Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editorial's argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)During long breaks children have a tendency to forget what they have learned.
- (B)Children of farmers need to continue observing a school calendar made up of periods of study interspersed with long breaks.
- (C)Long breaks in the school calendar should be replaced with breaks that are no longer than workers' average vacations.
- (D)A change in the present school calendar that shortened breaks would serve the interests of agricultural life.
- (E)A school calendar made up of periods of study without long breaks would serve the interests of children more than a school calendar with long breaks.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy?

Choices:
- (A)Fewer diseases attach leatherbacks than attack other large aquatic reptiles.
- (B)The average life expectancy of sea turtles in general is longer than that of almost all other marine animals.
- (C)Most leatherbacks that perish in the wild are killed by predators.
- (D)Few zoologists have sufficient knowledge to establish an artificial environment that is conducive to the well-being of captive leatherbacks.
- (E)The size of a leatherback is an untrustworthy indicator of its age.


Question: The chairperson's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?

Choices:
- (A)A corporation should never expand operations into countries that are politically unstable.
- (B)Corporations should expand operations into countries when there is a chance of increasing profits.
- (C)Political stability is the most important consideration in deciding whether to expand operations into a country.
- (D)Corporations should always be cautious about expanding operations into politically unstable countries.
- (E)Boards of directors should always disregard governmental incentives when considering where to expand corporate operations.


Question: Frank's reasoning in his response to Maria is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it

Choices:
- (A)fails to address the possibility that technical knowledge may be acquired without formal education
- (B)does not consider whether there have been improvements in formal education since Edison's day
- (C)relies on using the term "crucial" differently from the way Maria used it
- (D)presumes that no other inventor of Edison's time could have been as productive as Edison
- (E)fails to criticize or question any of Maria's statements about Edison


Question: The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)It is more likely that people without political power will suffer from economic crises than it is that people in power will.
- (B)Economic crises become more frequent as the amount of information available to the population about factors determining its welfare decreases.
- (C)In nations in which the government controls access to information about infrastructure, agriculture, and industry, economic crises are common.
- (D)The higher the percentage of the population that participates in economic decisions, the better those decisions are.
- (E)A small elite that controls information about infrastructure, agriculture, and industry is likely to manipulate that information for its own benefit.


Question: A reasoning error in the argument is that the argument

Choices:
- (A)disregards the possibility that a change of mind might be justified by a change in circumstances
- (B)treats the fact of someone's presence at a given event as a guarantee that that person had a legitimate reason to be at that event
- (C)uses a term that is intrinsically evaluative as though that term was purely descriptive
- (D)fails to establish that something true of some people is true of only those people
- (E)overlooks the possibility that a person's interest in one kind of thing is compatible with that person's interest in a different kind of thing


Question: If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)If you have some keyboarding skills, you will be able to write your essays using a word processing program.
- (B)If you are not able to write your essays using a word processing program, you have no keyboarding skills.
- (C)If you are able to write your essays using a word processing program, you have at least some keyboarding skills.
- (D)If you are able to use a computer, you will probably be able to write your essays using a word processing program.
- (E)If you are not able to write your essays using a word processing program, you are not able to use a computer.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes Rossi's argument?

Choices:
- (A)It makes an appeal to a general principle.
- (B)It denies the good faith of an opponent.
- (C)It relies on evaluating the predictable consequences of a proposal.
- (D)It substitutes description for giving a rationale for a policy.
- (E)It employs a term on two different occasions in different senses.


Question: Smith's statements can most directly be used as part of an argument for which one of the following views?

Choices:
- (A)A democratic government does not infringe on the rights of any of its citizens.
- (B)Children have rights that must be respected by any political authority that rules over them.
- (C)News programs for children would give them enough information to enable them to vote in an informed way.
- (D)If there are any limitations on full democracy that result from denying the vote to children, such limitations must be accepted.
- (E)If parents do not adequately represent their children's interests in the political sphere, those interests will be adequately represented by someone else.


Question: The argument's reasoning is questionable because the argument

Choices:
- (A)infers from the idea that the current geography of modern cities resulted from a particular cause that it could only have resulted from that cause
- (B)infers from the idea that the current geography of modern cities resulted from a particular cause that other facets of modern life resulted from that cause
- (C)overlooks the fact that many technological innovations other than the personal automobile have had some effect on the way people live
- (D)takes for granted that shopping malls do not need large parking lots even given the use of the personal automobile
- (E)takes for granted that people ultimately want to live without personal automobiles


Question: If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)Scholars and diplomats have more experience in foreign affairs than most presidents and prime ministers bring to office.
- (B)Prior experience in foreign affairs is neither a sufficient nor a necessary condition for a president or prime minister to have a successful foreign policy.
- (C)Prior experience in foreign affairs is a necessary but not sufficient condition for a president or prime minister to have a successful foreign policy.
- (D)An acute political sense, a disciplined temperament, and a highly developed ability to absorb and retain information are each necessary conditions for a president or prime minister to have a successful foreign policy.
- (E)A president or prime minister with years of experience in foreign affairs will have a more successful foreign policy than one who does not have experience in foreign affairs.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the validity of the evidence offered in support of the naturalists' claim?

Choices:
- (A)The polar bear stopped and changed course several times as it moved toward its home territory.
- (B)The site at which the polar bear was released was on the bear's annual migration route.
- (C)The route along which the polar bear traveled consisted primarily of snow and drifting ice.
- (D)Polar bears are only one of many species of mammal whose members have been known to find their way home from considerable distances.
- (E)Polar bears often rely on their extreme sensitivity to smell in order to scent out familiar territory.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately and completely expresses the main conclusion of the city council member's argument?

Choices:
- (A)Imposing real estate development fees is the best way for the city to exploit the available sources of revenue.
- (B)The city would benefit financially from the passage of legislation imposing real estate development fees.
- (C)In blocking council members' attempts to impose real estate development fees, the mayor is sacrificing the city's interests to personal interests.
- (D)Significantly reducing the number of building starts would not, on balance, result in revenue loss to the city.
- (E)The mayor's family has a strong financial interest in preventing the passage of legislation that would impose real estate development fees.


Question: The reasoning in the city council member's argument is flawed because

Choices:
- (A)the issue of the mayor's personal interest in the proposed legislation is irrelevant to any assessment of the mayor's action with respect to that legislation
- (B)the mayor's course of action being personally advantageous is not inconsistent with the mayor's action being advantageous for the city
- (C)the council member's own absence of personal interest in the proposed legislation has not been established
- (D)that a person or a municipality has a need for something does not, in itself, establish that that person or that municipality has a right to that thing
- (E)the possibility remains open that the mayor's need to avoid loss of family revenue is as desperate as the city's need to increase municipal revenue


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that zooplankton feed upon phytoplankton?

Choices:
- (A)It is a hypothesis supported by the fact that phytoplankton feed on upwelling nutrients.
- (B)It is intended to provide an example of the ways in which the vertical mixing of seawater affects feeding habits.
- (C)It helps show how global temperature changes affect larger sea animals indirectly.
- (D)It is offered as one reason that global warming must be curtailed.
- (E)It is offered in support of the idea that global warming poses a threat to all organisms.


Question: The structure of the reasoning in the argument above is most parallel to that in which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Runners who have only average speed and endurance are unlikely to win long-distance races. Some long-distance champions, however, win by being above average in speed or endurance only; therefore, being above average in both speed and endurance is not necessary.
- (B)Bicyclists who have only average speed are unlikely to win short races, but in a long-distance race such bicyclists can win if they have better-built bicycles than average and better endurance than average. Therefore, most bicycle races are not won by bicyclists with above-average speed.
- (C)Excellence in a particular swimming stroke is not always necessary in order for a swimmer to win a race that requires each swimmer to use several different strokes in sequence, and many swimmers win these races without being the best at any of the strokes. Therefore, anyone who does excel at all the strokes is almost certain to win.
- (D)Apples that are neither especially firm nor especially flavorful are unsuitable for baking; yet while flavor is essential for both baking and eating, many flavorful apples that are soft are suitable for eating. Hence, the apples that are best for eating need not be both firm and flavorful.
- (E)Most plants that are neither ornamental nor edible are useless and are thus classified as weeds; yet many such plants are useful for purposes other than food or ornamentation, and are thus not classified as weeds. Hence, not all inedible and non-ornamental plants are weeds.


Question: Each of the following weakens the detective's argument EXCEPT:

Choices:
- (A)The actuaries' activities while working for XYZ Corporation were more closely scrutinized by supervisors than were the activities of the accountants.
- (B)There is evidence of breaches in computer security at the time of the embezzlement that could have given persons outside XYZ Corporation access to internal financial records.
- (C)XYZ Corporation employs eight accountants, whereas it has only two actuaries on its staff.
- (D)An independent report released before the crime took place concluded that XYZ Corporation was vulnerable to embezzlement.
- (E)Certain security measures at XYZ Corporation made it more difficult for the actuaries to have access to internal financial records than for the accountants.


Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Choices:
- (A)In 1985 there was a loosening of regulations concerning cabin air in commercial airline flights.
- (B)People who fly today are more likely to contract airborne illnesses than were people who flew prior to 1985.
- (C)Low levels of carbon dioxide in cabin air make it impossible for airborne illnesses to spread.
- (D)In 1980 the rate at which the cabin air was replenished in commercial airliners was sufficient to protect passengers from the effects of carbon dioxide buildup.
- (E)In 1980 the level of carbon dioxide in the cabin air on a two-hour commercial airline flight was lower than it is today on a similar flight.


Question: A flaw in the argument is that it

Choices:
- (A)presupposes that anyone who is acting out of self-interest is being altruistic
- (B)illicitly infers that behavior is altruistic merely because it seems altruistic
- (C)fails to consider that self-esteem also depends on maintaining an awareness of one's own value
- (D)presumes, without providing justification, that if one does not hold oneself in sufficient self-esteem one cannot be useful or needed
- (E)takes for granted that any behavior that can be interpreted as self-interested is in fact self-interested


Question: Each of the following, if true, helps to support the claim that the new maps will be more useful EXCEPT:

Choices:
- (A)Home gardeners can provide information on plant flourishing not available from weather stations.
- (B)Some of the weather stations currently in use are more than 60 years old.
- (C)Weather patterns can be described more accurately when more information is available.
- (D)Weather conditions are the most important factor in determining where plants will grow.
- (E)Weather patterns have changed in the past 60 years.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)People tend to believe whatever doctors tell them.
- (B)Most of the techniques that help people quit smoking can also help people break other habits.
- (C)The more the relevant danger is exaggerated, the more likely one is to break one's habit.
- (D)People generally do not find it easy to deceive themselves.
- (E)A doctor is justified in deceiving a patient whenever doing so is likely to make the patient healthier.


Question: Which one of the following arguments has a flawed pattern of reasoning most like the flawed reasoning in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)It is clear that most drivers in West Ansland are safe drivers since there are very few driving accidents in West Ansland and most accidents there are not serious.
- (B)It is clear that John cannot drive, since he does not own a car and no one in his family who does not own a car can drive.
- (C)It is clear that Fernando's friends usually drive to school, since all of his friends can drive and all of his friends go to school.
- (D)It is clear that most people in Highland County drive sedans, since most people who commute to work drive sedans and most people in Highland County commute to work.
- (E)It is clear that most of Janine's friends are good drivers, since she accepts rides only from good drivers and she accepts rides from most of her friends.


Question: The argument in the editorial depends on assuming which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)It is inconsistent for a legislator both to claim that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal and to vote against increasing spending on education.
- (B)A consistent course of action in educational policy is usually the course of action that will reduce spending on education in the long run.
- (C)Even if a goal is a morally good one, one should not necessarily try to achieve it.
- (D)A consistent political policy does not hold that an action that comprises a worthy goal should not be performed.
- (E)Members of one political party never have inconsistent views on how to best approach a political issue.


Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the science journalist's statements?

Choices:
- (A)Any celestial object without lithium in its atmosphere is a star with less mass than the Sun.
- (B)Any celestial object with lithium in its atmosphere has a nuclear furnace that has incompletely mixed the object's elements.
- (C)No celestial object that has no lithium in its atmosphere is a brown dwarf.
- (D)No celestial object with lithium in its atmosphere has less mass than the Sun.
- (E)No celestial object less massive than a brown dwarf has lithium in its atmosphere.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)It is impossible to understand sentences if they are in fact uninterrupted streams of sound.
- (B)Those who do not know a language cannot hear the way speech in that language actually sounds.
- (C)People pay less close attention to the way their own language sounds than they do to the way an unfamiliar language sounds.
- (D)Accomplished non-native speakers of a language do not perceive sentences as streams of sound.
- (E)Native speakers' perceptions of their own language are not more accurate than are the perceptions of persons who do not know that language.


Question: In responding to Yuriko, Susan does which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)She denies Yuriko's assumption that Susan's city wants to increase the vaccination rate for children.
- (B)She cites facts that tend to weaken the force of the evidence with which Yuriko supports her recommendation.
- (C)She introduces evidence to show that the campaign Yuriko advocates is only effective for a short period to time.
- (D)She advances the claim that a campaign such as Yuriko recommends is not necessary because most parents already choose to have their children vaccinated.
- (E)She presents evidence to suggest that vaccination campaigns are usually ineffective.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would weaken the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Even if the quantity of nitrous oxide released into the environment decreased, many environmental problems would remain unsolved.
- (B)Even if only some of the thread and rope that is currently being made from nylon were instead made from cotton fiber, some environmental damage would be avoided.
- (C)If cotton fiber replaced nylon in the production of thread and rope, there would be a resulting increase in the amount of nylon used in other manufactured products.
- (D)If the quantity of nylon manufactured annually decreased substantially, the volume of several pollutants that are released into the environment during its manufacture would be reduced.
- (E)If thread and rope continue to be made from nylon, the production of cotton fiber will not increase as rapidly as it would if all thread and rope were to be made from cotton fiber.


Question: The principle that Michiko invokes, if established, would justify which one of the following judgments?

Choices:
- (A)Colleen was responsible for missing her flight home from Paris, because she decided to take one more trip to the Eiffel Tower even though she knew she might not have sufficient time to get to the airport if she did so.
- (B)Colleen was responsible for having offended her brother when she reported to him an offensive comment made about his colleague, although she did not know her brother would mistakenly understand the comment to be about himself.
- (C)Colleen was responsible for her automobile's having been stolen two weeks ago, because she did not take any of the precautions that the town police recommended in the antitheft manual they published last week.
- (D)Colleen was responsible for her cat's being frightened, because, even though it was her brother who allowed the door to slam shut, she knew that cats are often frightened by loud noises.
- (E)Colleen was not responsible for losing her job, because, knowing that her position was in danger of being eliminated, she did everything possible to preserve it.


Question: The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)Anger is always expressible.
- (B)Anger is a visceral emotion.
- (C)Some kinds of emotions are unhealthy to express.
- (D)All emotions that are healthy to express are visceral.
- (E)An emotion is visceral only if it is healthy to express.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the finding of the nicotine study?

Choices:
- (A)Blood cannot absorb more nicotine per day than that found in the smoke from a package of the lowest-nicotine cigarettes available.
- (B)Smokers of the lowest-nicotine cigarettes available generally smoke more cigarettes per day than smokers of high-nicotine cigarettes.
- (C)Most nicotine is absorbed into the blood of a smoker even if it is delivered in smaller quantities.
- (D)The level of tar in cigarettes is higher in low-nicotine cigarettes than it is in some high-nicotine cigarettes.
- (E)When taking in nicotine by smoking cigarettes is discontinued, the level of nicotine in the blood decreases steadily.


Question: Which one of the following is a questionable argumentative strategy employed in the editorial's argument?

Choices:
- (A)rejecting a proposal on the grounds that a particular implementation of the proposal is likely to fail
- (B)trying to win support for a proposal by playing on people's fears of what could happen otherwise
- (C)criticizing the source of a claim rather than examining the claim itself
- (D)taking lack of evidence for a claim as evidence undermining that claim
- (E)presupposing what it sets out to establish


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument advanced by the Figorian Wildlife Commission depends?

Choices:
- (A)More species have been endangered by the development of wetlands than have been endangered by any other type of development.
- (B)The species indigenous to natural wetland habitats will survive in specially constructed replacement wetlands.
- (C)In nations that are primarily agricultural, wetland development does not need to be regulated.
- (D)Figorian regulation of development has in the past protected and preserved wildlife.
- (E)The species that inhabit Figorian wetlands are among the most severely threatened of the designated endangered species.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would most strongly support the Figorian Development Commission's position against the Figorian Wildlife Commission's position?

Choices:
- (A)National resources should be regulated by international agreement when wildlife is endangered.
- (B)The right of future generations to have wildlife preserved supersedes the economic needs of individual nations.
- (C)Only when a reduction of populations of endangered species by commercial development has been found should regulation be implemented to prevent further damage.
- (D)Environment regulation must aim at preventing any further environmental damage and cannot allow for the different degrees to which different nations have already harmed the environment.
- (E)It is imprudent to allow further depletion of natural resources.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Meat and eggs are high in saturated fat.
- (B)Small quantities of foods high in saturated fat are not bad for the heart
- (C)Shellfish has less cholesterol per gram than meat, eggs, and poultry do.
- (D)Foods low in saturated fat promote low blood cholesterol.
- (E)A serving of meat or poultry is typically larger than a serving of shellfish.


Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Most people desire a life for themselves and their children that is better than a merely good life.
- (B)A person who fits the ideals of one moral theory in the Western tradition would not necessarily fit the ideals of another.
- (C)Most people have a conception of a good life that does not match that of any moral theory in the Western tradition.
- (D)A good life as described by moral theories in the Western tradition cannot be realized.
- (E)It is impossible to develop a theory that accurately describes what a good life is.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the biologist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)Everyone is equally content with our present configuration of fingers.
- (B)Humans are never equally content with two things of unequal usefulness.
- (C)Humans are always equally content with two things of equal usefulness.
- (D)The perceived usefulness of our configuration of fingers is an illusory result of our prejudices.
- (E)At least one species of fish had six phalanges in its fins.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the surrealist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)An artist's work should not merely represent objects from outside the psyche.
- (B)Artistic representation is used solely to preserve and reinforce objects.
- (C)Artists should not base all their work on mere representation.
- (D)Great art can confer beauty even upon very vulgar external objects.
- (E)True works of art rarely represent objects from outside the psyche.


Question: The argument commits which one of the following errors in reasoning?

Choices:
- (A)failing to exclude the possibility that what appears to be the result of a given market condition may in fact be the cause of that condition
- (B)mistaking a condition required if a certain result is to obtain for a condition that by itself is sufficient to guarantee that result
- (C)treating the failure to establish that a certain claim is false as equivalent to a demonstration that that claim is true
- (D)taking evidence that a claim is believed to be true to constitute evidence that the claim is in fact true
- (E)describing survey results that were obtained in the past as if they are bound to obtain in the future as well


Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Many ideas that work well in theory do not work well in practice.
- (B)Analog representation of information is impractical because we do not need infinitely detailed information.
- (C)Digital systems are the best information systems because error cannot occur in the emission of digital signals.
- (D)Analog systems are inferior to digital systems for most practical purposes.
- (E)Digital systems are preferable to analog systems when the signal must be reproduced many times.


Question: Each of the following describes a flaw in the psychologist's reasoning EXCEPT:

Choices:
- (A)It presumes, without providing warrant, that insomnia contributes to an inability to cope with stress.
- (B)It fails to consider the possibility that sedatives are the only treatment known to be effective for cases of insomnia not caused by stress.
- (C)It neglects the possibility that for some people psychotherapy is a completely ineffective treatment for stress.
- (D)It overlooks the possibility that sedatives could help insomniacs cope with stress.
- (E)It presumes, without providing justification, that the cases of insomnia psychologists treat are representative of all cases of insomnia.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Paintings and engravings were the dominant forms of artistic expression during the Neolithic period.
- (B)Warfare in the Neolithic period was always motivated by territorial disputes over agricultural land.
- (C)There was no warfare prior to the period in which paintings and engravings of warfare were first created.
- (D)Warfare is the inevitable result of the development of a civilization.
- (E)Paintings and engravings of agricultural life began to be made at the same time as paintings and engravings of warfare.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, helps most to reconcile the apparent discrepancy indicated above?

Choices:
- (A)The drug is extremely expensive and would be difficult to make widely available.
- (B)The drug has to be administered several times a day, so patient compliance is likely to be low.
- (C)The drug does not prevent the spread of chicken pox from one person to another, even when the drug eventually cures the disease in the first person.
- (D)When misused by taking larger-than-prescribed doses, the drug can be fatal.
- (E)Use of the drug contributes to the development of deadlier forms of chicken pox that are resistant to the drug.


Question: Of the following, which one most closely conforms to the principle that the passage as a whole illustrates?

Choices:
- (A)To understand completely the major trends in research on aging, one must understand the influences these trends exert on society's view of aging.
- (B)To understand fully the historical events of this century, a historian must have an understanding of similar events in earlier centuries.
- (C)To appreciate fully the French language, one must understand the other languages that share its linguistic ancestry.
- (D)To understand properly any academic discipline, one must have at least a superficial acquaintance with the practices of the wider academic community.
- (E)To understand completely Aristotle's philosophy, one must be well acquainted with the philosophy of his intellectual mentor, Plato.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editorial's argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)Preventive medicine makes use of technologies that are lower in initial cost than the technologies used within the practice of curative medicine.
- (B)Every hour devoted to the teaching of preventive medicine reduces medical costs by 10 percent or more.
- (C)Medical schools could increase their total number of teaching hours.
- (D)Improvements in doctors' use of the techniques of curative medicine would only increase overall medical costs.
- (E)The time required to teach preventive medicine thoroughly is greater than one hour for every ten that are now spent teaching curative medicine.


Question: The conversation lends the most support to the claim that Dana and Pat disagree on which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)All children can learn valuable skills from individual activities.
- (B)All children should learn to adapt to various educational methods.
- (C)Many children would learn better through group, rather than individual, activities.
- (D)The main purpose of education is to prepare children to meet the demands of the job market as adults.
- (E)It is sometimes desirable to tailor educational methods to the way a child learns best.


Question: Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Most people need the love and support of others; without it, they become depressed and unhappy. Therefore, in most instances, the more love and support a person receives, the happier that person will be.
- (B)Since in most jobs there are annual wage or salary increases, the longer one has worked, the more raises one will have received. Therefore, in a typical job, the longer one has worked, the greater one's income will be.
- (C)The main cause of heart attacks is arteriosclerosis, the buildup of plaque on the interior wall of the coronary arteries. It develops over an extended period of time. Therefore, if one is at risk for arteriosclerosis, one becomes more likely to suffer a heart attack as one gets older.
- (D)Since many disease processes are biochemical in nature, unless one understands chemistry one will not be able to understand the explanations for many diseases. Therefore, if one has no training in chemistry, one will not be able to master medicine.
- (E)Since most disease processes are biochemical in nature, an understanding of chemistry will enable one to understand most diseases. Therefore, one needs little more than training in chemistry to be able to master medicine.


Question: Which one of the following can be properly concluded from the information above, together with the fact that in the first quarter for which the program was used, some employers in X issued separate paychecks for the regular hours an employee worked, for the employee's overtime, and for bonuses and commissions?

Choices:
- (A)The government's estimate of growth in the number of people employed was less accurate after the government began using the new program than it had been before.
- (B)The people who designed the new program were unaware of the fact that some workers in X receive more than one paycheck per pay period.
- (C)The government had not reported strong growth in the number of people employed for the quarters just before the new program was used.
- (D)The government overestimated the total number of people employed in X for the first quarter for which the program was used.
- (E)Contrary to the claims of the government of Country X, there was no growth in the number of people employed in X in the first quarter for which the program was used.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the supposition that eating meat is essential to good health?

Choices:
- (A)It is used to disprove the vegetarian position that we should not eat meat.
- (B)It is used to show that the two types of reasons cited in favor of vegetarianism are independent.
- (C)It is used to disprove the claim that a vegetarian diet is healthy.
- (D)It is used to weaken the claim that the consciousness of animals is a sufficient reason for not eating meat.
- (E)It is used to show that there is no sufficient reason for not eating meat.


Question: If all the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)Clinical trials involving patients from several hospitals are never conducted solely by physicians from just one hospital.
- (B)Most reports of clinical trials involving patients from several hospitals have multiple authors.
- (C)When a technical article has multiple authors, they are usually from several different institutions.
- (D)Physics papers authored by researchers from multiple laboratories usually report results from experiments using subsystems developed at each laboratory.
- (E)Most technical articles are authored solely by the researchers who conducted the experiments these articles report.


Question: Jay's response suggests that he interpreted Helena's remarks to mean that

Choices:
- (A)biological factors play only a partial role in a child being extroverted
- (B)most but not all children whose biological parents are introverted become extroverted when adopted by extroverts
- (C)children whose biological parents are introverted, when adopted by extroverts, tend not to be more sociable than children of introverted parents who are not adopted
- (D)biological factors do not play any role in a child being extroverted
- (E)environmental factors can sometimes be more influential than biological factors in determining extroversion


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Because the police chief regards Carl as the most capable detective, she assigns him only the most difficult cases, ones that others have failed to solve.
- (B)Before he became a detective, Carl was a neighborhood police officer and was highly respected by the residents of the neighborhood he patrolled.
- (C)Detectives on the police force on which Carl serves are provided with extensive resources, including the use of a large computer database, to help them solve crimes.
- (D)Carl was previously a detective in a police department in another city, and in the 4 years he spent there, he solved only 1 out of 30 crimes.
- (E)Many of the officers in the police department in which Carl serves were hired or promoted within the last 5 years.


Question: The claim that people have positive or negative responses to many nonsense words plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that people have either a positive or a negative response to any word.
- (B)It is a conclusion for which the only support provided is the claim that people's responses to words are conditioned both by what the words mean and by how they sound.
- (C)It is a generalization partially supported by the claim that meaningful words can trigger positive or negative responses in people.
- (D)It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that people's responses to words are engendered not only by what the words mean, but also by how they sound.
- (E)It is a conclusion supported by the claim that people's responses under experimental conditions are essentially different from their responses in ordinary situations.


