , often in the shelter of circular walls , such plots being known as ' plantie scrubs ' . Fishing is still conducted but on a relatively small scale . There is a post office at the pier , but no shop . Mains electricity only came to the island at the close of the twentieth century . The Papa Stour Project is a Christian supported housing service offering accommodation to men with drug and alcohol issues . Ferries now sail across the Sound of Papa to West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland . The crossing takes 45 minutes , and although the Snolda carries cars , there is only one short road on the island.For visiting yachts the four main voes provide good shelter , but the strong tides in both the Sound of Papa and to the north west require considerable care .

= = = Airstrip = = = There is an airstrip which caters for regular flights from Tingwall . = = Culture and the arts = = The Papa Stour sword dance may be of Norse origin and bears similarities to the long sword dance of the north east of England . A description of the dance appears in The Pirate by Sir Walter Scott . The writer and journalist John Sands lived on Papa Stour and Foula for a while during the late nineteenth century . The writer , folklorist and musician , George P. S. Peterson was brought up on Papa Stour . It is also the ' Papa ' of Vagaland 's poem Da Sang o da Papa men , now adopted as part of the folksong tradition , as set to music by T.M.Y. Manson . The insistent chorus chant , ' Rowin Foula Doon ! ' , is particularly striking . " Oot bewast da Horn o Papa , Rowin Foula doon ! Owir a hidden piece o water , Rowin Foula doon ! Roond da boat da tide @-@ lumps makkin , Sunlicht trowe da cloods is brakkin ; We maan geng whaar fish is takkin , Rowin Foula doon ! " " Rowin Foula doon ! " refers to the fishermens ' practice of rowing their open fishing boat out to sea until the high cliffs of Foula were no longer visible . This entailed the boat being some 96 kilometres ( 60 mi ) west of Papa Stour . The ' tide @-@ lumps ' are increased swells of unusual size due to the combined action of wind against tide . The resonant final image of the piece is of the fishermen being led back home to Papa by the ' scent o flooers ' across the water . This is an example of Vagaland 's ability to create a vivid sensual impression of a situation . An extra layer of meaning is added by the knowledge that Da Horn o Papa collapsed in a storm around the time of this poem 's composition , so that it is a tribute not just to a lost way of life , but a noted geographical feature . = Angel of Death ( Slayer song ) = " Angel of Death " is the opening track on the American thrash metal band Slayer 's 1986 album Reign in Blood . The lyrics and music were written by Slayer guitarist , Jeff Hanneman and are based on Nazi physician Josef Mengele , who conducted human experiments at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II . " Angel of Death " led to the band facing accusations of Nazi sympathizing and racism throughout their career . Despite the controversy surrounding the song and its contribution to the delay in the release of Reign in Blood , " Angel of Death " is featured on all of Slayer 's live albums and DVDs and has appeared in several movies . The song was well received by critics ; Steve Huey of AllMusic described it as a " classic " . = = Composition and origins = = Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote " Angel of Death " after reading books about Nazi physician Josef Mengele while on tour with the band : " I remember stopping someplace where I bought two books on Mengele . I thought , ' This has gotta be some sick shit . ' So when it came time to do the record , that stuff was still in my head — that 's where the lyrics to ' Angel of Death ' came from . " The lyrics detail Mengele 's surgical experiments on patients at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II . Mengele 's explorations were conducted on such groups as dwarfs and twins , and included both physical and psychological examinations . Among the tests he performed that are mentioned in " Angel of Death " are experimental surgeries performed without anesthesia , transfusion of blood between twins , isolation endurance , gassing , injections with lethal germs , sex change operations , the removal of organs and limbs , and abacination . " Sewn together , joining heads . Just a matter of time ' til you rip yourselves apart " , a line from the penultimate verse , is a reference to the allegation Mengele stitched together twins , one of them deformed ; " the hunchback was sewn to the other child , back to back , their wrists back to back too . " This claim was first made by Auschwitz survivor Vera Alexander at the 1961 trial of SS @-@ Hauptscharführer Adolf Eichmann the " architect of the Holocaust " , where it was asserted that Mengele " sewed the veins together " and turned " them into Siamese twins . " This allegation became more widely known when Vera Alexander was featured in the 1985 documentary The Search for Mengele , which has been cited by several authors including Gerald Posner , an expert on Mengele . Towards the end of the song , there is a line " Feeding off the screams of the mutants he 's creating " , which was taken from the film The Boys from Brazil in which Dr. Mengele was the villain . = = Controversy = = The lyrical content of " Angel of Death " contributed to the delay of the release of Slayer 's 1986 album Reign in Blood . The band were signed to Def Jam Records whose distributor , Columbia Records , refused to release the album due to lyrical themes and artwork concerns , deeming the artwork " too graphic " . Reign in Blood was eventually distributed by Geffen Records on October 7 , 1986 . However , due to the controversy , Reign in Blood did not appear on Geffen Records official release schedule . " Angel of Death " caused outrage among survivors of the Holocaust , as well as their families and the general public . The controversy led to accusations of Nazi sympathizing which have followed Slayer throughout their career . People took Hanneman 's interest in Nazi history and his collection of Nazi medals as evidence of sympathizing – his most prized item being a German Knight 's Cross . Hanneman counteracted asserting : " I know why people misinterpret it – it 's because they get this knee – jerk reaction to it . When they read the lyrics , there 's nothing I put in the lyrics that says necessarily he was a bad man , because to me – well , isn 't that obvious ? I shouldn 't have to tell you that . " According to guitarist Kerry King : " Yeah , ' Slayer are Nazis , fascists , communists ' — all that fun shit . And of course we got the most flak for it in Germany . I was always like , ' Read the lyrics and tell me what 's offensive about it . Can you see it as a documentary , or do you think Slayer 's preaching fucking World War II ? ' People get this thought in their heads — especially in Europe — and you 'll never talk them out of it . " The song drew accusations of racism , which the band has denied . The band members are often asked about the accusations in interviews , and have stated numerous times that they do not condone racism and are merely interested in the subject . In 2006 , the song " Jihad " from Slayer 's 2006 album Christ Illusion drew comparison to " Angel of Death " . " Jihad " deals with the September 11 , 2001 , attacks , and tells the story from a terrorist 's perspective . Vocalist Araya was expecting the subject matter to create a similar backlash to that of " Angel of Death " , although it did not materialise , in part , he believes , due to peoples ' view that the song is " just Slayer being Slayer " . = = Music and structure = = " Angel of Death " is the longest track on the album Reign in Blood , spanning 4 minutes and 51 seconds , where the total duration of the album is 29 minutes . Additionally , it has one of the most conventional song structures on the album , featuring prominent verses and choruses , where most tracks on the album eschew them . Hanneman and King deliver their ' intricate riffs ' , which offer the few hints of melody on the album according to PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand , and Araya bursts out his piercing scream , with Lombardo performing beats of 210 beats per minute . When drummer Lombardo left Slayer in 1992 , the band hired a full @-@ time replacement in Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph . Bostaph made one mistake out of the nine songs the band trialled him with , on " Angel of Death " . Before the " big double bass part " there is a lead section , which Bostaph could not understand , as he had to learn from live records recorded with Lombardo . Bostaph could not tell how many revolutions the guitar riff goes before the bass sequence . The band members told him there were eight , " perfecting " the song afterwards . = = Reception = = Although " Angel of Death " did not enter any charts , it received strong praise from critics in reviews for Reign in Blood . Clay Jarvas of Stylus Magazine noted that the song " smokes the asses of any band playing fast and / or heavy today . Lyrically outlining the horrors to come , while musically laying the groundwork for the rest of the record : fast , lean and filthy . " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters remarked that " There 's no better song to kick things off than the masterful ' Angel of Death ' , one of the most monumental songs in metal history , where guitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman deliver their intricate riffs , drummer Dave Lombardo performs some of the most powerful drumming ever recorded , and bassist / vocalist Tom Araya screams and snarls his tale of Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele . " Capitalizing on the publicity generated by the controversy , the band utilized Nazi imagery by adapting a logo to one similar to the eagle atop swastika , during the Seasons in the Abyss period . Hanneman placed SS stickers on his guitar , and wrote " SS @-@ 3 " a song about Reinhard Heydrich , the second in command in the Schutzstaffel organization . = = Appearances = = " Angel of Death " has appeared in several movies and TV shows including Gremlins 2 : The New Batch in a scene when the gremlin Mohawk is turning into a spider , Jackass : The Movie during a car stunt , the 2005 Iraq War documentary Soundtrack to War , which details the role of music on the contemporary battlefield , and on an episode of The Leftovers when Nora asks a female escort to shoot her . The half @-@ time riff was sampled by Public Enemy in their 1988 song " She Watch Channel Zero ? ! " , sampled by M.O.P. in their song " Raise Hell " , which appeared in the Breaking Bad episode " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " , and sampled by KMFDM on their 1990 single " Godlike " , and featured in the multi @-@ platform video game Tony Hawk 's Project 8 . Nolan Nelson , who selected the soundtrack for the game asserts the song is " one of the greatest heavy metal songs ever recorded . Don 't know who Slayer is ? I feel sorry for you . " A Slayer tribute band called Dead Skin Mask released an album with eight Slayer tracks , " Angel of Death " being one of them . The death metal bands Debauchery and Monstrosity covered the song , and the track was featured on cello metal band Apocalyptica 's 2006 album Amplified / / A Decade of Reinventing the Cello . Sgt. Discharge , a thrash metal band with members from Morbid Saint , has also covered this song . Al Sur del Abismo ( Tributo Argentino a Slayer ) , a Slayer tribute album compiled by Hurling Metal Records , featured sixteen tracks covered by Argentina metal bands , Asinesia covered " Angel of Death " . The song was once again covered by deathcore band Carnifex and appears on their third album Hell Chose Me as a bonus track included on the vinyl and iTunes editions . A compilation album of bands that have been featured in the Ozzfest line @-@ up , of which Slayer have headlined multiple times , features " Angel of Death " . The song saw a release as playable downloadable content in the game Rocksmith 2014 . = Calvin McCarty = Calvin McCarty ( born November 2 , 1984 ) is a Canadian football running back for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) . He played as a tailback until 2014 , when he became the starting fullback for the Eskimos . McCarty is known for being able to fill many roles at his position , with TSN sportscaster Chris Schultz noting in 2010 that he is a " multi @-@ purpose running back who catches the ball extremely well , blocks well and runs well " . He is a champion of the 103rd Grey Cup . Prior to being drafted by the Edmonton Eskimos in the fourth round of the 2007 CFL Draft , McCarty played high school football for the St. Thomas More Knights , where he broke multiple school records . He later played college football for the Western Washington Vikings . With the Vikings , McCarty developed into a dual threat , being used heavily as a rusher and receiver . McCarty has spent his entire professional career with the Edmonton Eskimos , making him the most veteran player on the team as of the 2015 season . = = High school career = = McCarty played high school football for the St. Thomas More Knights in Burnaby , British Columbia beginning in 1998 , playing as both a running back and middle linebacker on the Grade 8 team . He quickly became a key player on the team , including rushing for 185 yards and four touchdowns while adding 10 defensive tackles in the Grade 8 provincial semi @-@ finals on November 24 against the Handsworth Royals . For that performance , he was named " Star of the Week " by The Vancouver Sun . The Knights went on to defeat the Vancouver College Fighting Irish 48 – 0 in the Grade 8 B.C. championship game , where McCarty scored another three touchdowns . The following year , McCarty joined the senior team at St. Thomas More , skipping the junior team entirely . He continued in his role as a running back while switching to the secondary defensively . Despite being a rare Grade 9 player on the senior team , he was one of the Knights ' two leading rushers that year . McCarty scored a touchdown in the AAA B.C. championship game , helping the Knights win their first senior title as they beat the Pinetree T @-@ Wolves 29 – 6 . While K.C. Steele , the Knights ' coach , has a policy of not recording player statistics , it is estimated that McCarty finished 1999 with over 1 @,@ 000 rushing yards and 15 touchdowns . In 2000 , McCarty played a significant role in the Knights ' rushing and return game . He rushed for 150 yards and three touchdowns against the Burnaby Central Wildcats in the annual Burnaby Bowl , adding two punt returns for touchdowns . By the end of October , the Knights had compiled a perfect 6 – 0 record , and defensive coordinator and former CFL defensive back Lou Deslauriers called McCarty " the best player for his age and talent that we 've ever had at our school " . He recorded 238 yards and four consecutive touchdowns with only 23 carries in the Knights ' 46 – 12 victory over the W. J. Mouat Hawks in the AAA championship game . For his role in earning the Knights their second AAA title , McCarty was named the game 's MVP , becoming the youngest player to earn this award . McCarty remained a presence on the field for the Knights in 2001 , expanding his role by playing some snaps as a fullback . He rushed for 160 yards in that year 's Burnaby Bowl , including three touchdowns as a halfback and one as a fullback . McCarty had another notable performance in a 67 – 7 blowout against the South Delta Sun Devils , running for 200 yards and three touchdowns . He also showed himself to be a capable receiver , including making five catches for 66 yards in a match against the Holy Cross Crusaders . McCarty also finished that game with 110 yards and two touchdowns on only three carries . Despite giving up only 19 points during the entire regular season , the Knights lost 32 – 26 in the quarter @-@ finals of the playoffs against the Centennial Centaurs after McCarty was stopped one yard away from the endzone on the last play of the game . As a senior , McCarty recorded 2 @,@ 400 yards and scored 33 touchdowns in just nine games , averaging 266 @.@ 7 yards and over three touchdowns per game . He ran for 380 yards and three touchdowns in a 21 – 20 loss against the W. J. Mouat Hawks in the quarter @-@ finals of the AAA playoffs . He was named the 2002 Provincial Player of the Year for his performance and finished his four @-@ year AAA career at St. Thomas More with 84 touchdowns , breaking a school record .

= = = Other sports = = = McCarty played basketball and baseball during high school as well . He lettered in basketball with the Knights . At the 2001 Big League World Series , McCarty played for Team Canada as a shortstop and center fielder , helping the team to third place in the international competition . Despite being skilled as a baseball player , McCarty chose football over professional baseball due to the physicality of the former sport . = = College career = =

= = = Boise State = = = McCarty originally committed to Boise State University and played for the Broncos . In 2003 , he was given redshirt status and did not play . McCarty played a limited role the following year , but capitalized on the opportunities he was given , rushing for 104 yards on only 10 carries . His only touchdown came on a 7 @-@ yard carry in the October 24 game against the Fresno State Bulldogs . The Bulldogs finished with an 11 – 1 season in 2004 .

= = = Reedley = = = McCarty transferred to Reedley College and played for the Tigers in 2005 . He ended the season with 620 rushing yards , 500 receiving yards , and 14 touchdowns , as the Tigers earned a 10 – 1 record along their way to the Central Valley Conference championship title . McCarty also played baseball at Reedley .

= = = Western Washington = = = After his single season at Reedley , McCarty transferred to Western Washington University and played football for the Vikings . McCarty was immediately a significant factor in the Vikings ' gameplan . In the season opener , he rushed for 139 yards and three touchdowns on 30 carries against the Humboldt State Lumberjacks . He also played a large role in the passing game early in the season , making eight receptions for 126 yards through the first two games . After starting the first seven games for the Vikings , McCarty broke his foot in a game against the South Dakota Hardrockers . At the time of his injury , he led the Vikings in rushing and receiving yards . He finished the season with 492 rushing yards and five touchdowns on 130 carries , as well as 30 receptions for 278 yards . McCarty was also named a second @-@ team all @-@ star of the North Central Conference . = = Professional career = =

= = = Edmonton Eskimos = = = Following his only season at Western Washington , McCarty declared himself eligible for the 2007 CFL Draft . He was selected in the fourth round of the draft by the Edmonton Eskimos with the 27th overall pick . He was re @-@ signed on December 19 , 2008 to a multiple @-@ year contract , and again following the 2011 season .

= = = = 2007 season = = = = McCarty made the active roster and played in all 18 regular season games his rookie season . He was used in the passing game and on the special teams , finishing with seven receptions for 99 yards and a touchdown as well as five special @-@ teams tackles . McCarty made his CFL debut on June 28 in the season opener against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers . He received his first carry and reception in a Week 10 game against the Calgary Stampeders , where he was given two carries for one yard and caught one reception for 10 yards .

= = = = 2008 season = = = = McCarty played a larger role in his second season with the Eskimos , especially as a receiver . On September 1 in a match against the Stampeders , starting running back A. J. Harris was injured , and McCarty rushed for 73 yards on 12 carries as a backup . Filling in again for the injured Harris on September 13 against the Montreal Alouettes , McCarty was named Canadian Player of the Week for the first time with 72 yards on only 9 carries and a touchdown . Receiving his first start of his career on October 4 , McCarty rushed for 88 yards on 19 carries with a touchdown along with eight catches for 80 yards , earning him another Canadian Player of the Week award . He played in all 18 games and started three times in his second year , finishing with 490 yards and four touchdowns on 88 carries . He had 70 catches , the second @-@ highest amount among running backs . He also continued his role on the special teams , ending the season with 11 special @-@ teams tackles . During the season , head coach Danny Maciocia referred to McCarty as " the best fourth @-@ round pick he 'd ever been associated with " .

= = = = 2009 season = = = = McCarty split time with Arkee Whitlock in 2009 . He rushed for two touchdowns in Week 4 , being named the Canadian Player of the Week for the third time . He was also named the Canadian Player of the Month in July after continuing to play a large role in the rushing game . In August , McCarty injured his hamstring in a game against the Stampeders and missed several games . He briefly returned in mid @-@ September before being sidelined again with recurring hamstring issues until late October . In Week 19 , McCarty ran for 81 yards and a touchdown off of 10 carries , helping the Eskimos defeat the BC Lions in a 45 – 13 blowout . Despite having his season sidetracked by injuries , McCarty finished 2009 with 348 rushing yards and five touchdowns on 67 attempts , as well as seven special @-@ teams tackles . He saw a significantly smaller role as a receiver , catching 20 passes for only 124 yards .

= = = = 2010 season = = = = McCarty remained in a multi @-@ purpose role in 2010 and was utilized more frequently in the passing game compared to the previous season . He made a reception for a first down following a fake punt in Week 6 . He missed two games later in the season due to a hand injury . In a September 26 game against the Toronto Argonauts , McCarty rushed for 84 yards on 10 carries and two fourth @-@ quarter touchdowns , including a 46 @-@ yard breakaway . McCarty was utilized about equally on the ground and in the air , ending his season with 287 rushing yards on 62 carries and 278 receiving yards on 36 catches as well as five total touchdowns . He continued to play on the special teams where he made eight tackles . He started in six of the 15 games he played , and the Eskimos nominated him for Most Outstanding Canadian .

= = = = 2011 season = = = = In 2011 , the Eskimos utilized a committee of running backs , with McCarty , Daniel Porter , and Jerome Messam all receiving significant playing time . McCarty was used mostly in short @-@ yardage situations on the ground , while also being active as a receiver and on special teams . He played in 18 games , made eight starts , and finished with 209 yards on 52 carries with no touchdowns . He also caught 22 passes for 150 yards and a touchdown . McCarty played in both of the Eskimos ' playoff games . In the West Semi @-@ Finals against the Stampeders , he rushed for a goal @-@ line touchdown , in addition to making three receptions and two special @-@ teams tackles . McCarty played a more limited role in the West Finals against the BC Lions , where he was given only one carry for six yards , made one tackle on special teams , and caught two passes for a total of four yards .

= = = = 2012 season = = = = McCarty played a limited role in 2012 , both due to injuries and competition from other backs , including Cory Boyd , Hugh Charles , and Jerome Messam . McCarty missed six games due to a high ankle sprain suffered during the Labour Day Rematch . Playing in the other 12 games but starting in none , McCarty rushed only 12 times and made five receptions with a lone rushing touchdown . He added four special @-@ teams tackles .

= = = = 2013 season = = = = McCarty played a role as a receiver and special teams player in 2013 , but was almost entirely absent from the rushing game . He rushed for 48 yards on 9 carries , but caught 20 passes for 186 yards and two touchdowns . He continued to play on the special teams , and recorded nine special @-@ teams tackles .

= = = = 2014 season = = = = McCarty was shifted from playing mostly as a backup tailback to the fullback position , where he started all 18 regular season games . In his new position , McCarty was primarily used for blocking and remained involved on special teams and as a receiver . He continued his extremely limited role as a rusher , finishing the season with just eight carries . McCarty had 16 catches for 123 yards and two touchdowns , as well as a career @-@ high 12 special @-@ teams tackles .

= = = = 2015 season = = = = McCarty was again used as a fullback and special teams player in 2015 . After sustaining an unspecified injury in week 12 , he missed several games and was placed on the six @-@ game injured list . McCarty finished the season with only one carry and nine catches , his lowest total number of touches in any CFL season . With 12 starts , McCarty finished with one carry for 20 yards , nine receptions for 68 yards , as well as five special teams tackles and one kick return for 17 yards . McCarty played in the West Final and had one special teams tackle . He became a Grey Cup champion for the first time after rushing for three yards on a fake punt in the championship game versus the Redblacks .

