Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why trees of the rarest species tend to survive longer than trees of the most common species?

Choices:
- (A)The species of trees that is most common in a forest thrives there because it is best suited to the local climate.
- (B)Older trees tend to reproduce the least.
- (C)The study tracked preexisting tree species but did not introduce any new species to the tropical forests.
- (D)The survival of the trees of the rarer species enables tropical forests to recover more easily from moderate destruction.
- (E)The trees of the common species have more competition for the resources they need than do the trees of the rare species.


Question: The argument relies on which one of the following assumptions?

Choices:
- (A)Most viewers who tune in to the first episode of the program will do so because of the network's advertisement for the program.
- (B)The advertisement that the program's producers favored would not have grossly misrepresented what the program would be like.
- (C)Most people who tune in to the first episode of the program and become loyal viewers will not have tuned in to the first episode as a result of the network's advertisement for the program.
- (D)If the advertisement that the program's producers favored were used instead of the network's advertisement, almost all of the viewers who tuned in to the first episode would tune in to subsequent episodes as well.
- (E)Most people who become loyal viewers of a program do not miss the program's first episode.


Question: The situation described above conforms most closely to which one of the following principles?

Choices:
- (A)Artists who speak out on political matters will have influence only among their most dedicated fans.
- (B)A political statement from an artist should be considered only if the artist has established a reputation for being an honest and knowledgeable observer of politics.
- (C)Artists should limit their public political statements to issues that are somehow related to the arts.
- (D)Someone who hears testimony that contradicts a long-standing opinion will generally entertain doubts about the source of the testimony rather than the correctness of the opinion.
- (E)People are far less likely to renounce an allegiance that they have had for many years than to renounce an allegiance that is new to them.


Question: The reasoning in the advertisement is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?

Choices:
- (A)It overlooks the possibility that a generalization true of the entire group of volunteers was not true of each of the five smaller groups.
- (B)It takes for granted that most of the volunteers would buy Sparkle Cola rather than one of the other colas tasted, at least in situations where Sparkle Cola is not much more expensive.
- (C)It overlooks the possibility that some cola not tested in the study would have elicited a more favorable response than Sparkle Cola.
- (D)It overlooks the possibility that many people may prefer Sparkle Cola to competing colas for reasons such as the packaging or price of Sparkle Cola, rather than its taste.
- (E)It is based on a study that does not elicit consumers' responses to any beverages other than colas.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the reasoning above?

Choices:
- (A)Many people overestimate the dangers that the world poses to them, regardless of the amount of television they watch.
- (B)A person is less likely to live in an area that is prone to natural disasters if that person watches an above-average amount of television than if that person watches a below-average amount of television.
- (C)People who watch a below-average amount of television tend to have a fairly accurate idea of the likelihood that they will be victims of a natural disaster.
- (D)People who are well informed about the risks posed by natural disasters tend to have become well informed in some way other than by watching television.
- (E)A person is more likely to watch an above-average amount of television if that person lives in an area that is prone to natural disasters than if that person lives in an area that is not.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the meteorologist's argument by the claim that, in general, as water vapor in larger clouds condenses, heavier downpours are more likely to result?

Choices:
- (A)It is the only conclusion in the argument.
- (B)It is the conclusion of the argument as a whole but is not the only explicitly stated conclusion in the argument.
- (C)It is a statement that the argument is intended to support but is not the conclusion of the argument as a whole.
- (D)It is used to support the only conclusion in the argument.
- (E)It provides a causal explanation of the phenomenon described by the conclusion of the argument as a whole, but it is not intended to provide support for that conclusion.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Anthropologists tend to overestimate the value of field studies.
- (B)In a field study, the researcher lives within the community being studied.
- (C)Field studies have been a central feature of anthropological research for a long time.
- (D)Most anthropologists know that when they live within a community being studied, the community is affected at least somewhat.
- (E)Most anthropologists underestimate how much of an effect the researcher's presence has on a community being studied.


Question: The reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)A leading science journal has concluded that data provided by the manufacturer of a certain controversial new medication are accurate. The journal is generally reliable on such matters. Thus, the medication is probably safe, for if the company's data are accurate, the medication must be safe.
- (B)The data from the manufacturer of a controversial new medication prove that the medication is safe, because a leading science journal has concluded that the medication is safe, and it would not have done so had the manufacturer's data not proven that the medication is safe.
- (C)A leading science journal states that a certain controversial new medication is safe if the data provided by the company that developed the drug are accurate. Thus, the medication is probably safe, for the science journal is rarely wrong about such matters, and the company's data are accurate.
- (D)A leading science journal states that the data provided by the manufacturer of a controversial new medication are probably accurate and that if they are accurate, the medication is safe. Thus, the manufacturer's data are probably accurate, for the science journal is fairly reliable on such matters.
- (E)The data from the manufacturer of a controversial new medication are probably accurate, because a leading science journal has published the data and has concluded that the data are probably accurate. Moreover, the journal is fairly reliable on such matters.


Question: The argument in the advertisement is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?

Choices:
- (A)It overlooks the possibility that at least some of the new Popelka Auto Insurance policyholders surveyed reported that they saved little or no money when they switched their auto insurance coverage to Popelka.
- (B)It takes for granted that the new Popelka Auto Insurance policyholders pay no less for their auto insurance, on average, than do people who have held Popelka Auto Insurance policies for a longer period of time.
- (C)It fails to address adequately the possibility that switching to another insurance company would enable many auto insurance policyholders to save even more money than they would save by switching to Popelka.
- (D)It takes for granted that few if any of the Popelka Auto Insurance policyholders surveyed underestimated how much they saved when they switched their auto insurance coverage to Popelka.
- (E)It fails to address adequately the possibility that people capable of saving hundreds of dollars by switching their auto insurance coverage to Popelka are disproportionately represented among the new Popelka auto insurance policyholders.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument in the consumer magazine?

Choices:
- (A)All top-loading washing machines use the same amount of water.
- (B)A laundry detergent formulated especially for front-loading washers dissolves more readily in them than it does in top-loading washers.
- (C)A washing machine gets clothes really clean only with a laundry detergent specially formulated for that machine.
- (D)A laundry detergent does not get clothes really clean in a washer unless it dissolves readily in it.
- (E)Washers that use more water get clothes cleaner than those that use less.


Question: If the survey results are accurate, which one of the following must be true?

Choices:
- (A)Physicians who do not accept gifts from drug companies are less likely to prescribe unnecessary drugs than those who do accept such gifts.
- (B)Most physicians believe that drug companies should adopt new guidelines that regulate their practices in sending gifts to physicians.
- (C)Some physicians are mistaken either about the degree to which they are influenced by gifts from drug companies or about the degree to which such gifts influence other physicians.
- (D)Some physicians who admit that their own choices when prescribing drugs are influenced by drug companies' gifts believe that other physicians' prescription choices are influenced to a greater degree by such gifts.
- (E)All physicians who admit that their own choices when prescribing drugs are influenced by drug companies' gifts believe that most other physicians' prescription choices are also influenced by such gifts.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the columnist's reasoning?

Choices:
- (A)In a well-functioning democracy, any bill that would benefit most people will be passed into law within a few years if it does not violate anyone's basic human rights.
- (B)If a democracy is well functioning, then any bill that is opposed by influential people but favored by most other people will eventually pass into law.
- (C)In a well-functioning democracy, a bill that is favored by most people will become law within a few years only if those who oppose it are not very influential.
- (D)Any bill passed into law in a well-functioning democracy will be favored by most people and be consistent with individuals' basic human rights.
- (E)A bill that most people favor will be passed promptly into law in a well-functioning democracy if the bill does not violate anyone's basic human rights.


Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

Choices:
- (A)There is no single fertilizer that provides both the macronutrients and micronutrients necessary for maintaining soil's long-term health.
- (B)The macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are available to homeowners only in commercial fertilizers.
- (C)Widely available commercial fertilizers are not alone sufficient to maintain a healthy balance of nutrients in soil for lawns where grass clippings are not allowed to decay and return to the soil.
- (D)For soil to remain healthy in the long term, it requires the regular addition of both commercial fertilizers and a source of micronutrients such as grass clippings that are allowed to decay and return to the soil.
- (E)Homeowners who rake up their grass clippings are unable to maintain the long-term health of the soil in their lawns and gardens.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly for the inclusion of the antidilution provision of the law?