Question: The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the ground that the argument

Choices:
- (A)fails to define the term "hypertensive personality"
- (B)presupposes that people have permanent personality traits
- (C)simply restates the claim that there is a "hypertensive personality" without providing evidence to support that claim
- (D)takes a correlation between personality traits and high blood pressure as proof that the traits cause high blood pressure
- (E)focuses on nervousness and anxiety only, ignoring other personality traits that people with high blood pressure might have


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)A text that was probably known to both Jordan and Grey was published in 1860 and also contained the same unusual metaphor.
- (B)The passage in Grey's book that employs the unusual metaphor expresses an idea that bears little relation to any ideas expressed in Jordan's book.
- (C)Both Grey's book and Jordan's book were written for the same audience.
- (D)Jordan used the same metaphor in a work that she wrote in 1894 and published in 1895.
- (E)According to most scholars, Grey was generally a more inventive writer than Jordan and developed many original metaphors.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the medical specialists' two claims?

Choices:
- (A)Medical specialists treat all patients who have serious back muscle injuries with either physical therapy alone or a combination of drugs and physical therapy.
- (B)Medical specialists who prescribe these treatments make accurate judgments about who needs both drugs and physical therapy and who needs physical therapy alone.
- (C)Some back muscle injuries have been completely healed by a combination of drugs and physical therapy.
- (D)Some back muscle injuries that have been aggravated by improper attempts at physical therapy, such as home massage, have been successfully treated with drugs.
- (E)Patients with injuries to other muscles show more improvement when treated with both drugs and physical therapy than when treated with physical therapy alone.


Question: Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the commentator's argument?

Choices:
- (A)New national identities are often forged out of conflicts among diverse groups.
- (B)A stable national identity is typically a composite of a staggering number of subcultures.
- (C)The rate of cultural change in most countries will soon change drastically.
- (D)It is preferable to have a pluralistic rather than a monolithic national culture.
- (E)A culture with a solidified national identity tends to have more social problems than one without such an identity.


Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Choices:
- (A)Proper product packaging is more important than the quality of the product.
- (B)Products generally succeed in the market if they are packaged in a manner that accurately reflects their nature.
- (C)Changing the packaging of a product will not improve the product's sales unless the product is also changed.
- (D)To succeed in the market, a new product should not be packaged in a way that creates expectations that it does not meet.
- (E)An improved version of an existing product will sell better than the earlier version unless the improved version is packaged like the earlier one.


Question: Larew and Mendota disagree about whether

Choices:
- (A)change in the economic prosperity of the lowest income quintile relative to the highest is accurately measured by comparing their percentage changes in average income
- (B)change in the economic prosperity of the lowest income quintile is more accurately measured in terms relative to the highest income quintile than in terms relative only to the lowest income quintile
- (C)changes in the average income of people in the lowest quintile should ever be compared to changes in the average income of people in the highest quintile
- (D)there were any improvements at all in the economic situation of those in the lowest income quintile during the ten years being considered
- (E)the average income of people in the lowest quintile increased by a greater percentage over the last decade than did that of people in the highest quintile


Question: Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle above?

Choices:
- (A)A concert pianist should not have an entirely negative view of a memory lapse during a difficult performance. By understanding why the memory lapse occurred, the pianist can better prepare for future performances.
- (B)A salesperson should understand that the commission earned is not the only reward of making a sale. Salespeople should also take satisfaction from the fact that successful sales reflect well on their personalities.
- (C)Compassion is valuable not only for the wonderful feelings it brings, but also for the opportunities it affords to enrich the lives of other people.
- (D)While some of the value of competition comes from the pleasure of winning, the primary reward of competition is competition itself.
- (E)Even people who dread public speaking should accept invitations to speak before large groups. People will admire their courage and they will experience the fulfillment of having attempted something that is difficult for them.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the economists' assertion?

Choices:
- (A)Government subsidies to urban manufacturers can ease the problems caused by the migration of people from rural to urban areas.
- (B)All problems that have economic causes must have economic solutions.
- (C)A scarcity of agricultural products is a central element of many problems created by urbanization.
- (D)Problems associated with migration to cities from rural areas are primarily due to trade imbalances between countries.
- (E)Free trade policies can exacerbate the problems caused by increasing urbanization.


Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the conversation above?

Choices:
- (A)Inez believes that the book should be called The Nature of Energy.
- (B)Antonio believes that there are no differences between matter and energy.
- (C)Inez and Antonio disagree on whether matter and energy are related.
- (D)Inez and Antonio disagree about the overall value of the book.
- (E)Inez believes that the book's title should not mention matter without mentioning energy.


Question: The reasoning in the politician's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Choices:
- (A)impugns the character of the economists rather than addressing their arguments
- (B)fails to show that the economists mentioned are not experts in the area of consumer prices
- (C)mistakenly infers that something is not true from the claim that it has not been shown to be so
- (D)uses evidence drawn from a small sample that may well be unrepresentative
- (E)attempts to persuade by making an emotional appeal


Question: The dialogue above lends the most support to the claim that Sherrie and Fran disagree with each other about which one of the following statements?

Choices:
- (A)The manufacture and sale of all drugs should be regulated by governments.
- (B)Coffee and soft drinks that contain caffeine should not be regulated by governments.
- (C)Agreement by scientists that a substance is addictive justifies government restrictions on products containing that substance.
- (D)Scientists are not proper authorities with respect to the question of whether a given substance is addictive.
- (E)Scientists and governments have a duty to cooperate in regulating drugs to protect the public health.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Mutations in the genetic heritage of a certain variety of macaques can occur over a time span as short as a few years or decades.
- (B)New patterns of behavior that emerge in macaque populations over the course of a few years or decades are not necessarily genetically predetermined.
- (C)Only when behaviors become typical among an animal population can we conclude that a genetic alteration has occurred in that variety or species.
- (D)The social behaviors of macaques are completely independent of their genetic heritage.
- (E)The macaques' new pattern of behavior will persist over several generations.


Question: The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it

Choices:
- (A)contains a premise that cannot possibly be true
- (B)takes for granted that technology beneficial to society as a whole cannot be commercially viable
- (C)fails to consider the possibility that actions motivated by a desire for personal gain often do not result in personal gain
- (D)takes for granted that an action is unlikely to produce a certain outcome unless it is motivated by a desire to produce that outcome
- (E)draws a conclusion about the practical consequences of people's actions on the basis of theoretical views about what people should or should not do


Question: If the statements above are true, which one of the following would also have to be true?

Choices:
- (A)All descriptions of monstrous beasts describe violations of the laws of nature.
- (B)Any story that describes a violation of a law of nature is intended to invoke dread in the reader.
- (C)Horror stories of any kind usually describe characters who are psychologically disturbed.
- (D)Most stories about mad scientists express the author's antiscientific views.
- (E)Some stories that employ symbolism describe violations of the laws of nature.


Question: A reasoning flaw in the politician's argument is that the argument

Choices:
- (A)does not address the arguments advanced by the politician's opponents
- (B)makes an attack on the character of opponents
- (C)takes for granted that deficit spending has just one cause
- (D)portrays opponents' views as more extreme than they really are
- (E)fails to make clear what counts as excessive spending


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above?

Choices:
- (A)Many insects that have vision very similar to that of bees do not depend on perceiving an object's color.
- (B)Some flowers rely on insects other than bees.
- (C)The number of different species of flowers is greater than the number of different species of bees.
- (D)Many nonflowering plants rely on bees.
- (E)Present-day bees rely exclusively on flowers for their food.


Question: The conclusion drawn by the professor follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)Thinkers who limit their line of thought to a particular orthodoxy are hindered in their intellectual progress.
- (B)Thinkers can mine the full implications of interrelated ideas only in the context of a society that values intellectual progress.
- (C)In societies that protect freedom of thought, thinkers invariably lack intellectual discipline.
- (D)Freedom of thought engenders creativity, which aids the discovery of truth.
- (E)Without intellectual discipline, thinkers can have no freedom of thought.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The more complicated the issue being litigated, the less likely it is that a juror without specialized knowledge of the field involved will be able to comprehend the testimony being given.
- (B)The more a juror knows about a particular scientific or technical issue involved in a trial, the more likely it is that the juror will be prejudiced in favor of one of the litigating parties before the trial begins.
- (C)Appointing an impartial arbitrator is not a fair means of settling disputes involving scientific or technical issues, because arbitrators tend to favor settlements in which both parties compromise on the issues.
- (D)Experts who give testimony on scientific or technical issues tend to hedge their conclusions by discussing the possibility of error.
- (E)Expert witnesses in specialized fields often command fees that are so high that many people involved in litigation cannot afford their services.


