On |\LaTeX{}|

Content for the article. \end{frame} \begin{frame} Content for the presentation. \end{frame} Additionalinformationforthearticle.1Contentforthearticle.1Chapter 6 Graphics in Your Document Most documents these days contain some graphics alongside the text. While photos and drawings can be easily added, integrating diagrams and schemat- ics seamlessly with your document might prove difficult. Fonts, colours, and lines must be adjusted so that they do not look out of place. Furthermore, later changes to your document layout may force you to redo this work. Fortunately it is possible to create your graphics directly in LATEX, which will automatically take care of adjusting the aforementioned settings and keep them in sync with the document itself. 6.1 Overview First, some background on how to think about graphics. Roughly, there are three types of pictures that you may find yourself dealing with: Photos are pictures that contain realistic shading and lots of detail. These include actual photos, photo-realistic renders, and screen- shots from video games. In photos, exact pixel colour is not really important, and lossy compression can be used without visual degra- dation. It is best to store photos in the JPEG format. Drawings are pictures with flat colours and relatively few details. This category includes pixel art and screenshots of program interfaces. Here, lossy compression would result in visible degradation, and would not be very efficient anyway. It is best to use a lossless compression format such as PNG. This will ensure that each picture is reproduced with pixel-perfect fidelity, while keeping the file sizes small. Diagrams or Charts are simple graphics that contain text, lines, and other geometric objects. Logos and schematics are prime examples 158 Graphics in Your Document of these. Ideally, they should be stored as drawing instructions in a vector based graphics in format, such as EPS, SVG or PDF. Vector based graphics can be scaled to any size without loss of quality. You have already learned about including photos and drawings, in Sec- tion 2.19. You can use the same techniques to include diagrams, and this is totally fine. Some programs, such as Inkscape [29], even support ways to easily include produced graphics in LATEX documents. However, this chapter will focus on drawing diagrams directly in LATEX. This has many advantages, such as logical structuring, plain text formatting, and seamless integration with the document layout. Creating graphical output with LATEX has a long tradition. It started out with the picture environment, which allows you to create graphics by cleverly placing predefined elements onto a canvas. Unfortunately, this environment is not very robust, and so many alternatives have been developed over the years, such as metapost [80], asymptote [22] or xypic [62]. Today, the most widely used package is pgf [73] (short for “Portable Graphics Format”) and its user interface TikZ (a recursive acronym—“TikZ ist kein Zeichenprogramm”—German for “TikZ is not a drawing program”). This chapter will introduce the basic concepts of writing graphics in TikZ. More detailed tutorials can be found in the pgf documentation. While TikZ is a powerful and versatile language, using it for com- plicated graphics is not always easy. Many packages and libraries build upon the pgf foundation to simplify the creation of specialized diagrams. These include pgfplots [18], for plotting functions and presenting data, and commutative-diagrams [8], for creating commutative diagrams. It’s usually a good idea to search CTAN for a package which already solves your problem before writing new TikZ code from the ground up, yourself. 6.2 Basic Usage To use pgf and TikZ, simply put the following line in the preamble: \usepackage{tikz} Doing so provides the tikzpicture environment and the \tikz com- mand, inside of which you can execute TikZ commands. Each TikZ command is terminated with a semicolon (;). The simplest command is the \draw command, which draws points connected by a path. Points may be given in either Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) or polar coordinates (𝜃∶ 𝑟), where 𝜃 is specified in degrees, while distances are specified in centimetres by default. The path between points may be specified in 6.2 Basic Usage 159 many ways, the simplest is --, which draws a straight line. \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) -- (15:4) -- (1, 2); \end{tikzpicture} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) -- (1,1);} If you want to close the shape you are drawing, use cycle instead of repeating the first point. In addition to being clearer about the intention, it also produces a better looking line connection (a properly mitred join, as they say). \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) -- (2, 0) -- (60: 2) -- (0, 0); \end{tikzpicture} vs.\ \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) -- (2, 0) -- (60: 2) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture} vs. The \draw command is just a shortcut to the more general \path command. The latter accepts a path in the same way, but an action must be specified in square brackets. The \draw command simply supplies the draw action. The fill action fills the area under the specified path. Multiple actions may be supplied. \begin{tikzpicture} \path[draw] (0, 0) -- (0, 2) -- (2, 2) -- (2, 0) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture} \begin{tikzpicture} \path[fill] (0, 0) -- (0, 2) -- (2, 2) -- (2, 0) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture} 160 Graphics in Your Document By default, TikZ pictures adjust their size to the minimal surrounding rectangle. If you want to specify the bounding box yourself, use the use as bounding box action, or the equivalent \useasboundingbox command. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) -- (1, 0);} vs.\ \tikz{\draw (0, 1) -- (1, 1);} vs.\ \tikz{ \useasboundingbox (0, 0) -- (0, 1) -- (1, 1) -- (1, 0) -- cycle; \draw (0, 1) -- (1, 1); } vs. vs. Normal LATEX input may be displayed inside so-called nodes. To create a node, use the \node (〈name〉) at 〈coordinate〉 {〈input〉}; command. The 〈name〉 argument is optional and enables you to use the 〈name〉 as a shorthand for a node’s coordinate. \begin{tikzpicture} \node (text) at (0,0) {% Some \LaTeX{} text}; \node (A) at (3, 1) {$A$}; \node (B) at (0, 2) {$B$}; \draw (A) -- (text) -- (B); \end{tikzpicture} 𝐵 𝐴 Some LATEX text TikZ attempts to be smart about the way it positions lines between nodes. If you want to influence this, you can specify the exact connection-point on a node after a dot. The available points are, for example, north, west, south east and so on. You can also put a number, which will be interpreted as an angle (in degrees). \begin{tikzpicture} \node (T) at (1,1) {% Some \LaTeX{} text}; \node (A) at (0, 0) {$A$}; \node (B) at (2, 0) {$B$}; \draw (A.north) -- (B.south); \draw (T.0) -- (T.145) -- (T.265) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture} Some LATEX text 𝐴 𝐵 6.3 Curves and Shapes 161 Nodes can be created within paths by typing node after a given coordinate or line. A node added after a line is placed at its midpoint. \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) node {Start} -- node {Midpoint} (3, 1) node {End}; \end{tikzpicture} End Midpoint Start If you want to create an empty node for the purpose of naming a specific point, it is better to use the \coordinate command. This ensures that the node is actually empty, whereas nodes created by \node take up some space by default, even when they have no content. \begin{tikzpicture} \coordinate (A) at (0, 0); \coordinate (B) at (1, 1); \node (C) at (2, 0) {}; \draw (A) -- (B) -- (C); \end{tikzpicture} 6.3 Curves and Shapes So far we have always used -- to connect points. However, this is not the only way. For example, if you wanted to only use horizontal and vertical lines, you could specify -| or |- (according to preferred order) as the connection between points. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) |- (2, 1);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) -| (2, 1);} If you want to create curved lines, the simplest way is to use to between points. It works the same as --, but you can provide an optional argument, with in and out keys, to define the terminal angles of the connection. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) to[out=90, in=-90] (2, 0);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) to[out=45] (2, 0);} 162 Graphics in Your Document The looseness key may be used to define how much the curve is out- stretched. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) to[out=90, in=-90, looseness=0.5] (2, 0);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) to[out=90, in=-90, looseness=2] (2, 0);} Often it might be easier to specify relative angles, using the bend left and bend right keys. If no angle is provided, a default value is used. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) to[bend left] (2, 0);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) to[bend right=90] (2, 0);} If you need even finer control over the curves you, can use a .. controls .. connection to specify a Bézier curve with one or two control points. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) .. controls (1, 1) .. (2, 0);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) .. controls (.5, 2) and (3, 1) .. (2, 0);} In addition to curves, the points may also be connected using various shapes. For example, the grid draws a grid between the points, while rectangle draws a rectangle. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) grid (2, 2);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) rectangle (3, 1);} 6.4 Customizing Paths and Nodes 163 To specify how fine the grid is, use the step key. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) grid[step=0.5] (2, 2);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) grid[step=1.5] (2, 2);} Other shapes may also be drawn this way, sometimes requiring a specific syntax. For example the circle interprets the left coordinate as its centre and receives its radius via the radius key. You can also specify x radius and y radius separately, thus drawing an ellipse.1 \tikz{\draw (0, 0) circle[radius=1];} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) circle[x radius=2, y radius=0.5];} Many more shapes are available, such as arc, parabola or sin. Be sure to check out the documentation[73] for the specifics of their use. 6.4 Customizing Paths and Nodes By default, all paths are drawn with a continuous black line. You can modify them by passing options to the \draw command. For example, passing a colour name will change the colour of the line. \tikz{\draw[red] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[blue] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} The thickness of a line can be controlled by passing the line width key (specified in points by default), or by using one of the predefined values, such as semithick, very thin or ultra thick. \tikz{\draw[line width=2] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[very thin] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} 1The ellipse shape can also be used in the same way if the naming irks you ;-). 164 Graphics in Your Document The endings of lines can also be customized. For example, line cap allows you to specify rounded end-caps. \tikz{\draw[line width=10] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[line width=10, line cap=round] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} You can turn a line into an arrow by specifying the arrows key. \tikz{\draw[arrows=->] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[arrows=<<->] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} Lines do not need to be continuous, either. You can specify a dash pattern or use one of the predefined patterns. \tikz{\draw[dash pattern= on 4 off 1 on 2 off 1] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[dotted] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} Adjust how lines are connected by using line join. Set it to round, bevel, or miter. \tikz{\draw[line join=round] (0, 0) -- (0.5, 1) -- (1, 0);} \tikz{\draw[line join=bevel] (0, 0) -- (0.5, 1) -- (1, 0);} If you want the line joins to be rounded, you can also pass the rounded corners key with the value set to the radius of the arc. \tikz{\draw[rounded corners] (0, 0) -- (0.5, 1) -- (1, 0);} \tikz{\draw[rounded corners=25] (0, 0) -- (0.5, 1) -- (1, 0);} Now, let’s turn our attention to nodes. By default, a node’s boundary is not drawn, but you can pass draw and fill, optionally set to a colour, to reveal it. \tikz{\node[draw] (0, 0) {Some Text};} \tikz{\node[fill=red] (0, 0) {Some Text};} Some Text Some Text 6.4 Customizing Paths and Nodes 165 By default, all nodes are rectangles, but they can be changed to circles by passing the circle key to their options. \tikz{\node[draw, circle] (0, 0) {Some text};} Some text If you want to place multi-line text inside a node, you have to specify the align key; without it, new lines are ignored. Possible values are left, center and right. \tikz{\node[draw, align=left] (0, 0) {Some more\\ text};} \tikz{\node[draw, align=center] (0, 0) {Even more \\ text};} Some more text Even more text When nodes are placed along a path, their positions may be adjusted using the anchor key. Its value is the point on the node boundary that should be anchored on the given point in path. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) node[anchor=south] {A} -- node[anchor=north west] {B} (1, 1) node[anchor=135] {C}; C A B } Using relative commands, such as left or above right, for this purpose usually leads to more readable code, though they are not so powerful. \tikz{\draw (0, 0) node[above] {A} -- node[below right] {B} (1, 1) node[right] {C}; } C A B All these options can be freely combined, but the resulting style specification may turn out to be lengthy. To avoid retyping it for many nodes or paths, you can define new styles. Some predefined styles already exist. For example, the help lines style sets the colour of the lines to 166 Graphics in Your Document grey and makes them a bit thinner, which is useful for drawing alignment grids when constructing your own pictures. \begin{tikzpicture} \draw[help lines] (0, 0) grid (3,3); \draw (1, 1) -- (3,2); \draw (1.5, 2.5) circle[radius=0.5]; \end{tikzpicture} To define your own style, pass a key of the form 〈name〉/.style=〈options〉 to the TikZ environment or command options. \begin{tikzpicture}[ my line/.style={dotted, ultra thick}, my node/.style={draw, circle}, ] \draw[my line] (0, 0) -- (3, 1); \node[my node] at (4, 0.5) {A}; \end{tikzpicture} A If you want to set up some styles globally, you can also use the \tikzset command. \tikzset{ red style/.style={draw=red}, } \tikz{\draw[red style] (0, 0) -- (1, 1) -- (2, 0);} \tikz{\node[red style] at (0, 0) {Red node};} Red node If you want to avoid specifying the style for every node or path within a TikZ picture, you can set the special styles every node and every path to change them all at once. \begin{tikzpicture}[ every path/.style={ ultra thick, dotted}, every node/.style={ circle, draw=red}, ] \draw (0, 0) -- (3, 1); \node at (4, 0.5) {A}; \end{tikzpicture} A 6.5 Coordinates 167 6.5 Coordinates So far, we have always used the default unit of centimetres for specifying coordinates. However, it is possible to use any LATEX dimension (see subsection 7.5.1 for details). \tikz{\draw (0, 0) -- (1in, 1pt);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) -- (1dd, 1em);} It is also possible to rescale how the distances are measured by using the scale key. This is useful if you find that your picture is too big or too small after drawing it, or if there exists some intuitive coordinate system (for example, when drawing function plots). \tikz[scale=2]{\draw (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw (0, 0) -- (2, 2);} You can also specify xscale and yscale separately. When specifying scale, you can use simple arithmetic operations. For example, to change the dimensionless values to inches, you can pass scale=1in/1cm. \tikz[scale=1in/1cm]{\draw (0, 0) -- (1, 0.5);} \tikz[scale=1em/1cm]{\draw (0, 0) -- (1, 0.5);} Keep in mind that coordinates with dimensions will also be scaled, which may have unintended consequences. A more robust way of changing dimensionless values is the x and y keys. \tikz[x=1in, y=1in]{\draw (0, 0) -- (1, 0.5);} \tikz[x=1em, y=10ex]{\draw (0, 0) -- (1, 0.5);} You can actually specify three-dimensional coordinates when drawing pictures. By default, the third coordinate is interpreted as a vector 168 Graphics in Your Document pointing 45 degrees to the bottom left and is a bit shorter.2 This gives the effect of a parallel (or axonometric) projection. \begin{tikzpicture}[scale=2] \draw (0, 0, 0) -- (0, 0, 1) -- (0, 1, 1) -- (0, 1, 0) -- cycle; \draw (1, 0, 0) -- (1, 0, 1) -- (1, 1, 1) -- (1, 1, 0) -- cycle; \draw (0, 0, 0) -- (1, 0, 0) (0, 0, 1) -- (1, 0, 1) (0, 1, 1) -- (1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 0) -- (0, 1, 0); \end{tikzpicture} Length and direction can be changed by using the z key. Sometimes, it may be easier to specify a path by using coordinates relative to the previous point instead of absolute ones. To do so, prepend ++ to the coordinate, which will be interpreted as the previous specified point plus this vector. \begin{tikzpicture}[scale=2] \draw (0, 0) -- ++(0, 1) -- ++(1, 0) -- ++(0, -1) -- cycle; \draw (1.5, 0) -- ++(0, 1) -- ++(1, 0) -- ++(0, -1) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture} Scaling is not the only transformation that can be applied to points. It is also possible to rotate, shift, or apply an arbitrary linear transformation by specifying its matrix. Check out the documentation for a detailed description. \begin{tikzpicture}[rotate=45] \draw (0, 0) -- (0, 1) -- (1, 1) -- (1, 0) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture} 2Formally, (0, 0, 1) is the same as (−0.385, −0.385). 