Choices:
- (A)If improperly incinerated, waste products containing undiluted concentrations of XTX can release into the environment a gaseous form of the chemical that is more than twice as toxic as XTX is in its usual liquid state.
- (B)If present in the environment in sufficient quantities, the diluted XTX is as harmful as the more concentrated XTX.
- (C)When XTX is exposed to sunlight and oxygen, it eventually breaks down into a number of components that individually and collectively carry no risk of environmental harm.
- (D)Most owners of dumps for hazardous waste are willing to accept XTX for disposal in their facilities only in concentrations below 800 parts per million.
- (E)To manufacturers, the cost of diluting and disposing of waste products containing XTX is approximately the same as the cost of destroying these products by incineration.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The more severe the penalty for an infraction is, the more certain one must be of the guilt of a party before being justified in imposing the penalty on that party.
- (B)Penalties for crimes should be severe enough to deter people from committing them, but not so severe as to undermine one's willingness to impose them.
- (C)The severity of the penalty imposed for an infraction should be proportional to the harm caused by that infraction.
- (D)The more severe the penalty for an offense is, the less likely it is that someone will come forward and admit responsibility for the offense.
- (E)The severity of the penalty for an offense should not be so great that one can never be sufficiently certain of guilt to justify punishment for that offense.


Question: Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above?

Choices:
- (A)Nursing-home residents are more subject to depression than any other individuals.
- (B)The best method for helping a nursing-home resident to overcome depression is to provide access to a pet.
- (C)High rates of depression among nursing-home residents may result at least in part from a lack of companionship.
- (D)Animal companionship is essential for psychological well-being.
- (E)Allowing free access to pets in nursing homes would eliminate problems relating to depression.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)It takes for granted that nothing but humor can attract a person's attention and hold it long enough for a message to be conveyed.
- (B)It confuses attracting a person's attention with holding a person's attention long enough for a message to be conveyed.
- (C)It treats a necessary condition for an advertisement's being effective as if it were a sufficient condition.
- (D)It uses two senses of the term "effective" without differentiating them.
- (E)It takes for granted that an advertisement's only purpose is to convey its message.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the physician's argument?

Choices:
- (A)For the most part, stories of people developing serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations involve vaccines that were recently introduced.
- (B)Some of the illnesses that vaccines are designed to prevent have become so rare that even if people are not vaccinated, they are unlikely to contract those illnesses.
- (C)People are no more likely, on average, to develop serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations than shortly before receiving vaccinations.
- (D)The health problems that some people have developed shortly after receiving vaccinations have been more serious than the health problems that the vaccines were intended to prevent.
- (E)In a few cases in which people developed serious health problems shortly after taking other medications, these problems were initially attributed to coincidence but were later determined to be due to the medications.


Question: Sharita's and Chad's statements provide the most support for the claim that they agree about which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)It is usually wrong to feed stray cats.
- (B)There are more stray cats than there should be.
- (C)Stray cats are a problem because of the risk they pose to humans.
- (D)Stray cats spread diseases to other cats.
- (E)It is mainly out of kindness that people feed stray cats.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the detective's argument?

Choices:
- (A)The majority of people who commit embezzlement or bribery do so repeatedly.
- (B)People who commit embezzlement or bribery tend to be people who feel confident.
- (C)Embezzlement and bribery are more likely to be solved than are many other types of crimes.
- (D)People who repeatedly commit embezzlement or bribery become more and more careless the longer they avoid detection.
- (E)No one who commits embezzlement or bribery is ever caught the first time.


Question: Which one of the following would, if true, most contribute to an explanation of the phenomenon described above?

Choices:
- (A)Farmers engaged in very large-scale cattle production generally try to reduce the labor costs involved in the production and sale of beef.
- (B)The wholesale price per pound of beef is approximately ten times the wholesale price per pound of bread.
- (C)The labor and marketing costs in producing and selling bread represent most of its cost, but the cost of feeding cattle represents most of the cost of producing beef.
- (D)Only an insignificantly small proportion of the beef sold in retail markets is produced from cattle fed on grass rather than grain.
- (E)The vast majority of retail grocery outlets purchase the bread they sell from small independent bakers but purchase the meat they sell from large wholesale processing operations.


Question: Which one of the following is a technique of reasoning used in Kathy's response to Mark?

Choices:
- (A)using a product's overall record of safety as evidence that the product is not linked to a particular health problem
- (B)attempting to discredit an argument by comparing it to another obviously flawed argument that is logically parallel
- (C)arguing against a conclusion by raising questions about the validity of scientific studies cited in support of that conclusion
- (D)attempting to undermine an argument by showing that it is incompatible with a fundamental principle of medicine
- (E)challenging an argument from analogy by focusing on a dissimilarity between the things being compared


Question: The reasoning in the CEO's argument is flawed in that it

Choices:
- (A)takes for granted that production methods that do not produce pollution cannot be developed
- (B)fails to take into account the possibility that different causes can have similar effects
- (C)generalizes too hastily from the inapplicability of a specific criticism to the inapplicability of a class of criticisms
- (D)takes for granted that because the company has attempted to reduce the amount of pollution produced, they must have succeeded
- (E)ignores the possibility that there are currently production methods that would allow the corporation to produce less pollution than it does now


Question: The argument requires the assumption that

Choices:
- (A)painful conditions will interfere with a person's ability to address problems quickly and directly
- (B)refusing to think about something troubling contributes to a person's level of stress
- (C)people who have highly stressful lives tend to address problems quickly and directly
- (D)people who tend to address problems quickly and directly will invariably seek dental care at the first sign of problems
- (E)the reason some people refuse to think about problems is that they find addressing problems to be stressful


Question: The class's reasoning is flawed in that the class

Choices:
- (A)generalized too readily from the fruits it tested to fruits it did not test
- (B)ignored the effects of other factors such as humidity and sunlight on the rate of spoilage
- (C)too readily extrapolated from a narrow range of temperatures to the entire range of temperatures
- (D)assumed without proof that its thermometer was reliable
- (E)neglected to offer any explanation for the results it discovered


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Population growth trends are notoriously hard to predict with reasonable accuracy.
- (B)The amount of fresh water available to meet the needs of Earth's population varies significantly from region to region.
- (C)Not all of Earth's population will adopt water conservation methods in the near future.
- (D)If Earth's population continues to increase, it will eventually outstrip all available resources.
- (E)The percentage of fresh water used for agriculture is likely to grow more quickly than is the percentage used for industry.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox in the consultant's statements?

Choices:
- (A)Most companies still try to improve productivity mainly through greater standardization and centralization of decision making.
- (B)Increased productivity is not the only benefit of giving individual employees greater control over their work; job satisfaction increases as well.
- (C)Most of the increases in industrial productivity that have occurred in recent years have been due to the introduction of advanced technology like industrial robots.
- (D)The innovations of the Industrial Revolution are only now being applied in those companies in which individual employees have traditionally been entirely in control of how they do their work.
- (E)Increases in productivity in highly productive companies depend on management's broad application of innovative ideas solicited from individual employees about their work.


Question: If the professor's statements are true, which one of the following must also be true?

Choices:
- (A)An important function of poetry is to give meaning and direction to the lives of those who hear or read it.
- (B)Epic poems accomplish their most important function by presenting heroic figures as role models.
- (C)When values are represented in poetry, they are rarely if ever set forth explicitly.
- (D)For many groups of people, heroic figures serve as role models embodying the values by which those people are to live.
- (E)Only epic poetry presents heroic figures as role models that, if imitated, give meaning and direction to the lives of those who hear it.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to support the argument in the letter to the editor?

Choices:
- (A)Money stolen from a burglar should be given to that burglar's victims.
- (B)Burglars are obligated to provide compensation to the same individuals they victimized.
- (C)The motive prompting an action determines whether or not that action is justified.
- (D)A crime is justified only if it is a means of compensating people who deserve compensation.
- (E)Stealing is never justified even if it benefits someone who has been a burglary victim.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Only those people with Barrett's esophagus can suffer an increased risk of developing cancer from heartburn.
- (B)An increase in the risk of esophageal cancer arises from cells similar to those in the stomach's lining developing in the lower esophagus.
- (C)Unrelieved heartburn is not likely to cause esophageal cancer.
- (D)Some heartburn-medication advertisements imply that unrelieved heartburn is likely to cause esophageal cancer.
- (E)The dangers touted by heartburn-medication advertisements will affect relatively few of the people who see those advertisements.


Question: Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)We can be confident that the temperature will drop abruptly on at least one day this week, for there is a chance of storms most days this week; whenever there are storms, the temperature drops suddenly.
- (B)We can be positive that there are at least a few disturbing sonnets, given that Melinda has written several different kinds of sonnets; everything Melinda writes is disturbing.
- (C)We can be sure that Gianna will get at least some good mechanical work done to her car, because she can have her car worked on at any of several shops in the city, and every shop is capable of doing good mechanical work.
- (D)We can be positive that at least some minnows are healthy, because many different species of minnow can be found in lakes nearby, and every lake nearby is teeming with healthy fish.
- (E)We can be confident that the cornmeal used at Matteo's Trattoria is healthful and organic, since cornmeal is among the ingredients used in preparing meals there; whenever a meal is prepared at Matteo's Trattoria, only healthful, organic ingredients are used.