= = = Season statistics = = = = = Personal life = = McCarty grew up in Muskogee , Oklahoma . After his mother , Jackie Conway , was unable to financially support him , McCarty moved to Canada and lived with his father , Orlando McCarty . His mother was a college softball player for the NEO Lady Norse , while his father was a college basketball player for the Bacone Warriors and the Southeastern Oklahoma State Savage Storm . McCarty 's siblings were also college athletes ; Tiffany played softball for the McPherson Bulldogs while Jordan was a quarterback with the Reedley Tigers . = Hurricane Beatriz ( 2011 ) = Hurricane Beatriz was a Category 1 hurricane that killed four people after brushing the western coast of Mexico in June 2011 . Originating from an area of disturbed weather on June 19 , several hundred miles south of Mexico , Beatriz gradually intensified . Gaining latitude , the system became increasingly organized and reached hurricane status on the evening of June 20 . The following morning , Beatriz attained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) as it passed roughly 15 mi ( 20 km ) of Mexico . Due to its interaction with land , the hurricane abruptly weakened hours later . Early on June 22 , Beatriz dissipated over open waters . Prior to Beatriz 's arrival in Mexico , hurricane watches and warnings were issued for coastal areas . Hundreds of shelters opened across the states of Colima and Guerrero . Heavy rains from the storm triggered significant flooding along the Sabana River in Acapulco , killing four people . However , the overall effects of Beatriz were limited and the rains were largely beneficial in mitigating a severe drought . = = Meteorological history = = On June 16 , 2011 , a trough situated off the southern coast of Guatemala showed signs of possible tropical cyclogenesis . Though located within an area favoring development , the system remained broad and disorganized as it moved slowly west @-@ northwestward . Gradually , convection consolidated around an area of low pressure . On June 18 , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued for the system as it was expected to develop into a tropical depression within 24 hours . On the following day , the low further developed and was declared Tropical Depression Two @-@ E by the National Hurricane Center at 1500 UTC . Upon being declared , the depression was located about 335 mi ( 540 km ) south @-@ southeast of Lázaro Cárdenas , Mexico . However , after post @-@ analysis , the depression had actually developed nine hours earlier . Maintaining a west @-@ northwesterly track in response to a subtropical ridge to the north , the depression was forecast to move into a favorable environment , characterized by low wind shear and sea surface temperatures up to 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . Three hours after classification , the depression strengthened Tropical Storm Beatriz , the second named storm of the season . Early on June 20 , convection increased markedly with several overshooting tops ( denoted by cloud @-@ top temperatures below − 80 ° C ( − 112 ° F ) ) appearing on satellite imagery . A notable increase in southerly outflow also took place . As the subtropical ridge north of the storm weakened , Beatriz acquired a more northerly component to its track , bringing the center of the storm closer to Mexico . Convective bands gradually wrapped around the system throughout the day . During the afternoon hours of June 20 , a hurricane hunter aircraft found Beatriz just below hurricane strength , and subsequently , the system was upgraded just a few hours later , while situated roughly 85 mi ( 140 km ) southeast of Manzanillo , Mexico . Early on June 21 , a 23 to 29 mi ( 37 to 47 km ) wide eye developed within the central dense overcast . In light of this , the National Hurricane Center estimated Beatriz to have attained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) along with a barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) ; however , it was noted that this could be conservative based on estimates of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) from the University of Wisconsin and the Satellite Analysis Branch . Throughout the morning of June 21 , Beatriz brushed the coast of Mexico , with the center passing roughly 15 mi ( 20 km ) south @-@ southeast of La Fortuna , Mexico . Centered just off the coast of Mexico , the system interacted with land and began weakening . Hours later , convection rapidly diminished as dry air became entrained in the circulation . In response to quick degradation of the system 's structure , the NHC downgraded Beatriz to a tropical storm . Rapid weakening continued throughout the day and by the evening hours , the storm no longer had a defined circulation . Lacking an organized center and deep convection , the final advisory was issued on Beatriz . The storm 's remnants persisted for several more hours before dissipating roughly 175 mi ( 280 km ) southwest of Cabo Corrientes , Mexico . = = Preparations and impact = = Following the classification of Tropical Depression Two @-@ E on June 19 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for coastal areas between Zihuatanejo and Manzanillo . A hurricane watch was also put in place from Tecpán de Galeana to Punta San Telmo . Later that day , the tropical storm warning was upgraded to a hurricane warning and the watch was extended westward to La Fortuna . As Beatriz continued to strengthen , the watches and warnings were extended westward to Cabo Corrientes on June 20 . Early on June 21 , the easternmost advisories were discontinued as Beatriz moved away . Later that morning , all watches and warnings were discontinued in light of Beatriz 's rapid weakening . In Colima and Jalisco , residents were warned of heavy rains that could trigger flooding and mudslides . Schools across both states canceled classes for June 21 . In Colima , 236 shelters were opened to the public . Additionally , the Mexican Navy was placed on standby for hurricane relief . A total of 980 temporary shelters were opened in Guerrero , many of which were in Acapulco , as many residents were expected to evacuate flood @-@ prone area . An orange @-@ level alert was issued for portions of Chiapas in light of potentially heavy rains . Throughout Western and Southwestern Mexico , the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional ( National Weather Service ) advised that all air and sea traffic be suspended until the passage of Beatriz . Across Guerrero , Beatriz produced heavy rain , peaking at 222 @.@ 5 mm ( 8 @.@ 76 in ) in Copala , Guerrero . Several homes across the state were damaged , though none were destroyed . In Acapulco , 380 homes were inundated by flood waters , prompting evacuations in areas built in 1999 to relocate residents after Hurricane Pauline . Several landslides blocked off roads and a 100 m ( 330 ft ) section of a roundabout was destroyed . In the community of Amatillo , three people were killed after being washed away by flood waters . Heavy rains from Beatriz caused the Sabana River to overflow its banks , placing 150 homes across 14 colonias under water . One person drowned in San Agustín after falling in the swollen river . Twenty @-@ seven colonias in and around the city lost power after muddy floodwaters entered a substation . Throughout Oaxaca , at least a dozen homes lost their roofs due to high winds . Portions of Colima , Chiapas , Michoacán and Jalisco experienced heavy rains ; however , in many areas , the rain proved beneficial in mitigating a severe drought . = The Bourgeois Blues = " The Bourgeois Blues " is a blues song by American folk and blues musician , Lead Belly . It was written in June 1937 in response to the discrimination and segregation that Lead Belly faced during a visit to Washington , DC to record for Alan Lomax . It rails against racism , the Jim Crow laws , and the conditions of contemporary African Americans in the southern United States . The song was recorded in December 1938 for the Library of Congress and re @-@ recorded in 1939 for commercial release . It has been remixed and covered by a number of artists including Pete Seeger , Ry Cooder , Hans Theessink , and Billy Bragg . " The Bourgeois Blues " is regarded as one of Lead Belly 's best original works , but it also drew controversy . There is doubt over the song 's authorship , with some scholars contending that Lead Belly was unlikely to have written a work in a genre new to him without a collaborator . Questions have been raised over his role in the American Communist Party and whether he and the song were used to further the party 's political goals . = = Background and creation = = Most music historians date the writing of " The Bourgeois Blues " to Lead Belly 's June 1937 trip to Washington , DC , when he was invited by the folklorist Alan Lomax to record for the Library of Congress 's folk music collection . On the first night Lead Belly and his wife Martha spent in the city , they encountered racially discriminatory Jim Crow laws similar to those found in their native Louisiana : most hotels refused to rent rooms to African Americans and the few that would were either full or refused to serve him because he was with a white man ( Lomax ) . Lomax , in some versions of the story described as an unnamed " white friend " , offered to let the couple stay for the night in his apartment near the Supreme Court Building . The next morning , Lead Belly awoke to Lomax arguing with his landlord about the presence of a black man , with the landlord threatening to call the police . While in Washington , Lead Belly encountered several other incidents of segregation that are believed to have contributed to the impetus of the song . For instance , when Lead Belly , Lomax , and their wives wanted to go out to dinner together , they discovered that it was impossible for the mixed race group to find a restaurant that would serve them . Lead Belly was told that if he returned later without Lomax , he would be served . In response to one of these incidents , a friend of Lead Belly 's , variously identified as either Lomax or Mary Elizabeth Barnicle joked that Washington was a " bourgeois town . " Though Lead Belly did not know what the word " bourgeois " meant , he was fascinated by the sound of it , and after its meaning was explained to him he decided to incorporate it into a song about the trip . The song came together quickly ; one account claims that it only took a few hours for Lead Belly to write it . Lomax liked it because it was partly based on what happened in his apartment . = = Lyrics , themes and music = = " The Bourgeois Blues " is a blues @-@ style protest song that criticizes the culture of Washington , DC . It protests against both the city 's Jim Crow laws and the racism of its white population . Its structure includes several verses and a refrain that declares that the speaker is going to " spread the news all around " about the racial issues plaguing the city . The song , particularly in the refrain , conflates race and economics by referring to Caucasians as " bourgeois " . The first two verses speak of the segregation that Lead Belly encountered in Washington DC : the first recounts the fact that during the trip , Lead Belly was " turned down " wherever he tried to get served due to his race , while the second recounts the argument between Lomax and his landlord over Lead Belly staying in his apartment . The third verse sarcastically cites " the home of the brave , the land of the Free " , juxtaposed with the mistreatment he received at the hands of white people in Washington , DC . The fourth verse speaks of the racism of the white population of the city , leading to the song 's end , which suggests that African Americans boycott buying homes in the district . The song 's tone implies that the speaker feels powerless against the discrimination and racism that he encounters ; despite this , by " spreading the news " of his poor treatment in a song , the speaker uses what power he has to tell both southern African Americans and northern whites that the status quo is deeply flawed and that something needs to change . " The Bourgeois Blues " follows a traditional twelve @-@ bar blues format . It is written in 44 time but annotated to note that the song rhythmically should swing at medium shuffle . The song was written in B ♭ . It uses twelve measures with verses one to four repeating , followed by the final two verses and a coda . = = Recordings and adaptions = = Lead Belly first recorded " The Bourgeois Blues " in December 1938 in New York City , for donation to the Library of Congress . He re @-@ recorded the song in April 1939 for Musicraft Records , for release the same year as a 78 rpm record . The version that was commercially released features Lead Belly singing and playing the twelve @-@ string guitar without any other accompaniment . The song has been covered and reinterpreted by a variety of artists including Pete Seeger and Hans Theessink . Seeger recorded and released both live and studio versions of the song on several of his albums . In Australia , the song was reworked as " Canberra Blues " by The Bitter Lemons , an R & B band . The lyrics speak of the problems faced by young Australians in the Australian Capital Territory in the 1960s . Theessink adapted the song to his style of European blues for the album Journey On in 1997 . In 2006 , Billy Bragg reworked the song as " Bush War Blues " . Bragg 's cover is a topical protest song about the Iraq War . In one verse , Bragg claims that the Iraq War was not for democracy but instead was to " make the world safe for Halliburton " . In another , he takes on the Christian right , asking where the moderates are . Finally , Bragg chides the United States government for not dealing with poverty at home before going to war . = = Legacy = = " The Bourgeois Blues " is one of Lead Belly 's most famous songs and is remembered as his most " heartfelt protest song " . There is disagreement among music scholars as to its importance . Robert Springer claims that the song is " peripheral " to the wider study of the blues , while Lawson points to it as a watershed in the way African Americans see themselves in the fabric of the United States . There is debate over the relationship between the song and radical politics . After its release , it became popular with left @-@ wing political groups . Lead Belly was invited to perform at Camp Unity , the Communist Party USA 's summer retreat , and the FBI subsequently opened a file on him in the 1940s . This led to the accusations that the Communists were taking advantage of him and using him as a platform . The party claims , to the contrary , that they were some of the few people who respected him and gave him a chance to perform . Jeff Todd Titon and several other writers have suggested that Lead Belly had significant help with its authorship and claim it is not a genuine protest song . This theory stems from the idea that Lead Belly did not have a history of protest music before he was discovered by Lomax . Since the music that Lomax recorded was sold to northerners sympathetic to Civil Rights , it has been suggested that Lomax helped him write a song attractive to a white audience . Lead Belly admitted that the term " bourgeois " was unfamiliar to him , and it seems out of place compared to the vocabulary of his past work . = Sorry ( Madonna song ) = " Sorry " is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna and Stuart Price , and released as the second single from the album on February 7 , 2006 . It later appeared on Celebration , her 2009 greatest hits album . An uptempo dance song , " Sorry " was one of the first tracks developed for the album and had numerous remix treatments before the ultimate version of the track was finalized . One of the remixes was done by the Pet Shop Boys , featuring added lyrics by the band . The actual song features a dance groove tempo . It talks about personal empowerment and self @-@ sufficiency . " Sorry " received positive reviews from contemporary critics , who declared the track the strongest song on Confessions on a Dance Floor . Some critics also commented on the song 's disco @-@ influenced beats while comparing it to Madonna 's older dance songs . It achieved commercial success , topping the singles charts in Italy , Spain , Romania and the United Kingdom , where it became Madonna 's twelfth number one single . Elsewhere , the song was a top ten hit . However , in the United States , the song did not perform well due to an underplay on radio but was able to reach the top of Billboard 's dance charts and became one of the decade 's most successful dance hits . The accompanying music video , directed by Madonna 's choreographer Jamie King , was a continuation from the " Hung Up " music video . It featured Madonna and her dancers roaming around a city in a van , dancing on roller skates and Madonna fighting with a group of men in a cage . She performed the song on her 2006 Confessions Tour in a similar fight sequence to that shown in the video . An additional video was created as a backdrop for a remix of the song , which depicted political leaders and scenes of war and destruction . = = Background and composition = = " Sorry " was one of the first tracks developed for Confessions on a Dance Floor , along with " Hung Up " and " Future Lovers " . It was also the one which took the most time to finish because Madonna " thought it was too melodramatic and could never decide when it was right . " The songs were developed with a remixed perspective in mind . Madonna commented that , " Whenever I make records , I often like the remixes better than the original ones . [ ... ] So I thought , screw that . I 'm going to start from that perspective " . She promoted the album at the dance party " Misshapes " held at Luke & Leroy 's nightclub in Greenwich Village , invited by Junior Sanchez to take over the DJ booth where she mixed " Hung Up " with " Sorry " . Musically , " Sorry " is an uptempo dance song containing layers of beats and strong vocal on the chorus . It is set in common time with a moderately fast dance groove tempo of 132 beats per minute . Composed in the key of C minor , Madonna 's vocal range spans from F3 to G4 . It follows the chord progression of E ♭ – Cm – A ♭ – B ♭ during the spoken introduction . It then changes to Fm – Gm @-@ Cm in the chorus , while continuing in A ♭ – Cm – A ♭ – Fm in the intermediate verses , ultimately ending in repeated lines of " I 've heard it all before " . Lyrically the song has excerpts of different languages including French , Spanish , Italian , Dutch , Hebrew , Hindi , Polish and Japanese . The song talks about personal empowerment and self @-@ sufficiency , denoting a shift in focus of Madonna as an artist from her previous songs about supremacy like " Everybody " ( 1982 ) , " Vogue " ( 1990 ) or " Music " ( 2000 ) which was centered around the subject of music itself . Among the various remixes , the Pet Shop Boys remix incorporated Whitney Houston 's " I Wanna Dance with Somebody ( Who Loves Me ) " with a more pronounced bassline and uses a double breakdown in the introduction . Pet Shop Boys and Madonna had always mutually admired each other , from the time they wrote the song " Heart " ( 1988 ) for Madonna but never delivered it . The remix had added lyrics sung by band member Neil Tennant which subsequently appeared on their remix album Disco Four . Madonna 's voice hits on the first chorus which was remixed to have a masculine synth and a serious hook . A breakdown happens before the fifth minute ends , leading to the entry of programmed drum sounds after which the song ends . = = Critical response = = Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News wrote that " Sorry " is the " album 's strongest track " and that it is a " Pet Shop Boys @-@ esque " song . Vineyard went on to say that it " ... wistfully evokes the sounds of the ' 80s @-@ era dance clubs that first lofted her toward stardom . " According to a review in the BBC 's Collective , " New single ' Sorry ' states Queen Madge 's unapologetic stance , and though the song is wrapped up in relationship sentiment , one cannot help but hear the subtext , perhaps directed at her more savage critics : ' there are more important things than hearing you speak ' . " Alan Braidwood from BBC Music called the song " lethally catchy " . Mike Pattenden of The Times and Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine noted that the bassline of the song utilizes The Jacksons ' 1980 song " Can You Feel It " . The song was noted by Slant Magazine as one of the best songs of 2006 . In a review of " Sorry " from Virgin Media , it wrote that the song 's musicscape features an " infectious combo of pumping , filtered synths and disco beats " . Keith Caulfield from Billboard commented that , " [ Sorry ] should keep fans hung up on Madonna 's ability to create instant radio and club classics . " He also called the song " springy " while reviewing the album . Ben Williams of New York magazine , wrote that the song is " propelled by a catchy bass melody " . Joan Morgan of The Village Voice , in review of Confessions on a Dance Floor , wrote : " The party continues admirably with the multilingual , kick @-@ your @-@ man @-@ to @-@ the @-@ curb ' Sorry ' . " Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media wrote , " The cascades of sound wash directly into ' Sorry ' , setting up the song 's panlingual apologies and shifting bass tectonics . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that the first half of the album consists of love songs , happy and sad , and included " Sorry " into the mix . Alexis Petridis from The Guardian called the song as triumphant . Kitty Empire from the same newspaper said that " ' Sorry ' sees Madonna taking a lover to task over an insistent dance @-@ pop rush . " Alan Light from Rolling Stone called the song " throbbing " . Thomas Inksweep from Stylus magazine commented that " Sorry " and first single " Hung Up " may not be as sleazy like Madonna 's initial singles " Burning Up " ( 1984 ) or " Physical Attraction " ( 1984 ) , but they have the same modus operandi of being designed for all @-@ night dancing . = = Chart performance = = In the United States , " Sorry " debuted at number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the issue dated March 11 , 2006 and reached a peak of 58 the following week . The same week it reached a peak of 46 on the Pop 100 chart . Its low chart performance in America was attributed to limited radio airplay . A petition was signed by about 3 @,@ 300 fans at petitionline.com. Known as the " End the Madonna U.S. Radio Boycott " ; it was addressed to Clear Channel Communications CEO Mark P. Mays . Message boards at Entertainment Weekly and VH1 were filled with entries by users showing support for Madonna , as well as conspiracy theories about why she was not played on radio . The song , however , reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Play chart for two weeks , as well as Hot Dance Airplay chart for five weeks . As of April 2010 , the song has sold 366 @,@ 000 digital units in the United States . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number one on the chart dated February 26 , 2006 . The song became Madonna 's 12th number one single in Britain and second consecutive single from the album to peak the British chart , after " Hung Up . " This made Madonna the female artist with most number one songs in the United Kingdom , while placing her in fifth place in overall tabulation . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 200 @,@ 000 digital downloads there and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at four . The song peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) on April 10 , 2006 for sales of 80 @,@ 000 units of paid digital downloads . " Sorry " debuted at number five in Ireland and was on the chart for 12 weeks . Elsewhere in Europe , the song became a top ten hit for Madonna reaching the top ten of countries like Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland while reaching the top of the charts in Italy , Spain and Billboard 's Eurochart Hot 100 Singles . = = Music video = = The music video incorporated parts of the television show Pimp My Ride , and was shot by Madonna in London in January 2006 while she was making plans for her then forthcoming Confessions Tour . It was directed by Madonna 's longtime choreographer Jamie King and featured choreography from The Talauega Brothers . Many of the performers featured in Madonna 's " Hung Up " video were in that of " Sorry " , which was shot as a continuation from the " Hung Up " video . Madonna 's parts in the video were shot first , followed by the shot of the skaters . The shoot took place for over two days . The video starts with Madonna standing in front of neon lighted screen in a purple leotard uttering " Sorry " in different languages . As the music starts she comes out from the gaming parlour of her " Hung Up " video with her dancers . They board a van where Madonna and her dancers strip of their clothes into new ones . Madonna wears a white leotard with a matching tassled corset with her hair in 1970s retro inspired style and pair of knee high silver platform boots . As they move around the city in the van , they pick up different men from the streets to join them . These scenes are interspersed with the scenes of Madonna singing in front of the neon screen . The video progresses like this until the intermediate verse whence Madonna is shown standing in a cage opposite to a number of men . As the bridge builds up , Madonna starts fighting with the men . She starts bending backwards and tying herself in knot like positions , while doing backflips and somersaults which defeats the men . The chorus starts again and Madonna and her dancers are shown skating in circles around a roller rink . The video ends with the close @-@ up of Madonna in the purple leotard and fades into her silhouette . = = Live performances = = " Sorry " was performed on the 2006 Confessions Tour as part of the bedouin themed segment . Madonna was dressed in a Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier kaftan with pants and high heeled boots . As Madonna finished the performance of the song " Isaac " , she took off the kaftan and wore a jacket given to her by the dancers and greets them one by one . The Pet Shop Boys music for the song 's remix start in the background . Madonna and her female dancers take to one side of a giant cage and start singing the song . As the song progresses to the intermediate verses , Madonna engages in an energetic fight with her male dancers which demonstrated her bending her body and putting her leg over her head and jumping from the cage on a dancer 's back . The song was also used as a video backdrop during the interlude between the bedouin and the glam / rock sections . The video featured images of fascists and political leaders from past and present like Adolf Hitler and Idi Amin Dada to George W. Bush and Tony Blair . Their images flashed across the screen , with text and footage of war atrocities intermingled in between . Madonna appears on the screens wearing her " Sorry " video leotard and utters the words " talk is cheap " and " don 't speak " , along with the music and Bush 's lips stuttering . The performances of " Sorry " and the remix video was included in The Confessions Tour CD and DVD . The Daily Mail called the performance " energetic " . Tom Young from BBC Music called the performance a " delight " but described the video as the " lowlight " of the tour . Ed Gonzalez from Slant Magazine wrote that the performance was not among the concert 's highlights . However , he commented that the remix backdrop " feels ecstatic [ ... ] a collage of Godardian weight you can dance too " . Thomas Inkseep from Stylus described the song 's performance and remix as " fantastic " . = = Track listings and formats = = = = Credits and personnel = = Madonna – Lead vocals , producer Stuart Price – Producer Neil Tennant – Supporting vocals Guy Oseary – Management Goetz Botzenhardt – Mixing Giovanni Bianco – Graphic Design , Art Direction Orlando Puerta – Remixing , A & R Angela Becker – Management Ian Green – Programming , Producer Paul Oakenfold – Remixing Pete Gleadall – Programming Steven Klein – Photography Pet Shop Boys – Keyboards , Producer , Remixing = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = High Five Interchange = The High Five Interchange is one of the first five @-@ level stack interchanges built in Dallas , Texas . Located at the junction of the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway ( Interstate 635 , I @-@ 635 ) and the Central Expressway ( US Highway 75 , US 75 ) , it replaces an antiquated partial cloverleaf interchange constructed in the 1960s . The $ 261 million project was started in 2002 and completed in December 2005 . It was designed by the HNTB Corporation and built by Zachry Construction Corporation . The interchange is considered by Popular Mechanics to be one of " The World 's 18 Strangest Roadways " because of its height ( as high as a 12 @-@ story building ) , its 43 permanent bridges and other unusual design and construction features . In 2006 , the American Public Works Association named the High Five Interchange as " Public Works Projects of the Year " . = = Description = = The High Five Interchange , north of downtown in Dallas , Texas , is a massive five @-@ level freeway interchange . It is the junction of two major highways carrying heavy rush hour traffic , the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway ( Interstate 635 ) and the Central Expressway ( US 75 ) , and is the first five @-@ level stack interchange to be built in the city . It replaces the antiquated three @-@ level , modified cloverleaf interchange built in the 1960s that caused a severe bottleneck by narrowing US 75 down to two lanes at the junction of the two highways . The looped ramps of the cloverleaf forced motorists to slow down drastically , backing up traffic . Left @-@ hand exits contributed to the congestion . Further , its two frontage roads were not directly connected to each other , making local access difficult . Alluding to the celebratory gesture , the " High Five " name refers to the five flyover ramps handling the left @-@ turn movements that tower over the landscape . The interchange is as high as a 12 @-@ story building , and includes 43 bridges spread across five levels ( the " High Five " ) , 710 support tiers , and 60 miles of additional highway . The highest ramps are 120 feet ( 37 m ) above ground . The lanes of US 75 , which are on the bottom level , are 20 feet ( 6 m ) below ground level , giving the structure a total height of 140 feet from bottom to top As part of the project , I @-@ 635 was widened to include four dedicated high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV lanes ) that are barrier @-@ separated and reversible . The roads on the five levels are : Level I : US 75 , an eight lane highway , four lanes going each way Level II : The junction of the two six @-@ lane frontage roads , each having three through lanes in each direction , left @-@ turn lanes and turnarounds , and easy access to US 75 and I @-@ 635 Level III : I @-@ 635 , ten regular lanes , five going each way , and four HOV lanes ( two going each way ) separated by barriers Level IV and V : Direct connection ramps ( two levels ) , eliminating the left exits of the modified cloverleaf The interchange , with its decorative etchings on precast concrete elements , along with the visually appealing coloration specified by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) , can be regarded as an enormous work of public art . The High Five also incorporates a hiking and bike trail , named the Cottonwood Trail , which runs under all levels of the interchange . The section of the trail passing beneath the interchange was constructed as part of the High Five project by TxDOT . The interchange is considered by Popular Mechanics as one of " The World 's 18 Strangest Roadways " , calling it a " labyrinth of lanes " and a " five @-@ level marvel of engineering " because of its height , the number of its bridges and other unusual design and construction features . = = History = = The High Five Interchange project was planned as a replacement for the existing , antiquated interchange that accommodated 500 @,@ 000 vehicles daily and was located in one of the most intensely developed commercial zones in Dallas . It was a collaborative project between the TxDOT , affected motorists and property owners , and the primary contractor , Zachry Construction . An essential consideration was to complete the project with as little disruption to the traffic flow as possible . Reasons for upgrading the interchange , in addition to the need to increase traffic flow and reduce congestion , were to improve air quality , safety , and local access . Zachry Construction Corporation submitted the lowest bid and was awarded the $ 261 million contract by TxDOT , the largest ever by that agency . The construction contract for the High Five Interchange was unique in that it contained elements not found in other construction project contracts . For example , it specified the concrete maturity method to be used to ensure the concrete 's strength ( the first time TxDOT had ever done so ) , and contained an early completion bonus , a sliding scale of up to $ 11 million if the company completed the contract within four years . Also built into the construction contract was a provision that Zachry was charged for " lane rentals " by TxDOT for time they closed down traffic lanes — fees based on hourly assessments and the time of day the lane was closed . The fees ranged from $ 50 to a high of $ 110 @,@ 000 for rush hours . In order not to interfere with traffic flow during construction , the new interchange was designed largely as elevated flyover ramps and viaducts so they could be built high over the existing junction lanes ; once traffic was transferred to the new structures the old lanes could simply be closed off and removed . Little of the original interchange remained when the project was finished . To save time and money , innovative construction methods were employed : The original plans called for the segments of the long ramps and spans ( used to direct @-@ connect roads ) to be made of steel , but because building with steel would interfere with heavy traffic flow during construction , cast @-@ in @-@ place segmental concrete was substituted in the plans . However , Zachry decided to use precast concrete segmental bridges , rather than casting the bridge elements in place , and used a unique machine , designed and constructed by Deal S.R.L. of Italy and costing about $ 1 million , to move the pieces into place . During the construction , 2 @.@ 2 million cubic yards of earthwork was used , 350 @,@ 000 cubic yards of concrete was mixed on site , and 300 @,@ 000 square feet of retaining walls were built . Additionally , 40 @,@ 000 feet of drilled shafts and 75 @,@ 000 linear feet of drainage pipe were completed . In addition to the construction of 43 permanent bridges , six temporary bridges were built , resulting in 2 @.@ 3 million square feet of bridge deck . The project was designed by the HNTB Corporation who provided professional engineering consultation throughout the construction , which had begun in 2002 and was completed in December 2005 , more than 13 months sooner than planned . = = Awards = = In 2006 , the American Public Works Association named the High Five " Public Works Project of the Year " for its massive size , its innovative design , the complexity and rapidity of its construction and the need it fulfilled for the community . TxDOT as the managing agency , Zachry Construction Corporation as the primary contractor , and HNTB Corporation as the primary consultant received the award in recognition of their cooperative alliance in completing the project . = Tim Richmond = Tim Richmond ( June 7 , 1955 – August 13 , 1989 ) was an American race car driver from Ashland , Ohio . He competed in IndyCar racing before transferring to NASCAR 's Winston Cup Series ( now Sprint Cup Series ) . Richmond was one of the first drivers to change from open wheel racing to NASCAR stock cars full @-@ time , which has since become an industry trend . He won the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award and had 13 victories during eight NASCAR seasons . Richmond achieved his top NASCAR season in 1986 when he finished third in points . He won seven races that season , more than any other driver on the tour . When he missed the season @-@ opening Daytona 500 in February 1987 , media reported that he had pneumonia . The infection most likely resulted from his compromised immune system , which was weakened by AIDS . Despite the state of his health , Richmond competed in eight races in 1987 , winning two events and one pole position before his final race in August of that year . He attempted a comeback in 1988 before NASCAR I banned him for testing positive for excessive OTC ( over the counter ) drugs , Ibuprofen and Pseudoephedrine ; NASCAR later announced they gave Tim Richmond a new test and tested negative . Tim Richmond filed a lawsuit against NASCAR after NASCAR insisted they wanted access to his entire medical record before they would reinstate him , after losing the lawsuit , Richmond withdrew from racing . NASCAR later stated their original test was a " Bad Test . " Richmond grew up in a wealthy family and lived a freewheeling lifestyle , earning him the nickname " Hollywood " . In describing Richmond 's influence in racing , Charlotte Motor Speedway president Humpy Wheeler said : " We 've never had a race driver like Tim in stock car racing . He was almost a James Dean @-@ like character . " When Richmond was cast for a bit part in the 1983 movie Stroker Ace , " He fell right in with the group working on the film , " said director Hal Needham . Cole Trickle , the main character in the movie Days of Thunder , played by Tom Cruise , was loosely based on Richmond and his interaction with Harry Hyde and Rick Hendrick . = = Early life = = Richmond grew up in Ashland , Ohio . His parents , Al and Evelyn ( née Warner ) Richmond , met in the course of their work . Al was a welder for pipe construction companies and Evelyn was a field office manager . Noticing that highway crews had to dig up the entire highway to lay pipe , Al designed a machine to bore underneath the highway . To market this invention , he founded Richmond Manufacturing , which eventually exported machines worldwide . Tim 's driving days started as a toddler when he was given a go @-@ kart that he often drove inside buildings and across his lawn . He later raced the kart at tracks in Moreland and New Pittsburg . Richmond grew up in a well @-@ to @-@ do family , and was sometimes therefore treated differently by his classmates , so his parents enrolled him in Miami Military Academy in Miami , Florida . During his years in Miami , Tim and his mother moved to Florida and his father stayed in Ohio . While home in Ohio over a summer break , he met local drag racer Raymond Beadle through lifelong friend Fred Miller . When Richmond reached age 16 , his parents purchased him a Pontiac Trans Am , a speedboat and a Piper Cherokee airplane for his birthday . Yet his mother Evelyn often worried about spoiling her only son . She once said , " Tim was lazy ... " , and " ... I did everything for him . I ruined him , I admit it . He was my whole life . " Richmond excelled in sports ; he set a conference record in high hurdles and his high school football career was stellar enough that the academy retired his sports jersey after his gridiron days were over . Miami Military Academy named him Athlete of the Year in 1970 . Richmond 's other interests included flying , and he earned his private pilot license at age 16 . Following high school graduation , Richmond attended Ashland University for about one year before dropping out . = = Racing career = =

= = = Open wheel racing = = = A friend of Richmond 's father co @-@ owned a sprint car and Richmond joined the team as a crew member for Dave Shoemaker . In 1976 , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Richmond took the car onto Lakeville Speedway at Lakeville , Ohio for some practice laps . " Somebody put a stopwatch on me , " Richmond said . " I was running laps faster than Dave had been . It was the first time I had ever driven a race car . " Richmond and his father found a red , white and blue @-@ colored No. 98 car in Pennsylvania , which was the same number and paint scheme that Richmond used on model cars as a child . In his first competition at the track , officials placed Richmond in the slowest heat . He passed several cars before spinning out and breaking an axle . Although he made several attempts to get the car pointed in the right direction , the broken axle prevented the car from driving straight . After being towed to the pits , he parked the car for the rest of the event . Later that season , they towed the car to Eldora Speedway , only to have Richmond crash the car again . In response , Richmond 's father fired him as the driver . The next season , Al Richmond bought a SuperModified better suited to his son 's driving style . In 1977 Tim Richmond became both Sandusky Speedway 's Rookie of the Year and the SuperModified class track champion . Richmond returned to racing sprint cars in the United States Automobile Club 's ( USAC ) national sprint car tour in 1978 . Competing in 12 races , he finished 30th in points as the series ' Rookie of the Year . That year he attended Jim Russell 's road racing school at Willow Springs International Motorsports Park , setting a student course record . Richmond raced in a 1978 Mini Indy car event at Phoenix International Raceway , winning the Formula Super Vee support event in a Lola T620 . The win attracted sponsors and attention from major owners like Roger Penske . He also competed in USAC 's Silver Crown series . Richmond 's father bought an Eagle Indy Car chassis and an Offenhauser engine for the 1979 race at Michigan International Speedway . Richmond qualified 21st fastest with a 175 @.@ 768 mph ( 282 @.@ 871 km / h ) lap , significantly slower than Bobby Unser 's 203 @.@ 879 mph ( 328 @.@ 111 km / h ) pole position speed . The race ended for him when his motor blew up on the fourth lap , and he finished last ( 23rd ) . Owner Pat Santello was looking for a driver to replace Larry Rice for his CART team at the following race at Watkins Glen International , so he gave Richmond a test at Willow Spring where he had previously set the student record . Santello hired Richmond , who then qualified 15th fastest for the event and finished in eighth place , the best of his IndyCar career . Richmond raced in three more events that season . After crashing during the first day of qualifying for the 1980 Indianapolis 500 , Richmond nevertheless obtained the 19th starting position in the race . He worked his way up to the top 10 during the race , led a lap , and finished ninth as he ran out of fuel at the end of the race . To the delight of the crowd , winner Johnny Rutherford gave him a ride back to the pits . He was named the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year . " I busted up a few Indy cars right after that , " he said . " Milwaukee , Mid @-@ Ohio . . . at Michigan I cut one in two . I was afraid my racing career would come to a halt . So when I got an offer to drive stock cars , I took it , and it turned out I liked driving them better . "