Question: Which one of the following best illustrates the proposition above?

Choices:
- (A)A country's leaders realized that fostering diplomatic ties with antagonistic nations reduces the chances of war with those nations. Because those leaders worried that war would harm their chances of being reelected, they engaged in diplomatic discussions with a hostile country, and the two countries avoided a confrontation.
- (B)A government study concluded that a proposed bureaucratic procedure would allow people to register their cars without waiting in line. The government adopted the procedure for this reason, and, as with most bureaucratic procedures, it was not successful.
- (C)Betsy overheard a heating contractor say that regularly changing the filter in a furnace helps to keep the furnace efficient. So Betsy has regularly changed the furnace filter in her daughter's house. As a result, the furnace has never required maintenance due to becoming clogged with dust or dirt.
- (D)Sejal learned in a psychology class that the best way to help someone overcome an addiction is to confront that person. So she confronted her friend Bob, who was struggling with a chemical dependency.
- (E)Zachary hoped that psychotherapy could help his parents overcome their marital difficulties. He persuaded his parents to call a psychotherapist, and eventually their problems were resolved.


Question: Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)All prepackaged desserts pose a risk of tooth decay. The Nutrition Foundation recommends avoiding all prepackaged desserts that are not high in vitamins or protein. Many prepackaged snack foods are low in vitamins or protein, so the Nutrition Foundation recommends avoiding prepackaged snack foods as well.
- (B)Coreopsis is a perennial. The Garden Club awards a prize each year for each perennial except those that are shrubs or not native to North America. Coreopsis is native to North America and is not a shrub. So the Garden Club awards a prize each year for coreopsis.
- (C)The Windsor Coalition is an example of a community organizing to discourage overdevelopment. The Neighborhood Association is in favor of this sort of community organizing, except when it poses a threat to regional economic growth. Therefore, the Neighborhood Association is in favor of the Windsor Coalition.
- (D)Compact discs are a kind of data storage device. Leotol Corporation does not produce data storage devices that use analog storage methods. Compact discs do not use analog storage methods, so it follows that Leotol Corporation produces compact discs.
- (E)Traffic laws are a type of government regulation. The association supports traffic laws that are in the public interest, even if they have not been shown to reduce the accident rate. Thus, the association should support all government regulations that are in the public interest.


Question: The physics professor's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)Superheated plasma in which electrical resistance fails does not cause types of lightning other than ball lightning.
- (B)The phenomena observed by the physics professor were each observed by at least one other person.
- (C)Ball lightning can occur as the result of several different factors.
- (D)Superheating of gaslike substances causes bright light to be emitted.
- (E)All types of ball lightning have the same cause.


Question: Which one of the following employs a flawed argumentative strategy that is most closely parallel to the flawed argumentative strategy in the advertisement above?

Choices:
- (A)Greeting one's coworkers must be a polite thing to do, because people who are considered polite always greet their coworkers. The proof that these people really are polite is that they are consistently polite in their daily lives.
- (B)This card game must be intellectually challenging, because it is played by highly intelligent people, who play only intellectually challenging card games. In fact, these players' intelligence is demonstrated by the fact that they play this game.
- (C)When coffee is being chosen, Brand Z is the coffee chosen by people with highly developed taste in coffee. These people showed their highly developed taste in coffee by correctly distinguishing eight brands of coffee from each other in a taste test.
- (D)That jacket must have been made for a very short person, because only very short people were able to fit into it. We know that they were very short because we saw them before they tried on the jacket.
- (E)This painting is a poor imitation, because only people with poor eyesight mistook it for the original. That these people have poor eyesight is demonstrated by the fact that they also mistook a vase of flowers in the painting for a peacock.


Question: Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Of the 4 patients who survived more than 10 years, the 2 who had attended weekly support group meetings lived longer than the 2 who had not.
- (B)For many diseases, attending weekly support group meetings is part of the standard medical treatment.
- (C)The members of the group that attended weekly support group meetings lived 2 years longer, on average, than the members of the other group.
- (D)Some physicians have argued that attending weekly support group meetings gives patients less faith in the standard treatment for disease T.
- (E)Everyone in the group whose members attended weekly support group meetings reported after 1 year that those meetings had helped them to cope with the disease.


Question: The reasoning in the astronomer's argument is flawed because this argument

Choices:
- (A)criticizes the astronomer's opponents rather than their arguments
- (B)infers the truth of the astronomer's thesis from the mere claim that it has not been proven false
- (C)ignores the possibility that alternative explanations may exist for the cratering
- (D)presumes that the astronomer's thesis should not be subject to rational discussion and criticism
- (E)fails to precisely define the key word "meteoroids"


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to support the position of the second group of doctors?

Choices:
- (A)The treatment that most effectively reduces high levels of bilirubin in newborns has no known negative side effects.
- (B)Some diseases that occur in newborns can weaken the brain's natural defenses and allow bilirubin to enter.
- (C)In newborns the pigment bilirubin, like other pigments, occurs not only in the blood but also in fluids involved in digestion.
- (D)Bilirubin neutralizes certain potentially damaging substances to which newborns are exposed at birth.
- (E)Among doctors who recommend treating newborns to reduce high levels of bilirubin, there is general agreement about what levels should be considered excessively high.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the economist's argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)Few economic systems are more successful than modern capitalism in fostering communal ties between citizens.
- (B)Modern capitalism is designed primarily to distribute goods and services, not to create communal ties between people.
- (C)Corporations that compete with each other must develop some ties to each other in order to reach agreement on the rules of the competition.
- (D)Having large corporations in a modern capitalist system promotes the strength of communal ties.
- (E)An economic system that does not encourage large corporations will be less successful economically than one that does.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the teacher's argument by the assertion that participating in organized competitive athletics may increase a child's strength and coordination?

Choices:
- (A)It is mentioned as one possible reason for adopting a policy for which the teacher suggests an additional reason.
- (B)It is a claim that the teacher attempts to refute with counterarguments.
- (C)It is a hypothesis for which the teacher offers additional evidence.
- (D)It is cited as an insufficient reason for eliminating funding for children's athletic programs.
- (E)It is cited as an objection that has been raised to the position that the teacher is supporting.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the columnist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)The argument takes for granted that truly generous people are the most virtuous.
- (B)The argument attacks the character of those whose values are different from those of the columnist.
- (C)The argument takes for granted that a character trait is present only when manifested.
- (D)The argument generalizes from too small a sample of cases.
- (E)The argument takes for granted that most people donate out of generosity.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the ability of newborn infants described above?

Choices:
- (A)Certain abilities of facial pattern recognition are innate in humans, rather than learned.
- (B)The longer an infant stares at an object, the more interesting the infant finds that object.
- (C)Infants learn to associate human faces with the necessities of comfort and nourishment.
- (D)The less an infant stares at an object, the weaker the preference the infant has for that object.
- (E)Infants learn to associate the sound of human voices with the images of human faces.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The town's overall crime rate appears to have risen slightly this year compared to the same period last year.
- (B)In general, persons under the age of 65 are less likely to be victims of violent crimes than persons over the age of 65.
- (C)As a result of the town's community outreach programs, more people than ever are willing to report violent crimes to the proper authorities.
- (D)In response to worries about violent crime, the town has recently opened a community center providing supervised activities for teenagers.
- (E)Community officials have shown that a relatively small number of repeat offenders commit the majority of violent crimes in the town.


Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following conclusions about the last ice age and its aftermath in North America?

Choices:
- (A)Toward the end of the ice age, warmth-adapted open-ground beetles ceased to inhabit areas where the predominant tree cover consisted of spruce forests.
- (B)Among those sediments deposited toward the end of the ice age, those found to contain cold-adapted arctic beetle fragments can also be expected to contain spruce-pollen grains.
- (C)Ice masses continued to advance through North America for several hundred years after the end of the ice age.
- (D)The species of cold-adapted arctic beetle that inhabited areas covered by ice masses died out toward the end of the last ice age.
- (E)Toward the end of the ice age, warmth-adapted open-ground beetles colonized the new terrain opened to them faster than soil changes and seed dispersion established new spruce forests.


Question: Which one of the following judgments best illustrates the principle illustrated by the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)After Price confessed to having stolen money from Long over a period of several years, Long began stealing from Price. Despite Price's guilt, Long was not justified in taking illegal action against him.
- (B)Shakila's secretary has admitted that he is illegally receiving cable television without paying for it. Shakila would not be justified in reporting him, though, since she once did the same thing.
- (C)After Takashi told Sarah's parents that he had seen her at the movies on Tuesday, Sarah confessed to sneaking out that day. On Monday, however, Takashi had violated the local curfew for minors. Hence Sarah's parents cannot justifiably punish her in this case.
- (D)After a conservation officer discovered them, Kuttner admitted that he had set the illegal animal traps on his land. But, because she was trespassing at the time, the conservation officer cannot justifiably punish Kuttner in this case.
- (E)Ramirez was forced by the discovery of new evidence to admit that she lied about her role in managing the chief of staff's financial affairs. Nevertheless, the board of directors cannot justifiably take action against Ramirez, because in past instances it has pardoned others guilty of similar improprieties.