Question: Which one of the following statements is most supported by the information above?

Choices:
- (A)Implementing flexible schedules would be an effective means of increasing the job satisfaction and efficiency of managers who do not already have scheduling autonomy.
- (B)Flexible-schedule policies should be expected to improve the morale of some individual employees but not the overall morale of a company's workforce.
- (C)Flexible schedules should be expected to substantially improve a company's productivity and employee satisfaction in the long run.
- (D)There is little correlation between managers' job satisfaction and their ability to set their own work schedules.
- (E)The typical benefits of flexible-schedule policies cannot be reliably inferred from observations of the effects of such policies on managers.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Most people who voted in the election that Lopez won did not watch the debate.
- (B)Most people in the live audience watching the debate who were surveyed immediately afterward said that they thought that Tanner was more persuasive in the debate than was Lopez.
- (C)The people who watched the televised debate were more likely to vote for Tanner than were the people who did not watch the debate.
- (D)Most of the viewers surveyed immediately prior to the debate said that they would probably vote for Tanner.
- (E)Lopez won the election over Tanner by a very narrow margin.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The origin of a food prohibition must be explained with reference to the understanding that the people who adopted and enforced the prohibition had.
- (B)The social, economic, and medical problems of a society may lead to the adoption of contradictory food prohibitions.
- (C)The social importance of the origin of a food prohibition is independent of the nutritional value of the food prohibited.
- (D)The original purpose of a food prohibition is often forgotten a few generations after the prohibition is introduced.
- (E)The people who originally adopted and enforced food prohibitions in ancient cultures generally had a nontechnical understanding of the medical functions of those prohibitions.


Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor's statements?

Choices:
- (A)Most unrequested manuscripts that the publishing house receives are not given serious attention.
- (B)Most of the books that the publishing house publishes that are not by renowned authors are books of fiction.
- (C)If a manuscript has received careful attention at the publishing house, then it is either a work of fiction or the work of a renowned figure.
- (D)The publishing house is less likely to give careful consideration to a manuscript that was submitted directly by a writer than one that was submitted by a writer's literary agent.
- (E)Any unrequested manuscripts not submitted by literary agents that the publishing house has published were written by renowned figures.


Question: The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)If most of the dairies in the central valley meet federal standards for the disposal of natural wastes, it is unlikely that most of the district's drinking water will become polluted.
- (B)To keep all the drinking water in the district clean requires more dairy inspectors to monitor the dairies' disposal of natural wastes.
- (C)All of the district's drinking water is likely to become polluted only if all of the large dairies in the central valley do not meet federal standards for the disposal of natural wastes.
- (D)Most of the district's drinking water is likely to become polluted if most of the large dairies in the central valley do not meet federal standards for the disposal of natural wastes.
- (E)If none of the large dairies in the central valley meets federal standards for the disposal of natural wastes, most of the district's drinking water is likely to become polluted.


Question: The flawed nature of the company president's argument can most effectively be demonstrated by noting that, by parallel reasoning, we could conclude that

Choices:
- (A)the president of Corbin Corporation has an office that is not in Corbin's headquarters building, since almost all of the offices in Corbin's headquarters building are small, whereas Corbin's president has a large office
- (B)Donna has at least ten years of experience as a computer programmer, since almost every programmer who works for Coderight Software has at least ten years experience, and Donna will probably be hired as a programmer by Coderight
- (C)almost all of Acme's employees oppose the pending merger with Barrington Corporation, since almost all of Acme's employees are factory workers, and almost all of the factory workers at Acme oppose the merger
- (D)Robinson will probably be appointed as president of Sifton University, since almost every one of Sifton's previous presidents had a Ph.D., and Robinson has a Ph.D.
- (E)the novel Safekeeping will probably earn a profit


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the biologist's argument by the claim that the fossilized bacteria discovered in rocks 3.5 billion years old must have had a long evolutionary history?

Choices:
- (A)It is a claim for which no support is provided in the argument, and that is used to illustrate the conclusion of the argument as a whole.
- (B)It is a claim for which no support is provided in the argument, and that is used to support a claim that in turn lends support to the conclusion of the argument as a whole.
- (C)It is a claim for which some support is provided in the argument, and that itself is used to support another claim that in turn lends support to the conclusion of the argument as a whole.
- (D)It is a claim for which some support is provided in the argument, and that itself is not used to support any other claim in the argument.
- (E)It is a claim for which some support is provided in the argument, and that itself is used to support two distinct conclusions, neither of which is intended to provide support for the other.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the reasoning described above?

Choices:
- (A)If the stars do not revolve around Earth, it is possible for at least some stars to be more than a few million miles from Earth.
- (B)All stars move at exactly the same speed when they are revolving around Earth.
- (C)Earth does not remain motionless while the stars revolve around it.
- (D)Stars do not move at tremendously great speeds.
- (E)A star that is more than a million miles from Earth could reappear in roughly the same position each night.


Question: The argument proceeds by

Choices:
- (A)using a claim about what most people appreciate to support an aesthetic principle
- (B)appealing to an aesthetic principle to defend the tastes that people have
- (C)explaining a historical fact in terms of the artistic preferences of people
- (D)appealing to a historical fact to support a claim about people's artistic preferences
- (E)considering historical context to defend the artistic preferences of people


Question: Which one of the following most logically completes the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)it will lead them to develop a taste for candy and sweets
- (B)too many children may become frustrated by their difficulty and stop reading altogether
- (C)their doing so interferes with the development of appreciation for more challenging literature
- (D)their message may undermine the positive teaching done by parents
- (E)children may become so enthralled with books that they will want to spend all their time reading


Question: Which one of the following, if true, adds the most support for the archaeologist's hypothesis?

Choices:
- (A)Modern attempts to recreate columns like those at the Parthenon have only been partially successful.
- (B)The construction of the temple at Didyma was begun over a century after the Parthenon was constructed.
- (C)Scale drawings were commonly used in many types of construction in ancient Greece.
- (D)The surviving columns at Didyma are almost twice as tall as the columns at the Parthenon.
- (E)The Parthenon's stonemasons had considerable experience carving columns before they started work on the Parthenon.


Question: which one of the following principles?

Choices:
- (A)Governments should spend more of their revenue on essential services than on nonessential services.
- (B)Essential government services must be funded from reliable sources of revenue.
- (C)No government service should be entirely dependent on lottery revenue for its funding.
- (D)Governments should consider all health services to be essential to the community.
- (E)At least some lottery revenue must be set aside in case of budget shortfalls in the future.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to support the scientist's hypothesis?

Choices:
- (A)Rattlesnakes do not have the ability to increase the temperature of their tails.
- (B)Squirrels puff up their tails and wag them when they attempt to attract the attention of other squirrels.
- (C)Rattlesnakes react much more defensively when confronted with a squirrel whose tail is heated up than when confronted with one whose tail is not.
- (D)The rattlesnake is not the only predator of the California ground squirrel that causes it to engage in harassing behavior as a defensive mechanism.
- (E)Mammals such as the California ground squirrel have no organ for sensing infrared energy.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the critic's reasoning?

Choices:
- (A)It takes a necessary condition for something's being harmful to be a sufficient condition for being harmful.
- (B)It concludes that something is true merely on the grounds that there is no evidence to the contrary.
- (C)It rejects an argument solely on the grounds that the argument could serve the interests of the person making that argument.
- (D)It is based on an appeal to the views of someone with questionable authority on the subject matter.
- (E)It bases its conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with one another.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The amount of the chemical in grapefruit juice is highly unpredictable from glass to glass.
- (B)Grapefruit juice is less expensive than most of the medicines with which it interacts.
- (C)When scientists removed the chemical from grapefruit juice, the juice no longer affected how certain medicines were absorbed.
- (D)The chemical in grapefruit juice works by inhibiting an enzyme in the body that affects how certain medicines are metabolized.
- (E)Long before the chemical in grapefruit juice was identified, doctors were advising patients who took certain medicines to avoid grapefruit juice.


Question: The salesperson's advice to the landlord most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?

Choices:
- (A)When the prices of two different brands of a particular home appliance are identical, either of the products can satisfy the needs of the consumer.
- (B)When a consumer is choosing between two different brands of a particular home appliance, the consumer should select the less powerful product only if it is also less expensive.
- (C)A salesperson should always recommend that a customer buy the product that represents the best value.
- (D)When advising customers about a purchase of a home appliance, a salesperson should direct the customer toward the product that yields the highest commission for the salesperson.
- (E)When a consumer is choosing a home appliance, that consumer should choose the least powerful product that meets his or her needs.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires?

Choices:
- (A)Examining an individual leader's personal flaws does not reveal anything about how the nation's institutions and procedures influence the selection of leaders.
- (B)Political discussions that focus on the flaws of the nation's leaders will become even more common if the nation's institutions and procedures are not examined.
- (C)The workings of the nation's current institutions and procedures ensure that only flawed individuals will attain positions of power.
- (D)As yet, no one in the nation has made the effort to critically examine the details of the nation's institutions and procedures.
- (E)Concentrating on the flaws of the nation's leaders creates greater dissatisfaction with those leaders.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most help to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above?

