{"id": "23976503", "url": null, "title": "Battle of Yongyu", "text": "The Battle of Yongyu (영유永柔 전투), also known as the Battle of the Apple Orchard or the Battle of Yongju by the Australians who fought in it, took place between 21 and 22 October 1950 during the United Nations Command (UNC) offensive into North Korea against the Korean People's Army (KPA) that had invaded South Korea during the Korean War. The battle was fought between the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and the KPA 239th Regiment.\n\nOn 20 October, the US 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team (187 RCT) staged a parachute assault at Sukchon and Sunchon, about 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of Pyongyang, with the objectives of cutting off KPA forces retreating ahead of the US Eighth Army general advance from the south, capturing important North Korean government officials evacuating Pyongyang, and liberating American prisoners of war (POWs) being moved out of Pyongyang. On 21 October, two 187th Airborne Infantry Regiment (187 ABN) combat teams started southwards in a reconnaissance-in-force to clear the Sukchon–Yongyu highway and rail line and to establish contact with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade that was leading the Eighth Army advance northwards from Pyongyang. 187 ABN came under fire from the KPA 239th Regiment in the vicinity of Yongyu. As a result of the US airborne operation, the KPA 239th Regiment found itself caught between the Eighth Army advance and the 187 ABN attack in its rear. The KPA 239th Regiment attempted a breakout to the north just after midnight on 21–22 October. Facing determined attacks, the American paratroopers at Yongyu requested armoured assistance from the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade on the Pyongyang–Sukchon road just south of Yongyu.\n\nThe 27th British Commonwealth Brigade had departed from Pyongyang at noon on 21 October, headed north on the Sukchon highway, tasked with reaching the Chongchon River. The 1st Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highland Regiment (1 ASHR), leading the brigade advance, pushed up the highway until fired upon by KPA in the hills south of Yongyu. By nightfall, the hills were cleared by the Highlanders and the brigade halted for the night. The British could hear the sounds of a heavy battle taking place to the north. 3 RAR was directed to take the lead when the brigade moved out the following morning. C Company, 3 RAR, was selected to lead the Australian advance. C Company, with elements mounted on US tanks and the rest of the company following in motorised transport, was to pass through Yongyu as rapidly as possible and effect a relief of the 187 ABN defenders to the north. At first light on 22 October, 1 ASHR and the 1st Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (1 MR) advanced into Yongyu to clear the town of KPA. 3 RAR, with C Company on point, passed through 1 ASHR and 1 MR and moved through Yongyu, headed north on the Yongyu–Sukchon road.\n\nC Company, 3 RAR, came under fire from a KPA 239th Regiment rearguard force entrenched in a hillside apple orchard north of Yongyu and aggressively counterattacked off the line of march into the orchard, routing the KPA from the high ground. The KPA 239th Regiment, now on open ground between 3 RAR and 187 ABN, was forced to withdraw westwards with heavy casualties. 3 RAR then relieved the American paratroopers in their defensive positions. By midday, after three hours of fighting, the battle was mostly over. Many KPA soldiers who had been unable to escape hid or feigned death until captured or killed. With the linkup completed, the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade relieved 187 RCT at Sukchon and passed through for the continuation of its drive to the Chongchon River. The Australians had distinguished themselves in their first major battle in the Korean War, and the battalion was later praised for its performance.\n\n## Background\n\nOn 26 July, the Australian government announced that it would commit the under-strength and poorly equipped 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) then in Japan to South Korea, following a period of preparation. Training and re-equipment began immediately, while hundreds of reinforcements were hastily recruited in Australia as part of K Force; they soon began arriving to fill out the battalion. The battalion's commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Floyd Walsh, was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green. An officer with extensive operational experience fighting the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War, Green took over from Walsh due to the latter's perceived inexperience.\n\nOn 23 September, 3 RAR embarked for Korea, arriving at Pusan on 28 September. There it joined the British 27th Infantry Brigade, a garrison formation hurriedly committed from Hong Kong by the British as the situation deteriorated around the Pusan Perimeter in late August to bolster the US Eighth Army under the command of Lieutenant General Walton Walker. Commanded by Brigadier Basil Coad, the brigade was renamed the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and consisted of the 1st Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highland Regiment (1 ASHR), the 1st Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (1 MR) and 3 RAR. The two understrength British battalions had each mustered just 600 men of all ranks, while the brigade was also short on transport and heavy equipment, and had no integral artillery or armour support, for which it would rely entirely on the Americans until the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery arrived in January 1951. As such, with a strength of nearly 1,000 men, the addition of 3 RAR gave the brigade increased tactical weight as well as expediently allowing the Australians to work within a familiar organisational environment, rather than being attached to a US formation. Also under the command of the brigade were a number of US Army units, including 155 mm howitzers from the US 90th Field Artillery Battalion, M4 Sherman tanks from the US 89th Tank Battalion and a company of US combat engineers.\n\n## Prelude\n\n### Opposing forces\n\nBy the time 3 RAR arrived in the theatre, the North Koreans had been broken and were in rapid retreat, with General Douglas MacArthur's UNC forces conducting a successful amphibious assault at Inchon and breakout from the Pusan Perimeter on the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula. A steady advance began, driving the North Koreans northwards towards the 38th Parallel. The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was airlifted from Taegu to Kimpo Airfield north of Seoul on 5 October. However, its vehicles had to move by road, driving 420 kilometres (260 mi) and did not arrive until 9 October. It was attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division under the command of Major General Hobart R. Gay. The brigade would function as a separate task force at a considerable distance from, and without physical contact with, that division or other friendly units. On 16 October, the brigade took over from the US 7th Cavalry Regiment as the vanguard of the UNC advance into North Korea, its axis intended to take it through Kaesong, Kumchon and Hungsu-ri to Sariwon, then through Hwangju to Pyongyang. Although the North Koreans had suffered heavily in the preceding weeks, they continued to resist strongly, while a lack of accurate maps and the narrowness of the roads made rapid movement difficult for the advancing UNC forces. During this time, 3 RAR had a platoon of US M4 Sherman tanks attached and a battery of field guns in direct support.\n\nThe 27th British Commonwealth Brigade moved 70 kilometres (43 mi) from Kumchon, with the Argylls capturing Sariwon, an industrial town 54 kilometres (34 mi) south of Pyongyang, on 17 October. Supported by 3 RAR and US tanks, the Highlanders killed 215 KPA and took several thousand prisoners for the loss of one man killed and three wounded in a one-sided action. Prior to the attack, the Australians had moved through the town to establish a blocking position 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) to the north. During the evening, 3 RAR encountered a KPA force withdrawing north. Using the same road and moving in the same direction, the KPA mistook the Australians and Argylls for Russians in the poor light and were bluffed into surrendering, with the Australians capturing thousands of KPA and their weapons and equipment following a brief exchange. Mounted on a tank, the 3 RAR second-in-command, Major Ian Ferguson, captured over 1,600 KPA soldiers with just an interpreter. Australian involvement had been limited, however, and they regarded their first exposure to the fighting in Korea as a relatively minor incident. Pyongyang fell to US and South Korean troops on 19 October. On 21 October, the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade passed to the command of the US 24th Infantry Division under the overall command of Major General John H. Church, while the US 1st Cavalry Division remained in Pyongyang to complete its capture. Coad had hoped to rest his men at Pyongyang; however, the advance continued north with little respite and the brigade moved through the village of Samgapo. The British and Australians were ordered to seize Chongju.\n\nThe previous day, Colonel Frank S. Bowen's US 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team (187 RCT) had parachuted into drop zones around Sukchon and Sunchon. 187 RCT was tasked with cutting off retreating KPA forces withdrawing up the west coast of the Korean Peninsula and releasing US and South Korean POWs. The 187th Airborne Infantry Regiment's 1st and 3rd Battalions (1/187 and 3/187 ABN) dropped southeast of Sukchon to seize the town, hold the high ground to the north and block the highway and rail line south of Sukchon, cutting off the main supply route and line of communication that led north from Pyongyang; the 2nd Battalion (2/187 ABN) was dropped near Sunchon, 24 kilometres (15 mi) east of Sukchon to seize the town, block another highway and rail line, and intercept a POW train that US intelligence indicated was moving northwards by night from Pyongyang. The US paratroopers were to hold their positions until relieved by the US Eighth Army push northwards to link up with them, a task that was expected to be completed within two days. After observing the airdrop, General MacArthur flew to Pyongyang where he announced to the press that the airborne operation was a brilliant tactical maneuver that seemed to have been a complete surprise to the North Koreans. Estimating that 30,000 KPA, perhaps half of those remaining in North Korea, had been caught between 187 RCT in the north and the US 1st Cavalry Division and ROK 1st Infantry Division to the south at Pyongyang, he predicted that they would soon be destroyed or captured. He termed the airdrop an “expert performance” and said, “This closes the trap on the enemy.” MacArthur's optimism would not be supported by events. Anxious not to expose the lightly armed and lightly equipped paratroopers by projecting them too far forward of the Eighth Army advance, MacArthur had kept them back too long. The operation came too late to intercept any significant KPA elements. By this time, most of the KPA remnants had already succeeded in withdrawing north, and had crossed safely behind the Chongchon River, or were in the process of doing so, while Premier Kim Il Sung's government and most important officials had moved to Kanggye in the mountains 32 kilometres (20 mi) southeast of Manpojin on the Yalu River. Through no fault of their own, the paratroopers were less successful on one other score, that of rescuing POWs who were being moved northwards from Pyongyang; most of the American POWs had been moved to more remote parts of North Korea and were unable to be rescued. Although sound in concept, the US airborne operation may have had more chance of success had a complete airborne division been employed.\n\nOnly the KPA 239th Regiment remained, having been ordered to delay the UNC forces as they attempted to follow up. With a strength of 2,500 men, the regiment occupied positions on the high ground astride the road and rail lines east of Yongyu, 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south of the US drop zone at Sukchon.\n\n## Battle\n\n### KPA 239th Regiment is encircled, 21 October 1950\n\nThe most important action growing out of the 187 RCT airdrop occurred in the 3/187 ABN sector, about 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south of Sukchon in the vicinity of Op'a-ri and Yongyu. At 02:30 on 21 October, K Company repulsed an attack on its Sukchon–Pyongyang highway roadblock by an estimated company-sized KPA force that attempted to break through to the north. At 09:00, the 3/187 ABN command post (CP) advanced two combat teams from the roadblock position in a reconnaissance-in-force to clear the Sukchon–Yongyu road towards Pyongyang and establish contact with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade that was leading the 24th Infantry Division northwards from Pyongyang. I Company was assigned to clear the rail line and K Company was given the mission of clearing the highway. I Company reached Op'a-ri at 13:00, where it was attacked by an estimated battalion-strength KPA force equipped with heavy mortars and automatic antiaircraft guns. After a two-and-a-half-hour firefight, I Company, with two rifle platoons overrun by the KPA and 90 men missing, was forced to withdraw west of the rail line to Hill 281. Failing to exploit the advantage, the KPA withdrew to defensive positions on the high ground around Op'a-ri. Meanwhile, K Company, receiving harassing fire during its advance along the highway, proceeded to a point about 1.6 kilometres (0.99 mi) north of Yongyu, where it encountered a KPA force of about three companies. After a heavy firefight, the Americans forced the KPA to withdraw to defensive positions on the high ground to the south and east of the town. K Company continued into Yongyu, taking up defensive positions in the town and on Hill 163 to the north of the town.\n\nI and K Companies now occupied defensive positions roughly opposite each other—at Op'a-ri (Hill 281) overlooking the rail line and at Yongyu (Hill 163) overlooking the highway—yet these positions were now almost 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) apart and unable to mutually support each other. The distance separating the highway and the railway which ran north either side of Yongyu was greater at that point than anywhere else between Sukchon and Pyongyang. Extending on a southwest–northeast axis, and cutting across both the highway and rail line at Yongyu and Op'a-ri, is a line of high hills offering the best defensible ground between Pyongyang and the Chongchon River. Here, the KPA 239th Regiment had taken up defensive positions, deploying a battalion in each locality. The last organised KPA unit to leave Pyongyang, its mission was to fight a delaying action against the expected UNC advance from Pyongyang. Now, as a result of the unexpected US airborne operation, it was encircled and found itself attacked from two separate points in its rear. The KPA 239th Regiment, by this time convinced that both routes to the north had been blocked by the US airborne forces, would attempt one last push to regain contact with the other KPA forces that had infiltrated northwards.\n\n### British and Australians advance to Yongyu, 21–22 October 1950\n\nIn the days prior, the US I Corps had continued its movement northwards as part of the general advance of the US Eighth Army. Following the capture of Pyongyang, the corps commander, Major General Frank W. Milburn, ordered the advance to continue to the MacArthur Line, running approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) south of the Yalu River. The US 24th Infantry Division, to which the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade was now attached, was ordered to lead this attack. On the division's right flank three ROK divisions, the ROK 1st Infantry Division, under the US I Corps, and the ROK 6th and 8th Infantry Divisions under control of the ROK II Corps, were deployed to the east and would also be committed to the attack northwards. The British and Australians had covered 122 kilometres (76 mi) in the previous two days, advancing rapidly until slowed by rain. A Company, 3 RAR, was engaged by snipers from a nearby village without suffering casualties. The Sherman tanks proceeded to heavily engage the KPA positions in the village, which was then cleared by the Australian infantry who killed five KPA and took three prisoners. As the rain ceased a KPA T-34 tank, which had remained concealed during the earlier fighting, engaged D Company, 3 RAR, and was knocked out by the US tanks. An unmanned SU-76 self-propelled gun was also located nearby and neither it nor the tank were found to have any fuel.\n\nNow the vanguard of the Eighth Army, the British and Australians crossed the Taedong River using a sandbag bridge at Pyongyang at noon on 21 October, moving north on the main highway to Sukchon with the task of reaching the Chongchon River. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Nielson, 1 ASHR pushed up the road until fired upon by KPA forces in the hills to the south of the town, with snipers engaging the column as it turned west out of the river valley around 16:00. Encountering only light resistance from a small KPA force of approximately 75 men which was then scattered by tank fire, the Argylls successfully cleared the foothills by last light on 21 October. Approaching Yongyu, Coad decided to halt for the night. The Argylls sent a patrol into the town, establishing initial contact with 3/187 ABN, marrying up with K Company which was established in a number of houses on the northern edge of Yongyu and on Hill 163 immediately above their position. A strong KPA force was believed to be nearby, with at least 300 men thought to remain in the town.\n\n### KPA 239th Regiment breakout, 22 October 1950\n\nAt 00:15, the KPA 239th Regiment attempted a breakout to the north, launching multiple attacks against K Company, 187 ABN, at Yongyu. During the first attack, K Company's positions in the town and at its roadblock on the northern outskirts of town were assaulted by a large KPA force estimated at two battalions. Nearby, the British and Australians could hear the sounds of heavy fighting between the Americans and KPA 1.6 to 3.2 kilometres (1 to 2 mi) to the north. Half an hour later, a small KPA force attacked A Company, 1 ASHR, with grenades, killing two men and wounding two more before being repulsed, having suffered one killed and one wounded. Following two more KPA attacks, the Americans abandoned the roadblock after running out of ammunition and withdrew to 3/187 ABN's main defensive position 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) to the north. Detecting the withdrawal, the KPA attacked again at 04:00, leaving a small blocking force to hold the remnants of K Company in place in Yongyu, and concentrated the majority of its forces on the road to Sukchon. To the south, the British and Australians began to fear that the Americans had been overrun. A short time after the KPA 239th Regiment's main body passed through, the remaining elements withdrew from Yongyu and moved to join the main body. The KPA 239th Regiment moved north along the road, arriving at a point 910 metres (1,000 yd) south of the 3/187 ABN CP at around 05:00. The KPA stopped to reform, not realizing that 3/187 ABN's Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC) and L Company, 187 ABN were dug in along the road.\n\nAt 05:45, the KPA 239th Regiment started moving north again and ran blindly into 3/187 ABN's HHC and L Company's perimeter elements. They were immediately engaged with heavy losses, not only by direct fire from the HHC but also by enfilading fire from L Company. Stunned by the volume and severity of the fire, it took the KPA 239th Regiment about an hour to reorganize and deliver an attack. A group of about 300–350 KPA engaged L Company and attempted to flank and envelop its positions. Another group of about 450 KPA engaged the HHC. The KPA fire became exceedingly accurate as the firefight progressed. Hard-pressed, the 3/187 ABN CP radioed the 187 RCT CP at Sukchon describing the situation and requesting reinforcement. 187 RCT's request for armoured reinforcement was received by the 24th Infantry Division's headquarters in Pyongyang. Yet, with the US division still well to the rear, the Sherman tanks of the US 89th Tank Battalion encamped with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade on the Pyongyang-Sukchon road just south of Yongyu was the closest formation, and they were ordered forward to assist 3/187 ABN.\n\nBy dawn, the North Koreans and Americans had fought each other to a standstill after heavy fighting overnight and the previous day; the KPA 239th Regiment was almost exhausted, yet, in danger of being destroyed, it prepared for a final attempt to break out.\n\n### Fighting in the apple orchard, 22 October 1950\n\nOvernight, Brigadier Coad had directed Lieutenant Colonel Green's 3 RAR to take the lead when the brigade moved out the following morning and Green decided to send Captain Archer P. Denness' C Company through Yongyu to advance as rapidly as possible to effect the relief of 3/187 ABN to the north.\n\nAt first light on 22 October, A and C Company, 1 ASHR, advanced into Yongyu to clear the town of any remaining KPA before the Australians passed through. Elsewhere, 1 MR took up defensive positions to the north of Yongyu. The Argylls moved through the town, using high-explosive and white phosphorus hand grenades to flush out the KPA, setting fire to many of the buildings. As planned, at 07:00, 3 RAR was ordered to move through Yongyu towards Sukchon to link up with 187 RCT and close the gap between the two forces. C Company, 3 RAR, passed through the burning town mounted on the Sherman tanks of D Company, US 89th Tank Battalion, and headed north on the Yongyu–Sukchon road.\n\nAt 09:00, the Australian column was stopped by small arms and light mortar fire from a hillside apple orchard about 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) north of Yongyu. Lieutenant Colonel Green, traveling with the 3 RAR headquarters group, proceeded forward to Captain Denness' location. C Company had driven into the rearguard of the KPA 239th Regiment as it was forming up for a final assault on 3/187 ABN. The strong KPA force of approximately 1,000 men allowed C Company, 3 RAR and the battalion's tactical headquarters group to pass before engaging them. Denness did not have a lot of information; there had been no contact with the Americans who were believed to be located nearby. The KPA-held apple orchard lay between the advancing Australians and the US paratroopers, blocking any relief attempt. Brigadier Coad's order citing the urgent need to link up with the Americans dictated Green's decision. Rather than preparing a deliberate attack and potentially allowing the KPA time to organise their defences, Green chose to force his leading company through at once in order to seize the initiative and continue the pursuit. An encounter battle developed as 3 RAR carried out an aggressive quick attack from the road, with US tanks in support.\n\nPreparing for the assault, Lieutenant Colonel Green informed brigade headquarters of his plans and was advised that 3/187 ABN was believed to be about 1,500 metres (1,600 yd) further north; however, as the exact location of the Americans was unclear, the indirect fire available to support the attack would be limited. The US tanks were also initially under orders not to fire for fear of hitting their own men. With mortars and artillery unavailable, the Australians proceeded to attack regardless, with the tanks carrying C Company turning east towards the KPA positions in the apple orchard. At 09:30, Captain Denness dismounted 7 and 8 Platoons and aggressively counterattacked off the line of march into the apple orchard, while 9 Platoon, commanded by Lieutenant David Butler, was left near the road to protect the Australian flank. Supported by the Sherman tanks' cannons and coaxial machine guns, the Australians charged the KPA positions with bayonets, Bren guns, Owen guns, Lee–Enfields, and hand grenades. In the face of this determined attack, many of the KPA left their pits in an attempt to move to safety, only to suffer heavy casualties after exposing themselves to the fire of the two assaulting platoons, the flanking platoon and the US tanks in support. The speed and ferocity of the attack surprised the defenders, and the Australians quickly overran the KPA outposts despite the lack of indirect fire. The KPA, many of whom were recently trained conscripts, were then forced to withdraw for the loss of only four Australians wounded. For his leadership in coordinating the assault, Denness was later awarded the Military Cross, while Private Charles McMurray received the Military Medal for bravery.\n\nMore than 70 KPA were killed in the initial attack, while a further eight or nine were killed as the Australians cleared the position, setting fire to the KPA dug-outs and forcing the remaining defenders to flee. As the KPA broke, Lieutenant Colonel Green pushed A and B Company onto the higher ground to the right of C Company with the intention of clearing the ridge overlooking the highway, while D Company moved forward on the left of the road towards 9 Platoon. Meanwhile, the battalion tactical headquarters, which had followed closely behind C Company as they assaulted, came under attack in the apple orchard east of the road and was forced to fight off a group of KPA, with the regimental police and the battalion signallers fighting back-to-back to defend themselves. Withstanding the attack, the Australians eventually killed 34 KPA for the loss of three men wounded. Despite becoming personally involved in the heavy fighting, Green continued to skilfully control the battle throughout. D Company was ordered to clear the KPA threatening battalion headquarters, as well as sending a platoon forward to establish contact with the Americans. Running low on ammunition, 3/187 ABN had been in contact throughout the morning and continued to suffer casualties. However, having been forced off the high ground, the KPA were now caught between the advancing Australians and the US paratroopers to the north.\n\nUnable to move north, the KPA attempted to escape across the open rice fields to the west, through the gap between the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and 3/187 ABN. The KPA again suffered heavy casualties, with many cut down by tank and rifle fire from C Company, 3 RAR. Some of the survivors took refuge among a number of haystacks and rice stooks in front of 9 Platoon, from where they engaged the Australians with sniper fire. Others fled east, escaping to the higher ground where they dispersed. D Company, 3 RAR, was ordered to clear pockets of resistance remaining within the battalion position. Meanwhile, 1 MR passed through the Australians and with the tanks linked up with 3/187 ABN at 11:00. Following three hours of fighting the battle was largely over by midday; however, many of the KPA that had been unable to escape continued to refuse to surrender, hiding or feigning death until individually flushed out. After clearing their objectives 7 and 8 Platoon had moved forward towards 9 Platoon, which then clashed with a number of KPA stragglers in the paddy fields. C Company, 3 RAR, deployed in an extended line and a substantial action soon developed. In a scene Coad later likened to driving snipe, the Australians proceeded to sweep the area, kicking over stacks of straw and shooting the KPA soldiers they found hiding in them as they attempted to flee. For his leadership, Lieutenant Butler was awarded the US Silver Star, while Private John Cousins received the US Bronze Star for his role in the action.\n\n## Aftermath\n\n### Casualties\n\nDespite the uncertain situation and the lack of indirect support, Lieutenant Colonel Green's tactical handling of the Australian battalion had been bold, and his decision to move quickly through Yongyu and to attack off the line of march proved decisive. Preoccupied with fighting the Americans to their north, the KPA were unprepared for the Australians to attack from the rear. Caught between the US paratroopers and the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade, the KPA 239th Regiment was practically destroyed. KPA casualties in the apple orchard were 150 killed, 239 wounded and 200 captured, while Australian casualties numbered just seven men wounded. Including those engaged by the Argylls, total KPA losses during the fighting with the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade exceeded 200 killed and 500 captured. The survivors fled westwards. In their first major battle in Korea, the Australians had distinguished themselves, and the battalion was later praised for its performance. The action became known as the \"Battle of the Apple Orchard\", while the Royal Australian Regiment was later granted the battle honour \"Yongju\". Boosting their confidence, the success prepared the Australians for the battles which they were to face in the months that followed. Meanwhile, 3/187 ABN reported killing 805 KPA and capturing 681 in the fighting around Yongyu. Altogether, US casualties during the Sukchon-Sunchon operation were 48 killed in action and 80 wounded and a further one killed and 56 injured in the jump.\n\nThe Middlesex Battalion was ordered to push on to Sukchon, and after successfully relieving the Americans in place by nightfall, the battalion occupied a defensive position 1.6 kilometres (0.99 mi) north. The 27th British Commonwealth Brigade and US 24th Infantry Division continued their advance up the highway. Intending to defeat the KPA and bring the war to a close, the UNC forces pushed towards the Yalu River, on the Chinese border. However, resistance continued to be met as the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade crossed the Chongchon River, and they now moved towards Pakchon. On 24 October, General MacArthur had removed all restrictions on the movement of his forces south of the Yalu River and prepared for the final phase of the UNC advance, defying a directive of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff and risking Chinese intervention on behalf of North Korea. An intense period of fighting followed and the Australians were involved in a number of major battles over the coming days.\n\n### Subsequent operations\n\nOn the afternoon of 25 October, a platoon from 3 RAR was fired on by two companies of KPA as they crossed the Taeryong River to conduct a reconnaissance of the west bank, and although they were forced to withdraw, the Australians took 10 prisoners with them. Acting as the forward elements of the brigade, that evening Lieutenant Colonel Green sent two companies across the river to establish defensive positions and they broke up a frontal assault on their positions with mortars while the KPA were in the process of forming up. Sixty KPA supported by a T-34 tank then attacked the forward Australian companies at Kujin early the following morning, resulting in Australian losses of eight killed and 22 wounded. However, the KPA suffered heavy casualties including over 100 killed and 350 captured, and the Australians succeeded in defending the bridgehead after the KPA withdrew. Intelligence indicated that the British and Australians were facing the KPA 17th Tank Brigade, which was preparing a last line of defence at Chongju, 70 kilometres (43 mi) away. With the war considered all but over, the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade continued to pursue the KPA towards Chongju; however, the advance increasingly encountered strong resistance as they approached the Manchurian border.", "revid": "1171324720", "description": "1950 battle of the Korean War", "categories": ["Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving Australia", "Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "History of South Pyongan Province", "October 1950 events in Asia"]}