= = = NASCAR = = = Pocono Raceway President Joseph Mattioli III convinced Richmond to make the change to stock car racing on the NASCAR circuit . Richmond made his first NASCAR start two months after winning the Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award . He debuted at the Coca @-@ Cola 500 at Pocono on July 27 , 1980 , finishing 12th in a D. K. Ulrich @-@ owned Chevrolet . That season , he competed in five events , with two DNFs ( did not finish ) and three 12th @-@ place finishes . Overall , he finished the 1980 season 41st in points . Richmond raced for three teams in 1981 . He started the season by competing in 15 events for Ulrich . He had his first career top 10 finish , taking sixth place at Talladega Superspeedway , soon followed by a seventh @-@ place finish at Texas World Speedway . After Kennie Childers hired him away from Ulrich mid @-@ season , Richmond had top 10 finishes at Pocono and Bristol . For the final seven races of the season , he drove for Bob Rogers and had a top 10 finish at Dover International Speedway . Overall for the season , Richmond had six top 10 finishes to place 16th in season points . Richmond started 1982 without a ride before getting a one @-@ race deal to drive for Billie Harvey at the Rockingham track . Richmond completed 112 laps of the 492 @-@ lap event to finish 31st , retiring from the race with engine problems . For the following event , Richmond was hired to drive J.D. Stacy 's No. 2 car . In his first race for the team , Richmond earned his first career top 5 finish when he placed fifth at Darlington Raceway . Returning to Pocono , he finished second , before winning his first race on the road course at Riverside , California the following week . Later that season , he earned his first pole position at Bristol . The tour returned to Riverside for the final race of the season where Richmond won his second race , sweeping both events at the track . Benny Parsons said that " watching Richmond go through the Esses was unbelievable " . For the season , Richmond had twelve top 10s , two wins , and one pole to finish 26th in points . In 1983 , Richmond began racing for Raymond Beadle whom he had known before he started racing . He returned to the three @-@ cornered Pocono racetrack , earning his first oval victory . During the season , he accumulated four pole positions ( Darlington , Pocono , Charlotte , and Atlanta ) , one win ( Pocono ) , and fifteen top 10s on his way to finishing tenth in season points . He made his first appearance in a NASCAR Busch Series ( now Nationwide Series ) car , but did not finish any of the three races he entered that season . Esquire magazine named Richmond as one of " the best of the new generation " in 1984 . That year he had one win at North Wilkesboro Speedway and second @-@ place finishes at Dover , Darlington and Riverside . Richmond finished the 1984 season 12th in points , with 11 finishes in the top 10 and in six in the top 5 . In 1985 , the final season that Richmond competed for Beadle , his best finish was a second @-@ place run at Bristol . He ended the season 11th in points with 13 Top 10s in 28 races . In the Busch Series , he qualified at the pole position in the two races he entered , and won the Charlotte race . Richmond joined Hendrick Motorsports in 1986 , where he teamed up with veteran crew chief Harry Hyde . It took the team until the middle of the season to gel . Richmond had suffered a 64 @-@ race winless streak that was finally broken at the Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500 at Pocono in June 1986 . After two straight second @-@ place finishes at Charlotte and Riverside , Richmond started the Pocono event in third place inside the second row . That race saw a caution for rain with five laps left before the halfway point . NASCAR wanted the cars to get to the halfway point to make the race official , so the sanctioning body had the drivers slowly circle the track . It took the drivers 26 minutes to complete the laps , and the rain was so heavy that some drivers had to look out their side windows because they could not see out their windshields . Two hours later , the track had dried and the race resumed with Richmond in third . After Richmond 's car was adjusted to remove the " push " , the car was more to his liking . Because his radio did not work , he was unable to communicate with his crew chief , Hyde , and he made his final pit stop with 37 laps left . Hyde worried that Richmond had stopped a lap too early to ensure that he would have enough fuel to make it to the end . After Richmond took the lead with 30 laps left in the race , Dale Earnhardt made up three seconds on Richmond 's five @-@ second lead . With four laps to go , Buddy Arrington spun in a three @-@ car accident . The remaining laps of the race where completed slowly under caution and Richmond took the checkered flag for the victory . He had led 97 laps , including the final 30 , taking his first victory in a Rick Hendrick car . The tour returned to Pocono a month later , and Richmond battled for another victory in a fog @-@ shortened event . In the final 8 @-@ lap sprint , Richmond competed in a three @-@ car battle with Geoff Bodine and Ricky Rudd . Richmond crossed the finish line beside Rudd , winning the race by 0 @.@ 05 seconds . He notched four more victories that season , and over a span of twelve races , Richmond earned three second @-@ place finishes , and six wins . The National Motorsports Press Association named him Co @-@ Driver of the Year with Earnhardt after Richmond accumulated 13 top 5 finishes and 16 in the top 10 . He had a career @-@ best third @-@ place finish in points after winning seven events in 1986 , in what was his last full NASCAR season . = = Illness and death = = Richmond fell ill the day after the 1986 NASCAR annual banquet during a promotional trip to New York . He was not well enough to begin the 1987 NASCAR season despite lengthy hospitalization in Cleveland and further rest at home ; when Richmond missed the Daytona 500 , his condition was reported as double pneumonia . Media later reported that he had tested positive for acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) . He returned to Pocono for the Miller High Life 500 during the middle of the year . Starting third , he led by the fifth lap and ultimately led 82 laps , including the final 46 , to win the race by eight car @-@ lengths over Bill Elliott . In the middle of the race , Richmond 's car suffered gearbox problems . Because he could use only fourth ( high ) gear , he had to use that gear to slowly exit the pits . Richmond was emotional after the victory , saying , " I had tears in my eyes when I took the checkered flag . Then every time anyone congratulated me , I started bawling again . " Richmond earned a victory in the next race at Riverside , and made his final 1987 start at Michigan International Speedway 's Champion Spark Plug 400 that August , finishing 29th with a blown engine . He resigned from Hendrick Motorsports in September 1987 . Although Richmond attempted a comeback in 1988 , NASCAR suspended him for testing positive for banned substances . The substances were identified as Sudafed , a non @-@ prescription over @-@ the @-@ counter allergy medication , and Advil , an over @-@ the @-@ counter pain reliever . In April 1988 , Richmond sued NASCAR over the suspension . Although he retested later that year and was reinstated , he could not find a car to drive . In his final public appearance in February 1988 , Richmond denied that he abused drugs and said that a mistake had been made in his drug test . His suit with NASCAR was settled out @-@ of @-@ court , the terms sealed . Richmond withdrew into his condo in Florida . There were by then rumors of HIV and AIDS , which he denied . He was later hospitalized in West Palm Beach . ESPN sent a get @-@ well @-@ soon card to Richmond when it aired the July 1989 NASCAR race at Pocono . The television network showed highlights of Richmond 's victory at the track from 1986 . " Tim had Hollywood good looks and the charisma of Tom Cruise , " said his friend Dr. Jerry Punch . " There he was in victory lane with the team all around him and beauty queens hanging all over him . It was important for the people at the hospital to see Tim the way he really was , when he was healthy and handsome and vital , not the way he was as they saw him every day in the hospital . " On August 13 , 1989 , Richmond died at the age of 34 , about two years after his final NASCAR race . He was buried in Ashland , Ohio . The secrecy surrounding the circumstance of his death caused speculation for several days . At the time , Punch stated that Richmond had been hospitalized due to a motorcycle accident , though it is unlikely that Richmond had the strength to ride a motorcycle during his last months . Ten days after his death , on August 23 , the Richmond family held a press conference to reveal that Richmond died from complications from AIDS , which he acquired from an unknown woman . Richmond 's physician , Dr. David Dodson , said : " There 's no way of knowing who that woman was . Tim was a celebrity with a lot of charisma , a handsome guy . He naturally attracted a lot of women . " Punch later claimed that more than 90 drivers and personnel underwent HIV testing in the wake of Richmond 's death . = = Legacy = = In 1990 , a few months after Richmond 's death , Washington television station WJLA @-@ TV and reporter Roberta Baskin reported that Dr. Forest Tennant , who was then the National Football League 's drug adviser , " falsified drug tests " that ultimately helped shorten Richmond 's NASCAR career . Baskin reported that sealed court documents and interviews showed Tennant and NASCAR used " allegedly false drug @-@ test results in 1988 to bar Richmond from racing " . Baskin also stated that NASCAR had targeted Richmond , requesting that Tennant establish a substance @-@ abuse policy with Richmond in mind . A series of drug tests and falsely reported positive results shortly before the 1988 Daytona 500 kept Richmond from driving in what was to have been his last big race ... " , the report said . The New York Times published the findings . While neither Tennant nor NASCAR supplied an official response at the time , NASCAR did confirm that they were seeking to replace Tennant . The Ashland County Sports Hall of Fame inducted Richmond in their second class in 1996 . In 1998 , NASCAR named Richmond one of its 50 greatest drivers of all time . He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2002 . The Mansfield Motorsports Park ARCA Re / Max Series race in 2009 was named the Tim Richmond Memorial ARCA Re / Max 250 in honor of the area native . The race at Mansfield was co @-@ promoted by Mattioli 's son Joseph Mattioli III . The documentary film Tim Richmond : To The Limit was produced as part of ESPN 's 30 for 30 series with a premiere date of October 19 , 2010 . = = Motorsports career results = =

= = = NASCAR = = = ( key ) ( Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time . Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time . * – Most laps led . )

= = = = Winston Cup Series = = = =

= = = = = Daytona 500 = = = = =

= = = = Busch Series = = = = = Trout Creek Mountains = The Trout Creek Mountains are a remote , semi @-@ arid Great Basin mountain range mostly in southeastern Oregon and partially in northern Nevada in the United States . The range 's highest point is Orevada View Benchmark , 8 @,@ 506 feet ( 2 @,@ 593 m ) above sea level , in Nevada . Disaster Peak , elevation 7 @,@ 781 feet ( 2 @,@ 372 m ) , is another prominent summit in the Nevada portion of the mountains . The mountains are characteristic of the Great Basin 's topography of mostly parallel mountain ranges alternating with flat valleys . Oriented generally north to south , the Trout Creek Mountains consist primarily of fault blocks of basalt , which came from an ancient volcano and other vents , on top of older metamorphic rocks . The southern end of the range , however , features many granitic outcrops . As a whole , the faulted terrain is dominated by rolling hills and ridges cut by escarpments and canyons . Most of the range is public land administered by the federal Bureau of Land Management . There is very little human development in the remote region — cattle grazing and ranching are the primary human uses — but former mines at the McDermitt Caldera produced some of the largest amounts of mercury in North America in the 20th century . Public lands in the mountains are open to recreation but are rarely visited . Vegetation includes large swaths of big sagebrush in addition to desert grasses and cottonwood and alder stands . Sage grouse and mountain chickadee are two bird species native to the range , and common mammals include pronghorn and jackrabbits . Despite the area 's dry climate , a few year @-@ round streams provide habitat for the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout . Fish populations in the Trout Creek Mountains declined throughout much of the 20th century . In the 1980s , the effects of grazing allotments on riparian zones and the fish led to land @-@ use conflict . The Trout Creek Mountain Working Group was formed in 1988 to help resolve disagreements among livestock owners , environmentalists , government agencies , and other interested parties . The stakeholders met and agreed on changes to land @-@ use practices , and since the early 1990s , riparian zones have begun to recover . = = Geography = = The Trout Creek Mountains are in a very remote area of southeastern Oregon and northern Nevada , in Harney and Humboldt counties . The nearest human settlements are the Whitehorse Ranch , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) directly north from the middle of the mountains ; Fields , Oregon , about 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the northwest ; Denio , Nevada , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the west ; and McDermitt , Nevada – Oregon , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the east . The mountains are about 150 miles ( 240 km ) directly southwest of Boise , Idaho , and about 190 miles ( 310 km ) northeast of Reno , Nevada . The range and surrounding non @-@ mountainous areas cover an area of 811 square miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ) . The mountains run 51 miles ( 82 km ) north to south and 36 miles ( 58 km ) east to west . More of the range is in Oregon ( 78 % ) than in Nevada ( 22 % ) . The highest point in the range is Orevada View Benchmark , which is 8 @,@ 506 feet ( 2 @,@ 593 m ) above sea level and is located in Nevada about one mile south of the Oregon border . About two miles southeast of Orevada View is Disaster Peak , " a large , symmetrical butte that is visible throughout the region . " At 7 @,@ 781 feet ( 2 @,@ 372 m ) , Disaster Peak anchors the southern end of the mountains in a sub @-@ range called The Granites . The Oregon Canyon Mountains border the Trout Creek Mountains on the east along the Harney – Malheur county line ( according to the United States Geological Survey 's definitions ) , while the Pueblo Mountains are the next range west of the Trout Creek Mountains . The Bilk Creek Mountains in both Oregon and Nevada border the Trout Creek Mountains on the southwest ; the two ranges are separated by Log Cabin Creek and South Fork Cottonwood Creek . South of the Trout Creek Mountains is the Kings River Valley , which separates the Bilk Creek Mountains on the west from the Montana Mountains on the east . The terrain in the Trout Creek Mountains varies from broad , flat basins and rolling ridges to high rock escarpments cut by deep canyons . The canyons have steep walls with loose talus slopes at the bottoms . There are meadows around springs in the mountains , although most streams in the range do not flow year @-@ round . Major streams that flow off the north slopes of the mountains include ( from west to east ) Cottonwood Creek , Trout Creek , Willow Creek , and Whitehorse Creek . These streams all flow into endorheic basins in Harney County , Oregon . Trout Creek and Whitehorse Creek are the largest of the four . The Kings River and McDermitt Creek each drain an area on the south slopes of the Trout Creek Mountains . The Kings River begins in The Granites and flows south into Nevada , where it meets the Quinn River , which evaporates in the Black Rock Desert . McDermitt Creek begins in Oregon a few miles north of The Granites and flows generally east , crossing the Oregon – Nevada border five times before disappearing into the floor of the Quinn River Valley south of McDermitt . = = Geology = = The mountains lie within the Basin and Range Province or Great Basin of the Western United States , which is characterized by a series of parallel fault blocks that form long north – south mountain ranges separated by wide , high @-@ desert valleys . The Trout Creek Mountains are uplifted and tilted blocks with steep escarpments along the southern and eastern sides of the range . The southern area of the range , known as The Granites , has numerous outcroppings of Cretaceous age granite . These granite outcrops are commonly found in the eroded valleys below the volcanic ridgelines . The Trout Creek Mountains are composed mostly of basalt from a shield volcano that once stood where Steens Mountain is today . Crustal thinning and the Yellowstone hotspot , which was then beneath southeastern Oregon , induced eruptions from Steens and nearby vents about 17 million years ago , in the Miocene . The vents produced a series of lava flows that spread across the land now known as the Trout Creek Mountains . Eruptions from the Steens volcano lasted for about one million years , and at least 70 separate lava flows occurred . Under the resulting basalt rock lie much older metamorphic rocks that may be related to some of the Triassic age formations of the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon . Within these metamorphic rocks are diorite and granodiorite intrusive bodies which were presumably intruded during the Cretaceous Period . The broad McDermitt Caldera is a prominent geologic feature in the Trout Creek Mountains . The oval @-@ shaped caldera is a collapsed lava dome that straddles the Oregon – Nevada border on the eastern side of the range and south of the Oregon Canyon Mountains . It is about 28 miles ( 45 km ) long and 22 miles ( 35 km ) wide . The lava dome was created by volcanic eruptions in the early Miocene . A total of five large ash flows were produced along with a large rhyolite dome structure . The caldera formed when the dome collapsed about 16 million years ago . The caldera contains significant ore deposits , and mercury and uranium have been mined at eight or more sites in and around the caldera . Other areas in the caldera were mined for ores of antimony , cesium , and lithium . = = Climate = = The Trout Creek Mountains are semi @-@ arid because they are in the eastern rain shadow of mountain ranges to the west . When moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward over the Oregon and California coastal ranges and the Cascade Range , most precipitation falls in those mountains before reaching the Trout Creek Mountains . As a result , the average annual precipitation in the Trout Creek Mountains is only 8 to 26 inches ( 200 to 660 mm ) per year , with most areas receiving between 8 and 12 inches ( 200 and 300 mm ) annually . Much of the annual precipitation occurs between the beginning of March and the end of June . Most of the rest falls as snow during the fall and winter months . Snowpack at elevations below 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) usually melts by April ; however , at the higher elevations , snow can remain until mid @-@ June . Local flooding often occurs in the spring as the snowpack melts . The prevailing winds are from the west @-@ southwest , and they are normally strongest in March and April . Brief , intense thunderstorms are common between April and October . Thunderstorms in the summer months tend to be more isolated and often produce dry lightning strikes . = = Ecology = =

= = = Flora = = = Vegetation in the Trout Creek Mountains is dominated by big sagebrush and desert grasses . Other common shrubs include bitterbrush , snowberry , and Ceanothus . There are also patches of mountain mahogany in some areas . Common grass species include Idaho fescue , bluebunch wheatgrass , cheatgrass , western needlegrass , Sandberg 's bluegrass , Thurber 's needlegrass , and bottlebrush squirreltail , as well as basin wildrye in some well @-@ drained areas . Less than one percent of the range consists of meadow wetlands and riparian greenways ( vegetation along stream banks ) . However , these areas are vital to the local ecosystem . The meadows surround springs , which are mostly on gently sloping uplands or in stream bottoms , and range in size from about 1 to 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 to 2 @.@ 02 ha ) . Narrow riparian greenways follow the year @-@ round streams . Many greenway areas have quaking aspen and willow groves . Cottonwood and alder groves can be found at lower elevations where terrain is flatter and stream channels are wider . Sedges and rushes are also native to these stream bottoms . Years of heavy livestock grazing in parts of the range resulted in the loss of some grass species , riparian vegetation , and young aspen and willow trees . Restoration of riparian areas began in the early 1970s , and plans to reduce grazing were implemented in the 1980s and early 1990s . However , large wildfires in southeastern Oregon during the summer of 2012 burned much of the range 's vegetation , damaging riparian ecosystems and killing hundreds of grazing cattle .

= = = Fauna = = = Animals in the Trout Creek Mountains are adapted to the environment of the High Desert . Pronghorn are common in the open , sagebrush @-@ covered basins , while mule deer live in the cottonwood and willow groves . There are also bighorn sheep , cougars , and bobcats in the high country . Jackrabbits and coyotes are prevalent throughout the range . Mustangs sometimes pass through the mountains as they roam the Great Basin . Some other mammals include the northern pocket gopher , mountain cottontail , and Belding 's ground squirrel . North American beavers live in and along streams , as do Pacific tree frogs , western spadefoot toads , and garter snakes . Native bird species include the sage grouse , mountain chickadee , gray @-@ headed junco , black @-@ throated gray warbler , Virginia 's warbler , MacGillivray 's warbler , pine siskin , red crossbill , bushtit , hermit thrush , northern goshawk , and species of raven and eagle . Several streams in the Trout Creek Mountains are home to trout , including the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout subspecies . These include Willow Creek , Whitehorse Creek , Little Whitehorse Creek , Doolittle Creek , Fifteen Mile Creek , Indian Creek , Sage Canyon Creek , Line Canyon Creek , and some tributaries of McDermitt Creek . Lahontan cutthroat trout live in small , isolated populations that are often confined to individual streams , many of them in the Trout Creek Mountains . These populations have significant genetic differences due to their history of isolation . For most of the 20th century , the trout 's numbers declined considerably . It was listed under federal law as an endangered species in 1970 and was reclassified as threatened in 1975 . Reasons for the fish 's decline included habitat degradation from cattle grazing , drought , overfishing , competition with other fish , and hybridization with introduced rainbow trout , which decreased the number of genetically pure Lahontan cutthroat trout . However , reductions in cattle grazing in riparian zones since the 1980s allowed fish habitat and populations to start to recover . = = Human uses = = The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) administers most land in the Trout Creek Mountains , but there are also some private lands and some roads in the area . The private lands are mainly used for ranching along mountain streams , while the BLM lands include large grazing allotments for local ranchers ' cattle . At least 100 mining claims in the mountains have been recorded since 1892 , some of which were staked for gold exploration . Commercial mining has occurred in some areas , mostly near the McDermitt Caldera , where uranium and large amounts of mercury have been extracted . Mines in what was called the Opalite Mining District produced 270 @,@ 000 flasks of mercury — " the richest supply of mercury in the western hemisphere " — from cinnabar extracted from the caldera in the 20th century . The two leading mercury @-@ producing mines in North America were the Cordero and McDermitt mines on the edge of the caldera in Nevada . Together , they operated from 1933 to 1989 . The McDermitt Mine , the last mercury mine in the United States , closed three years later , in 1992 . However , mineral exploration has continued at the Cordero Mine in the 21st century , and waste containing mercury and arsenic was returned there from the community of McDermitt as part of a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency cleanup project . The entire mountain range is very remote ; as a result , there are few visitors , and the range offers a wilderness @-@ like experience . Camping , hunting , fishing , and hiking are the most popular activities . The only developed recreation site nearby is at Willow Creek Hot Springs , just south of the Whitehorse Ranch , where nearby there are miles of trails designated for four @-@ wheel off @-@ road vehicles . Hunters come to the mountains seeking trophy mule deer , pronghorn , chukars , and rabbits . Fishing on some streams is sometimes permitted on a catch @-@ and @-@ release basis . The mountains are also suitable for hiking cross @-@ country or on game trails in natural corridors along canyons and creek bottoms . There are more than 100 archaeological sites in the range that document use by Northern Paiute people as long as 7 @,@ 000 years ago . Cattle grazing in the Trout Creek Mountains began in the late 19th century , and the BLM currently oversees grazing allotments in the area . Cattle can be found grazing in some areas during the spring and summer months . The effects of grazing on the local environment were the subject of controversy in the 1980s . = = Land @-@ management compromise = = By the 1970s and 1980s , a century of intense cattle grazing had reduced much of the riparian vegetation along stream banks in the Trout Creek Mountains and elsewhere in the Great Basin . As a result , stream banks were eroding and upland vegetation was encroaching into riparian zones . Aspen populations declined as grazing cattle eliminated young trees , decreasing shade over streams and raising water temperatures . These conditions put the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout population at risk . Since the Lahontan was officially designated as a threatened species , environmental groups began advocating the cancellation of grazing permits in the Trout Creek Mountains . Beginning in the early 1970s , the Bureau of Land Management identified damaged riparian zones and began projects to restore natural habitat in those areas . Approximately 20 @,@ 000 willow trees were planted along streams , small dams were put together to create more pools in the streams , and fencing was added to protect riparian zones from grazing . Next , the agency sought to reform land @-@ use plans to change grazing practices , which became a complex and controversial project . As environmentalists pressed the BLM to close much of the Trout Creek Mountains to grazing , frustrated ranchers joined the Sagebrush Rebellion seeking to protect their grazing allotments . Initially , it appeared that the issue of grazing in the range would produce prolonged litigation with appeals potentially lasting decades . However , in 1988 , interest groups representing all sides of the issue joined to form the Trout Creek Mountain Working Group . The group 's goal was to find a solution acceptable to everyone — a plan that would protect both the land 's ecological health and ranchers ' economic needs . Initial members of the Trout Creek Mountain Working Group included : Over the next several years , the group continued to meet and discuss options for restoring the land while meeting the economic needs of local ranchers . Meetings were all open to the public . The group eventually endorsed a grazing management plan that provided for both the ecological health of sensitive riparian areas and the economic well @-@ being of ranchers . In 1989 , the Whitehorse Ranch agreed to rest two grazing allotments totaling 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 ha ) to restore critical stream greenways and mountain pastures . The ranch 's allotment on Fifteen Mile Creek was rested for three years , and its Willow Creek pasture received a five @-@ year rest before grazing was resumed . In addition , the grazing season in mountain pastures was reduced from four months to two , and the total number of cattle released in the allotment areas was reduced from 3 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 200 . Finally , sensitive areas were fenced to protect them from cattle , and additional water sources were constructed away from streams . Other ranches also agreed to rest specific pastures including the Trout Creek , Cottonwood Creek , and Whitehorse Butte allotments . In 1991 , the Bureau of Land Management approved a new grazing allotment management plan . It was based on the agreements made by the Trout Creek Mountain Working Group , and it took effect in 1992 . Since then , vegetation in riparian areas of the Trout Creek Mountains has recovered , and studies by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service have found that the Lahontan cutthroat trout population , still listed as threatened , is also recovering . = Mycena inclinata = Mycena inclinata , commonly known as the clustered bonnet or the oak @-@ stump bonnet cap , is a species of mushroom in the family Mycenaceae . The doubtfully edible mushroom has a reddish @-@ brown bell @-@ shaped cap up to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . The thin stem is up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) tall , whitish to yellow @-@ brown at the top but progressively becoming reddish @-@ brown towards the base in maturity , where they are covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem . The gills are pale brown to pinkish , and the spore print is white . It is a widespread saprobic fungus , and has been found in Europe , North Africa , Asia , Australasia , and North America , where it grows in small groups or tufts on fallen logs and stumps , especially of oak . British mycologist E.J.H. Corner has described two varieties of the mushroom from Borneo . Lookalike species with which M. inclinata may be confused include M. galericulata and M. maculata . = = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = First described as Agaricus inclinatus by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838 , it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Quélet . Mycena galericulata var. calopus ( named by Karsten in 1879 ) , and its basionym Agaricus galericulatus var. calopus ( named by Fries in 1873 ) , are synonyms . In a molecular study of the large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of mycorrhizal fungi of the orchid Gastrodia confusa , M. inclinata was found to be closely related to M. aurantiomarginata , M. crocata , and M. leaiana . The specific epithet inclinata means " bent in " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " clustered bonnet " or the " oak @-@ stump bonnet cap " . = = Description = = The cap is light reddish @-@ brown , with a diameter typically ranging from 1 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 8 in ) . Initially conic to bell @-@ shaped to convex , it flattens during maturity , developing visible surface grooves corresponding to the gills underneath the cap . The margin of the cap has minute but distinct scallops . The surface is moist and smooth , and hygrophanous . The cap frequently develops splits in the margin , or cracks in the disc ( the central part of the cap ) . The flesh of the cap is thick in the center but thin elsewhere , grayish to whitish , fragile , and with a slightly mealy odor and taste . The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stem ( that is , running down the length of the stem ) and are a pale brownish color with tinges of red . They are broad ( between 3 and 6 mm ) , and have a close to subdistant spacing , with about 26 – 35 gills reaching the stem . The fragile stem is 3 to 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 0 @.@ 15 to 0 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 06 to 0 @.@ 16 in ) thick and yellow to yellow @-@ brown , becoming reddish @-@ brown to orange @-@ brown in the bottom half in maturity . The lower portion of young stems is covered with white flecks . Roughly equal in thickness at the top and bottom , the base of the stem is covered by a yellowish mycelium that can be up to a third of the length of the stem . The edibility of the mushroom is " doubtful " and consumption " best avoided " .

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = = The spores are 7 – 9 by 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm , broadly ellipsoid , smooth , and strongly amyloid ( it turns black when treated with Melzer 's reagent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are not differentiated . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are embedded in the gill edge and very inconspicuous , club @-@ shaped , 26 – 36 by 5 – 10 μm , and have tips that are covered with contorted projections that can be slender or thick . The flesh of the gills is homogeneous , and pale yellowish to dirty brown when stained in iodine . The flesh of the cap has a distinct pellicle , a well @-@ differentiated hypoderm ( a region of tissue immediately under the pellicle ) , and a filamentous tramal body ( gill tissue ) ; it is pale yellowish to sordid brownish in iodine stain .

= = = Varieties = = = E.J.H. Corner defined the varieties M. inclinata var. kinabaluensis and var. subglobospora in his 1994 publication on Agaric mushrooms of Malesia , a biogeographical region straddling the boundary of the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones . The variety kinabaluensis ( named after its type locality , Kinabalu ) has a cap margin that is not scalloped , little or no odor , and cheilocystidia with shorter processes . It was found growing on the dead wood of Lithocarpus havilandii , a stone oak tree in the beech family . Variety subglobospora , found in Sabah , has spores that are almost spherical .