Choices:
- (A)Some fruits and vegetables contain trace amounts of lead derived from the soil in which they are grown.
- (B)It is difficult to ensure that one has completely eliminated trace amounts of lead from one's diet.
- (C)Lead is only one of the common public health concerns that are associated with anemia and nerve damage.
- (D)A high-calcium diet decreases the amount of lead that the body is able to tolerate safely.
- (E)When calcium intake is insufficient, the body draws calcium from bones, releasing stored lead into the bloodstream.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to justify the above application of the principle?

Choices:
- (A)While this style of vase is not currently sought after by other collectors, Matilde has acquired quite a few similar pieces and has developed significant expertise in identifying counterfeits.
- (B)Although the seller is willing to take back the vase if Matilde cannot independently authenticate it, Matilde is not sure that the vase will appreciate much in value in the future.
- (C)The seller of the vase has offered documentation of its age and origin, and Matilde is highly attracted to its shape and color; moreover, she suspects that it will be highly desirable to other collectors in the future.
- (D)The asking price for the vase is significantly less than the amount Matilde thinks it is worth, and the vase is of a style that Matilde particularly likes.
- (E)While Matilde likes the color and features of the vase, its particular style has frequently been reproduced for the mass market, and the vase cannot be examined closely or authenticated over the Internet.


Question: The critic's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Waverly believes that a historian of art should not prefer certain works of art to other works of art.
- (B)Waverly has only included works of art that she has strong opinions about in her textbook.
- (C)Waverly wrote her textbook with the intention of advocating the works of art that she likes best.
- (D)Waverly has not succeeded in her intended objectivity about works of art discussed in her textbook.
- (E)Waverly does not really believe that objectivity is a desirable trait in an art history textbook.


Question: The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)If a culture had a distinct word for a metal, then it smelted that metal.
- (B)If a culture was unfamiliar with a metal, then it did not have a distinct word for that metal.
- (C)If a culture smelted copper and bronze, then it had distinct words for copper and bronze.
- (D)If a culture did not smelt a metal, then it was unfamiliar with that metal.
- (E)If a culture smelted a metal, then it had a distinct word for that metal.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Community organizations seeking to encourage higher education programs must persuade the public that these programs benefit society as a whole.
- (B)It is easier to get the public to support programs that are seen as benefiting everyone than it is to get them to support programs that are seen as benefiting only a small segment of society.
- (C)It is easy to get the public to support road building, because road building is seen as benefiting society as a whole.
- (D)Convincing the public that higher education programs will benefit society as a whole makes the public more receptive to those programs.
- (E)Higher education is similar to road building in that both are beneficial to society as a whole.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that the risk of a satellite orbiting Earth colliding with other satellites or satellite fragments is likely to increase dramatically in the future?

Choices:
- (A)It is an unsupported claim that is used to provide support for the argument's conclusion.
- (B)It is an unsupported claim that is used to support another claim that in turn supports the argument's conclusion.
- (C)It is a claim for which the argument provides some support, and which in turn is used to support the argument's conclusion.
- (D)It is a claim that serves as the argument's conclusion.
- (E)It is a claim that provides nonessential background information for the argument's conclusion.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the concentrations of bacteria one week after the treatment?

Choices:
- (A)The new treatment takes several weeks to administer.
- (B)Levels of Salmonella bacteria in young chicks are generally not high to begin with.
- (C)Most chicks develop resistance to many harmful bacteria by the time they reach adulthood.
- (D)The untreated chicks experienced a higher incidence of illness from infection by bacteria other than Salmonella than did treated chicks.
- (E)The bacteria found in the treated chicks were nonvirulent types whose growth is inhibited by Salmonella bacteria.


Question: The respondent's reply to the debater's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the respondent

Choices:
- (A)concedes one of the major assumptions on which the debater's argument depends
- (B)takes for granted that teaching methods that are effective in mathematics are also effective in other academic disciplines
- (C)fails to consider the possibility that some characteristics of lecturing other than hierarchy are weaknesses
- (D)applies a key concept to a different aspect of education than the aspect to which the debater applied it
- (E)takes for granted that the conceptual structure of mathematics is sufficiently representative of the conceptual structure of at least some other academic disciplines


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Chemical analysis shows that most of the known fragments of both Han purple and the white glass were produced within a small geographical radius.
- (B)Han purple was used for luxury and ceremonial items, whereas the white glass was used to make certain household items.
- (C)The technique used for producing Han purple was known to very few people during the Qin and Han dynasties.
- (D)The ingredients used in producing both Han purple and the white glass were easily obtainable during the Qin and Han dynasties.
- (E)The white glass is found in more surviving artifacts from the Qin and Han dynasties than Han purple is.


Question: The reasoning in the medical researcher's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Choices:
- (A)fails to address the possibility that an observed correlation between two phenomena is due to another factor that causally contributes to both phenomena
- (B)fails to consider that even if a given factor causally contributes to the occurrence of a given phenomenon, it may not be the only factor affecting the occurrence of that phenomenon
- (C)concludes, from the claim that a certain phenomenon occurs and the claim that a certain condition is sufficient for that phenomenon to occur, that the condition also exists
- (D)takes for granted that there will be an observable correlation between two phenomena if either of those phenomena causally contributes to the other
- (E)fails to consider that even if a specific negative consequence is not associated with a given phenomenon, that phenomenon may have other negative consequences


Question: The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels that in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)If a species is highly adaptable, it will thrive when introduced into a new environment. If a species thrives in its new environment, it will have an adverse effect on species already existing in that environment. But, since this species has not had an adverse effect on any species already existing in its new environment, it is not highly adaptable.
- (B)If a species thrives in a new environment, that species is adaptable. Species that adapt to new environments adversely affect some species already existing in those environments. So, if a species does not adversely affect any species already existing in its new environment, it has not adapted to it.
- (C)If a species is introduced into a new environment, it adversely affects some species already existing in that environment, but only if it adapts well to it. Therefore, if a species does not adapt well to a new environment, it will not adversely affect any species already existing in it.
- (D)If the introduction of a new species would adversely affect some species already existing in an environment, that species should not be introduced into it. Therefore, since the introduction of species into new environments will result in some species in those environments being adversely affected, species should probably not be introduced into new environments.
- (E)If a new species would damage an environment, that species should not be introduced into it. If a new species is introduced, the risk can be reduced by controlling its population. Therefore, because the introduction of species into new environments is likely to happen, their populations should be controlled.


Question: The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)If the number of visitors to the city does not increase, then the city's tax revenues will not increase.
- (B)If the number of visitors to the city increases, then the amount of money spent by visitors will increase.
- (C)The city's tax revenues will not increase unless the convention center is built.
- (D)People who are now regular visitors to the city will continue to visit the city if the new convention center is built.
- (E)If several national professional organizations hold their conventions in the convention center, those conventions will be large.


Question: Which one of the following would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Were dogs who were accustomed to receiving regular rewards prior to the study more inclined to obey the command?
- (B)Is there a decline in obedience if rewards are withheld from both dogs in the pair?
- (C)Were dogs who received treats in one trial ever used as dogs that did not receive treats in other trials?
- (D)Were there any cases in which the dog who was given a reward became more inclined to obey the command?
- (E)How many repetitions were required before the unrewarded dogs began to disobey the command?


Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses?

Choices:
- (A)People with high incomes are consistently more satisfied with their incomes than are people in the middle class.
- (B)Older people are generally more satisfied with their incomes than are younger people.
- (C)Satisfaction with income is strongly correlated with neighborhood.
- (D)In general, people's income levels have little effect on their level of satisfaction with life as a whole.
- (E)An increase in everyone's incomes is not likely to greatly increase people's levels of satisfaction with their own incomes.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the geologist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)Fossils have been discovered that are devoid of biomarkers.
- (B)Living organisms only emerged long after the earth's formation.
- (C)It would take many millions of years for organisms to become petroleum.
- (D)Certain strains of bacteria thrive deep inside the earth's crust.
- (E)Some carbon deposits were formed from the fossilized remains of plants.


Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

Choices:
- (A)If Ted is incapable of reporting the accident, then the accident did not lead to property damage exceeding $500.
- (B)If Ted's car was damaged in excess of $500 in the accident, then he is incapable of reporting the accident to the department of motor vehicles.
- (C)Someone other than Ted is legally required to report the accident to the department of motor vehicles.
- (D)If Ted is incapable of reporting the accident to the department of motor vehicles, then he was injured in the accident.
- (E)Either no one was injured in the accident or the accident did not lead to property damage exceeding $500.