{"id": "1596095", "url": null, "title": "Guillermo Mota", "text": "Guillermo Reynoso Mota (born July 25, 1973) is a Dominican former professional baseball relief pitcher in Major League Baseball. In his career, he pitched for the Montreal Expos, Los Angeles Dodgers, Florida Marlins, Cleveland Indians, New York Mets, Milwaukee Brewers and San Francisco Giants. Mota is 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) tall and weighs 240 pounds (110 kg). He throws and bats right-handed. He throws three pitches: a fastball, a slider and a circle changeup.\n\nMota was originally signed by the New York Mets in 1990 as an infielder. After several years in their organization, he was drafted by the Montreal Expos in the Rule 5 draft in 1996 and converted into a pitcher in 1997. Mota had a 2.96 ERA in 1999, his rookie season, but he struggled in his next two seasons and was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers prior to 2002. His struggles continued in his first year with the Dodgers, but Mota had a career year in 2003, as he had a 6–3 record with a 1.97 ERA in 76 games. He became the setup man to closer Éric Gagné in 2004, but was traded to the Florida Marlins midseason. Mota started 2005 as their closer, but Todd Jones took over the role when Mota got hurt in April. Following the year, Mota was traded to the Boston Red Sox.\n\nBefore Mota ever played for the Red Sox, however, he was traded again to the Cleveland Indians. He struggled in his time with the Indians in 2006 and was designated for assignment by them in August. The New York Mets acquired him, and Mota improved mightily upon joining them. Following the season, he became a free agent, but he again signed with the Mets. After struggling in 2007, he was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers. He got off to a poor start with Milwaukee in 2008 but improved in the second half. Following the season, Mota became a free agent and signed with the Dodgers again. He had his best year since 2004 and became a free agent again after the season. For the first time in his career, in 2010 he signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants. After making the team out of spring training, Mota won his first career World Series despite struggling at times during the season. Following the season, he signed another minor league contract with the Giants and made the team out of spring training again. During the 2012 season, Mota became one of three players in league history to fail a drug test twice when it was shown he tested positive for Clenbuterol, a performance-enhancing drug.\n\n## Early life\n\nMota was born on July 25, 1973, in San Pedro de Macorís, in the Dominican Republic. As a youth, he attended Jose Joaquin Perez High School. After high school, he was signed by the New York Mets on September 7, 1990, by scout Eddy Toledo.\n\n## Professional career\n\n### Minor leagues\n\nAfter two years playing baseball in the Dominican Republic, Mota was assigned to the rookie-league Gulf Coast League Mets in 1993 as a third baseman. He had a batting average of .249 with one home run and one stolen base and amassed a .934 fielding percentage in 43 games. The next season, he spent most of the year with the rookie-league Kingsport Mets of the Appalachian League, although he went hitless in four at bats in one game with the St. Lucie Mets of the single-A advanced Florida State League. With Kingsport, he batted .245 while he struck out 78 times in 245 at-bats.\n\nIn 1995, Mota was moved to the shortstop position and assigned to the single-A Capital City Bombers of the South Atlantic League. With the Bombers, he batted .243 and struck out 127 times in 400 at-bats while committing 40 errors at shortstop. In 1996, he returned to the St. Lucie Mets, where he batted .234 with 90 strikeouts in 304 at-bats while committing 21 errors. Following the season, he was selected by the Montreal Expos in the Rule 5 draft.\n\nThe Expos converted Mota to a pitcher in 1997 and assigned him to the Cape Fear Crocs of the South Atlantic League. Starting 23 of his 25 games for the Crocs, he had a 5–10 record with a 4.36 earned run average (ERA) and 112 strikeouts in 126 innings.\n\nIn 1998, the Expos moved Mota to the bullpen, and he began the season with the single-A advanced Jupiter Hammerheads of the Florida State League. He posted a 3–2 record with a 0.66 ERA and two saves in 20 games and was promoted to the Harrisburg Senators of the double-A Eastern League during the season. With the Senators, he had a 2–0 record with a 1.06 ERA and four saves in 12 games.\n\nMota began the 1999 season with the Ottawa Lynx of the triple-A International League. With the Lynx, he had a 2–0 record with a 1.89 ERA and five saves in 14 games.\n\n### Montreal Expos (1999–2001)\n\n#### 1999\n\nMota was called up to the Expos on May 2 to replace relief pitcher Shayne Bennett, who had been demoted to Ottawa after struggling in his first four games. Mota made his major league debut the same day, pitching a scoreless inning in an 8–7 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. He got his first major league decision on May 11, when, after pitching 2+2⁄3 scoreless innings, he gave up a walk-off home run in the tenth inning to Luis Gonzalez in a 4–3 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks. On June 1, he won his first major league game, also against Arizona after pitching three scoreless innings in the Expos' 10–8 victory on June 1. On June 9, he hit a three-run home run in his first major league at bat (against Mark Guthrie) in a 13–1 victory over the Boston Red Sox. On August 29, he allowed one run in one inning and was the winning pitcher in an 8–6 victory over the Cincinnati Reds. The win (the Expos' eighteenth in August) set a new Expos' record for wins in a month. Mota had a 1.49 ERA over his first 32 games of the year, but a 15.00 ERA over his next six games brought his ERA for the season to 3.40. However, he collected a 1.38 ERA over his final 12 games to bring his ERA for the season down to 2.93, and he finished the year with a 2–4 record in 51 games.\n\n#### 2000\n\nThe Expos sent Mota to Ottawa to begin the 2000 season. However, he was called up to the Expos on May 20, and in his first game of the season with them, he gave up one run in one inning in an 8–7 victory over the Houston Astros. On June 11, he was the losing pitcher when he pitched 1⁄3 inning and gave up two runs in an 8–3 loss to the Toronto Blue Jays. He was returned to Ottawa on June 17 after posting a 12.60 ERA in his first 12 games with the Expos. Mota was recalled at the end of the month, but after appearing in one game (on July 1), he was returned to the Lynx. However, he was recalled on July 19 after Tony Armas Jr. was placed on the disabled list. Mota was returned to the minor leagues on July 27 when Hideki Irabu returned from the disabled list, but he was recalled soon after. However, Mota appeared in only one game before he was again returned to the minors, and he did not return to the Expos again until the beginning of September. At this point, he had a 9.98 ERA through 17 games. On September 11, in the second game of a doubleheader against the Philadelphia Phillies, he got his only win of the year by pitching one-third of an inning in a 7–6 victory. He had a 1.84 ERA over his final 12 games to finish the year with a 1–1 record and a 6.00 ERA in 29 games. With Ottawa, he had a 4–5 record with a 2.29 ERA and seven saves in 35 games.\n\n#### 2001\n\nIn 2001, Mota made the Expos out of spring training for the first time in his career. On May 12, he had a 1.59 ERA through his first 20 games of the year. However, eight earned runs allowed over his next six games raised his ERA to 4.00. Afterwards, though, he had a 2.08 ERA through his next 12 games. On June 17, he was the winning pitcher when he threw a scoreless inning in a 4–1 victory over Toronto. In his next game, on June 19, he was the losing pitcher when he gave up three runs (only one run was earned) without recording an out in a 4–1 loss to the New York Mets. However, after that 12-game stretch, he gave up five earned runs over his next four games to bring his ERA up to 4.29. On July 13, he was placed on the disabled list for the first time in his career with right shoulder tendinitis. Mota returned at the beginning of September, but he had a 10.57 ERA and two losses in his final 11 games of the year. He finished the season with a 1–3 record and a 5.26 ERA in 53 games.\n\n### Los Angeles Dodgers (2002–2004)\n\n#### 2002\n\nMota began spring training with the Expos in 2002, but was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers with outfielder Wilkin Ruan for pitcher Matt Herges and infielder Jorge Nunez on March 23. He failed to make the Dodgers' major league club in spring training and was assigned to the Las Vegas 51s of the triple-A Pacific Coast League to begin the season. He was called up on April 20 when Kevin Brown was placed on the disabled list. After appearing in two games, he was returned to Las Vegas on April 30 when Brown came off the disabled list. On May 17, he was called up a second time. In 22 games through July 14, he had a 2.43 ERA. On June 3, he pitched a scoreless inning and earned the win in an 11–5 victory over the Colorado Rockies. However, he was returned to Las Vegas on July 28 after he had a loss and a 13.50 ERA over his next seven games. He did not return to the Dodgers until August 26, when Kevin Beirne was demoted to the minors. That same day, he was the losing pitcher when he gave up three runs (two earned) in his third inning of work in a 12-inning 6–3 loss to Arizona. He was the losing pitcher again on September 13 when he gave up three runs in the seventh inning and blew a 4–2 lead over Colorado. He posted a 3.92 ERA over his final 14 games of the year to finish with a 1–3 record and a 4.15 ERA in 43 games. With the 51s, he had a 1–3 record with a 2.95 ERA in 20 games.\n\n#### Conflict with Mike Piazza\n\nOn March 28, 2002, Mota hit Mike Piazza, catcher for the Mets at the time, with a pitch in a spring training game against the Mets. After Mota was removed from the game, Piazza grabbed him by the neck and had to be separated from Mota by other players. Piazza received a \\$3,000 fine for his actions. Next season, in a spring training game against the Mets on March 12, Mota hit Piazza with a pitch. Piazza charged the mound, starting a brawl, and both players were ejected from the game. After the game, Piazza entered the Dodgers' clubhouse looking for Mota. Informed that Mota had left, Piazza searched the clubhouse before leaving. Mota said that hitting Piazza was not intentional, but both he and Piazza were suspended five games in the regular season and fined—Mota \\$1,500 and Piazza \\$3,000. Mota's suspension was later reduced to four games.\n\n#### 2003\n\nIn 2003, Mota earned a roster spot with the Dodgers after spring training. From May 1 to 27, he pitched 15+2⁄3 consecutive scoreless innings. On May 23, against the Milwaukee Brewers, he got his first save when he pitched three scoreless innings in a 6–4 victory. Manager Jim Tracy used him to get the save because he wanted to rest closer Éric Gagné. On May 29, Mota struck out six batters in three innings in a 12–5 loss to Colorado. From June 11 through July 17, he threw 19+2⁄3 consecutive scoreless innings. On July 13, he hit his second career home run (against Joe Roa) in a 9–3 victory over Colorado. In August, he had a 2–0 record with a 0.44 ERA in 21 games. Mota finished the season with a 6–3 record and a 1.97 ERA in 76 games, and his 105 innings pitched were the most by a Dodger reliever since 1985, when Tom Niedenfuer threw 106+1⁄3. His 105 innings pitched led National League (NL) relief pitchers and were just two shy of American League leader Steve Sparks. Mota, Gagné, Tom Martin, and Paul Quantrill were the first relief pitcher teammates to appear in at least 76 games in a season. His opponent batting average of .205 ranked tenth among NL relievers, and left-handers' .181 average against him ranked fourth in the NL.\n\n#### 2004\n\nAfter Quantrill became a free agent, Mota became the setup man for Gagné in 2004. He started the season with eight straight scoreless games. From June 27 to July 16, he did not allow a run in 10 straight games. On July 29, he started a career-high five-game winning streak when he got a win by pitching two scoreless innings in a 2–1 victory over the San Francisco Giants. He was the winning pitcher when he pitched two scoreless innings in an 8–5 victory over the Anaheim Angels on July 3 in a game notable for Gagné getting the final save of his 84 straight converted save chances. On July 30, a day before the trade deadline, Mota had a 2.14 ERA in 52 games. That day, he was traded to the Florida Marlins with Juan Encarnación and Paul Lo Duca for Hee-seop Choi, Brad Penny, and Bill Murphy.\n\n### Florida Marlins (2004–2005)\n\nUpon joining the Marlins, Mota was named the closer because Armando Benítez, the Marlins' closer, was injured. On August 5, he entered a game in the eighth inning with the Marlins leading 7–5 and got his first save as a Marlin in an 11–5 victory over Arizona. However, that was his only save opportunity before he was returned to the setup role because of the return of Benítez from the disabled list. Mota had a 4.81 ERA in 26 games with the Marlins, although it would have been only 3.06 if he had not given up seven runs in his final two games of the year. He finished the season with a 9–8 record and a 3.07 ERA in 78 games. His nine wins were tied with Ryan Madson for second in the NL by a relief pitcher, and his 96+2⁄3 innings pitched led NL relievers. His opponent batting average of .196 was fifth-best among NL relievers.\n\nIn 2005, Mota was named the Marlins' closer in spring training since Benítez became a free agent following the 2004 season. He did not get a save opportunity until April 22, which he converted in a 4–2 win over Cincinnati. He got his second save of the year the next day in another 4–2 win over Cincinnati. However, he was placed on the disabled list on May 1 (retroactive to April 24) with inflammation in his right elbow. He was activated on May 27, but Todd Jones, who had been filling in for Mota, remained the closer. Mota had a 1.69 ERA through his first 11 games, but 12 earned runs allowed over his next seven games raised his ERA to 7.27. On June 24, he was the winning pitcher in the Marlins' 7–4 victory over the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. He got his only other win of the year on August 30, when he gave up a run in two innings in a 7–6 victory over St. Louis. Mota posted a 3.81 ERA over his final 38 games to finish the season 2–2 with a 4.70 ERA in 56 games. On November 24, Mota was traded with Josh Beckett and Mike Lowell to the Boston Red Sox for four prospects: Jesús Delgado, Harvey García, Hanley Ramírez, and Aníbal Sánchez.\n\n### Cleveland Indians (2006)\n\nMota never played a game with the Red Sox, as of January 27, 2006, he was traded to the Cleveland Indians with Andy Marte, Kelly Shoppach, a player to be named later (eventually Randy Newsom), and cash considerations for Coco Crisp, David Riske, and Josh Bard. The trade was postponed slightly because Mota failed to pass a physical, so the Indians put him on a conditioning program before spring training. However, he was still expected to be the setup man for closer Bob Wickman. He started the season well, as he did not allow an earned run in his first seven games. However, he struggled after that, and he lost the setup role to Rafael Betancourt in May. Over his next 27 games, Mota had a 7.89 ERA, and opponents batted .314 against him. On August 11, he was designated for assignment after he had a 1–3 record with a 6.21 ERA in 34 games. On August 20, he was traded to the New York Mets with cash for a player to be named later. To date, his time with the Indians was his only stint in the American League.\n\n### New York Mets (2006–2007)\n\nOn September 1, Mota was the winning pitcher when he pitched a scoreless inning in an 8–7 victory over Houston. He got another win by pitching a scoreless inning on September 12 in a 6–4 victory over Florida. With the Mets, he had a 3–0 record with a 1.00 ERA and 19 strikeouts in 18 games to finish the season 4–3 with a 4.53 ERA in 52 games. He made the playoffs for the first time in his career as the Mets won the NL East. In the first game of the 2006 National League Division Series against the Dodgers, Mota was the winning pitcher when he pitched two innings, although he blew a 4–1 lead by giving up three runs and allowing the Dodgers to tie the game. Mota pitched two scoreless innings in the Mets' series-winning 9–5 victory over the Dodgers in Game 3. In the 2006 National League Championship Series, Mota appeared in five of the seven games in the series. He blew a lead in an eventual Game 2 loss, but he did not give up a run in the other four games as the Mets lost to St. Louis in seven games. On October 30, he filed for free agency.\n\nOn November 1, 2006, Mota became the fifteenth MLB player to be suspended for using performance-enhancing drugs (and the first to be suspended for fifty games) when he was suspended for the first fifty games of 2007. However, the Mets re-signed him to a two-year, \\$5 million contract on December 7. After spending two weeks in the minors, Mota rejoined the Mets on May 30, 2007. He struggled in his first 16 games, collecting a 7.71 ERA in them. In his next 15 games, however, he amassed a 1.89 ERA. During those games, on August 3, he was the winning pitcher when he threw a scoreless inning in a 6–2 victory over the Chicago Cubs. He struggled after that, though, as he had a 7.48 ERA over his final 21 games of the season. On August 28, he was the losing pitcher when he gave up a walk-off home run to Ryan Howard in the 10th inning of a 4–2 loss to Philadelphia. He earned the win on September 12 in a 4–3 victory over the Atlanta Braves despite losing a two-run lead in the eighth inning. His final decision of the season came on September 16, when he gave up three runs without recording an out in a 10–6 loss to Philadelphia. Mota finished the season with a 2–2 record and a 5.76 ERA in 52 games. On November 20, he was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers for Johnny Estrada.\n\n### Milwaukee Brewers (2008)\n\nMota started the 2008 season with a 2.20 ERA in his first 15 games. On May 11, Brewers manager Ned Yost removed Gagné from the closer's role and decided to use different pitchers in save opportunities. The next day, Mota got his first save since 2005 in an 8–3 victory over St. Louis. However, that was his only save of the season, and Salomón Torres took over the closer's role. Mota began to struggle after the save, as he had a 9.00 ERA over his next 19 games to bring his ERA to 5.77 at the All-Star break. However, he began pitching better after the All-Star break as he posted a 1.59 ERA in his final 24 games of the season. On August 24, Mota was the winning pitcher in a 4–3 victory over Pittsburgh when he entered the game with the bases loaded and no outs and did not allow a run to score in one inning of work. He finished the season with a 5–6 record and a 4.11 ERA in 58 games, and he returned to the playoffs as the Brewers made the playoffs for the first time in 26 years. In the first game of the 2008 National League Division Series, he pitched a scoreless 1⁄3 inning in a 3–1 loss to Philadelphia. His only other appearance of the playoffs that year came in Game 4 (the final game of the series) when he allowed a solo home run to Pat Burrell in the final 1+1⁄3 innings of a 6–2 loss. On November 3, Mota filed for free agency.\n\n### Second stint with the Dodgers (2009)\n\nOn January 13, 2009, Mota returned to the Dodgers upon signing a one-year contract. His second stint with the Dodgers got off to a bad start, as he posted a 9.00 ERA in his first 15 games of the season. However, his statistics improved when he compiled a 0.26 ERA over his next 29 games to lower his season ERA to 2.92. From June 24 through July 29, Mota gave up no runs in 17 games (20+1⁄3 consecutive innings pitched). However, he had a 4.97 ERA over his next 13 games. On August 4, in a 17–4 victory over Milwaukee, Mota was ejected after he hit Brewers first baseman Prince Fielder with a pitch (in retaliation for Chris Smith hitting Manny Ramirez a few innings earlier, according to Dodgers catcher Russell Martin). After the game, Fielder attempted to gain entry into the Dodgers' clubhouse to confront Mota but was stopped by teammates. Both Mota and Fielder were fined by Major League Baseball for their actions. On August 31, Mota was placed on the disabled list with an ingrown toenail to make room for Ronnie Belliard on the roster. He was reactivated on September 14. However, after posting a 5.40 ERA in his final four games of the year, he was left off the Dodgers' playoff roster. He finished the season with a 3–4 record and a 3.44 ERA (his lowest since 2004) in 61 games. On November 6, he filed for free agency.\n\n### San Francisco Giants (2010–2012)\n\nOn February 2, 2010, Mota signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants with an invitation to spring training, marking the first time he was a non-roster invitee. On April 4, he was placed in the final spot in the Giants' bullpen. He started his tenure with the Giants with nine consecutive scoreless outings. On May 5, he got his only save of 2010 in a 9–6 victory over Florida. Mota took over the setup role in May, but lost it after allowing five runs and losing one of three games from June 10 to 13. He compiled a 1.27 ERA over his first 23 games, but a 7.48 ERA over his next 28 games raised his ERA to 4.78. On July 4, he intentionally walked four batters in 1+1⁄3 innings (due to runners reaching third base with nobody out in the 14th and 15th innings) and was the losing pitcher when he allowed a run in the 15th inning of a 4–3 loss to Colorado. On August 23, he was placed on the disabled list with iliotibial band syndrome to make room for Cody Ross on the Giants' roster. He returned to the Giants on September 6. Mota did not give up an earned run in his final five appearances of the season to finish the year with a 1–3 record and a 4.33 ERA in 56 games, and he made the Giants' playoff roster as they won the NL West. However, he was not used until Game 2 of the 2010 World Series, when he pitched a scoreless ninth inning in a 9–0 victory over the Texas Rangers. His only other postseason appearance came when he pitched 1+1⁄3 scoreless innings in a 4–2 loss in Game 3. However, Mota won his first World Series when the Giants defeated Texas 4 games to 1 in the series. After the series, he filed for free agency.\n\nOn December 19, Mota signed another minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Giants. He won one of the final two spots in the Giants' bullpen on March 30, 2011. On April 16, after Giants' starter Barry Zito was injured in the second inning, Mota pitched a career-high 4+1⁄3 innings, giving up one run and earning the win in a 5–3 victory over Arizona.\n\nOn May 7, 2012, MLB announced that they were suspending Mota for 100 games due to his testing positive for Clenbuterol, a performance-enhancing substance. This was his second suspension as he had previously been suspended for 50 games in 2006.\n\n### Kansas City Royals\n\nMota signed a minor league deal with the Kansas City Royals on January 16, 2014. However, he announced his retirement on March 2, 2014.\n\n## Pitching style\n\nMota had three different kinds of pitches: a fastball, a slider, and a circle changeup, and occasionally he mixed in a splitter and a curveball. Because of a record of wildness with his fastball, his slider became his out pitch.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of doping cases in sport\n- List of players with a home run in first major league at bat", "revid": "1167100160", "description": "Dominican baseball pitcher (born 1973)", "categories": ["1973 births", "Arizona League Giants players", "Baseball players from San Pedro de Macorís", "Cape Fear Crocs players", "Capital City Bombers players", "Cleveland Indians players", "Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in Canada", "Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States", "Dominican Republic sportspeople in doping cases", "Florida Marlins players", "Fresno Grizzlies players", "Gulf Coast Mets players", "Harrisburg Senators players", "Jupiter Hammerheads players", "Kingsport Mets players", "Las Vegas 51s players", "Living people", "Los Angeles Dodgers players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic", "Milwaukee Brewers players", "Montreal Expos players", "New Orleans Zephyrs players", "New York Mets players", "Ottawa Lynx players", "San Francisco Giants players", "St. Lucie Mets players"]}
{"id": "352289", "url": null, "title": "Helicoverpa zea", "text": "Helicoverpa zea, commonly known as the corn earworm, is a species (formerly in the genus Heliothis) in the family Noctuidae. The larva of the moth Helicoverpa zea is a major agricultural pest. Since it is polyphagous (feeds on many different plants) during the larval stage, the species has been given many different common names, including the cotton bollworm and the tomato fruitworm. It also consumes a wide variety of other crops.\n\nThe species is widely distributed across the Americas with the exception of northern Canada and Alaska. It has become resistant to many pesticides, but can be controlled with integrated pest management techniques including deep ploughing, trap crops, chemical control using mineral oil, and biological controls.\n\nThe species migrates seasonally, at night, and can be carried downwind up to 400 km. Pupae can make use of diapause to wait out adverse environmental conditions, especially at high latitudes and in drought.\n\n## Distribution\n\nThe corn earworm is found in temperate and tropical regions of North America, with the exception of northern Canada and Alaska as it cannot overwinter in these areas. Helicoverpa zea found in the eastern United States also does not overwinter successfully. They live in Kansas, Ohio, Virginia, and southern New Jersey, but survival rate is mainly affected by the severity of the winter. Corn earworm moths regularly migrate from southern regions to northern regions depending on winter conditions. They are also found in Hawaii, the Caribbean islands, and most of South America, including Peru, Argentina, and Brazil.\n\nCotton earworms have also been reported from China in 2002.\n\nThe taxonomy of Helicoverpa was poorly understood for a long time. Many older works referring to \"Heliothis obsoleta\", a synonym of H. armigera, are actually about H. zea.\n\n## Lifecycle and description\n\n### Eggs\n\nEggs are individually deposited on leaf hairs and corn silks (not in reference given). The eggs are initially pale green in color, but over time they turn yellowish and then grey. Eggs are 0.5 mm in height and average about 0.55 mm in diameter. They hatch after 66 to 72 hours of development. Once larvae have breached the chorion, they spend up to 83% of eclosion making an exit hole larger than their heads. Larvae spend the rest of the time making a silk meshwork around the exit hole; this both helps them escape the shell and helps them find the shell afterwards so they can feed on it. After feeding on their shell, larvae rest about 3 minutes before they begin feeding on the plant material around them.\n\n### Larvae\n\nFollowing hatching, larvae feed on the reproductive structures of the plant and usually develop through four to six instars. Initially, the young larva feed together, and this stage is their most destructive stage. Through maturation, older larvae become aggressive and cannibalistic, leaving one or two larvae per feeding site (See Interfamilial Predation). They usually have orange heads, black thorax plates, and a body color that is primarily black. Their bodies can also be brown, pink, green, and yellow with many thorny microspines. Mature larvae migrate to the soil, where they pupate for 12 to 16 days.\n\n### Pupae\n\nLarvae pupate 5 to 10 cm below the soil surface. Pupae are brown in color; they measure 5.5 mm wide and 17 to 22 mm long. The biggest environmental factor that affects the pupal developmental rate is temperature, primarily soil temperature. This is because proper insulation facilitates development, and soil temperatures below 0 degrees Celsius correlate to higher pupal mortality. Another factor that influences pupal development is soil moisture. Pupal mortality is high in wet soil, where the moisture level is between 18 and 25 percent. Dehydration can also lead to high death rates among pupae, if soil moisture is as low as 1 to 2 percent.\n\n### Adults\n\nAdults have forewings that are yellowish brown in color and have a dark spot located in the center of their body. The moths have a wingspan ranging from 32 to 45mm, and live over thirty days in optimal conditions. However, the life span ranges from five to fifteen days on average. They are nocturnal and hide in vegetation during the day. Adult moths collect nectar or other plant exudates from a large number of plants, and live for 12 to 16 days. Females can lay up to 2,500 eggs in their lifetime.\n\n## Economic impact\n\n### Damage\n\nThe corn earworm is a major agricultural pest, with a large host range encompassing corn and many other crop plants. H. zea is the second-most important economic pest species in North America, next to the codling moth. The estimated annual cost of the damage is more than US\\$100 million, though expenditure on insecticide application has reached up to \\$250 million. The moth's high fecundity, ability to lay between 500 and 3,000 eggs, polyphagous larval feeding habits, high mobility during migration, and a facultative pupal diapause have led to the success of this pest.\n\n### Control\n\nTwo kinds of control measures have been advocated since the 19th century. One aims at total pest population reduction, while the other is aimed at protection of the particular crop. As of 2013, integrated pest management (IPM), an array of techniques and approaches to control pests, was recommended. Practices such as deep ploughing, mechanical destruction, and trap crops are also used to kill different instars. Chemical control is widely successful, and includes the use of applying mineral oil inside the tip of each corn ear, which suffocates the young larvae. Pesticides are one method by which corn earworm populations are controlled; however, since they have been widely used, the insects have become resistant to many pesticides. The use of biological controls, such as the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis and various forms of nematodes, is also common, although not without their own problems. Corn earworm moths are not always vulnerable to the bacterium, and they are only afflicted by nematodes once the larvae have pupated and dropped to the ground. Strains of maize have been genetically modified to produce the same toxin as the bacterium, and are referred to as Bt-corn.