= = = Similar species = = = Mycena maculata bears some resemblance to M. inclinata , but is only associated with decaying hardwood logs and stumps , and is found in eastern North America , and sometimes on oak on the West Coast . In age , it develops reddish spots on the gills that are not seen in M. inclinata . M. inclinata is often confused with the edible M. galericulata , a common species that is variable in cap color , size and shape . M. galericulata typically has a bluntly conical cap that is dull gray @-@ brown , and white to grayish veins that have numerous cross @-@ veins . M. polygramma has a ridged stem that is bluish @-@ gray . = = Habitat and distribution = = Mycena inclinata is a saprobic fungus , deriving its nutrients from decomposing organic matter found in plant litter such as leaves , twigs , bark and branches . It accomplishes this by producing enzymes capable of breaking down the three major biochemical components of plant cell walls found in litter : cellulose , hemicellulose and lignin . The fruit bodies of Mycena inclinata grow in dense groups or clusters on decaying hardwood logs and stumps ( especially oak and chestnut ) during the spring and autumn . The fungus forms a white , woolly mycelium on the surface of decomposing oak leaves . Occasionally , it can be found growing on a living tree . In eastern North America , it is abundant in the area bounded by Nova Scotia , Ontario , Manitoba , Missouri , North Carolina , and New York . It has been found in Oregon , but the species appears to be generally rare along the Pacific Coast . The range of the fungus also includes Europe , the Canary Islands , North Africa , East Siberia , Japan , Malesia , Turkey , and New Zealand . = = Chemistry = = In a study of the trace metal concentrations of various mushrooms species found in Ordu ( Turkey ) , M. inclinata was found to have comparatively high levels of iron ( 628 mg per kg ) and nickel ( 21 @.@ 6 mg / kg ) , measured on a dry weight basis . Laboratory studies have shown that the fungus is resistant to aluminum . The fungus has been investigated for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes that are used in the textile , plastics , biomedical and foodstuff industries . The dyes are not readily biodegradable , and when discharged into the environment are persistent and many are toxic . = Capel Lligwy = Capel Lligwy ( sometimes referred to as Hen Gapel Lligwy ) is a ruined chapel near Rhos Lligwy in Anglesey , north Wales , dating back to the first half of the 12th century . The chapel 's original purpose is unknown , but it might have been used as a memorial chapel or in connection with a local royal court , or as a chapel of ease in a large parish with a growing population . It was used for a time until the early 18th century as a private place of worship for a nearby house , then later fell into disrepair . The walls still remain , with some traces of render on them internally , but there is no roof . It contains a 16th @-@ century side chapel with a vault beneath , used as a burial chamber . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is " a substantially 12th @-@ century structure " with the " unusual 16th @-@ century vaulted south chapel " . = = History and location = = The oldest parts of Capel Lligwy date from the first half of the 12th century . This was a time when many churches on Anglesey in north @-@ west Wales were first built in stone following the end of Viking raids and attempts by the Normans to gain control of the island . The reason for its construction , and the saint to whom it was dedicated , are unknown . Geraint Jones , author of a 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey , suggests that it may originally have been a memorial chapel , or connected to a royal court nearby . Yates and Longley , authors of a 2001 guide to ancient Anglesey monuments , note that it was built in the large parish of Penrhos Lligwy and was perhaps intended to serving the expanding population in medieval times . Despite this , it seems to have remained as a chapel of ease rather than become a parish church in its own right . The chapel is sometimes referred to as " Hen Gapel Lligwy " ( " hen " being the Welsh word for " old " and " capel " meaning " chapel " ) . The walls were partially rebuilt in the 14th century , and the upper parts of the walls date from this time . A chapel was added to the south side of the building in the 16th century . A vault under the south chapel was used to bury members of a local family , the Pierce Lloyds . In 1999 , the vault was used to record some " atmospheres " for the album " You Have Just Been Poisoned By The Serpents " by The Serpents , a collective of Welsh musicians including members of Echo and the Bunnymen , Super Furry Animals and Ectogram that was described by one journalist as " possibly the strangest pop group of all time " . For a time , Capel Lligwy was used as a private place of worship for Lligwy House , a " venerable mansion " once owned by the Lloyd family which came into the possession of William Irby , 1st Baron Boston , in the 18th century . After the early part of the 18th century , however , the chapel became unused and began to fall into disrepair . The walls remain to gable level , with some traces of render on the inside , but the roof has gone . Capel Lligwy is in the Anglesey countryside near Llanallgo ; the parish church of St Gallgo , Llanallgo is about 0 @.@ 78 miles ( 1 @.@ 26 km ) away . Part of the churchyard wall remains , showing that it was originally within a mainly circular enclosure , as often found with early churches . It is cared for by Cadw , the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales , and is open to the public . = = Architecture and fittings = = Capel Lligwy is built from rubble masonry ; at about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) up the walls , the style changes and smaller stones are inserted into spaces between the larger blocks , showing where the 14th @-@ century rebuilding started . The doorway is on the south side , headed by a plain arch , and dates from the 12th century . There is a stone bellcote at the west end . There is no structural division between the nave ( where the congregation would have sat ) and the chancel ( where the altar would have been located ) . There are no window openings on the north side , but there is a blocked opening to the east ( about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wide ) and there are the remains of a window on the south wall . There is a blocked window in the south wall of the south chapel . The vault , which is about 27 square feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m2 ) , is reached by stone steps from inside the south chapel . Limestone slabs form the roof of the vault and the floor of the chapel above . A stone in the nave , about 2 square feet ( 0 @.@ 19 m2 ) with a hole in the top , might once have been used as a churchyard cross . = = Assessment = = Capel Lligwy has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 2 September 1952 and has been listed because it is " important as a substantially 12th @-@ century structure , with some architectural details surviving from this early period " , even though it is now in a " ruinous condition " . Cadw ( which is responsible for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the " unusual 16th @-@ century vaulted south chapel " . The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd mentioned the church in her history of Anglesey . She said that the architecture was of " the rudest kind , [ which ] bears testimony to its great antiquity . " She recounted that a fox had once taken shelter in the ruins , and when it was dug out , the vault was discovered , " containing several human skeletons , which crumbled into dust , when exposed to the air " . She added that further exploration of the vault then revealed " a large mass of human bones , several feet in depth " . A 1990 book about abandoned churches in Wales refers to the ancient monuments in this part of Anglesey , and calls Capel Lligwy a " medieval gesture of Christian power in a land so obviously imbued with the spirit of a pagan past " . It notes that " the wheel has turned full circle and Capel Lligwy today is just another ruined relic of a former age . " The authors describe the chapel as a " simple , square building " with a " small and ruggedly austere south chapel " , adding that the stone slabs over the vault are " almost in imitation of the ancient burial chambers which dot the surrounding landscape . " = 2011 – 12 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team = The 2011 – 12 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan at Crisler Center for the 45th consecutive year . It had a seating capacity of 12 @,@ 721 . It was also the team 's 95th straight season as a member of the Big Ten Conference . Fifth @-@ year head coach John Beilein led the team , alongside All @-@ Big Ten players Trey Burke , Tim Hardaway , Jr. and Zack Novak . Burke was named Big Ten Freshman of the Year and was Michigan 's first Associated Press All @-@ American honoree since 1998 . The team 's season began with a preseason media day and practices in October 2011 . In February 2012 , Michigan hosted ESPN 's College GameDay for the first time in a game against Ohio State . It was the eighth time a Big Ten team hosted the show , which began in 2005 . The team was in the national rankings all season and ended as the 2011 – 12 Big Ten co @-@ champion with Michigan State and Ohio State . It had three victories over teams ranked in the top 10 at the time of the meeting ( eighth @-@ ranked Memphis , ninth @-@ ranked Michigan State and sixth @-@ ranked Ohio State ) . The team was undefeated at home until its last home game of the season . Michigan lost in the semifinals of the 2012 Big Ten Conference Tournament and bowed out in the second round of the 2012 NCAA Tournament to end the season with a 24 @-@ 10 record . The team won the school 's first Big Ten Conference Championship since the 1985 – 86 season and had the school 's best Big Ten record ( 13 – 5 ) since the 1993 – 94 season . = = Preseason = =

= = = 2011 – 12 incoming team members = = = Before the season began , point guard Darius Morris , the Big Ten assists leader in the 2010 @-@ 11 season , left the team after being drafted by the Los Angeles Lakers . The incoming class included Carlton Brundidge and 2011 Ohio Mr. Basketball point guard Trey Burke . Both Brundidge and Burke were among Scout.com 's top 100 players of the 2011 class ; Brundidge ranked 98th and Burke ranked 94th . Max Bielfeldt committed to Michigan in April despite his family 's ties to the Illinois Fighting Illini . Illinois University 's Bielfeldt Athletic Administration Building was endowed by his family . Sai Tummala , who along with Bielfeldt was recruited by Ivy League schools , rounded out the incoming class . Tummala earned an academic scholarship and was considered a walk @-@ on candidate for the basketball team . Tim Hardaway , Jr . , son of former NBA All @-@ Star Tim Hardaway , returned to the team . He was coming off a freshman season in which he was a unanimous Big Ten All @-@ Freshman , All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention , Collegeinsider.com Freshmen All @-@ America and Team USA FIBA U19 honoree . Jordan Dumars , the son of Detroit Pistons All @-@ Star Joe Dumars , left the team , citing nagging knee issues .

= = = 2011 – 12 team recruits = = = = = Roster = = Former team captains Travis Conlan ( 1996 – 97 and 1997 – 98 ) and C.J. Lee ( 2008 – 09 ) served as director of basketball operations and administrative specialist , respectively . Peter Kahler was the team 's video coordinator . = = Schedule and results = = Michigan announced its 14 @-@ game non @-@ conference schedule on August 1 , 2011 . The team began the season in a renovated Crisler Arena : new seats and a high @-@ definition scoreboard were added , but seating capacity was reduced to 12 @,@ 721 from 13 @,@ 751 in the previous 10 seasons . Michigan came in third place in the three @-@ game 2011 Maui Invitational Tournament between November 21 – 23 . The team defeated the eighth @-@ ranked Memphis Tigers 73 – 61 , lost to the sixth @-@ ranked Duke Blue Devils 82 – 75 , and defeated the Pac @-@ 12 favorite UCLA Bruins 79 – 63 . Tim Hardaway , Jr. was named the Big Ten Player of the Week , and Trey Burke was named Big Ten Freshman of the Week . In an ACC – Big Ten Challenge game in late November , Michigan lost to Virginia 70 – 58 . In its next game , Michigan defeated Iowa State 76 – 66 . On December 10 , 2011 , Michigan beat Oakland 90 – 80 , its highest @-@ scoring game since beating Northern Michigan 97 @-@ 50 on November 14 , 2009 . It was also Michigan 's first game since 2002 with three 20 @-@ point scorers ( Hardaway , Burke and Evan Smotrycz ) . Burke earned his second Freshman of the Week honor on December 12 after scoring a season @-@ high 20 points and nine assists in the game . On the same day , Michigan was the highest @-@ rated Big Ten team in the Ratings Percentage Index , although the team trailed several schools in the national polls . In the final two non @-@ conference games of the season , Smotrycz scored his first two double @-@ doubles against Alabama A & M and Bradley on December 17 and December 22 . Heading into the Big Ten Conference schedule , both of the teams Michigan had lost to were ranked ( Duke was 7th and 5th in the AP and Coaches ' polls and Virginia was 23rd and 24th ) . On December 29 , Michigan won its first Big Ten Conference opener since 2006 – 07 , beating Penn State as Smotrycz extended his double @-@ double streak to three games . On January 2 , Burke earned his first Big Ten Conference Player of the Week honor and his third Freshman of the Week honor for his 40 points in Michigan 's first two conference games . On December 29 against Penn State he posted 13 points , seven assists , five rebounds and no turnovers . On January 1 , 2012 , he added a career @-@ high 27 points on 8 @-@ for @-@ 11 shooting with three rebounds and three assists against Minnesota to earn Big Ten Conference Player of the Week the following day . On January 19 , Michigan became the leader in the conference with a 5 – 2 record , thanks to conference wins over ranked Wisconsin and Michigan State teams . Michigan remained in first place until losing to Ohio State ten days later . The team went 5 @-@ 2 in conference in February , including wins over ranked Indiana and Ohio State teams . Michigan lost its final home game of the season to Purdue on February 25 to finish with a 15 – 1 home record . On March 1 , the team defeated Illinois for their first road win in Illinois since 1995 . During the game , Michigan 's 30th of the season , Trey Burke broke Gary Grant 's school freshman assists record , set over the course of 30 games in the 1984 @-@ 85 season , by pushing his total to 143 . In the first game of the 2012 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Minnesota , Burke led the team to victory with a career @-@ high 30 points . Burke 's total was a school record for the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament . In the semifinal contest , however , Michigan was eliminated by Ohio State for the third year in a row . Michigan entered the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament seeded fourth , but lost to the thirteenth @-@ seeded Ohio Bobcats 65 – 60 . Burke became Michigan 's first Associated Press All @-@ American honoree since Robert Traylor and Louis Bullock in 1998 . Stu Douglass concluded the season as the school 's all @-@ time leader in games played , with 136 . He surpassed Loy Vaught , who played in 135 games . Novak set the school record in career minutes played with 4 @,@ 357 , surpassing Louis Bullock , who played 4 @,@ 356 minutes . Burke had a school record @-@ setting freshman season in assists , ending the year with 156 . = = Statistics = = The team posted the following statistics : = = Rankings = = = = Watchlists and awards = =

= = = Preseason = = = Five of the 30 nominees for the men 's basketball Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award were from the Big Ten , including Michigan 's Zack Novak .

= = = In @-@ season = = = Trey Burke was one of nearly 60 Bob Cousy Award candidates named in December 2011 . On January 4 , Burke was one of 20 finalists . On January 25 , Novak was named one of ten finalists for the Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award along with three other Big Ten athletes . He was also one of four Big Ten men 's basketball players named Academic All @-@ District , putting him among the 40 finalists for the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ America team . Novak was named a third team Academic All @-@ American .

= = = Accolades and honors = = = Trey Burke CBSSports.com Second Team All @-@ American Big Ten Freshman of the Year ( Big Ten media ) Co @-@ Big Ten Freshman of the Year ( Sporting News ) All @-@ Big Ten ( second team , coaches and media ) All @-@ Freshman ( unanimous ) USBWA All @-@ District V Team Tim Hardaway All @-@ Big Ten ( third team , coaches and media ) Zack Novak Academic All @-@ District Academic All @-@ American ( third team ) All @-@ Big Ten ( honorable mention , media ) Academic All @-@ Big Ten Josh Bartelstein Academic All @-@ Big Ten Matt Vogrich Academic All @-@ Big Ten = = Roster changes = = The team lost senior captains Stu Douglass and Zack Novak as well as senior reserve Corey Person to graduation following the season . Person was later granted an extra year of eligibility to return to the team . At the end of the season , three players ( Evan Smotrycz , Carlton Brundidge and Colton Christian ) decided to leave the program . Smotrycz , who had started in 42 of the 69 games he played in during his first two years , left the program as the program 's fifth all @-@ time three @-@ point shooter with a percentage of 40 @.@ 5 . Smotrycz transferred to Maryland , Brundidge transferred to Detroit and Christian transferred to Florida International . Following the season , Trey Burke first said he was not inclined to enter the 2012 NBA Draft . A few days later , however , the realization that the pool of point guards in the 2012 draft was shallow and Burke 's stock was high led to some deliberation for him and his family : " When you have a season as a freshman like he did , the NBA , they like them young , " Trey 's father , Benji Burke said . " They think their ceiling is higher when they 're young . Trey had ... a solid season for a freshman . It 's going to be one of the weaker point guard drafts in years . " Some observers thought Burke was at his peak in terms of NBA potential . Eventually , he decided to return to play for Michigan for another year .

= = = 2012 – 13 team recruits = = = The team announced in September 2010 that Glenn Robinson III , son of former first overall NBA Draft pick Glenn Robinson , verbally agreed to attend Michigan , making him the first commitment in the school 's class of 2012 . Canadian wing guard Nik Stauskas gave Michigan its second verbal commitment for the class of 2012 on March 26 , 2011 . On November 3 , Mitch McGary , who was ranked as the number @-@ two prospect in the nation at the time , announced his verbal commitment to Michigan . Within hours of the commitment , ESPN said that Michigan 's ranked as the fifth @-@ best class in the nation . All three signed a National Letter of Intent with the team on November 9 . After several other schools announced their commitments , the McGary 's commitment moved Michigan from outside the top 25 to the seventh @-@ best class in the nation , according to ESPN . Michael " Spike " Albrecht committed to Michigan on April 6 , 2012 . = = Team Players Drafted into the NBA = = = Upsilon Andromedae b = Upsilon Andromedae b ( abbreviated υ Andromedae b , υ And b ) , occasionally designated Upsilon Andromedae Ab ( to distinguish it from the red dwarf Upsilon Andromedae B ) , also named Saffar , is an extrasolar planet approximately 44 light @-@ years away from the Sun in the constellation of Andromeda . The planet orbits the Solar twin star , Upsilon Andromedae A , approximately every five days . Discovered in June 1996 by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler , it was one of the first hot Jupiters to be discovered . It is also one of the first non @-@ resolved planets to be detected directly . Upsilon Andromedae b is the innermost known planet in its planetary system . In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Saffar for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Vega Astronomy Club of Morocco and honours the 11th Century astronomer Ibn al @-@ Saffar of Muslim Spain . = = Discovery = = Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , Upsilon Andromedae b was detected by the variations in its star 's radial velocity caused by the planet 's gravity . The variations were detected by making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of Upsilon Andromedae 's spectrum . The planet 's existence was announced in January 1997 , together with 55 Cancri b and the planet orbiting Tau Boötis . Like 51 Pegasi b , the first extrasolar planet discovered around a normal star , Upsilon Andromedae b orbits very close to its star , closer than Mercury does to our Sun . The planet takes 4 @.@ 617 days to complete an orbit , with a semimajor axis of 0 @.@ 0595 AU . A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Upsilon Andromedae b is that only a lower limit on the mass can be found . In the case of Upsilon Andromedae b , this lower limit is 68 @.@ 7 % of the mass of Jupiter , though depending on the inclination of the orbit , the true mass may be much greater . However , astronomers found recently that inclination of the orbital plane is around 25 ° and the true mass may be about 1 @.@ 4 MJ . Coplanarity is not to be assumed ; the mutual inclination between c and d is 35 degrees . = = Physical characteristics = = Given the planet 's high mass , it is likely that Upsilon Andromedae b is a gas giant with no solid surface . The Spitzer Space Telescope measured the planet temperature , and found that the difference between the two sides of Upsilon Andromedae b of about 1 @,@ 400 degrees Celsius , ranging from minus 20 to 230 degrees to about 1 @,@ 400 to 1 @,@ 650 degrees Celsius . The temperature difference has led to speculation that Upsilon Andromedae b is tidal locked with the same side always facing Upsilon Andromedae A. Sudarsky had , on the assumption that the planet is similar to Jupiter in composition and that its environment is close to chemical equilibrium , predicted Upsilon Andromedae b to have reflective clouds of silicates and iron in its upper atmosphere . The cloud deck instead absorbs the sun 's radiation ; between that and the hot , high pressure gas surrounding the mantle , exists a stratosphere of cooler gas . The outer shell of dark , opaque , hot cloud is assumed to consist of vanadium and titanium oxides ( " pM planets " ) , but other compounds like tholins cannot be ruled out yet . The planet is unlikely to have large moons , since tidal forces would either eject them from orbit or destroy them on short timescales compared to the age of the system . The planet ( with 51 Pegasi b ) was deemed a candidate for direct imaging by Planetpol . Preliminary results from polarimetric studies indicate that the planet has predominately blue color , is 1 @.@ 36 times as large and 0 @.@ 74 times as massive as Jupiter , meaning that the mean density is 0.36g / cm3 . It has a geometric albedo of 0 @.@ 35 in visible light . = = Effect on its sun = = Upsilon Andromedae b appears to be responsible for increased chromospheric activity on its parent star . Observations suggest that there is a " hot spot " on the star around 169 ° away from the sub @-@ planetary point . This may be the result of interactions between the magnetic fields of the planet and the star . The mechanism may be similar to that responsible for the activity of RS Canum Venaticorum variable stars , or the interaction between Jupiter and its moon Io . = Daniel Radcliffe = Daniel Jacob Radcliffe ( born 23 July 1989 ) is an English actor who rose to prominence as the title character in the Harry Potter film series . He made his acting debut at 10 years of age in BBC One 's 1999 television film David Copperfield , followed by his cinematic debut in 2001 's The Tailor of Panama . At age 11 , he was cast as Harry Potter in the first Harry Potter film , and starred in the series for 10 years until the release of the eighth and final film in 2011 . Radcliffe began to branch out to stage acting in 2007 , starring in the London and New York productions of Equus , and in the 2011 Broadway revival of the musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying . He starred in the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black , and played beat poet Allen Ginsberg in the 2013 independent film Kill Your Darlings . He has contributed to many charities , including Demelza Hospice Care for Children , and The Trevor Project for suicide prevention among LGBTQ youth , which gave him its Hero Award in 2011 . = = Early life = = Radcliffe was born in West London , England . He is the only child of Alan George Radcliffe , a literary agent , and Marcia Jeannine Gresham ( née Marcia Gresham Jacobson ) , a casting agent who was involved in several films for the BBC , including The Inspector Lynley Mysteries and Walk Away and I Stumble . His father , who was raised in Banbridge , County Down , Northern Ireland , is from " a very working @-@ class " Protestant background . His mother is Jewish , and was born in South Africa and raised in Westcliff @-@ on @-@ Sea , Essex . Her family had originally come from Poland and Russia . Radcliffe 's parents had both acted as children . In a 2012 interview , Radcliffe stated : " There was never [ religious ] faith in the house . I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish , despite the fact that I 'm English . " He has stated : " We were Christmas tree Jews " , and that he is " very proud of being Jewish " . Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at the age of five , and in December 1999 , aged 10 , he made his acting debut in BBC One 's televised two @-@ part adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel David Copperfield , portraying the title character as a young boy . He was educated at two independent schools for boys : Sussex House School , a day school in Chelsea 's Cadogan Square , and the City of London School , a day school on the North Bank of the River Thames in London 's financial district ( known as the City of London ) . Attending school became difficult for Radcliffe after the release of the first Harry Potter film , with some fellow pupils becoming hostile , though he says it was people just trying to " have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter " rather than jealousy . As his acting career began to consume his schedule , Radcliffe continued his education through on @-@ set tutors . He admitted he was not very good at school , considering it useless and finding the work " really difficult . " He achieved A grades in the three AS @-@ level exams that he took in 2006 , but decided to take a break from education and did not go to college or university . Part of his reasoning was that he already knew he wanted to act and write , and that it would be difficult to have a normal college experience . " The paparazzi , they 'd love it , " he told Details magazine in 2007 . " If there were any parties going on , they 'd be tipped off as to where they were . " = = Career = =

= = = Harry Potter = = = In 2000 , producer David Heyman asked Radcliffe to audition for the role of Harry Potter for the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , the best @-@ selling book by British author J. K. Rowling . Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character , and the movie 's director Chris Columbus recalled thinking , " This is what I want . This is Harry Potter " , after he saw a video of the young actor in David Copperfield . Eight months later , and after several auditions , Radcliffe was selected to play the part . Rowling also endorsed the selection saying , " I don 't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry . " Radcliffe 's parents originally turned down the offer , as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles . Warner Bros. instead offered Radcliffe a two @-@ movie contract with shooting in the UK ; Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would do any more than that . The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the United States ) took place in 2001 . Radcliffe received a seven figure salary for the lead role , but asserted that the fee was " not that important " to him ; his parents chose to invest the money for him . The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews , and critics took notice of Radcliffe : " Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader 's imagination . It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions , from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing , " wrote Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle . A year later Radcliffe starred in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , the second installment of the series . Reviewers were positive about the lead actors ' performances but had polarised opinions on the movie as a whole . The 2004 release Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was the third film in the series . Radcliffe 's performance was panned by New York Times journalist A. O. Scott , who wrote that Watson had to carry him with her performance . Next was Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in 2005 . The film was the second @-@ highest grossing Harry Potter film at that point , and Radcliffe singled out the humour as being a reason for the movie 's creative success . The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe and his co @-@ leads Emma Watson and Rupert Grint hesitated signing on to continue their roles for the final two episodes ; however , by March 2007 Radcliffe had signed for the final films , which put an end to weeks of press " speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement in Equus " , in which he had performed nude on stage . Radcliffe reprised his role for the fourth time in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix ( 2007 ) . Radcliffe stated that director David Yates and actress Imelda Staunton made Order of the Phoenix the " most fun " film in the series to work on . His performance earned several award nominations , and he received the 2008 National Movie Award for " Best Male Performance . " As his fame and the series continued , Radcliffe , Grint , and Watson left imprints of their hands , feet , and wands in front of Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . In July 2009 Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was released , the series ' sixth instalment . Radcliffe received nominations for " Best Male Performance " and " Global Superstar " at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards . For financial and scripting reasons the last book was divided into two films , shot back to back , which drew criticism from the series ' fanbase . Radcliffe defended the split , stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film . He added that the last movie was going to be extremely fast @-@ paced with a lot of action , while the first part would be far more sedate , focusing on character development ; he added that , had they combined them , those things would not have made it to the final cut . Filming lasted for a year , concluding in June 2010 and on the last day of shooting , like most of the cast and crew , Radcliffe openly wept . The final film , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , was released in July 2011 . Radcliffe , along with the film , was critically acclaimed : Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post asked , " Who could have predicted that Radcliffe , Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors ? " ; similarly , Rex Reed said : " Frankly , I ’ m sorry to see [ Radcliffe ] go " ; while Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers commented on Radcliffe : " Well played , sir . " Roger Ebert gave the film a highly positive review , but felt that Radcliffe , Grint and Watson were " upstaged by the supporting [ actors ] . " Radcliffe admitted that some people would never be able to separate him from the character , but also said he is " proud to be associated with this film series forever . " Despite positive feelings about the movies , he has no interest in doing more Harry Potter films . After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book , Radcliffe was asked if he would do another film to which he replied : " [ It is ] very doubtful . I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character . " Despite devoting so much time to the series , Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood like other child actors : " I ’ ve been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter . "

= = = 2001 – 09 = = = Radcliffe made his film debut in The Tailor of Panama , an American 2001 film based on John le Carré 's 1996 spy novel , and a moderate commercial success . In 2002 he made his stage debut as a celebrity guest in a West End theatre production of The Play What I Wrote , directed by Kenneth Branagh – who also appeared with him in the second Harry Potter film . In 2007 he appeared in the film December Boys , an Australian family drama about four orphans that was shot in 2005 and released to theatres in mid @-@ September 2007 . Also in 2007 , Radcliffe co @-@ starred with Carey Mulligan in My Boy Jack , a television drama film shown on ITV on Remembrance Day . The film received mostly positive reviews , with several critics praising Radcliffe 's performance as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old who goes missing in action during a battle . Radcliffe stated , " For many people my age , the First World War is just a topic in a history book . But I 've always been fascinated by the subject and think it 's as relevant today as it ever was . " At age 17 , in a bid to show people he was prepared for adult roles , he performed onstage in Peter Shaffer 's play Equus , which had not been revived since its first run in 1973 , at the Gielgud Theatre . Radcliffe took on the lead role as Alan Strang , a stable boy who has an obsession with horses . Advance sales topped £ 1 @.@ 7 million , and the role generated significant pre @-@ opening media interest , as Radcliffe appeared in a nude scene . Equus opened on 27 February 2007 and ran until 9 June 2007 . Radcliffe 's performance received positive reviews as critics were impressed by the nuance and depth of his against @-@ type role . Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph wrote that he " displays a dramatic power and an electrifying stage presence that marks a tremendous leap forward . " He added : " I never thought I would find the diminutive ( but perfectly formed ) Radcliffe a sinister figure , but as Alan Strang ... there are moments when he seems genuinely scary in his rage and confusion . " The production then transferred to Broadway in September 2008 , with Radcliffe still in the lead role . Radcliffe stated he was nervous about repeating the role on Broadway because he considered American audiences more discerning than those in London . Radcliffe 's performance was nominated for a Drama Desk Award .