Question: The student's argument is most similar in its flawed pattern of reasoning to which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Everything morally right is just, but some actions that best serve the interests of everyone are not just. Thus, some morally right actions do not serve the interests of everyone.
- (B)Advertisers try to persuade people that certain claims are true. Since writers of fiction are not advertisers, they probably never try to persuade people that certain claims are true.
- (C)Isabel said that she would take the medication. Obviously, though, she did not do so, because medication either cures disease or alleviates its symptoms, and Isabel is still quite ill.
- (D)When business owners are subjected to excessive taxation, they become less willing to expand their businesses. The recent decline in business expansions thus shows that their taxes are too high.
- (E)Studies show that doctors tend to wash their hands less often than any other health care professionals. This shows that the procedure cannot be of much value in preventing disease.


Question: Carol's response indicates that she interpreted Ming's remarks to mean that

Choices:
- (A)the more trans fat a cookie contains, the more unhealthy it is
- (B)food that doesn't contain trans fat is healthy food
- (C)if a food is not healthy, then it is unhealthy
- (D)a cookie containing any amount of trans fat is unhealthy
- (E)consumers should purchase cookies only if they do not contain trans fat


Question: The overall conclusion of the historian's argument is that

Choices:
- (A)during the Industrial Revolution the productivity of the economy grew at a faster rate than the population
- (B)the fact that the productivity of the economy grew at a faster rate than the population during the Industrial Revolution led to a dramatic improvement in living standards
- (C)no one should accept the economist's explanation until historical evidence demonstrates that a change in values occurred prior to the Industrial Revolution
- (D)the improvement in living standards that occurred during the Industrial Revolution was not due to the spread of a change in values
- (E)values such as hard work and thrift did not become widespread prior to the Industrial Revolution


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Some tree species that grow to be very large are consistent with the master plan.
- (B)Three Rivers Nursery sells cottonwood trees.
- (C)Many of the native species that Three Rivers Nursery sells are shrubs, not trees.
- (D)Tree species that are not native to this area and that are consistent with the master plan are rare and hard to find.
- (E)Three Rivers Nursery does not sell any tree species that grow to be very large.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The same type of neck structure is found in modern ground-feeding animals.
- (B)Diplodocus was not able to see in front of itself unless its head was angled steeply downward.
- (C)It would be impossible for a large animal such as Diplodocus to supply blood to an elevated brain.
- (D)Diplodocus had no other way of accessing high-growing vegetation, such as by rising up on its hind legs.
- (E)Diplodocus was not able to browse for underwater vegetation by kneeling beside bodies of water or by walking into them.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the government official's argument?

Choices:
- (A)Residents should not be allowed to rebuild trails unless the government assists them in rebuilding.
- (B)The determination of residents to rebuild hiking trails devastated by landslides should be what determines government support for the project.
- (C)Government agencies should not assist people with projects unless those people are strongly committed to their community.
- (D)The government should not assist in projects that are very likely to result in circumstances that could lead to serious injury.
- (E)Residents should be discouraged from rebuilding in any area that has had an extensive history of landslides.


Question: The scientist's argument requires assuming which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)The same degree of climate change produces less damage if it is caused by human behavior than if it has a purely natural cause.
- (B)Human beings can control the aspects of their behavior that have an impact on climate change.
- (C)At least some previous large-scale climate changes have been caused by human behavior.
- (D)Large-scale climate change poses a greater danger to human beings than to other species.
- (E)It is easier to identify the human behaviors that cause climate change than it is to change those behaviors.


Question: Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?

Choices:
- (A)stress sometimes reduces the amount of pain a heart patient experiences
- (B)the pain experienced by heart patients is to some extent beneficial
- (C)the severity of a heart patient's condition is usually worsened by withholding information from the patient about the treatment that that patient will receive
- (D)stress is probably an effect rather than a cause of reduced blood flow to the heart
- (E)heart patients suffering from reduced blood flow to the heart who are experiencing pain from the condition are more likely to require surgery than are such patients who are not experiencing pain


Question: To which one of the following criticisms is the argument most vulnerable?

Choices:
- (A)The argument incorrectly generalizes from the behavior of a few bears in support of its conclusion.
- (B)The argument fails to consider the possibility that walking on hind legs is the result of both learning and an innate capacity.
- (C)The word "behavior" illicitly changes meaning during the course of the argument.
- (D)The argument presumes, without giving justification, that all behavior can be explained in one or both of only two ways.
- (E)The argument incorrectly appeals to the authority of science in order to support its conclusion.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain why people tend to have accurate beliefs about society despite the facts described above?

Choices:
- (A)Statistical information tends to obscure the characteristics of individuals.
- (B)Most people recognize that anecdotes tend to be about unrepresentative cases.
- (C)The more emotionally compelling an anecdote is, the more likely it is to change a person's beliefs.
- (D)Statistical information is made more comprehensible when illustrated by anecdotes.
- (E)People tend to base their beliefs about other people on their emotional response to those people.


Question: The answer to which one of the following questions would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the argument?

Choices:
- (A)How rare is it to find preserved soft tissue in the bones of a dinosaur?
- (B)Is there any evidence at all against the claim that dinosaurs are closely related to birds?
- (C)How likely is it for animals that are not closely related to each other to have similar collagen proteins?
- (D)Is it possible that T. rex is more closely related to modern-day chickens than to certain other types of dinosaurs?
- (E)Before Schweitzer's discovery, did researchers suppose that the collagen proteins in T. rex and chickens might be similar?


Question: Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above?

Choices:
- (A)The subjective effects of occasional sleep deprivation are more pronounced than are its effects on overt behavior.
- (B)No one can assess the overall effects of sleep deprivation on a particular person as well as that sleep-deprived person can.
- (C)Sleep deprivation has less effect on professors' job performance than it does on the job performance of others.
- (D)Occasional sleep deprivation is not as debilitating as extended sleep deprivation.
- (E)University students in a lecture audience tend to be astute observers of human behavior.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to reconcile the apparent conflict among the prime minister's claims?

Choices:
- (A)A nation's government should not attempt to satisfy the needs of a group of people unless the satisfaction of those people's needs is objectively more important than that of any other group's needs.
- (B)A nation's government should give priority to satisfying the needs of its own people over satisfying the needs of another nation's people only if its own people are more worthy than the other nation's people.
- (C)The priority a nation's government should place on satisfying the needs of a group of people depends mainly on how objectively important it is for the needs of those people to be satisfied.
- (D)When the people of two nations are equally worthy, the needs of the people of each of those nations should be satisfied primarily by the people's own governments.
- (E)A nation's government should give priority to the satisfaction of the needs of a group of people if, but only if, there is no other way for that group's needs to be satisfied.


Question: If all of the mayor's statements are true, then which one of the following must also be true?

Choices:
- (A)All neighborhoods in which construction is under way are qualified neighborhoods.
- (B)All qualified neighborhoods will get their streets swept more than once a month.
- (C)No street will be swept more than once a month unless it is located in a qualified neighborhood.
- (D)A qualified neighborhood that requests an interim sweeping will have its streets swept more than once a month.
- (E)No street in an unqualified neighborhood will be swept more than once a month even if the neighborhood requests it.


Question: The journalist argues by

Choices:
- (A)pointing out a difference between the two cases being compared in order to show that a conclusion based on their similarities should not be drawn
- (B)defending what the journalist considers a controversial distinction by offering an example of a clear instance of it
- (C)defining a concept and then showing that under this definition the concept applies to all of the cases under discussion
- (D)appealing to a counterexample to undermine an ethical principle that supports an argument the journalist is trying to refute
- (E)clarifying and defending a moral principle by comparing a case in which it applies to one in which it does not apply


Question: The reasoning in the economist's argument is questionable in that the argument

Choices:
- (A)relies solely on the testimony of experts
- (B)confuses economic growth with what stimulates it
- (C)presumes that a need to stimulate economic growth is the only possible reason to lower interest rates now
- (D)takes what is merely one way of stimulating economic growth to be the only way of stimulating economic growth
- (E)concludes that a further reduction of interest rates would lead to unsustainable economic growth merely from the fact that the economy is already growing at a sustainable rate


Question: The conclusion of the argument can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)Paintings that belong to a single historical period typically share many of the same stylistic features.
- (B)A painter who makes use of the interplay of light and shadow need not for that reason be considered a nonrealistic painter.
- (C)Realism was not widely used by painters prior to the seventeenth century.
- (D)A realistic painting usually does not depict the world as opulent, heroic, or extravagant.
- (E)Opulence, heroic sweep, and extravagance are not present in Caravaggio's paintings.


Question: The argument uses which one of the following techniques in its attempt to undermine the position that it attributes to the proponents of jury nullification?