6.5 Coordinates 169 It is also possible to apply transformations to a single command. \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) -- (1, 1); \draw[red, xshift=1cm] (0, 0) -- (1, 1); \end{tikzpicture} If you want to apply the same transformation to more than one command within the same picture, you can use the scope environment. It is especially useful when your picture consists of more than one sub-picture, each of which is more or less independent. \begin{tikzpicture} \begin{scope}[rotate=45] \draw (0, 0) rectangle (1, 1); \draw (0, 0) -- (1, 1); \end{scope} \begin{scope}[xshift=2cm] \draw (0.5, 0.5) circle [radius=0.5]; \draw (0, 0) -- (1, 1); \end{scope} \end{tikzpicture} When TikZ pictures are positioned within text, their bottom end sits on the baseline of the text. If you want to modify this, you can use the baseline key to set the 𝑦 coordinate at which the baseline should be. If no position is specified, it defaults to 0. text \tikz{\draw (0, 0) circle [radius=1em];} text \tikz[baseline]{\draw (0, 0) circle [radius=1em];} text \tikz[baseline=-0.5ex]{\draw (0, 0) circle [radius=1em];} text text text text text 170 Graphics in Your Document 6.6 Reusing Pictures Sometimes, you may wish to draw the same picture at a few places within a bigger one. While you could use the commands described in Section 2.9, this would be problematic, since modifying their placement or style is non-trivial. TikZ comes with its own method of defining smaller pictures, called ‘pics’. They can be created by passing 〈name〉/.pic=〈commands〉 to the TikZ environment or command, and are then used by invoking the \pic command. An example is presented in Listing 6.1. If you find yourself repeating a lot of simple commands (for example, drawing ticks on an axis), you may simplify your code by using the \foreach command. It repeats the drawing command for each value in a list, so that you can write repeatable code once, and need only modify the important parts. \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) circle[radius=1cm]; \foreach \i in {0, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300} { \draw (0, 0) -- (\i: 1); \fill (\i: 1) circle[radius=0.1cm]; } \end{tikzpicture} If your values are a simple arithmetic sequence, you need only provide the first two values and the last, replacing the rest with triple dots. \begin{tikzpicture} \draw (0, 0) circle[radius=1cm]; \foreach \i in {0, 20, ..., 340} { \draw (0, 0) -- (\i: 1); \fill (\i: 1) circle[radius=0.1cm]; } \end{tikzpicture} 6.6 Reusing Pictures 171 \begin{tikzpicture}[ heart/.pic={ \draw (0,0) .. controls (-1, 0.7) and (-0.2, 1.7) .. (0, 1) .. controls .. (0, 0); (0.2, 1.7) and (1, 0.7) }, ] \pic at (0, 0) {heart}; \pic[red] at (1, 1) {heart}; \begin{scope}[xshift=2cm, every pic/.style={scale=0.2}] \draw (0, 0) pic {heart} -- (1, 1) pic {heart} -- (0, 1) pic {heart} -- (1, 0) pic {heart} -- cycle; \end{scope} \end{tikzpicture} Listing 6.1: An example of using pics in TikZ. 172 Graphics in Your Document You can also iterate over pairs by separating respective parts with /. \begin{tikzpicture} \foreach \i/\j in {0/a, 1/b, 2/c, 3/d} { \node[draw] at (\i, 0) {\j}; a b c d } \end{tikzpicture} 6.7 Libraries pgf and TikZ do not rely on LATEX. In fact, they can be used with any TEX based system or even TEX itself. For this reason, TikZ provides its own system of extensions that does not use LATEX’s \usepackage command. Extensions of TikZ are called libraries, and can be loaded using the \usetikzlibrary command, which receives a list of comma separated libraries. For example, if you intend to draw some geometry problems, you will often find yourself looking for intersections of objects. While you could calculate their exact coordinates by hand, the intersections library will do it for you. An example is presented in Listing 6.2. Other libraries extend the number of available shapes. For example, the arrows.meta library defines numerous additional arrow tips, if you do not like the classical one. Some are presented in Listing 6.3. You can perform additional calculations on existing coordinates. The calc library allows you to do so by enclosing them within $ symbols. An example is presented in Listing 6.4. If you have a lot of TikZ code in your document, you may notice that compiling it takes much longer. This is because TikZ redraws each picture with every LATEX pass. If this becomes annoying, you can cache your images to external files and reuse them on subsequent runs. To do this, simply put the following code in your preamble. \usetikzlibrary{external} \tikzexternalize This method has some limitations, but should be sufficient for most uses. Read up on it in the documentation if problems occur. These are not the only libraries—additional node shapes, real 3D- perspective, matrices, mind maps and many more are covered. Most of them are described in the pgf [73] package documentation. Check it out if you haven’t found solution to your problem here. 6.7 Libraries 173 % In preamble \usetikzlibrary{intersections} % ... \begin{tikzpicture} \draw[name path=O] (0, 0) circle [radius=1]; \draw[name path=L] (-2, -1.5) -- (3, 1); \fill[red, name intersections={of=O and L}] (intersection-1) circle[radius=2pt] (intersection-2) circle[radius=2pt]; \end{tikzpicture} Listing 6.2: An example of using intersections library. % In preamble \usetikzlibrary{arrows.meta} % ... \tikz{\draw[->] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[-{Circle}] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[-{Stealth}] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[-{Stealth[round]}] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} \tikz{\draw[-{Diamond[open]}] (0, 0) -- (1, 1);} Listing 6.3: Some of the arrow tips defined by arrows.meta library. 174 Graphics in Your Document % In preamble \usetikzlibrary{calc} % ... \begin{tikzpicture} \coordinate (A) at (1, -1); \coordinate (B) at (0, 1); \draw[red, ->] (0, 0) -- node[above] {$A$} (A); \draw[blue, ->] (0, 0) -- node[left] {$B$} (B); \draw[green, ->] (0, 0) -- node[below right] {$A+2B$} ($(A)+2*(B)$); \end{tikzpicture} 𝐵 𝐴 + 2𝐵 𝐴 Listing 6.4: An example of using the calc library. Chapter 7 Customising LATEX Documents produced with the commands you have learned up to this point will look acceptable to a large audience. While they are not fancy-looking, they obey all the established rules of good typesetting, which will make them easy to read and pleasant to look at. However, there are situations where LATEX does not provide a command or environment that matches your needs, or the output produced by some existing command may not meet your requirements. In this chapter, I will try to give some hints on how to teach LATEX new tricks and how to make it produce output that looks different from what is provided by default. 7.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages At the beginning of this book we have mentioned that LATEX allows us to write documents using logical markup, with commands like \emph or \section. There may be however situations where LATEX does not provide an appropriate command for the content you want to write about. You may have noticed that all the commands I introduce in this book are typeset in a box, and that they show up in the index at the end of the book. There is no LATEX markup to format example code or commands, but LATEX allows me to define my own commands for this purpose. \begin{lscommand} \csi{dum} \end{lscommand} \dum In this example, a new environment called lscommand draws a box around the command, and a new command named \csi, typesets the command 176 Customising LATEX name and makes a corresponding entry in the index. Check this out by looking up the \dum command in the index at the back of this book, where you’ll find an entry for \dum, pointing to every page where we mention the \dum command. If I ever decide that I do not like having the commands typeset in a box any more, I can simply change the definition of the lscommand environment to create a new look. This is much easier than going through the whole document to hunt down all the places where I have used some generic LATEX commands to draw a box around some word. 7.1.1 New Commands You have already learned some basic command creation in Section 2.9. The main command is the \NewDocumentCommand{\〈name〉}{〈argspec〉}{〈definition〉} It requires three arguments: the 〈name〉 of the command you want to create, the 〈argspec〉 (argument specification) and the definition of the command. The 〈argspec〉 argument specifies the number and types of arguments the command receives. The two most important types are m, for manda- tory and o for optional. To create a command that takes two optional arguments, then two mandatory, then again one optional and finally three mandatory you would write oommommm. If the 〈argspec〉 argument is empty then the command will take no arguments, as you have already seen. This example defines a new command called \tnss. This is short for “The Not So Short Introduction to LATEX”. Such a command could come in handy if you had to write the title of this book over and over again. \NewDocumentCommand{\tnss}{}{% The not so Short Introduction to \LaTeX} This is \enquote{\tnss} \ldots{} \enquote{\tnss} This is “The not so Short Intro- duction to LATEX” … “The not so Short Introduction to LATEX” The next example illustrates how to define a new command that takes two arguments. In order to refer to the received arguments you 7.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages 177 use #1 for the first argument, #2 for the second, and so on. \NewDocumentCommand{\txsit}{mm} {This is the \emph{#1} #2 Introduction to \LaTeX} % in the document body: \txsit{not so}{short} \txsit{very}{long} This is the not so short Introduc- tion to LATEX This is the very long Introduction to LATEX If your command accepts an optional argument, but the user does not supply one, a special marker -NoValue- will be inserted instead. \NewDocumentCommand{\txsit}{om} {This is the \emph{#1} #2 Introduction to \LaTeX} % in the document body: \txsit{definitive} \txsit[very]{long} This is the -NoValue- definitive Introduction to LATEX This is the very long Introduction to LATEX In order to test whether the user supplied a value, use \IfValueTF{〈argument〉}{〈value version〉}{〈no value version〉} macro. \NewDocumentCommand{\MyCommand}{o}{ \IfValueTF {#1} { Optional argument: #1. } { No optional argument given. }% } \MyCommand\\ \MyCommand[hello] No optional argument given. Optional argument: hello. There are two variations of it: \IfValueT and \IfValueF which may be used if you only need output for one of the branches. The example with -NoValue- in the output could be fixed by writing \NewDocumentCommand{\txsit}{om} {This is the \IfValueT{#1}{\emph{#1} }% #2 Introduction to \LaTeX} % in the document body: \txsit{definitive} \txsit[very]{long} This is the definitive Introduction to LATEX This is the very long Introduction to LATEX 178 Customising LATEX The commands \IfNoValueTF, \IfNoValueT and \IfNoValueF work exactly the same, but the value/no-value branches are swapped. Often you will want to use optional arguments when present but use some default values when the user does not provide them. This could be achieved by \IfValueTF, but with the O argument a default value can be set directly. It works like o but allows setting a default if no value is supplied. Write \NewDocumentCommand{\txsit}{O{not so}m} {This is the \emph{#1} #2 Introduction to \LaTeX} % in the document body: \txsit{definitive} \txsit[very]{long} This is the not so definitive Intro- duction to LATEX This is the very long Introduction to LATEX Another useful argument specification is s, short for star. This argument allows providing different definitions based on whether the starred or non-starred version of command was issued by the user. It uses \IfBooleanTF command (and its variations) that works like the \IfValueTF command. \NewDocumentCommand{\txsit}{sO{not so}m} {This is the \emph{#2} #3 Introduction to \LaTeX% \IfBooleanT{#1}{% : Superstar Edition% }% } % in the document body: \txsit{long}\\ \txsit*{long} This is the not so long Introduc- tion to LATEX This is the not so long Introduc- tion to LATEX: Superstar Edition These are just the most common argument specifications. For a full description, take a look at the [57]. As we have discussed in Section 2.9, LATEX will not allow you to create a new command that would overwrite an existing one, you can do so using \RenewDocumentCommand. It uses the same argument specification syntax as the \NewDocumentCommand command. In some cases you might want to use the \ProvideDocumentCommand command. It works like \NewDocumentCommand, but if the command is already defined, LATEX will silently ignore the new definition. Yet another variant is the \DeclareDocumentCommand. It always creates the given command, overwriting old definition if it exists. 7.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages 179 7.1.2 New Environments The \NewDocumentEnvironment command lets you create your own en- vironments. It has the following syntax: \NewDocumentEnvironment{〈name〉}{〈argspec〉}{〈at begin〉}{〈at end〉} The 〈argspec〉 argument is the same as in the \NewDocumentCommand com- mand. The contents of 〈at begin〉 and 〈at end〉 arguments will be inserted respectively when the commands \begin{〈name〉} and \end{〈name〉} is encountered. The example presented in Listing 7.1 illustrates the usage of this command. Note that when environment argument are read, they are read after the \begin{〈name〉} command. This may be especially counterintuitive when we consider the s specification. Listing 7.2 illustrates this. If you want to create a starred version of an environment (similar to the AMS-LATEX environments) you have to define it separately. \NewDocumentEnvironment{king}{moo} { ... } { ... } \NewDocumentEnvironment{king*}{moo} { ... } { ... } Obviously you can use the same internal commands to define them, for example renaming the previous implementation to kinginternal making the king and king* a thin wrapper around it. The \NewDocumentEnvironment also introduces a special argument specification: +b, short for body.1 It is only allowed as the last argument in the 〈argspec〉. It allows you to receive the body of the environment as an argument. \NewDocumentEnvironment{twice}{+b} {% First time:\\ #1 Second time:\\ #1 } {} \begin{twice} This will be printed twice! \end{twice} First time: This will be printed twice! Second time: This will be printed twice! While this makes one of the 〈at begin〉, 〈at end〉 arguments redundant, they are still required. (In the example above we provided an empty 〈at end〉.) Do not overuse +b as this will both add limitations to the environments like \verb not being allowed inside and it will slow down the typesetting. 1The + indicates that it may contain multiple paragraphs. 180 Customising LATEX \NewDocumentEnvironment{king}{}{% \emph{Listen! For the king made a statement:}% \\[1em]% } {% \\[1em]% \emph{This concludes the king's statement.}% } \begin{king} My humble subjects \ldots \end{king} Listen! For the king made a state- ment: My humble subjects … This concludes the king’s state- ment. Listing 7.1: An example of using \NewDocumentEnvironment command. \NewDocumentEnvironment{king}{s}{% \IfBooleanTF{#1}{ \begin{center} \emph{Thus spoke Charles I:} \\[1em]% \end{center}% } { \emph{Listen! For the king made a statement:}% \\[1em]% Thus spoke Charles I: My humble subjects … This concludes the king’s state- ment. }% } {% \\[1em]% \emph{This concludes the king's statement.}% } \begin{king}* My humble subjects \ldots \end{king} Listing 7.2: An example of using the s specifier when defining a new environment. 7.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages 181 Similar to the \NewDocumentCommand, LATEX makes sure that you do not define an environment that already exists. If you ever want to change an existing environment, use the \RenewDocumentEnvironment command. Its arguments are the same as the \NewDocumentEnvironment command. 7.1.3 Copying commands When redefining commands you may want to use the original version of the command. Your initial code may look like this \RenewDocumentCommand{\emph}{m}{% \emph{#1}~(\enquote{#1} is emphasised)% } but when you try to compile the document you will get the error message ! TeX capacity exceeded, sorry [input stack size=5000]. To understand why this happens it is instructive to consider how TEX expands the defined commands. The above \RenewDocumentCommand tells the TEX engine that whenever \emph{foo} is seen it must replace it with \emph{foo}~(\enquote{foo} is emphasised). You may al- ready see the problem here. In the next stage it will again replace the \emph{foo} yielding \emph{foo}~(\enquote{foo} is emphasised)~(\enquote{foo} is ↪ emphasised) This process will never end and at some point TEX simply gives up. Note that \NewDocumentCommand{\oldemph}{m}{\emph{#1}} \RenewDocumentCommand{\emph}{m}{% \oldemph{#1}~(\enquote{#1} is emphasised)% } will suffer the same fate since \oldemph{...} will be replaced by TEX with \emph{...} and the cycle repeats. In order to avoid this problem a special command exists \NewCommandCopy{\〈name〉}{\〈command〉} It makes the 〈name〉 the exact copy of the 〈command〉. The following 182 Customising LATEX example shows how this works \NewDocumentCommand{\foo}{}{Batman!} \NewDocumentCommand{\newfoo}{}{\foo} \NewCommandCopy{\copiedfoo}{\foo} \RenewDocumentCommand{\foo}{}{Na Na Na} \foo{} \newfoo{} \copiedfoo{} Na Na Na Na Na Na Batman! This is precisely the behaviour we need in order to redefine the \emph command as we have tried to do earlier. \NewCommandCopy{\oldemph}{\emph} \RenewDocumentCommand{\emph}{m}{% \oldemph{#1}~(\enquote{#1} is emphasised)% } And here it \emph{comes}. 7.1.4 Command-line LATEX And comes emphasised). here (“comes” it is If you work on a Unix-like OS, you might be using Makefiles to build your LATEX projects. In that connection it might be interesting to produce different versions of the same document by calling LATEX with command- line parameters. If you add the following structure to your document: \IfBooleanTF{\blackandwhite} { % "black and white" mode; do something... } { % "color" mode; do something different... } Now compile document like this: xelatex '\NewCommandCopy{\blackandwhite}{\BooleanTrue} \input{test.tex}' First the command \blackandwhite is defined as the \BooleanTrue macro which holds a special value used in \IfBooleanTF checks. Then the actual file is read with input. By setting \blackandwhite to \BooleanFalse the colour version of the document would be produced. 7.2 Fonts and Sizes 183 7.1.5 Your Own Package If you define a lot of new environments and commands, the preamble of your document will get quite long. In this situation, it is a good idea to create a LATEX package containing all your command and environ- ment definitions. Use the \usepackage command to make the package available in your document. Writing a package basically consists of copying the contents of your document preamble (with minor adjustments) into a separate file with a name ending in .sty. There is one special command, \ProvidesExplPackage{〈name〉}{〈date〉}{〈version〉}{〈description〉} for use at the very beginning of your package file. This command tells the LATEX to process the file in expl mode. The most visible effect of this is that all whitespace is ignored. You may have noticed that in many of the examples above we had to end most lines with % to get correct spacing in the output. In expl mode, spaces have to be added explicitly if needed at all. They are usually quite rare when writing a package. To insert spaces, use the ~ character, which normally denotes non-breaking space.2 Paragraphs can be started with the \par command. The arguments are used to provide information about package in the log file. If you use this package and look at the log file you will find Package: demopack 2022-05-05 v0.1 Package by Tobias Oetiker in the .log file. \ProvidesExplPackage will also issue a sensible error message when you try to include a package twice. Listing 7.3 shows a small example package that contains the commands defined in the examples above. 7.2 Fonts and Sizes 7.2.1 Font Changing Commands LATEX fonts are influenced by four parameters family The collection of fonts. For example, ‘Latin Modern Roman’ or ‘Source Code Pro’. series The weight of the font. For example, ‘bold’ or ‘medium’. shape The shape of glyphs within a font family. For example, ‘small caps’ or ‘italics’. size The size of the glyphs. For example, ‘10 pt’ or ‘12 pt’. 2If you want to insert non-breaking space in expl mode, use \nobreakspace. 184 Customising LATEX \ProvidesExplPackage{demopack}{2022-05-05}{0.1}{% Package by Tobias Oetiker } \NewDocumentCommand{\tnss}{} { The~not~so~Short~Introduction~to~\LaTeX } \NewDocumentCommand{\txsit}{O{not~so}} { The~\emph{#1}~Short~Introduction~to~\LaTeX } \NewDocumentEnvironment{king}{} { \begin{quote} } { \end{quote} } Listing 7.3: Example Package. LATEX automatically chooses the appropriate font family, series, shape and size based on the logical structure of the document (sections, footnotes, emphasis, …). It is possible however to instruct LATEX manually which font to use. It is important to note that not every combination of family/ series/shape exists as an actual font. LATEX will complain if you try for something that does not exist. LATEX predefines three font families to use throughout the document: the upright or roman family accessible via \textrm, the sans serif family accessible via \textsf and monospace or typewriter family accessible via \texttt. \textrm{Roman is the default in articles.} \\ \textsf{Sans serif is used in presentations.} \\ \texttt{Monospace is used in verbatim code blocks.} Roman is the default in articles. Sans serif is used in presentations. Monospace is used in verbatim code blocks. There are only two predefined LATEX series: medium (\textmd) and bold (\textbf). \textmd{The default.} \\ \textbf{Bold font.} The default. Bold font. 7.2 Fonts and Sizes 185 Shapes are a bit more complicated. The three basic shapes are: italics (\textit), oblique or slanted3 (\textsl) and small capitals (\textsc). \textit{Italic shape.} \\ \textsl{Slanted shape.} \\ \textsc{Small Capitals.