= = = 2010 – present = = = After voicing a character in an episode of the animated television series The Simpsons in late 2010 , Radcliffe debuted as J. Pierrepont Finch in the 2011 Broadway revival How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying , a role previously held by Broadway veterans Robert Morse and Matthew Broderick . Other cast members included John Larroquette , Rose Hemingway and Mary Faber . Both the actor and production received favourable reviews , with USA Today commenting : " Radcliffe ultimately succeeds not by overshadowing his fellow cast members , but by working in conscientious harmony with them – and having a blast in the process . " Radcliffe 's performance in the show earned him Drama Desk Award , Drama League Award and Outer Critics Circle Award nominations . The production itself later received nine Tony Award nominations . Radcliffe left the show on 1 January 2012 . His first post @-@ Harry Potter project was the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black , adapted from the 1983 novel by Susan Hill . The film was released on 3 February 2012 in the United States and Canada , and was released on 10 February in the UK . Radcliffe portrays a man sent to deal with the legal matters of a mysterious woman who has just died , and soon after he begins to experience strange events and hauntings from the ghost of a woman dressed in black . He has said he was " incredibly excited " to be part of the film and described the script as " beautifully written " . In 2013 , he portrayed American poet Allen Ginsberg in the thriller drama Kill Your Darlings , directed by John Krokidas . He also starred in an Irish @-@ Canadian romantic comedy film The F Word directed by Michael Dowseand written by Elan Mastai , based on TJ Dawe and Michael Rinaldi 's play Toothpaste and Cigars and then he starred in an American dark fantasy horror film directed by Alexandre Aja Horns . Both of the films premiered at the 38th Toronto International Film Festival . Radcliffe also performed at the Noël Coward Theatre in the stage play revival of Martin McDonagh 's dark comedy The Cripple of Inishmaan as the lead , Billy Claven , for which he won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Actor in a Play . In 2015 , Radcliffe starred as Igor in a science fiction horror film Victor Frankenstein directed by Paul McGuigan and written by Max Landis , which was based on contemporary adaptations of Mary Shelley 's 1818 novel Frankenstein . In 2016 , Radcliffe portrayed Manny , a talkative corpse , in the indie film Swiss Army Man . He is set to star as American reporter Jake Adelstein in Tokyo Vice . In November 2015 he joined the ensemble cast of Shane Carruth 's third film , The Modern Ocean alongside Anne Hathaway , Keanu Reeves , Tom Holland , Chloë Grace Moretz , Asa Butterfield , Jeff Goldblum and Abraham Attah . = = Personal life = = In 2008 , Radcliffe revealed that he has a mild form of the neurological disorder developmental coordination disorder . The motor skill disorder sometimes prevents him from doing simple activities , such as writing or tying his own shoelaces . " I was having a hard time at school , in terms of being crap at everything , with no discernible talent , " Radcliffe commented . In August 2010 , he stopped drinking alcohol after finding himself becoming too reliant on it . In November 2007 Radcliffe published several poems under the pen name Jacob Gershon – a combination of his middle name and the Jewish version of his mother 's maiden name Gresham – in Rubbish , an underground fashion magazine . He has a close friendship with his Harry Potter co @-@ stars Tom Felton and Emma Watson , and is tight @-@ knit with his family , whom he credits for keeping him grounded . Sources disagree about Radcliffe 's personal wealth ; he was reported to have earned £ 1 million for the first Harry Potter film and around £ 15 million for the sixth . Radcliffe appeared on the Sunday Times Rich List in 2006 , which estimated his personal fortune to be £ 14 million , making him one of the richest young people in the UK . In March 2009 he was ranked number one on the Forbes " Most Valuable Young Stars " list , and by April The Daily Telegraph measured his net worth at £ 30m , making him the 12th richest young person in the UK . Radcliffe was considered to be the richest teenager in England later that year . In February 2010 he was named the sixth highest paid Hollywood male star and placed at number five on Forbes 's December list of Hollywood 's highest @-@ grossing actors with a film revenue of US $ 780 million , mainly due to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows being released that year . Radcliffe maintains a home in the West Village of Lower Manhattan in New York City . As of October 2012 , Radcliffe has been dating American Erin Darke , whom he met on the set of Kill Your Darlings . There were rumours and stories of a possible engagement in mid @-@ 2014 , but Darke 's father Ian Darke denied there were any such plans in December 2014 .

= = = Views and activism = = = Radcliffe is an atheist . He has been quoted as saying : " I 'm an atheist , and a militant atheist when religion starts impacting on legislation " , and in a separate interview , he stated ; " I 'm very relaxed about it [ being an atheist ] . I don 't preach my atheism , but I have a huge amount of respect for people like Richard Dawkins who do . Anything he does on television , I will watch " . Radcliffe is a supporter of the Labour Party . Until 2012 Radcliffe had publicly supported the Liberal Democrats , and before the 2010 general election Radcliffe endorsed Nick Clegg , the Lib Dem leader . In 2012 , however , Radcliffe switched his allegiance to Labour , citing disappointment with the performance of Nick Clegg and the Lib Dems in government , and approving of the Labour leader , Ed Miliband . In September 2015 , he endorsed Jeremy Corbyn in the 2015 leadership contest to succeed Miliband . He is a supporter of a British republic . At the age of sixteen , Radcliffe became the youngest non @-@ royal ever to have an individual portrait in Britain 's National Portrait Gallery ( NPG ) . On 13 April 2006 his portrait , drawn by Stuart Pearson Wright , was unveiled as part of a new exhibition opening at the Royal National Theatre ; it was then moved to the NPG where it resides . Speaking out against homophobia , Radcliffe began filming public service announcements in 2009 for The Trevor Project , promoting awareness of gay teen suicide prevention . He first learned of the organisation while working on Equus on Broadway in 2008 and has contributed financially to it . " I have always hated anybody who is not tolerant of gay men or lesbians or bisexuals . Now I am in the very fortunate position where I can actually help or do something about it , " he said in a 2010 interview . In the same interview , he spoke of the importance of public figures advocating for equal rights . Radcliffe considers his involvement to be one of the most important things in his career and , for his work for the organisation , he was given the " Hero Award " in 2011 . Radcliffe has supported various charities . He designed the Cu @-@ Bed for Habitat 's VIP Kids range ( a cube made of eight smaller ones which can be made into a bed , chaise @-@ longue or chair ) with all the royalties from the sale of the bed going directly to his favourite charity , Demelza House Children 's Hospice in Sittingbourne , Kent . Radcliffe has urged his fans to make donations , in lieu of Christmas presents to him , to the charity 's Candle for Care program . In 2008 he was among several celebrities who donated their old glasses to an exhibit honouring victims of the Holocaust . During the Broadway run of Equus he auctioned off a pair of jeans and other items worn in the show , for New @-@ York @-@ based Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS. and presenting at the 2011 Gypsy of the Year competition . He has also donated money to Get Connected UK , a London @-@ based free confidential national helpline for troubled youth . Radcliffe is a fan of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League . = = Filmography = = = = Awards and nominations = = = ... Thirteen Years Later = " ... Thirteen Years Later " is the fifth episode of the third season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on October 30 , 1998 . The episode was written by Michael R. Perry , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " ... Thirteen Years Later " featured guest appearances by the members of the band Kiss , performing both as themselves and as minor characters . In this episode , Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Emma Hollis ( Klea Scott ) investigate a series of murders on the set of a horror film — and realize that the production is based on a case Black solved several years earlier . " ... Thirteen Years Later " proved a difficult episode to produce , with filming requiring a large number of shots to be completed and the script to be adjusted on short notice . It has evoked mixed responses from critics , although the guest appearances by the members of Kiss have been more universally criticized . = = Plot = = Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Emma Hollis ( Klea Scott ) travel to Travelers Rest , South Carolina to investigate the deaths of film director Lew Carroll ( Paul Stanley ) and Marta Danbury , the leading actress in his newest film . As the local sheriff guides Black and Hollis through the murder scene , Black realizes that the film is based on a real murder case he investigated thirteen years previously ; he is shocked to learn that the true story is being sensationalized for the screen . The pair interview the cast and crew as suspects , discovering that many would benefit from either of the deaths — producer Kenny Neiderman had been having an affair with Danbury ; Rowdy Beeman replaced Carroll as director ; Ruby Dahl and Ramona Tangent , whose roles in the film will expand without Danbury ; and Mark Bianco , a method actor relishing the opportunity to meet Black , whose role he plays . Also questioned is Hugo Winston , the man whose partner was murdered in the earlier case and who is campaigning against what he sees as a disrespectful production . The production continues , and after the filming of a pool scene the crew gather in catering ; Beeman discovers a severed finger in his sandwich , recognizing from its ring that it belonged to Niederman . When the sheriff shuts down production , Black theorizes that the killer may target the crew 's hotel ; he and Hollis arrive to find the body of the film 's publicist hanging from a rope . The next day , a film extra ( Gene Simmons ) confesses to the killings ; Black pokes holes in his story and discovers he is not a credible perpetrator . Regardless , production is resumed — and shortly afterwards , several crew members are found with their throats cut , while Winston 's body hangs nearby in an apparent murder @-@ suicide . Black doubts that Winston is the killer , and while Hollis stays in the hotel , he visits the production 's climactic shoot , set during a performance by the band Kiss . As he looks around him , the sheriff 's body is thrown down from the rafters ; as the pandemonium settles , Black realizes that horror films end with the leading lady being targeted — the killer is after Hollis . Racing back to her hotel , Black discover Hollis fending off a chainsaw @-@ wielding Bianco . Black is able to subdue Bianco after Hollis disables the chainsaw ; the actor then explains that he lacked Black 's insight and had to commit the crimes in order to see through the eyes of a killer . = = Production = = " ... Thirteen Years Later " is the second episode of Millennium to have been written by Michael R. Perry , who had previously penned the second season episode " The Mikado " , and would provide a further three scripts in the third season . The episode was directed by Thomas J. Wright , who helmed a total of twenty @-@ six episodes across all three seasons . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . The episode features guest appearances by the members of the band Kiss — Peter Criss , Ace Frehley , Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley — who each portray both themselves and a small cameo role . However , the band members insisted during filming that their roles be given an equal amount of dialogue , which led to Perry being asked to amend scenes on short notice and fax updated scripts to the shooting locations ; ultimately much of this additional material was filmed but not used in the episode . Ace Frehley was also unenthusiastic towards his role , and requested to play a " 300 @-@ pound black man " instead , wishing to wear a fat suit like those used in the 1996 Eddie Murphy film The Nutty Professor ; he was eventually convinced that such a suit would take too long to fabricate . Perry has described the production " ... Thirteen Years Later " as being " one of the most gruelling " of the series ' run , citing its abundance of stunt work and physical effects as the cause of this . Perry praised Wright for his ability to direct the episode within the usual time constraints , as he felt the number of shots involved was more akin to a feature film than a television episode . Guest star Jeff Yagher , who played killer Mark Bianco , is the husband of actress Megan Gallagher , who starred in the first two seasons of Millennium as Black 's wife Catherine . = = Broadcast and reception = = " ... Thirteen Years Later " was first broadcast on the Fox network on October 30 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 4 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 4 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 37 million households . " ... Thirteen Years Later " received mixed reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a " B " . VanDerWerff felt that the episode 's comedic slant was necessary within the wider series , as he considered Millennium 's dark tone to be prone to unintentional comedy and that a comic episode provided an outlet for this . VanDerWerff found the script to be at its strongest when satirizing the character of Frank Black , but admitted that it " falls apart " when attempting to send up other subjects ; he also felt that the guest appearance by Kiss felt unnecessary and contrived . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " ... Thirteen Years Later " one star out of five . Shearman felt that the episode had the potential to be much better , but that " the whole concept drowns in overkill " . He considered the episode 's characters to too shallow and its commentary to be too heavy @-@ handed to fully execute anything meaningful ; criticism was also levelled at the guest roles by the members of Kiss . = New Jersey Route 29 = Route 29 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 34 @.@ 76 mi ( 55 @.@ 94 km ) from an interchange with Interstate 295 ( I @-@ 295 ) in Hamilton Township in Mercer County , where it continues as I @-@ 195 , to Route 12 ( Bridge Street / Race Street ) in Frenchtown , Hunterdon County . Between the southern terminus and I @-@ 95 , the route is a mix of freeway and four @-@ lane divided highway that runs along the Delaware River through Trenton . This section includes a truck @-@ restricted tunnel that was built along the river near historic houses and Riverview Cemetery . North of I @-@ 95 , Route 29 turns into a scenic and mostly two @-@ lane highway . North of the South Trenton Tunnel , it is designated the Delaware River Scenic Byway , a New Jersey Scenic Byway and National Scenic Byway , that follows the Delaware River in mostly rural sections of Mercer County and Hunterdon County . The obsolete Delaware & Raritan Canal usually stands between the river and the highway . Most sections of this portion of Route 29 are completely shaded due to the tree canopy . Route 29 also has a spur , Route 129 , which connects Route 29 to U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in Trenton . Route 29 was initially designated in 1927 to run from downtown Trenton to Newark , following present @-@ day Route 179 and US 202 between Lambertville and Somerville and US 22 between Somerville and Newark . The route between Lambertville and Frenchtown was originally Route 29A . In 1953 , Route 29 was shifted to follow the alignment of Route 29A to avoid the concurrencies with the U.S. Routes . Route 29 between South Warren Street in Trenton and I @-@ 95 in Ewing Township was upgraded to a four @-@ lane highway , with a portion of freeway , in the 1950s and 1960s . In 1995 , the southern freeway part of Route 29 between I @-@ 195 / I @-@ 295 and Route 129 in Hamilton Township was completed . This freeway section was linked to the rest of Route 29 by a tunnel completed in 2002 . A realignment of Route 29 in Lambertville by the 2000s made the route concurrent with the entire length of 0 @.@ 26 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 42 km ) Route 165 . = = Route description = =

= = = Mercer County = = = Route 29 begins at a modified cloverleaf interchange with Interstate 195 and Interstate 295 in Hamilton Township , and it serves as the western continuation of Interstate 195 , heading to the northwest as a six @-@ lane freeway . The route interchanges with Route 129 , a spur of Route 29 which connects to U.S. Route 1 , at a partial interchange with a northbound exit and southbound entrance . Route 29 narrows to four lanes past this interchange and crosses into Trenton . The route comes to a southbound exit and entrance for Lamberton Road . At this point , Route 29 becomes the Delaware River Scenic Byway , a state scenic byway that was also designated a National Scenic Byway in 2009 . Route 29 runs along the bank of the Delaware River and enters a truck @-@ restricted tunnel that passes by historic houses and Riverview Cemetery . Within this tunnel , Route 29 features a southbound exit and northbound entrance for Lalor Street . The route emerges from the tunnel as the John Fitch Parkway , passes by Arm & Hammer Park , and comes to a traffic light at Thunder Road / Cass Street where it widens back to six lanes . Route 29 meets South Warren Street at another traffic light . The median widens and it passes under the Morrisville @-@ Trenton Railroad Bridge , which carries the Amtrak Northeast Corridor over the Delaware River . Route 29 passes under the Trenton @-@ Morrisville Toll Bridge , which carries U.S. Route 1 over the Delaware River . Access to U.S. Route 1 southbound is provided by ramps from Route 29 while access to Route 29 from northbound U.S. Route 1 is provided by South Warren Street . Route 29 passes under the Lower Trenton Bridge and the median narrows again . It interchanges with Market Street , which provides access to Route 33 , and then features an interchange which provides access to the New Jersey State House with a northbound exit and southbound entrance . Route 29 crosses the Assunpink Creek and features an interchange which provides access to South Warren Street with exits in both directions but only a northbound entrance . Route 29 continues to a cloverleaf interchange with Calhoun Street ( County Route 653 ) , which provides access to the Calhoun Street Bridge over the Delaware River . Riverside Avenue exits as a frontage road paralleling the northbound lanes of Route 29 before the road features a northbound exit for Hermitage Avenue . Route 29 comes to a partial interchange with Parkside Avenue , with a northbound exit and southbound entrance , and then features a northbound exit for South Eastfield Avenue . The freeway portion of Route 29 ends at the intersection with Lee Avenue and it continues northwest along the Delaware River as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route meets the southern terminus of County Route 579 ( Sullivan Way ) . The median widens again and then narrows as the route meets the southern terminus of Route 175 , a former alignment of Route 29 that currently serves as a frontage road . Route 29 crosses into Ewing Township and becomes the Daniel Bray Highway . It passes under the West Trenton Railroad Bridge , which carries CSX and SEPTA ’ s West Trenton Line over the Delaware River . Route 29 intersects Route 175 again and then comes to a complex interchange with Interstate 95 , with the ramps within the median of Route 29 , just to the east of the Scudder Falls Bridge . Upon crossing the Delaware and Raritan Canal , Route 29 narrows down to a two @-@ lane undivided road called River Road . It continues along the Delaware River , next to the Delaware and Raritan Canal , which runs between Route 29 and the river . The route intersects the northern terminus of Route 175 . Farther north , Route 29 enters Hopewell Township and continues into a more rural setting shaded with trees . Route 29 heads to Washington Crossing State Park , where it intersects County Route 546 , which heads east on Washington Crossing @-@ Pennington Road , and the approach to the Washington Crossing Bridge , which continues into Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 532 . Route 29 continues north along the Delaware River through Titusville , passing by Washington Crossing State Park .

= = = Hunterdon County = = = Route 29 crosses into West Amwell Township in Hunterdon County . It enters Lambertville , where Route 29 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway . At the intersection of South Main Street , Route 29 becomes concurrent with Route 165 . The route becomes an undivided highway again and meets the western terminus of County Route 518 ( Brunswick Street ) . It meets Route 179 ( Bridge Street ) , where Route 165 ends and Route 29 turns west for a one @-@ block wrong @-@ way concurrency with the two @-@ lane , undivided Route 179 , lasting to the intersection of Main Street , where Route 29 turns north on Main Street . Route 29 follows Main Street north through Lambertville , crossing into Delaware Township . It comes to an interchange with U.S. Route 202 just east of the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Toll Bridge , with access to northbound U.S. Route 202 and from southbound U.S. Route 202 provided by way of Alexauken Creek Road . Route 29 continues along the Delaware River and enters Stockton . The route intersects Bridge Street , which crosses the Delaware River on the Centre Bridge @-@ Stockton Bridge and continues into Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 263 . Shortly after that intersection , Route 29 intersects the southern terminus of County Route 523 ( Stockton @-@ Flemington Road ) . Route 29 crosses back into Delaware Township , where it meets the southern terminus of County Route 519 ( Kingwood @-@ Stockton Road ) . Route 29 makes a sharp left turn and heads west along the river as a rural road , crossing into Kingwood Township , where the name of the road changes from Main Street to Daniel Bray Highway . Here , it intersects with County Route 651 ( Byram @-@ Kingwood Road ) . The route bends to the north and continues along the Delaware River for several miles , crossing into Frenchtown , where the route becomes Trenton Road . Upon entering Frenchtown , an end shield for northbound Route 29 is posted to mark the end of state maintenance , which officially ends at the Washington Street intersection , where maintenance is transferred to the county . Despite this , Route 29 officially continues farther north along Trenton Road to its northern terminus at Route 12 ( Bridge Street / Race Street ) , a short distance east of Route 12 ’ s western terminus at the Uhlerstown @-@ Frenchtown Bridge . The southern terminus of County Route 513 is located a block north of the northern terminus of Route 29 along Route 12 . = = History = = The current route was originally legislated in 1911 as part of the Delaware River Drive , a named state highway that was proposed to run from along the Delaware River from Trenton to the New York border in Montague Township . Route 29 was originally defined in 1927 to run from Trenton to Newark . The original route ran from downtown Trenton along State Street and Sanhican Drive . From there , it followed its current alignment to Lambertville , where it followed present @-@ day Route 179 to Ringoes to present @-@ day County Route 514 , which it followed to Woods Tavern . The route turned north on U.S. Route 206 ( also designated Route 31 ) and followed that route to Somerville , where it followed U.S. Route 22 to Newark . The current alignment of Route 29 from Lambertville to Route 12 in Frenchtown was designated Route 29A in 1927 . The alignment of Route 29 between Ringoes and Somerville was eventually shifted to follow present @-@ day U.S. Route 202 , which was also Route 30 ( now Route 31 ) between Ringoes and Flemington and Route 12 between Flemington and Somerville . In 1938 , Route 29B was planned as an extension of Route 29A from Frenchtown to Route 28 ( now Route 122 ) in Alpha . While this road was never built , much of the alignment north of Milford is served by County Route 519 . In 1948 , a spur route , Route S29 , was created , running along U.S. Route 202 ( Bridge Street ) in Lambertville to the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 29 was redefined to continue north from Lambertville to Frenchtown on Route 29A , and the Route 29 designation between Lambertville and Newark was removed in favor of U.S. Route 202 between Lambertville and Somerville and U.S. Route 22 between Somerville and Newark . The section of former Route 29 between Route 29A and Route S29 became Route 165 . Plans for a limited @-@ access route along the Route 29 corridor go back to 1932 , when a parkway was proposed along the Delaware River between Trenton and Lambertville ; this proposal never materialized . Plans for a freeway were resurrected in the early 1950s to construct a road , the John Fitch Parkway , that was to run from Hamilton Township to Interstate 95 in Ewing Township . This road was built between 1954 and 1957 from South Warren Street in Trenton to present @-@ day Interstate 95 in Ewing Township . Construction of this portion John Fitch Parkway took up much of Trenton ’ s available waterfront along the Delaware River . The former alignment of Route 29 in the northern part of Trenton and in Ewing Township became Route 175 . Between 1990 and 1995 , the Route 29 freeway was built between the Interstate 195 / Interstate 295 interchange and Route 129 in Hamilton Township . A two @-@ lane street , Lamberton Road , connected the two freeway sections . Plans were then made to fill the gap between the two freeway sections in Trenton . Construction began in 1997 on the Route 29 freeway between Route 129 and the Morrisville @-@ Trenton Railroad Bridge . The road was to include two traffic lights at Cass Street and South Warren Street and a tunnel which was to be built as a covered roadway on the bank of the Delaware River . The tunnel was originally scheduled to be complete by 2001 but was delayed after the Army Corps of Engineers discovered many environmental violations that occurred with construction of the tunnel . The roof was put in place in October 2001 and the tunnel officially opened to traffic on March 2 , 2002 . A restriction to trucks over 13 tons was put in place and made permanent in November 2002 . By the 2000s , the state gave the part of Route 29 ( South Main Street ) between Route 165 and Route 179 in Lambertville to the city , and Route 29 was rerouted to use all of Route 165 and one block of Route 179 . Prior to this , South Main Street had been turned one @-@ way southbound . Route 165 , which is only signed on overhead street signs , still exists , though it is fully concurrent with Route 29 . = = Major intersections = = = First Mongol invasion of Burma = The first Mongol invasions of Burma ( Myanmar ) ( Burmese : မွန ် ဂို – မြန ် မာ စစ ် ( ၁၂၇၇ – ၁၂၈၇ ) ) were a series of military conflicts between Kublai Khan 's Yuan dynasty , division of the Mongol Empire , and the Pagan Empire that took place between 1277 and 1287 . The invasions toppled the 250 @-@ year @-@ old Pagan Empire , and the Mongol army seized Pagan territories in present @-@ day Dehong , Yunnan and northern Burma to Tagaung . The invasions ushered in 250 years of political fragmentation in Burma and the rise of Tai @-@ Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia . The Mongols first demanded tribute from Pagan in 1271 – 72 , as part of their drive to encircle the Song dynasty of China . When King Narathihapate refused , Emperor Kublai Khan himself sent another mission in 1273 , again demanding tribute . It too was rejected . In 1275 , the emperor ordered the Yunnan government to secure the borderlands in order to block an escape path for the Song , and permitted a limited border war if Pagan contested . Pagan did contest but its army was driven back at the frontier by the Mongol Army in 1277 – 78 . After a brief lull , Kublai Khan in 1281 turned his attention to Southeast Asia , demanding tribute from Pagan , the Khmer Empire , Đại Việt and Champa . When the Burmese king again refused , the emperor ordered an invasion of northern Burma . Two dry season campaigns ( 1283 – 85 ) later , the Mongols had occupied down to Tagaung and Hanlin , forcing the Burmese king to flee to Lower Burma . The Mongols organized northern Burma as the province of Zhengmian . Ceasefire negotiations began in 1285 , and ended with Narathihapate finally agreeing to submit in June 1286 . The Burmese embassy , received by the emperor in Beijing in January 1287 , agreed to a treaty that acknowledged the suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty or the Mongol Empire over the Pagan Empire and annual payments in taxes to the Yunnan government in exchange for the evacuation of Mongol troops from northern Burma . But the treaty never really took effect as Narathihapate was assassinated in July 1287 , and no authority who could honor the treaty emerged . The Mongol command at Yunnan now deemed the imperial order to withdraw void , and ordered an invasion of central Burma . They may not have reached Pagan , and even if they did , after having suffered heavy casualties , they returned to Tagaung . The Pagan Empire disintegrated and anarchy ensued . The Mongols , who probably preferred the situation , did nothing to restore order in the next ten years . In March 1297 , they accepted the voluntary submission of King Kyawswa of Pagan although he controlled little beyond the capital city of Pagan ( Bagan ) . But Kyawswa was overthrown nine months later , and the Mongols were forced to intervene , leading to their second invasion in 1300 – 01 . Marco Polo reported the first invasions ( 1277 – 87 ) in his travelogue , Il Milione . The Burmese referred to the invaders as the Taruk ( after the central Asian Turkic troops that largely made up the Mongol invasion army ) ; today , the term Taruk ( တရုတ ် ) refers to the Han Chinese instead . King Narathihapate is unkindly remembered in Burmese history as Taruk @-@ Pye Min , ( " the King who Fled from the Taruk " ) . = = Background = =

= = = Pagan and Dali = = = In the 13th century , the Pagan Empire , along with the Khmer Empire , was one of the two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia . For much of its history , Pagan 's neighbor to the northeast was not China but the independent Dali Kingdom and its predecessor Nanzhao , both with Dali as their capital city . Dali @-@ based kingdoms were a power in their own right , at times allying themselves with the Tibetan Empire to their west and at other times with China 's Tang and Song dynasties . Indeed , Nanzhao 's mounted armies ventured deep into what is today Burma and may have been behind the founding of the medieval city of Pagan and the Pagan Dynasty itself . Between the newly conquered Mongol territory and Pagan were a wide swath of borderlands stretching from present @-@ day Dehong , Baoshan and Lincang prefectures in Yunnan as well as the Wa and Palaung regions ( presumably in present @-@ day northern Shan State ) , which Pagan and Dali had both claimed and exercised overlapping spheres of influence . Then as now , the borderlands mostly consist of forbidding terrains of high mountain ranges .

= = = Mongol conquest of Dali = = = The Mongol Empire first arrived at the doorstep of the Pagan Empire in 1252 by invading the Dali Kingdom in its attempt to outflank Song China . The Mongol armies captured the capital , Dali , on 7 January 1253 , and went on to pacify much of the kingdom by 1257 . The arrival of the Mongols did not initially upset the existing order at the borderlands as the Mongols were intent on finishing off the Song . For the next dozen years , they consolidated their hold over the newly conquered land , which not only provided them with a base from which to attack the Song from the rear but also was strategically located on the trade routes from China to Burma and India . The Mongols set up military garrisons , manned mostly by Turkic @-@ speaking Muslims from Central Asia , in 37 circuits of the former Dali Kingdom .