\n\n## Survival\n\n### Natural enemies\n\nMore than 100 insect species prey on H. zea, usually feeding on eggs and larvae. The insidious flower bug (Orius insidiosus), a pirate bug, feeds on the eggs of H. zea, thus acting as a biological control agent. Some plants emit a blend of chemicals in response to damage from H. zea, which attract parasitic insects. Cardiochiles nigriceps, a solitary endoparasitoid wasp, makes use of these volatile plant compounds to identify the presence of H. zea. When the wasps find damaged host plants, they hover around and then search for the host with their antennae. When the females find their prey, they use their antennae to position themselves and deposit eggs into the host. The braconid wasp Microplitis croceipes, which deposits its eggs inside a living caterpillar, is also an important parasitoid of both H. zea and the related species Heliothis virescens. When larval densities are high, a fungal pathogen, Nomuraea rileyi, can cause an outbreak of disease. However, pupal mortality is high not because of predators, but because of harsh weather conditions, collapsing pupal chambers, and disease.\n\n### Larval predation\n\nAs the larvae mature, they become increasingly aggressive. Although they have host plants surrounding them, H. zea larvae attack and eat other insects. When presented with a second-instar larva of Urbanus proteus, the corn earworm larva grasps the insect, rolls onto its side to form a semicircle, and begins feeding on the insect's posterior end. If the U. proteus begins to bite out of defense, H. zea rotates the larva 180° and uses its mandibles to puncture the head capsule, killing the insect. Then, the H. zea larva rotates the U. proteus back to its original position and continues feeding until the insect is entirely consumed. Even when presented with up to five U. proteus larvae, H. zea engages in the unique behavior, as the larvae have a higher affinity for lepidopterous prey over plant material. H. zea raised in a low-moisture environment has a lower pupal weight and a longer developmental time than those raised in environments of high moisture, so a nutritional benefit exists to such aggressive feeding behavior under such conditions.\n\n## Movement\n\n### Migration\n\nHelicoverpa zea is a seasonal, nocturnal migrant, and adults disperse, weather permitting, when there are poor reproductive conditions. In short-range dispersal, the moths move within the crop and low over the foliage. This type of dispersal is mostly independent of wind currents. Long-range dispersal involves adults flying up to 10 meters above the ground and moving downwind from crop to crop. Migratory flights occur up to 1–2 km above the ground and can last for hours. Migration of 400 km is common for such flights as moths are carried downwind. Helicoverpa zea caterpillars are usually intercepted on produce transported by air-freight transportation. Most activity is restricted to the night-time. Some moths display vertical take-off flight, which carries them above the flight boundary layer and allows them to undertake migratory movement in upper wind systems. During mating, males engage in high-speed directed flight in search of pheromone plumes (See Pheromone Production).\n\n### Diapause\n\nPupae have the ability to enter facultative diapause, the state of arrested development and growth in response to a change in the environment. By preparing themselves for a major change in environmental conditions, they can increase reproductive success. Diapause increases with increasing latitude. In tropical conditions, populations breed continuously, and only 2-4% of pupae diapause. In subtropical and temperate regions, most individuals diapause. Individuals who don't enter diapause in these areas emerge in late fall and die without reproducing. Drought-responsive diapause has also been observed in the summer.\n\n## Feeding\n\n### Host plants\n\nHelicoverpa zea has a wide host range, attacking vegetables that include corn, tomato, artichoke, asparagus, cabbage, cantaloupe, collards, cowpea, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, lima bean, melon, okra, pea, pepper, potato, pumpkin, snap bean, spinach, squash, sweet potato, and watermelon. However, not all of these are good hosts. While corn and lettuce are shown to be great hosts, tomatoes are less beneficial, and broccoli and cantaloupe are poor hosts. Corn and sorghum are most favored by corn earworms. Various signs reveal the presence of these moths. Young maize crops have holes in their leaves, following whorl-feeding on the apical leaf. Eggs can be found on silks on larger plants, and silks display grazing evidence. The soft, milky grains in the top few centimeters of corn cobs are eaten as the corn ears develop. One larva per cob can be observed. Bore holes are observed in cabbage and lettuce hearts, flower heads, cotton bolls, and tomato fruits. Sorghum heads are grazed, and legume pod seeds are eaten.\n\n### Corn\n\nHelicoverpa zea earns its nickname the corn earworm for its widely known destruction of cornfields. The corn earworm feeds on every part of corn, including the kernels. Severe feeding at the tip of kernels allows entry for diseases and mold growth. Larvae begin feeding on the kernels once they have reached third instar. Larvae penetrate 9 to 15 cm into the ear, with deeper penetration occurring as the kernels harden. Larvae do not eat the hard kernels, but take bites out of many kernels, lowering the quality of the corn for processing.\n\n### Soybeans\n\nHelicoverpa zea is the most common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia. About one-third of Virginia acreage is treated annually with insecticide, costing farmers around 2 million dollars. The degree of damage varies on the size of the pest infestation, the timing, and the stage of the plant. However, soybean plants are capable of withstanding a large amount of damage without substantial yield loss depending on soil moisture, planting date, and weather. If the damage is early in the plants life, then damage will mostly be to the leaves. Plants compensate for the damage by processes such as increasing seed size in remaining pods. Most damage happens in August, when the plants are flowering. Attacks that happen after August do much less damage because many pods have developed tougher walls that H. zea can't penetrate. Infestations that affect pod formation and seed filling have the potential to reduce yields, and because this happens in the later stages of plants, they have less time to compensate.\n\nFemale moths are attracted to flowering soybean fields. The most severe infestations occur between flowering and when pods become fully developed. Large-scale outbreak is associated with time of peak flowering, when most pods are developed, and peak moth flight, for giant. Moths are also attracted to drought stressed soybeans or fields with poor growth. Dry weather leads to quick drying of corn plants, compelling moths to leave and seek other hosts. Heavy rainfall also decreases corn earworm populations because it drowns pupae in their soil chambers, limits moth flight, washes eggs from leaves, and creates favorable conditions for fungal diseases that kill caterpillars.\n\n## Mating\n\n### Pheromone production\n\nA hormone produced in the brain of the female moths controls sex pheromones. The hormone is released into the hemolymph to stimulate pheromone production. Pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide (PBAN) is a peptide that regulates pheromone production in moths. It acts on the pheromone gland cells using calcium and cyclic AMP. Although the photoperiod regulates the release of PBAN to some extent, the chemical signals from the host plant supersede the effect from the time of day. Female Helicoverpa zea in corn fields do not produce pheromones during the night until they encounter corn. Several natural corn silk volatiles like the plant hormone Ethylene as a plant hormone#ethylene induce H. zea pheromone production. The presence of the silk from an ear of corn is enough to cause pheromone production, and physical contact between females and corn is unnecessary. This evolutionary mechanism enables the moths to coordinate their reproductive behavior with the availability of food. Female moths often become depleted of sex pheromone after mating within 2 hours of separation from the male. The pheromonostatic peptide (PSP), a protein 57 amino acids long found in the male accessory gland, is what causes depletion of the female's sex pheromone. This capability in males has been selected for because it increases the reproductive fitness of those that carry it, since other males will not be attracted to a female without a sex pheromone; thus, the female will bear only the first male's offspring. The transfer of a spermatophore without accessory gland products does not stop female pheromone production, but does stop the female's calling behavior. Intense selection acting on males to manipulate female reproductive physiology promotes rapid evolution of specific molecules, and male-derived pheromone suppressing factors exhibit positive selection. When females are infected with the virus Helicoverpa zea nudivirus 2, they produce 5 to 7 times the amount of sex pheromone than uninfected females.\n\n### Mortality\n\nSperm competition and chemicals introduced to females through mating have a negative effect on females and their lifespan. In males, production of the spermatophore, sperm, and secondary chemicals reduces their lifespan. As the number of copulations increase, the rate of mortality also increases in both sexes.\n\n### Flight behavior\n\nMales must first wait to sense a female's pheromones before they can locate her. Before males engage in flight to find a female, they warm-up by shivering the major flight muscles to reach thoracic temperature optimal to sustain flight, around 26 degrees Celsius. The thermoregulatory shivering activities of males were measured as they were exposed to different sex-related olfactory cues. Males are found to heat up more quickly in the presence of a female pheromone and take-off at a lower thoracic temperature than males who are exposed to other chemical scents. Since heating up to the right temperature leads to better flight performance than flying immediately, there is a trade-off between sub-optimal flight performance and rapid onset of directed flight. Helicoverpa zea males exposed to an attractive pheromone blend thus spend less time shivering and increase their heating rate. Thermoregulatory behavior of unrestrained moths is associated with competition for access to females, showing the ecological trade-off.\n\n## Gallery", "revid": "1169946621", "description": "Species of moth", "categories": ["Agricultural pest insects", "Helicoverpa", "Insect pests of millets", "Moths described in 1850", "Moths of Central America", "Moths of North America", "Moths of South America", "Owlet moths of Africa", "Tomato diseases"]}
{"id": "1995922", "url": null, "title": "AHS Centaur", "text": "Australian Hospital Ship (AHS) Centaur was a hospital ship which was attacked and sunk by a Japanese submarine off the coast of Queensland, Australia, on 14 May 1943. Of the 332 medical personnel and civilian crew aboard, 268 died, including 63 of the 65 army personnel.\n\nThe Scottish-built vessel was launched in 1924 as a combination passenger liner and refrigerated cargo ship and operated a trade route between Western Australia and Singapore via the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), carrying passengers, cargo, and livestock. At the start of World War II, Centaur (like all British Merchant Navy vessels) was placed under British Admiralty control, but after being fitted with defensive equipment, was allowed to continue normal operations. In November 1941, the ship rescued German survivors of the engagement between Kormoran and HMAS Sydney. Centaur was relocated to Australia's east coast in October 1942, and used to transport materiel to New Guinea.\n\nIn January 1943, Centaur was handed over to the Australian military for conversion to a hospital ship, as her small size made her suitable for operating in Maritime Southeast Asia. The refit (including installation of medical facilities and repainting with Red Cross markings) was completed in March, and the ship undertook a trial voyage: transporting wounded from Townsville to Brisbane, then from Port Moresby to Brisbane. After replenishing in Sydney, Centaur embarked the 2/12th Field Ambulance for transport to New Guinea, and sailed on 12 May. Before dawn on 14 May 1943, during her second voyage, Centaur was torpedoed and sunk by a Japanese submarine off Moreton Island, Queensland. The majority of the 332 aboard died in the attack; the 64 survivors were discovered 36 hours later. The incident resulted in public outrage as attacking a hospital ship is considered a war crime under the 1907 Hague Convention. Protests were made by the Australian and British governments to Japan and efforts were made to discover the people responsible so they could be tried at a war crimes tribunal. In the 1970s the probable identity of the attacking submarine, I-177, became public.\n\nThe reason for the attack is unknown; there are theories that Centaur was in breach of the international conventions that should have protected her, that I-177's commander was unaware that Centaur was a hospital ship, or that the submarine commander, Hajime Nakagawa, knowingly attacked a protected vessel. The wreck of Centaur was found on 20 December 2009; a claimed discovery in 1995 has been proven to be a different shipwreck.\n\n## Design and construction\n\n### Original design\n\nIn early 1923, the Ocean Steamship Company (a subsidiary of Alfred Holt's Blue Funnel Line) decided that a new vessel would be required to replace the ageing Charon on the Western Australia to Singapore trade route. The vessel had to be capable of simultaneously transporting passengers, cargo, and livestock. She also had to be capable of resting on mud flats out of the water as the tidal variance in ports at the northern end of Western Australia was as great as 8 metres (26 ft).\n\nScotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Greenock was chosen to build Centaur. The keel was laid on 16 November 1923, and the ship was ready for collection by 29 August 1924. Constructed at a cost of £146,750 sterling, Centaur was designed to carry 72 passengers and 450 cattle. Cargo was carried in four holds; the two decks within the hull were primarily for livestock, and could also be used as extra cargo space. The hull of the ship was a 'turret deck' design; decks below the waterline were wider than those above water, and a flat, reinforced hull allowed the ship to rest on the bottom. Centaur was among the first civilian vessels to be equipped with a diesel engine. One of the most visible characteristics was the 35-foot (11 m) smokestack, the extreme size was more a concession to tradition than of practical advantage on a diesel-powered vessel. Her engine was 6-cylinder 4-stroke, single cycle single action diesel engine. It had cylinders of 2415⁄16 inches (64 cm) diameter by 513⁄16 inches (135 cm) stroke. The engine was built by Burmeister & Wain, Copenhagen, Denmark. One of her holds was fitted with refrigeration equipment. The refrigerant was brine and the insulation was cork. The refrigerated hold had a capacity of 3,000 cubic feet (85 m<sup>3</sup>).\n\nIn December 1939, Centaur underwent a minor refit in Hong Kong, with a supercharger and a new propeller fitted to the engine. The supercharger broke down in April 1942, and could not be repaired because of equipment shortages and restricted dockyard access caused by World War II.\n\n### Hospital ship refit\n\nAt the beginning of 1943, Centaur was placed at the disposal of the Australian Department of Defence for conversion to a hospital ship. The conversion was performed by United Ship Services in Melbourne, Australia, and was initially estimated to cost AU£20,000.\n\nThe cost increased to almost AU£55,000, for a variety of reasons. It was originally intended for the ship to travel between ports in New Guinea and Townsville, Queensland, Australia. Increasing casualty numbers in the New Guinea campaign meant that the hospitals in Queensland would quickly become unable to deal with the quantity of the casualties and the nature of their injuries, so a longer voyage to Sydney was required. The Army demanded that more facilities and conversions be added to the original plans such as expanded bathing and washing facilities, hot water made available to all parts of the ship through installation of a calorifier, the rerouting of all steam pipes away from patient areas, and ventilation arrangements suitable for tropical conditions. The unions representing the ship's crew requested improved living and dining conditions, including new sinks in the food preparation areas and the replacement of flooring in the quarters and mess rooms.\n\nWhen AHS Centaur was relaunched on 12 March 1943, she was equipped with an operating theatre, dispensary, two wards (located on the former cattle decks), and a dental surgery, along with quarters for seventy five crew and sixty five permanent Army medical staff. To maintain the ship's mean draught of 6.1 metres (20 ft), 900 tons of ironstone were distributed through the cargo holds as ballast. AHS Centaur was capable of voyages of 18 days before resupply and could carry just over 250 bedridden patients.\n\n## Operational history\n\n### 1924 to 1938\n\nCentaur was allocated the United Kingdom Official Number 147275 and the Code Letters KHHC. Her port of registry was Liverpool. When Centaur entered service at the end of 1924, the Fremantle–Java– Singapore trade route was being serviced by two other Blue Funnel Line vessels; Gorgon (which remained in service until 1928) and Charon (which Centaur was replacing). Centaur's route ran from Fremantle up the Western Australian coast calling at Geraldton, Carnarvon, Onslow, Point Samson, Port Hedland, Broome, and Derby then to the Bali Strait, Surabaya, Semarang, Batavia, and Singapore. Centaur operated as a cross between a tramp steamer and a freight liner; she travelled a set route, but stops at ports along the route varied between journeys. From 1928 until sometime in the 1930s, Centaur remained alone on her route, but the increase in trade along this route prompted Blue Funnel Line to reassign Gorgon and assign the new Charon to work alongside Centaur.\n\nFollowing the change in Code Letters in 1934, Centaur was allocated the Code Letters GMQP. A highlight of Centaur'''s pre-war career was the rescue of the 385 ton Japanese whale-chaser Kyo Maru II in November 1938. Kyo Maru II had developed boiler problems while returning from the Antarctic and was drifting towards the Houtman Abrolhos Archipelago, where she was in danger of being wrecked by the reefs in the area. Centaur responded to the distress signal and towed Kyo Maru II to Geraldton.\n\n### 1939 to 1942\n\nAs a vessel of the British Merchant Navy, Centaur was affected by the British Parliament's 1939 outline of how the Merchant Navy would respond to the declaration of war, primarily submission to the Admiralty in all matters excluding the crewing and management of vessels. Following the outbreak of World War II on 3 September 1939, Centaur was equipped with a stern-mounted 4-inch (100 mm) Mark IX naval gun and two .303 Vickers machine guns located on the bridge wings for protection against Axis warships and aircraft. She was also fitted with port and starboard paravanes and degaussing equipment for protection against naval mines. The weapons were removed during the hospital ship refit, although the anti-mine countermeasures remained. Centaur initially remained in service on her original trade route.\n\nOn 26 November 1941, a damaged lifeboat carrying 62 Kriegsmarine (German navy) sailors and officers was spotted by an aircraft looking for the missing Australian cruiser ; the aircraft directed Centaur to the lifeboat. Upon encountering the lifeboat, food was lowered to its occupants, and one person was allowed on board to explain the situation. Initially posing as a Norwegian merchant navy officer, the man quickly revealed that he was the first officer of the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran and that the lifeboat contained German survivors from Kormoran's battle with HMAS Sydney seven days earlier, including Captain Theodor Detmers.\n\nUnwilling to leave the shipwrecked men at sea, but afraid of having his ship captured by the Germans, Centaur's master decided to take the lifeboat in tow, after allowing nine wounded men aboard. During the tow towards Carnarvon, Western Australia, the lifeboat was swamped and partially sunk by rough seas, so two of Centaur's lifeboats were lowered to carry the Germans. On arrival in Carnarvon, the Germans were relocated to the number one cargo hold, where they were joined by another hundred Kormoran survivors collected by other ships, plus forty Australian Army guards, which were then transported by Centaur to Fremantle.\n\nFollowing the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the beginning of the Malayan Campaign on 7 December 1941, Centaur's run was curtailed to Broome, Western Australia. On 6 October 1942, Centaur was ordered to sail to Queensland, where she began runs between the east coast of Australia and New Guinea, carrying materiel.\n\n### 1943\n\nWith the commencement of hostilities between Japan and the British Empire, it became clear that the three hospital ships currently serving Australia—Manunda, Wanganella, and Oranje—would not be able to operate in the shallow waters typical of Maritime Southeast Asia, so a new hospital ship was required. Of the Australian Merchant Navy vessels able to operate in this region, none were suitable for conversion to a hospital ship, and a request to the British Ministry of Shipping placed Centaur at the disposal of the Australian military on 4 January 1943. The conversion work began on 9 January and Centaur was commissioned as an Australian Hospital Ship on 1 March. During her conversion, Centaur was painted with the markings of a hospital ship as detailed in Article 5 of the tenth Hague Convention of 1907 (\"Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention\"); white hull with a green band interspersed by three red crosses on each flank of the hull, white superstructure, multiple large red crosses positioned so that the ship's status would be visible from both sea and air, and an identification number (for Centaur, 47) on her bows. At night, the markings were illuminated by a combination of internal and external lights. Data on the ship's markings and the layout of identifying structural features was provided to the International Committee of the Red Cross during the first week of February 1943, who passed this on to the Japanese on 5 February. This information was also circulated and promoted by the press and media.\n\nCentaur entered operation as a hospital ship on 12 March 1943. The early stages of Centaur's first voyage as a hospital ship were test and transport runs; the initial run from Melbourne to Sydney resulted in the Master, Chief Engineer, and Chief Medical Officer composing a long list of defects requiring attention. Following repairs, she conducted a test run, transporting wounded servicemen from Townsville to Brisbane to ensure that she was capable of fulfilling the role of a medical vessel. Centaur was then tasked with delivering medical personnel to Port Moresby, New Guinea, and returning to Brisbane with Australian and American wounded along with a few wounded Japanese prisoners of war.\n\nArriving in Sydney on 8 May 1943, Centaur was re-provisioned at Darling Harbour, before departing for Cairns, Queensland on 12 May 1943. From there, her destination was again New Guinea. On board at the time were 74 civilian crew, 53 Australian Army Medical Corps personnel (including 8 officers), 12 female nurses from the Australian Army Nursing Service, 192 soldiers from the 2/12th Field Ambulance, and one Torres Strait ship pilot. Most of the female nurses had transferred from the hospital ship Oranje, and the male Army personnel assigned to the ship aboard were all medical staff. During the loading process, there was an incident when the ambulance drivers attached to the 2/12th attempted to bring their rifles and personal supplies of ammunition aboard. This was met with disapproval from Centaur's Master and Chief Medical Officer, and raised concerns amongst the crew and wharf labourers that Centaur would be transporting military supplies or commandos to New Guinea: the rifles were not allowed on board until Centaur's Master received official reassurance that the ambulance drivers were allowed to carry weapons under the 10th Hague Convention (specifically Article 8), as they were used \"for the maintenance of order and the defence of the wounded.\" The remaining cargo was searched by the crew and labourers for other weapons and munitions.\n\n## Sinking\n\nAt approximately 4:10 am on 14 May 1943, while on her second run from Sydney to Port Moresby, Centaur was torpedoed by an unsighted submarine. The torpedo struck the portside oil fuel tank approximately 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) below the waterline, creating a hole 8 to 10 metres (26 to 33 ft) across, igniting the fuel, and setting the ship on fire from the bridge aft. Many of those on board were immediately killed by concussion or perished in the inferno. Centaur quickly took on water through the impact site, rolled to port, then sank bow-first, submerging completely in less than three minutes. The rapid sinking prevented the deployment of lifeboats, although two broke off from Centaur as she sank, along with several damaged liferafts.\n\nAccording to the position extrapolated by Second Officer Gordon Rippon from the 4:00 am dead reckoning position, Centaur was attacked approximately 24 nautical miles (44 km; 28 mi) east-northeast of Point Lookout, North Stradbroke Island, Queensland. Doubts were initially cast on the accuracy of both the calculated point of sinking and the dead reckoning position, but the 2009 discovery of the wreck found both to be correct, Centaur located within 1 nautical mile (1.9 km; 1.2 mi) of Rippon's coordinates.\n\n### Survivors\n\nOf the 332 people on board, 64 were rescued. Most of the crew and passengers were asleep at the time of attack and had little chance to escape. It was estimated that up to 200 people may have been alive at the time Centaur submerged. Several who made it off the ship later died from shrapnel wounds or burns; others were unable to find support and drowned.\n\nThe survivors spent 36 hours in the water, using barrels, wreckage, and the two damaged lifeboats for flotation. During this time, they drifted approximately 19.6 nautical miles (36.3 km; 22.6 mi) north east of Centaur's calculated point of sinking and spread out over an area of 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi). The survivors saw at least four ships and several aircraft, but could not attract their attention.\n\nAt the time of rescue, the survivors were in two large and three small groups, with several more floating alone. Amongst those rescued were Sister Ellen Savage, the only surviving nurse from 12 aboard; Leslie Outridge, the only surviving doctor from 18 aboard; Gordon Rippon, second officer and most senior surviving crew member; and Richard Salt, the Torres Strait ship pilot. In 1944, Ellen Savage was presented with the George Medal for providing medical care, boosting morale, and displaying courage during the wait for rescue.\n\n### Rescue\n\nOn the morning of 15 May 1943, the American destroyer USS Mugford departed Brisbane to escort the 11,063 ton New Zealand freighter Sussex on the first stage of the latter's trans-Tasman voyage. At 2:00 pm, a lookout aboard Mugford reported an object on the horizon. Around the same time, a Royal Australian Air Force Avro Anson of No. 71 Squadron, flying ahead on anti-submarine watch, dived towards the object. The aircraft returned to the two ships and signalled that there were shipwreck survivors in the water requiring rescue. Mugford's commanding officer ordered Sussex to continue alone as Mugford collected the survivors. Marksmen were positioned around the ship to shoot sharks, and sailors stood ready to dive in and assist the wounded. Mugford's medics inspected each person as they came aboard and provided necessary medical care. The American crew learned from the first group of survivors that they were from the hospital ship Centaur.\n\nAt 2:14 pm, Mugford made contact with the Naval Officer-in-Charge in Brisbane, and announced that the ship was recovering survivors from Centaur at , the first that anyone in Australia had knowledge of the attack on the hospital ship. The rescue of the 64 survivors took an hour and twenty minutes, although Mugford remained in the area until dark, searching an area of approximately 7 by 14 nautical miles (13 by 26 km; 8 by 16 mi) for more survivors. After darkness fell, Mugford returned to Brisbane, arriving shortly before midnight. Further searches of the waters off North Stradbroke Island were made by USS Helm during the night of 15 May until 6:00 pm on 16 May, and by and four motor torpedo boats from 16 to 21 May, neither search finding more survivors.\n\n### Identifying attacker\n\nAt the time of the attack, none aboard Centaur witnessed what had attacked the ship. Due to the ship's position, the distance from shore, and the depth, it was concluded that she was torpedoed by one of the Japanese submarines known to be operating off the Australian east coast. Several survivors later claimed to have heard the attacking submarine moving on the surface while they were adrift, and the submarine was seen by the ship's cook, Francis Martin, who was floating alone on a hatch cover, out of sight from the main cluster of survivors. Martin described the submarine to Naval Intelligence following the survivors' return to land; his description matched the profile of a KD7 type Kaidai-class submarine of the Imperial Japanese Navy.\n\nAt the time of the attack, three KD7 Kaidai were operating off Australia's east coast: I-177 under the command of Hajime Nakagawa, I-178 under Hidejiro Utsuki, and I-180 under Toshio Kusaka. None of these submarines survived the war; I-177 was sunk by USS Samuel S. Miles on 3 October 1944, I-178 by USS Patterson on 25 August 1943, and I-180 by USS Gilmore on 26 April 1944. Kusaka and Nakagawa were transferred to other submarines before the loss of I-180 and I-177 respectively, but Utsuki and I-178 were sunk while returning from the patrol off the coast of Australia.\n\nIn December 1943, following official protests, the Japanese government issued a statement formally denying responsibility for the sinking of Centaur. Records provided by the Japanese following the war also did not acknowledge responsibility. Although Centaur's sinking was a war crime, no one was tried for sinking the hospital ship. Investigations into the attack were conducted between 1944 and 1948, and included the interrogation of the commanders of the submarines operating in Australian waters at the time, their superiors, plus junior officers and crewmen from the submarines who had survived the war. Several of the investigators suspected that Nakagawa and I-177 were most likely responsible, but they were unable to establish this beyond reasonable doubt, and the Centaur case file was closed on 14 December 1948 without any charges laid.\n\nHistorians were divided on which submarine was responsible. In Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, published in 1968 as part of the series detailing the Australian official history of World War II, George Hermon Gill concluded that either I-178 or I-180 was responsible; the former was more likely as she had served in Australian waters the longest of any Japanese submarine at the time, but had claimed no kills in the three-month period surrounding Centaur's sinking. In 1972, German military historian Jürgen Rohwer claimed in Chronology of the war at sea that I-177 torpedoed Centaur, based on a Japanese report stating that I-177 had attacked a ship on 14 May 1943 in the area the hospital ship had sunk. Japanese Rear Admiral Kaneyoshi Sakamoto, who had shown Rohwer the report, stated that Nakagawa and I-177 were responsible for the attack on Centaur in his 1979 book History of Submarine Warfare.