} Italic shape. Slanted shape. Small Capitals. However there are two additional shapes that are not provided by default LATEX fonts: swash (\textsw), for decorative fonts and spaced caps and small caps (\textssc). These are rarely used but may come in handy when using custom fonts as described in Section 7.3. Question vs. \textsw{Question} Question vs. Question In addition two virtual shapes are provided: upright (\textup) and upper-lowercase (\textulc). These are not actually shapes but utility commands. The former one switches back to upright font while the latter disables small capitals. The command \textnormal is just the combination of the two. \textsl{\textsc{Back to \textup{upright.}}} \\ \textsl{\textsc{Back to \textulc{lowercase.}}} \\ \textsl{\textsc{Back to \textnormal{normal.}}} Back to upright. Back to lowercase. Back to normal. All of the commands described above also exist in their switch ver- sion. Instead of receiving the text via argument, they change the font permanently until it is changed again. For example, the switch version of \textit and \textrm are \itshape and \rmfamily, respectively. While the argument versions are useful for defining commands, switch versions are especially useful when defining your own environments. Only \textit{argument} is affected. After \itshape everything is in italics until \upshape is encountered. Only argument is affected. After everything is in italics until is en- countered. Both argument and switch versions of the described commands are presented in Table 7.1. 3Oblique shape differs from the italics in that italic shape uses different glyphs while oblique shape uses the same glyphs but slanted. The difference is really obvious when you look at the unslanted italic font. 186 Customising LATEX Table 7.1: Default font changing commands of LATEX. Argument Command Switch Example \textrm{〈text〉} \textsf{〈text〉} \texttt{〈text〉} \textmd{〈text〉} \textbf{〈text〉} \textup{〈text〉} \textit{〈text〉} \textsl{〈text〉} \textsc{〈text〉} \textsw{〈text〉} \rmfamily \sffamily \ttfamily \mdseries \bfseries \upshape \itshape \slshape \scshape \swshape roman sans serif typewriter medium bold face upright italic slanted Small Caps Queen of Swash \textnormal{〈text〉} \normalfont document font When working with switch versions of fonts that are slanted right it is important to remember about italic correction. This is a small space after the end of right slanting text that is sometimes necessary to avoid overlapping letters. It is inserted using \/ command. Without: {\itshape oof}bar \\ With: {\itshape oof\/}bar Without: oofbar With: oof bar The italic correction is handled automatically by the argument versions of the commands. In contrast to the previous font changing commands, the size of font can only be controlled via switch versions. LATEX predefines some switches for changing font size, see Table 7.2 and Table 7.3 for their description. Table 7.2: Commands changing font size. Command \tiny \scriptsize \footnotesize \small \normalsize \large Size tiny very small quite small small normal large Command Size \Large \LARGE \huge \Huge larger very large huge largest 7.2 Fonts and Sizes 187 Table 7.3: Absolute point sizes in standard classes depending on the class option. The default class option is 10pt. Size (pt) Command 10pt 11pt 12pt \tiny \scriptsize \footnotesize \small \normalsize \large \Large \LARGE \huge \Huge 5 7 8 9 10 12 14.4 17.28 20.74 24.88 6 8 9 10 10.95 12 14.4 17.28 20.74 24.88 6 8 10 10.95 12 14.4 17.28 20.74 24.88 24.88 When using these commands it is important to remember that the line spacing is only updated after the paragraph ends. To avoid putting empty lines before the closing curly brace you may use the \par command. {\Large Here the line spacing is not updated. A bit tight!} {\Large Much better! I can breathe freely again!\par} Here the line spacing is not updated. A bit tight! Much better! I can breathe freely again! An arbitrary font size can be specified using the \fontsize{〈size〉}{〈line skip〉}\selectfont command combo. The 〈line skip〉 determines the height of the text line and should be usually around 1.2 times larger than the 〈size〉. \fontsize{2cm}{2.4cm}\selectfont A big one! A big one! Fun fact: LATEX default font is a bit unusual in that it looks slightly different depending on its size. The difference is presented in the table below where the text written using different sizes was rescaled to the same height. 188 Customising LATEX \tiny \normalsize \Huge Text Text Text If you need to access even more font variants and shapes4 check out LATEX 2𝜀 font selection [75]. 7.2.2 Danger, Will Robinson, Danger Note! Using explicit font setting commands defies the basic idea of LATEX described in Section 1.6, which is to separate the logical and visual markup. The fonts should get switched automatically according to the requirements of the context. A simple rule of thumb: If you use the same font changing command in several places in order to typeset a special kind of information, you should use \NewDocumentCommand to define a “logical wrapper command” for the font changing command. \NewDocumentCommand{\oops}{m}{% \textbf{#1}} Do not \oops{enter} this room, it's occupied by \oops{machines} of unknown origin and purpose. Do not enter this room, it’s oc- cupied by machines of unknown origin and purpose. This approach has the advantage that you can decide at some later stage that you want to use a visual representation of danger other than \textbf, without having to wade through your document, identifying all the occurrences of \textbf and then figuring out for each one whether it was used for pointing out danger or for some other reason. 7.2.3 Advice To conclude this journey into the land of fonts and font sizes, here is a little word of advice: Reme𝔪𝔟𝔢𝔯! The MO ℛE fonts you use in a document, the more readable and beautiful it becomes. 7.3 Custom Fonts with fontspec In the following examples we use Adobe Source fonts [20, 28, 27]. These fonts are included with TEXLive LATEX distributions and should be available in the directory 4For example the aforementioned upright italic shape. 7.3 Custom Fonts with fontspec 189 .../texmf-dist/fonts/opentype/adobe where the ... denotes the install-path of TEXLive. LuaTEX checks this directory automatically, so it should work fine, but if you are using XƎTEX you must first install these fonts in your system. You can also download and install them manually from the links provided in the bibliography. Alternatively swap out their respective names with some other fonts installed in your system. Many free OpenType fonts are available at https://fontlibrary. org/. 7.3.1 Main Document Fonts If you are not pleased with the default Latin Modern font, you can change it to any font installed in your system using the fontspec [60] package. It provides three main commands for changing document fonts: \setmainfont[〈options〉]{〈font〉} \setsansfont[〈options〉]{〈font〉} \setmonofont[〈options〉]{〈font〉} This commands change, respectively, the main font of the document, the sans serif font used in the document and the monospace font in the document. Normal text. \emph{Emphasised.} \\ \textsf{Sans serif text. \emph{Emphasised}.} \\ \texttt{Monospace text. \emph{Emphasised}.} \\ \setmainfont{Source Serif Pro} \setsansfont{Source Sans Pro} \setmonofont{Source Code Pro} Normal text. \emph{Emphasised.} \\ \textsf{Sans serif text. \emph{Emphasised}.} \\ \texttt{Monospace text. \emph{Emphasised}.} Normal text. Emphasised. Sans serif text. Emphasised. Monospace text. Emphasised. Normal text. Emphasised. Sans serif text. Emphasised. Monospace text. Emphasised. Note that it is best to put these commands in the preamble of your document, because some fonts are frozen when the body starts. The optional 〈options〉 argument accepts key value lists that allow to customise the font features. For example, many fonts contain, old style 190 Customising LATEX numerals that are not used by default. You can pass Number=OldStyle if you want to use them in your document. \setmainfont{Source Serif Pro} 0123456789 \setmainfont[ Numbers=OldStyle, ]{Source Serif Pro} 0123456789 0123456789 0123456789 Some fonts also provide special glyphs for a given language. For example the Latin Modern Font provides a special “fk” ligature for the Polish language. You can set the Language key to a given language to enable these features. agrafka \setmainfont[ Language=Polish, ]{Latin Modern Roman} agrafka agrafka agrafka The polyglossia package activates these features automatically so you don’t have to worry about them if you use it. If your font supports it you may wish to enable automatic fractions insertion with Fractions=On key. 1/2 3/4 123/456 \setmainfont[ Fractions=On, ]{Latin Modern Roman} 1/2 3/4 123/456 \setmainfont[ Fractions=On, ]{Source Serif Pro} 1/2 3/4 123/456 1/2 3/4 123/456 1/2 3/4 123/456 1/2 3/4 123/456 The OpenType font format defines a lot of more font features, that may or may not be supported by your font of choice. Consult with the fontspec [60] package documentation for a comprehensive description and examples. 7.3 Custom Fonts with fontspec 191 7.3.2 Specifying Fonts via Filenames If you do not want to install fonts in your system or you are working on a collaborative project where not everybody has the necessary fonts installed on their system, you can add font files to your project and specify the fonts directly via their filenames. In this case you must specify font variations manually. Because the filenames are usually very similar, it is possible to enter them using * patterns, where * is replaced by the main name defined. Extension may also be passed via the Extension key to avoid repetition. See Listing 7.4 for a comparison of font loading techniques. If the font files are not present in the same directory as the document you may have to specify it directly using the Path key. The default LATEX fonts are rather atypical in that they distinguish between italics and slanted font. Most fonts do not do this, so fontspec defines slanted font to be the same as italics. This may be fixed by setting the SlantedFont key explicitly. \setmainfont{Latin Modern Roman} \textit{italics} vs. \textsl{slanted} \setmainfont[ SlantedFont=Latin Modern Roman Slanted, ]{Latin Modern Roman} \textit{italics} vs. \textsl{slanted} italics vs. slanted italics vs. slanted 7.3.3 Defining New Fonts So far we have only talked about changing the fonts for the whole document. It is possible however to define new fonts that are used only sporadically throughout the document, for emphasis or decorative purposes. It is possible to do so using the \newfontfamily{\〈command〉}[〈options〉]{〈font〉} It defines new 〈command〉 that works like to the \rmfamily or \sffamily commands. \newfontfamily{\sourcefamily}[ Numbers=OldStyle, ]{Source Serif Pro} Normal text when suddenly \ldots{} \sourcefamily a different font! 0123456789 Normal text when suddenly … a different font! 0123456789 192 Customising LATEX \setmainfont{Source Serif Pro} Normal text. \textit{Italics.} \textbf{Bold.} \textit{\textbf{Bold italics.}} \\ \setmainfont{SourceSerifPro-Regular.otf} Normal text. \textit{Italics.} \textbf{Bold.} \textit{\textbf{Bold italics.}} \\ \setmainfont[ ItalicFont=SourceSerifPro-RegularIt.otf, BoldFont=SourceSerifPro-Bold.otf, BoldItalicFont=SourceSerifPro-BoldIt.otf, ]{SourceSerifPro-Regular.otf} Normal text. \textit{Italics.} \textbf{Bold.} \textit{\textbf{Bold italics.}} \\ \setmainfont[ Extension=.otf, UprightFont=*-Regular, ItalicFont=*-RegularIt, BoldFont=*-Bold, BoldItalicFont=*-BoldIt, ]{SourceSerifPro} Normal text. \textit{Italics.} \textbf{Bold.} \textit{\textbf{Bold italics.}} Normal text. Italics. Bold. Bold italics. Normal text. Italics. Bold. Bold italics. Normal text. Italics. Bold. Bold italics. Normal text. Italics. Bold. Bold italics. Listing 7.4: Comparison of font loading with the fontspec package. 7.3 Custom Fonts with fontspec 193 This is especially useful when working with multiple languages as you have already seen in Section 2.8. The \newfontfamily checks whether the font family is already de- fined and raises an error if it is. As in subsection 7.1.1 the \renewfontfamily and \providefontfamily are available if you want to redefine existing font families. 7.3.4 Math Fonts The package unicode-math, introduced in Chapter 3, uses fontspec under the hood and already enables you to use any OpenType math font within your document. The main command to do so is called \setmathfont. It accepts either a font name or a filename. In contrast to the text fonts that often consist of multiple files, math fonts typically consist of a single file, thus specifying it via a filename is not as complicated as presented in subsection 7.3.2. \setmathfont{STIX Two Math} is equivalent to \setmathfont{STIXTwoMath-Regular.otf} and the latter works in both LuaLATEX and XƎLATEX. While changing math fonts throughout the document is possible, it may lead to some problems; prefer to set them in the preamble for the whole document. \setmainfont{EB Garamond} \setmathfont{Garamond Math} % ... Now we are using Garamond fonts. \[ \symrm{e}^{\symrm{\pi} \symrm{i}} + 1 = 0 \quad \sum_{i=0}^\infty \iint_a^b \lim_{h\to0}\frac{\sqrt[3]{ \symbb{A}}}{2^h}\,\symrm{d}x \] Not all math fonts have the same character coverage. For example, the default font doesn’t have lowercase script letters. If you don’t want to switch the fonts entirely but just use some characters from a different NowweareusingGaramondfonts.eπi+1=0∞∑𝑖=0∬𝑏𝑎limℎ→03√𝔸2ℎd𝑥1194 Customising LATEX font, you can use the range key in the options to the \setmathfont command. $xyz = \symscr{Hello}$ vs.\ \setmathfont[ range=scr, ]{STIX Two Math} $xyz = \symscr{Hello}$ You can also set it to exact Unicode ranges if you need more control over replaced symbols. Some fonts define two types of script font roundhand and chancery. These are normally available as the first stylistic set feature of the font. You can map \symcal which is normally a synonym for \symscr, to produce the alternative script letters. % TODO: Waiting for unicode-math fix \setmathfont{STIX Two Math} \setmathfont[ range={cal, bfcal}, StylisticSet=1, ]{STIX Two Math} $\symscr{ABCDabcd}$ vs.\ $\symcal{ABCDabcd}$ The default behaviour of the \not command, is to combine the negat- ing glyph with the following symbol. This usually produces satisfactory results. If the font defines a dedicated negated symbol it is probably better to use it in such situations. The \not command is able to use a predefined mapping to use such glyphs based on the negated symbol. If the default mapping does not contain the combination, or if you pre- fer to use a different negation you can create a new mapping by using \NewNegationCommand. ≇ vs. ≆ $\not\cong$ vs.\ \NewNegationCommand{% \cong}{\simneqq}% $\not\cong$ 7.4 Colours 7.4.1 Coloured Text In the Section 1.6 we have used different text colours to illustrate an example. These can be obtained with the xcolor [31] package. It provides 𝑥𝑦𝑧=ℋ𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜vs.𝑥𝑦𝑧=ℋℯ𝓁𝓁ℴ1𝒜ℬ𝒞𝒟𝒶𝒷𝒸𝒹vs.𝒜ℬ𝒞𝒟𝒶𝒷𝒸𝒹17.4 Colours 195 three commands to change the colour of text: \color[〈model〉]{〈color〉} \textcolor[〈model〉]{〈color〉}{〈text〉} \mathcolor[〈model〉]{〈color〉}{〈text〉} The \color is a switch version while \textcolor and \mathcolor only apply to their argument. If no 〈model〉 is specified, then 〈color〉 is specified as colour expression. The simplest colour expression is just the name of the colour, for example yellow or red. \textcolor{yellow}{foo} \\ \color{red} baz \[ \mathcolor{blue}{ foo baz \sum_{k=0} }^{10} i \] 10 ∑ 𝑘=0 𝑖 The list of predefined colours can be found in Table 7.4. You can also pass dvipsnames, svgnames or x11names as a package options to extend the predefined colours. Consult the package documentation for a full list. Another type of colour expression is a mix of two colours. The syntax is 〈first color〉!〈percentage〉!〈second color〉. The resulting colour will be the result of mixing 〈percentage〉 % of the 〈first color〉 and 100 − 〈percentage〉 % of the 〈second color〉. If you omit the 〈second color〉 it defaults to white. \textcolor{green!100!red}{C}% \textcolor{green!80!red}{o}% \textcolor{green!60!red}{l}% \textcolor{green!40!red}{o}% \textcolor{green!20!red}{r}% \textcolor{green!0!red}{s} \\ \textcolor{blue!100}{B}% \textcolor{blue!75}{l}% \textcolor{blue!50}{u}% \textcolor{blue!25}{e} Colour mixing is left associative so 〈A〉!〈n〉!〈B〉!〈m〉!〈C 〉 Colors Blue 196 Customising LATEX Table 7.4: Basic colours predefined by the xcolor package. Name Demo Name Demo Name Demo black blue brown cyan darkgray gray green lightgray purple lime magenta olive orange pink red teal violet white yellow means calculate the mixture of 〈A〉 and 〈B〉 and then mixture of the result and 〈C 〉. You can also use the minus sign before the expression to get the complementary colour. \color{green!20!red!60!blue} \LaTeX{} \\ \color{-green!20!red!60!blue} \LaTeX{} LATEX LATEX 7.4.2 Models While colour mixing via expression is useful for simple colour specification, it is often the case that we want to use colour that is defined in terms of its RGB or HSB values. Different input method colours can be specified using the optional 〈model〉 argument. Note that it is case-sensitive. The simplest model is Gray. It accepts a single number from 0to 15 and produces a grey colour with the given brightness. \textcolor[Gray]{0}{Zero} \\ \textcolor[Gray]{3}{Three} \\ \\ \textcolor[Gray]{7}{Seven} \textcolor[Gray]{11}{Eleven} \\ \textcolor[Gray]{15}{Fifteen} Zero Three Seven Eleven Fifteen You can input RGB values in three ways: rgb, RGB and HTML models. The HTML model accepts a hexadecimal colour code. The code may be either upper or lowercase. \textcolor[HTML]{e63946}{e63946} \textcolor[HTML]{06D6A0}{06D6A0} e63946 06D6A0 7.4 Colours 197 The rgb model accepts three decimal numbers, each between 0 and 1, while the RGB model accepts three integers from 0 to 255. \textcolor[RGB]{255, 204, 102}{ 255, 204, 102 } \\ \textcolor[rgb]{0.4, 0.4, 1.0}{ 255, 204, 102 0.4, 0.4, 1.0 0.4, 0.4, 1.0 } If you prefer the subtractive colour model, both cmy and cmyk are available. They accept decimal numbers between 0 and 1 to specify the amount of each colour. \textcolor[cmy]{0.7, 0.4, 0.3}{ 0.7, 0.4, 0.3 } \\ \textcolor[cmyk]{ 0.7, 0.4, 0.3, 0.5 }{ 0.7, 0.4, 0.3, 0.5 } 0.7, 0.4, 0.3 0.7, 0.4, 0.3, 0.5 There are three models that enable defining colours by HSB: hsb, Hsb and HSB. The first two accept three decimal numbers for each value, the difference being that the Hsb accepts hue as an angle in degrees, that is a number between 0 and 360. The hsb accepts it as a number between 0 and 1, while saturation and brightness are passed the same way in both model—as a number between 0 and 1. \textcolor[hsb]{ 0.4, 0.8, 0.75 }{ 0.4, 0.8, 0.75 }\\ \textcolor[Hsb]{ 144, 0.8, 0.75 }{ 144, 0.8, 0.75 } 0.4, 0.8, 0.75 144, 0.8, 0.75 The HSB in turn accepts all three as integers—each between 0 and 240. \textcolor[HSB]{ 144, 200, 120 }{ 144, 200, 120 } 144, 200, 120 198 Customising LATEX If you are writing a paper about light you may also find that the wave model comes in handy. It allows you to specify a colour by its wavelength. It accepts a single decimal number that represents a wavelength in visible spectrum in nanometres. \textcolor[wave]{452}{ If a light has wavelength \qty{452}{\nm} it looks like this. } \\ \textcolor[wave]{700}{ Light with wavelength above \qty{814}{\nm} is called infrared. } If a light has wavelength 452 nm it looks like this. Light with wavelength above 814 nm is called infrared. 7.4.3 Defining Your Own Colours If you want to use a given colour more than once it makes sense to define it as a macro. While you could use the \NewDocumentCommand to define it, the xcolor package provides a better way via the \definecolor{〈name〉}{〈model〉}{〈value〉}. command. Using it makes it possible to use the newly defined colour in colour mixing and such. \definecolor{MyRed}{wave}{712} \textcolor{MyRed}{MyRed is the perfect colour for you!} \textcolor{MyRed!60}{Tints are also available!