= = = Decline of Pagan = = = By then , the Pagan Empire , despite outward appearances of calm , had been in long and slow decline since the early 13th century . The continuous growth of tax @-@ free religious wealth had greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom . The crown had lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen , inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges . Although it was able to put down the first batch of serious rebellions in 1258 – 60 in South Arakan and Martaban ( Mottama ) , the decline continued . On the eve of the Mongol invasions , between one and two @-@ thirds of Upper Burma 's cultivable land had been donated to religion . The crown 's ability to mobilize defenses was in serious jeopardy . = = Prelude to war = =

= = = First Mongol mission ( 1271 – 72 ) = = = The period of calm for Pagan ended in the early 1270s . By then , the Song were on the ropes , and Emperor Kublai Khan , who officially founded the Yuan dynasty on 18 December 1271 , sought to cut off the retreat of Song refugees in all directions . In Pagan 's case , he had ordered the Mongol governor of Dali to tighten control of the borderlands , and in January 1271 to send a mission to Pagan to demand tribute . The tribute he demanded was nominal . Given his higher priority preoccupations elsewhere , the emperor was not looking to replace the regime at Pagan . At the border , the ruler of the Wa and Palaung regions submitted to the Mongols . When the Mongol envoys led by Qidai Tuoyin showed up , the Pagan court led by Chief Minister Ananda Pyissi was well aware of the military power of the Mongols and advised King Narathihapate to use diplomacy . The king was furious at the demand and kept the Mongol envoys waiting for weeks . The court finally devised a compromise : the envoys were sent back without ever seeing the king . Accompanying them was a Burmese envoy who carried a letter expressing friendly sentiments and the Burmese king 's wish to one day worship a Buddha tooth at Beijing . The king then promptly ordered an expedition , which retook the rebellious borderland regions in April 1272 . The rebel leader A @-@ Pi ( အပိ ) was brought back to Pagan . Dali relayed the news to Beijing but did not carry out any military action .

= = = Second Mongol mission ( 1273 ) = = = At Beijing , Kublai Khan , who was preparing an invasion of Japan , decided against a war with Pagan — for the time being . On 3 March 1273 , he sent a 4 @-@ member delegation led by an imperial ambassador , the First Secretary to the Board Rites , to Pagan . The delegation carried a letter from the emperor . The letter says : " If you have finally decided to fulfill your duties towards the All @-@ Highest , send one of your brothers or senior ministers , to show men that all the world is linked with Us , and enter into a perpetual alliance . This will add to your reputation , and be in your own interests ; for if it comes to war , who will be the victor ? Ponder well , O king , Our words . " This time , the Burmese king received the imperial envoys but still refused to submit . ( The Burmese chronicles say that the king was so insulted that he had the envoys executed . But both Burmese inscriptional evidence and Yuan records indicate that the envoys were not executed . ) At any rate , the imperial envoys did not get back to Yunnan in due time . The newly formed Yunnan government sent another delegation to investigate the whereabouts of the delegation , but the delegation could not reach Pagan because of an ongoing rebellion en route .

= = = Mongol consolidation of borderlands ( 1275 – 76 ) = = = Meanwhile , in 1274 , the former Dali Kingdom was officially reorganized as the Province of Yunnan , with Sayyid Ajjal Shams al @-@ Din Omar as governor . In May 1275 , the governor sent a report to the emperor stating that the embassy had not returned ; that the Burmese evidently had no intention of submitting ; and that war was the only way forward . But the emperor rejected an outright invasion . Just coming off a disastrous Japanese campaign , the emperor was unwilling to commit the central government troops to what he considered a low priority affair . He was now focused on delivering the final blow against the Song ; the emperor ordered the Yunnan provincial army to secure the borderlands in order to block the escape path of the Song refugees . He also sanctioned a limited border war if Pagan contested the takeover . As planned , the Yunnan army proceeded to consolidate the borderlands in 1275 – 76 . ( Elsewhere , the main Mongol armies had captured most of the Song territory by 1276 . ) By 1277 , at least one Burmese vassal state named " Gold Teeth " ( modern Yingjiang ) had submitted to the Mongols . Like in 1272 , the Burmese government responded by sending an army to reclaim the rebellious state ; but unlike in 1272 , the Mongols had posted a sizable garrison there . Though it was ultimately under Mongol command , many of the officers and most of the soldiers of the garrison were Turkic @-@ speaking peoples or people from the further west : Turks from Samarkand , Bukhara , Merv and Nishapur , but also captive soldiers from the Persian Khwarazmid empire , the Kipchaks , and even Bulgars from the lower Volga . = = Border war ( 1277 – 78 ) = = What followed was a border war in 1277 – 78 . It was reported mainly in the Yuan dynasty chronicle and the travelogue of Marco Polo . Although the Burmese chronicles have no record of the border war , a 1278 Burmese inscription mentions the army 's defeat at Ngasaunggyan . The Mongol accounts of the border war contain certain errors of location and numbers although the overall narrative is probably accurate .

= = = Battle of Ngasaunggyan = = = According to the Yuan dynasty chronicle and Marco Polo 's accounts , a Burmese army " invaded " the Mongol territory of Gold Teeth , and was defeated by the Mongol army in April 1277 . The battle took place either at the Vochang valley ( in present @-@ day Baoshan Prefecture ) or 110 km southwest at Kanngai ( present @-@ day Yingjiang , Dehong Prefecture ) , which the Burmese called Ngasaunggyan . The Yuan Chronicle reports that only 700 men defeated a Burmese army of 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 with 10 @,@ 000 horses and 800 elephants . It also reports only one Mongol was killed , in trying to catch an elephant . According to Marco Polo , the Mongol army consisted of 12 @,@ 000 mounted archers , and the Burmese army numbered 60 @,@ 000 men with 2000 elephants , " on each of which was set a tower of timber , well @-@ framed and strong , and carrying from 12 to 16 well @-@ armed fighting men . " Even then , the 40 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 figures of the Burmese army strength were likely eye estimates and may still be too high ; the Mongols may have erred " on the side of generosity " not to " diminish their glory in defeating superior numbers . " According to Marco Polo 's account , in the early stages of the battle , the Turkish and Mongol horsemen " took such fright at the sight of the elephants that they would not be got to face the foe , but always swerved and turned back , " while the Burmese forces pressed on . But the Mongol commander Huthukh did not panic ; he ordered his troops to dismount , and from the cover of the nearby treeline , aim their bows directly at the advancing elephants . The Mongol archers ' arrows threw the animals into such pain that they fled .

= = = Raid of Kaungsin = = = The Mongol army pressed on after the monsoon season . In the following dry season of 1277 – 78 , c . December 1277 , a Mongol army of 3800 led by Nasr al @-@ Din , son of Gov. Sayyid Ajjal , advanced to Kaungsin , which defended the Bhamo Pass . They occupied the fort and destroyed a large number of abandoned stockades . But they found the heat excessive and returned . = = Interlude ( 1278 – 83 ) = = Despite the Mongol military success , the control of the borderlands remained contested . Pagan did not relinquish its claim to the frontier regions , and the Burmese , apparently taking advantage of Mongol preoccupations elsewhere , rebuilt their forts at Kaungsin and Ngasaunggyan later in 1278 , posting permanent garrisons commanded by Einda Pyissi . But their control was short @-@ lived . The Great Khan 's attention turned to Southeast Asia once more in 1281 . He had had mixed success : his vaunted forces had finished off the last of the Song in 1279 but had again failed to take Japan in 1281 . That year , the Mongol emperor sent another mission to Pagan , demanding tribute yet again . The Burmese king was to send his ten senior ministers accompanied by one thousand cavalry officers to the emperor 's court . ( With Champa , the emperor summoned the king of Champa himself to Beijing . ) At Pagan , Narathihapate deliberated with his court for an appropriate response but ultimately refused to submit . The Burmese court may have been counting on another limited border war but the emperor now ordered an invasion of northern Burma . ( He also ordered an invasion of Champa , whose king too had refused to submit . ) The Burmese king 's troubles did not go unnoticed elsewhere in the kingdom . In the same year , a usurper named Wareru seized the southern port city of Martaban ( Mottama ) by killing its Pagan @-@ appointed governor . Although the king 's three sons were viceroys of the nearby Lower Burma cities ( in Bassein ( Pathein ) , Prome ( Pyay ) , and Dala ) , the king , preoccupied with much more serious threat in the north , did not ( or could not ) take any action on Martaban . Throughout 1282 , the Mongol command made preparations for the upcoming invasions of Champa and northern Burma . The objective of the Burma campaign was to take over northern Burma but no further ; the emperor did not sanction an attack on Pagan itself . At least one army consisted of 14 @,@ 000 men of the erstwhile Persian Khwarezmid Empire under the command of Yalu Beg was sent to Yunnan to reinforce the Burma invasion force , which again was made up of Turks and other central Asians . On the Burmese side , the king managed to raise an army although given his low standing with his vassals , he probably could not have raised a large one . By mid @-@ 1283 , a Burmese army led by generals Ananda Pyissi and Yanda Pyissi was deployed at a fort at Ngasaunggyan . = = Invasion ( 1283 – 85 ) = =

= = = Battle of Ngasaunggyan ( 1283 ) = = = The invasion began on 22 September 1283 . Prince Sangqudar was the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the invasion force ; his deputies were Vice Governor Taipn , and commander Yagan Tegin . The Mongol armies marched to the border in two columns . One column advanced along the Taping River using over 200 boats ; the other proceeded by land and joined the first column at the Burmese fort at Ngasaunggyan . The Burmese chronicles report an overwhelming number of Mongol forces laying siege to the fort although their numbers are greatly exaggerated . ( The chronicles say that the Burmese army numbered 400 @,@ 000 men while the Mongol army numbered 20 million men and 6 million horses . ) The Burmese withstood the siege for over two months but the fort fell on 3 December 1283 .

= = = Invasion of northern Burma = = = The defeat at Ngasaunggyan broke the back of Burmese defenses . The Burmese army lost several thousand men as well as senior commanders . Kaungsin , the next fort inline , fell just six days later on 9 December 1283 . The Mongol sources say that the Burmese lost 10 @,@ 000 men at Kaungsin . The Mongol armies pushed farther south into the Irrawaddy valley . They took the ancient Burmese capital of Tagaung , about 380 km north of Pagan on 5 February 1284 . There , the invaders paused their advance . They found the heat of the searing Irrawaddy valley excessive , and evacuated Tagaung , allowing the Burmese to return to Tagaung on 10 May 1284 . But the Mongol army renewed their offensive in the following dry season . They retook Tagaung , and defeated another Burmese stand south of Tagaung , probably near Hanlin , on 26 January 1285 , opening the way to Pagan , about 270 km south . After the defeat , the king panicked , and fled to Lower Burma . The evacuation proved premature . The Mongol forces did not advance on Pagan as it was not part of their invasion plan . The country fell into chaos . In Lower Burma , the king found himself isolated , let alone plan a counterattack . Although his sons ruled the key Lower Burma ports ( Prome , Dala and Bassein ) , the king did not trust any of them , and he and his court settled at Hlegya , west of Prome . Without the full support of his sons , the presence of the king and his small army impressed no one . The governor of Pegu revolted that same year . The king managed to send two small expeditions to Pegu but they both failed . Now , the entire eastern half of Lower Burma ( Pegu and Martaban ) was in open revolt . = = Peace negotiations ( 1285 – 87 ) = =

= = = Ceasefire = = = Given his precarious position , Narathihapate decided to buy time , and sue for peace with the Mongols . In November / December 1285 , the king ordered his generals Ananda Pyissi and Maha Bo to enter into ceasefire negotiations . The Mongol commanders at Hanlin , who had organized northern Burma as a protectorate named Zhengmian ( Chinese : 征緬 ; Wade – Giles : Cheng @-@ Mien ) , agreed to a ceasefire but insisted on a full submission . They repeated their 1281 demand that the Burmese king send a formal delegation to the emperor . The two sides had reached a tentative agreement by 3 March 1286 , which calls for a full submission of the Pagan Empire , and central Burma to be organized as the province of Mianzhong ( Chinese : 緬中 ; Wade – Giles : Mien @-@ Chung ) . After a long deliberation , the king agreed to submit but wanted the Mongol troops to withdraw . In June 1286 , he sent an embassy led by Shin Ditha Pamauk , a learned monk , to the emperor 's court .

= = = Treaty of Beijing = = = In January 1287 , the embassy arrived at Beijing , and was received by the Yuan emperor . The Burmese delegation formally acknowledged Mongol suzerainty of their kingdom , and agreed to pay annual tribute tied to the agricultural output of the country . ( Indeed , the tribute was no longer nominal . ) In exchange , the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops . For the emperor , the Burma campaign was the only bright spot ; his other Southeast Asian expeditions had gone badly . He did not want to invest more troops pacify the rest of the kingdom . He preferred a vassal ruler . The Burmese embassy arrived back at Hlegya in May 1287 , and reported the terms to the king .

= = = Breakdown = = = But the agreement broke down a month later . In late June , the defeated king and his small retinue left their temporary capital for Pagan . But on 1 July 1287 , the king was captured en route and assassinated by his second son Thihathu , the Viceroy of Prome . Anarchy ensued . Each region in the country which had not revolted broke away . No successor to Narathihapate , who could honor and enforce the terms of the treaty of Beijing , emerged . Indeed , a king would not emerge until May 1289 . = = Mongol intervention ( 1287 ) = = Given the chaos , the governor of Yunnan ignored the imperial orders of evacuation . The Mongol army commanded by Prince Ye @-@ sin Timour , a grandson of the emperor , marched south toward Pagan . According to mainstream traditional ( British colonial era ) scholarship , the Mongol army ignored the imperial orders to evacuate ; fought its way down to Pagan with the loss of 7000 men ; occupied the city ; and sent out detachments to receive homage , one of which reached south of Prome . But not all colonial period scholars agreed with the assessment as none of the contemporary Mongol / Chinese records specifically mentioned the conquest of Pagan or the temporary completeness of the conquest . Recent research shows that the Mongol forces most probably never reached Pagan . They were held at bay by the Burmese defenses led by commanders Athinkhaya , Yazathingyan and Thihathu , and probably never got closer than 160 km north of Pagan . ( An inscription dated 16 February 1293 by the three brothers claimed that they defeated the Mongol army . ) Even if the Mongols did reach Pagan , the damage they inflicted was probably minimal . At any rate , the Mongol army suffered heavy casualties , and retreated north to Tagaung . They remained there as the treaty was now void . = = Aftermath = = The disintegration of the Pagan Empire was now complete . But the Mongols refused to fill in the power vacuum they had created . They would send no more expeditions to restore order . The emperor apparently had no interest in committing troops that would be required to pacify the fragmented country . Indeed , his real aim all along may have been " to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented . " It would be another two years until one of Narathihapate 's sons , Kyawswa , emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289 . But the new " king " controlled just a small area around the capital , and had no real army . The real power in central Burma now rested with the three commander brothers . The uneasy arrangement would persist until 1297 . The Mongols continued to occupy northern Burma to Tagaung as the province of Zhengmian ( Cheng @-@ Mien ) but ended the fictional central Burma province of Mianzhong on 18 August 1290 . Meanwhile , the power struggle in central Burma continued with the three brothers blatantly consolidating support . To check their rising power , Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297 , and was recognized by the Yuan emperor Temür Khan as King of Pagan on 20 March 1297 . The emperor also gave Chinese titles to the brothers as subordinates of Kyawswa . The brothers resented the new arrangement as it directly reduced their power . On 17 December 1297 , the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa , and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom . The dethronement forced the Mongol government to intervene again , leading to the second Mongol invasion of Burma ( 1300 – 01 ) . The invasion failed . Two years later , on 4 April 1303 , the Mongols abolished the province of Zhengmian ( Cheng @-@ Mien ) , evacuated Tagaung , and returned to Yunnan . = = Legacy = = The war was one of several near simultaneous wars waged by the Mongol Empire and the Yuan dynasty in the late 13th century . Though it was never more than a minor frontier war to the Mongols , the war set off a series of enduring developments in Burma . The invasions ushered in a period of political fragmentation , and the rise of Tai @-@ Shan states throughout mainland Southeast Asia .

= = = Age of political fragmentation = = = The immediate result of the war was the collapse of the Pagan Empire . However , the war merely accelerated the collapse but did not cause it . Pagan 's disintegration was " in fact more prolonged and agonized . " The kingdom had been in long gradual decline since the early 13th century . Had Pagan possessed a stronger central government , the collapse could have been temporary , and the country “ could have risen again ” . But the dynasty could not recover , and because the Mongols refused to fill the power vacuum , no viable center emerged in the immediate aftermath . As a result , several minor states fought it out for supremacy for the better part of the 14th century . It was only in the late 14th century that two relatively strong powers emerged in the Irrawaddy basin , restoring some semblance of normalcy . The vast region surrounding the Irrawaddy valley would continue to be made up of several small Tai @-@ Shan states well into the 16th century .

= = = Rise of Tai @-@ Shan states = = = Perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Mongol invasions was the emergence of Tai @-@ Shan states in mainland Southeast Asia . The Tai @-@ Shan people who came down with the Mongol invasions stayed . By the early 14th century , several Tai @-@ Shan states had come to dominate a vast region from present @-@ day Assam to northern and eastern Myanmar to northern and central Thailand and Laos . Their rise was encouraged by the Mongols , who viewed the states as a useful buffer between Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia . The Mongols , who were still trying to incorporate Yunnan into the central administration , were unwilling or unable to make necessary sustained investments to bring the vast regions south of Yunnan into the fold . ( The integration of Yunnan itself into “ China Proper ” was to take several more centuries , and continues to today . ) As such , from the newly formed Tai @-@ Shan states in western and central Southeast Asia to Dai Viet and Champa in eastern Southeast Asia , the Mongols elected to receive nominal tribute . Though the rulers of these states were technically governors of the Yuan government , they were the native chieftains , “ who would have ruled there in any case , and they did as they pleased . ”

= = = Arrival of China on the Burmese border = = = The war also marked the arrival of China at the doorstep of Burma . The old Dali Kingdom , known to the Burmese as Gandalarit ( ဂန ္ တလရာဇ ် , after Gandhara Raj ) was now a Mongol Chinese province . ( The Burmese now called the new powers at Yunnan " Taruk " after the Turkic @-@ speaking soldiers of Yunnan . Over the years , the term Taruk came to be used to refer to the Han Chinese . Today , King Narathihapate is remembered as Taruk @-@ Pye Min , ( " the King who fled from the Taruk [ Chinese ] ) . ) From a geopolitical standpoint , the Mongol – Chinese presence in Yunnan pushed the Shan migrations in the direction of Burma ( and parts of the Khmer Empire ) . The raids by various Shan states into Upper Burma would continue until the mid @-@ 16th century . = = Mongolia – Myanmar relations = = During the official visit by the President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj to Myanmar in November 2013 , Aung San Suu Kyi , the chairperson of National League for Democracy , said this was the first ever Mongol mission since the Mongols came 730 years earlier . = Battle of Edson 's Ridge = The Battle of Edson 's Ridge , also known as the Battle of the Bloody Ridge , Battle of Raiders Ridge , and Battle of the Ridge , was a land battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II between Imperial Japanese Army and Allied ( mainly United States Marine Corps ) ground forces . It took place from 12 – 14 September 1942 , on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands , and was the second of three separate major Japanese ground offensives during the Guadalcanal Campaign . In the battle , U.S. Marines , under the overall command of U.S. Major General Alexander Vandegrift , repulsed an attack by the Japanese 35th Infantry Brigade , under the command of Japanese Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi . The Marines were defending the Lunga perimeter that guarded Henderson Field on Guadalcanal , which was captured from the Japanese by the Allies in landings on Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942 . Kawaguchi 's unit was sent to Guadalcanal in response to the Allied landings with the mission of recapturing the airfield and driving the Allied forces from the island . Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal – about 12 @,@ 000 – Kawaguchi 's 6 @,@ 000 soldiers conducted several nighttime frontal assaults on the U.S. defenses . The main Japanese assault occurred around Lunga ridge south of Henderson Field , manned by troops from several U.S. Marine Corps units , primarily troops from the 1st Raider and 1st Parachute Battalions under U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson . Although the Marine defenses were almost overrun , Kawaguchi 's attack was ultimately defeated , with heavy losses for the Japanese . Because of the key participation by Edson 's unit in defending the ridge , the ridge was commonly referred to as " Edson 's " ridge in historical accounts of the battle in Western sources . After Edson 's Ridge , the Japanese continued to send troops to Guadalcanal for further attempts to retake Henderson Field , affecting Japanese offensive operations in other areas of the South Pacific . = = Background = =

= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = = On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia . They were also intended to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign to neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul and support the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign . Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August the Allied landing forces had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands , as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point ( 9 ° 25 ′ 45 ″ S 160 ° 3 ′ 4 ″ E ) on the north shore of the island of Guadalcanal east of the present day capital of Honiara . Vandegrift placed his 11 @,@ 000 troops of the 1st Marine Division on Guadalcanal in a loose perimeter around the Lunga Point area . On 12 August , the airfield was named Henderson Field after Major Lofton Henderson , a Marine aviator who had been killed at the Battle of Midway . The Allied aircraft and pilots that subsequently operated out of Henderson Field were called the " Cactus Air Force " after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal . In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul ( 4 ° 11 ′ 56 ″ S 152 ° 9 ′ 57 ″ E ) and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . The 17th Army — heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea — had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area . Of these units , the 35th Infantry Brigade — under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi — was at Palau , the 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines and the 28th ( Ichiki ) Infantry Regiment — under the command of Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki — was embarked on transport ships near Guam . The different units began to move toward Guadalcanal immediately ; Ichiki 's regiment — the closest — arrived first . The " First Element " of Ichiki 's unit — consisting of about 917 soldiers — landed from destroyers at Taivu Point ( 9 ° 24 ′ 38 ″ S 160 ° 20 ′ 56 ″ E ) , about 18 mi ( 29 km ) east of the Lunga perimeter , on August 19 . Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal , Ichiki 's First Element conducted a nighttime frontal assault on Marine positions at Alligator Creek on the east side of the Lunga perimeter in the early morning hours of August 21 . Ichiki 's assault was repulsed with devastating losses for the attackers in what became known as the Battle of the Tenaru : all but 128 of the 917 men of the First Element ( including Ichiki himself ) were killed in the battle . The survivors returned to Taivu Point , notified 17th Army headquarters of their defeat in the battle and awaited further reinforcements and orders from Rabaul . By 23 August , Kawaguchi 's unit had reached Truk and was loaded onto slow transport ships for the rest of the trip to Guadalcanal . Because of the damage caused by Allied air attack to a separate troop convoy during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons , the Japanese decided not to deliver Kawaguchi 's troops to Guadalcanal by slow transport ship ; instead , the ships carrying Kawaguchi 's soldiers were sent to Rabaul . From there , the Japanese planned to deliver Kawaguchi 's men to Guadalcanal by destroyers , staging through a Japanese naval base in the Shortland Islands . The Japanese destroyers were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , minimizing their exposure to Allied air attack . However , most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , could not be taken to Guadalcanal with them . These high @-@ speed destroyer runs to Guadalcanal , which occurred throughout the campaign , were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese . The Japanese controlled the seas around the Solomon Islands during the nighttime and were not challenged by the Allies . However , any Japanese ship remaining within the 200 mi ( 320 km ) range of the aircraft at Henderson Field in daylight was in great danger from air attacks . This " curious tactical situation " held for several months .

= = = Troop movement = = = On 28 August , 600 of Kawaguchi 's troops were loaded onto the destroyers Asagiri , Amagiri , Yugiri , and Shirakumo , designated Destroyer Division 20 ( DD20 ) . Because of a shortage of fuel , DD20 could not make the entire round trip to Guadalcanal at high speed in one night , but had to start the trip earlier in the day so that they could complete the trip by the next morning at a slower speed which conserved fuel . At 18 : 05 that day , 11 U.S. dive bombers from VMSB @-@ 232 under the command of Lt. Col. Richard Mangrum , flew from Henderson Field and located and attacked DD20 about 70 mi ( 110 km ) north of Guadalcanal , sinking Asagiri and heavily damaging Yugiri and Shirakumo . Amagiri took Shirakumo in tow and the three destroyers returned to the Shortlands without completing their mission . The attack on DD20 killed 62 of Kawaguchi 's soldiers and 94 crew members . Subsequent " Express " runs were more successful . Between 29 August and 4 September , various Japanese light cruisers , destroyers , and patrol boats were able to land almost 5 @,@ 000 troops at Taivu Point , including all of the 35th Infantry Brigade , one battalion of the Aoba Regiment , and the rest of Ichiki 's regiment . General Kawaguchi , who landed at Taivu Point on the 31 August Express run , was placed in command of all the Japanese troops on Guadalcanal . On the night of 4 / 5 September , as three of the Express destroyers — Yūdachi , Hatsuyuki , and Murakumo — prepared to shell Henderson Field after landing their troops , they detected and sank two U.S. ships in the vicinity , the small , old destroyer transports ( called " APDs " by the U.S. Marines ) USS Little and Gregory that were used to shuttle Allied troops around the Guadalcanal / Tulagi area . In spite of the successes of the destroyer runs , Kawaguchi insisted that as many soldiers of his brigade as possible be delivered to Guadalcanal by slow barges . Therefore , a convoy carrying 1 @,@ 100 of Kawaguchi 's troops and heavy equipment in 61 barges , mainly from the 2nd Battalion , 124th Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel Akinosuka Oka , departed the northern coast of Santa Isabel Island on 2 September . On 4 – 5 September , aircraft from Henderson Field attacked the barge convoy , killing about 90 of the soldiers in the barges and destroying much of the unit 's heavy equipment . Most of the remaining 1 @,@ 000 troops were able to land near Kamimbo ( 9 ° 15 ′ 32 ″ S 159 ° 40 ′ 18 ″ E ) , west of the Lunga perimeter over the next few days . By 7 September , Kawaguchi had 5 @,@ 200 troops at Taivu Point and 1 @,@ 000 west of the Lunga perimeter . Kawaguchi was confident enough that he could defeat the Allied forces facing him that he declined an offer from the 17th Army for delivery of one more infantry battalion to augment his forces . Kawaguchi believed that there were only about 2 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal . During this time , Vandegrift continued to direct efforts to strengthen and improve the defenses of the Lunga perimeter . Between 21 August and 3 September , he relocated three Marine battalions — including the 1st Raider Battalion , under U.S. Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson ( Edson 's Raiders ) , and the 1st Parachute Battalion — from Tulagi and Gavutu to Guadalcanal . These units added about 1 @,@ 500 troops to Vandegrift 's original 11 @,@ 000 men defending Henderson Field . The 1st Parachute battalion , which had suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu @-@ Tanambogo in August , was placed under Edson 's command . = = Battle = =

= = = Prelude = = = Kawaguchi set the date for his attack on the Lunga perimeter for 12 September and began marching his forces west from Taivu towards Lunga Point on 5 September . He radioed 17th Army and requested that it carry out air strikes on Henderson Field beginning on 9 September , and that naval warships be stationed off Lunga Point on September 12 to " destroy any Americans who attempted to flee from the island . " On 7 September , Kawaguchi issued his attack plan to " rout and annihilate the enemy in the vicinity of the Guadalcanal Island airfield . " Kawaguchi 's plan called for his forces to split into three , approach the Lunga perimeter inland , and launch a surprise night attack . Oka 's force would attack the perimeter from the west while Ichiki 's Second Echelon — renamed the Kuma Battalion — would attack from the east . The main attack would be by Kawaguchi 's " Center Body " , numbering 3 @,@ 000 men in three battalions , from the south of the Lunga perimeter . By 7 September , most of Kawaguchi 's troops had started marching from Taivu towards Lunga Point along the coastline . About 250 Japanese troops remained behind to guard the brigade 's supply base at Taivu . Meanwhile , native island scouts — directed by British government official and officer in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force , Martin Clemens — told the Marines of Japanese troops at Taivu , near the village of Tasimboko , about 17 mi ( 27 km ) east of Lunga . Edson launched a raid against the Japanese troops at Taivu . Destroyer transports USS McKean and Manley and two patrol boats took 813 of Edson 's men to Taivu in two trips . Edson and his first wave of 501 troops landed at Taivu at 05 : 20 ( local time ) on 8 September . Supported by aircraft from Henderson Field and gunfire from the destroyer transports , Edson 's men advanced towards Tasimboko village but were slowed by Japanese resistance . At 11 : 00 , the rest of Edson 's men landed . With this reinforcement and more support from the Henderson Field aircraft , Edson 's force pushed into the village . The Japanese defenders , believing a major landing was underway after observing the concurrent approach of an Allied supply ship convoy heading towards Lunga Point , retreated into the jungle , leaving behind 27 dead . Two Marines were killed . In Tasimboko , Edson 's troops discovered the supply base for Kawaguchi 's forces , including large stockpiles of food , ammunition and medical supplies , and a shortwave radio . The Marines seized documents , equipment and food supplies , destroyed the rest , and returned to the Lunga perimeter at 17 : 30 . The quantities of supplies and intelligence from the captured documents revealed that at least 3 @,@ 000 Japanese troops were on the island and apparently planning an attack . Edson and Colonel Gerald Thomas , Vandegrift 's operations officer , believed that the Japanese attack would come at the Lunga Ridge , a narrow , grassy , 1 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) long , coral ridge ( 9 ° 26 ′ 39 ″ S 160 ° 2 ′ 50 ″ E ) parallel to the Lunga River just south of Henderson Field . The ridge offered a natural avenue of approach to the airfield , commanded the surrounding area and was almost undefended . Edson and Thomas tried to persuade Vandegrift to move forces to defend the ridge , but Vandegrift refused , believing that the Japanese were more likely to attack along the coast . Finally , Thomas convinced Vandegrift that the ridge was a good location for Edson 's Raiders to " rest " from their actions of the preceding month . On 11 September , the 840 men of Edson 's unit — including the 1st Raiders and the Paramarines — deployed onto and around the ridge and prepared to defend it . Kawaguchi 's Center Body of troops was planning to attack the Lunga perimeter at the ridge , which they called " the centipede " ( mukade gata ) because of its shape . On 9 September , Kawaguchi 's troops left the coast at Koli Point . Split into four columns , they marched into the jungle towards their predesignated attack points south and southeast of the airfield . Lack of good maps , at least one faulty compass , and thick , almost impenetrable jungle caused the Japanese columns to proceed slowly and zigzag , costing a lot of time . At the same time , Oka 's troops approached the Lunga perimeter from the west . Oka had some intelligence on the Marine defenses , extracted from a U.S. Army pilot captured on 30 August . During the day of 12 September , Kawaguchi 's troops struggled through the jungle toward their assembly points for that night 's attacks . Kawaguchi wanted his three Center Body battalions in place by 14 : 00 , but they did not reach their assembly areas until after 22 : 00 . Oka was also delayed in his advance towards the Marine lines in the west . Only the Kuma battalion reported that they were in place on time . Despite the problems in reaching the planned attack positions , Kawaguchi was still confident in his attack plan because a captured U.S. pilot disclosed that the ridge was the weakest part of the Marine defenses . Japanese bombers attacked the ridge during daytime on 11 – 12 September , causing a few casualties , including two killed .