\n\nAs an official history of the Japanese Navy, Sakamoto's work was considered to be official admission of the attacking submarine's identity. Subsequently, most sources assumed as fact Nakagawa's and I-177's role in the loss of Centaur. Nakagawa, who died in 1991, refused to speak about the attack on Centaur following the war crimes investigation at the end of World War II or even to defend himself or deny the claims made by Rohwer and Sakamoto.\n\n## Reaction\n\n### Public reaction\n\nThe media were notified of Centaur's sinking on 17 May 1943, but were ordered not to release the news until it had been announced in the South West Pacific Area's General Headquarters dispatch at midday on 18 May, and in Parliament by Prime Minister John Curtin that afternoon. News of the attack made front pages throughout the world, including The Times of London, The New York Times, and the Montreal Gazette. In some newspapers, the news took precedence over the 'Dambuster' raids performed in Europe by No. 617 Squadron RAF.\n\nThe initial public reaction to the attack on Centaur was one of outrage, significantly different from that displayed following the loss of Australian warships or merchant vessels. As a hospital ship, the attack was a breach of the tenth Hague Convention of 1907, and as such was a war crime. The sinking of Centaur drew strong reactions from both Prime Minister Curtin and General Douglas MacArthur. Curtin stated that the sinking was \"an entirely inexcusable act, undertaken in violation of the convention to which Japan is a party and of all the principles of common humanity\". MacArthur reflected the common Australian view when he stated that the sinking was an example of Japanese \"limitless savagery\". Politicians urged the public to use their rage to fuel the war effort, and Centaur became a symbol of Australia's determination to defeat what appeared to be a brutal and uncompromising enemy. The Australian Government produced posters depicting the sinking, which called for Australians to \"Avenge the Nurses\" by working to produce materiel, purchasing war bonds, or enlisting in the armed forces.\n\nPeople also expressed their sympathy towards the crew, and there were several efforts to fund a new hospital ship. The councillors of Caulfield, Victoria, organised a fund to replace the lost medical equipment, opening with a donation of AU£2,000. Those who worked on Centaur's conversion contributed money towards a replacement, and employees of Ansett Airways pledged to donate an hour's pay towards the fitting out of such a replacement.\n\nWith some people unable to believe that the Japanese would be so ruthless, rumours began to spread almost immediately after news of the attack was made public. The most common rumour was that Centaur had been carrying munitions or commandos at the time of her sinking, the Japanese being made aware of this before her departure. This stemmed from an incident involving the ambulance drivers' weapons during loading in Sydney.\n\n### Military reaction\n\nThe attack was universally condemned by Australian servicemen, who commonly believed that the attack on Centaur had been carried out deliberately and in full knowledge of her status. Similar reactions were expressed by other Allied personnel; United States Army Air Forces General George Kenney recalled having to talk a sergeant bombardier out of organising a retaliatory bombing run on a Japanese hospital ship known to be in their area.\n\nSix days after the attack on Centaur, a request was made by the Australian Department of Defence that the identification markings and lights be removed from Australian hospital ship Manunda, weapons be installed, and that she begin to sail blacked out and under escort. The conversion was performed, although efforts by the Department of the Navy, the Admiralty, and authorities in New Zealand and the United States of America caused the completed conversion to be undone. The cost of the roundabout work came to £12,500, and kept Manunda out of service for three months. On 9 June 1943, communications between the Combined Chiefs of Staff on the subject of hospital ships contained a section referring to the Manunda incident as a response to the attack on Centaur, with the conclusion that the attack was the work of an irresponsible Japanese commander, and that it would be better to wait until further attacks had been made before considering the removal of hospital ship markings.\n\nWhen the consideration was made that the ambulance drivers' weapons incident just before Centaur's voyage may have been partially responsible for the attack, it led to the tightening of rules regarding who was allowed to travel on a hospital ship. Quasi-medical staff, like repatriation teams, were no longer permitted on hospital ships. Ambulance drivers had to transfer from the regular Army to the Australian Army Medical Corps before they were allowed aboard, although they were still permitted to carry their unloaded weapons and ammunition.\n\n### Official protests\n\nAfter consultation with the Australian armed forces, General MacArthur, the Admiralty, and the Australian Government, an official protest was sent. This was received by the Japanese Government on 29 May 1943. At around the same time, the International Committee of the Red Cross sent a protest on behalf of the major Allied Red Cross organisations to the Japanese Red Cross.\n\nOn 26 December 1943, a response to the Australian protest arrived. It stated that the Japanese Government had no information justifying the allegation made, and therefore took no responsibility for what happened. The reply counter-protested that nine Japanese hospital ships had been attacked by the Allies, although these claims were directed against the United States, not Australia. Although several later exchanges were made, the lack of progress saw the British Government inform the Australian Prime Minister on 14 November 1944 that no further communications would be made on the loss of Centaur.\n\n## Theories for attack\n\nTorpedo attacks in Australian waters were common at this time, with 27 Japanese submarines operating in Australian waters between June 1942 and December 1944. These submarines attacked almost 50 merchant vessels, 20 ships confirmed to be sunk as result of a Japanese attack, plus 9 more unconfirmed. This was part of a concentrated effort to disrupt supply convoys from Australia to New Guinea.\n\nSeveral actions on Centaur's part may have contributed to her demise. Centaur was under orders to sail well out to sea until reaching the Great Barrier Reef; her course keeping her between 50 and 150 nautical miles (90 and 280 km; 60 and 170 mi) from shore. Centaur's Master, believing he had been given a route intended for a merchant vessel, set a course closer to land, but on the seaward side of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in depth. Also, Centaur was sailing completely illuminated, with the exception of the two bow floodlights, which had been switched off as they interfered with visibility from the bridge.\n\nThere are three main theories as to why Centaur was attacked:\n\n### Legitimate target\n\nThis theory stems from the rumours spreading after Centaur's sinking. If Centaur had been in breach of the Hague Convention of 1907, and someone had informed the Japanese of this, I-177 may have been under valid orders to attack. When Centaur left Sydney, her decks were packed with green-uniformed men, and as Field Ambulance uniforms were only distinguishable from other Army uniforms by badge insignia and the colouration of the cloth band ringing the hat, a distant observer could have concluded that the hospital ship was transporting soldiers. Those witnessing the loading in Sydney would have seen the ambulance drivers bring their weapons aboard, and could have come to a similar conclusion. If a spy or informant had passed this information to the Japanese, I-177 could have been lying in wait. The main flaw in this theory is the question of how Nakagawa and his crew were able to predict that Centaur was taking an alternative route and how they were able to determine the new route selected.\n\nSimilar but later rumours included that during her first voyage, Centaur had transported soldiers to New Guinea, or Japanese prisoners of war back to Australia for interrogation, and consequently had been marked as a legitimate target by the Japanese. Centaur had carried 10 prisoners of war on her return voyage from New Guinea, but as they were all wounded personnel, transporting them on a hospital ship was legal.\n\n### Mistaken target\n\nThis theory states that Nakagawa was unaware that the vessel he was attacking was a hospital ship, and that the sinking was an unfortunate accident. This view was supported by several Japanese officers, both before and after the revelation that Nakagawa was responsible. Amongst them was Lieutenant Commander Zenji Orita, who took command of I-177 after Nakagawa. Orita did not hear anything from the crew about having sunk a hospital ship, not even rumours, and believed that if I-177 had knowingly attacked Centaur, he would have learned this from the crew's gossip.\n\nWhen compared to the other contemporary Australian hospital ships, Centaur was the smallest, approximately a third of the size of Manunda or Wanganella. Centaur was also slightly shorter than I-177. The observation of Centaur was made through a periscope, and submarine officers attest that at 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), the optimum range of attack for World War II–era Japanese submarines, some officers would not be able to clearly identify a target ship's profile or hull markings. With Centaur's bow floodlights out, and with the observation of the target made through the periscope, there is a possibility Nakagawa would not have seen the hospital ship's markings if he had been in the wrong position. Apart from the two bow floodlights, Centaur was lit up brilliantly. To attack, I-177 would have had to approach from abeam of Centaur, which was illuminated by both its own lights and a full moon.\n\n### Intentional target\n\nThis theory states that Nakagawa was fully aware that his target was a hospital ship and decided to sink her regardless, either on his own initiative or on a poor interpretation of his orders. Researchers speculate that as Nakagawa was approaching the end of his tour in Australian waters, and had only sunk a single enemy vessel, the 8,742 ton freighter Limerick, he did not want to return with the disgrace of a single kill. Other claims include that Nakagawa may have been acting in vengeance for casualties inflicted by the Allies during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, or may have expected praise for the sinking of an enemy naval vessel.\n\nIn February 1944, while in command of I-37, Nakagawa ordered the machine-gunning of survivors from three British merchant vessels torpedoed by his submarine (British Chivalry, on 22 February; , on 24 February; and , on 29 February). His defence, that he was acting under orders from Vice Admiral Shiro Takasu, was not accepted, and he was sentenced to four years imprisonment at Sugamo Prison as a Class B war criminal. These incidents showed that Nakagawa was willing to ignore the laws of war.\n\n## Shipwreck\n\nFollowing World War II, several searches of the waters around North Stradbroke and Moreton Islands failed to reveal Centaur's location. It was believed that she had sunk off the edge of the continental shelf, to a depth at which the Royal Australian Navy did not have the capability to search for a vessel of Centaur's size. Some parties also believed that Rippon's calculated point of sinking was inaccurate, either intentionally or through error.\n\nSeveral points were incorrectly identified as the location where Centaur sank. The first was in the War Diary Situation Report entry for the hospital ship's sinking, which gives , 7 nautical miles (13 km; 8.1 mi) east of Rippon's position. According to Milligan and Foley, this likely occurred because an estimated 50-nautical-mile (93 km; 58 mi) distance from Brisbane, included as a frame of reference, was interpreted literally. In 1974, two divers claimed to have found the ship approximately 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi) east of Brisbane, in 60 metres (200 ft) of water, but did not disclose its exact location. Attempts to relocate the site between 1974 and 1992 were unsuccessful, an associate of the divers claiming that the Navy destroyed the wreck shortly after its discovery.\n\n### Dennis's claim\n\nIn 1995, it was announced that the shipwreck of Centaur had been located in waters 9 nautical miles (17 km; 10 mi) from the lighthouse on Moreton Island, a significant distance from her believed last position. The finding was reported on A Current Affair, during which footage of the shipwreck, 170 metres (560 ft) underwater, was shown. Discoverer Donald Dennis claimed the identity of the shipwreck had been confirmed by the Navy, the Queensland Maritime Museum, and the Australian War Memorial. A cursory search by the Navy confirmed the presence of a shipwreck at the given location, which was gazetted as a war grave and added to navigation charts by the Australian Hydrographic Office.\n\nOver the next eight years, there was growing doubt about the position of Dennis' wreck, due to the distance from both Second Officer Rippon's calculation of the point of sinking and where USS Mugford found the survivors. During this time, Dennis had been convicted on two counts of deception and one of theft through scams. Two wreck divers, Trevor Jackson and Simon Mitchell, used the location for a four-hour world record dive on 14 May 2002, during which they examined the wreck and took measurements, claiming that the ship was too small to be Centaur. Jackson had been studying Centaur for some time, and believed that the wreck was actually another, much smaller ship, the 55-metre-long (180 ft) MV Kyogle, a lime freighter purchased by the Royal Australian Air Force and sunk during bombing practice on 12 May 1951. The facts gathered on the dive were inconclusive, but the divers remained adamant it was not Centaur, and passed this information onto Nick Greenaway, producer of the newsmagazine show 60 Minutes.\n\nOn the 60th anniversary of the sinking, 60 Minutes ran a story demonstrating that the wreck was not Centaur. It was revealed that nobody at the Queensland Maritime Museum had yet seen Dennis' footage, and when it was shown to Museum president Rod McLeod and maritime historian John Foley, they stated that the shipwreck could not be Centaur due to physical inconsistencies, such as an incorrect rudder. Following this story, and others published around the same time in newspapers, the Navy sent three ships to inspect the site over a two-month period; HMA Ships , , and , before concluding that the shipwreck was incorrectly identified as Centaur. An amendment was made to the gazettal, and the Hydrographic Office began to remove the mark from charts.\n\n### Discovery\n\nIn April 2008, following the successful discovery of HMAS Sydney, several parties began calling for a dedicated search for Centaur. By the end of 2008, the Australian Federal and Queensland State governments had formed a joint committee and contributed A\\$2 million each towards a search, and tenders to supply equipment (including the search vessel, side-scan sonar systems, and a remotely operated inspection submersible) were opened in February 2009, and awarded during the year. The search, conducted from the Defence Maritime Services vessel Seahorse Spirit and overseen by shipwreck hunter David Mearns, commenced during the weekend of 12–13 December 2009. The initial search area off Cape Moreton covered 1,365 square kilometres (527 sq mi), the search team being given 35 days to locate and film the wreck before funding was exhausted.\n\nSix sonar targets with similar dimensions to Centaur were located between 15 and 18 December: as none of the contacts corresponded completely to the hospital ship, the search team opted to take advantage of favourable weather conditions and continue investigating the area before returning to each site and making a detailed inspection with a higher-resolution sonar. On the afternoon of 18 December, the sonar towfish separated from the cable, and was lost in 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) of water, forcing the use of the high-resolution sonar to complete the area search. After inspecting the potential targets, Mearns and the search team announced on 20 December that they had found Centaur that morning.\n\nThe wreck was found at (30 nautical miles (56 km; 35 mi) east of Moreton Island, and less than 1 nautical mile (1.9 km; 1.2 mi) from Rippon's coordinates), resting 2,059 metres (6,755 ft) below sea level in a steep-walled gully, 150 metres (490 ft) wide and 90 metres (300 ft) deep. After returning to shore for Christmas and to install a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) aboard Seahorse Spirit, the search team commenced efforts to document the wreck, the first photographs being taken by the ROV in the early morning of 10 January 2010 confirming that the wreck is Centaur. Conditions for documenting the hospital ship were not optimal on the first ROV dive, and three more dives were made during 11 and 12 January. During the four dives, over 24 hours of footage were collected, along with several photographs: features identified during the operation include the Red Cross identification number, the hospital ship markings, and the ship's bell. The Centaur wreck site has been marked as a war grave and protected with a navigational exclusion zone under the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976.\n\n## Memorials\n\nIn 1948, Queensland nurses established the \"Centaur Memorial Fund for Nurses\" which used the money raised to purchase an establishment and name it \"Centaur House\"; a facility supporting nurses by holding convivial meetings and providing inexpensive accommodation for out-of-town nurses. The original Centaur House was sold in 1971, a new building being purchased and renamed. The second Centaur House was sold in 1979 and although the fund still exists, it no longer owns a physical facility. On 15 September 1968, a cairn was unveiled at Caloundra, Queensland, erected by the local Rotary International Club. In 1990, a stained glass memorial window depicting Centaur, along with a plaque listing the names of those lost in the attack, was installed at Concord Repatriation General Hospital, at a cost of A\\$16,000. A display about Centaur was placed at the Australian War Memorial. The centrepiece of the display was a scale model of Centaur presented to the Memorial by Blue Funnel Line, and the display included items that were donated by the survivors, such as a lifejacket, a signal flare, and a medical kit. It was removed in 1992 to make way for a display related to the Vietnam War.\n\nA memorial to Centaur was unveiled at Point Danger, Coolangatta, Queensland on 14 May 1993, the 50th anniversary of the sinking. It consists of a monumental stone topped with a cairn, surrounded by a tiled moat with memorial plaques explaining the commemoration. The memorial is surrounded by a park with a boardwalk, overlooking the sea, with plaques for other Merchant Navy and Royal Australian Navy vessels lost during World War II. The unveiling of the memorial was performed by Minister for Veterans' Affairs, Senator John Faulkner.\n\nA memorial plaque was laid on the foredeck of Centaur on 12 January 2010, during the fourth and final ROV dive on the hospital ship. This would normally be a breach of the Historic Shipwrecks Act, but a special dispensation permitted the manoeuvre, as placing the plaque on the seabed next to the ship would have seen it sink into the sediment. Following the ship's discovery, a national memorial service at St John's Cathedral, Brisbane on 2 March 2010 was attended by over 600 people, including Prime Minister Kevin Rudd. A second ceremony for 300 relatives of the hospital ship's personnel was held aboard on 24 September. During the service, which occurred over the wreck site, wreaths were laid and the ashes of three survivors were scattered.\n\n## See also\n\n- USS Hope (AH-7)\n- USS Relief\n- USS Comfort (AH-6)\n- SS Op ten Noort''\n- Japanese war crimes", "revid": "1154836674", "description": "Hospital ship shipwreck in Queensland, Australia", "categories": ["1924 ships", "1943 in Australia", "Australian Shipwrecks with protected zone", "Cargo liners", "Hospital ships in World War II", "Hospital ships of the Australian Army", "Japanese war crimes", "Maritime incidents in May 1943", "Merchant ships of the United Kingdom", "Monuments and memorials in Queensland", "Queensland in World War II", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "Ships sunk by Japanese submarines", "Shipwrecks of Queensland", "World War II shipwrecks in the Coral Sea"]}
{"id": "4183", "url": null, "title": "Botany", "text": "Botany, also called plant science (or plant sciences), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term \"botany\" comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) meaning \"pasture\", \"herbs\" \"grass\", or \"fodder\"; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν (boskein), \"to feed\" or \"to graze\". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes.\n\nBotany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – plants that were edible, poisonous, and possibly medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species.\n\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.\n\nModern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity.\n\n## History\n\n### Early botany\n\nBotany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their possible medicinal properties. The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BCE, Ancient Egypt, in archaic Ancient Iranic Avestan writings, and in works from China purportedly from before 221 BCE.\n\nModern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the \"Father of Botany\". His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages, almost seventeen centuries later.\n\nAnother work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De materia medica, a five-volume encyclopedia about preliminary herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides. De materia medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years. Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī's (828–896) the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassal's The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner.\n\nIn the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities. The Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location. These gardens continued the practical value of earlier \"physic gardens\", often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for suspected medicinal uses. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject. Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621.\n\nGerman physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) was one of \"the three German fathers of botany\", along with theologian Otto Brunfels (1489–1534) and physician Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus). Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification.\n\nPhysician Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565) and herbalist John Gerard (1545–c. 1611) published herbals covering the supposed medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells, a term he coined, in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue.\n\n### Early modern botany\n\nDuring the 18th century, systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys, where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups (e.g. family, genus and species) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters. The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys. By the 18th century, new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus published his Species Plantarum, a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature. This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus. For the purposes of identification, Linnaeus's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs. The 24th group, Cryptogamia, included all plants with concealed reproductive parts, mosses, liverworts, ferns, algae and fungi.\n\nThis clinical categorization of plants was soon followed by the creation of the categories of race and sexuality; the classification of plants necessitated classification of all other living things, including humans. As a result, taxonomy and botany played an influential role in the development of scientific racism. One example of this progression is in the works of Carl Linnaeus, the previously mentioned 18th century botanist. As Linnaeus moved on from classifying plants to classifying all organisms, he published Systema Naturae, a major classificatory piece that he would continue to edit and grow over time. In his 10th edition he expands from four \"varieties\" of man - Europeans Albus, Americanus Rubescens, Asiaticus Fuscus, and Africanus Niger, based on the four known continents - he also attributes certain skin color, medical temperament, body posture, physical traits, behavior, manner of clothing, and form of government to each variety of people. In these descriptions he labels Asian people as stern, taught, and greedy; black people as sly, sluggish, and neglectful; white people as light, wise, and inventors. Linnaeus is only one of many botanists who influenced scientific racism through the categorization of organisms.\n\nIncreasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus. Adanson (1763), de Jussieu (1789), and Candolle (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed. The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later Bentham & Hooker system, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach. Darwin's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity.\n\nBotany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first \"modern\" textbook, Matthias Schleiden's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik, published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany. Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co-founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831. In 1855, Adolf Fick formulated Fick's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems.\n\nThe system in which early modern botany was practiced was very extensive. Modern botany emerged following the surge in exploration of other continents by European colonizers. Plant collectors would travel to different countries in search of new specimens for botanists to classify. Plants usable for cultivataion would then be hybridized. The history of botany has been connected to imbalanced power structures in the past. Slave labor was widespread not only in plantations but also in the running of botanical gardens; for example, on St. Vincent Island, plantation slavery was vital for the economic success of the sugar colonies and for the maintenance of the breadfruit cultivation project in the St. Vincent botanical gardens.\n\n### Late modern botany\n\nBuilding upon the gene-chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), August Weismann (1834–1914) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes. No other cells can pass on inherited characters. The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany. Her books Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century.\n\nThe discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements. Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.\n\nParticularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures. These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere. Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher, Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research. The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals. Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones. The synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides.\n\n20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics, the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis. The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait, or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed. These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.\n\nModern morphology recognises a continuum between the major morphological categories of root, stem (caulome), leaf (phyllome) and trichome. Furthermore, it emphasises structural dynamics. Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants. Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters, relying on DNA sequences as data. Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants, answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species. The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research.\n\n## Scope and importance\n\nThe study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, biochemicals, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.\n\nHistorically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals. Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities. At each of these levels, a botanist may be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), phylogeny and evolution, structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.\n\nThe strictest definition of \"plant\" includes only the \"land plants\" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases. The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in bacteriology), fungi (mycology) – including lichen-forming fungi (lichenology), non-chlorophyte algae (phycology), and viruses (virology). However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi (including lichens) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses.\n\nPalaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants. Cyanobacteria, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria, changing the ancient oxygen-free, reducing, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.\n\nAmong the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life's basic ingredients: energy, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water, and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management, conservation, human food security, biologically invasive organisms, carbon sequestration, climate change, and sustainability.\n\n### Human nutrition\n\nVirtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the first trophic level. The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as hemp, teff, maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as hemp, flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics.\n\nBotanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through plant breeding, making their work important to humanity's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations. Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany. Some of the earliest plant-people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants. This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists.\n\n## Plant biochemistry\n\nPlant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants. Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism. Others make specialised materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies, and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds.\n\nPlants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as \"algae\" have unique organelles known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors. Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue-green pigment chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a (as well as its plant and green algal-specific cousin chlorophyll b) absorbs light in the blue-violet and orange/red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms. The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy-rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that generates molecular oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) as a by-product.\n\nThe light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy. Their energy is used in the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3-carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesised. Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast. Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae, while inulin, a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae. Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose (common table sugar) for export to the rest of the plant.\n\nUnlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids. The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things, such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out.\n\nPlants synthesise a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose, pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed. Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibres that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood. Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record. It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common carbon fixation pathway. These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants.\n\n### Medicine and materials\n\nPhytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism. Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock. Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies. Many medicinal and recreational drugs, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (active ingredient in cannabis), caffeine, morphine and nicotine come directly from plants. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products. For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy. Popular stimulants come from plants, such as caffeine from coffee, tea and chocolate, and nicotine from tobacco. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate-rich plant products such as barley (beer), rice (sake) and grapes (wine). Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years. This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery.\n\nPlants can synthesise coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine, yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green, indoxyl, source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist's pigments gamboge and rose madder.\n\nSugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products. Charcoal, a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood, has a long history as a metal-smelting fuel, as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder. Cellulose, the world's most abundant organic polymer, can be converted into energy, fuels, materials and chemical feedstock. Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton. Sugarcane, rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels, important alternatives to fossil fuels, such as biodiesel. Sweetgrass was used by Native Americans to ward off bugs like mosquitoes. These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin.\n\n## Plant ecology\n\nPlant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats – the environments where they complete their life cycles. Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras, their biodiversity, genetic diversity and fitness, the adaptation of plants to their environment, and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species. Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists. This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time. The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns, productivity, environmental impact, evolution, and responses to environmental change.\n\nPlants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too. For example, they can change their environment's albedo, increase runoff interception, stabilise mineral soils and develop their organic content, and affect local temperature. Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources. They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation. Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors, climate, and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest.\n\nHerbivores eat plants, but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous. Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants. For example, mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food, ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection, honey bees, bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds.\n\n### Plants, climate and environmental change\n\nPlant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity. For example, plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology, and the biological impact of climate change and global warming. Palynology, the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates. Estimates of atmospheric concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants. Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation-B (UV-B), resulting in lower growth rates. Moreover, information from studies of community ecology, plant systematics, and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change, habitat destruction and species extinction.\n\n## Genetics\n\nInheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms. Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas). What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far-reaching benefits outside of botany. Similarly, \"jumping genes\" were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize. Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.\n\nSpecies boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals, and cross species hybrids are often possible. A familiar example is peppermint, Mentha × piperita, a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint, Mentha spicata. The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids. Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self-incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes. This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing. In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals. These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes.\n\nUnlike in higher animals, where parthenogenesis is rare, asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms. The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example. Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats, where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare, plantlets or bulbs, may develop instead of flowers, replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent. This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants. Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.\n\nMost sexually reproducing organisms are diploid, with paired chromosomes, but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis. This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism, or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid (endopolyploidy), or during gamete formation. An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species. Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally, but may be unable to cross-breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers. These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area, may be sufficiently successful to form a new species. Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals. Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid, while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid. The commercial banana is an example of a sterile, seedless triploid hybrid. Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.\n\nAs in other eukaryotes, the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non-Mendelian. Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants.\n\n### Molecular genetics\n\nA considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, a weedy species in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA, forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants. Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in 2000. The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.\n\nModel plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast. Ideally, these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced, small stature and short generation times. Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in plants. The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, while not an embryophyte itself, contains a green-pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants, making it useful for study. A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions. Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.\n\nAgrobacterium tumefaciens, a soil rhizosphere bacterium, can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus-inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer, causing a callus infection called crown gall disease. Schell and Van Montagu (1977) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species. Today, genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops.\n\n### Epigenetics\n\nEpigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism's genes to behave (or \"express themselves\") differently. One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not. Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed. Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code. Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell's life. Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.\n\nEpigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. A single fertilised egg cell, the zygote, gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma, xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tubes, guard cells of the epidermis, etc. as it continues to divide. The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others.\n\nUnlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.\n\nEpigenetic changes can lead to paramutations, which do not follow the Mendelian heritage rules. These epigenetic marks are carried from one generation to the next, with one allele inducing a change on the other.\n\n## Plant evolution\n\nThe chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical, structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria, (commonly but incorrectly known as \"blue-green algae\") and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident.\n\nThe algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others. There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition, biochemistry, pigmentation, chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves. The algal division Charophyta, sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta, is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants. The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.\n\nNonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem. They include mosses, liverworts and hornworts. Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian. Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day. By the end of the Devonian period, several groups, including the lycopods, sphenophylls and progymnosperms, had independently evolved \"megaspory\" – their spores were of two distinct sizes, larger megaspores and smaller microspores. Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory. Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers (integuments). The young sporophyte develops within the seed, which on germination splits to release it. The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage. Following the evolution of the seed habit, seed plants diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce \"naked seeds\" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary. Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms.\n\n## Plant physiology\n\nPlant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life. Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism. The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life. Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues. Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.\n\nMolecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales. Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes. Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream. Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur. Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. In vascular plants, these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem. Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes.\n\n### Plant hormones\n\nPlants are not passive, but respond to external signals such as light, touch, and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus, as appropriate. Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of Mimosa pudica, the insect traps of Venus flytrap and bladderworts, and the pollinia of orchids.\n\nThe hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century. Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity, and concluded \"It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements\". About the same time, the role of auxins (from the Greek auxein, to grow) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went. The first known auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which promotes cell growth, was only isolated from plants about 50 years later. This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity. The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA, followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification.\n\nCytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division (especially cytokinesis). The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine. Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts. The gibberelins, such as gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway. They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering. Abscisic acid (ABA) occurs in all land plants except liverworts, and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids. It inhibits cell division, promotes seed maturation, and dormancy, and promotes stomatal closure. It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission. Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine. It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission, and it, or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene, are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton, pineapples and other climacteric crops.\n\nAnother class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.\n\nIn addition to being the primary energy source for plants, light functions as a signalling device, providing information to the plant, such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day. This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as photomorphogenesis. Phytochromes are the photoreceptors in a plant that are sensitive to light.\n\n## Plant anatomy and morphology\n\nPlant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues, whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form. All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei. The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts. Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts). Uniquely, streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division.\n\nThe bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses, ferns and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems. The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures. The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll. Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis. The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts.\n\nThe root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system. Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots. Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots. Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants. In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it. In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with plants in Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia, or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant. In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots.\n\nStems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures, but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti, food as in potato tubers, or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering. Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis. Large, flat, flexible, green leaves are called foliage leaves. Gymnosperms, such as conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes are seed-producing plants with open seeds. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds. Woody plants, such as azaleas and oaks, undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues: wood (secondary xylem) and bark (secondary phloem and cork). All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants. Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.\n\nAlthough reference to major morphological categories such as root, stem, leaf, and trichome are useful, one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results. Furthermore, structures can be seen as processes, that is, process combinations.\n\n## Systematic botany\n\nSystematic botany is part of systematic biology, which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships, particularly as determined by their evolutionary history. It involves, or is related to, biological classification, scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics. Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics. While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so. The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.\n\nKingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukaryota and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Kingdom; Phylum (or Division); Class; Order; Family; Genus (plural genera); Species. The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism. For example, the tiger lily is Lilium columbianum. Lilium is the genus, and columbianum the specific epithet. The combination is the name of the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term is ordinarily italicised (or underlined when italics are not available).\n\nThe evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny. Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies. The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships. As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves. They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus. However, both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles (highly specialised pad-like structures) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related.\n\nJudging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently. Some euphorbias have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related. The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (homoplasies) or those left over from ancestors (plesiomorphies) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (apomorphies). Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor. The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms: tree-like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent.\n\nFrom the 1990s onwards, the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics, which uses molecular characters, particularly DNA sequences, rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles. The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to. Clive Stace describes this as having \"direct access to the genetic basis of evolution.\" As a simple example, prior to the use of genetic evidence, fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals. Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.\n\nIn 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, many questions, such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms, have now been answered. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants. Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa. Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed.\n\n## Symbols\n\nA few symbols are in current use in botany. A number of others are obsolete; for example, Linnaeus used planetary symbols (Mars) for biennial plants, (Jupiter) for herbaceous perennials and (Saturn) for woody perennials, based on the planets' orbital periods of 2, 12 and 30 years; and Willd used (Saturn) for neuter in addition to (Mercury) for hermaphroditic. The following symbols are still used:\n\n♀ female\n\n♂ male\n\n⚥ hermaphrodite/bisexual\n\n⚲ vegetative (asexual) reproduction\n\n◊ sex unknown\n\n☉ annual\n\n⚇ biennial\n\n♾ perennial\n\n☠ poisonous\n\n🛈 further information\n\n× crossbred hybrid\n\n\\+ grafted hybrid\n\n## See also\n\n- Branches of botany\n- Evolution of plants\n- Glossary of botanical terms\n- Glossary of plant morphology\n- List of botany journals\n- List of botanists\n- List of botanical gardens\n- List of botanists by author abbreviation\n- List of domesticated plants\n- List of flowers\n- List of systems of plant taxonomy\n- Outline of botany\n- Timeline of British botany", "revid": "1173555361", "description": "Science of Plant Life", "categories": ["Articles containing video clips", "Botany"]}
{"id": "2187780", "url": null, "title": "1988 Pacific hurricane season", "text": "The 1988 Pacific hurricane season was the least active Pacific hurricane season since 1981. It officially began May 15, in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, in the central Pacific and lasted until November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The first named storm, Tropical Storm Aletta, formed on June 16, and the last-named storm, Tropical Storm Miriam, was previously named Hurricane Joan in the Atlantic Ocean before crossing Central America and re-emerging in the eastern Pacific; Miriam continued westward and dissipated on November 2.\n\nThe season produced 23 tropical depressions, of which 15 attained tropical storm status. Seven storms reached hurricane status, three of which became major hurricanes. The strongest storm of the season, Hurricane Hector, formed on July 30 to the south of Mexico and reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h)—Category 4 status—before dissipating over open waters on August 9; Hector was never a threat to land. Tropical Storm Gilma was the only cyclone in the season to make landfall, crossing the Hawaiian Islands, although there were numerous near-misses. Gilma's Hawaiian landfall was unusual, but not unprecedented. There were also two systems that successfully crossed over from the Atlantic: the aforementioned JoanMiriam and Hurricane Debby, which became Tropical Depression Seventeen-E, making the 1988 season the first on record in which more than one tropical cyclone has crossed between the Atlantic and Pacific basins intact. Three systems caused deaths: Tropical Storm Aletta caused one death in southwestern Mexico, Hurricane Uleki caused two drownings off the coast of Oahu as it passed by the Hawaiian Islands, and Hurricane Kristy caused 21 deaths in the Mexican states of Oaxaca and Chipas.\n\n## Seasonal summary\n\nThe accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index for the 1988 Pacific hurricane season was 127.45 units (87.79 units from the Eastern Pacific and 39.66 units from the Central Pacific).\n\nThe total tropical activity in the season was below-average. There were 13 cyclones in the Eastern Pacific, as well as two in the Central. Of the 15 cyclones, one crossed from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific, and another moved from the Central Pacific to the Western Pacific. In the Eastern Pacific, there were seven cyclones peaking as a tropical storm, and six hurricanes, of which two reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale. A tropical storm and a major hurricane occurred in the Central Pacific.\n\nTropical Storm Gilma made the only landfalls of the season in the Hawaiian Islands, causing some rainfall, but no direct deaths or damage occurred as a result of it. These were the only landfalls in the season that were made, which is unusual as most landfalls in the Eastern Pacific occur on the Mexican coast. This is due to the closeness of the Mexican region to the major source of tropical activity to the west of Central America. Hurricane Uleki, the strongest hurricane in the Central Pacific region during the season, caused two drownings in Oahu and heavy waves hit the coast of the Hawaiian Islands. Tropical Storm Miriam, the last storm of the season, formed as a result of Hurricane Joan from the Atlantic, and flooding resulted in parts of Central America, due to heavy rainfall.\n\n## Systems\n\n### Tropical Depression One-E\n\nA tropical disturbance organized into the first eastern Pacific tropical depression of the season on June 15. A convective band on the north and west sides of the system became well-defined, and anticyclonic outflow allowed for initial organization. After forming, the depression tracked west-southwestward and intensified due to disrupted outflow from a large air stream disturbance. On June 16, strong convection with spiral banding developed over the depression, although it failed to strengthen further. A low-pressure l northwest of the depression in combination with Tropical Storm Aletta to the northeast caused the depression to weaken, and it dissipated on June 18.\n\n### Tropical Storm Aletta\n\nA tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and progressed westward through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean, before crossing over Central America on June 13 and emerging into the warm waters of the east Pacific on June 14. Shortly after, satellite imagery showed good upper-level outflow, although cloud banding remained disorganized. On June 16, the broad circulation better organized on the northeastern section, with deep convection developing. A tropical depression formed later that day about 200 miles (320 km) to the southeast of Acapulco, Mexico. It developed further as it moved northward toward the southwest coast of Mexico, and had organized sufficiently to be named Tropical Storm Aletta on June 17. The cyclone drifted north-northwest for the next 36 hours before turning westward, parallel to the Mexican coast. The storm began to lose its convection on June 19 and weakened into a tropical depression later that day. The depression weakened further into a weak low-level circulation before dissipating on June 21. Although Aletta approached the Acapulco area of the Mexican coast, it did not make landfall. The portion of coast affected by Aletta received heavy rainfall; unofficial reports state that one person died as a result of the storm, and the storm produced some damage due to rainfall and flooding.\n\n### Tropical Storm Bud\n\nSatellite imagery first detected a low-level circulation on June 20, associated with some heavy convection, 200 miles (320 km) south of the Mexico–Guatemala border, and it intensified into a tropical depression. The cyclone moved northwest then west-northwest over two days. A 40 mph (64 km/h) wind report from a ship on June 21 allowed the depression to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Bud later that day. For the next day, the low-level circulation moved away from its deep convection, dissipating near Acapulco, Mexico. A portion of Bud remaining over land may have been part of the reason for the lack of strengthening of the cyclone.\n\n### Tropical Depression Four-E\n\nA system developed in the eastern Pacific, and later strengthened into a tropical depression on July 1, when it obtained a better defined low-level circulation. The center was exposed, with little convection on the northeast side, due to shear aloft. The system moved to the northwest, while shear continued to move the deep convection of the cyclone to the southwest of its center of circulation. The circulation completely lacked deep convection late on July 2, although it continued to have a well-defined low-level center. The depression drifted slowly northward, located south of Baja California, before dissipating just south of the peninsula on July 4, with no circulation or deep convection detected. A small amount of associated rainfall affected Baja California, as the cyclone passed near the peninsula.\n\n### Hurricane Carlotta\n\nA tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on June 23, and for the next two weeks, moved through the tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean and later crossed Central America. It began developing further when it entered the Pacific Ocean and became a dense area of moisture and cloudiness. The wave developed into a disturbance on July 8, and attained tropical depression status in the afternoon on July 8, south of Mexico. After entering a favorable area of warm waters, the depression strengthened to Tropical Storm Carlotta on July 9. Carlotta continued to develop, reached peak strength, and developed into Hurricane Carlotta on July 11. During the duration of the storm, Carlotta was not considered a hurricane, however after post-season reanalysis Carlotta's strength was upgraded to minimal hurricane status. As it moved into less favorable conditions it lost strength and weakened to a tropical storm on July 12. Carlotta began to lose its deep convection, and weakened into a tropical depression on July 13 as it moved into cooler waters. It later moved west-southwest and dissipated on July 15.\n\n### Tropical Storm Daniel\n\nA tropical wave moved off the coast of northwestern Africa on July 4, and moved through tropical regions of the northern Atlantic and Caribbean without the indication of development. The tropical disturbance crossed Central America on July 14, and from then until July 18, the westward motion decreased, as convection and organization increased over warm waters. It developed into a tropical depression on July 19, and into Tropical Storm Daniel 600 miles (970 km) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California on July 20. A high pressure system over the western United States and northern Mexico forced Daniel and an upper-level low on parallel west-northwest paths. Daniel stayed generally the same strength for the next few days, reaching peak strength on July 23. Daniel declined into a tropical depression on July 25 and dissipated on July 26.\n\n### Tropical Storm Emilia\n\nOn July 15, a tropical wave exited Africa and crossed the Atlantic Ocean. It crossed into the Pacific Ocean on July 24, developing convection and outflow. On July 27, it organized into a tropical depression off the southwest coast of Mexico. Continuing generally westward, the thunderstorm activity fluctuated, and slowly developing, it intensified into Tropical Storm Emilia on July 29. The storm attained peak winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) on July 30, although wind shear and interaction with nearby Tropical Storm Fabio prevented further intensification; the low-level circulation was located along the northwest edge of the deepest convection. It became disorganized and difficult to locate on satellite imagery, and soon the circulation was exposed from the thunderstorms. On August 1, Emilia weakened to tropical depression status, and late on August 2, the last advisory was issued as the system had become very disorganized with minimal convection. Its remnants were tracked for the next few days, and although some deep convection returned momentarily, the system's convection soon disappeared.