Question: Which one of the following, if all of them are true, is LEAST helpful in establishing that the conclusion above is properly drawn?

Choices:
- (A)There was the same number of people in each group.
- (B)The same group of researchers answered the calls made by the callers in both study groups.
- (C)Among the college students there were no persons more than forty years old.
- (D)Both groups had unrestricted access to telephones for making the required calls.
- (E)The members of the two groups received their instructions approximately the same amount of time before they were to make their telephone calls.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The social sciences do not have as much predictive power as the natural sciences.
- (B)Mathematics plays a more important role in the natural sciences than it does in the social sciences.
- (C)There is a need in the social sciences to improve the ability to predict.
- (D)Phenomena in the social sciences should not be reduced to mathematical formulas.
- (E)Prediction is responsible for the success of the natural sciences.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of why bridges fracture elsewhere than at high-stress points?

Choices:
- (A)In many structures other than bridges, such as ship hulls and airplane bodies, fractures do not develop at high-stress points.
- (B)Fractures do not develop at high-stress points, because bridges are reinforced at those points; however, stress is transferred to other points on the bridge where it causes fractures.
- (C)In many structures, the process of fracturing often causes high-stress points to develop.
- (D)Structures with no high-stress points can nonetheless have a high probability of fracturing.
- (E)Improper bridge construction, e.g., low-quality welding or the use of inferior steel, often leads both to the development of high-stress points and to an increased probability of fracturing.


Question: The argument's reasoning is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument presumes, without giving warrant, that

Choices:
- (A)the press can publish nonlibelous stories about private individuals without prying into their personal lives
- (B)one's having a right to do something entails one's having an obligation to do it
- (C)the publishing of information about the personal lives of private individuals cannot be libelous
- (D)if one has an obligation to do something then one has a right to do it
- (E)the press's right to publish always outweighs the individual's right not to be libeled


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the consumer advocate's argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)For some consumers the convenience of front-loaders outweighs the advantages of top-loaders in assessing which is superior.
- (B)Washing machines of a given type should be compared only with washing machines of that type.
- (C)Convenience is the only important factor in determining which type of washing machine is superior.
- (D)Retrieving clothes from a top-loader is convenient for people who do not use wheelchairs.
- (E)Retrieving clothes from front-loaders is inconvenient for people who are not wheelchair users.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The argument presumes, without providing justification, that the effects of brain damage are always easily detectable.
- (B)The argument presumes, without providing justification, that the only reason that any problem remains unsolved is a lack of creativity and innovation.
- (C)The argument infers that certain parts of the brain do nothing merely on the basis of the assertion that we do not know what they do.
- (D)The argument infers that problems will be solved merely on the basis of the claim that they will be within our ability to solve.
- (E)The argument presumes, without providing justification, that the currently unused parts of the brain are a potential source of tremendous creativity and innovation.


Question: Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning above?

Choices:
- (A)A scientific theory should be accepted if it has fewer counterintuitive consequences than do its competitors.
- (B)A scientific theory should be accepted if it has been subjected to serious attempts to disprove it and has withstood all of them.
- (C)The consequences of a scientific theory should not be considered counterintuitive if the theory's predictions have been found to be accurate.
- (D)A theory should not be rejected until it has been subjected to serious attempts to disprove it.
- (E)A theory should be accepted only if its predictions have not been disproved by experiment.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the psychologist's argument by the claim that the obligation to express gratitude cannot be fulfilled anonymously?

Choices:
- (A)It is an illustration of a premise that is used to support the argument's conclusion.
- (B)It is used to counter a consideration that might be taken to undermine the argument's conclusion.
- (C)It is used to support indirectly a claim that the argument in turn uses to support directly the conclusion.
- (D)It is used to identify the social benefit with which the argument is concerned.
- (E)It is the conclusion that the argument is intended to support.


Question: If the curator's statements are true, which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)Every print in the museum store is of a work that is either on loan to the museum from a private collector or part of the museum's permanent collection.
- (B)Every print that is sold in the museum store is a copy of a twentieth-century work.
- (C)There are prints in the museum store of every work that is displayed in the museum and not on loan from a private collector.
- (D)Hopper's Nighthawks is both a twentieth-century work and a work on loan to the museum from a private collector.
- (E)Hopper's Nighthawks is not displayed in the museum.


Question: The claim that humans are still biologically adapted to a diet of wild foods plays which one of the following roles in the nutritionist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)It is a conclusion for which the only support offered is the claim that straying from a diet of wild foods has often resulted in chronic illness and other physical problems.
- (B)It is a premise for which no justification is provided, but which is used to support the argument's main conclusion.
- (C)It is a phenomenon for which the main conclusion of the nutritionist's argument is cited as an explanation.
- (D)It is an intermediate conclusion for which one claim is offered as support, and which is used in turn to support the argument's main conclusion.
- (E)It is a premise offered in support of the claim that humans have evolved very little since the development of agriculture.


Question: The editorialist's argument depends on assuming which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)If an entity has a right to certain treatment, we have an obligation to treat it that way.
- (B)Any entity that has rights also has obligations.
- (C)Only conscious entities are the sort of things that can have rights.
- (D)Avoiding cutting down trees is not an obligation owed to some entity other than trees.
- (E)One does not always have the right to cut down the trees on one's own property.


Question: The critics' argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it

Choices:
- (A)inappropriately attributes the consequences of binge drinking to persons whose regular consumption of wine is three glasses a day
- (B)confuses the risk of sudden alcohol-induced heart attacks with other health risks
- (C)presumes, without providing justification, that there is no significant difference between wine and other alcoholic beverages in terms of health benefits and risks
- (D)fails to address specifically the reduction in risk of stroke conferred by the level of consumption in the recent study
- (E)overlooks the difference between strokes that result in death and less severe strokes


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the scientist's argument by the claim that recent scientific research can often be described only in language that seems esoteric to most contemporary readers?

Choices:
- (A)It is raised as a potential objection to the argument's main conclusion, but its truth is called into doubt by the preceding statements.
- (B)It is a premise that supports the argument's main conclusion by suggesting that the results of recent scientific research are only superficially different from claims made in Newton's Principia.
- (C)It is cited as further evidence for the conclusion that the barriers to communication between scientists and the public are not impermeable.
- (D)It is a claim that serves mainly to help establish the relevance of the preceding statements to the argument's final conclusion.
- (E)It serves to cast doubt on an alleged similarity between Newton's Principia and recent scientific research.


Question: Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning most similar to that used in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Most scholars are not motivated by a desire to win prestigious academic prizes. Thus, some of those who want to win prestigious academic prizes are not scholars.
- (B)Only foolish politicians disregard the wishes of most voters. Thus, most voters deserve to be represented by foolish politicians.
- (C)Some corporations only feign a concern for the environment when they advertise a product as environmentally friendly. Thus, no corporation has a genuine concern for the environment.
- (D)Some parents show no interest in the curricula used in the schools that their children attend. Thus, some of the decisions regarding school curricula should be made without regard for the wishes of the children's parents.
- (E)Only a small percentage of the profits that companies make are directly attributable to good management decisions. Thus, even companies that are managed badly will usually turn a profit.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the columnist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)It is better for people to have good educations than good jobs.
- (B)Many people with narrow technical training manage to find jobs.
- (C)Having a series of different jobs is more interesting than having only one job.
- (D)Having a general understanding of life is more important than possessing practical skills.
- (E)Technical training does not help students acquire reasoning skills.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the safety experts' belief with the apparently contrary evidence described above?

Choices:
- (A)Annual safety inspections ensure that car tires are replaced before they grow old.
- (B)Drivers often become overconfident after their cars have passed a thorough safety inspection.
- (C)The roads in provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements are far more congested and therefore dangerous than in other provinces and states.
- (D)Psychological studies show that drivers who regularly wear seat belts often come to think of themselves as serious drivers, which for a few people discourages reckless driving.
- (E)Provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements have, on average, many more kilometers of roads than do other provinces and states.


Question: If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be false?

Choices:
- (A)Half of the country is both humid and cold.
- (B)Most of the country is hot.
- (C)Some parts of the country are neither cold nor humid.
- (D)It is not possible to raise cacti in the country.
- (E)Most parts of the country are humid.