} MyRed is the perfect colour for you! Tints are also available! Be careful though, since it doesn’t guard against redefinition. If you want to check whether you haven’t redefined some colour put \tracingcolors in your preamble. This will produce warnings when redefinition happens. If you want to make sure a colour is present but don’t want to redefine it if it already exists then \providecolor does exactly that. There is also \colorlet that simply creates a copy of a given colour similar to the \NewCommandCopy command. Colours defined in different models may need to be converted when mixing them. This may lead to a situation where \color{a!75!b} will result in different colour than \color{b!25!a}. Keep that in mind when mixing your own colours. 7.5 Lengths and Spacing 199 7.4.4 Colourful Pages and Boxes So far we have only considered changing the text colour. It is however possible to also change the background colour of the document page. To do this use the \pagecolor[〈model〉]{〈color〉} command, which accepts the same arguments as the \color command. If you want to revert to the default transparent background you may do so with the \nopagecolor command. \pagecolor{orange} \color{-orange} Small is colourful \ldots? If you only want to specify a background of some text instead of the whole page you can use the \colorbox[〈model〉]{〈color〉}{〈text〉} \fcolorbox[〈model〉]{〈color〉}[〈model〉]{〈color〉}{〈text〉} commands. The first one only colours the background, while the second one allows also drawing a frame (the ‘f’ stands for “framed”). It is \colorbox{gray}{curious} how much a document can be enhanced or ruined by \fcolorbox{blue}{red}{ colours. } It is curious how much a docu- ment can be enhanced or ruined by colours. Boxes are explored further in Section 7.8. 7.5 Lengths and Spacing 7.5.1 LATEX Units Throughout this booklet we have often presented commands that accept length as one of its parameters such as \\ or \fontsize. When intro- ducing them we have used cm and pt which stand for centimetre and point, but these are not the only units available in LATEX. The most fundamental unit in LATEX is sp which stands for scaled point. Its width is equal to 1/65 536 pt, where 1 pt is equal to 1/72.27 of an international inch which in turn is defined as exactly 25.4 mm. All units in TEX are ultimately represented as a whole numbers of sp. See Table 7.5 for the exact values. Smalliscolourful…?1200 Customising LATEX Table 7.5: LATEX Units. Unit Meaning Definition Value (sp) Demo centimetre cm mm millimetre inch in point pt scaled point sp pica pc didot dd cicero cc new didot nd big point bp 0.01 m 0.001 m 25.4 mm 1/72.27 in 1/65 536 pt 12 pt 0.376 065 mm 12 dd 0.375 mm 1/72 in 1 864 679 186 467 4 736 286 65 536 1 786 432 70 124 841 489 69 925 65 781 em ex mu roughly width of an ‘M’ in the current font roughly height of an ‘x’ in the current font equal to 1/18 em, where em is taken from the current math font The last three units mentioned in the table are relative to the current font used. Historically they were related to the ‘M’ and ‘x’ glyphs in a given font but today they are arbitrarily set by fonts. These units are useful if we want the length to scale proportionally when used with different font sizes. The em unit is usually used for horizontal lengths, while the ex is used for vertical lengths. The mu unit can only be used in math mode for math spacing (see Section 3.7). foo\\[1ex] bar \tiny foo\\[1ex] bar foo bar foo bar The desktop publishing point (DTP point) is the de facto standard point as used in most programs, and it is defined as 1/72 in. For historical reasons the default TEX points are a bit smaller, while the DTP points are called “big points”. While this shouldn’t be noticeable in normal circumstances, remember to use bp if exact point values are required of you. \fontsize{12pt}{15pt}\selectfont Text in 12 \TeX{} points. \fontsize{12bp}{15bp}\selectfont Text in 12 DTP points. Text in 12 TEX points. Text in 12 DTP points. 7.5 Lengths and Spacing 201 7.5.2 Horizontal Space LATEX determines the spaces between words and sentences automatically. However, similarly to commands described in subsection 3.7.2, there are ways to influence the spaces in normal text. For example, to add horizontal space, you can use: \hspace{〈length〉} The 〈length〉 argument can be specified using the units described in previous section in the usual way. You can use decimal and even negative numbers as values. This\hspace{1.5cm}is a space of \qty{1.5}{\cm}. A bit too cramped\hspace{-5pt}here. This A bit too crampedhere. is a space of 1.5 cm. The space added that way will disappear if it lands on the end of a line, similarly to an interword spacing. If you want to retain the extra space, use the starred version of the command. The gap here is\hspace{1cm}% \linebreak missing. Here the gap is\hspace*{1cm}% \linebreak not missing. gap The missing. Here the not missing. here is gap is So far all the lengths we have seen have been rigid, that is the length is exactly as specified. But you probably noticed that the spaces between words are not rigid—they can stretch and shrink, so that TEX can make the right margin equal. Lengths that can do that are called rubber lengths. Such lengths can be specified using a special plus and minus syntax. For example to specify that a space can stretch if a need arises you can specify it by writing plus followed by the maximum allowed stretch. This small\hspace{1em plus 2cm}% space may grow if a need arises. Here\hspace{1em plus 2cm}the need\linebreak very much arises. This small need arises. Here very much arises. space may grow if a the need The additional space can extend even beyond the specified maximum, but in such cases LATEX will print a warning. 202 Customising LATEX The shrinking can be specified in a similar way using the minus syntax. This\hspace{1em minus 2em}% space may disappear if it gets too crampy. Thisspace may disappear if it gets too crampy. When there are multiple rubber spaces in text TEX calculates the amount of ‘stretch’ proportionally to the specified maximum. Thus if TEX needs additional 2 cm of whitespace and one length has plus 1cm while the other has plus 3cm modifier, it will result in the first one being enlarged by ( 1 1+3 ) × 2 cm while the second one by ( 3 1+3 ) × 2 cm. This\hspace{0pt plus 3cm}is stretched\hspace{0pt plus 1cm}% three\linebreak times as much. This times as much. is stretched three With these informations you can use the spaces to automatically centre the text in a page by setting the allowed stretching to a high number. \hspace*{0pt plus 100cm}Hello \hspace*{0pt plus 100cm} \linebreak Hello This approach will, however, interfere with the spacing inside the centred expression, since the spaces are still distributed proportionally. The effect will be getting smaller if you set the allowed stretching to a larger number but it will still be present. For situations like these, TEX actually supports a concept of infinitely stretchable space—by using the special fill unit, allowed only as stretching and shrinking value, we can ensure that all the other rubber lengths will not stretch.5 \hspace*{0pt plus 1fill}% No\hspace{0pt plus 100cm} stretching allowed.% \hspace*{0pt plus 1fill}% \linebreak No stretching allowed. 5TEX actually recognises three orders of infinity: fil, fill and filll, but as a document author you should stick to using only the second one. The first order infinity—fil—is used by some of the internal LATEX such as \\ or \newpage. The third one can be used to disallow stretching of the second order infinity when it’s needed in some very rare circumstances. 7.5 Lengths and Spacing 203 Because the fill value is often used with zero width space LATEX defines a macro that simplifies entering it—the \stretch{〈n〉} command. \hspace*{\stretch{1}} is equivalent to \hspace*{0pt plus 1fill} \linebreak is equivalent to The 〈n〉 argument is the coefficient by which the fill is multiplied. Recall that the spaces are distributed proportionally and this is still the case when infinities are involved. x\hspace{\stretch{1}}% x\hspace{\stretch{3}}x x x x Still, the most common value to use is \hspace{0pt plus 1fill} and so LATEX defines \hfill that is equivalent to it. It’s often used when you want to flush the rest of the line right. Peter Pan\hfill Neverland Dear Wendy, \ldots 7.5.3 Vertical Space Peter Pan Dear Wendy, … Neverland You have already seen that vertical space between lines can be inserted using \\ command. However, it does not work well when used for spacing between paragraphs—the reason being that it always starts a new line, so if it’s used at the end of paragraph, it will end in an empty line. Paragraph.\\ Paragraph. There's an empty line above. There’s an empty line above. LATEX has a dedicated command for setting the space between paragraphs, the \vspace{〈length〉} command. It works similarly to the \hspace command, however when used inside a line it will only produce the space after the line is ended. Some\vspace{1em} text that spans multiple lines. Some text that spans multiple lines. 204 Customising LATEX Since it does not produce empty lines when used, it is perfect for inserting a space between paragraphs. Similarly to the \hspace command, the space will be discarded if it lands at the end of a page—use the starred version if this is not desirable. The rubber lengths, \stretch and \vfill work for vertical space too. However, since manual vertical spacing is much more common com- pared to manual horizontal spacing, LATEX also declares three semantic commands for inserting them: \bigskip \medskip \smallskip The exact sizes of these skips is dependent on the class used. You can access them as length by appending “amount” to their name, for example, \medskipamount. These are useful when creating your own environments or to indicate a thought break between paragraphs. There also exist the \addvspace command, which works similarly to the \vspace command, however when multiple such commands are entered one after another, only the one with the biggest length will be used. Note that using it will lead to an error if it is not used between paragraphs. Hello. \addvspace{1pt} \addvspace{1em} \addvspace{1cm} There is \qty{1}{\cm} space above me. Hello. There is 1 cm space above me. This command is useful if you want to ensure that a vertical space is present but avoid entering several of them accidentally. 7.5.4 Length Variables Like many things in LATEX, lengths can be stored inside commands to allow reuse. \NewDocumentCommand{% \mylength}{}{2em} foo\hspace{\mylength}bar foo bar However, LATEX provides dedicated length variables, which are much 7.5 Lengths and Spacing 205 better suited for the purpose. These are created using \newlength{\〈variable〉} and set using \setlength{\〈variable〉}{〈length〉} It’s important to note that \newlength declares the length globally, but \setlength only affects the current group. If you declare a length variable without setting it, it will have a default value of zero. In contrast to the command approach, length variables are stored as numbers and not as text. This allows you to to do simple arithmetic operations, for example, to scale them by prepending them with a number. \newlength{\mylength} \setlength{\mylength}{2em} foo\hspace{0.5\mylength}bar% \hspace{2\mylength}baz foo bar baz In order to increase an existing length variable you can use \addtolength. foo\hspace{\mylength}bar\\ \addtolength{\mylength}{2em} foo\hspace{\mylength}bar foo foo bar bar Since length variables are not stored as text macros, but as TEX internal numbers, trying to typeset them in a document results in an error. To translate them back into their textual representation use the \the command. Note that their value will always be printed using points as units. \setlength{\mylength}{1cm} \the\mylength 28.45274pt Lengths can be also determined dynamically from the content. The following commands allow you to determine the width, height and depth of a LATEX text and assign it to length variable. \settoheight{\〈variable〉}{〈element〉} \settodepth{\〈variable〉}{〈element〉} \settowidth{\〈variable〉}{〈element〉} The element height is calculated by taking into account the part of the element that extends above baseline, while the depth takes into account 206 Customising LATEX the part that extends below baseline. \newlength{\myheight} \settoheight{\myheight}{Major} \newlength{\mydepth} \settodepth{\mydepth}{Major} \newlength{\mywidth} \settowidth{\mywidth}{Major} The word Major has width of \the\mywidth, height of \the\myheight{} and depth of \the\mydepth. The word Major has width of 28.94086pt, height of 7.47885pt and depth of 2.24475pt. These commands are especially useful when creating your own envi- ronments requiring complicated alignment or spacing. An example of using them is presented in Listing 7.5. As you will see LATEX uses length variables for many things. When typesetting a document you can use some of them when setting lengths to make them relative. For example, the \linewidth length holds the length of the current line. You can use it when inserting a picture to make it fill the page or scale it to take up half the space available. \includegraphics[ width=0.5\linewidth, ]{example-image} 7.6 The Layout of the Document 7.6.1 Document Class Options The easiest way to influence the layout of the document is to pass options to the \documentclass[〈options〉]{〈class〉} command at the beginning of your file. The available classes where already described in Table 1.1 on page 8. The 〈options〉 have to be separated by commas. The most common options for the standard document classes are listed in Table 7.6. For example, if an input file for a LATEX document starts with the line \documentclass[11pt, twoside, a4paper]{article} Image7.6 The Layout of the Document 207 \newlength{\vardescindent} \NewDocumentEnvironment{vardesc}{m}{% \settowidth{\vardescindent}{#1:\ }% \RenewDocumentCommand{\item}{so}{% \IfBooleanTF{##1}{#1: }{\\\hspace*{\vardescindent}}% \IfValueT{##2}{##2 ---}% }% \ignorespaces }{} \[ a^2+b^2=c^2 \] \begin{vardesc}{Where} \item*[$a$, $b$] are adjacent to the right angle of a right-angled triangle. \item[$c$] is the hypotenuse of the triangle and feels lonely. \item[$d$] finally does not show up here at all. Isn't that puzzling? \end{vardesc} 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 𝑐2 Where: 𝑎, 𝑏 — are adjacent to the right angle of a right- angled triangle. 𝑐 — is the hypotenuse of the triangle and feels lonely. 𝑑 — finally does not show up here at all. Isn’t that puzzling? Listing 7.5: An example of using \settowidth to align all of the defini- tions to a preceding phrase. 208 Customising LATEX Table 7.6: Document Class Options. Options Description 10pt, 11pt, 12pt a4paper, letterpaper fleqn leqno titlepage, notitlepage onecolumn, twocolumn twoside, oneside landscape openright, openany Sets the size of the main font in the document. If no option is specified, 10pt is assumed. Defines the paper size. The default size can be config- ured when installing LATEX. Besides these, a5paper, b5paper, executivepaper, and legalpaper can be specified. Note that it only affects the layout of mar- gins, not the PDF paper size itself, see subsection 7.6.5 for more details. Typesets displayed formulae left-aligned instead of cen- tred. Places the numbering of formulae on the left hand side instead of the right. Specifies whether a new page should be started after the document title or not. The article class does not start a new page by default, while the report and book classes do. Instructs LATEX to typeset the document in one column or two columns. Specifies whether double or single sided output should be generated. The classes article and report are single sided, while the book class is double sided by default. Note that this option concerns the style of the docu- ment only. twoside does not tell the printer to make a two-sided printout. Changes the layout of the document to print in land- scape mode. Makes chapters begin either only on right hand pages o,r on the next page available. This does not work with the article class, as it does not know about chapters. By default, the report class by default starts chapters on the next page available, while the book class starts them on right hand pages. 7.6 The Layout of the Document 209 then it instructs LATEX to typeset the document as an article with a base font size of eleven points, and to produce a layout suitable for double sided printing6 on A4 paper. If you do not like the appearance of the standard LATEX classes, the easiest way to change it is to use some alternatives. For example, the koma-script [40] package provides alternatives that produce documents with European typography traditions in mind. Another popular pack- age is memoir [85], which provides a single memoir class with extensive customization options. On CTAN you can find many more specialized classes that will let you produce documents as prescribed by various universities or typographical traditions. 7.6.2 Page Styles LATEX supports three predefined header/footer combinations—so-called page styles. The 〈style〉 parameter of the \pagestyle{〈style〉} command defines which one to use. Table 7.7 lists the predefined page styles. It is possible to change the page style of the current page with the command \thispagestyle{〈style〉} You may also control the style of the displayed page numbers. To change it, use the \pagenumbering{〈style〉} command, where 〈style〉 is one of the styles presented in Table 7.8. If would like more control over the apparance of your headers and footers, refere to Section 7.7 on page 215. 7.6.3 Line Spacing When using custom fonts, you may find that the default line spacing does not match your taste. You could redefine it using the \fontsize commands, however, this will be overwritten once you use size changing commands described in Table 7.2. 6Note that this only influences the appearance of the document to be adequate for double sided printing—you still have to pass proper instructions to your printer to print it on both sides. 210 Customising LATEX Table 7.7: The Predefined Page Styles of LATEX. Style plain headings empty myheadings Description Prints the page numbers on the bottom of the page, in the middle of the footer. This is the default page style. Prints the current chapter heading and the page number in the header on each page, while the footer remains empty. (This is the style used in this document.) Sets both the header and footer to be empty. Similar to the headings style but leaves the head- ers and footers empty, allowing them to be de- fined by the author. A description of how to do this is in Section 7.7. Table 7.8: Possible argument of the \pagenumbering command. Style Description arabic Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, …) roman Roman alph Alph Lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, …) Uppercase Roman numerals (I, II, III, …) Lowercase Latin letters (a, b, c, …) Uppercase Latin letters (A, B, C, …) 7.6 The Layout of the Document 211 To make such adjustments easier LATEX defines the \linespread{〈factor〉} command. Once used, each line skip will be multiplied by the 〈factor〉. Note, that outside the preamble, you must follow it by \selectfont for the changes to be visible. \linespread{0.9}\selectfont If you want to save paper, set the linespread to a value below 1 to sacrifice a bit of space between lines. \linespread{1.1}\selectfont On the other hand, if your assignment is short a few pages, setting it to a value above 1 might just save you some typing. If you want to save paper, set the linespread to a value below 1 to sacrifice a bit of space between lines. On the other hand, if your assign- ment is short a few pages, setting it to a value above 1 might just save you some typing. Using the \linespread command it’s also possible to create an effect of “one and a half” or “double” line spacing. Recall that the default line spacing is around 1.2 em. Thus if you want to make the document use double line spacing you have to set the 〈factor〉 to 2/1.2 ≈ 1.667. Note that setting the \linespread will change the line spacing ev- erywhere—including footnotes, table of contents and floats. Doing so is not always desirable, so another approach is to set the \baselineskip length. This will only affect the line spacing of the main document text. Similarly to the size changing commands it affects the whole paragraph. {\setlength{\baselineskip}{% 1.5\baselineskip} This paragraph is typeset with the baseline skip set to 1.5 of what it was before. Note the par command at the end of the paragraph.