\n\n### Hurricane Fabio\n\nA well-organized ITCZ disturbance with deep convection organized further over the northeastern Pacific Ocean on July 28. It developed into a tropical depression later that day, while 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California. The position of Fabio's formation was much further south and west than where most tropical cyclones form during the same time period. The depression moved westward while gradually strengthening and it developed into Tropical Storm Fabio on July 29. It intensified further over the next few days and it intensified into a hurricane on July 31. The system increased its speed as it steadily strengthened further. A trough turned the storm west-northwestward on August 3. Satellite estimates indicated that Fabio reached its maximum intensity later on August 3, with a well-defined eye with very deep convection surrounding it. The Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for the Big Island on August 4, due to the threatening west-northwest turn towards it. However, the retreat of a trough later turned Fabio back to the west and the CPHC discontinued the tropical storm watch on August 5. Fabio's good upper-level conditions later weakened and began to lose its convection over cooler waters. Fabio quickly weakened and it weakened into a tropical storm again later on August 5, and back to a depression on August 6. The depression turned west-northwestward again on August 8, but Fabio dissipated on August 9. As the cyclone moved near the Hawaiian islands, heavy rainfall fell across the chain, peaking at 18.75 in (476 mm) near Pāpa'ikou on the island of Hawaii.\n\n### Tropical Depression Nine-E\n\nA tropical depression developed in the eastern Pacific on July 28, forecast to be absorbed by a very close nearby depression, later Tropical Storm Gilma. The depression moved northward, although in unfavorable conditions. The cyclone weakened as the depression to the southwest strengthened further. Limited deep convection developed with the system, although the cyclone continued in unfavorable conditions with shearing. Visible satellite imagery later showed a very weak system, and the storm dissipated on July 29.\n\n### Tropical Storm Gilma\n\nA wave that previously moved through the Atlantic from the northwest coast of Africa, crossed over Central America into the Pacific on July 17 or July 18. On July 19, this disturbance was 700 miles (1,100 km) to the southeast of the developing Tropical Storm Daniel. The system moved westward for the following week without any signs of intensification. However, on July 26 and 27, the system appeared to be strengthening due to a banding pattern. By July 28, the convection underwent further organization with some weak outflow high in the storm. It developed into a tropical depression later on July 28, much further west then most east Pacific storms develop at. For the next day the cyclone remained fairly stationary, but began to strengthen over warm waters. On July 29 the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gilma, based on satellite imagery. Limited intensification followed, due to shear high in the storm. It weakened a tropical depression again on July 30, due to weakness depicted in satellite imagery. Gilma then moved west-northwestward through the northeast Pacific. The depression skirted the Hawaiian Islands, but dissipated near Oahu on August 3. On the Hawaiian Islands there were no direct damage or deaths, although some rainfall occurred on the islands.\n\n### Hurricane Hector\n\nA tropical depression formed on July 30, while 400 miles (640 km) south of Acapulco, Mexico. The depression tracked west-northwestward, becoming Tropical Storm Hector on July 31. Its west-northwest motion continued, due to an area of high pressure to its north, and Hector intensified into a hurricane on August 2. Based on satellite data, the hurricane is estimated to have reached its peak intensity of 145 mph (233 km/h) on August 3; this made Hector a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale, which was the strongest storm of the season. Hector began to move due west on August 5 and it had already begun weakening. The storm continued westward increasing its forward speed. On August 6 it had appeared Hector had strengthened, but steadily weakened afterwards and finally dissipated on August 9, while 650 miles (1,050 km) east of Hilo, Hawaii. Hector was never a threat to land.\n\n### Hurricane Iva\n\nA wave that first came off the northwest coast of Africa moved through the Atlantic, before entering the East Pacific on August 4. The wave developed more organized convection when it entered the region, and it turned into a tropical depression on August 5, while 165 miles (266 km) south of Oaxaca, Mexico. It developed into Tropical Storm Iva on August 6. Iva turned on a west-northwestward course and continued strengthening, before it developed into a hurricane on August 7. The cyclone moved northwestward after becoming a hurricane, and satellites estimate it reached peak intensity on August 8. On the same day Iva passed within 50 miles (80 km) of Socorro Island. Winds of 45 mph (72 km/h) were reported on the island along with moderate rain. The storm moved through cooler waters for the next day, and began to weaken. Iva declined into a tropical storm again on August 9, and by August 10 the cyclone lost its deep convection along with organization. It intensified into a tropical depression again on August 11, and moved southwest due to a high pressure before dissipating on August 13.\n\n### Tropical Depression Thirteen-E\n\nA tropical depression formed on August 12, with movement towards the west-northwest. It continued toward the west-northwest, near the circulation of Tropical Storm Iva. The low-level circulation of the cyclone was displaced to the east of the deep convection, and the system moved to the northwest. The depression lost much of its convection later on August 13, and it had a less defined center. The cyclone turned to the south, and lost its associated deep convection. Some weak convection redeveloped near the center, but the depression dissipated later on August 14.\n\n### Tropical Storm John\n\nA disturbance that passed off the northwestern African coast on August 3 crossed the Atlantic Ocean, before entering into the Pacific. A tropical depression formed in the East Pacific on August 16, 150 miles (240 km) southwest of Manzanillo, Mexico, based on satellite estimates. The cyclone progressed slowly northwestward, and intensified Tropical Storm John on August 17, less than 24 hours after its formation. John continued northwest for a short while, before the low-level center of circulation had been exposed. John degenerated to a tropical depression on August 18 due to a lack of convection, made a loop while less than 100 miles (160 km) south of the southern tip of Baja California. It shortly became a little better organized after completing the loop on August 20, but John dissipated on August 21, southwest of Baja California, due to shearing and cold waters. Its remnants continued northwestward parallel to the southwest coast of Baja California. John caused no reported deaths or damage.\n\n### Tropical Depression Fifteen-E\n\nOn August 26, a disturbance south of Baja California organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen-E. Initially, the system moved northwest towards cooler waters as the location of the low-level circulation was to the southwest of the deep convection associated with the cyclone. The center drifted to the east of the small area of concentrated convection, and its intensity remained steady. It weakened and became loosely defined due to upper-level wind shear, and the storm lost all of its convection before dissipating and degenerating into a low-level swirl.\n\n### Hurricane Uleki\n\nTowards the end of August, tropical activity in the ITCZ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands began to be monitored. On August 28, this tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression, as it was located about 800 miles (1,300 km) southeast of the Big Island. It intensified at a fair rate, and intensified Tropical Storm Uleki the next day. It continued to strengthen, and reached hurricane intensity on August 31. It moved slowly west-northwest until steering currents collapsed on September 1. Now a Category 3 hurricane, Uleki slowly edged north towards the Hawaiian Islands. After looping, Uleki resumed its westward path on September 4. Its stalling in the ocean had weakened it, and the hurricane passed midway between Johnston Island and French Frigate Shoals. Uleki crossed the dateline on September 8. It turned slightly to the north and meandered in the open Pacific days until it dissipated on September 14.\n\nAs Uleki drifted towards the Hawaiian Islands, tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau on September 3. In addition, reconnaissance missions were flown into the hurricane. Uleki caused heavy surf on the Hawaiian Islands, that being its only significant effect. This heavy surf flooded the southeastern runway on Midway Island, and produced two drownings on Oahu. Nineteen people were also rescued from rough surf, with five- to six-foot (1.5 to 1.8 meter) waves, off the coast of beaches in Hawaii.\n\n### Hurricane Kristy\n\nA tropical wave passed off the northwestern coast of Africa on August 6. It did not develop as it passed through the Atlantic Ocean, until August 19 when convection began to form. On August 20 the disturbance turned into Tropical Depression Six in the Atlantic basin. It passed from the Leeward Islands up to the central Caribbean, until it dissipated on August 23. As it passed over Central America, the disturbance had little remaining convection. However, the convection associated with the system began to organize when it entered the Pacific, and it strengthened into a tropical depression on August 29, while located 300 miles (480 km) south-southeast of Acapulco, Mexico. Later that day the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy, based on ship reports of tropical storm force winds. Kristy strengthened into a hurricane on August 31, based solely on satellite imagery. Hurricane Kristy had short lifespan though, and weakened to a tropical storm on September 2. The easterly shear associated with an anticyclone south of Baja California, which caused Kristy's convection to be forced west of the low-level center of the system, and therefore weakened it. Kristy weakened further to a depression on September 3, and weak steering currents allowed the cyclone to remain stationary on September 4, loop the following day, and then began to move eastward. The depression dissipated on September 6.\n\nAlthough the storm passed relatively close to the coast, no tropical cyclone warnings and watches were required as the storm remained offshore. However, Kristy produced heavy rains and widespread flooding in the Mexican states of Chiapas and Oaxaca; as a result, several rivers overflowed their banks. Thousands of tourists were stranded from the beaches. At least 21 deaths were attributed to Kristy: 16 in Oaxaca and 5 in Chiapas. More than 20,000 people in the former were evacuated from their homes; consequently, a state of emergency was declared. The outer rainbands of Kristy delayed the rescue of the victims of a Brazilian-made aircraft that crashed west of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range. No official damage figures were reported by the Mexican government.\n\n### Tropical Depression Seventeen-E\n\nThe remnants of Hurricane Debby moved over the mountainous areas of Mexico, passing into the Pacific from the Pacific coast of Mexico near Manzanillo. The disturbance moved towards the north-northwest and organized into a tropical depression on September 6 just south of the Gulf of California. The cyclone remained stationary due to weak low-level steering currents, later drifting to the north-northwest with an area of deep convection causing rain on the Mexican coast. It later moved to the northwest, with partial exposure of the center of the system, and with some shear still affecting it. The cyclone continued to have shear over the system, which caused it not to strengthen, and its movement became nearly stationary. After remaining stationary longer, the system dissipated as a low-level swirl.\n\n### Tropical Depression Eighteen-E\n\nA disturbance organized, and based on satellite imagery it strengthened into a tropical depression on September 12. The center of circulation remained on the eastern fringe of its deep convection and the storm moved west or west-northwestward. On September 13, the depression underwent shearing, while its low-level circulation center had only a small amount of deep convection associated with it. The cyclone became poorly defined, and its movement turned stationary on September 14. The low-level circulation of the system remained visible, even though it weakened due to shearing. Little deep convection remained associated with the system, and the cyclone stayed stationary. The depression having no remaining convection and having become just a low-level cloud swirl, dissipated on September 15.\n\n### Tropical Storm Wila\n\nA tropical depression formed on September 21 as an area of deep convection. The cyclone organized slowly though, drifting slowly, initially west then to the northwest. However, the depression recurved northeast, due to a trough. As the cyclone moved northeast, the system strengthened as indicated by an Air Force reconnaissance plane showing tropical storm force winds. It therefore intensified into Tropical Storm Wila on September 25. Wila, however, weakened within a day, and therefore became a tropical depression. The remnant low of Wila produced some heavy rain over the Hawaiian Islands on September 26 and 27.\n\n### Hurricane Lane\n\nA wave moved westward off the coast of Africa, passed through the Caribbean, and into the ITCZ of the eastern Pacific on September 20. The system developed organized deep convection, and strengthened into a tropical depression on September 21, while 300 miles (480 km) southeast of Acapulco, Mexico. As the low-level circulation organized further in the depression it intensified into Tropical Storm Lane, later on September 21. Lane developed further with an upper-level outflow pattern, and the cyclone turned into a hurricane on September 23. Later on September 23 and on September 24, an eye appeared on satellite imagery. A trough to the northwest of Lane disturbed its upper-level outflow on September 24. Diminishing convection and loss of its eye caused Lane to weaken to a tropical storm on September 27, and into a depression on September 28. Later on September 28, the cyclone moved into cooler waters and Lane lost nearly all of its deep convection. It weakened into a low-level swirl, and Lane dissipated on September 30. Lane caused no reported casualties or damage.\n\n### Tropical Depression Twenty-E\n\nThe remnants of Atlantic basin Tropical Storm Isaac moved into the eastern Pacific. These remnants underwent better organization and strengthened into a tropical depression on October 11 south of Baja California. Strong vertical southwesterly wind shear affected the cyclone, with the center of circulation later seen on the west side of the lessening amount of deep convection. The system remained poorly organized and had trouble strengthening to this continual poor organization as it moved westward. The system could not be located on satellite imagery and therefore dissipated on October 12.\n\n### Tropical Storm Miriam\n\nAtlantic Hurricane Joan survived the passage over Central America and entered the Pacific, although greatly weakened. Following the policy at the time, Joan was renamed Miriam.\n\nMiriam brought heavy rains to parts of Central America. Isolated flooding and mudslides happened, although casualties and damage reports are not available. 10.37 in (263 mm) of rain fell in Kantunilkin/Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexico as a result of Miriam and the former Joan. Guatemala's ports along its Pacific coast were closed and people in El Salvador were evacuated from low-lying areas due to the storm. Miriam then turned away from Central America and weakened to a depression. The depression survived for over a week until it dissipated on October 30. Tropical Depression Miriam's remnants regenerated the next day, and Miriam finally dissipated on November 2.\n\n## Storm names\n\nThe following names were used to name storms that formed in the northeastern Pacific Ocean during 1988. Retired names, were announced by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1989. The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1994 season. This is the same list used in the 1982 season.\n\nFor storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line, all names are used in a series of four rotating lists. The next four names that were slated for use in 1988 are shown below.\n\n### Retirement\n\nThe World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1989: Iva. It was replaced with Ileana for the 1994 Pacific hurricane season.\n\n## Season effects\n\nThis is a table of all of the storms that have formed in the 1988 Pacific hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, landfall(s), denoted in parenthesis, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1988 USD.\n\n\\|- \\| One-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Aletta \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Southwestern Mexico \\|\\| Minor \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Bud \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Mexico \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Four-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Carlotta \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Daniel \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Emilia \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Fabio \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Hawaii \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Nine-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Gilma \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Hawaii \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Hector \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Iva \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Thirteen-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| John \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Fifteen-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Uleki \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Hawaii \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Kristy \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Western Mexico \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| Seventeen-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Western Mexico \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Eighteen-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Wila \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Lane \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Twenty-E \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|- \\| Miriam \\|\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| Central America \\|\\| Unknown \\|\\| None \\|\\| \\|-\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Pacific hurricanes\n- Pacific hurricane season\n- 1988 Atlantic hurricane season\n- 1988 Pacific typhoon season\n- 1988 North Indian Ocean cyclone season\n- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1987–88, 1988–89\n- Australian region cyclone seasons: 1987–88, 1988–89\n- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1987–88, 1988–89", "revid": "1144340848", "description": "Hurricane season in the Pacific Ocean", "categories": ["1988 Pacific hurricane season", "Articles which contain graphical timelines", "Pacific hurricane seasons", "Tropical cyclones in 1988"]}
{"id": "419038", "url": null, "title": "Lolicon", "text": "In Japanese popular culture, lolicon (ロリコン, also romanized as rorikon or lolicom) is a genre of fictional media in which young (or young-looking) girl characters appear in romantic or sexual contexts. The term also refers to desire and affection for such characters (ロリ, \"loli\"), and fans of such characters and works. Associated with unrealistic and stylized imagery within manga, anime, and video games, lolicon in otaku (manga/anime fan) culture is understood as distinct from desires for realistic depictions of girls, or real girls as such, and is associated with the concept of moe, or feelings of affection and love for fictional characters as such (often cute characters in manga and anime).\n\nThe phrase \"Lolita complex\", derived from the novel Lolita, entered use in Japan in the 1970s, when sexual imagery of the shōjo (idealized young girl) was expanding in the country's media. During the \"lolicon boom\" in adult manga of the early 1980s, the term was adopted in the nascent otaku culture to denote attraction to early bishōjo (cute girl) characters, and later to only younger-looking depictions as bishōjo designs became more varied. The artwork of the boom, strongly influenced by the round styles of shōjo manga (marketed to girls), marked a shift from previous realism and the advent of \"cute eroticism\" (kawaii ero), an aesthetic now common in manga and anime more broadly. The lolicon boom faded by the mid-1980s, and the genre has since made up a minority of erotic manga.\n\nA moral panic against \"harmful manga\" in the 1990s has made lolicon a keyword in manga debates in Japan. Child pornography laws in some countries include depictions of fictional child characters, while those in other countries, including Japan, do not. Opponents and supporters have debated if the genre contributes to child sexual abuse. Cultural critics generally identify lolicon with a broader separation between fiction and reality in otaku sexuality.\n\n## Definition and scope\n\nLolicon is a Japanese abbreviation of \"Lolita complex\" (ロリータ・コンプレックス, rorīta konpurekkusu), an English-language phrase and wasei-eigo derived from Vladimir Nabokov's novel Lolita (1955) but in Japan more associated with Russell Trainer's The Lolita Complex (1966, translated 1969), a work of pop psychology in which the author uses the term to describe adult male attraction to pubescent and pre-pubescent females. In Japanese, the phrase was adopted to describe feelings of love and lust for young girls over adult women, which remains the phrase's common meaning. Due to its association with otaku (manga and anime fan) culture, however, the term today is more often used to describe desires for young or young-looking girl characters (ロリ, \"loli\") which are generally understood to exist and be satisfied in fiction, though the meaning of the term remains contested and for the public at large still carries a connotation of pedophilia. Lolicon also refers to sexualized works which feature such characters, and fans of these works and characters. It is distinct from more formal words for pedophilia (yōji-zuki or pedofiria; clinically, shōniseiai or jidōseiai) and child pornography (jidō poruno).\n\nThe meaning of lolicon in the otaku context developed in the early 1980s, during the \"lolicon boom\" in adult manga (see ). According to editor and critic Akira Akagi, the term's meaning moved away from the sexual pairing of an older man and a young girl, and instead came to describe desire for \"cuteness\" and \"girl-ness\" in manga and anime. Other critics defined lolicon as the desire for \"cute things\", \"manga-like\" or \"anime-like\" characters, \"roundness\", and the \"two-dimensional\", as opposed to \"real\". At the time, all eroticism in the manga style featuring cute girl (bishōjo) characters was associated with the term, and synonyms of \"Lolita complex\" included \"two-dimensional complex\" (nijigen konpurekkusu), \"two-dimensional fetishism\" (nijikon fechi), \"two-dimensional syndrome\" (nijikon shōkōgun), \"cute girl syndrome\" (bishōjo shōkōgun), and simply \"sickness\" (byōki). As character body types in erotic manga became more varied by the end of the lolicon boom, the scope of the term narrowed to more young-looking depictions.\n\nLolicon became a keyword in debates after the 1989 arrest of Tsutomu Miyazaki, a serial killer of young girls who was portrayed in media reports as an otaku (see ). As lolicon was conflated with desire for real children in debates on \"harmful manga\", the early meaning was replaced among otaku by moe, which refers to feelings of affection and love for characters more generally. Like moe, lolicon is still used by otaku to refer to attraction that is consciously distinct from reality; some otaku identify as \"two-dimensional lolicon\" (nijigen rorikon) to clarify their attraction to characters. The term has become a keyword in criticism of manga and sexuality within Japan, as well as globally with the spread of Japanese popular culture.\n\n## History\n\n### Background\n\nIn the 1970s, shōjo manga (marketed to girls) underwent a renaissance in which artists experimented with new narratives and styles, and introduced themes such as psychology, gender, and sexuality. These developments attracted adult male fans of shōjo manga, who crossed gendered boundaries to produce and consume it. The first appearance of the term \"Lolita complex\" in manga was in Stumbling Upon a Cabbage Patch, an Alice in Wonderland–inspired work by Shinji Wada published in the June 1974 issue of the shōjo manga magazine Bessatsu Margaret, where a male character calls Lewis Carroll a man with a \"strange character of liking only small children\" in an inside joke to adult readers. Early lolicon artwork was influenced by male artists mimicking shōjo manga, as well as erotic manga created by female artists for male readers.\n\nThe image of the shōjo (young girl) became dominant in Japanese mass media by the 1970s as an idealization of cuteness, innocence, and an \"idealized Eros\", attributes which became attached to imagery of younger girls over time. Nude photographs of shōjo, conceived as fine art, gained popularity: a photo collection entitled Nymphet: The Myth of the 12-Year-Old [ja] was published in 1969, and in 1972 and 1973 there was an \"Alice boom\" in nude photos themed around Alice in Wonderland. Specialty adult magazines carrying nude photos, fiction, and essays on the appeal of young girls emerged in the 1980s; this trend faded in the late 1980s, due to backlash and because many men preferred images of shōjo in manga and anime. The spread of such imagery, both in photographs and in manga, may have been helped by prohibitions on displaying pubic hair under Japan's obscenity laws.\n\n### 1970s–1980s\n\nThe rise of lolicon as a genre began at Comiket (Comic Market), a convention for the sale of dōjinshi (self-published works) founded in 1975 by the group Meikyu [ja] (Labyrinth), made of adult male fans of shōjo manga; in 1979, a group of male artists published the first issue of the fanzine Cybele [ja], whose standout work was an erotic parody of Little Red Riding Hood by Hideo Azuma, known as a pioneer of lolicon. Prior to Cybele, the dominant style in seinen (marketed to men) and pornographic manga was gekiga, characterized by realism, sharp angles, dark hatching, and gritty linework. Azuma's work, in contrast, displayed light shading and clean, circular lines, which he saw as \"thoroughly erotic\" and sharing with shōjo manga a \"lack of reality\". Azuma's combination of the stout bodies of Osamu Tezuka's manga and the emotive faces of shōjo manga marked the advent of the bishōjo character and the aesthetic of \"cute eroticism\" (kawaii ero). While erotic, Azuma's manga was also viewed as humorous and parodic; only a minority of readers found his style erotic at first, but a large fan base soon grew in response to the alternative to pornographic gekiga that it represented. Erotic manga mostly moved away from combining realistic bodies and cartoony faces towards a wholly-unrealistic style. Lolicon manga played a role in attracting male fans to Comiket, an event originally dominated by women (90 percent of participants were female at its first run in 1975); in 1981, the number of male and female participants was equal. Lolicon, mostly created by and for men, served as a response to yaoi (manga featuring male homoeroticism), mostly created by and for women.\n\nThe early 1980s saw a \"lolicon boom\" in professional and amateur art. The popularity of lolicon within the otaku community would attract the attention of publishers with the creation of specialty publications dedicated to the genre, including Lemon People (1982) and Manga Burikko (1982). Lemon People in particular was one of the first lolicon manga magazines published in Japan, with the first issue's cover stating that it \"had the monopoly on lolicon comic content in 1982\", expressing the excitement over the word lolicon itself. Other magazines of the boom included Manga Hot Milk [ja], Melon Comic, and Halfliter [ja]. The genre's rise was closely linked to the concurrent development of otaku culture and growing fan consciousness; the word otaku itself was coined in Burikko in 1983. Originally founded as an unprofitable gekiga magazine, the publication was transformed into a lolicon magazine in 1983 by editor Eiji Ōtsuka, whose intention was to publish \"shōjo manga for boys\". Artwork in the magazine continued the trend started by Azuma rooted in the soft styles of shōjo manga, with less realism and fewer explicit depictions of sex; in November 1983, Burikko's editors yielded to reader demands by removing photographs of gravure idol models from its opening pages, printing an issue with the subtitle \"Totally Bishōjo Comic Magazine\". Lolicon magazines regularly published female artists, such as Kyoko Okazaki and Erika Sakurazawa, and male artists such as Aki Uchiyama [ja], the \"King of Lolicon\", who produced 160 pages of manga per month to meet demand. Uchiyama's works were published in both niche magazines such as Lemon People and in the mainstream Shōnen Champion. The first-ever pornographic anime series was Lolita Anime, released episodically in 1984–1985.\n\nIconic characters of the boom include Clarisse from the film Lupin III: Castle of Cagliostro (1979) and Lana from the TV series Future Boy Conan (1978), both directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Clarisse was especially popular, and inspired a series of articles discussing her appeal in the anime specialty magazines Gekkan Out [ja], Animec [ja], and Animage, as well as a trend of fan works (dubbed \"Clarisse magazines\") that were not explicitly sexual, but instead \"fairytale-esque\" and \"girly\". Many early lolicon works combined mecha and bishōjo elements; Kaoru Nagayama highlights the premiere of the Daicon III Opening Animation at the 1981 Japan SF Convention as a notable example of the link between science fiction and lolicon in the nascent otaku culture of the time. Anime shows targeted at young girls with young girl heroines, such as Magical Princess Minky Momo (1982–1983), gained new viewership from adult male fans, who started fan clubs and were courted by creators. Helen McCarthy suggests that lolicon anime is rooted in magical girl shows such as Minky Momo, where transforming heroines can blur lines between girls and women.\n\nWhile the lolicon boom in commercial erotic manga only lasted until 1984, it marked the beginning of its now-dominant bishōjo style. Near the end of the boom, because \"readers had no attachment to lolicon per se\" and \"did not take [young girls] as objects of sexual desire\", a majority of readers and creators of erotic manga moved towards the diversifying bishōjo works featuring \"baby-faced and big-breasted\" characters, which were no longer considered lolicon. At Comiket, lolicon manga had declined in popularity by 1989 with developments in erotic dōjinshi, including new genres of fetishism and the growing popularity of softcore eroticism popular among men and women, particularly in yuri (manga with lesbian themes).