Question: If all of the essayist's statements are true, then which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)At least some new theories that have not yet been found to be more useful than any theory currently part of common sense will never be absorbed into the body of common sense.
- (B)Of the useful theories within the body of common sense, the older ones are generally less useful than the newer ones.
- (C)The frequency with which new theories are generated prevents their rapid absorption into the body of common sense.
- (D)Each theory within the body of common sense is eventually replaced with a new theory that is more useful.
- (E)At least some theories that have been tested over time and found useful are less useful than some other theories that have not been fully absorbed into the body of common sense.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately states the conclusion of the argument as a whole?

Choices:
- (A)Because of the awkwardness involved, it is best for patients not to seek second opinions unless it is absolutely necessary.
- (B)In cases in which second opinions are necessary, the first physician often feels that his or her professional judgment is called into question.
- (C)The process of obtaining a second medical opinion can be awkward for those involved.
- (D)Physicians who are called upon to offer second opinions are always uncomfortable about evaluating the work of colleagues.
- (E)In many cases in which medical patients seek second opinions, they are concerned about offending the first physician.


Question: If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

Choices:
- (A)Some part of the panthers' current habitat is only of marginal quality.
- (B)If the population of Florida panthers ever exceeds 250, it will be self-sustaining.
- (C)Unless Florida panthers acquire a larger habitat, their population will not be self-sustaining.
- (D)The population of Florida panthers will never increase much beyond its current level.
- (E)Today, Florida panthers occupy a larger habitat than they did in the 1970s.


Question: The political scientist's argument proceeds by

Choices:
- (A)undermining a view by showing that its general acceptance would lead to undesirable consequences
- (B)rebutting an objection by attacking the assumption on which it is said to be based
- (C)attacking a view by claiming that those who propose it are motivated only by self-interest
- (D)claiming that whatever is true of a group must be true of each of the members of the group
- (E)undermining an apparent counterexample to a universal claim


Question: Which one of the following, if true, constitutes the logically strongest counter to the physician's argument?

Choices:
- (A)A patient's merely knowing that a treatment has been applied can lead to improvement in his or her condition.
- (B)Most physicians believe that medication relieves chronic back pain more effectively than magnets do.
- (C)No other experiments have been done showing that magnetic fields reduce pain in any area other than the back.
- (D)Some of the scientists who helped design the experiment believed even before the experiment that magnetic fields relieve back pain, but they were not directly involved in conducting the experiment.
- (E)There was wide variation in the specific causes of the chronic back pain suffered by the patients in the experiment.


Question: The argument is flawed in that it fails to consider the possibility that

Choices:
- (A)dogs' misbehavior is the cause of, rather than the result of, frequent discipline
- (B)dogs learn from past experience how their owners are likely to react to misbehavior
- (C)discipline does not cause misbehavior on the part of animals other than dogs
- (D)kennel club members tend to be more skilled at raising dogs than are other dog owners
- (E)kennel club members are more likely to use discipline than are other dog owners


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above?

Choices:
- (A)The factors affecting the creation of tornadoes were not well known to meteorologists before 1953.
- (B)The intensity of the average tornado is greater now than it was in 1953.
- (C)The number of tornadoes recorded annually has increased only slightly in the last five years.
- (D)The amount of property damage done by tornadoes has grown substantially since 1953.
- (E)Many more citizens are helping authorities detect tornadoes now than in 1953.


Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument

Choices:
- (A)relies on the truth of a claim by a source that is likely to be biased
- (B)applies a general rule to specific cases to which it does not pertain
- (C)bases an overly broad generalization on just a few instances
- (D)takes for granted that all results of nutritional research are eventually reported
- (E)fails to consider that there are many foods that are reported to be unhealthful


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would provide evidence against the bottom-up theory?

Choices:
- (A)In an effort to build up the population of a rare species of monkey on Vahique Island, monkeys were bred in zoos and released into the wild. However, the effort failed because the trees on which the monkeys fed were also nearly extinct.
- (B)After hunting virtually eliminated predators on Rigu Island, the population of many herbivore species increased more than tenfold, causing the density of plants to be dramatically reduced.
- (C)After many of the trees on Jaevix Island were cleared, the island's leaf-cutter ants, which require a forested ecosystem, experienced a substantial decrease in population, as did the island's anteaters.
- (D)After a new species of fern was introduced to Lisdok Island, native ferns were almost eliminated. However, this did not affect the population of the herbivores that had eaten the native ferns, since they also thrived on a diet of the new fern.
- (E)Plants that are a dietary staple of wild pigs on Sedif Island have flourished over the last three decades, and the population of the pigs has not changed much in spite of extensive hunting.


Question: Flawed reasoning in which one of the following most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)If bread is to have a firm crust, it must be baked at the right temperature. It therefore follows that bread that is not baked at the right temperature will not have a firm crust.
- (B)A cake must contain the right amount of flour in order to taste good. It therefore follows that cakes that do not taste good do not contain the right amount of flour.
- (C)The Bake-a-Thon, which is open to contestants of all ages, has never been won by a person under the age of 30. It therefore follows that the winner of this year's Bake-a-Thon will not be under the age of 30.
- (D)Both yeast and baking powder can cause sweet rolls to rise. It therefore follows that yeast can always be substituted for baking powder in a recipe for sweet rolls.
- (E)In recipe contests, there are always more contestants in the pie category than there are in the cake category. It therefore follows that contestants generally have a better chance of winning in the cake category than in the pie category.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the reasoning in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)People correctly believe that technological innovations often cause job loss.
- (B)People are often reluctant to take on new challenges.
- (C)Some examples of technological innovation have been embraced by workers.
- (D)People tend to adapt easily to gradually implemented technological innovations.
- (E)People correctly believe that technological innovations almost always increase workers' productivity.


Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the psychologist's conclusion to be properly drawn?

Choices:
- (A)People in positions of responsibility expect to be flattered.
- (B)Official guidelines for granting promotion tend to focus on merit.
- (C)Flattery that is not noticed by the person being flattered is ineffective.
- (D)Many people interpret insincere flattery as sincere admiration.
- (E)Supervisors are almost never influenced by flattery when they notice it.


Question: Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The government should not silence any group for advocating a position that a significant proportion of society believes to be beneficial.
- (B)The government ought to do whatever is in the best interest of society.
- (C)One ought to advocate a position only if one believes that it is true or would be beneficial.
- (D)The government ought not to silence an opinion merely on the grounds that it could be harmful to disseminate the opinion.
- (E)One ought to urge the government to do only those things the government is justified in doing.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the medical researcher's argument?

Choices:
- (A)For both groups of joggers compared by the scientists, the rate of jogging injuries during the study was lower than the overall rate of jogging injuries.
- (B)Among the joggers in the groups compared by the scientists, many of those previously injured while jogging experienced difficulty in their efforts to perform stretches.
- (C)Most jogging injuries result from falls, collisions, and other mishaps on which the flexibility resulting from stretching would have little if any effect.
- (D)The more prone a jogger is to jogging injuries, the more likely he or she is to develop the habit of performing stretches before jogging.
- (E)Studies have found that, for certain forms of exercise, stretching beforehand can reduce the severity of injuries resulting from that exercise.


Question: The claim that superconductor development will probably improve industrial productivity plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)It is a conclusion for which the claim that shipping costs for fossil fuels are partly a function of the losses of material in transit is offered as partial support.
- (B)It is a generalization for which the claim that superconductor development will enable energy to be transported farther with less energy lost in transit is offered as an illustration.
- (C)It is an assumption supporting the conclusion that superconductor development will enable energy to be transported farther with less energy lost in transit.
- (D)It is a premise offered to support the claim that oil and natural gas have replaced coal as the primary fossil fuels used in North America.
- (E)It is cited as evidence that shipping costs are a function of the distances fossil fuels are shipped and the losses of material in transit.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

Choices:
- (A)Critics who suggest that Colette's novels are indifferent to great moral questions of her time greatly underestimate her literary achievements.
- (B)A novel that poetically condenses a major emotional crisis does not have to be indifferent to the important moral questions raised by that crisis.
- (C)To deserve the level of praise that Colette has received, a novelist's work must concern itself with important moral questions.
- (D)The vividness of Colette's language was not itself the result of poetic condensation.
- (E)Colette's purpose in poetically condensing emotional crises in the lives of characters in her novels was to explore some of the important moral questions of her time.


Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument

Choices:
- (A)infers merely from the fact of someone's holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief
- (B)infers that because something is true of a group of people, it is true of each individual member of the group
- (C)infers that because something is true of each individual person belonging to a group, it is true of the group as a whole
- (D)attempts to discredit a theory by discrediting those who espouse that theory
- (E)fails to consider that, even if an argument's conclusion is false, some of the assumptions used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true


Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning in the archaeologist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)The only considerations that bear upon the question of whether the mosaics should have been removed are archaeological.
- (B)Archaeologists studying a site can tell whether or not that site had been flooded at some time.
- (C)The materials used in the construction of a mosaic are readily apparent when the mosaic is examined in its original location.
- (D)Archaeological sites from which artifacts have been removed rarely mislead archaeologists who later study the site.
- (E)The removal of artifacts from archaeological sites rarely has any environmental impact.


Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above?

Choices:
- (A)The city's financial predicament would not have been resolved had the city chosen a competing computer modeling software package.
- (B)The city's financial predicament would not have been resolved had the city not invested in computer modeling technology.
- (C)On an average day, more traffic crosses the Krakkenbak Bridge this year as compared to last year.
- (D)Traffic flow across the Krakkenbak Bridge during rush hour would not have increased had the city's mayor not made investing in computer modeling technology the highest budgetary priority last year.
- (E)The city's mayor was a proponent of investing in computer modeling technology because of the city's need to increase traffic flow across the Krakkenbak Bridge during rush hour.


Question: The court analyst's reasoning is flawed because it fails to take into account that

Choices:
- (A)courts have the authority to admit or exclude any evidence irrespective of what experts have to say about its reliability
- (B)the standard against which evidence in a criminal case is measured should not be absolute certainty
- (C)experts may agree that the tests are highly reliable while disagreeing about exactly how reliable they are
- (D)data should not be admitted as evidence in a court of law without scientific witnesses having agreed about how reliable they are
- (E)there are also controversies about reliability of evidence in noncriminal cases


Question: If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)The only people who can receive the special discount coupon at the Main Street location are Frequent Viewers club members who have not rented more than ten videos.
- (B)Some members of the Frequent Viewers club have not rented more than ten videos.
- (C)Some members of the Frequent Viewers club can receive the special discount coupon at more than one location of VideoKing.
- (D)Some people who are not members of the Frequent Viewers club can receive the special discount coupon.
- (E)If Pat rents a movie from the Main Street location, then she will not receive the special discount coupon.


Question: The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning above?

Choices:
- (A)With a book contract, an academic writer receives either an advance or a guarantee of royalties. Professor al-Sofi received an advance for a book contract, so al-Sofi did not receive a guarantee of royalties.
- (B)When entering this amusement park, children always choose to take their first ride on either the Rocket or the Mouse. Janine insisted on the Rocket for her first ride. Thus, Janine would not have been standing near the Mouse during her first half hour in the amusement park.
- (C)The elliptical orbit of an asteroid is only slightly eccentric unless it is affected by the gravitational pull of a planet. Asteroid Y is affected by Jupiter's gravitational pull and asteroid X is not. Thus, the orbit of asteroid Y is the more eccentric of the two.
- (D)New students in this program must choose either a physics class or an art class. Miyoko has no desire to take a class in either of those fields, so Miyoko will probably not enter this program.
- (E)To avoid predators, rabbits will either double back on their pursuers or flee for nearby cover. The rabbit being pursued by a fox in this wildlife film is in a field that offers no opportunity for nearby cover, so it will try to double back on the fox.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the microbiologist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)Most bacteria that are not resistant to antibiotics are not resistant to heavy-metal poisoning either.
- (B)Bacteria that live in sewage sludge that is free of heavy metals, but is in other respects similar to normal sewage, are generally resistant to neither heavy-metal poisoning nor antibiotics.
- (C)Antibiotic resistance of bacteria that survive in sewage sludge in which heavy metals are concentrated contributes to their resistance to heavy-metal poisoning.
- (D)Sewage sludge that contains high concentrations of heavy metals almost always contains significant concentrations of antibiotics.
- (E)Many kinds of bacteria that do not live in sewage sludge are resistant to both heavy-metal poisoning and antibiotics.


Question: The ethicist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)None of our feelings are within our control.
- (B)People should not make promises to do something that is not within their control.
- (C)"Love" can legitimately be taken to refer to something other than feelings.
- (D)Promises should not be interpreted in such a way that they make no sense.
- (E)Promises that cannot be kept do not make any sense.


Question: The application of the principle is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it

Choices:
- (A)fails to address the possibility that consumers of a specific food may not be representative of consumers of food in general
- (B)fails to address the possibility that the genetically engineered ingredients in Crackly Crisps may have been proven safe for human consumption
- (C)implicitly makes use of a value judgment that is incompatible with the principle being applied
- (D)takes for granted that if most consumers of a product would buy it even if they knew several of the ingredients in it, then they would buy the product even if they knew all the ingredients in it
- (E)confuses a claim that under certain conditions a certain action should be taken with a claim that the action need not be taken in the absence of those conditions


Question: The contention that the town would not have to spend as much as it does on removing trash if all town residents sorted their garbage plays which one of the following roles in the editorial's argument?

Choices:
- (A)It is a claim that the editorial is trying to show is false.
- (B)It is a fact granted by the editorial that lends some support to an alternative to the practice that the editorial defends as preferable.
- (C)It is an example of a difficulty facing the claim that the editorial is attempting to refute.
- (D)It is a premise that the editorial's argument relies on in reaching its conclusion.
- (E)It is the conclusion that the editorial's argument purports to establish.


Question: Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

Choices:
- (A)try to help only those species who are threatened with extinction because of habitat loss
- (B)concentrate their resources on protecting hot spot habitats
- (C)treat all endemic species as equally valuable and equally in need of preservation
- (D)accept that most endemic species will become extinct
- (E)expand the definition of "hot spot" to include vulnerable habitats that are not currently home to many endangered species


Question: The application of the principle is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that

Choices:
- (A)the application fails to establish whether Wilton was given the opportunity to repair the brakes
- (B)the application fails to indicate how much money Wilton received for the bicycle
- (C)the application uses the word "defective" in a sense that is crucially different from how it is used in the statement of the principle
- (D)Harris might not have believed Wilton's statement about the bicycle's condition
- (E)asserting something without justification is not the same as asserting something one knows to be false


Question: Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

Choices:
- (A)younger killer whales are better able to tolerate engine noise from boats than older whales are
- (B)killer whales are less likely to attempt to communicate with one another when boat engines are operating nearby
- (C)noise from boat engines may impair killer whales' ability to communicate
- (D)killer whales are most likely to prefer areas where boat traffic is present, but light
- (E)killer whales would probably be more successful in finding food if boats did not travel through their habitats


Question: The journalist's reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the journalist

Choices:
- (A)gives no reason to think that Bruch Industries would want to belong to the trade group
- (B)does not present any evidence that the document names every member of the trade group
- (C)does not explain how it is that the trade group could have inadvertently sent out a secret document
- (D)presents no reason why Bruch Industries would not want its membership in the trade group to be known
- (E)takes for granted the accuracy of a statement by a representative who had a reason to withhold information


Question: Peter and Yoko disagree over whether today's children's stories

Choices:
- (A)should be less frightening than they are
- (B)tend to be less frightening than earlier children's stories were
- (C)differ significantly in overall quality from earlier children's stories
- (D)tend to have clearly immoral characters in them
- (E)should help children learn the consequences of being bad


Question: The local resident's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it

Choices:
- (A)presumes, without providing justification, that smaller fish are somehow more susceptible to harm as a result of overabundant algae than are larger fish
- (B)fails to consider that the effects on smaller fish of overabundant algae may be less severe in larger bodies of water with more diverse ecosystems
- (C)ignores the possibility that the same cause might have different effects on fish of different sizes
- (D)ignores the possibility that the overabundance of algae and the deaths of smaller fish are independent effects of a common cause
- (E)ignores the possibility that below-normal amounts of algae are detrimental to the pond's smaller fish


Question: The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Tanner and Saldana disagree over which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Political candidates with strong debating skills are more likely to win elections than those with weak debating skills.
- (B)A voter who watches a political debate will likely be better able, as a result, to determine which candidate is more qualified for office.
- (C)Debating skills are of little use to politicians in doing their jobs once they are elected to office.
- (D)The candidates with the best debating skills are the ones who are most qualified for the political offices for which they are running.
- (E)Political debates tend to have a major effect on which candidate among those participating in a debate will win the election.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the phenomenon described above?

Choices:
- (A)Drivers have more accidents when they become distracted.
- (B)The highways that have the highest rate of fatal accidents have moderate volumes of traffic.
- (C)Most of the motorists on very heavily traveled highways tend to be commuting to or from work.
- (D)Most serious accidents occur when vehicles are moving at a high rate of speed.
- (E)Heavily traveled highways do not always carry a higher proportion of large trucks.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument?

Choices:
- (A)In general, lawmakers mandate penalties for crimes that are proportional to the harm they believe to result from those crimes.
- (B)In most cases, lawmakers assess the level of harm resulting from an act in determining whether to make that act illegal.
- (C)Often, in response to the unusually great harm resulting from a particular instance of a crime, lawmakers will mandate an increased penalty for that crime.
- (D)In most cases, a victim of theft is harmed no more than a victim of bribery is harmed.
- (E)If lawmakers mandate penalties for crimes that are proportional to the harm resulting from those crimes, crime in those lawmakers' jurisdictions will be effectively deterred.