Choices:
- (A)attacking the motives of the proponents of the doctrine
- (B)identifying an inconsistency within the reasoning used to support the position
- (C)attempting to show that a premise put forward in support of the position is false
- (D)presenting a purported counterexample to a general claim made by the doctrine's proponents
- (E)arguing that the application of the doctrine has undesirable consequences


Question: The pharmacist's argument is flawed in that it

Choices:
- (A)infers from the effect of an action that the action is intended to produce that effect
- (B)relies on the opinions of individuals who are likely to be biased
- (C)depends on using two different meanings for the same term to draw its conclusion
- (D)confuses an effect of a phenomenon with its cause
- (E)relies on a sample that is unrepresentative


Question: The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Dr. Smith, a well-trained cardiologist, said the patient would probably survive the heart transplant if it were performed by a highly skilled surgeon. Thus, since the patient did not survive the surgery, it probably was not properly performed.
- (B)Professor Willis, who is quite knowledgeable about organic chemistry, said that the sample probably did not contain any organic compounds. So, the sample probably is not labeled correctly, for if it were, it would contain organic compounds.
- (C)My neighbor, who is an experienced home renovator, said the damage to the wall would not be noticeable if it were properly repaired. Thus, the repair to the wall probably was not properly done, since one can still notice the damage.
- (D)The builder said that the school's roof would not require repairs for years, unless it is damaged in a storm. The roof is already leaking. Thus, since there have been no major storms, the builder was probably wrong.
- (E)Professor Yanakita, who is an expert on the subject, said that the tests would find lead in the soil if they were properly conducted. So, since the tests did find lead in the soil, they probably were properly conducted.


Question: The economist's argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it

Choices:
- (A)presupposes in a premise the conclusion that it purports to establish
- (B)fails to establish that economists claim to be able to accurately predict global recessions
- (C)treats the predictability of an event, which is required for the event to be preventable, as a characteristic that assures its prevention
- (D)fails to address the possibility that the techniques available to economists for the prediction of global recessions will significantly improve
- (E)implicitly bases an inference that something will not occur solely on the information that its occurrence is not predictable


Question: The argument in the letter conflicts with which one of the following principles?

Choices:
- (A)If a claim is extraordinary, it should not be presented uncritically unless it is backed by evidence of an extraordinarily high standard.
- (B)One should be skeptical of claims that are based upon testimonial evidence that is acquired only through an intermediary source.
- (C)If a media outlet has trusted a source in the past and the source has a good reputation, the outlet should continue to trust that source.
- (D)People who think they observe supernatural phenomena should not publicize that fact unless they can present corroborating evidence.
- (E)A newspaper should not publish a report unless it is confirmed by an independent source.


Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it

Choices:
- (A)infers a cause merely from a correlation
- (B)infers that just because the evidence for a particular claim has not yet been confirmed, that claim is false
- (C)takes a sufficient condition as a necessary one
- (D)infers merely because something was likely to occur that it did occur
- (E)appeals to the authority of biologists who may not be representative of all biologists with expertise in the relevant area


Question: The government of Country F must violate at least one of the constitutional requirements described above if it is faced with which one of the following situations?

Choices:
- (A)The government will sell StateAir, a state-owned airline. The highest bid received was from a corporation that was owned entirely by citizens of Country F when the bid was received. Shortly after the bid was received, however, noncitizens purchased a minority share in the corporation.
- (B)The government has agreed to sell National Silver, a state-owned mine, to a corporation. Although citizens of Country F have majority ownership of the corporation, most of the corporation's operations and sales take place in other countries.
- (C)The government will sell PetroNat, a state-owned oil company. World Oil Company has made one of the highest offers for PetroNat, but World Oil's ownership structure is so complex that the government cannot determine whether citizens of Country F have majority ownership.
- (D)The government will sell National Telephone, a state-owned utility. The highest bid received was from a company in which citizens of Country F have majority ownership but noncitizens own a minority share. However, the second-highest bid, from a consortium of investors all of whom are citizens of Country F, was almost as high as the highest bid.
- (E)The government will sell StateRail, a state-owned railway. The government must place significant restrictions on who can purchase StateRail to ensure that citizens of Country F will gain majority ownership. However, any such restrictions will reduce the price the government receives for StateRail.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The nutrients in Activite can all be obtained from a sufficiently varied and well-balanced diet.
- (B)There are less expensive dietary supplements on the market that are just as effective as Activite.
- (C)A month is not a sufficient length of time for most dietary supplements to be fully effective.
- (D)The makers of Activite charge a handling fee that is considerably more than what it costs them to pack and ship their product.
- (E)The mere fact that a dietary supplement contains only natural ingredients does not insure that it has no harmful side effects.


Question: Which one of the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning that is most parallel to that in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Of the people who support allowing limited logging in the Grizzly National Forest, most support it because they think it will reduce the risk of fire in the forest. Andy thinks that limited logging will not reduce the risk of fire in the forest, so he probably opposes allowing limited logging there.
- (B)Of the people who expect the population in the area to increase over the next ten years, most think that an expected population increase is a good reason to build a new school. Bonita does not expect the population to increase over the next ten years, so she probably does not favor building a new school.
- (C)Of the people who believe that the overall economy has improved, most believe it because they believe that their own financial situation has improved. Chung believes that the economy has worsened, so he probably believes that his own financial situation has worsened.
- (D)Of the people who oppose funding a study to determine the feasibility of building a light rail line in the Loffoch Valley, most also believe that the Valley Freeway should be built. Donna opposes increasing funding for a study, so she probably supports building the Valley Freeway.
- (E)Of the people who believe that there will be a blizzard tomorrow, most believe it because of the weather report on the Channel 9 news. Eduardo believes that there will be a blizzard tomorrow, so he probably saw the weather report on the Channel 9 news.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Mourning doves were recently designated a migratory game species, meaning that they can be legally hunted.
- (B)The trees in the nearby orchards were the only type of trees in the area attractive to nesting mourning doves.
- (C)Blue jays that had nested in the orchards also ceased doing so after the sprinklers were installed.
- (D)Many residents of the area fill their bird feeders with canola or wheat, which are appropriate seeds for attracting mourning doves.
- (E)Mourning doves often nest in fruit trees.


Question: The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Choices:
- (A)provides no explanation for developmental abnormalities that do not result from elevated hormonal activity
- (B)fails to consider whether elevated hormonalactivity can result from factors other than the presence of industrial by-products
- (C)fails to address the possibility that industrialby-products were contained in food the alligators ate
- (D)fails to say whether reptiles other than alligators were examined for the same developmental abnormalities that were discovered in the alligators
- (E)uses evidence drawn from a sample of alligators that is unlikely to be representative of alligators in general


Question: Which one of the following most logically completes the government official's statement?

Choices:
- (A)foreign citizens who serve as public servants should be granted citizenship in the country they serve
- (B)foreign citizens should not be appointed as cabinet undersecretaries
- (C)only former cabinet undersecretaries should be appointed as cabinet secretaries
- (D)foreign citizens should be eligible to serve as cabinet secretaries
- (E)cabinet undersecretaries should not be expected to stand in for cabinet secretaries


Question: Doris and Zack disagree over whether

Choices:
- (A)students should be more outspoken
- (B)students should be encouraged to become involved in student government
- (C)becoming involved in student government makes students more outspoken
- (D)all students who are involved in student government are outspoken
- (E)students will not become more outspoken unless they become involved in student government


Question: The reasoning in the biologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Choices:
- (A)takes the behavior of chameleons to be generalizable to lizards as a whole
- (B)fails to explain how chameleons regulate their vitamin D production by basking in the sun
- (C)focuses its attention on the study's author rather than on the study itself
- (D)fails to demonstrate that the study's critics have elevant expertise
- (E)holds the study's author to a higher standard than it holds the study's critics


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that is required by the political scientist's argument?

Choices:
- (A)The government helped to organize the recent protest rally.
- (B)The message of the recent protest rally did not concern any function of the government.
- (C)The government would not have accepted aprotest rally whose message it opposed.
- (D)There are groups that are inhibited from staging a protest rally out of a fear of government response.
- (E)The government feared a backlash if it did not show acceptance of the recent protest rally.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the reasoning in the lawyer's argument?

Choices:
- (A)The penalties for a crime should be severe enough to deter most people who would commit the crime if there were no penalties.
- (B)The overall penalty for a violent crime should be more severe than the overall penalty for any nonviolent crime.
- (C)A surcharge intended to provide services to victims is justified only if all proceeds of the surcharge are used to provide services.
- (D)A criminal should not be required to pay for services provided to victims of crimes that are more serious than the type of crime the criminal has been convicted of.
- (E)Convicted thieves should be fined an amount at least as great as the value of the property stolen.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain the decreasing engagement in international trade by the economist's country?