= = = First night 's action = = = The Americans knew of the approach of the Japanese forces from reports from native scouts and their own patrols , but did not know exactly where or when they would attack . The ridge around which Edson deployed his men consisted of three distinct hillocks . At the southern tip and surrounded on three sides by thick jungle was Hill 80 ( so named because it rose 80 ft ( 24 m ) above sea level ) . Six hundred yards north was Hill 123 ( 123 ft ( 37 m ) high ) , the dominant feature on the ridge . The northernmost hillock was unnamed and about 60 ft ( 18 m ) high . Edson placed the five companies from the Raider battalion on the west side of the ridge and the three Parachute battalion companies on the east side , holding positions in depth from Hill 80 back to Hill 123 . Two of the five Raider companies , " B " and " C " , held a line between the ridge , a small , swampy lagoon , and the Lunga River . Machine @-@ gun teams from " E " Company , the heavy weapons company , were scattered throughout the defenses . Edson placed his command post on Hill 123 . At 21 : 30 on 12 September , the Japanese cruiser Sendai and three destroyers shelled the Lunga perimeter for 20 minutes and illuminated the ridge with a searchlight . Japanese artillery began shelling the Marine lines , but did little damage . At the same time , scattered groups of Kawaguchi 's troops began skirmishing with Marines around the ridge . Kawaguchi 's 1st Battalion — led by Major Yukichi Kokusho — attacked the Raider 's " C " company between the lagoon and the Lunga River , overrunning at least one platoon and forcing the Marine company to fall back to the ridge . Kokusho 's unit became entangled with troops from Kawaguchi 's 3rd Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Kusukichi Watanabe , who were still struggling to reach their attack positions , and the resulting confusion effectively stopped the Japanese attack on the ridge that night . Kawaguchi , who was having trouble locating where he was in relation to the U.S. Marine lines as well as coordinating his troops ' attacks , later complained , " Due to the devilish jungle , the brigade was scattered all over and was completely beyond my control . In my whole life I have never felt so disappointed and helpless . " Twelve U.S. Marines were killed ; Japanese casualties are unknown but perhaps somewhat greater . Although both Oka in the west and the Kuma unit in the east tried to attack the Marine lines that night , they failed to make contact and halted near the Marine lines at dawn . At first light on 13 September , Cactus Air Force aircraft and Marine artillery fired into the area just south of the ridge , forcing any Japanese out in the open to seek cover in the nearby jungle . The Japanese suffered several casualties , including two officers from Watanabe 's battalion . At 05 : 50 , Kawaguchi decided to regroup his forces for another attack that night .

= = = Second night 's action on the ridge = = = Expecting the Japanese to attack again that night , Edson directed his troops to improve their defenses on and around the ridge . After a failed attempt by two companies to retake the ground on the Marine right flank lost to Kokusho the night before , Edson repositioned his forces . He pulled his front back about 400 yd ( 370 m ) to a line that stretched 1 @,@ 800 yd ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) , starting at the Lunga River and crossing the ridge about 150 yd ( 140 m ) south of Hill 123 . Around and behind Hill 123 he placed five companies . Any Japanese attackers surmounting Hill 80 would have to advance over 400 yd ( 370 m ) of open terrain to close with the Marine positions at Hill 123 . With only a few hours to prepare , the Marines were only able to construct rudimentary and shallow fortifications . They were low on ammunition , with one or two grenades for each Marine . Vandegrift ordered a reserve force consisting of the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marine Regiment ( 2 / 5 ) to move into a position just to the rear of Edson 's troops . In addition , a battery of four 105mm howitzers from the 11th Marine Regiment moved to a location from where it could provide direct fire onto the ridge , and a forward artillery observer was placed with Edson 's front line units . Late in the afternoon , Edson stepped onto a grenade box and addressed his exhausted troops , saying , You men have done a great job , and I have just one more thing to ask of you . Hold out just one more night . I know we 've been without sleep a long time . But we expect another attack from them tonight and they may come through here . I have every reason to believe that we will have reliefs here for all of us in the morning . Edson 's speech " raised the spirits " of the Raiders and helped them prepare mentally for the night ahead . As the sun set on 13 September , Kawaguchi faced Edson 's 830 Marines with 3 @,@ 000 troops of his brigade , plus an assortment of light artillery . The night was pitch black , with no moon . At 21 : 00 , seven Japanese destroyers briefly bombarded the ridge . Kawaguchi 's attack began just after nightfall , with Kokusho 's battalion assaulting Raider Company B on the Marine right flank , just to the west of the ridge . The force of the assault caused Company B to fall back to Hill 123 . Under Marine artillery fire , Kokusho reassembled his men and continued his attack . Without pausing to try to " roll @-@ up " the other nearby Marine units , whose flanks were now unprotected , Kokusho 's unit surged forward through the swampy lowlands between the ridge and the Lunga River , heading for the airfield . Kokusho 's men came upon a pile of Marine supplies and rations . Not having eaten adequately for a couple of days , they paused to " gorge themselves " on the " C " and " K " rations . Kokusho ordered his men to continue the attack . At about 03 : 00 , he led them against the Marine units around the northern portion of the ridge , just short of the airfield , as well as Hill 123 . In the heavy fighting that followed , Kokusho and around 100 of his men were killed , ending that attack . Meanwhile , Kawaguchi 's 2nd Battalion , under Major Masao Tamura , assembled for their planned assault against Hill 80 from the jungle south of the ridge . Marine observers spotted Tamura 's preparations and called in artillery fire . At about 22 : 00 , a barrage from twelve 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns hit Tamura 's position . In response , two companies of Tamura 's troops — numbering about 320 men — charged up Hill 80 with fixed bayonets behind their own barrage of mortar fire and grenades . Tamura 's attack hit Company B of the Marine Parachute battalion and also Raider Company B , pushing the Parachutists off the east side of the ridge into a draw below the ridgeline . To protect the exposed Raider Company B , Edson immediately ordered them to pull back onto Hill 123 . At the same time , a Japanese company from Watanabe 's battalion infiltrated through a gap between the east side of the ridge and Parachute Company C. Deciding that their positions were now untenable , Parachute Companies B and C climbed onto the ridge and retreated to a position behind Hill 123 . In the darkness and confusion of the battle , the retreat quickly became confused and disorganized . A few Marines began yelling that the Japanese were attacking with poison gas , scaring other Marines who no longer possessed their gas masks . After arriving behind Hill 123 , some of the Marines continued on towards the airfield , repeating the word " withdraw " to anyone within earshot . Other Marines began to follow them . Just at the moment that it appeared that the Marines on the hill were about to break and head for the rear in a rout , Edson , Major Kenneth D. Bailey from Edson 's staff , and other Marine officers appeared and , with " vivid " language , herded the Marines back into defensive positions around Hill 123 . As the Marines formed into a horseshoe @-@ shaped line around Hill 123 , Tamura 's battalion began a series of frontal assaults on the hill , charging up the saddle from Hill 80 and up from below the east side of the ridge . Under the light of parachute flares dropped by at least one Japanese floatplane , the Marines repulsed the first two attacks by Tamura 's men . Tamura 's troops hoisted a 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) " regimental " gun to the top of Hill 80 in an effort to fire it directly at the Marines . This gun , which " could have turned the tide in favor of the Japanese , " however , was disabled by a faulty firing pin . At midnight , during a short lull in the fighting , Edson ordered Parachute Companies B and C to advance from behind Hill 123 to strengthen his left flank . With fixed bayonets , the Paramarines swept forward , killing Japanese soldiers who had overrun the Marine lines and were apparently preparing to roll up the Marine lines from the flank , and took position on the east side of the hill . Marines from other units , as well as members of Edson 's command staff , including Major Bailey , took ammunition and grenades under fire to the Marines around Hill 123 , who were running critically low . Said Marine participant Captain William J. McKennan , " The Japanese attack was almost constant , like a rain that subsides for a moment and then pours the harder ... When one wave was mowed down - and I mean mowed down - another followed it into death . " The Japanese hit Edson 's left flank just after the Parachutists took position but were again stopped by Marine rifle , machine @-@ gun , mortar , and grenade fire . Marine 105 mm and 75 mm artillery was also taking a heavy toll on the attacking Japanese . A captured Japanese soldier later said that his unit was " annihilated " by the Marine artillery fire , which only 10 % of his company survived . By 04 : 00 , after withstanding several more assaults , some of which resulted in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting , and severe sniper fire from all sides , Edson 's men were joined by troops from the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marine Regiment , who helped repulse two more Japanese attacks before dawn . Throughout the night , as Kawaguchi 's men came close to overrunning the Marine defenses , Edson remained standing about 20 yd ( 18 m ) behind the Marine firing line on Hill 123 , exhorting his troops and directing their defensive efforts . Said Marine Captain Tex Smith , who was in position to observe Edson for most of the night , " I can say that if there is such a thing as one man holding a battalion together , Edson did it that night . He stood just behind the front lines – stood , when most of us hugged the ground . " During the heavy fighting , portions of three Japanese companies , including two from Tamura 's and one from Watanabe 's battalions , skirted the Marine defenses on the ridge , while suffering heavy losses from Marine gunfire , and reached the edge of " Fighter One " , a secondary runway of Henderson Field . A counterattack by the Marine engineers stopped one Japanese company 's advances and forced it to retreat . The other two companies waited at the edge of the jungle for reinforcements to arrive before attacking into the open area around the airfield . When no reinforcements joined them , both companies went back to their original positions south of the ridge after daybreak . Most of the rest of Watanabe 's battalion did not participate in the battle because they lost contact with their commander during the night . As the sun rose on 14 September , pockets of Japanese soldiers remained scattered along both sides of the ridge . But with Tamura 's battalion shattered after losing ¾ of its officers and men , and with heavy casualties to his other attacking units as well , Kawaguchi 's assault on the ridge had effectively ended . About 100 Japanese soldiers still remained in the open on the south slope of Hill 80 , perhaps preparing for one more charge on Hill 123 . At first light , three U.S. Army aircraft from the 67th Fighter Squadron at Henderson Field , acting on a request personally delivered by Bailey , strafed the Japanese near Hill 80 and killed most of them , with the few survivors retreating back into the jungle .

= = = Kuma and Oka attacks = = = As the battle on the ridge took place , Kawaguchi 's Kuma and Oka units also attacked the Marine defenses on the east and west sides of the Lunga perimeter . The Kuma battalion — led by Major Takeshi Mizuno — attacked the southeastern sector of the Lunga perimeter , defended by Marines of the 3rd Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment ( 3 / 1 ) . Mizuno 's attack started around midnight , with one company attacking through Marine artillery fire and engaging in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the Marine defenders before being thrown back . Mizuno was killed in the attack . After daybreak , the Marines , believing that the rest of Mizuno 's battalion was still in the area , sent forward six light tanks without infantry support to sweep the area in front of the Marine lines ; four Japanese 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns destroyed or disabled three of them . After abandoning their burning tanks , several of the disabled tanks ' crewmembers were bayoneted and killed by the Japanese . One tank tumbled down an embankment into the Tenaru River , drowning its crew . At 23 : 00 on 14 September , the remnants of the Kuma battalion conducted another attack on the same portion of the Marine lines , but were repulsed . A final " weak " attack by the Kuma unit on the evening of 15 September was also defeated . Oka 's unit of about 650 men attacked the Marines at several locations on the west side of the Lunga perimeter . At about 04 : 00 on 14 September , two Japanese companies attacked positions held by the 3rd Battalion , 5th Marine Regiment ( 3 / 5 ) near the coast and were thrown back with heavy losses . Another Japanese company captured a small ridge somewhat inland but was then pinned down by Marine artillery fire throughout the day and took heavy losses before withdrawing on the evening of 14 September . The rest of Oka 's unit failed to find the Marine lines and did not participate in the attack . = = Aftermath = = At 13 : 05 on 14 September , Kawaguchi led the survivors of his shattered brigade away from the ridge and deeper into the jungle , where they rested and tended to their wounded all the next day . Kawaguchi 's units were then ordered to withdraw west to the Matanikau River valley to join with Oka 's unit , a 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) march over difficult terrain . Kawaguchi 's troops began the march on the morning of 16 September . Almost every soldier able to walk had to help carry the wounded . As the march progressed , the exhausted and hungry soldiers , who had eaten their last rations on the morning before their withdrawal , began to discard their heavy equipment and then their rifles . By the time most of them reached Oka 's positions at Kokumbona five days later , only half still carried their weapons . The Kuma battalion 's survivors , attempting to follow Kawaguchi 's Center Body forces , became lost , wandered for three weeks in the jungle , and almost starved to death before finally reaching Kawaguchi 's camp . In total , Kawaguchi 's forces lost about 830 killed in the attack , including 350 in Tamura 's battalion , 200 in Kokusho 's battalion , 120 in Oka 's force , 100 in the Kuma battalion , and 60 in Watanabe 's battalion . An unknown number of wounded also died during the withdrawal march to the Matanikau . On and around the ridge , the Marines counted 500 Japanese dead , including 200 on the slopes of Hill 123 . The Marines suffered 80 killed between 12 and 14 September . On 17 September , Vandegrift sent two companies from the 1st Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment ( 1 / 1 ) to pursue the retreating Japanese . The Marines were ambushed by two Japanese companies acting as rear @-@ guards for the withdrawal , and one Marine platoon was pinned down as the rest of the Marines retreated . The Marine company commander requested permission to attempt to rescue his platoon but was denied by Vandegrift . By nightfall , the Japanese overran and nearly annihilated the platoon , killing 24 Marines with only a few wounded members of the platoon surviving . On 20 September , a patrol from Edson 's Raiders encountered stragglers from Kawaguchi 's retreating column and called in artillery fire that killed 19 of them . As the Japanese regrouped west of the Matanikau , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 14 September , Vandegrift moved another battalion , the 3rd Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment ( 3 / 2 ) , from Tulagi to Guadalcanal . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade ( the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment augmented by additional support units ) to Guadalcanal . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift — beginning on 19 September — to establish an unbroken line of defense around the Lunga perimeter . Vandegrift 's forces ' next significant clashes with the Japanese occurred along the Matanikau River from 23 – 27 September and 6 – 9 October . = = Significance = = On 15 September , General Hyakutake at Rabaul learned of Kawaguchi 's defeat , the Imperial Japanese Army 's first defeat involving a unit of this size in the war . The general forwarded the news to the Imperial General Headquarters in Japan . In an emergency session , the top Japanese army and navy command staffs concluded that , " Guadalcanal might develop into the decisive battle of the war . " The results of the battle began to have a telling strategic impact on Japanese operations in other areas of the Pacific . Hyakutake realized that , in order to send sufficient troops and materiel to defeat the Allied forces on Guadalcanal , he could no longer support the major Japanese offensive on the Kokoda Track in New Guinea . Hyakutake — with the concurrence of the General Headquarters — ordered his troops on New Guinea , who were within 30 mi ( 48 km ) of their objective of Port Moresby — to withdraw until the Guadalcanal matter was resolved . The Japanese were never able to restart their drive towards Port Moresby ; the defeat at Edson 's Ridge contributed not only to Japan 's defeat in the Guadalcanal campaign , but also to Japan 's ultimate defeat throughout the South Pacific . After delivering more forces during the next month the Japanese mounted a major ground offensive on Guadalcanal , led by Hyakutake , in late October 1942 at the Battle for Henderson Field , but it resulted in an even more decisive defeat for the Japanese . Vandegrift later stated that Kawaguchi 's assault on the ridge in September was the only time during the entire campaign he had doubts about the outcome and that had it succeeded , " we would have been in a pretty bad condition . " Historian Richard B. Frank adds , " The Japanese never came closer to victory on the island itself than in September 1942 , on a ridge thrusting up from the jungle just south of the critical airfield , best known ever after as Bloody Ridge . " = New Jersey Route 50 = Route 50 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 26 @.@ 02 mi ( 41 @.@ 88 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and the Garden State Parkway in Upper Township , Cape May County to an intersection with US 30 and County Route 563 ( CR 563 ) in Egg Harbor City , Atlantic County . The route , which is mostly a two @-@ lane undivided road , passes through mostly rural areas of Atlantic and Cape May counties as well as the communities of Tuckahoe , Corbin City , Estell Manor , and Mays Landing . NJ 50 intersects several roads , including Route 49 in Tuckahoe , US 40 in Mays Landing , and US 322 and the Atlantic City Expressway in Hamilton Township . The portion of current Route 50 between Seaville and Petersburg received funding in 1910 to become a spur of the Ocean Highway . In 1917 , what is now Route 50 was designated a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 , a route that was to run from Cape May to Egg Harbor City . Route 50 was designated onto its current alignment in 1927 , replacing this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 . In 1960 , a freeway was proposed for Route 50 , running from the Garden State Parkway in Dennis Township to US 30 in Mullica Township . This proposal was canceled by the mid @-@ 1970s due to financial and environmental concerns as well as lack of traffic . The interchange between Route 50 and the Atlantic City Expressway was reconstructed into a full interchange , with completion in June 2010 . = = Route description = = Route 50 begins at an intersection with US 9 in the Seaville section of Upper Township , Cape May County , heading to the north on a two @-@ lane undivided road . From the southern terminus , a ramp provides access to and from the southbound Garden State Parkway . The road heads north through mostly rural wooded areas with some buildings . It intersects CR 671 in Greenfield before coming to a junction with CR 616 . Later , Route 50 Cedar Swamp Creek in an area of marshland . At this crossing , the road runs closely parallel to a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before entering Petersburg , where it splits from the railroad tracks and comes to a crossroad with CR 610 . Upon leaving Petersburg , Route 50 turns to the north again and crosses over the Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line , intersecting CR 631 . It continues to Tuckahoe and comes to CR 669 . Past this intersection , the route meets CR 557 and CR 664 . Route 50 forms a concurrency with CR 557 and the two routes head north and encounter the eastern terminus of Route 49 before leaving Tuckahoe . Not far after Route 49 , the road crosses the Tuckahoe River into Corbin City , Atlantic County . In Corbin City , it heads into residential areas , with CR 611 looping to the west of the route . Route 50 and CR 557 continue northwest and intersect CR 648 , where the road turns north into more forested areas . At the junction with CR 645 , the route turns to the northeast and enters Estell Manor , becoming Broad Street . CR 557 splits from Route 50 by heading northwest on Buena Tuckahoe Road and Route 50 heads through some agricultural clearings concurrent with CR 557 Truck , passing to the west of the MacNamara Wildlife Area , which is known as a breeding ground for several species of birds . The route intersects CR 637 , turning to the northeast . After passing some homes and Stephen Lake , the road turns to the north and passes to the west of Estell Manor County Park . The route crosses the South River into Weymouth Township , passing the residential community of Belcoville to the east and meeting CR 669 . It soon enters Hamilton Township , where the name of the road becomes Mill Street and it comes to a junction with US 40 ( Harding Highway ) . CR 557 Truck heads to the west on US 40 at this point while Route 50 heads east on US 40 , and CR 616 continues north . US 40 and NJ 50 follow the Harding Highway , a two @-@ lane undivided road , turning to the northeast and crossing the Great Egg Harbor River . Upon passing over the river , enters Mays Landing and turns north , encountering CR 617 before passing over an abandoned railroad line and heading into the downtown area of Mays Landing . Here , the road crosses CR 559 , and US 40 splits from NJ 50 by turning east along that road . Meanwhile , Route 50 continues north on Cape May Avenue , passing through developed areas . It leaves Mays Landing and heads into back into forests . The route turns to the northeast , passing near the Clover Leaf Lakes residential development , before coming to an interchange with US 322 ( Black Horse Pike ) . Past this interchange , Route 50 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway and reaches a full interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway . The route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road again and continues through inhabited areas , crossing into Galloway Township , where there is an intersection with CR 686 . A short distance later , the road crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line near the Egg Harbor City Station and enters Egg Harbor City , turning into Philadelphia Avenue . A block after the railroad crossing , Route 50 ends at an intersection with US 30 and CR 563 ( White Horse Pike ) , with CR 563 continuing north on Philadelphia Avenue at this point . Route 50 is an important route linking the Atlantic City Expressway with the Jersey Shore resorts in Cape May County , serving as an alternate to more congested routes . It also serves as evacuation route from Cape May County to inland areas in the event of a hurricane . = = History = = The portion of current Route 50 between Seaville and Petersburg received funding to become a spur of the Ocean Highway in 1910 . The modern @-@ day alignment of Route 50 was legislated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 in 1917 , a route that was to run from Cape May to Egg Harbor City . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 between Seaville and Egg Harbor City was designated as Route 50 , the highest state route number assigned in the renumbering . Route 50 retained its current routing in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering . A freeway was proposed for Route 50 around 1960 , running from the Garden State Parkway in Dennis Township north to US 30 in Mullica Township . This proposed freeway was intended to provide economic development to the region as well as provide a better route to the Jersey Shore resorts of Cape May County for travelers from the Delaware Valley . However , this freeway was canceled by the mid @-@ 1970s due to financial and environmental concerns as well as lack of traffic along Route 50 . On November 21 , 2008 , construction began on making the interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway a full interchange as part of a series of improvements set for the Atlantic City Expressway . This project was completed on June 18 , 2010 . = = Major intersections = = = Air Rhodesia Flight 825 = Air Rhodesia Flight 825 was a scheduled passenger flight that was shot down by the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) on 3 September 1978 , during the Rhodesian Bush War . The aircraft involved , a Vickers Viscount named the Hunyani , was flying the last leg of Air Rhodesia 's regular scheduled service from Victoria Falls to the capital Salisbury , via the resort town of Kariba . Soon after Flight 825 took off , a group of ZIPRA guerrillas scored a direct hit on its starboard wing with a Soviet @-@ made Strela 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air infrared homing missile , critically damaging the aircraft and forcing an emergency landing . An attempted belly landing in a cotton field just west of Karoi was foiled by an unseen ditch , which caused the plane to cartwheel and break up . Of the 52 passengers and four crew , 38 died in this crash ; the insurgents then approached the wreckage , rounded up the 10 survivors they could see and massacred them with automatic gunfire . Three passengers survived by hiding in the surrounding bush , while a further five lived because they had gone to look for water before the guerrillas arrived . ZIPRA leader Joshua Nkomo publicly claimed responsibility for shooting down the Hunyani in an interview with the BBC 's Today programme the same evening , saying the aircraft had been used for military purposes , but denied that his men had killed survivors on the ground . The majority of Rhodesians , both black and white , saw the attack as an act of terrorism . A fierce white Rhodesian backlash followed against perceived enemies , with many whites becoming violently resentful and suspicious of blacks in general , even though few black Rhodesians supported attacks of this kind . Reports viewing the attack negatively appeared in international journals such as Time magazine , but there was almost no acknowledgement of it by overseas governments , much to the Rhodesian government 's indignation . Talks between Nkomo and Prime Minister Ian Smith , which had been progressing promisingly , were immediately suspended by the furious Rhodesians , with Smith calling Nkomo a " monster " . On 10 September , Smith announced the extension of martial law over selected areas . The Rhodesian Security Forces launched several retaliatory strikes into Zambia and Mozambique over the following months , attacking both ZIPRA and its rival , the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) . The attack on ZIPRA in particular brought great controversy as many of those killed were refugees camping in and around guerrilla positions . Five months later , in February 1979 , ZIPRA shot down Air Rhodesia Flight 827 , another civilian flight , in an almost identical incident . = = Background = = A dispute over the terms for the granting of full sovereignty to the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) led the colonial government , headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith , to unilaterally declare independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965 . The idea of " no independence before majority rule " had recently gained ground in Britain and elsewhere amid decolonisation , and Rhodesia 's government was dominated by the country 's white minority , so the unilateral declaration went unrecognised internationally . Britain and the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia . Two rival communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups initiated military campaigns to overthrow the government and introduce majority rule : the Chinese @-@ aligned Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) , mostly comprising Shonas , created the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and adopted aspects of Maoist doctrine , while the Ndebele @-@ dominated Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) , aligned with Soviet @-@ style Marxism – Leninism and the Warsaw Pact , mobilised the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) . These guerrilla armies proceeded to wage what they called the " Second Chimurenga " against the Rhodesian government and security forces . The resulting conflict , the Rhodesian Bush War , began in earnest in December 1972 , when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia . After the security forces mounted a successful counter @-@ insurgency campaign during 1973 and 1974 , developments overseas caused the conflict 's momentum to shift in the insurgents ' favour . The leftist Carnation Revolution of April 1974 caused Portugal to withdraw its key economic support for Smith 's administration , and led to Mozambique 's independence the following year as a communist state openly allied with ZANU . Around the same time , Rhodesia 's other main backer , South Africa , adopted a détente initiative that forced a ceasefire , giving the guerrillas time to regroup . Following the abortive Victoria Falls Conference of August 1975 , Smith and the ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo held unsuccessful talks between December 1975 and March 1976 . ZANU and ZAPU announced in October 1976 , during the run @-@ up to the unsuccessful Geneva Conference in December , that they would henceforth attend conferences as a joint " Patriotic Front " . In March 1978 , Smith and non @-@ militant nationalist groups headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa , the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole and Chief Jeremiah Chirau agreed what became the " Internal Settlement " . This created a joint black – white transitional government , with the country due to be reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979 , pursuant to multiracial elections . ZANU and ZAPU were invited to participate , but refused ; Nkomo sardonically dubbed Smith 's black colleagues " the blacksmiths " . ZANU proclaimed 1978 to be " The Year of the People " as the war continued . Officials from Muzorewa 's United African National Council , sent to the provinces to explain the Internal Settlement to rural blacks , were killed by Marxist – Leninist guerrillas . Insurgents also began to target Christian missionaries , climaxing in the killing of nine British missionaries and four children at Elim Mission near the Mozambican border on 23 June . The transitional government was badly received abroad , partly because the Internal Settlement kept control of law enforcement , the military , the judiciary and the civil service under white control . No country recognised Rhodesia 's interim administration . Smith again worked to bring Nkomo into the government , hoping this would lend it some credence domestically , prompt diplomatic recognition overseas , and help the security forces defeat ZANLA . Starting on 14 August 1978 , he attended secret meetings with Nkomo in Lusaka , Zambia ( where ZAPU was based ) , doing so with the assistance of the mining corporation Lonrho . Attempts were made to also involve the ZANU leader Robert Mugabe , but Mugabe would have no part in the talks . According to the South African military historian Jakkie Cilliers , negotiations between Smith and Nkomo progressed well and " seemed on the verge of success " by the start of September 1978 . On 2 September , Smith and Nkomo revealed publicly that the secret meetings had taken place . = = Incident = =

= = = Prior threats to Rhodesian air traffic = = = Rhodesian air traffic was not seriously threatened until about 1977 , in the latter stages of the war ; before this time , neither revolutionary force had the weapons to launch a viable attack against an aerial target . The weapon that made such attacks feasible for ZIPRA was the Strela 2 shoulder @-@ launched surface @-@ to @-@ air missile launcher , supplied by the Soviet Union from the mid @-@ 1970s as part of the Warsaw Pact 's materiel support . By September 1978 , there had been 20 reported attempts to shoot down Rhodesian military aircraft using these weapons , none of which had been successful . Some Rhodesian Air Force Dakotas had been hit , but all had survived and landed safely . No civilian aircraft had yet been targeted during the Bush War .