\par} Here the line spacing returns to normal, because line skip changes are local to a group. This paragraph is typeset with the baseline skip set to 1.5 of what it was before. Note the par com- mand at the end of the paragraph. Here the line spacing returns to normal, because line skip changes are local to a group. Yet another approach is to use a dedicated package, like setspace [12] that defines \doublespacing and similar commands. Note that in gen- eral you should avoid using excessive line spacing, unless you are emulat- ing an old document look. 212 Customising LATEX 7.6.4 Paragraph Formatting In LATEX, there are two lengths influencing paragraph layout: \parindent defines how much a paragraph is indented, while \parskip is the amount of space inserted between paragraphs. \setlength{\parindent}{0pt} \setlength{\parskip}{% \medskipamount} On the web it is common to separate paragraphs by some space instead of indenting. Like this. On the web it is common to sep- arate paragraphs by some space instead of indenting. Like this. Beware, that these lengths also affect the table of contents—its lines get spaced more loosely. To avoid this, you might want to put the two commands after the \tableofcontents command or to not use them at all, because you’ll find that most professional books use indenting and not spacing to separate paragraphs. If you want to indent a paragraph that is not indented, use \indent at the beginning of the paragraph. Obviously, this will only have an effect when \parindent is not set to zero. In continental Europe it is sometimes the case that every paragraph should be indented, even after sections. To avoid using ths \indent command everywhere, simply use the indentfirst [9] package in your preamble. \usepackage{indentfirst} % ... \section{Title} The first paragraph is now indented. To create a non-indented paragraph, use \noindent as the first command of the paragraph. This might come in handy when you start a document with body text and not with a sectioning command. 7.6.5 Page Layout As you have seen, LATEX allows you to specify the paper size via options in the \documentclass command. It then automatically picks the right text margins, but sometimes you may not be happy with the predefined values. Naturally, you can customize them to your liking. But before you start making the margins as narrow as possible to cram the text in, 1TitleThefirstparagraphisnowin-dented.17.6 The Layout of the Document 213 take a few seconds to think. As with most things in LATEX, there are good reasons for the page layout to be as it is. Sure, compared to your off-the-shelf page of your favourite WYSI- WYG editor, the margins look awfully wide. But take a look at your favourite, professionally printed book and count the number of characters on a standard text line. You will find that most lines contain between 45 and 80 characters. Now do the same on your LATEX page. You will find that the same relationship holds. Empirical studies suggest that averaging around 66 characters per line creates the optimal reading experience for readers. If you want to save space when printing your document consider using twocolumn option or smaller page sizes. With that warning in place let us proceed to the proper introduction of geometry [83] package that allows you to easily customize the page dimensions of your document. It is worth noting that simply including the package in your preamble will result in considerably narrower margins, (the very thing we warned you to avoid) so only use the package if you intend to set them manually or use the pass option that disables most of the package functions but retains the paper size adjustments. As we have mentioned in Table 7.6, simply setting a5paper (or similar) option will only adjust margins of the document without changing the paper dimensions themselves. The simplest way to fix that is to add the geometry package to your preamble. It will read the page size option and adjust it accordingly. The package itself also supports many more page sizes, such as a0paper or a6paper. \documentclass{article} \usepackage[ a6paper, landscape, ]{geometry} \begin{document} This document is typeset on A6 paper in landscape mode. \end{document} If the predefined dimensions are not enough you can always set it directly using paperheight and paperwidth keys. ThisdocumentistypesetonA6paperinlandscapemode.1Customising LATEX 214 \usepackage[ paperwidth=6cm, paperheight=3cm ]{geometry} % ... This page has dimensions of 6 by 3 centimetres. As we have indicated, the package is also capable of adjusting the margins. The simplest way to do so is to use the left, right, top, and bottom options, each of which sets the size of the respective margin. \usepackage[ top=0.5cm, bottom=1cm, left=1.5cm, right=2cm, ]{geometry} % ... Note that by default the header and footer are not considered part of the page body, so they may not fit on page if the margins are too narrow (like in the example above). If you want to include them when considering margins use the includefoot and/or includehead options. One of the killer features of the geometry package is its ability to calculate the correct margin sizes based on other metrics. For example, we can declare that we want the text to have a given width via textwidth option and that each page should have a given number of lines via lines option and the appropriate sizes of margins will be calculated automatically. \usepackage[ textwidth=5cm, lines=3 ]{geometry} % ... There are many more options to influence the margins: specifying their ratios (ratio), defining them to take up certain percent of available Thispagehasdimensionsof6by3centimetres.1Loremipsumdo-lorsitamet,consectetueradipiscingelit.Etiamlobortis1Loremipsumdolorsitamet,consectetueradipiscingelit.Etiamlobortisfacilisissem.17.7 Fancy Headers 215 paper size (scale), or including binding offset (bindingoffset). Check out the package documentation [83] for a full list with examples. A useful option for prototyping your layout is the showframe option that draws frames around document body and margins to easier evaluate the chosen layout. 7.7 Fancy Headers 7.7.1 Basic commands The fancyhdr [50] package provides a few simple commands that allow you to customise the header and footer lines of your document. It defines an additional page style fancy and a set of commands to customise it to your liking. By default, it only adds a line separating the header from the page body. \documentclass{article} \usepackage{fancyhdr} \pagestyle{fancy} \begin{document} This statement is false. \end{document} The primary command of the package is \fancyhf[〈places〉]{〈field〉} The 〈places〉 is a comma separated list of places where the 〈field〉 should be displayed. There are total of 12 different places and each is identified by a combination of three letters: • The first specifies whether the location is in the header (H) or in the footer (F). • The second letter specifies the location within the header or footer: L for left, C for centre, and R for right. • The third letter defines whether the field should be printed on even (E) or odd (O) pages. If the document is not two sided, then all pages are treated as odd. For example, the combination FCE identifies the centre part of the footer on even pages. If any of the letters is omitted, then the identifier points Thisstatementisfalse.1216 Customising LATEX toward all positions specifiable by the omitted letter. For example, HR is right side of the header on both odd and even pages. \documentclass[twoside]{article} \usepackage{fancyhdr} \pagestyle{fancy} \fancyhf[HCE]{A} \fancyhf[L]{\emph{B}} \fancyhf[FR]{\textbf{C}} \fancyhf[HCO, HRE]{\textsl{D}} \begin{document} The next statement is false. The previous statement is true. \end{document} There are two additional commands, \fancyhead and \fancyfoot, that work in the same way, except that they respectively assume H and F in their 〈places〉 argument, unless otherwise specified. \fancyhead[L]{A} \fancyfoot[R]{B} \enquote{Yields a falsehood when appended to its own quotation} yields a falsehood when appended to its own quotation. The lines drawn by the fancyhdr package may also be customised. To change their thickness, redefine the \headrulewidth \footrulewidth macros to the desired size. \RenewDocumentCommand{\headrulewidth}{}{.2cm} \RenewDocumentCommand{\footrulewidth}{}{.5cm} Do not read this sentence. BDThenextstatementisfalse.TheB1CBADpreviousstatementistrue.B2CA“Yieldsafalsehoodwhenap-pendedtoitsownquotation”yieldsafalsehoodwhenap-pendedtoitsownquotation.1BDonotreadthissentence.17.7 Fancy Headers 217 By default, headers and footers are as long as the text on the page. If you want to extend or shorten them, use the \fancyhfoffset[〈places〉]{〈offset〉} Added comma after \fancyhf. command. The 〈places〉 argument is the same as in \fancyhf, except that it cannot contain C. \fancyhfoffset[L]{-1cm} \fancyhfoffset[R]{.2cm} If this sentence is true, then $2 + 2 = 5$. The command \fancyheadoffset and \fancyfootoffset are used the same way as \fancyf, but they only modify header or footer respectively. 7.7.2 Contents of the headers The default footer of the article class contains the current page number. To use it inside the fancy header, simply use the command \thepage. \fancyhf{Page~\thepage} This statement is dedicated to all statements that are not dedicated to themselves. It is often useful to have the header and footer contain information based on the content of the page. These are called “marks” in LATEX terminology. Before we talk about the default ones, let’s consider how you can define your own using the extramarks7 package. \extramarks{〈left〉}{〈right〉} \firstleftxmark \firstrightxmark \lastleftxmark \lastrightxmark The \extramarks command sets the contents of 〈left〉 and 〈right〉 marks. 7extramarks is part of fancyhdr [50]. Ifthissentenceistrue,then2+2=5.1Page1Page1Page1ThisstatementisdedicatedtoallstatementsthatarenotPage1Page1Page1Page2Page2Page2dedicatedtothemselves.Page2Page2Page2218 Customising LATEX Then you can access these marks inside the headers by using the appro- priate command. The first- commands refer to the first mark occurring on the page, while the last- refer to the last one. \usepackage{extramarks} \fancyhead[L]{\firstleftxmark} \fancyhead[R]{\lastleftxmark} \fancyfoot[L]{\firstrightxmark} \fancyfoot[R]{\lastrightxmark} The second statement is false. \extramarks{One}{2 is false} The third statement is false. \extramarks{Two}{3 is false} The first statement is false. \extramarks{Three}{1 is false} Let us now look at the default marks defined by LATEX. After loading extramarks, these may be set and accessed similarly: \markboth{〈left〉}{〈right〉} \firstleftmark \firstrightmark \lastleftmark \lastrightmark The only difference between these and the extra marks is that LATEX classes automatically fill them. Hence, if you are not careful, you may lose your content.8 For example, in the article class, 〈left〉 is set by the \section command, while 〈right〉 is set by the \subsection command. \fancyhead[L]{\firstleftmark} \fancyhead[R]{\lastleftmark} \fancyfoot[L]{\firstrightmark} \fancyfoot[R]{\lastrightmark} \section{First} \subsection{Sub} \section{Second} \subsection{Sub} 8You may prevent this by setting the pagestyle to myheadings and then redefining it to use it with fancyhdr as described later. OneThreeThesecondstatementisfalse.Thethirdstatementisfalse.Thefirststatementisfalse.2isfalse11isfalse1FIRST2SECOND1First1.1Sub2Second2.1Sub12.1Sub7.7 Fancy Headers 219 Note that \firstrightmark is empty in the above example. This is caused by the fact that \section commands set both marks, leaving the right one empty. You may have noticed that section titles are typeset in uppercase when provided by -mark commands. To disable this use the \nouppercase command inside the \fancyhf command. \fancyhead[R]{% \nouppercase{\firstleftmark}% } \section{Today} is opposite day. 7.7.3 Advanced commands If you want even more control over section titles, you can redefine the \sectionmark.9 The command receives the section title as its first argument, while the section number is available as \thesection. \fancyhead[R]{\firstleftmark} \RenewDocumentCommand{\sectionmark}{m}{% \markboth{% Section no.\,\thesection: #1}{}% } \section{Person} There exists a person such that if they are reading this then everybody is reading this. If you only want to change the right mark, use the \markright command. By default, the field in the centre of the header or footer will expand equally to the left and right. This is usually the desired behaviour, but in some cases it may overlap with either left or right text, while still having some space on the other side. \fancyhead[L]{\thepage} \fancyhead[C]{\firstleftmark} \fancyhead[R]{Jane Doe} \section{Section} Section by Jane Doe 9Or \chaptermark, \subsectionmark … 1Today1Todayisoppositeday.1Sectionno.1:Person1PersonThereexistsaper-sonsuchthatiftheyarereadingthistheneverybodyisreadingthis.111SECTIONJaneDoe1SectionSectionbyJaneDoe1220 Customising LATEX In this situation you may want to use the \fancycenter[〈distance〉][〈stretch〉]{〈left〉}{〈centre〉}{〈right〉} command, which automatically shifts the centre toward the shorter text. The 〈distance〉 is the minimum distance by which the elements are always surrounded (1em, by default). The 〈stretch〉 controls the preference for shifting the 〈centre〉; 1 means shift only when and as much as necessary. Higher numbers will start shifting sooner and more aggressively. The default is 3. This command writes over the whole header/footer space so it should only be put in one place (typically C) and other places (L,R) should be empty. \fancyhead[L,R]{} \fancyhead[C]{% \fancycenter% {\thepage}% {\firstleftmark}% {Jane Doe}% } \section{Section} Section by Jane Doe You may want to present different headers or footers when the corre- sponding page starts with a float or ends with a footnote. The fancyhdr package defines four commands that let you achieve this. \iftopfloat{〈true branch〉}{〈false branch〉} \ifbotfloat{〈true branch〉}{〈false branch〉} \iffloatpage{〈true branch〉}{〈false branch〉} \iffootnote{〈true branch〉}{〈false branch〉} Commands \iftopfloat and \ifbotfloat execute their 〈true branch〉 if a float sits at the top or bottom of the page (respectively). Similarly, \iffloatpage checks whether the page is a special float- only page, while \iffootnote checks for a footnote at the bottom of the 11SECTIONJaneDoe1SectionSectionbyJaneDoe17.7 Fancy Headers 221 page. \fancyhead[C]{% \iftopfloat{% A float is below me% } {} } \fancyfoot[C]{% \iffootnote{% A footnote is above me% } {% \thepage% }% } Ignore this footnote.% \footnote{Read this.} \begin{figure}[t] \centering A floating float. \caption{Hmm} \end{figure} The ruled lines in headers and footers are created by invoking \headrule and \footrule commands. If you want finer control over the lines, consider redefining these macros. Use \headruleskip and \footruleskip to raise or lower them, if necessary. \RenewDocumentCommand{\headrule}{}{ \rule{0.05\headwidth}{0.2cm}% \rule[0.1cm]{0.9\headwidth}{\headrulewidth}% \rule{0.05\headwidth}{0.2cm}% } \RenewDocumentCommand{\headruleskip}{}{-0.2cm} My age is the first number not nameable in under twenty words. While working on a longer document, you may want to have several page styles for different occasions. You may also notice that some commands (\chapter and \maketitle, for example) change the page style to plain. The solution to both of these problems is the \fancypagestyle{〈name〉}{〈code〉} command. The 〈name〉 is the name of page style to (re)define, while the 〈code〉 is the code to set the page style. All page styles declared this way Ignorethisfootnote.11Readthis.AfootnoteisabovemeAfloatisbelowmeAfloatingfloat.Figure1:Hmm2Myageisthefirstnumbernotnameableinundertwentywords.1222 Customising LATEX use the fancy page style as their basis, so if empty 〈code〉 is given they will match fancy exactly. \fancypagestyle{mine}{ \fancyhead[L]{My style} } \pagestyle{mine} Were you expecting a paradox here? 7.8 Boxes LATEX builds up its pages by pushing around boxes. At first, each letter is a little box, which is then glued to other letters to form words. These are again glued to other words, but with special glue, which is elastic so that a series of words can be squeezed or stretched as to exactly fill a line on the page. I admit, this is a very simplistic version of what really happens, but the point is that TEX operates on glue and boxes. Letters are not the only things that can be boxes. You can put virtually everything into a box, including other boxes. Each box will then be handled by LATEX as if it were a single letter. In earlier chapters you encountered some boxes, although I did not tell you. The tabular environment and the \includegraphics, for example, both produce a box. This means that you can easily arrange two tables or images side by side. You just have to make sure that their combined width is not larger than the text width. You can also pack a paragraph of your choice into a box with either the \parbox[pos]{width}{text} command or the \begin{minipage}[pos]{width} text \end{minipage} environment. The pos parameter can take one of the letters c, t or b to control the vertical alignment of the box, relative to the baseline of the surrounding text. width takes a length argument specifying the width of the box. The main difference between a minipage and a \parbox is that you cannot use all commands and environments inside a parbox, while almost anything is possible in a minipage. While \parbox packs up a whole paragraph doing line breaking and everything, there is also a class of boxing commands that operates only MystyleYoumaybedisappointed.17.8 Boxes 223 on horizontally aligned material. We already know one of them; it’s called \mbox. It simply packs up a series of boxes into another one, and can be used to prevent LATEX from breaking two words. As boxes can be put inside boxes, these horizontal box packers give you ultimate flexibility. \makebox[width][pos]{text} width defines the width of the resulting box as seen from the outside.10 Besides the length expressions, you can also use \width, \height, \depth, and \totalheight in the width parameter. They are set from values obtained by measuring the typeset text. The pos parameter takes a one letter value: center, flushleft, flushright, or spread the text to fill the box. The command \framebox works exactly the same as \makebox, but it draws a box around the text. The following example shows you some things you could do with the \makebox and \framebox commands. \makebox[\textwidth]{% c e n t r a l}\par \makebox[\textwidth][s]{% s p r e a d}\par \framebox[1.1\width]{Guess I'm framed now!} \par \framebox[0.8\width][r]{Bummer, s c e n t r a l e p r Guess I’m framed now! Bummer, I am too wide a d I am too wide} \par \framebox[1cm][l]{never mind, so am I} Can you read this? never mind, so am I Can you read this? Now that we control the horizontal, the obvious next step is to go for the vertical.11 No problem for LATEX. The \raisebox{lift}[extend-above-baseline][extend-below-baseline]{text} command lets you define the vertical properties of a box. You can use 10This means it can be smaller than the material inside the box. You can even set the width to 0pt so that the text inside the box will be typeset without influencing the surrounding boxes. 