Choices:
- (A)International trade agreements have usually covered both trade in manufactured goods and trade in services.
- (B)Employment in the service sector tends to require as many specialized skills as does employment in manufacturing.
- (C)Because services are usually delivered in person, markets for services tend to be local.
- (D)Many manufacturing jobs have been rendered obsolete by advances in factory automation.
- (E)Some services can be procured less expensively from providers in other countries than from providers in the economist's country.


Question: Ortiz criticizes Merton's argument by

Choices:
- (A)raising a question about the validity of the study that Merton cites
- (B)contending that Merton needs to take into account other effects of air pollution
- (C)claiming that Merton misunderstands a crucial aspect of the study's findings
- (D)raising* a counterexample to the general conclusion that Merton draws
- (E)suggesting that alternative explanations for the study's findings need to be ruled out


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Highwater Lake is in an area of the mountains that is highly susceptible to acid rain.
- (B)Prior to the ban, there was practically no fishing at Quapaw Lake.
- (C)Highwater Lake is much larger than Quapaw Lake.
- (D)Several other lakes in the Pawpaw mountains have recently had increases in their fish populations.
- (E)There used to be a greater variety of fish species in Highwater Lake than in Quapaw Lake, but there no longer is.


Question: The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)If an animal cannot accelerate, then it cannot run.
- (B)To run, an animal must have all of its feet off the ground at once.
- (C)The Asian elephant can walk as quickly as some animals run.
- (D)It is unusual for a four-legged animal to keep three feet on the ground while walking.
- (E)All four-legged animals walk with at least two feet on the ground at all times.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, does most to explain the surprising result?

Choices:
- (A)For the first several seconds after shoppers entera store, they do not take detailed notice of the store's merchandise.
- (B)Most of the hardware store's customers are attracted by quality and service rather than low prices.
- (C)Customers who bought the Maxlast hammers last week commonly mentioned the sale as their reason for buying a hammer at that time.
- (D)The hardware store circulated flyers that publicized the sale prices on Maxlast hammers.
- (E)In general, a single item that is on sale will not motivate shoppers to make a special trip to a store.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The doses of ginkgo in the diet of the mice in the experiment were significantly higher than the doses that have been shown to reduce stress in mice.
- (B)Neither the mice who received the ginkgo nor the other mice in the experiment exhibited physiological signs of higher-than-normal stress.
- (C)Some chemical substances that reduce stress in mice also at least temporarily impair their memory.
- (D)Scientists have not yet determined which substances in ginkgo are responsible for reducing stress in mice.
- (E)The mice who received the ginkgo took just as long as the other mice to learn to navigate the maze.


Question: If the statement above is true, which one of the following must also be true?

Choices:
- (A)Some of the politicians who now publicly support extending free trade to other Latin American countries did not support free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
- (B)Not all politicians who now publicly support extending free trade to other Latin American countries strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
- (C)Some of the politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico have changed their position on free trade.
- (D)Not all politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico now publicly support extending free trade to other Latin American countries.
- (E)Some of the politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico now publicly oppose extending free trade to other Latin American countries.


Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the application of the principle?

Choices:
- (A)The operator of a business has the same legal obligations to customers who use self-service facilities as it has to customers who use full-service facilities.
- (B)The management of a business that is open to the public is obligated to report to the authorities any illegal activity that it witnesses on its property.
- (C)The owner of a self-service printing kiosk should post a notice advising customers that copyrighted material should not be printed at the kiosk without the permission of the copyright holder.
- (D)Owners of self-service facilities should monitor those facilities in order to ensure that they are not used for illegal or unethical purposes.
- (E)A person or business providing a service that can be expected to be used to infringe on a copyright should be considered to knowingly aid any copyright infringer using the service. 15


Question: Which one of the following most logically completes the arguments?

Choices:
- (A)is at least sometimes included for nonjournalistic reasons
- (B)prevents those news media from achieving their purpose
- (C)is more relevant to people's lives now than it used to be
- (D)should not be thought of as a way of keeping an audience entertained
- (E)is of no value to people who are interested in journalism


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning of the argument?

Choices:
- (A)The argument uses premises about the actual state of affairs to draw a conclusion about how matters should be.
- (B)The argument draws a conclusion that merely restates a premise presented in favor of it.
- (C)The argument takes for granted that the preferences of a group as a whole are the preferences of most individual members of the group.
- (D)The argument fails to consider that the survey results might have been influenced by the political biases of the researchers who conducted the survey.
- (E)The argument uses evidence that supports only rough estimates to draw a precisely quantified conclusion.


Question: The city leader's statements, if true, provide the most support for which one of the following

Choices:
- (A)The city should implement the least expensive job creation measures available.
- (B)In general, it is reasonable for the city to spend money to try to convince manufacturing companies to build plants in the city.
- (C)The city cannot afford both to spend money to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant in the city and to adopt the new tourism plan.
- (D)It would be reasonable for the city to adopt the new tourism plan.
- (E)The only way the city can create jobs is by increasing tourism.


Question: The argument requires the assumption that

Choices:
- (A)the article claiming that medical patients can instinctually predict sudden changes in their medical status will soon be empirically disproven
- (B)patients' predictions of sudden changes in their medical status are less likely to be remembered by medical staff if no such change actually occurs
- (C)the patients in the article were not being serious when they predicted sudden changes in their medical status
- (D)babies are less likely to be born during a night with a full moon than during a night without a full moon
- (E)the idea that medical patients have an instinctual ability to predict sudden changes in their medical status is not a widely held belief


Question: The reasoning in the politician's argument is flawed in that the argument

Choices:
- (A)treats the mere fact that certain people are union members as sufficient to cast doubt on all of the viewpoints expressed by those people
- (B)presumes, without providing justification, that anyone whose political motivations are clearly discernible is an unreliable source of information to legislators
- (C)treats circumstances potentially affecting the union leaders' argument as sufficient to discredit those leaders' argument
- (D)presumes, without providing justification, that the argument it cites is the union leaders' only argument for their view
- (E)presumes, without providing evidence, that leaders of all unions argue against increases in multinational control of manufacturing


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the decline?

Choices:
- (A)Many students enter universities without the academic background that is necessary for majoring in chemistry.
- (B)There has been a significant decline in the number of undergraduate degrees earned in the natural sciences as a whole.
- (C)Many students are very unsure of their choice when they pick a major upon entering universities.
- (D)Job prospects for graduates with chemistry degrees are no better than prospects for graduates with certain other science degrees.
- (E)Over the years, first-year chemistry has come to be taught in a more routinely methodical fashion, which dampens its intellectual appeal.


Question: Which one of the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning that is most parallel to that in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)Even though high interest rates can lead to an economic downturn, high interest rates probably did not cause the current economic downturn. It is true that rates have been on the rise, but high interest rates are not always economically harmful.
- (B)Even though I can fix some things and you can fix some things, the two of us will be unable to repair our apartment without outside help. The apartment has both a broken window and a broken bedroom door, and neither of us is able to fix both doors and windows.
- (C)Even though Lena, Jen, and Mark would like to go out to dinner together after the movie tonight, they will probably go straight home after the show. Of the five restaurants that are in the immediate vicinity of the theater, there is not a single one that all three of them like.
- (D)Even though this painting is highly regarded by critics, it cannot legitimately be deemed great art. Most art that was produced in the last hundred years is not great art, and this painting, beautiful though it is, was probably painted only 40 years ago.
- (E)Even though the influenza vaccine does not always prevent influenza, it sometimes reduces the severity of its symptoms. Therefore it is incorrect to say that some people who receive the vaccine derive no benefit from it.


Question: The argument's conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)If the e-mail does not elsewhere suggest that the client do anything illegal, then the company does not need legal protection.
- (B)If e-mail messages sent by the tax preparation company do elsewhere suggest that the recipient do something illegal, then the company could be subject to substantial penalties.
- (C)A disclaimer that is included in every e-mail message sent by a company will tend to be ignored by recipients who have already received many e-mails from that company.
- (D)At least some of the recipients of the company's e-mails will follow the advice contained in the body of at least some of the e-mails they receive.
- (E)Some of the tax preparation company's clients would try to illegally evade penalties if they knew how to do so.


Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most strongly supports the reasoning above?

Choices:
- (A)One should get involved in other people's problems only with the intention of producing the best overall consequences.
- (B)Interpersonal relations should be conducted in accordance with doing whatever is right, regardless of the consequences.
- (C)Good intentions are the only legitimate grounds on which to attempt to resolve the marital problems of friends.
- (D)The intentions of an action are irrelevant to whether or not that action is justified
- (E)No actions based on good intentions are justified unless they also result in success.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choices:
- (A)When people choose to read a book, they generally do not already know whether reading it will give them pleasure.
- (B)Even when an author writes with the goal of giving people pleasure, that goal will not necessarily be achieved.
- (C)In many cases, a book's readers are unconcerned about the truth of the book's contents.
- (D)A book will not give its readers pleasure unless it was intended by its author to have that effect.
- (E)A book can be popular for reasons other than its ability to give readers pleasure.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to strengthen the argument?