\n\n### 1990s–present\n\nIn 1989, lolicon and otaku became the subject of a media frenzy and moral panic after the arrest of Tsutomu Miyazaki, a young man who had kidnapped and murdered four girls between the ages of four and seven and committed sexual acts with their corpses. Widely disseminated photos of Miyazaki's room revealed an extensive collection of video tapes, which included horror/slasher films on which he had modelled some of his crimes, and manga, including shōjo and lolicon works. In the extended public debates that followed, Miyazaki's crimes were blamed on supposed media effects: namely, a reduction in his inhibitions to crime, and a blurring of the lines between fiction and reality. Miyazaki was labelled as an otaku, and an image of otaku as \"socially and sexually immature\" men, and for some as \"pedophiles and potential predators\", was established for much of the public. The decade saw local crackdowns on retailers and publishers of \"harmful manga\", and the arrests of some dōjinshi artists. Despite this, lolicon imagery expanded and became more acceptable within manga in the 1990s, and the early 2000s saw a small boom in the genre sparked by the magazine Comic LO.\n\n## Media\n\nLolicon media is loosely defined. Some define its characters by age, while others define its characters by appearance (those that are small and flat-chested, independent of age). Lolicon works often depict girl characters as innocent, precocious, and sometimes flirtatious; characters may appear in borderline or outright sexual situations, though the term can be applied to works with neither (see ).\n\nAccording to Kaoru Nagayama, manga readers define lolicon works as those \"with a heroine younger than a middleschool student\", a definition which can vary from characters under age 18 for \"society at large\", to characters \"younger than gradeschool-aged\" for \"fanatics\", and to \"kindergarteners\" for \"more pedophiliac readers\". Elisabeth Klar observes that girl characters in lolicon can show an \"contradictory performance of age\" in which their body, behavior, and role in a story conflict; an example is the roribabā (\"Lolita granny\") archetype, a girl character who speaks with the mannerisms of an old woman. Curvy hips and other secondary sex characteristics similarly appear as features in some of the genre's characters. Plot devices often explain the young appearance of characters who are non-human or actually much older.\n\nLolicon manga, often published as dōjinshi or compiled in anthology magazines, is mostly consumed by male audiences, though Nagayama notes that the works of Hiraku Machida [ja] have \"resonated with female readers\" and \"earned the support of women\". Other notable artists include Aguda Wanyan and Takarada Gorgeous. Female creators of lolicon works include Erika Wada and Fumio Kagami [ja].\n\nLolicon imagery is a prominent theme in Superflat, a manga-influenced contemporary art movement founded by Takashi Murakami. Prominent Superflat artists whose works feature lolicon imagery include Mr. and Henmaru Machino. Murakami himself did a lolicon-inspired photoshoot with Britney Spears for the cover of the magazine Pop.\n\n### Relation to moe\n\nIn the 1990s, lolicon imagery evolved and contributed to the mainstream development of moe, the generalized affective response to fictional characters (typically bishōjo characters in manga, anime, and computer games) and its associated design elements. The bishōjo character form moved from niche, otaku publications to mainstream manga magazines, and saw explosive popularity in the decade with the rise of bishōjo games and anime series such as Sailor Moon and Neon Genesis Evangelion, which pioneered media and merchandising based on fan affection for their female protagonists. Moe characters, which tend to be physically immature girl characters exemplified by cuteness, are ubiquitous in contemporary manga and anime. In contrast to lolicon works, sexuality in moe is treated indirectly or not at all; the moe response is often defined with emphasis on platonic love.\n\nJohn Oppliger of AnimeNation identifies Ro-Kyu-Bu!, Kodomo no Jikan, and Moetan as examples of series which challenge the distinction between moe and lolicon through use of sexual innuendo, commenting that they \"satire the chaste sanctity of the moé phenomenon\" and \"poke fun at viewers and the arbitrary delineations that viewers assert\". \"Moe-style\" lolicon works depict mild eroticism, such as glimpses of underwear, and forgo explicit sex.\n\n### Genre features\n\nAkira Akagi identified five themes in lolicon manga in 1993: sadomasochism, \"groping objects\" (alien tentacles or robots in the role of the penis), \"mecha fetishes\" (combinations of a machine and a girl), erotic parodies of mainstream anime and manga, and \"simply indecent or perverted stuff\", also noting common themes of lesbianism and masturbation. Media scholar Setsu Shigematsu argues that these forms of substitution and mimicry enable lolicon to \"transform straight sex into a parodic form\". More extreme works depict themes including coercion, rape, incest, bondage, and hermaphroditism.\n\nNagayama argues that most pornographic lolicon manga deal with a \"consciousness of sin\", or a sense of taboo and guilt in its consumption. Some manga manage this by portraying the girl as enjoying the experience in the end, while others represent the girl as the active partner in sex who seduces men to her. Other lolicon manga, where \"men are absolute evil and girls are pitiable victims\", indulge in the \"pleasure of sin\" through the breaking of taboos, which he argues affirms the fragility of the characters. He posits that manga depicting sex between children avoid the \"consciousness of sin\" via mutual innocence, while also thematizing nostalgia and an idealized past, while other lolicon manga accomplish this through characters with especially unrealistic and moe designs, where \"it is precisely because fiction is distinguished from reality as fiction that one can experience moe\".\n\n## Legality and censorship\n\nChild pornography laws in some countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, have expanded since the 1990s to include sexually explicit depictions of fictional child characters, while those in other countries, including Japan and the United States, exclude fiction from relevant definitions.\n\nIn 1999, Japan passed a national law criminalizing the production and distribution of child pornography. The law's original draft included depictions of fictional children in its definition of child pornography; after \"criticism from many in Japan\", this text was removed in the final version. In 2014, Japan's parliament amended the 1999 law to criminalize possession of child pornography; the 2013 draft introduced by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which maintained the existing legal definition, included a provision for a government investigation on whether manga, anime, and computer-generated images \"similar to child pornography\" were connected to child sexual abuse, which would be followed by a later decision on regulation. This provision was opposed by anime and manga artist and publishing associations, which argued that regulation would infringe on freedom of expression and negatively impact the creative industry and cited a lack of existing evidence linking fiction and crime. The provision was removed from the law's final version, which took effect in 2015.\n\nLolicon media is a common target of local ordinances in Japan which restrict distribution of materials designated \"harmful to the healthy development of youth\", which were strengthened throughout the 1990s and 2000s. An amendment proposed in 2010 to the Tokyo law on material banned from sale to minors (described by Vice Governor Naoki Inose as targeting non-pornographic lolicon manga, writing that \"We had regulation for eromanga, but not for lolicon\") restricted depictions of \"non-existent youths\" who appeared under age 18 and were portrayed in \"anti-social sexual situations\". Under massive opposition from manga creators, academics, and fans, the bill was rejected in June 2010 by Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly; however, a revision passed in December 2010 which restricts \"manga, anime, and computer games\" where any characters engage in \"sexual or pseudo sexual acts that would be illegal in real life\" depicted in a way that \"glorifies or exaggerates\" such acts. In 2011, several manga were listed for restriction, including Oku-sama wa Shōgakusei [ja] (\"My Wife Is an Elementary Student\"), which had been previously criticized on television by Inose. It was later published online by J-Comi, avoiding restriction.\n\nSexualized depictions of young girl characters have also been subject to censorship and restriction outside of Japan. In 2006, North American publisher Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the manga series Kodomo no Jikan for release under the title Nymphet, but cancelled its plans in 2007 after vendor cancellations. In a statement, the company noted that the manga \"cannot be considered appropriate for the US market by any reasonable standard\". In 2020, Australian senator Stirling Griff criticized the Australian Classification Board for giving ratings to manga and anime depicting \"child exploitation\", and called for a review of classification regulations; later in the year, the board banned the import and sale of three volumes of the light novel series No Game No Life for sexualized depiction of young characters. Some online platforms, including Discord and Reddit, ban lolicon content.\n\n### Debate\n\nExplaining the exclusion of lolicon from the 2014 amendment to Japan's child pornography laws, an LDP lawmaker stated that \"Manga, anime, and CG child pornography don't directly violate the rights of girls or boys. It has not been scientifically validated that it even indirectly causes damage. Since it hasn't been validated, punishing people who view it would go too far;\" his statement echoes activist arguments. Statistically, sexual abuse of minors in Japan has declined since the 1960s and 1970s while the prevalence of fictional lolicon has increased; Patrick W. Galbraith interprets this as evidence that lolicon imagery does not necessarily influence crimes and argues that lolicon characters do not necessarily represent real boys or girls, but rather what McLelland calls a \"third gender,\" while Steven Smet suggests that lolicon is an \"exorcism of fantasies\" that contributes to Japan's low crime rates. Galbraith further argues that otaku culture collectively promotes a media literacy and ethical position of separating fiction and reality, especially when the conflation of the two would be dangerous. Drawing on his fieldwork as an anthropologist, he writes that the sexual imagination of otaku, including lolicon, \"did not lead to 'immoral acts', but rather ethical activity\". A 2012 report by the Sexologisk Klinik for the Danish government found no evidence that cartoons and drawings depicting fictive child sexual abuse encourage real abuse. Academic Sharalyn Orbaugh argues that manga depicting underage sexuality can help victims of child sexual abuse to work through their own trauma, and that there is greater harm in regulating sexual expression than potential harm caused by such manga.\n\nLegal scholar Hiroshi Nakasatomi argues that lolicon can distort readers' sexual desires and induce crime, and that it violates the rights of children, a view shared by the non-profit organization CASPAR (founded after the Miyazaki case). Some critics, such as the non-profit organization Lighthouse, claim that lolicon works can be used for child grooming, and that they engender a culture that is accepting of sexual abuse. Guidelines released in 2019 by the United Nations Human Rights Committee encouraged state parties to include explicit drawings of fictional children in laws against child pornography, \"in particular when such representations are used as part of a process to sexually exploit children\". Feminist critic Kuniko Funabashi argues that lolicon manga contributes to sexual violence by portraying girls passively and by \"presenting the female body as the man's possession\". Legal scholar Shin'ichirō Harata argues that child pornography laws should not collapse reality and fiction together, but also that fans should not dismiss an ambivalence represented by lolicon. He describes the practice of keeping the two separated as the \"ethics of moe\", or \"responsibility of otaku\".\n\nDilton Rocha Ferraz Ribeiro analyzes the debate over the legal status of lolicon works in Japan and finds that both the pro-regulation and anti-regulation coalitions are relatively stable, with each reacting to actions by the other coalition. Catherine Driscoll and Liam Grealy argue that these debates, including international pressure on Japan to regulate these works, create a \"discourse of Japanese exceptionalism\" to international norms.\n\n## Critical commentary\n\nCultural critics responding to lolicon generally emphasize it as distinct from attraction to real young girls. Anthropologist Patrick W. Galbraith finds that \"from early writings to the present, researchers suggest that lolicon artists are playing with symbols and working with tropes, which does not reflect or contribute to sexual pathology or crime\". Psychologist Tamaki Saitō, who has conducted clinical work with otaku, highlights the estrangement of lolicon desires from reality as part of a strict distinction for otaku between \"textual and actual sexuality\", and observes that \"the vast majority of otaku are not pedophiles in actual life\". Manga researcher Yukari Fujimoto argues that lolicon desire \"is not for a child, but for the image itself\", and that this is understood by those \"brought up in [Japan's] culture of drawing and fantasy\". Cultural historian Mark McLelland identifies lolicon and yaoi as \"self-consciously anti-realist\" genres, given a rejection by fans and creators of \"three-dimensionality\" in favor of \"two-dimensionality\", and compares lolicon to the yaoi fandom, in which largely female and heterosexual fans consume depictions of male homosexuality which \"lack any correspondent in the real world\". Setsu Shigematsu argues that lolicon reflects a shift in \"erotic investment\" from reality to \"two-dimensional figures of desire\". Queer theorist Yuu Matsura argues that two-dimensional characters are non-human \"artifacts\" and that desire oriented to such characters is not a desire toward humans. Matsuura calls the marginalization of fictosexuals or Nijikon \"interpersonal sexuality centrism\" (対人性愛中心主義, taijin seiai chūshin shugi) and criticizes that considering two-dimensional lolicon as \"child pornography\" is interpersonal sexuality centrism.\n\nMost scholars also identify lolicon as a form of self-expression on the part of its male creators and consumers. Sociologist Sharon Kinsella suggests that for lolicon fans, \"the infantilized female object of desire [...] has crossed over to become an aspect of their own self image and sexuality\". Akira Akagi argues that lolicon manga represented a notable shift in reader identification from the \"hero\" penetrator common to pornographic gekiga: \"Lolicon readers do not need a penis for pleasure, but rather they need the ecstasy of the girl. [...] They identify with the girl, and get caught up in a masochistic pleasure.\" Manga critic Gō Itō views this as an \"abstract desire\", quoting lolicon artist who told him that \"he was the girl who is raped in his manga\", reflecting a feeling of being \"raped by society, or by the world\". Kaoru Nagayama posits that lolicon readers adopt a fluid perspective that alternates between that of an omniscient voyeur and the multiple characters in a work, reflecting an active reader role and a projection onto girl characters. Writing in The Book of Otaku (1989), feminist Chizuko Ueno argued that lolicon, as an orientation towards fictional bishōjo, is \"completely different from pedophilia\", and characterized it as a desire to \"be part of the 'cute' world of shōjo\" for male fans of shōjo manga who \"find it too much to be a man\".\n\nSeveral scholars identify the emergence of lolicon with changes in Japanese gender relations. Sociologist Kimio Itō attributes the rise of lolicon manga to a shift in the 1970s and 1980s, when boys, driven by a feeling that girls were \"surpassing them in terms of willpower and action\", turned to the \"world of imagination\", in which young girl characters are \"easy to control\". Kinsella interprets lolicon as part of a \"gaze of both fear and desire\" stimulated by the growing power of women in society, and as a reactive desire to see the shōjo \"infantilized, undressed, and subordinate\". Media scholar Chizuko Naitō views lolicon as reflecting a \"societal desire in a broader sense\" for young girls as sex symbols in Japan (which she calls a \"loliconized society\"). Christine Yano argues that eroticized imagery of the shōjo, \"real or fictive\", reflects \"heteronormative pedophilia\" in which emphasis is placed on the ephemerality of childhood: \"it is as child that [the shōjo] becomes precious as a transitory figure threatened by impending adulthood\".\n\nResponding in 1982 to the popularity of Clarisse from his film Lupin III: Castle of Cagliostro, Hayao Miyazaki criticized artists and fans who idolized her in what he considered a demeaning manner, and said that he \"hate[d] men who use the word lolicon.\" Despite his apparent rejection, Saitō and Galbraith still find connections between Miyazaki and desire for young girl characters. Interpreting Miyazaki's own words and his acknowledgment of eroticism as key to his creative process, Galbraith suggests that the distance between Miyazaki and the lolicon boom was about \"shame\": he criticized men who were open and playful about lolicon desire for having little shame, while he felt embarrassment about his own \"longing\" for girl characters.\n\n## See also\n\n- Hentai – anime and manga pornography\n- Junior idol – child or early teenager pursuing a career as a photographic model\n- Lolita fashion – Japanese fashion style and subculture\n- Shotacon – male equivalent of lolicon, focusing on young boy characters\n- Simulated child pornography – produced without direct involvement of children", "revid": "1173887505", "description": "Genre of sexualized young girl characters", "categories": ["1970s neologisms", "Animation controversies", "Anime and manga controversies", "Anime and manga genres", "Anime and manga terminology", "Female stock characters in anime and manga", "Girls", "Hentai", "Japanese sex terms", "Lolicon", "Obscenity controversies in animation", "Obscenity controversies in comics", "Obscenity controversies in video games", "Pedophilia", "Wasei-eigo"]}
{"id": "57580029", "url": null, "title": "John Middleton (Norfolk artist)", "text": "John Middleton (9 January 1827 – 11 November 1856) was an English artist known for his accomplished watercolour paintings. He was the youngest and the last important member of the Norwich School of painters, which was the first provincial art movement in Britain. As well as being a talented etcher, he produced oil paintings and was an enthusiastic amateur photographer.\n\nMiddleton's father, also named John, was a Norwich glass stainer. His mother painted plants and twice exhibited her work with the Norwich Society of Artists. Middleton was educated in Norwich and studied art under the landscape painters John Berney Ladbrooke and Henry Bright. He first exhibited his paintings before the age of twenty and went on to show paintings at both the Royal Academy and the British Institution. Many of his works have been acclaimed by art historians for their masterly tonal values, confidence and freshness, which gives them a more modern appearance in comparison with the sometimes over-detailed works of other Victorian painters.\n\nMiddleton's death in 1856 from tuberculosis, which cut short his career at the age of 29, has been described by the art historian Josephine Walpole as \"the supreme tragedy for the Norwich School of painters\".\n\n## Background\n\nThe Norwich School of painters, which included Middleton, was a group connected by geographical location, the depiction of Norwich and rural Norfolk, and by close personal and professional relationships. The school's most important artists were John Crome, Joseph Stannard, George Vincent, Robert Ladbrooke, James Stark, John Thirtle and John Sell Cotman, along with Cotman's sons Miles Edmund and John Joseph Cotman, and Middleton himself. The Norwich School was a unique phenomenon in the history of 19th-century British art. Norwich was the first English city outside London where a school of artists arose, creating the first provincial art movement in Britain. It had more local-born artists than any subsequently-formed school elsewhere. Norwich's theatrical, artistic, philosophical and musical cultures were cross-fertilised in a way that was unique outside London.\n\nWithin the Norwich School was the Norwich Society of Artists, founded in 1803. It arose from the need for a group of Norwich artists to teach each other and their pupils. Though not all of the members of the Norwich School were also members of the Norwich Society, the latter was key in establishing the artists' associations with each other. Its stated aims were \"to conduct an Enquiry into the Rise, Progress and Present State of Painting, Archaeology and Sculpture with a view to point out the Best Methods of Study to attain to Greater Perfection in these Arts\". It held regular exhibitions and had an organised structure, showing works annually until 1825 and again from 1828 until it was dissolved in 1833. The leading spirits and finest artists of the movement were Crome and Cotman.\n\nJohn Middleton, who was too young to have had any association with the Norwich Society of Artists, was the last great watercolourist of the Norwich School and the most gifted of the school's third generation of artists. His works provided, according to Andrew Moore, the former Keeper of Art at the Norwich Castle Museum & Art Gallery, \"a distinguished coda to the spirit of his immediate contemporaries and the artists of the first generation, John Sell Cotman and John Crome\".\n\nInterest in the Norwich School declined during the 1830s, but the school's reputation rose after the Royal Academy's 1878 Winter Exhibition. By the end of the century, however, its paintings—once regarded as modern and progressive—were seen as belonging to a bygone age. This has been attributed by the art professor Andrew Hemingway to the \"mythology of rural Englishness\" that prevailed at the start of the 20th century. He has commented on a lack of analysis of the Norwich School, such as connections between the Norwich School painters and other artists and developments in landscape painting during the 19th century.\n\n## Life\n\n### Early life and training\n\nParish records show that John Middleton was born in Norwich on 9 January 1827 and was baptised on 14 January at St Stephen's Church, by his parents John Middleton and Ann Bayfield. Little of his early childhood has been documented and his biographers do not mention any siblings, although the Middletons' memorial in St Stephen's Church includes an unnamed daughter who died in infancy. Some of the family's relatives in Norwich were blacksmiths and weavers, but John Middleton senior was a glass stainer. He was the business successor of Daniel Coppin, one of the founding members of the Norwich Society of Artists. In addition to running a glass colouring business, Middleton senior undertook plumbing and painting work, and studied and collected ferns in his spare time. His wife specialised in painting plants, and as 'Mrs. J. Middleton' exhibited two pictures with the Norwich Society: Cactus Speciocissimus, flowered in the greenhouse of Mr. C. Middleton, April 1828 and Georgina, or Dahlias from Nature (1829). Ann Middleton died in Norwich on 1 January 1830, aged 29.\n\nMiddleton was educated at Norwich Grammar School. Upon the completion of his formal education he became the pupil of the landscape painter John Berney Ladbrooke, who referred to \"my pupil John Middleton\" in a letter dated 11 February 1850. Ladbrooke, a Norwich School artist who produced a large output of works despite having to earn a living as a drawing master, particularly influenced Middleton's oil technique.\n\nMiddleton was taught by Henry Bright, whom he visited in London in 1847. Middleton moved to the capital at this time, living at 1, The Terrace, Kensington. From 1847 to 1849 he was both the pupil and friend of Bright, probably travelling with him on a trip to Kent.\n\nFollowing his father's death in April 1848, Middleton moved back to Norwich in order to take over the running of the family business. His duties as a businessman both interrupted his training and acted to reduce his artistic output. In 1850 he moved with his step-mother from their house adjoining the business to a much larger house in Surrey Street, around the corner from the business in St Stephen's Street.\n\n### Artistic career and friendships\n\nMiddleton was a precocious artist, exhibiting before he was twenty. He exhibited in London from 1847 to 1855, despite the interruption caused by his business commitments: he showed fourteen pictures at the Royal Academy and fifteen at the British Institution, where his work was acclaimed.\n\nMiddleton's artistic output was influenced by (and in turn had an influence upon) the works of Henry Bright, Thomas Lound and Robert Leman. The four artists were very good friends.\n\nAccording to the author and art historian William Frederick Dickes, Middleton was the devoted young friend of Lound, who probably introduced him to the works of Thirtle, as well as to photography. Lound worked as a brewer clerk and an insurance agent, whose wealth allowed him to pursue his enthusiasm for collecting, copying and producing art. He was especially passionate about Thirtle's paintings. Along with Middleton, Bright and Leman, Lound was a member of the Committee of the Norfolk and Norwich Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts (1848–1852). A central figure in the history of the Norwich School watercolour painters, the remaining Norwich artists depended on the leadership of Lound (and Leman) for three decades after the demise of the Norwich Society of Artists in 1833.\n\nMiddleton befriended William Johnson Jennis Bolding, a resident landowner and farmer in the coastal village of Weybourne. Bolding, known for his pioneering photographs of Norfolk landscapes and estate workers, is regarded as an important early photographer. Middleton was responsible for enrolling him as a member of the Norwich Photographic Society, which held exhibitions that included William Bolding's work. Bolding was also a talented artist who exhibited two oil paintings in 1853. The two friends sketched together, with Middleton often staying at Weybourne, and some of Bolding's landscape photographs have an affinity with Middleton's watercolour technique. A small etching by John Middleton, made en plein air, closely resembles a photograph by Bolding, showing that the friends were working together. Some of Bolding's landscape photographs that show trees, and trees near water, were photographed with a typical Middleton-like composition, with one particular image containing many of the ingredients found in Middleton's watercolours, such as trees, water, fences and a gate.\n\nAlthough Henry Bright was Middleton's teacher, the outstanding watercolours Bright produced in the 1840s made after a sketching tour of Kent, when he was possibly accompanied by Middleton, show clearly how he was influenced by his pupil. It often difficult to distinguish between the two artists. According to the art historian Francis Cheetham, Lane over the Hill shows Bright's capacity to \"use watercolour with (the) freshness and simplicity which characterises the finest work of John Middleton\". Their friendship was not always smooth: in a letter of 22 February 1850 to Thomas Lound's son, Bright wrote, \"J. Middleton dined here tonight, he was wondrous polite. Tell your good papa that my Lecture did him good.\"\n\nMiddleton travelled to various parts of Britain during his working life. As well as spending time sketching and painting during an excursion to Tunbridge Wells in Kent, he produced paintings of the area around Clovelly during a visit to the Devon coast. Included amongst works he exhibited in London were Scene near Tunbridge Wells (1847) and Clovelly, on the coast of Devonshire (1851). Whilst in London he and other members of the Norwich School attended the evening meetings of the Graphic Society of Painters and Engravers. He became a member of the Society in 1854, but resigned in 1856, shortly before his death.\n\n### Decline and death\n\nDuring much of his life Middleton suffered from poor health. He became consumptive and was forced to work outdoors less and less as his illness advanced. The art historian Derek Clifford noted that Middleton's inspiration, brilliant colours and confidence in his drawings tailed away after 1848, four years before his last known drawings were made.\n\nMiddleton died of tuberculosis at his home at 29, Surrey Street, Norwich, on 11 November 1856. He was buried in the new cemetery at Earlham. His obituary in the local Norfolk press noted that \"he painted nature just as he found her in the quiet sequestered nooks which abound in this county, and many a spot, otherwise of little note, will live long on the canvas touched by Middleton’s hand\". His will, which was proved in Norwich in July 1857, stipulated that Mary Middleton should inherit both the family business and the remaining funds from the estate. From his estate, which was assessed at under £30,000, he provided for his servants, his relatives and to charities, including the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, which received £100.\n\nThe author Josephine Walpole believes that \"the supreme tragedy for the Norwich School was the death of John Middleton at the age of only 29\" and that the later works of the most gifted of the school's watercolour artists only \"lost their fire and life\" because of the debilitating effect of his illness. According to Hemingway, Middleton's death in 1856 marked a decline in the quality of painting produced in the region, and he was the last significant watercolourist to be based in East Anglia.\n\n## Works\n\nThere is no published catalogue raisonné of John Middleton's drawings, pictures or photographs. An idea of his artistic output can be obtained from the catalogue of a sale of his works that took place in June 1883, following the death of Mary Middleton earlier that year. On sale were 108 sketches (including a series made by Middleton when he was Ladbrooke's pupil), 108 pencil drawings, 4 sketch books, more than 40 etchings, 63 watercolour paintings, 11 oils and 20 oil painting sketches.\n\n### Watercolours, oil paintings and etchings\n\nJohn Middleton was a highly talented watercolourist, who according to Clifford, was the most successful of all the Norwich School artists working in this medium during the late 1840s, with the possible exception of John Sell Cotman. Middleton produced works using clear colours and incisively-outlined forms, boldly using the white of his paper and being, in Clifford's words, \"delighted in the potentialities of his medium\". The author Robert Brall considers Middleton's best paintings to have an \"astonishingly modern\" look, in comparison with the elaborate detail found in contemporary works. Brall notes that Middleton's more laboured paintings, painted from 1850, lacked much of the fresh and spontaneous appearance of his earlier works, probably because of a growing public interest in art that contained fine detail and an elaborate 'finished' look'.