11Total control is only to be obtained by controlling both the horizontal and the vertical … 224 Customising LATEX \width, \height, \depth, and \totalheight in the first three parame- ters, in order to act upon the size of the box inside the text argument. \raisebox{0pt}[0pt][0pt]{\Large% \textbf{Aaaa\raisebox{-0.3ex}{a}% \raisebox{-0.7ex}{aa}% \raisebox{-1.2ex}{r}% \raisebox{-2.2ex}{g}% \raisebox{-4.5ex}{h}}} she shouted, but not even the next one in line noticed that something terrible had happened to her. 7.9 Rules Aaaaaaarg h she shouted, but not even the next one in line noticed that something terrible had happened to her. A few pages back you may have noticed the command \rule[lift]{width}{height} In normal use it produces a simple black box. \rule{3mm}{.1pt}% \rule[-1mm]{5mm}{1cm}% \rule{3mm}{.1pt}% \rule[1mm]{1cm}{5mm}% \rule{3mm}{.1pt} This is useful for drawing vertical and horizontal lines. The line on the title page, for example, has been created with a \rule command. The End. Appendix A Installing LATEX Knuth published the source to TEX back in a time when nobody knew about Open Source and/or Free Software. The license that comes with TEX lets you do whatever you want with the source, but you can only call the result of your work TEX if the program passes a set of tests Knuth has also provided. This has led to a situation where we have free TEX implementations for almost every Operating System under the sun. This chapter will give some hints on what to install on Linux, macOS and Windows, to get a working TEX setup. A.1 What to Install To use LATEX on any computer system, you need multiple programs. 1. The TEX/LATEX program for processing your LATEX source files into typeset PDF documents. 2. A text editor for editing your LATEX source files. Some products even let you start the LATEX program from within the editor. 3. A PDF viewer program for previewing and printing your documents. 4. A program to handle PostScript files and images for inclusion into your documents. For every platform there are several programs that fit the requirements above. Here we just tell about the ones we know, like and have some experience with. A.2 Cross Platform Editor While TEX is available on many computing platforms, LATEX editors have long been highly platform specific. 226 Installing LATEX Over the past few years I have come to like Texmaker quite a lot. Apart from being very a useful editor with integrated pdf-preview and syntax high-lighting, it has the advantage of running on Windows, Mac, and Unix/Linux equally well. See [6] for further information. There is also a forked version of Texmaker called TeXstudio [87]. It also seems well maintained and is also available for all three major platforms. You will find some platform specific editor suggestions in the OS sections below. A.3 TEX on macOS A.3.1 TEX Distribution Just download MacTeX [21]. It is a pre-compiled LATEX distribution for macOS. MacTeX provides a full LATEX installation plus a number of additional tools. A.3.2 macOS TEX Editor If you are not happy with our cross-platform suggestion Texmaker (Sec- tion A.2). The most popular open source editor for LATEX on the mac seems to be TEXshop [2]. It is also contained in the MacTeX distribution. Recent TEXLive distributions contain the TEXworks editor [32] which is a multi-platform editor based on the TEXShop design. Since TEXworks uses the Qt toolkit, it is available on any platform supported by this toolkit (macOS, Windows, Linux). A.3.3 Treat yourself to PDFView Use PDFView [4] for viewing PDF files generated by LATEX, it integrates tightly with your LATEX text editor. After installing, open PDFViews preferences dialog and make sure that the automatically reload documents option is enabled and that PDFSync support is set appropriately. A.4 TEX on Windows A.4.1 Getting TEX First, get a copy of the excellent MiKTEX [65] distribution. It contains all the basic programs and files required to compile LATEX documents. The coolest feature in my eyes, is that MiKTEX will download missing LATEX packages on the fly and install them magically while compiling a document. Alternatively you can also use the TEXLive [5] distribution A.5 TEX on Linux 227 which exists for Windows, Unix, and Mac OS to get your base setup going. A.4.2 A LATEX editor If you are not happy with our cross-platform suggestion Texmaker (Sec- tion A.2). TeXnicCenter [77] uses many concepts from the programming-world to provide a nice and efficient LATEX writing environment in Windows. TeXnicCenter integrates nicely with MiKTeX. Recent TEXLive distributions contain the TEXworks Editor [32]. It supports Unicode and requires at least Windows XP. A.4.3 Document Preview You will most likely be using Yap for DVI preview as it gets installed with MikTeX. For PDF you may want to look at Sumatra PDF [41]. I mention Sumatra PDF because it lets you jump from any position in the PDF document back into corresponding position in your source document. A.4.4 Working with graphics Working with high quality graphics in LATEX means that you have to use Encapsulated PostScript (eps) or PDF as your picture format. The program that helps you deal with this is called GhostScript [16]. It comes with its own front-end GhostView. If you deal with bitmap graphics (photos and scanned material), you may want to have a look at the open source Photoshop alternative Gimp [36]. A.5 TEX on Linux If you work with Linux, chances are high that LATEX is already installed on your system, or at least available on the installation source you used to setup. Use your package manager to install the following packages: • texlive — the base TEX/LATEX setup. • emacs (with AUCTeX) — an editor that integrates tightly with LATEX through the add-on AUCTeX package. • ghostscript — a PostScript preview program. • xpdf and acrobat — a PDF preview program. 228 Installing LATEX • imagemagick — a free program for converting bitmap images. • gimp — a free Photoshop look-a-like. • inkscape — a free illustrator/corel draw look-a-like. If you are looking for a more windows like graphical editing environ- ment, check out Texmaker. See Section A.2. Most Linux distros insist on splitting up their TEX environments into many optional packages, so if something is missing after your first install, go check again. Appendix B Things You Shouldn’t Use LATEX has been around for well over 30 years now. And it has remained largely backward compatible. This means you can easily steal snippets from a friends document written ten years ago and use them in your document today. In many instances this work without any problem. But even though LATEX seems happy with the old code, you still should not do it. Have a look! B.1 … for Display Math Instead of $$ Use \[, \] \begin{equation*} \begin{displaymath} (All with the amsmath package.) $$ is plain TEX syntax and it cannot be modified. The displaymath and \[ are LATEX commands that are a bit better in terms of spacing and features, but most importantly they can be redefined. With amsmath, both of them are redefined to be synonyms for the equation* which produces optimal and consistent spacing. $$ 2 + 2 = 4 $$ ⟶ \[ 2 + 2 = 4 \] B.2 … for Inline Math Instead of $ Use $, $ Like Section B.1, $ is also plain TEX syntax and it cannot be redefined. Currently, there are no visual differences between $ and the new version, 230 Things You Shouldn’t Use but it may become an issue if you want to modify the command yourself. Also, the $, $ commands can detect math mode nesting and produce an error if it happens. $ 2 + 2 = 4 $ ⟶ $ 2 + 2 = 4 $ B.3 … for Typesetting Math Instead of \over \choose \overwithdelims \atop \atopwithdelims \above \abovewithdelims Use \frac \binom (amsmath) \genfrac (amsmath) These are plain TEX commands for producing fractions, binomial coef- ficients and related structures. Due to their unusual syntax, their use may lead to ambiguous code. It’s better to use the commands described in Section 3.11. {a \over b} ⟶ \frac{a}{b} {a \choose b} ⟶ \usepackage{amsmath} % ... \binom{a}{b} B.4 … for Defining New Commands Instead of \newcommand \renewcommand \def Use \NewDocumentCommand \RenewDocumentCommand \DeclareDocumentCommand Both \newcommand and \renewcommand are LATEX 2𝜀 macros. They are not as expressive as ...DocumentCommand family described in subsec- tion 7.1.1. Their syntax only allows a single optional argument with default value (specified as second optional argument) followed by few mandatory ones (specified as number in first optional argument). \newcommand{\foo}[4][bar]{ ... } ↓ B.5 … for Copying Commands 231 \NewDocumentCommand{\foo}{O{bar}mmmm}{ ... } The \def command is a plain TEX primitive. It always defines the command, even if it was already defined. This is usually not desirable, but if it’s needed you can use \DeclareDocumentCommand. \def\foo#1#2#3{ ... } ↓ \NewDocumentCommand{\foo}{mmm}{ ... } B.5 … for Copying Commands Instead of \let Use \NewCommandCopy \RenewCommandCopy \DeclareCommandCopy Like Section B.4, \let is also a plain TEX primitive that does not guard against accidental redefinition. Moreover it does not work correctly with some LATEX commands. Use \NewCommandCopy as described in subsection 7.1.3. \let\foo\bar ⟶ \NewCommandCopy\foo\bar B.6 … for Aligning Equations Instead of Use \begin{eqnarray} \begin{eqnarray*} \begin{align} \begin{align*} (Both in amsmath.) eqnarray and eqnarray* are LATEX environments that allow aligning equations. However spacing around the binary operators in these envi- ronments is far from ideal. Therefore, it is recommended to always use the align environments from amsmath or IEEEeqnarray as described in subsection 3.4.3. \begin{eqnarray} f(x) & = & g(x) & > & 52 1 + 2 \\ \end{eqnarray} ⟶ \usepackage{amsmath} % ... \begin{align} f(x) & = 1 + 2 \\ g(x) & > 52 \end{align} 232 Things You Shouldn’t Use B.7 … for Changing Fonts Instead of \bf \rm \sf \tt \it \sc \sl Use \bfseries \rmfamily \sffamily \ttfamily \itshape \scshape \slshape These are plain TEX commands. Each of them resets the font to normal before changing it, so for example bold italics cannot be achieved using them. Use newer commands as described in Section 7.2. {\bf foo} ⟶ \textbf{foo} {\bf foo} ⟶ {\bfseries foo} B.8 … for Changing Text Alignment Instead of Use \begin{flushleft} \begin{flushright} \begin{center} \begin{FlushLeft} \begin{FlushRight} \begin{Center} (ragged2e) The default LATEX 2𝜀 environments for changing text alignment make it nearly impossible to hyphenate words inside them. Therefore, it is recommended to use the ragged2e equivalents, as described in Section 2.15, that make the text less ‘ragged’ than it should be. \begin{center} text \end{center} \usepackage{ragged2e} % ... \begin{Center} ⟶ text \end{Center} B.9 … for Typesetting Quotations 233 B.9 … for Typesetting Quotations Instead of `` ,, << >> '' Use \enquote \enquote* The TEX version of entering quotes was to rely on ligatures for the given quotation mark. This method is not context aware and cannot be customized. Using csquotes package as described in Section 2.16 allows greater control over the typesetting of the quotations. ``quote'' ⟶ \usepackage{csquotes} % ... \enquote{quote} B.10 … for Printing Verbatim Instead of verbatim Use verbatim (from the verbatim pack- age) LATEX comes with a verbatim environment built into the core, however there are problems with it. Firstly, due to the way delimiting is handled you cannot put spaces between \end and {verbatim}. The second and more important problem is that it reads the whole input at once which risks overflowing TEX’s memory. The verbatim package described in subsection 2.17.1 solves both of these problems. \begin{verbatim} code \end{verbatim} ⟶ \usepackage{verbatim} % ... \begin{verbatim} code \end{verbatim} B.11 … for Adding a Bibliography Instead of Use natbib and bibtex biblatex and biber As was already mentioned in the Chapter 4 before biber there was bibtex. It used the natbib package for typesetting the bibliography 234 Things You Shouldn’t Use itself. Both are no longer maintained and don’t handle UTF-8 input, so they should be avoided. However, the natbib styles (.bst files) don’t work with biblatex, so if you are forced to use such a bibliograph style, you don’t have a choice. \usepackage{natbib} ⟶ \usepackage{biblatex} B.12 … for Creating Relations and Operators Instead of \stackrel \stackbin Use \overset The commands are primitives that always define the underlying symbol to be either a relation or binary operator. The \overset detects this based on the symbol that is overset. See subsection 3.3.6 for an example of usage. \stackrel{f}{=} \stackbin{f}{+} ⟶ \overset{f}{=} ⟶ \overset{f}{+} B.13 … for Changing Math Font Instead of \mathrm \mathit \mathbf \mathcal \mathscr \mathbb \mathfrak Use \symrm \symit \symbf \symcal \symscr \symbb \symfrak (unicode-math package) When LATEX typesets operators it uses \math... commands to typeset their name, usually \mathrm. This uses a different font compared to the symbols used in mathematics. $\mathit{ffi}$ vs.\ $\symit{ffi}$ ffi vs. 𝑓𝑓𝑖 These commands should not be used for changing the font for symbols. For historical reasons, some of the \math... commands are actually just synonyms for the symbol versions. For example there is no \mathscr version for math operators, so it is just a synonym for \symscr. For operators it is better to use the \DeclareMathOperator command. B.14 … for Spacing 235 $\mathrm{foo}(\mathcal{F})$ ↓ \DeclareMathOperator{\foo}{foo} % ... $\foo(\symcal{F})$ B.14 … for Spacing Instead of \vskip \hskip \mskip \kern \mkern Use \vspace \hspace \mspace (amsmath package) These commands are TEX primitives that use non-standard syntax, which may lead to weird errors. It is preferable to use the LATEX equivalents, which use the standard syntax. The \kern primitive acts as a vertical space when used between two paragraphs, and as a horizontal space when used inside a paragraph. \vskip 1cm \mskip 1mu ⟶ \vspace{1cm} ⟶ \mspace{1mu} Appendix C GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE Version 3, 29 June 2007 Copyright © 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. https://fsf.org/ Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. Preamble The GNU General Public License is a free, copyleft license for software and other kinds of works. The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed to take away your freedom to share and change the works. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guaran- tee your freedom to share and change all versions of a program–to make sure it remains free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation, use the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it applies also to any other work released this way by its authors. You can apply it to your programs, too. When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for them if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs, and that you know you can do these things. To protect your rights, we need to prevent others from denying you these rights or asking you to surrender the rights. Therefore, you have certain responsibilities if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it: responsibilities to respect the freedom of others. 238 GNU General Public License, Version 3 For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must pass on to the recipients the same freedoms that you received. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights. Developers that use the GNU GPL protect your rights with two steps: (1) assert copyright on the software, and (2) offer you this License giving you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify it. For the developers’ and authors’ protection, the GPL clearly explains that there is no warranty for this free software. For both users’ and authors’ sake, the GPL requires that modified versions be marked as changed, so that their problems will not be attributed erroneously to authors of previous versions. Some devices are designed to deny users access to install or run modified versions of the software inside them, although the manufacturer can do so. This is fundamentally incompatible with the aim of protecting users’ freedom to change the software. The systematic pattern of such abuse occurs in the area of products for individuals to use, which is precisely where it is most unacceptable. Therefore, we have designed this version of the GPL to prohibit the practice for those products. If such problems arise substantially in other domains, we stand ready to extend this provision to those domains in future versions of the GPL, as needed to protect the freedom of users. Finally, every program is threatened constantly by software patents. States should not allow patents to restrict development and use of software on general-purpose computers, but in those that do, we wish to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a free program could make it effectively proprietary. To prevent this, the GPL assures that patents cannot be used to render the program non-free. The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow. Terms and Conditions 0. Definitions. “This License” refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License. “Copyright” also means copyright-like laws that apply to other kinds of works, such as semiconductor masks. “The Program” refers to any copyrightable work licensed under this License. Each licensee is addressed as “you”. “Licensees” and “recipients” may be individuals or organizations. To “modify” a work means to copy from or adapt all or part of the work in a fashion requiring copyright permission, other than the 239 making of an exact copy. The resulting work is called a “modified version” of the earlier work or a work “based on” the earlier work. A “covered work” means either the unmodified Program or a work based on the Program. To “propagate” a work means to do anything with it that, without permission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for in- fringement under applicable copyright law, except executing it on a computer or modifying a private copy. Propagation includes copy- ing, distribution (with or without modification), making available to the public, and in some countries other activities as well. To “convey” a work means any kind of propagation that enables other parties to make or receive copies. Mere interaction with a user through a computer network, with no transfer of a copy, is not conveying. An interactive user interface displays “Appropriate Legal Notices” to the extent that it includes a convenient and prominently visible feature that (1) displays an appropriate copyright notice, and (2) tells the user that there is no warranty for the work (except to the extent that warranties are provided), that licensees may convey the work under this License, and how to view a copy of this License. If the interface presents a list of user commands or options, such as a menu, a prominent item in the list meets this criterion. 1. Source Code. The “source code” for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it. “Object code” means any non-source form of a work. A “Standard Interface” means an interface that either is an official standard defined by a recognized standards body, or, in the case of interfaces specified for a particular programming language, one that is widely used among developers working in that language. 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Those thus making or running the covered works for you must do so exclusively on your behalf, under your direction and control, on terms that prohibit them from making any copies of your copyrighted material outside their relationship with you. Conveying under any other circumstances is permitted solely under the conditions stated below. Sublicensing is not allowed; section 10 makes it unnecessary. 241 3. Protecting Users’ Legal Rights From Anti-Circumvention Law. No covered work shall be deemed part of an effective technological measure under any applicable law fulfilling obligations under article 11 of the WIPO copyright treaty adopted on 20 December 1996, or similar laws prohibiting or restricting circumvention of such measures. When you convey a covered work, you waive any legal power to forbid circumvention of technological measures to the extent such circumvention is effected by exercising rights under this License with respect to the covered work, and you disclaim any intention to limit operation or modification of the work as a means of enforcing, against the work’s users, your or third parties’ legal rights to forbid circumvention of technological measures. 