Choices:
- (A)Wilke & Wilke have produced more new shows for this season than they produced last season.
- (B)Most of the shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year were police dramas.
- (C)None of the shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year that were not canceled were police dramas.
- (D)All of the new shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year that were canceled were police dramas.
- (E)None of the most popular television shows last year were police dramas.


Question: Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated above?

Choices:
- (A)If a driver causes an accident because the automobile being driven was not properly maintained, that driver should be required from then on to regularly demonstrate that his or her automobile is being properly maintained.
- (B)If a factory is found to have been recklessly violating pollution laws, that factory should be required to make the expenditures necessary to bring it into compliance with those laws to the satisfaction of the regulators.
- (C)If someone is sentenced to perform community service, the court has a responsibility to ensure that the community at large rather than a private group benefits from that service.
- (D)If an athlete is found to have used banned performance-enhancing substances, that athlete should be prohibited from participating in all future athletic competitions.
- (E)If a convicted criminal writes a memoir describing the details of that criminal's crime, any proceeds of the book should be donated to a charity chosen by a third party.


Question: Aisha's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)The firm values experience in its programmers more highly than any other quality.
- (B)When Vadim was hired, the policy of laying off the most recently hired programmer was clearly explained.
- (C)Vadim is the most recently hired programmer at the firm.
- (D)Every other programmer at the firm has done better work than Vadim.
- (E)It is bad policy that the firm always lays off the most recently hired programmer.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying Vernon's response to Wanda?

Choices:
- (A)It is unhealthy to work in a cluttered work area.
- (B)The quality of the stimuli in an artist's environment matters.
- (C)Supermarket tabloids should not be considered stimulating.
- (D)Messiness impairs artistic creativity.
- (E)One should be able to be creative even in a stark, empty work area.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, does most to account for the increase in the rate of population decline described above?

Choices:
- (A)The process of officially listing a species as endangered can take many years.
- (B)Public campaigns to save endangered animal species often focus only on those species that garner the public's affection.
- (C)The number of animal species listed as endangered has recently increased dramatically.
- (D)Animals are more desirable to collectors when they are perceived to be rare.
- (E)Poachers find it progressively more difficult to locate animals of a particular species as that species' population declines.


Question: The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Annette and Sefu disagree over whether

Choices:
- (A)the council should adopt Sefu's development plan
- (B)Sefu should take the council on a trip to visit other towns
- (C)Sefu has a vested interest in the council's votes
- (D)other towns have successfully implemented similar development plans
- (E)the appearance of undue influence should be avoided


Question: The scholar's reasoning is flawed because the scholar presumes without giving sufficient justification that

Choices:
- (A)not every religion can update its texts and replace its traditional rituals
- (B)modernization of religious texts and rituals will not involve an alteration of their messages
- (C)the modernization of the texts and rituals of some religions was the cause of their increases in attendance
- (D)making texts and rituals more modern is the only way in which a religion could bring about an increase in attendance at places of worship
- (E)the growth in attendance at places of worship affiliated with religions that made their texts and rituals more modern is irreversible


Question: The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely resembles the flawed reasoning in the argument above?

Choices:
- (A)In order to have a chance to meet its objectives, the army needs good weather as a precondition for retaining its mobility. The weather is good today, so the army will meet its objectives.
- (B)If Lois were on vacation, she would be visiting her brother in Chicago or seeing friends in Toronto. Since she is not on vacation, she is in neither Chicago nor Toronto.
- (C)If Johnson is to win the local election, then neither Horan nor Jacobs can enter the race. Since neither of them plans to run, Johnson will win the race.
- (D)To stay informed about current events, one must read a major newspaper or watch national TV news every day. So Julie, who is informed about current events and reads a major newspaper every day, does not watch TV news.
- (E)If Wayne is to get a ride home from the library, either Yvette or Marty must be there. Yvette is not at the library, so Marty must be there.


Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the dietitian's argument by the claim that the two groups had displayed similar average cholesterol levels prior to the study?

Choices:
- (A)It is offered as an objection to the main conclusion of the argument.
- (B)It expresses the main conclusion of the argument.
- (C)It rules out an alternative explanation of the data collected in the study.
- (D)It provides background information on the purpose of the study.
- (E)It introduces an alternative explanation of the phenomenon described in the main conclusion.


Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Choices:
- (A)People who are often required to drive to novel destinations are more likely to use satnavs than people who are rarely required to drive to novel destinations.
- (B)The more fuel a vehicle consumes, the more motivation a driver has to find the shortest route to his or her destination.
- (C)Drivers who do not routinely need to drive to an unfamiliar location are more likely to plan out their route carefully prior to departure.
- (D)Drivers who own satnavs usually prefer to drive to their accustomed destinations by using their customary routes rather than by following the directions given by the satnavs.
- (E)Drivers who are given directions as needed are less likely to change course suddenly or make other risky maneuvers.


Question: Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the situation described in the passage?

Choices:
- (A)Increased responsibility can improve a person's sense of how power should be used.
- (B)It is often the case that the desire for prestige is more powerful than the desire for job security.
- (C)In some cases one's effectiveness in a particular role can be enhanced by a partial relinquishing of control.
- (D)People who carry out decisions are in the best position to determine what those decisions should be.
- (E)Business works best by harnessing the self-interest of individuals to benefit the company as a whole.


Question: Richard and Jung-Su disagree over whether

Choices:
- (A)makers of abstract art reject literal representation
- (B)the fundamental requirement of art is that it represent
- (C)musicians may reject literal representation
- (D)abstract art will be seen as an aberration
- (E)abstract art is representational


Question: The principles above, if valid, most help to justify the reasoning in which one of the following?

Choices:
- (A)Although he would have realized it if he had thought about it, it did not occur to Riley that parking his car in the center lane of Main Street could lead to a traffic accident. So, if a traffic accident does result from Riley's parking his car in the center lane of Main Street, he should not be blamed for it.
- (B)Oblicek had no idea that suggesting to her brother that he take out a loan to expand his business was likely to cause the business to go bankrupt, nor could she have reasonably foreseen this. So, if the loan does cause her brother's business to go bankrupt, Oblicek should not be blamed for it.
- (C)Gougon had no reason to think that serving the hollandaise sauce would make his guests ill, but he was concerned that it might. Thus, if the hollandaise sauce does make Gougon's guests ill, Gougon should be blamed for it.
- (D)When Dr. Fitzpatrick gave his patient the wrong medicine, he did not know that it would cause the patient to experience greatly increased blood pressure. So, if no one else knowingly did anything that contributed to the patient's increase in blood pressure, no one other than Dr. Fitzpatrick is to blame for it.
- (E)Any reasonable person could have foreseen that dropping a lit cigarette in dry leaves would start a fire. Thus, even if Kapp did not realize this, she is to blame for starting a fire on Rodriguez's farm since she dropped a lit cigarette in dry leaves there.


Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the researcher's argument requires?

Choices:
- (A)Many, if not all, of the scents that have a tendency to reduce susceptibility to illness do so, at least in part, by reducing stress.
- (B)Some people who regularly inhale the scent of lavender would otherwise be under enough stress to impair their immune systems.
- (C)At least some people who use the scent of lavender to induce relaxation and reduce stress are no more susceptible to illness than average.
- (D)In anyone for whom the scent of lavender reduces susceptibility to illness, it does so primarily by reducing stress.
- (E)Reduced stress diminishes susceptibility to illness only for people who are under enough stress to impair their immune systems to at least some degree.


Question: The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Choices:
- (A)ambiguously uses the term "average" in two different senses
- (B)fails to take into account inflation with respect to the Andersen family's income
- (C)overlooks the possibility that most families' incomes are below average
- (D)fails to consider the possibility that the Andersen family's real income was above average in the recent past
- (E)presumes, without providing justification, that the government makes no errors in gathering accurate estimates of family income


Question: The argument's conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?

Choices:
- (A)Today's copying technology is sophisticated enough to replicate almost any paper product with great precision.
- (B)Once the images printed on a banknote have been measured accurately, there is no further impediment to the banknote's being exactly replicated.
- (C)Governments have better printing technology available to them than counterfeiters do.
- (D)Few countries produce banknotes with images that are difficult for counterfeiters to measure accurately.
- (E)New designs in banknotes generally lead to decreases in the amount of counterfeit currency in circulation.


Question: Armstrong's argument is flawed in that it

Choices:
- (A)relies on two different meanings of the term "supplement" to draw a conclusion
- (B)relies solely on an appeal to an authority whose trustworthiness should not necessarily be taken for granted
- (C)appeals to people's emotions regarding the treatment of disease rather than to the efficacy of the two approaches to treatment
- (D)criticizes Dr. Sullivan's motives for holding a position rather than addressing the position itself
- (E)fails to justify its presumption that nutritional