= = = Flight = = = Air Rhodesia was the country 's national airline , established by the government on 1 September 1967 to succeed Central African Airways , which was dissolved at the end of that year . Based at Salisbury Airport , Air Rhodesia 's flight network during the late 1970s comprised a domestic programme of passenger and cargo flights , as well as international services to the South African cities of Johannesburg and Durban . The Flight 825 aircraft was a Vickers Viscount 782D , a British @-@ made turboprop aircraft with two engines on each wing . It was named the Hunyani after the river of the same name , which flowed between Lake Kariba and the Rhodesian capital Salisbury . The Hunyani was on the second and final leg of its regular scheduled journey between Victoria Falls and Salisbury , stopping over in the resort town of Kariba . Despite the occasional rocket and mortar attacks launched on Kariba by ZIPRA guerrillas on the northern side of the Zambezi ( in Zambia ) , the resort had endured as one of Rhodesia 's choice tourist destinations . The flight on 3 September 1978 , Sunday afternoon , from Kariba to Salisbury carried four crew members and 52 passengers , most of whom were holidaymakers from Salisbury , returning home after a weekend at the lake . The flight took off from Kariba Airport on schedule soon after 17 : 00 Central Africa Time . Flight 825 was piloted by 36 @-@ year @-@ old Captain John Hood , a native of Bulawayo who had gained his commercial pilot licence in 1966 . He had flown Viscounts for Air Rhodesia since 1968 , and had also served in the Rhodesian Air Force on a voluntary basis . His first officer , Garth Beaumont , was 31 years old , and had lived in Rhodesia for most of his life , having immigrated as a child from South Africa . The two air stewardesses were Dulcie Esterhuizen , 21 years old and from Bulawayo , and 23 @-@ year @-@ old Louise Pearson , from Salisbury .

= = = Shootdown = = = A group of ZIPRA guerrillas , armed with a Strela @-@ 2 launcher , waited in the bush beneath Flight 825 's flightpath , and fired on the Hunyani about five minutes after it took off , while the aircraft was still in the climb phase of its flight . The heat @-@ seeking missile hit the plane 's starboard wing and exploded , causing the inner engine to also explode . A fuel tank and hydraulic lines ruptured , creating a fire that the passengers and crew could not put out . The second starboard engine failed almost immediately , leaving Hood with only his two port engines . Heaving wildly , the Hunyani began to descend rapidly . At 17 : 10 Captain Hood sent a distress call to air traffic control , informing them that he had lost the two starboard engines and was going to crash . " We 're going in , " he radioed . Telling his passengers to brace for an emergency landing , he aimed for an open field of cotton in the Whamira Hills , in the bush to the west of Karoi , intending to belly land the craft . The landing was relatively stable until the Hunyani hit a previously unseen ditch , cartwheeled and exploded . The remaining fuel tanks ruptured and caught fire , setting the wrecked cabin ablaze .

= = = Massacre on the ground = = = Of the 56 people on board , 38 , including Hood and Beaumont , died in the crash . Eighteen survived , albeit with injuries , and climbed out of the wreckage . After briefly settling the others , one of the passengers , Dr Cecil MacLaren , led four others — young newlyweds Robert and Shannon Hargreaves , Mrs Sharon Coles , and her four @-@ year @-@ old daughter Tracey — off in the direction of a nearby village in search of water . The other 13 remained close to the wreckage . Meanwhile , nine guerrillas made their way towards the crash site , and reached it at about 17 : 45 . Three of the 13 survivors remaining at the crash site hid on seeing figures approaching : Rhodesian Army reservist Anthony Hill , 39 , took cover in the surrounding bush , while businessman Hans Hansen and his wife Diana did the same . This left 10 passengers in full view near the wreckage , including four women and two girls ( aged 11 and 4 ) . The guerrillas , who were armed with AK @-@ 47 rifles , presented themselves to the 10 passengers as friendly , saying they would summon help and bring water . They spoke in English , both to the survivors and among themselves . They told the passengers to congregate around a point a few metres from the wreckage ; when the survivors said that some of them were too badly injured to walk , the insurgents told the able @-@ bodied men to carry the others . The passengers were assembled into an area of about 10 square metres ( 110 sq ft ) . Standing roughly 15 metres ( 49 ft ) away , the cadres now raised their weapons . " You have taken our land , " one of them said . " Please don 't shoot us ! " one of the passengers cried , just before they were killed by a sustained burst of automatic gunfire . Having collected water from the nearby village , MacLaren and his companions were almost back at the crash site when they heard the shots . Thinking it was personal ammunition in the luggage exploding in the heat , they continued on their way , and called out to the other passengers , who they thought were still alive . This alerted the insurgents to the presence of more survivors ; one of the guerrillas told MacLaren 's group to " come here " . The insurgents then opened fire on their general location , prompting MacLaren and the others to flee . Hill and the Hansens also ran ; they revealed their positions to the fighters in their haste , but successfully hid themselves behind a ridge . After Hill and the others had hidden there for about two hours , they saw the attackers return to the crash site at about 19 : 45 . The guerrillas looted the wrecked cabin and some of the suitcases strewn around the site , filled their arms with various passengers ' belongings , then left again . The survivors were found over the following days by the Rhodesian Army and police ; Hill and Mr and Mrs Hansen were taken to Kariba Hospital , while MacLaren and his group were airlifted to Andrew Fleming Hospital in Salisbury .

= = = Nkomo claims responsibility , but denies killing survivors = = = Nkomo claimed responsibility for the attack in an interview with the BBC 's Today radio programme the next day , laughing as he did so , to the horror of most Rhodesian observers , both black and white . He said that he had received intelligence that the Hunyani was being used for military purposes . Nkomo said he regretted the deaths as it was not his party 's policy to kill civilians , and denied that his men had killed any survivors on the ground ; by contrast , he said that his men had helped them , and had left them alive . He also accused Air Rhodesia of surreptitiously hauling troops and war materiel for the government , an allegation that Captain Pat Travers , Air Rhodesia 's general manager , called a " downright , deliberate lie " . According to Eliakim Sibanda , a professor and human rights speaker who wrote a history of ZAPU , Nkomo was implying that responsibility for the massacre actually lay with security force pseudo @-@ guerrillas , more specifically the mixed race Selous Scouts unit , which had often been accused of brutalising rural civilians with the goal of shifting public opinion . Sibanda asserts that the massacre " cannot be put beyond " the Scouts , and also supports Nkomo 's claim that the Hunyani had been used militarily , suggesting that ZIPRA might have believed there to be Rhodesian soldiers on board . " Rhodesian television , before attacks on ZANLA in Mozambique , had shown Viscounts ferrying paratroopers for the job , " he writes , " ... [ and ] ZIPRA intelligence knew there were paratroopers stationed [ at Victoria Falls ] " . = = Reactions = =

= = = White Rhodesians turn against blacks = = = A report published in the American magazine Time a fortnight later described the incident as " a genuine horror story , calculated to make the most alarming of Rhodesian doomsday prophecies seem true . " Indeed , the white community in Rhodesia heard the news with fury , and many turned their minds to exacting retribution for what they and many others saw as an act of terrorism . The prominent Indian @-@ Rhodesian Gulab family was particularly affected by the incident , having lost eight members in the attack . Though Rhodesian authorities did not immediately acknowledge the cause of the crash , doing so only after four days ' investigation , the truth was common knowledge in Salisbury within hours . Smith wrote in his memoirs that the " degree of anger ... [ was ] difficult to control " . White South Africans were similarly enraged , particularly after reports appeared in the South African press that the killers had raped the female passengers before massacring them . A Friends of Rhodesia Society in South Africa offered a reward of R100,000 to anybody who would either kill Nkomo or bring him to Salisbury to stand trial . Geoffrey Nyarota , who was then one of the few black reporters at the Rhodesia Herald newspaper , later wrote in his memoirs that many whites became resentful and wary towards blacks in general , believing them all to be " terrorist sympathisers " . Describing the Herald newsroom the night of the incident , he relates a " vile collective temper " among the white sub @-@ editors : " They cursed until their voices became hoarse , threatening dire consequences for all terrs and munts or kaffirs ... I sensed that some of the more derogatory remarks made in unnecessarily loud voices that evening were meant specifically for my ears . " Several racially motivated incidents occurred over the following days . According to the Time article , a group of whites entered an unsegregated Salisbury bar " fingering the triggers of rifles " and forced blacks drinking there to leave . Time also reported a rumour that two white youths , on learning of the massacre , shot the first black man they saw . Smith says that several would @-@ be vigilante groups sought his permission to venture into the bush around the crash site to " make the local people pay for their crime of harbouring and assisting the terrorists " . He instructed them not to , according to his memoirs , telling them that many rural blacks only assisted the guerrillas under extreme duress , and that it would not do to attack them . Many Rhodesians also resented the apparent lack of sympathy emanating from overseas governments , especially considering the character of the attack and its civilian target .

= = = Memorial service , 8 September 1978 = = = At a memorial service held on 8 September 1978 for Flight 825 's passengers and crew at Salisbury 's Anglican Cathedral , about 2 @,@ 000 people crowded inside , with another 500 standing outside on the steps and pavement , many listening to the service inside on portable radio sets . Prominent among those present in the cathedral were uniformed Air Rhodesia and South African Airways personnel , as well as Rhodesian Special Air Service soldiers and senior officers from other military units . Smith and several government ministers also attended , including P K van der Byl , the co @-@ Minister of Foreign Affairs . Dean John de Costa gave a sermon damning what he described as a " deafening silence " from overseas . " Nobody who holds sacred the dignity of human life can be anything but sickened at the events attending the Viscount , " he said . " But are we deafened with the voice of protest from nations who call themselves civilised ? We are not ! Like men in the story of the Good Samaritan , they pass by on the other side ... The ghastliness of this ill @-@ fated flight from Kariba will be burnt upon our memories for years to come . For others , far from our borders , it is an intellectual matter , not one which affects them deeply . Here is the tragedy ! "

= = = Smith – Nkomo talks halted = = = The talks between Smith and the ZAPU leader that had been progressing so promisingly were immediately halted by Salisbury . Smith himself called Nkomo a " monster " . Cilliers comments that the ending of the Smith – Nkomo talks at this time was " potentially the most serious result of the Viscount massacre " , as the talks had been progressing well before the incident . He surmises that an agreement between the two " at this critical stage " might have helped the transitional Rhodesian government to secure international recognition . On 10 September , the Prime Minister announced to the nation that certain areas of the country would be placed under a variation of martial law , which he said would be applied in particular regions as and when needed . He declared Rhodesia 's intent to " liquidate the internal workings of those organisations associated with terrorism " , and warned neighbouring countries to prepare for " any defensive strikes we might undertake " against guerrilla bases in their respective territories . He claimed that the war had escalated because Britain and the United States were supporting the Patriotic Front . William Irvine , the co @-@ Minister of Transport , warned the guerrillas that Rhodesia " w [ ould ] not let these innocents go unavenged " . = = Rhodesia strikes back = =

= = = Operation Snoopy ; Rhodesia hits New Chimoio = = = Because ZAPU and ZIPRA were based in Zambia , many Rhodesians clamoured for a massive retaliatory strike against terrorist targets in that country , but the first external target hit by the security forces following the Viscount shootdown was the prominent cluster of ZANLA bases around Chimoio in Mozambique . The Rhodesian military had struck these bases extensively in November 1977 during Operation Dingo , destroying much of the ZANLA presence there , but the insurgents had since built a complex called " New Chimoio " , slightly to the east ; the new camps were distributed across a far larger area than the originals . In a combined airborne @-@ ground assault called Operation Snoopy , the Rhodesian Air Force , Rhodesian Light Infantry and Special Air Service wiped out much of New Chimoio on 20 September 1978 . Mozambique sent armour to ZANLA 's aid in the form of nine Soviet @-@ made T @-@ 54 tanks and four Russian BTR @-@ 152 armoured personnel carriers , but the former were routed and one of the latter destroyed by the Rhodesian security forces . According to Rhodesian figures , there were " several hundred " guerrillas killed , while the security forces lost only two soldiers , one of whom was accidentally killed by a friendly air strike .

= = = Operation Gatling ; the " Green Leader " raid = = = Rhodesia then attacked ZIPRA 's bases in Zambia , in what Group Captain Peter Petter @-@ Bowyer later described as " payback time " for Flight 825 . Operation Gatling , launched on 19 October 1978 , was another joint @-@ force operation between the Air Force and the Army , which contributed Special Air Service and Rhodesian Light Infantry paratroopers . Gatling 's primary target , just 16 kilometres ( 10 miles ) north @-@ east of central Lusaka , was the formerly white @-@ owned Westlands Farm , which had been transformed into ZIPRA 's main headquarters and training base under the name " Freedom Camp " . ZIPRA presumed that Rhodesia would never dare to attack a site so close to Lusaka . About 4 @,@ 000 guerrillas underwent training at Freedom Camp , with senior ZIPRA staff also on site . The Rhodesian operation 's other targets were Chikumbi , 19 kilometres ( 12 miles ) north of Lusaka , and Mkushi Camp ; all three were to be attacked more or less simultaneously in a coordinated sweep across Zambia . Assaulting targets deep inside Zambia was a first for the Rhodesian forces ; previously only guerrillas near the border had been attacked . Led by Squadron Leader Chris Dixon , who identified himself to Lusaka Airport tower as " Green Leader " , a Rhodesian Air Force group flew into Zambia at very low altitudes ( thereby avoiding Zambian radar ) and took control of the country 's airspace for about a quarter of an hour during the initial assault on Westlands Farm , informing Lusaka tower that the attack was against " Rhodesian dissidents , and not against Zambia " , and that Rhodesian Hawker Hunters were circling the Zambian airfields under orders to shoot down any fighter that attempted to take off . The Zambians obeyed all of Green Leader 's instructions , made no attempt to resist and temporarily halted civil air traffic . Using Rufunsa airstrip in eastern Zambia as a forward base , the Rhodesian military suffered only minor casualties during the three @-@ day operation , and afterwards claimed to have killed over 1 @,@ 500 ZIPRA personnel , as well as some Cuban instructors . Historians Paul Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin write that this exaggerated considerably the actual number of guerrillas killed , as most of Nkomo 's army , then numbering about 10 @,@ 000 fighters , had not been touched . On the other hand , unarmed refugees often camped in or around insurgent positions , and hundreds of these had been killed in the Rhodesian raid . Moorcraft and McLaughlin comment that for the Rhodesian airmen , it would have been " impossible to distinguish innocent refugees from young ZIPRA recruits . " Sibanda describes Freedom Camp as " a refugee camp for boys " , and says " 351 boys and girls " were killed . He claims that the Red Cross and the UN Refugee Agency " confirmed ZAPU 's claim that Smith 's forces struck at defenseless , civilian trainees " . = = Aftermath = = The Rhodesian attacks on ZANLA and ZIPRA bases did much to restore white morale following the Viscount incident , though they had not actually made much impact on the respective guerrilla campaigns . Nkomo and the Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda all the same requested further military aid and better weapons from the Soviets and the British respectively . Martial law was quickly extended across Rhodesia 's rural areas , and covered three @-@ quarters of the country by the end of 1978 . Air Rhodesia , meanwhile , began developing anti @-@ Strela shielding for its Viscounts . Before this work was completed , ZIPRA shot down a second Viscount , Air Rhodesia Flight 827 , on 12 February 1979 . This time there were no survivors . Following the second shootdown , Air Rhodesia created a system whereby the underside of the Viscounts would be coated with low @-@ radiation paint , with the exhaust pipes concurrently shrouded . According to tests conducted by the Air Force , a Viscount so treated could not be detected by the Strela 's targeting system once it was over 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . There were no further Viscount shootdowns in Rhodesia . In the elections held the following year under the Internal Settlement terms , boycotted by ZANU and ZAPU , Muzorewa won a majority , and became the first Prime Minister of the reconstituted , majority @-@ ruled state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia on 1 June 1979 . This new order failed to win international acceptance , however , and in December 1979 the Lancaster House Agreement was agreed in London by Zimbabwe Rhodesia , the UK government and the Patriotic Front , returning the country to its former colonial status . The UK government suspended the constitution and took direct control for an interim period . Fresh elections were won by Mugabe , who took power in April 1980 , concurrently with the country 's recognised independence as Zimbabwe . = = Legacy and memorial = = In modern Zimbabwe , it is not the Viscount shootdowns but rather the retributory Rhodesian strikes against nationalist guerrilla camps that endure predominantly in the cultural memory . State media in Zimbabwe , prominently the Herald newspaper , often claim that Rhodesian forces indiscriminately and deliberately slaughtered thousands of helpless refugees during such operations . ZIPRA 's downing of civilian planes is meanwhile portrayed as a legitimate act of war on the grounds that the guerrillas might have believed them to have military personnel or equipment on board . The massacre of surviving Flight 825 passengers at the crash site is often omitted or attributed to forces other than ZIPRA ; in his 1984 memoirs Nkomo repeated his claim that ZIPRA fighters had helped the survivors , and wrote simply that " I truly have no idea how the ten died " . A monument to those killed in the Rhodesian attack on Chikumbi was built in Zambia in 1998 , and dedicated jointly by the Zambian and Zimbabwean governments . A memorial to the victims of the two Rhodesian Viscount incidents , dubbed the Viscount Memorial , was erected on the grounds of the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria , South Africa in 2012 , and inaugurated on 1 September that year . The names of the dead passengers and crew are engraved on two granite slabs that stand upright , side by side , the pair topped by an emblem symbolising an aircraft . A pole beside the monument flies the Rhodesian flag . A British parliamentary motion put forward by Labour MP Kate Hoey in February 2013 to retrospectively condemn the Viscount attacks and memorialise the victims on the anniversary of the second shootdown prompted outcry in the Zimbabwean press , with the Herald branding it a racist " Rhodie motion " intended to antagonise the Mugabe administration and its supporters . Dumiso Dabengwa , a former ZIPRA commander , described the move as a provocation motivated by race that went against the spirit of the amnesty enacted at Lancaster House . Christopher Mutsvangwa , a diplomat and political analyst , took a similar line , calling Hoey 's proposed commemoration " a provocation ... [ that ] means they only regard the death of white people alone during the struggle . There is no mention of what happened to our sons and daughters in and outside the country . " ZAPU 's official response to Hoey 's motion included the assertion that in all conflicts " civilians get caught up in cross @-@ fires due to faulty intelligence reports and other communication errors " , and juxtaposed the civilians killed in the Viscount shootdowns with those killed at Chikumbi .

= = = Newspaper and journal articles = = = = Tikal = Tikal ( / tiˈkäl / ) ( Tik ’ al in modern Mayan orthography ) is the ruins of an ancient city found in a rainforest in Guatemala . Ambrosio Tut , a gum @-@ sapper , reported the ruins to La Gaceta , a Guatemalan newspaper , which named the site Tikal . After the Berlin Academy of Sciences ' magazine republished the report in 1853 , archeologists and treasure hunters began visiting the forest . Today tourism to the site may help protect the rainforest . It is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centers of the pre @-@ Columbian Maya civilization . It is located in the archaeological region of the Petén Basin in what is now northern Guatemala . Situated in the department of El Petén , the site is part of Guatemala 's Tikal National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Tikal was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya . Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC , Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period , c . 200 to 900 AD . During this time , the city dominated much of the Maya region politically , economically , and militarily , while interacting with areas throughout Mesoamerica such as the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico . There is evidence that Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD . Following the end of the Late Classic Period , no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned . These events were coupled with a gradual population decline , culminating with the site ’ s abandonment by the end of the 10th century . Tikal is the best understood of any of the large lowland Maya cities , with a long dynastic ruler list , the discovery of the tombs of many of the rulers on this list and the investigation of their monuments , temples and palaces . = = Etymology = = The name Tikal may be derived from ti ak 'al in the Yucatec Maya language ; it is said to be a relatively modern name meaning " at the waterhole " . The name was apparently applied to one of the site 's ancient reservoirs by hunters and travelers in the region . It has alternatively been interpreted as meaning " the place of the voices " in the Itza Maya language . Tikal , however , is not the ancient name for the site but rather the name adopted shortly after its discovery in the 1840s . Hieroglyphic inscriptions at the ruins refer to the ancient city as Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul , meaning " First Mutal " . Tikal may have come to have been called this because Dos Pilas also came to use the same emblem glyph ; the rulers of the city presumably wanted to distinguish themselves as the first city to bear the name . The kingdom as a whole was simply called Mutul , which is the reading of the " hair bundle " emblem glyph seen in the accompanying photo . Its precise meaning remains obscure . = = Location = = The closest large modern settlements are Flores and Santa Elena , approximately 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) by road to the southwest . Tikal is approximately 303 kilometres ( 188 mi ) north of Guatemala City . It is 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the contemporary Maya city of Uaxactun and 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) northwest of Yaxha . The city was located 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) southeast of its great Classic Period rival , Calakmul , and 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) northwest of Calakmul 's ally Caracol , now in Belize . The city has been completely mapped and covered an area greater than 16 square kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) that included about 3 @,@ 000 structures . The topography of the site consists of a series of parallel limestone ridges rising above swampy lowlands . The major architecture of the site is clustered upon areas of higher ground and linked by raised causeways spanning the swamps . The area around Tikal has been declared as the Tikal National Park and the preserved area covers 570 square kilometres ( 220 sq mi ) . The ruins lie among the tropical rainforests of northern Guatemala that formed the cradle of lowland Maya civilization . The city itself was located among abundant fertile upland soils , and may have dominated a natural east – west trade route across the Yucatan Peninsula . Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic kapok ( Ceiba pentandra ) the sacred tree of the Maya ; tropical cedar ( Cedrela odorata ) , and Honduras mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla ) . Regarding the fauna , agouti , white @-@ nosed coatis , gray foxes , Geoffroy 's spider monkeys , howler monkeys , harpy eagles , falcons , ocellated turkeys , guans , toucans , green parrots and leafcutter ants can be seen there regularly . Jaguars , jaguarundis , and cougars are also said to roam in the park . For centuries this city was completely covered under jungle . The average annual rainfall at Tikal is 1 @,@ 945 millimetres ( 76 @.@ 6 in ) . One of the largest of the Classic Maya cities , Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in ten reservoirs . Archaeologists working in Tikal during the 20th century refurbished one of these ancient reservoirs to store water for their own use . The Tikal National Park covers an area of 575 @.@ 83 square kilometres ( 222 @.@ 33 sq mi ) . It was created on 26 May 1955 under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropología e Historia and was the first protected area in Guatemala . = = Population = = Population estimates for Tikal vary from 10 @,@ 000 to as high as 90 @,@ 000 inhabitants , with the most likely figure being at the upper end of this range . The population of Tikal began a continuous curve of growth starting in the Preclassic Period ( approximately 2000 BC – AD 200 ) , with a peak in the Late Classic with the population growing rapidly from AD 700 through to 830 , followed by a sharp decline . For the 120 square kilometres ( 46 sq mi ) area falling within the earthwork defenses of the hinterland , the peak population is estimated at 517 per square kilometer ( 1340 per square mile ) . In an area within a 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) radius of the site core , peak population is estimated at 120 @,@ 000 ; population density is estimated at 265 per square kilometer ( 689 per square mile ) . In a region within a 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) radius of the site core and including some satellite sites , peak population is estimated at 425 @,@ 000 with a density of 216 per square kilometer ( 515 per square mile ) . These population figures are even more impressive because of the extensive swamplands that were unsuitable for habitation or agriculture . However , some archaeologists , such as David Webster , believe these figures to be far too high . = = Rulers = = The dynastic line of Tikal , founded as early as the 1st century AD , spanned 800 years and included at least 33 rulers . = = History = =

= = = Preclassic = = = There are traces of early agriculture at the site dating as far back as 1000 BC , in the Middle Preclassic . A cache of Mamon ceramics dating from about 700 @-@ 400 BC were found in a sealed chultun , a subterranean bottle @-@ shaped chamber . Major construction at Tikal was already taking place in the Late Preclassic period , first appearing around 400 – 300 BC , including the building of major pyramids and platforms , although the city was still dwarfed by sites further north such as El Mirador and Nakbe . At this time , Tikal participated in the widespread Chikanel culture that dominated the Central and Northern Maya areas at this time – a region that included the entire Yucatan Peninsula including northern and eastern Guatemala and all of Belize . Two temples dating to Late Chikanel times had masonry @-@ walled superstructures that may have been corbel @-@ vaulted , although this has not been proven . One of these had elaborate paintings on the outer walls showing human figures against a scrollwork background , painted in yellow , black , pink and red . In the 1st century AD rich burials first appeared and Tikal underwent a political and cultural florescence as its giant northern neighbors declined . At the end of the Late Preclassic , the Izapan style art and architecture from the Pacific Coast began to influence Tikal , as demonstrated by a broken sculpture from the acropolis and early murals at the city .

= = = Early Classic = = = Dynastic rulership among the lowland Maya is most deeply rooted at Tikal . According to later hieroglyphic records , the dynasty was founded by Yax @-@ Moch @-@ Xoc , perhaps in the 3rd century AD . At the beginning of the Early Classic , power in the Maya region was concentrated at Tikal and Calakmul , in the core of the Maya heartland . Tikal may have benefited from the collapse of the large Preclassic states such as El Mirador . In the Early Classic Tikal rapidly developed into the most dynamic city in the Maya region , stimulating the development of other nearby Maya cities . The site , however , was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states , including Uaxactun , Caracol , Naranjo and Calakmul . The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol , which rose to take Tikal 's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands . The earlier part of the Early Classic saw hostilities between Tikal and its neighbor Uaxactun , with Uaxactun recording the capture of prisoners from Tikal . There appears to have been a breakdown in the male succession by AD 317 , when Lady Unen Bahlam conducted a katun @-@ ending ceremony , apparently as queen of the city .