4. Conveying Verbatim Copies. You may convey verbatim copies of the Program’s source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice; keep intact all notices stating that this License and any non-permissive terms added in accord with section 7 apply to the code; keep intact all notices of the absence of any warranty; and give all recipients a copy of this License along with the Program. You may charge any price or no price for each copy that you convey, and you may offer support or warranty protection for a fee. 5. Conveying Modified Source Versions. You may convey a work based on the Program, or the modifications to produce it from the Program, in the form of source code under the terms of section 4, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: (a) The work must carry prominent notices stating that you modified it, and giving a relevant date. (b) The work must carry prominent notices stating that it is released under this License and any conditions added under section 7. This requirement modifies the requirement in section 4 to “keep intact all notices”. (c) You must license the entire work, as a whole, under this License to anyone who comes into possession of a copy. This License will therefore apply, along with any applicable section 7 additional terms, to the whole of the work, and all its parts, regardless of how they are packaged. This License gives no 242 GNU General Public License, Version 3 permission to license the work in any other way, but it does not invalidate such permission if you have separately received it. (d) If the work has interactive user interfaces, each must display Appropriate Legal Notices; however, if the Program has in- teractive interfaces that do not display Appropriate Legal Notices, your work need not make them do so. A compilation of a covered work with other separate and indepen- dent works, which are not by their nature extensions of the covered work, and which are not combined with it such as to form a larger program, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an “aggregate” if the compilation and its resulting copyright are not used to limit the access or legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. Inclusion of a covered work in an aggregate does not cause this License to apply to the other parts of the aggregate. 6. Conveying Non-Source Forms. You may convey a covered work in object code form under the terms of sections 4 and 5, provided that you also convey the machine- readable Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, in one of these ways: (a) Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by the Corresponding Source fixed on a durable physical medium customarily used for software interchange. 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This alternative is allowed only occasionally and noncommercially, and only if you received the object code with such an offer, in accord with subsection 6b. 243 (d) Convey the object code by offering access from a designated place (gratis or for a charge), and offer equivalent access to the Corresponding Source in the same way through the same place at no further charge. You need not require recipients to copy the Corresponding Source along with the object code. If the place to copy the object code is a network server, the Corresponding Source may be on a different server (operated by you or a third party) that supports equivalent copying facilities, provided you maintain clear directions next to the object code saying where to find the Corresponding Source. Regardless of what server hosts the Corresponding Source, you remain obligated to ensure that it is available for as long as needed to satisfy these requirements. 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If you convey an object code work under this section in, or with, or specifically for use in, a User Product, and the conveying occurs 244 GNU General Public License, Version 3 as part of a transaction in which the right of possession and use of the User Product is transferred to the recipient in perpetuity or for a fixed term (regardless of how the transaction is characterized), the Corresponding Source conveyed under this section must be accompanied by the Installation Information. But this requirement does not apply if neither you nor any third party retains the ability to install modified object code on the User Product (for example, the work has been installed in ROM). The requirement to provide Installation Information does not in- clude a requirement to continue to provide support service, warranty, or updates for a work that has been modified or installed by the recipient, or for the User Product in which it has been modified or installed. Access to a network may be denied when the modification itself materially and adversely affects the operation of the network or violates the rules and protocols for communication across the network. Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information pro- vided, in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly documented (and with an implementation available to the public in source code form), and must require no special password or key for unpacking, reading or copying. 7. Additional Terms. “Additional permissions” are terms that supplement the terms of this License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions. Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall be treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent that they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by this License without regard to the additional permissions. When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work, for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders of that material) supplement the terms of this License with 245 terms: (a) Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability differently from the terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or (b) Requiring preservation of specified reasonable legal notices or author attributions in that material or in the Appropriate Legal Notices displayed by works containing it; or (c) Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of that material, or requiring that modified versions of such material be marked in reasonable ways as different from the original version; or (d) Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or authors of the material; or (e) Declining to grant rights under trademark law for use of some trade names, trademarks, or service marks; or (f) Requiring indemnification of licensors and authors of that material by anyone who conveys the material (or modified versions of it) with contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, for any liability that these contractual assumptions directly impose on those licensors and authors. All other non-permissive additional terms are considered “further restrictions” within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is governed by this License along with a term that is a further restriction, you may remove that term. If a license document contains a further restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this License, you may add to a covered work material governed by the terms of that license document, provided that the further restriction does not survive such relicensing or conveying. If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you must place, in the relevant source files, a statement of the additional terms that apply to those files, or a notice indicating where to find the applicable terms. Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the above requirements apply either way. 8. Termination. You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights 246 GNU General Public License, Version 3 under this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third paragraph of section 11). However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally termi- nates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is re- instated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same material under section 10. 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies. You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. However, nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so. 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients. Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsi- ble for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License. An “entity transaction” is a transaction transferring control of an organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered work results from an entity transaction, each party to that transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever licenses to the work the party’s predecessor in interest had or could 247 give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession of the Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in interest, if the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable efforts. You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the rights granted or affirmed under this License. For example, you may not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that any patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it. 11. Patents. A “contributor” is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The work thus licensed is called the contributor’s “contributor version”. A contributor’s “essential patent claims” are all patent claims owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version, but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a consequence of further modification of the contributor version. For purposes of this definition, “control” includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License. Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty- free patent license under the contributor’s essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and propagate the contents of its contributor version. In the following three paragraphs, a “patent license” is any express agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent (such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to sue for patent infringement). To “grant” such a patent license to a party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a patent against the party. If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license, and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a publicly available network server or other readily accessible means, then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a 248 GNU General Public License, Version 3 manner consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent license to downstream recipients. “Knowingly relying” means you have actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the covered work in a country, or your recipient’s use of the covered work in a country, would infringe one or more identifiable patents in that country that you have reason to believe are valid. If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or ar- rangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify or convey a specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it. A patent license is “discriminatory” if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specifically granted under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection with specific products or compilations that contain the covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007. Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of Others’ Freedom. If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey the Program, the only 249 way you could satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License “or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Program. Later license versions may give you additional or different per- missions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15. Disclaimer of Warranty. THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPY- RIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT 250 GNU General Public License, Version 3 NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MER- CHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PUR- POSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PER- FORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR COR- RECTION. 16. Limitation of Liability. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLD- ER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CON- VEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPE- CIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARIS- ING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PRO- GRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PRO- GRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approxi- mates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in return for a fee. End of Terms and Conditions How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the “copyright” line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. 251 Copyright (C) This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not, see . Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: Copyright (C) This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. The hypothetical commands show w and show c should show the ap- propriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your program’s commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would use an “about box”. You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a “copyright disclaimer” for the program, if necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see https://www.gnu.org/licenses/. The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first, please read https://www.gnu.org/licenses/why-not-lgpl.html. Bibliography [1] Each LATEX installation should provide a so-called LATEX Local Guide, which explains the things that are special to the local system. It should be contained in a file called local.tex. Unfortunately, some lazy sysops do not provide such a document. In this case, go and ask your local LATEX guru for help. [2] Richard Koch et al. TeXShop. Version 4.70. 2022. url: https: //pages.uoregon.edu/koch/texshop/. [3] American Mathematical Society. amsthm – Typesetting theorems (AMS style). Version 2.20.6. May 29, 2020. url: https://www. ctan.org/pkg/amsthm. [4] Andrea Bergia. PDFView. Version 0.14.3. 2007. url: http : / / pdfview.sourceforge.net/. [5] Karl Berry. TeX Live. 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Index Symbols ", 37 $, 76, 229, 230 $, 76, 229, 230 \,, 116 -, 22 \-, 21 –, 22 —, 22 ., 89, 99 ., space after, 33 …, 23 \/, 186 \:, 94, 116 \;, 94, 116 \[, 76, 77, 229 $, 229 $$, 229 %, 6, 31, 183 &, 53, 93 \, 20 ^, 78, 79 _, 78 \\, 61 articleclass, 8, 154, 208 beamerclass, 8, 145, 147, 153 bookclass, 8, 208 letterclass, 8 memoirclass, 209 procclass, 8 reportclass, 8, 208 slidesclass, 145 {, 7 }, 7 ~, 33, 183 ~, 99 \], 76, 229 A A4 paper, 208 A5 paper, 208 å, 25 \above, 230 \abovewithdelims, 230 abstract, 24 accent, 25 acute, 25 \acute, 87 \addbibresource, 129 \addtolength, 205 \addvspace command, 204 \adots, 122 advantages of LATEX, 4 æ, 25 \alert, 147 align, 93, 94, 96, 231 align*, 231 \Alpha, 81 \alpha, 81 American Mathematical Society, 75 amsmath, 15, 75, 91, 96, 107, 123, 147, 229–231, 235 amsmath, 96 amsthm, 118 \and, 34 \ang, 104 \appendix, 35 Arabic, 30 arabxetex, 30 \arccos, 84 \arcsin, 84 INDEX \arctan, 84 \arg, 84 array, 53, 63 array, 113 asymptote, 158 \atop, 230 \atopwithdelims, 230 \author, 34, 146 \autocite, 135 \autopageref, 142 \autoref, 142 B B5 paper, 208 babel, 24 \backmatter, 35 backslash, 7 \bar, 87 base font size, 208 \baselineskip, 211 261 \blockquote, 38 Bmatrix, 109 bmatrix, 109 bold face, 186 booktabs, 15, 53, 54 booktabs, 55 \BooleanFalse, 182 \BooleanTrue, 182 \bot, 114 \bottomrule, 54 C \cap, 81 \caption, 70, 71, 73 cases, 113 \cdot, 78 \cdots, 122 Center, 37, 232 center, 232 beamer, 15, 145, 147, 149, 150, 152–155 beamerarticle, 154 \begin, 13, 179 \Beta, 81 \beta, 81 \bf, 232 \bfseries, 186, 232 biber, 126 \bibitem, 125 biblatex, vii, 15, 125–127, 130, 131, 134 biblatex, 233, 234 bibliography, 125 bidi, 29 \Big, 90 \big, 90 \bigcap, 114 \Bigg, 90 \bigg, 90 \bigskip, 204 \bigwedge, 85 binary relations, 88 \binom, 123, 230 block, 147 \cfrac, 123 \chapter, 33, 132, 221 \chapter*, 133 \chaptermark, 219 chemformula, 116 \Chi, 81 \chi, 81 Chinese, 30 \choose, 230 \cite, 125, 134 \citeauthor, 135 \citedate, 135 \citetitle, 135 \citeurl, 135 \citeyear, 135 \cleardoublepage, 71 \clearpage, 71 \cline, 64 \cmidrule, 56, 58 \colon, 81, 114 \coloneq, 76 \Coloneqq, 76 \coloneqq, 76 \color, 195, 199 \colorbox, 199 262 \colorlet, 198 coloured text, 14 colours, 194 comma, 23 commands, 7 $, 76, 229, 230 $, 76, 229, 230 \,, 116 \-, 21 \/, 186 \:, 94, 116 \;, 94, 116 \[, 76, 77, 229 \, 20 \\, 61 \], 76, 229 \above, 230 \abovewithdelims, 230 \acute, 87 \addbibresource, 129 \addtolength, 205 \addvspace command, 204 \adots, 122 \alert, 147 \Alpha, 81 \alpha, 81 \and, 34 \ang, 104 \appendix, 35 \arccos, 84 \arcsin, 84 \arctan, 84 \arg, 84 \atop, 230 \atopwithdelims, 230 \author, 34, 146 \autocite, 135 \autopageref, 142 \autoref, 142 \backmatter, 35 \bar, 87 \baselineskip, 211 \begin, 13, 179 INDEX \Beta, 81 \beta, 81 \bf, 232 \bfseries, 186, 232 \bibitem, 125 \Big, 90 \big, 90 \bigcap, 114 \Bigg, 90 \bigg, 90 \bigskip, 204 \bigwedge, 85 \binom, 123, 230 \blockquote, 38 \BooleanFalse, 182 \BooleanTrue, 182 \bot, 114 \bottomrule, 54 \cap, 81 \caption, 70, 71, 73 \cdot, 78 \cdots, 122 \cfrac, 123 \chapter, 33, 132, 221 \chapter*, 133 \chaptermark, 219 \Chi, 81 \chi, 81 \choose, 230 \cite, 125, 134 \citeauthor, 135 \citedate, 135 \citetitle, 135 \citeurl, 135 \citeyear, 135 \cleardoublepage, 71 \clearpage, 71 \cline, 64 \cmidrule, 56, 58 \colon, 81, 114 \coloneq, 76 \Coloneqq, 76 \coloneqq, 76 INDEX 263 \color, 195, 199 \colorbox, 199 \colorlet, 198 \complexnum, 105 \complexqty, 105 \coordinate, 161 \cos, 84 \cosh, 84 \cot, 84 \coth, 84 \csc, 84 \csi, 175 \cup, 81 \date, 34, 146 \dbinom, 123 \dblcolon, 76 \ddot, 87 \ddots, 122 \DeclareCommandCopy, 231 \DeclareDocumentCommand, 178, 230, 231 \DeclareFloatingEnvironment, 71 \DeclareMathOperator, 84, 85, 234 \DeclarePairedDelimiter, 89, 90 \DeclarePairedDelimiterX, 90 \DeclareSIPower, 106 \DeclareSIPrefix, 106 \DeclareSIQualifier, 106 \DeclareSIUnit, 105 \def, 230, 231 \definecolor, 198 \deg, 84 \Delta, 81 \delta, 81 \depth, 223, 224 \det, 84 \dfrac, 122, 123 \dim, 84 \displaystyle, 120, 122 \div, 78 \divslash, 78 \documentclass, 8, 17, 20, 68, 206 \dots, 121 \dotsb, 122 \dotsc, 122 \dotsi, 122 \dotsm, 122 \dotso, 122 \doublespacing, 211 \draw, 158, 159, 163 \dum, 175, 176 \emph, 12, 13, 175, 181, 182 \emptyset, 81 \end, 13, 179 \endfirsthead, 61 \endfoot, 61 \endhead, 61 \endlastfoot, 61 \enquote, 37, 233 \enquote*, 233 \Epsilon, 81 \epsilon, 81 \eqqcolon, 76 \eqref, 77, 92 \Eta, 81 \eta, 81 \exists, 80 \exp, 84 \extramarks, 217 \fancycenter, 220 \fancyf, 217 \fancyfoot, 216 \fancyfootoffset, 217 \fancyhead, 216 \fancyheadoffset, 217 \fancyhf, 215, 217, 219 \fancyhfoffset, 217 \fancypagestyle, 221 \fcolorbox, 199 \firstleftmark, 218 \firstleftxmark, 217 \firstrightmark, 218, 219 264 INDEX \firstrightxmark, 217 \fontsize, 187, 199, 209 \footcite, 134 \footnote, 36 \footnotesize, 186, 187 \footrule, 221 \footruleskip, 221 \footrulewidth, 216 \forall, 80 \foreach, 170 \foreignblockquote, 40 \foreignquote, 39 \foreigntextquote, 40 \frac, 80, 120, 122–124, 230 \framebox, 223 \framesubtitle, 146 \frametitle, 146 \frenchspacing, 33 \frontmatter, 35 \fussy, 21 \Gamma, 81 \gamma, 81 \gcd, 84 \genfrac, 123, 124, 230 \geq, 78 \geqslant, 78 \gram, 100 \grave, 87 \hat, 87 \headrule, 221 \headruleskip, 221 \headrulewidth, 216 \height, 223, 224 \hfill, 203 \highlight, 101 \hline, 64 \hom, 84 \hphantom, 116 \href, 141 \hskip, 235 \hspace, 56, 201, 235 \Huge, 186–188 \huge, 186, 187 \hyperref, 141, 142 \hypersetup, 142 \hyphenation, 21 \IEEEeqnarraymulticol, 97 \IEEEeqnarraynumspace, 97 \IEEEyesnumber, 97 \IEEEyessubnumber, 97 \IfBooleanF, 178 \IfBooleanT, 178 \IfBooleanTF, 178, 182 \ifbotfloat, 220 \iff, 80 \iffloatpage, 220 \iffootnote, 220 \IfNoValueF, 178 \IfNoValueT, 178 \IfNoValueTF, 178 \iftopfloat, 220 \IfValueF, 177 \IfValueT, 177 \IfValueTF, 177, 178 \iiiint, 86 \iiint, 86 \iint, 86 \impliedBy, 80 \implies, 80 \in, 80 \include, 73 \includegraphics, 65, 67, 222 \includeonly, 73 \indent, 212 \index, 137, 138 \inf, 84 \input, 73 \inputminted, 49 \institute, 146 \Iota, 81 \iota, 81 \it, 232 \item, 36 \itshape, 185, 186, 232 \Kappa, 81 \kappa, 81 INDEX 265 \ker, 84 \kern, 235 \kilo, 100 \L, 31 \label, 35, 48, 71, 92 \Lambda, 81 \lambda, 81 \land, 80 \LARGE, 186, 187 \Large, 186, 187 \large, 186, 187 \lastleftmark, 218 \lastleftxmark, 217 \lastrightmark, 218 \lastrightxmark, 217 \LaTeX, 22, 31 \LaTeXe, 22 \lBrack, 114 \ldots, 23, 122 \left, 88, 89 \leq, 78 \leqslant, 78 \let, 231 \lg, 84 \lim, 84 \liminf, 84 \limsup, 84 \linebreak, 20 \linespread, 211 \linewidth, 206 \listoffigures, 70 \listoftables, 70, 73 \ln, 84 \lnot, 80 \log, 84 \lor, 80 \lstinline, 43 \lstinputlisting, 43 \lstset, 44 \lvert, 114 \mainmatter, 35 \makebox, 223 \makeindex, 137 \maketitle, 34, 146, 221 \markboth, 218 \markright, 219 \mathbb, 234 \mathbf, 234 \mathbin, 114 \mathcal, 234 \mathclose, 114 \mathcolor, 195 \mathfrak, 234 \mathit, 234 \mathop, 114 \mathopen, 114 \mathord, 114 \mathpunct, 114 \mathrel, 114 \mathrm, 234 \mathscr, 234 \max, 84 \mbox, 22, 223 \mdseries, 186 \medskip, 204 \medskipamount, 204 \medspace, 116 \midrule, 54 \min, 84 \mintinline, 49 \mkern, 235 \mskip, 235 \mspace, 115, 116, 235 \Mu, 81 \mu, 81 \multicol, 107 \multicolumn, 56–58, 61 \multirow, 56, 58, 59, 61, 107 \negmedspace, 98, 116 \negmedspace, 98 \negthickspace, 116 \negthinspace, 116 \neq, 78 \newcolumntype, 64 \newcommand, 230 \NewCommandCopy, 181, 198, 231 266 INDEX \NewDocumentCommand, 31, 32, 176, 178, 179, 181, 188, 198, 230 \NewDocumentEnvironment, 179–181 \newfontfamily, 27, 191, 193 \newlength, 205 \newline, 19 \NewNegationCommand, 194 \newpage, 20 \newtheorem, 117 \nobreakspace, 183 \nocite, 131 \node, 160, 161 \noindent, 212 \nolinebreak, 20 \nopagebreak, 20 \nopagecolor, 199 \normalfont, 186 \normalsize, 186–188 \not, 78, 194 \notag, 93, 97 \nouppercase, 219 \Nu, 81 \nu, 81 \num, 99 \numlist, 104 \of, 100 \Omega, 81 \omega, 81 \Omicron, 81 \omicron, 81 \onslide, 148, 149 \over, 230 \overbrace, 87 \overbracket, 76 \overline, 87 \overset, 88, 234 \overwithdelims, 230 \pagebreak, 20 \pagecolor, 199 \pagenumbering, xiii, 209, 210 \pageref, 35, 142 \pagestyle, 209 \par, 183, 187 \paragraph, 33 \parbox, 222 \parencite, 134 \parindent, 212 \parskip, 212 \part, 33 \path, 159 \pause, 148–150, 153 \pdfstringdefDisableCommands, 144 \per, 100 \perp, 114 \phantom, 94, 98, 116 \Phi, 81 \phi, 81 \Pi, 81 \pi, 81 \pic, 170 \Pr, 84 \prescript, 116 \printbibliography, 129, 131, 132 \printindex, 138 \prod, 85 \providecolor, 198 \ProvideDocumentCommand, 178 \providefontfamily, 193 \ProvidesExplPackage, 183 \Psi, 81 \psi, 81 \qedhere, 118 \qedsymbol, 120 \qquad, 116 \qty, 99 \quad, 116 \raisebox, 223 \rBrack, 114 \ref, 35, 71, 142 \renewcommand, 230 \RenewCommandCopy, 231 \RenewDocumentCommand, 32, 178, 181, 230 INDEX 267 \RenewDocumentEnvironment, 181 \RenewExpandableDocumentCommand, 144 \renewfontfamily, 193 \Rho, 81 \rho, 81 \right, 88, 89, 113 \rm, 232 \rmfamily, 185, 186, 191, 232 \rule, 224 \rvert, 114 \sc, 232 \scriptscriptstyle, 120 \scriptsize, 186, 187 \scriptstyle, 120 \scshape, 186, 232 \sec, 84 \section, 29, 33, 132, 147, 175, 218, 219 \section*, 133 \sectionmark, 219 \selectfont, 187, 211 \setbeamercolor, 151 \setbeamercovered, 149 \setbeamerfont, 151 \setdefaultlanguage, 26 \setlength, 205 \setmainfont, 29, 189 \setmathfont, 193, 194 \setminted, 52 \setminus, 81 \setmonofont, 29, 189 \setotherlanguage, 26 \setsansfont, 29, 189 \settodepth, 205 \settoheight, 205 \settowidth, 205 \sf, 232 \sffamily, 186, 191, 232 \sfrac, 123 \shoveleft, 91 \shoveright, 91 \sideset, 86 \Sigma, 81 \sigma, 81 \sin, 84 \sinh, 84 \sisetup, 102 \sl, 232 \slash, 23 \sloppy, 21 \slshape, 186, 232 \small, 186, 187 \smallskip, 204 \smartcite, 134 \smash, 121 \sqrt, 79 \stackbin, 234 \stackrel, 234 \stretch, 203, 204 \subparagraph, 33 \subsection, 33, 218 \subsectionmark, 219 \subset, 81 \subseteq, 81 \subsetneq, 81 \substack, 85 \subsubsection, 33 \subtitle, 146 \succeq, 114 \sum, 84, 114 \sup, 84 \supset, 81 \supseteq, 81 \supsetneq, 81 \swshape, 186 \symbb, 82, 83, 234 \symbbit, 83 \symbf, 234 \symbffrak, 83 \symbfit, 83 \symbfscr, 83 \symbfsfit, 83 \symbfsfup, 83 \symbfup, 83 \symcal, 194, 234 268 INDEX \symfrak, 83, 234 \symit, 83, 234 \symrm, 84, 234 \symscr, 83, 194, 234 \symsfit, 83 \symsfup, 83 \symtt, 83 \symup, 83 \tablenum, 107, 112 \tableofcontents, 34, 70, 140, 147 \tag, 77, 92 \tan, 84 \tanh, 84 \Tau, 81 \tau, 81 \tbinom, 123 \TeX, 22 \texorpdfstring, 144 \text, 78, 94 \textbackslash, 6 \textbackslash*, 61 \textbf, 184, 186, 188 \textcite, 134 \textcolor, 195 \textit, 185, 186 \textlang, 27 \textmd, 184, 186 \textnormal, 185, 186 \textquote, 38, 39 \textrm, 184–186 \textsc, 185, 186 \textsf, 184, 186 \textsl, 185, 186 \textssc, 185 \textstyle, 120, 122 \textsw, 185, 186 \texttt, 184, 186 \textulc, 185 \textup, 185, 186 \text«language», 27 \tfrac, 122–124 \the, 205 \theoremstyle, 118 \thepage, 217 \thesection, 219 \Theta, 81 \theta, 81 \thickspace, 116 \thinspace, 116 \thispagestyle, 209 \tikz, 158 \tikzset, 166 \tilde, 87 \times, 78, 114 \tiny, 186–188 \title, 34, 146 \titlegraphic, 146 \tnss, 176 \today, 22, 27 \toprule, 54 \totalheight, 223, 224 \tothe, 100 \tracingcolors, 198 \tt, 232 \ttfamily, 186, 232 \uncover, 149 \underbrace, 87 \underbracket, 76 \underset, 88 \unit, 99 \upshape, 186 \Upsilon, 81 \upsilon, 81 \url, 141 \useasboundingbox, 160 \usecolortheme, 150 \usefonttheme, 151 \usepackage, 8, 14, 17, 127, 183 \usetheme, 150 \usetikzlibrary, 172 \varepsilon, 81, 82 \varkappa, 82 \varphi, 82 \varpi, 82 INDEX 269 \varrho, 82 \varsigma, 82 \varTheta, 82 \vartheta, 82 \vdots, 122 \veebar, 80 \verb, 41–43, 179 \verbatiminput, 42, 43 \verbatiminput*, 42 \vfill, 204 \vphantom, 116 \vskip, 235 \vspace, 203, 235 \widehat, 87 \width, 223, 224 \Xi, 81 \xi, 81 \Zeta, 81 \zeta, 81 comments, 6 commutative-diagrams, 158 \complexnum, 105 \complexqty, 105 \coordinate, 161 \cos, 84 \cosh, 84 \cot, 84 \coth, 84 cross-references, 35 \csc, 84 \csi, 175 csquotes, 37, 39, 40, 233 \cup, 81 D dash, 22 \date, 34, 146 \dbinom, 123 \dblcolon, 76 \ddot, 87 \ddots, 122 decimal alignment, 106 \DeclareCommandCopy, 231 \DeclareDocumentCommand, 178, 230, 231 \DeclareFloatingEnvironment, 71 \DeclareMathOperator, 84, 85, 234 \DeclarePairedDelimiter, 89, 90 \DeclarePairedDelimiterX, 90 \DeclareSIPower, 106 \DeclareSIPrefix, 106 \DeclareSIQualifier, 106 \DeclareSIUnit, 105 \def, 230, 231 \definecolor, 198 \deg, 84 delimiters, 88 \Delta, 81 \delta, 81 \depth, 223, 224 description, 36 \det, 84 \dfrac, 122, 123 \dim, 84 dimensions, 199 display style, 76 displaymath, 229 displayquote, 38 \displaystyle, 120, 122 \div, 78 \divslash, 78 document font size, 208 document title, 208 \documentclass, 8, 17, 20, 68, 206 dotless ı and ȷ, 25 \dots, 121 \dotsb, 122 \dotsc, 122 \dotsi, 122 \dotsm, 122 \dotso, 122 double sided, 208 \doublespacing, 211 \draw, 158, 159, 163 \dum, 175, 176 270 E ellipsis, 23 em, 13 em-dash, 22 \emph, 12, 13, 175, 181, 182 empty, 209 \emptyset, 81 en-dash, 22 Encapsulated PostScript, 227 \end, 13, 179 \endfirsthead, 61 \endfoot, 61 \endhead, 61 \endlastfoot, 61 \enquote, 37, 233 \enquote*, 233 enumerate, 36 environments abstract, 24 align, 93, 94, 96, 231 align*, 231 amsmath, 96 array, 113 biblatex, 233, 234 block, 147 Bmatrix, 109 bmatrix, 109 booktabs, 55 cases, 113 Center, 37, 232 center, 232 description, 36 displaymath, 229 displayquote, 38 em, 13 enumerate, 36 eqnarray, 231 eqnarray*, 231 equation, 76 equation*, 77, 92, 229 figure, 68, 70–72 FlushLeft, 37, 232 flushleft, 232 INDEX FlushRight, 37, 232 flushright, 232 foreigndisplayquote, 40 frame, 145, 146 gather, 92 gather*, 93 german, 26 IEEEeqnarray, 96, 231 itemize, 36 lang, 26 listing, 47 listings, vi, 43 longtable, vi, 59–62, 73, 74 lscommand, 175, 176 lstlisting, 43 matrix, 107, 113 minipage, 222 minted, 49 multline, 91 multline*, 92 natbib, 233, 234 parbox, 222 picture, 158 pmatrix, 109 proof, 118, 147 quotation, 40 scope, 169 smallmatrix, 109 table, 68, 70, 71 tabular, 53, 56, 59, 106, 222 thebibliography, vii, 125, 131 theorem, 147 tikzpicture, 158 verbatim, 42, 43, 233 verbatim environment, 43 verse, 40 Vmatrix, 109 vmatrix, 109 \Epsilon, 81 \epsilon, 81 eqnarray, 231 eqnarray*, 231 \eqqcolon, 76 INDEX 271 \eqref, 77, 92 equation multiple, 92 equation, 76 equation*, 77, 92, 229 \Eta, 81 \eta, 81 executive paper, 208 \exists, 80 \exp, 84 exponent, 79 extension, 17 .aux, 18 .bib, 127–129, 136 .bst, 234 .cls, 17 .dtx, 17 .dvi, 2, 140 .fd, 17 .idx, 18, 138 .ilg, 18 .ind, 18, 138 .ins, 17 .jb2, 65 .jbig2, 65 .jpeg, 65 .jpg, 65 .lof, 18 .log, 14, 18, 183 .lot, 18 .mps, 65 .pdf, 9, 65 .png, 65 .sty, 17, 139 .tex, 9, 17 .toc, 18 extramarks, 217, 218 \extramarks, 217 F \fancycenter, 220 \fancyf, 217 \fancyfoot, 216 \fancyfootoffset, 217 fancyhdr, 15, 215–218, 220 \fancyhead, 216 \fancyheadoffset, 217 \fancyhf, 215, 217, 219 \fancyhfoffset, 217 \fancypagestyle, 221 fancyvrb, 43 \fcolorbox, 199 figure, 68, 70–72 file types, 17 \firstleftmark, 218 \firstleftxmark, 217 \firstrightmark, 218, 219 \firstrightxmark, 217 floating bodies, 68 FlushLeft, 37, 232 flushleft, 232 FlushRight, 37, 232 flushright, 232 font, 183 font size, 183, 186 \fontsize, 187, 199, 209 fontspec, viii, 27, 188–193 \footcite, 134 footer, 209 \footnote, 36 \footnotesize, 186, 187 \footrule, 221 \footruleskip, 221 \footrulewidth, 216 \forall, 80 \foreach, 170 \foreignblockquote, 40 foreigndisplayquote, 40 \foreignquote, 39 \foreigntextquote, 40 \frac, 80, 120, 122–124, 230 frame, 145, 146 \framebox, 223 \framesubtitle, 146 \frametitle, 146 \frenchspacing, 33 \frontmatter, 35 272 \fussy, 21 G \Gamma, 81 \gamma, 81 gather, 92 gather*, 93 \gcd, 84 \genfrac, 123, 124, 230 geometry, 139, 213, 214 \geq, 78 \geqslant, 78 german, 26 GhostScript, 227 GhostView, 227 Gimp, 227 \gram, 100 graphics, 14 graphicx, 65 grave, 25 \grave, 87 H \hat, 87 header, 209 headings, 209 \headrule, 221 \headruleskip, 221 \headrulewidth, 216 Hebrew, 30 \height, 223, 224 \hfill, 203 \highlight, 101 \hline, 64 \hom, 84 horizontal space, 201 \hphantom, 116 \href, 141 \hskip, 235 \hspace, 56, 201, 235 \Huge, 186–188 \huge, 186, 187 INDEX \hyperref, 141, 142 \hypersetup, 142 hyphen, 22 hyphenat, 139 \hyphenation, 21 I IEEEeqnarray, 96, 231 \IEEEeqnarraymulticol, 97 \IEEEeqnarraynumspace, 97 IEEEtrantools, 96, 97 \IEEEyesnumber, 97 \IEEEyessubnumber, 97 \IfBooleanF, 178 \IfBooleanT, 178 \IfBooleanTF, 178, 182 \ifbotfloat, 220 \iff, 80 \iffloatpage, 220 \iffootnote, 220 \IfNoValueF, 178 \IfNoValueT, 178 \IfNoValueTF, 178 \iftopfloat, 220 \IfValueF, 177 \IfValueT, 177 \IfValueTF, 177, 178 \iiiint, 86 \iiint, 86 \iint, 86 \impliedBy, 80 \implies, 80 \in, 80 \include, 73 \includegraphics, 65, 67, 222 \includeonly, 73 \indent, 212 indentfirst, 212 index, 137 \index, 137, 138 \inf, 84 \input, 73 input file, 9 hyperref, 29, 138, 140–144 \inputminted, 49 INDEX 273 \institute, 146 international, 24 \Iota, 81 \iota, 81 \it, 232 italic, 186 italic correction, 186 \item, 36 itemize, 36 \itshape, 185, 186, 232 J Japanese, 30 Jawi, 30 K \Kappa, 81 \kappa, 81 kashida, 30 Kashmiri, 30 \ker, 84 \kern, 235 \kilo, 100 Knuth, Donald E., 1 koma-script, 209 Korean, 30 Kurdish, 30 L \L, 31 \label, 35, 48, 71, 92 \Lambda, 81 \lambda, 81 Lamport, Leslie, 2 \land, 80 lang, 26 language, 24 \LARGE, 186, 187 \Large, 186, 187 \large, 186, 187 \lastleftmark, 218 \lastleftxmark, 217 \lastrightmark, 218 \lastrightxmark, 217 \LaTeX, 22, 31 \LaTeXe, 22 \lBrack, 114 \ldots, 23, 122 \left, 88, 89 left-aligned, 37 legal paper, 208 length rigid, 201 rubber, 201 \leq, 78 \leqslant, 78 \let, 231 letter paper, 208 \lg, 84 ligature, 23 \lim, 84 \liminf, 84 \limsup, 84 line break, 19 line spacing, 209 \linebreak, 20 \linespread, 211 \linewidth, 206 listing, 47 listings, 43, 46, 48–51 listings, vi, 43 \listoffigures, 70 \listoftables, 70, 73 \ln, 84 \lnot, 80 \log, 84 long equations, 90 longtable, 53, 59, 68, 73 longtable, vi, 59–62, 73, 74 \lor, 80 lscommand, 175, 176 \lstinline, 43 \lstinputlisting, 43 lstlisting, 43 \lstset, 44 luabidi, 29 \lvert, 114 274 M MacTeX, 226 \mainmatter, 35 \makebox, 223 makeidx, 15, 137 makeidx package, 137 \makeindex, 137 makeindex program, 137 \maketitle, 34, 146, 221 Malay, 30 margins, 212 \markboth, 218 \markright, 219 math mode, 77 math spacing, 113 \mathbb, 234 \mathbf, 234 \mathbin, 114 \mathcal, 234 \mathclose, 114 \mathcolor, 195 mathematical accents, 87 \mathfrak, 234 \mathit, 234 \mathop, 114 \mathopen, 114 \mathord, 114 \mathpunct, 114 \mathrel, 114 \mathrm, 234 \mathscr, 234 mathtools, 75, 76, 90, 116 matrix, 107 matrix, 107, 113 \max, 84 \mbox, 22, 223 \mdseries, 186 \medskip, 204 \medskipamount, 204 \medspace, 116 memoir, 209 metapost, 158 INDEX mhchem, 116 \midrule, 54 MiKTEX, 226 \min, 84 minipage, 222 minted, vi, 49, 50 minted, 49 \mintinline, 49 \mkern, 235 \mskip, 235 \mspace, 115, 116, 235 \Mu, 81 \mu, 81 \multicol, 107 \multicolumn, 56–58, 61 multirow, 53, 56 \multirow, 56, 58, 59, 61, 107 multline, 91 multline*, 92 mwe, 65 N natbib, 233, 234 \negmedspace, 98, 116 \negmedspace, 98 \negthickspace, 116 \negthinspace, 116 \neq, 78 \newcolumntype, 64 \newcommand, 230 \NewCommandCopy, 181, 198, 231 \NewDocumentCommand, 31, 32, 176, 178, 179, 181, 188, 198, 230 \NewDocumentEnvironment, 179–181 newfloat, 71 \newfontfamily, 27, 191, 193 \newlength, 205 \newline, 19 \NewNegationCommand, 194 \newpage, 20 \newtheorem, 117 \nobreakspace, 183 \nocite, 131 \node, 160, 161 INDEX 275 \noindent, 212 \nolinebreak, 20 \nopagebreak, 20 \nopagecolor, 199 \normalfont, 186 \normalsize, 186–188 \not, 78, 194 \notag, 93, 97 \nouppercase, 219 ntheorem, 118 \Nu, 81 \nu, 81 \num, 99 \numlist, 104 O ocgx2, 141 œ, 25 \of, 100 \Omega, 81 \omega, 81 \Omicron, 81 \omicron, 81 one column, 208 \onslide, 148, 149 Ottoman, 30 \over, 230 \overbrace, 87 \overbracket, 76 overfull hbox, 20 \overline, 87 \overset, 88, 234 \overwithdelims, 230 P package, 8, 13 packages amsmath, 15, 75, 91, 96, 107, 123, 147, 229–231, 235 amsthm, 118 arabxetex, 30 array, 53, 63 asymptote, 158 babel, 24 beamer, 15, 145, 147, 149, 150, 152–155 beamerarticle, 154 biber, 126 biblatex, vii, 15, 125–127, 130, 131, 134 bidi, 29 booktabs, 15, 53, 54 chemformula, 116 commutative-diagrams, 158 csquotes, 37, 39, 40, 233 extramarks, 217, 218 fancyhdr, 15, 215–218, 220 fancyvrb, 43 fontspec, viii, 27, 188–193 geometry, 139, 213, 214 graphicx, 65 hyperref, 29, 138, 140–144 hyphenat, 139 IEEEtrantools, 96, 97 indentfirst, 212 koma-script, 209 listings, 43, 46, 48–51 longtable, 53, 59, 68, 73 luabidi, 29 makeidx, 15, 137 mathtools, 75, 76, 90, 116 memoir, 209 metapost, 158 mhchem, 116 minted, vi, 49, 50 multirow, 53, 56 mwe, 65 newfloat, 71 ntheorem, 118 ocgx2, 141 pgf, 158, 172 pgfplots, 158 polyglossia, 15, 21, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 39, 104, 190 powerdot, 145 ragged2e, 37, 232 setspace, 211 276 INDEX showidx, 138 siunitx, vii, 98, 99, 102–104, 106, pgf, 158, 172 pgfplots, 158 107, 109–111 syntonly, 74 unicode-math, 75, 76, 193, 234 verbatim, 42, 233 xcolor, xiii, 142, 143, 194, 196, 198 xeCJK, 30 xepersian, 29, 30 xfrac, 123 xypic, 158 page style empty, 209 headings, 209 page style, 209 plain, 209 \pagebreak, 20 \pagecolor, 199 \pagenumbering, xiii, 209, 210 \pageref, 35, 142 \pagestyle, 209 paper size, 208 paper size, 212 \par, 183, 187 paragraph, 14 \paragraph, 33 \parbox, 222 parbox, 222 \parencite, 134 \parindent, 212 \parskip, 212 \part, 33 Pashto, 30 \path, 159 \pause, 148–150, 153 PDF, 140 \pdfstringdefDisableCommands, 144 PDFView, 226 \per, 100 period, 23 \perp, 114 Persian, 29, 30 \phantom, 94, 98, 116 \Phi, 81 \phi, 81 \Pi, 81 \pi, 81 \pic, 170 picture, 158 piecewise function, 113 placement specifier, 70 plain, 209 pmatrix, 109 polyglossia, 15, 21, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 39, 104, 190 PostScript, 4, 225, 227 Encapsulated, 227 powerdot, 145 \Pr, 84 preamble, 8 \prescript, 116 \printbibliography, 129, 131, 132 \printindex, 138 \prod, 85 proof, 118, 147 \providecolor, 198 \ProvideDocumentCommand, 178 \providefontfamily, 193 \ProvidesExplPackage, 183 \Psi, 81 \psi, 81 Q \qedhere, 118 \qedsymbol, 120 \qquad, 116 \qty, 99 \quad, 116 Queen of Swash, 186 quotation, 40 quotation marks, 37 R ragged2e, 37, 232 INDEX 277 \raisebox, 223 \rBrack, 114 \ref, 35, 71, 142 \renewcommand, 230 \RenewCommandCopy, 231 \RenewDocumentCommand, 32, 178, 181, \setmainfont, 29, 189 \setmathfont, 193, 194 \setminted, 52 \setminus, 81 \setmonofont, 29, 189 \setotherlanguage, 26 \setsansfont, 29, 189 230 \RenewDocumentEnvironment, 181 \RenewExpandableDocumentCommand, setspace, 211 144 \renewfontfamily, 193 reserved characters, 6 \Rho, 81 \rho, 81 \right, 88, 89, 113 right-aligned, 37 rigid length, 201 \rm, 232 \rmfamily, 185, 186, 191, 232 roman, 186 rubber length, 201 \rule, 224 \rvert, 114 S sans serif, 186 \sc, 232 Scandinavian letters, 25 scope, 169 \scriptscriptstyle, 120 \scriptsize, 186, 187 \scriptstyle, 120 \scshape, 186, 232 \sec, 84 \section, 29, 33, 132, 147, 175, 218, 219 \section*, 133 \sectionmark, 219 \selectfont, 187, 211 \setbeamercolor, 151 \setbeamercovered, 149 \setbeamerfont, 151 \setdefaultlanguage, 26 \setlength, 205 \settodepth, 205 \settoheight, 205 \settowidth, 205 \sf, 232 \sffamily, 186, 191, 232 \sfrac, 123 \shoveleft, 91 \shoveright, 91 showidx, 138 SI, 98 \sideset, 86 \Sigma, 81 \sigma, 81 \sin, 84 Sindhi, 30 single sided, 208 \sinh, 84 \sisetup, 102 siunitx, vii, 98, 99, 102–104, 106, 107, 109–111 \sl, 232 slanted, 186 Slash, 23 \slash, 23 \sloppy, 21 \slshape, 186, 232 \small, 186, 187 Small Caps, 186 smallmatrix, 109 \smallskip, 204 \smartcite, 134 \smash, 121 space, 5 special character, 25 \sqrt, 79 278 INDEX square root, 79 \stackbin, 234 \stackrel, 234 \stretch, 203, 204 structure, 8 \subparagraph, 33 subscript, 78 \subsection, 33, 218 \subsectionmark, 219 \subset, 81 \subseteq, 81 \subsetneq, 81 \substack, 85 \subsubsection, 33 \subtitle, 146 \succeq, 114 \sum, 84, 114 \sup, 84 superscript, 78 \supset, 81 \supseteq, 81 \supsetneq, 81 \swshape, 186 \symbb, 82, 83, 234 \symbbit, 83 \symbf, 234 \symbffrak, 83 \symbfit, 83 \symbfscr, 83 \symbfsfit, 83 \symbfsfup, 83 \symbfup, 83 \symcal, 194, 234 \symfrak, 83, 234 \symit, 83, 234 \symrm, 84, 234 \symscr, 83, 194, 234 \symsfit, 83 \symsfup, 83 \symtt, 83 \symup, 83 syntonly, 74 T table, 68, 70, 71 table of contents, 34 \tablenum, 107, 112 \tableofcontents, 34, 70, 140, 147 tabular, 53, 56, 59, 106, 222 \tag, 77, 92 \tan, 84 \tanh, 84 \Tau, 81 \tau, 81 \tbinom, 123 \TeX, 22 TeXnicCenter, 227 \texorpdfstring, 144 \text, 78, 94 text style, 76 \textbackslash, 6 \textbackslash*, 61 \textbf, 184, 186, 188 \textcite, 134 \textcolor, 195 \textit, 185, 186 \textlang, 27 \textmd, 184, 186 \textnormal, 185, 186 \textquote, 38, 39 \textrm, 184–186 \textsc, 185, 186 \textsf, 184, 186 \textsl, 185, 186 \textssc, 185 \textstyle, 120, 122 \textsw, 185, 186 \texttt, 184, 186 \textulc, 185 \textup, 185, 186 \text«language», 27 \tfrac, 122–124 \the, 205 thebibliography, vii, 125, 131 theorem, 147 \theoremstyle, 118 INDEX 279 \thepage, 217 \thesection, 219 \Theta, 81 \theta, 81 \thickspace, 116 \thinspace, 116 \thispagestyle, 209 \tikz, 158 tikzpicture, 158 \tikzset, 166 \tilde, 87 tilde (~), 33 \times, 78, 114 \tiny, 186–188 title, 34, 208 \title, 34, 146 \titlegraphic, 146 \tnss, 176 \today, 22, 27 \toprule, 54 \totalheight, 223, 224 \tothe, 100 \tracingcolors, 198 \tt, 232 \ttfamily, 186, 232 Turkish, 30 two column, 208 U Uighur, 30 umlaut, 25 \uncover, 149 \underbrace, 87 \underbracket, 76 underfull hbox, 21 \underset, 88 unicode-math, 75, 76, 193, 234 \unit, 99 units, 200 units (TEX), 199 units (SI), 98 upright, 186 \upshape, 186 \Upsilon, 81 \upsilon, 81 Urdu, 30 \url, 141 \useasboundingbox, 160 \usecolortheme, 150 \usefonttheme, 151 \usepackage, 8, 14, 17, 127, 183 \usetheme, 150 \usetikzlibrary, 172 V \varepsilon, 81, 82 \varkappa, 82 \varphi, 82 \varpi, 82 \varrho, 82 \varsigma, 82 \varTheta, 82 \vartheta, 82 \vdots, 122 \veebar, 80 \verb, 41–43, 179 verbatim, 42, 233 verbatim, 42, 43, 233 verbatim environment, 43 \verbatiminput, 42, 43 \verbatiminput*, 42 verse, 40 vertical space, 204 \vfill, 204 Vmatrix, 109 vmatrix, 109 \vphantom, 116 \vskip, 235 \vspace, 203, 235 W whitespace, 5 at the start of a line, 5 \widehat, 87 \width, 223, 224 Word, 138 WYSIWYG, 3, 4 280 INDEX X xcolor, xiii, 142, 143, 194, 196, 198 xeCJK, 30 xepersian, 29, 30 xfrac, 123 \Xi, 81 \xi, 81 xypic, 158 Z \Zeta, 81 \zeta, 81