\n\nWriting in 1905, Dickes described Middleton as a painstaking and energetic artist. The Dictionary of National Biography noted his \"effective rendering of the seasons of the year, especially the early spring\". Walpole has assessed his approach to his work as being more advanced than that of his contemporaries Robert Leman and Thomas Lound. Commentators have praised his ability to show tone in his paintings. According to Josephine Walpole, Middleton's \"exquisite use of light and shade enhances the mastery of tonal values\", a comment that echoes the Norfolk Chronicle′s report of 11 December 1847, which described his \"charming use of light and shade\".\n\nHis etchings required a different technique from his watercolours: their delicacy and intricacy are said by the author Geoffrey Searle to resemble the work of John Crome. In contrast to his watercolours, his etchings are mostly depictions of wooded landscapes, ranging in tone from those that are heavily inked, to others with a light, silvery touch and delicate lines. None of them depict human figures. A set was published separately in 1852 as Nine Etchings by John Middleton, now held at the British Museum and Norwich Castle. He also painted in oils, but little has been written of his oil paintings, whose subject matter was similar to his watercolours and which displayed a similar immediacy of execution.\n\n### Photographic work\n\nMiddleton took a great interest in photography and was an early committee member of the Norwich Photographic Society, which was formed in 1854. He was one of the earliest artists to use a camera as an aid to producing watercolour landscapes, working in the medium whilst it was still in its infancy. Like Lound, who was also a keen amateur photographer, he possessed his own equipment, which at that time only the wealthy could afford.\n\nMiddleton used waxed paper negatives to produce his images of the Norfolk countryside. It is not known if he sold any of his photographs or displayed them in any major exhibition. The only photographs that can be attributed to him are a group made during a trip to North Wales. His landscape photographs are reminiscent in their contrasting dark and light tones of the large paintings produced by Bright in the late 1840s, such as Study of a Beech Tree.\n\nNorwich's photographic community, centered around Thomas Damant Eaton (c. 1799–1871), was particularly active during the 1850s. During this period a close relationship existed between the artistic community and Norfolk photographers. An indication of this relationship was a major exhibition of works by both the Norfolk and Norwich Arts Association and the Norwich Photographic Society from November 1856 to February 1857, in which 500 photographs and 425 works of art were shown. It took place only four years after the first large public exhibition of photographs in the world. Middleton died shortly before the Norwich exhibition was opened, and its catalogue shows that none of his works were shown.\n\n### Exhibitions and sales\n\nMiddleton's works have been included in fine art exhibitions in both London and Norwich:\n\n- Exhibitions of the Norfolk and Norwich Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts (1848, 1849, 1852, 1853 and 1855)\n- British Institution exhibitions (1847–1855)\n- Royal Academy exhibitions (1847–1855)\n- Exhibition of the Works of Deceased Local Artists, Norfolk and Norwich Fine Arts Association (1860)\n- Norwich and Eastern Counties Working Classes Industrial Exhibition (1867)\n- British Medical Association Loan Collection (1874)\n- Norwich Art Loan Exhibition, Church of St Peter Mancroft Restoration Fund (1878 and 1885)\n- Fine Art Exhibition, in aid of the new Norfolk and Norwich Hospital (1883)\n- Loan Collection of Drawings in the New Picture Gallery, Norwich Castle (1903)\n- Exhibition of Norwich School Pictures, Norwich Castle Museum (October 1927)\n- Exhibition at the Bankside Gallery in London from 25 May to 27 June 1982\n\nFew of Middleton's paintings can be seen on public display outside the Norwich area. Several of his works have been sold at auction. His undated At Gunton Park (33 x 47.6 cm), which was sold at Chiswick Auctions in 2018, fetched £3,500. The etching At Hatfield (11 x 16.3 cm) was sold by Keys in 2016, for £120. A shady lane, Tunbridge Wells, Kent realised £6,675 at Christie's in London in July 2012, whilst another watercolour, An old cottage at Tunbridge Wells, Kent, realised £18,000 when sold there in 2007.\n\n### Gallery", "revid": "1145775166", "description": "English landscape painter, born 1827", "categories": ["1827 births", "1856 deaths", "19th-century English male artists", "19th-century English painters", "Artists from Norwich", "English male painters", "People educated at Norwich School"]}
{"id": "16064343", "url": null, "title": "Ghosts I–IV", "text": "Ghosts I–IV is the sixth studio album by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails, released by The Null Corporation on March 2, 2008. It was the band's first independent release following their split from longtime label Interscope Records in 2007. The production team included Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor, studio collaborators Atticus Ross and Alan Moulder, and contributions from Alessandro Cortini, Adrian Belew, and Brian Viglione.\n\nReznor described Ghosts as \"a soundtrack for daydreams,\" a sentiment echoed by critics, who compared it to the work of Brian Eno and Robert Fripp. The tracks are unnamed, identified only by their track listing and group number, and are almost entirely instrumental. Although conceived as a five-track EP, the final release consisted of four nine-track EPs, totaling 36 tracks. The album was released under a Creative Commons license (BY-NC-SA) and in a variety of differing packages and prices, including a \\$300 deluxe edition, without prior announcement. A YouTube-based film festival was also announced, inviting fans to visually interpret the music and post their submissions, but no mention has been made of the festival since its announcement.\n\nGhosts I–IV received positive reviews; critics praised its experimentalism and unorthodox release. It reached number 14 in the US, and was nominated for Grammy Awards for Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package, the first time music released under a Creative Commons license had been nominated for a Grammy Award.\n\nGhosts preceded a series of soundtrack albums recorded by Reznor and Ross, including four collaborations with director David Fincher. In March 2020, Nine Inch Nails released two follow-up albums to Ghosts I–IV: Ghosts V: Together and Ghosts VI: Locusts.\n\n## Production\n\n### Recording and music\n\nNine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor announced in 2007 that the band had completed its contractual obligations to its record label, Interscope Records, and would no longer be working with the company. He also revealed that the band would likely distribute its next album independently, possibly in a fashion similar to Saul Williams' 2007 album The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust!, which Reznor produced.\n\nFollowing the Performance 2007 Tour in support of the band's previous album Year Zero (2007), Reznor set out to make a record \"with very little forethought\". Ghosts I–IV originated from an experiment: \"The rules were as follows: 10 weeks, no clear agenda, no overthinking, everything driven by impulse. Whatever happens during that time gets released as... something.\" Reznor explained, \"I've been considering and wanting to make this kind of record for years, but by its very nature it wouldn't have made sense until this point\".\n\nThe core creative team behind the project was Reznor, Atticus Ross, and Alan Moulder. Live-band member Alessandro Cortini and studio musicians Adrian Belew and Brian Viglione also contributed instrumental performances on select tracks. Reznor described the band's early intentions for the project as \"an experiment\", and explained the group's process: \"When we started working with the music, we would generally start with a sort of visual reference that we had imagined: a place, or a setting, or a situation. And then attempt to describe that with sound and texture and melody. And treat it, in a sense, as if it were a soundtrack.\"\n\nThe musicians created the album tracks through improvisation and experimentation. As a result, the initial plan to release a single EP of the material expanded to include the increasing amount of material. Viglione contributed percussion to tracks 19 and 22. He stated that Reznor's instructions to him were to \"build a drumkit. Piece together any stuff that you want to bang on; rent what you want to rent. Have fun and... be creative—See where your mind and your ideas take you.\" Viglione's makeshift drum kit included a 50-gallon trash can, a pair of water cooler jugs, and a cookie tray with a chain across it. Alessandro Cortini is credited on a total of ten tracks from Ghosts for his contributions on guitar, bass guitar, dulcimer, and electronics. Cortini was brought onto the project two weeks into the process, and his involvement evolved from \"first recording some extra parts to some tracks\" and eventually into \"a collaboration on [the] tracks noted in the booklet\". Adrian Belew was also brought on for select instrumental contributions, but as the project evolved Reznor expanded Belew's involvement and shared writing credit with him on two tracks.\n\nGhosts I–IV is an almost entirely instrumental album, with only a few tracks containing sampled vocals. Reznor described the album's sound as \"the result of working from a very visual perspective—dressing imagined locations and scenarios with sound and texture; a soundtrack for daydreams.\" PopMatters' review of the album compared its musical style to that of Brian Eno and Robert Fripp, ultimately categorizing it as \"dark ambient\". The review went on to describe the music as \"a tonal painting, a collection of moods and not all of these moods are good ones.\" NPR compared the album to the music of Erik Satie and Brian Eno. Rolling Stone also compared the album to the work of Brian Eno, specifically the album's sound to the instrumentals of Another Green World (1975) and the rhythm collages of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (1981). Robert Christgau also compared the album to the work of Brian Eno, summarizing Ghosts' sound as \"mental wallpaper\".\n\nGhosts I–IV features a wide assortment of musical instruments, including piano, guitar, bass, synthesizer, marimba, tambourine, banjo, dulcimer, and xylophone, many of which were sampled and distorted electronically. Percussion instruments, contributed primarily by Brian Viglione, were constructed largely out of found objects and household items.\n\n### Artwork\n\nRob Sheridan acted as the album's art director, in collaboration with Artist in Residence. Sheridan was also art director for the previous two Nine Inch Nails studio albums, With Teeth (2005) and Year Zero. Since Ghosts was released in a variety of versions, some of the versions feature somewhat differing (or additional) album art and related artwork. A 40-page PDF comes with each version of the album and contains a photograph for each of the 36 tracks. These photographs are also embedded into the ID3 tags of every downloadable track.\n\n## Release\n\nGhosts I–IV was released online on March 2, 2008, on the official Nine Inch Nails website in a number of different formats at various price points. The only prior advertisement or notice of the release was a post by Reznor two weeks prior on the site saying \"2 weeks!\" Ghosts was the first album released by Reznor's independent label The Null Corporation. Retail copies of the album were distributed by RED Distribution on April 8 on CD and vinyl formats, and May 1 for the \"Deluxe\" and \"Ultra-Deluxe\" editions. The smallest Ghosts package contains the first nine tracks, available for free online from either the official Nine Inch Nails website or officially from various BitTorrent trackers, including The Pirate Bay. The entire album was also made available for download directly from the band for US\\$5. Physical copies of the album were available for pre-sale online, with immediate access to the digital version. A two-disc version includes two audio CDs and a 16-page booklet for \\$10. A \"Deluxe Edition\" is available for \\$75 and includes two audio CDs, a data-DVD containing multitrack files of the album, a Blu-ray Disc with the album in high-definition stereo and accompanying slide show, and a 48-page hardcover book with photographs. A \\$300 \"Ultra-Deluxe Limited Edition\" included everything in the \"Deluxe\" edition, as well as a 4-LP 180 gram vinyl set in a fabric slipcase, and two exclusive limited edition Giclée prints, unique to each copy. These were limited to 2,500 pieces, each copy numbered and signed by Trent Reznor. Reznor described the limited edition release as \"the most luxurious physical package we've ever created.\" Finally, the album was also released on 4-LP 130 gram vinyl, set in a double gate fold package, for \\$39.\n\nThe album is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike license, in effect allowing anyone to use or rework the material for any non-profit purpose, as long as credit is provided and the resulting work is released under a similar license. Reznor explained this move by saying \"It's a stance we're taking that we feel is appropriate [...] with digital technology, and outdated copyright laws, and all the nonsense that's going on these days\". Jim Guerinot, then manager of Nine Inch Nails, explained the unconventional release of the album as \"[not] a reaction to what doesn’t exist today. [...] it’s more just like, 'Hey, in a vacuum I can do whatever I want to do.'\" The digital-release of the album reportedly required an extensive overhaul of the Nine Inch Nails website in order for the site to cope with the influx of traffic, online-payments, and customer service needs of releasing the album. These upgrades cost Reznor approximately \\$20,000 to implement. Despite these measures, upon the release of Ghosts the site crashed, and additional servers were necessary to handle the traffic.\n\n### Film festival\n\nNearly two weeks after the release of the album, Reznor organized and announced a user-created \"film festival\" as an accompaniment to the album, hosted at the official Nine Inch Nails YouTube channel. It was revealed that the album was stripped of much artwork and song titles to provide a blank canvas for the project. Reznor explained that the endeavor was not meant as a contest, but as \"an experiment in collaboration and a chance for us to interact beyond the typical one-way artist-to-fan relationship.\" Over 2,000 video submissions were posted and over 13,000 members joined the festival group, which started in March 2008.\n\n### Live performances\n\nGhosts I–IV material was implemented into Nine Inch Nails live performances typically as a distinct section of instrumental songs midway through the show. Ghosts material was performed in this manner primarily as part of the Lights in the Sky tour in 2008, immediately after the album's release. During these segments the music was largely acoustic, as opposed to the electric instrumentation of other Nine Inch Nails live sets. The Ghosts segment included instrumentation from a marimba, harmonium, glockenspiel, double bass, banjo and various homemade percussion instruments. The Ghosts section was later scrapped for the \"NINJA\" and \"Wave Goodbye\" tours, as Reznor felt the instrumental songs did not fit with the set lists.\n\n## Critical reception\n\nCritical response to Ghosts I–IV was generally favorable, with an average rating of 69/100 based on 12 reviews on Metacritic. Seth Colter Walls of Newsweek described the album as \"the kind of absorbing musical experience that the surviving ranks of know-it-all record-store clerks would be pushing on customers, if only they could offer it for sale.\" IGN gave the album a rating of 8.7 out of 10 and wrote, \"The music is so engrossing and encompassing that time ceases to be a factor—at least until the music finally stops.\" PopMatters gave the album an 8 out of 10, and described the album as \"36 tracks, but no songs\", and went on to call it \"dark, brooding [...] haunting.\" Pitchfork criticized the album by saying \"nearly every one of the untitled instrumental sketches here feels emaciated and half-finished\", and gave the work a 5.0 out of 10.0. Blender also criticized the album, summarizing the review by saying \"Nine Inch Nails return with no label oversight, no boundaries and no tunes.\" The Washington Post stated, \"There's too much here. Yet it's the most interesting NIN in years.\" The review went on to describe each track as \"the sonic equivalent of a silver orb hovering in your living room [which then] explodes into a million shiny balls of mercury that splash to the floor before trickling, magnetically, back into a large round mass.\"\n\nThe album's unorthodox distribution methods also garnered the attention of various news agencies, such as Wired'''s Eliot Van Buskirk, who labeled Ghosts as \"a remarkably extensive release.\" Ben Worthen of The Wall Street Journal hypothesized that \"most business execs [...] could learn a lot from [Reznor's] experiments with online business models.\" Many news agencies compared the release to Radiohead's 2007 \"pay what you want\" digital release of In Rainbows, as well as the similar release of Saul Williams' album The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust! the same year, which Reznor produced. Rolling Stone's review called the album a \"a new-media showpiece\", while Tiny Mix Tapes said \"the circumstances surrounding the release are so forward-thinking that they could be considered just as key to appreciating the album as the music itself.\" Financial website The Motley Fool wrote an article on the album's release titled \"Music Industry Gets Nailed Again,\" forecasting that \"Innovators like Nine Inch Nails are paving the way for new media business models that may bypass the middleman while making sure artists and fans are happy.\" In its review of The Slip, however, PopMatters described Ghosts I–IV in retrospect as an \"aimless batch of... instrumentals packaged in a brilliant marketing scheme\" and said that it was \"basically a CD release with a couple of mail-order special editions available for the 'true fans'.\"\n\n### Accolades\n\nGhosts was nominated for two Grammy Awards, under the categories Best Rock Instrumental Performance for the track \"34 Ghosts IV\", and Best Boxed Set or Limited Edition Package for the \"Ultra-Deluxe\" edition of the album. These nominations represented the first time music licensed under Creative Commons had been nominated for a Grammy Award. Following the release of Ghosts and the similar online release method of the band's follow-up, The Slip, Reznor was awarded the Webby Artist of the Year Award at the annual Webby Awards in 2009. Rolling Stone magazine named Reznor number 46 in its \"100 People Who Are Changing America\" list, concluding that he has \"been more creative than anyone in embracing the post-CD era\".\n\n## Commercial performance\n\nThe album's initial release on the official Nine Inch Nails website suffered problems as the website was inundated with traffic, and was not fully operational until extra servers were added to handle the influx of downloads. A week after the album's release, the official Nine Inch Nails site reported over 780,000 purchase and download transactions, amassing over \\$1.6 million in sales. Pre-orders of the \\$300 \"Ultra-Deluxe Limited Edition\" sold out in less than 30 hours of its release.\n\nThe physical release of the album debuted at number 14 on the US Billboard 200 with 26,000 copies sold in its first week. The album also topped Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums chart. It had sold 149,000 copies in the United States by May 2013. Internationally, Ghosts peaked at number three in Canada, number 15 in Australia, number 26 in New Zealand, number 58 in Austria, and number 60 in the United Kingdom.\n\n## Influence\n\n\"02 Ghosts I\" has been featured in the 2012 documentary film Kony 2012. Portions of the album were used as the soundtrack to the 2014 documentary film Citizenfour. The 2018 documentary series The Fourth Estate features variations of songs from Ghosts I-IV, in addition to the series' opening sequence being scored by Reznor and Ross.\n\n\"34 Ghosts IV\" was sampled by music producer YoungKio for a beat subsequently used on the 2018 Lil Nas X song \"Old Town Road,\" with Reznor's and Ross' writing credits. It reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 2019, and stayed there for a record-breaking nineteen consecutive weeks. The song also earned both Reznor and Ross a Country Music Association Awards nomination for Musical Event of the Year.\n\n## Follow-up albums\n\nReznor wrote in 2008 that \"more volumes of Ghosts are likely to appear in the future.\" In a 2009 interview with Trent Vanegas, he repeated his intention to make another Ghosts album in the near future.\n\nThe release of Ghosts I–IV foreshadowed a stream of soundtrack albums, recorded and labeled by Reznor and Ross, apart from Nine Inch Nails catalogue. The duo's three consecutive collaborations with director David Fincher: The Social Network (2010), The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011), and Gone Girl (2014), were followed by a collaboration Before the Flood (2016), and subsequent scores for Patriots Day (2017), The Vietnam War (2017), Mid90s (2018), Bird Box (2018), Watchmen (2019), Waves (2019), Mank (fourth collaboration with Fincher, 2020), Soul (2020), Bones and All (2022), and Empire of Light (2022).\n\nOn March 26, 2020, as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the band released the previously unannounced Ghosts V: Together and Ghosts VI: Locusts, for free download on the band's website, YouTube channel, and streaming platforms.\n\n## Track listing\n\n## Personnel\n\nAlbum credits adapted from the liner notes of Ghosts I–IV'':\n\n- Trent Reznor – performance, production, art direction\n- Atticus Ross – programming, arranging, production\n- Adrian Belew – guitars (3, 4, 7, 10–11, 14, 16, 21, 25, 27, 31, 32, 35), electronics (25), marimba (30)\n- Alessandro Cortini – bass (4), guitars (4, 11, 17, 20, 24, 28), dulcimer (22), additional electronics (19, 22, 29, 33)\n- Josh Freese – drums (38)\n- Brian Viglione – drums (19, 22)\n- Alan Moulder – engineering, mix engineering, production\n- Tom Baker – mastering\n- Rob Sheridan – art direction, photography, visual and physical elements\n- Artist in Residence – art direction, photography, visual and physical elements\n- Phillip Graybill – photography\n- Tamar Levine – additional photography\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts", "revid": "1170642037", "description": null, "categories": ["2008 albums", "Albums free for download by copyright owner", "Albums produced by Alan Moulder", "Albums produced by Atticus Ross", "Albums produced by Trent Reznor", "Creative Commons-licensed albums", "Dark ambient albums", "Nine Inch Nails albums", "Self-released albums", "Surprise albums", "The Null Corporation albums"]}
{"id": "6751655", "url": null, "title": "Northern Woods and Water Route", "text": "The Northern Woods and Water Route is a 2,400-kilometre (1,500 mi) route through northern British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Western Canada. As early as the 1950s, community groups came together to establish a northern travel route; this was proposed as the Northern Yellowhead Transportation Route. The Northern Woods and Water Route Association was established in 1974, and encouraged promotion of the route with the promise of an increase in tourist travel. The route was designated in 1974 and is well signed throughout its component highways. The route starts at Dawson Creek as the Spirit River Highway and ends at the Perimeter of Winnipeg, Manitoba, after running through the northern regions of the western provinces. From west to east, the Northern Woods and Water Route (NWWR) incorporates portions of British Columbia Highway 49; Alberta Highways 49, 2A, 2, & 55; Saskatchewan Highways 55 & 9; Manitoba Provincial Road 283 and Trunk Highways 10, 5, 68 & 6. The halfway point of the NWWR is approximately at Goodsoil, Saskatchewan.\n\nFur traders and early settlers utilised the rivers and Red River cart roads such as Long Trail until the early 20th century when the railroad and bush planes supplemented travel to this northern boreal transition area. Corduroy roads provided a means for early land vehicles to cross over muskeg and swamp. Horse drawn ploughs filled low areas, settlers hauled gravel and cleared bush for the road ways surveyed along high elevations following lake and river shore lines. Municipalities would grade and gravel roads providing transportation between trading centres. The all-weather road arrived alongside of the NWWR association's impetus for a travel and tourism corridor along the northern area of the western provinces. Traffic volume along the route is a major factor to determine highway classification, surface type, and construction upgrades.\n\n## Route description\n\n### British Columbia\n\n` In British Columbia (BC), the NWWR starts in Dawson Creek at the intersection of BC Hwy 2 and BC Hwy 49. Two kilometres (1.2 mi) west of the intersection is BC Hwy 97, where BC Hwy 97 north is the start of the Alaska Highway while BC Hwy 97 south is named the John Hart Highway. BC Hwy 49, also known as the Spirit River Highway, travels for 15 km (9 mi) before reaching the Alberta border. `\n\n### Alberta\n\nThe NWWR continues east into Alberta on Highway 49, the Spirit River Highway. Alberta Highway 49 contributes 19.5 km (12.1 mi) to the NWWR in northwestern Alberta between Donnelly and the Alberta and BC border. The town of Spirit River's population is just over 1,000 and is supported by agriculture and the oil and gas industry creating an annual average daily traffic (AADT) near Spirit River that is about 2,000 vehicles per day (vpd). To the south is the Spirit River, a tributary of the Peace River, which is to the north. The village of Rycroft, \"The Hub of the Peace\", has a population over 600, and welcomes travellers with their tourism booth in a giant teepee at the junction of Highway 49 and Highway 2 where the traffic volume increases to about 3,000 vpd. Wanham Grizzly Bear Prairie Museum is at the junction of Highway 49 and Highway 773, where the AADT declines to about 1,000 vpd for the village of Wanham, which has a population around 600. Watino is an unincorporated area within Birch Hills County and the traffic volume declines to between 800 and 900 vpd. Bad Heart River is a tributary of the Peace River and flows through Watino. Donnelly is near the junction of Highway 49 and Highway 2 and is also west of Kimiswan Lake. At Donnelly, traffic volume rises to around 1,800, and the NWWR turns south before arriving at Highway 2A. The next connecting highway along the NWWR is Highway 2. One route would be to follow Highway 2 west from Donnelly to McLennan whenceforth it turns south through Kathleen and intersection Highway 679 until the junction with Highway 2A when the route turns east. This route following Highway 2 through McLennan is 49.9 km (31.0 mi). McLennan holds Northern Woods and Water Route caravans every August. The other route would be to follow Highway 2A, a designated alternative route to Highway 2, by turning south at Donnelly staying on Highway 49 until the eastern turn on Highway 2A. This branch from Donnelly till the connection with Highway 2 is 312.2 km (194.0 mi). From Donnelly to Athabasca, Alberta, Highway 2 contributes 56.5 km (35.1 mi) to the NWWR scenic route across the western provinces. High Prairie on the West Prairie River is west of the intersection of Highway 749 and Highway 2, where traffic jumps to about 7,000 vpd. Enilda is a hamlet on the East Prairie River that is within Big Lakes County. Driftpile is a community on the Driftpile River within the Drift Pile River 150 Indian reserve. The Hill and Hollow Campsite and Bay Shore Resort Inc. are at Faust, which is on the south shore of Lesser Slave Lake along Highway 2. Within the Municipal District of Lesser Slave River No. 124 is the small hamlet of Wagner. Canyon Creek, Widewater and Slave Lake, “The Jewel of the North\", are also on Lesser Slave Lake. The town of Athabasca, \"Land of the Whispering Hills\", on the Athabasca River has a population over 2,500 and marks the transition between the NWWR connector routes Highway 2 and Highway 55. Traffic volume around Athabasca ranges from 6,000 to 8,000 vpd according to AADT traffic counts at various areas. Lac La Biche is located south of Lac la Biche and Beaver Lake on the junction of Highway 36 and Highway 55, where traffic remains around 7,000 vpd. Sir Winston Churchill Provincial Park on Lac la Biche is to the north of the NWWR at this point. Rich Lake is in Lac La Biche County municipal district, and the traffic volume declines to around 800 vpd. La Corey, Beaver Crossing are along Highway 55, which is an asphalt highway and has yearly maintenance.\n\n### Saskatchewan\n\nSaskatchewan (SK) has six travel corridors of which the Northern Woods and Water Route is the most northerly. The NWWR begins its journey in north western SK on SK Hwy 55, which crosses 670.9 km (416.9 mi) of northern Saskatchewan. Pierceland, a small hamlet of the Beaver River No. 622 rural municipality (RM), is at the junction of SK Hwy 55, SK Hwy 950 north and SK Hwy 21 south where traffic volume is around 1,000 vpd. The unincorporated area of Peerless, is at the junction of SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 26 which bears a traffic volume between 600 and 700 vpd.Goodsoil, the approximate halfway point of the NWWR is on SK Hwy 26 6.2 km (3.9 mi) north of the NWWR en route to the Meadow Lake Provincial Park. Rapid View is an unincorporated area of the RM of Meadow Lake No. 588 RM. The town of Meadow Lake is on the north-western shore of Meadow Lake where the AADT is approximately 1,700 to 2,500 vpd. Green Lake, at the intersection of SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 155, is at the northern tip of Green Lake. Traffic volume is considerably higher west of Green River at about 900 vpd dropping to about 350 to the east. Between Green Lake and Shellbrook, the NWWR bears south east skirting around the western edge of the Prince Albert National Park. The NWWR follows the eastern shoreline of Cowan Lake until the southern tip at Big River which is just west of Delaronde Lake, and the highway volume at this point is about 1,000 vpd. Big River No. 555 RM provides civic administration to Bodmin. Debden, a village of about 350, is at the SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 793 junction where traffic volume is about 850 vpd to the north and around 1,200 vpd to the south of the intersection. Polwarth, at the SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 793 south junction, is a hamlet of Canwood No. 494 RM. The village of Canwood, population of about 350, is located between Polwarth and the town of Shellbrook. Shellbrook is at the intersection of SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 240 where the AADT increases to about 2,000 vpd. At Shellbrook, the 42.5 km (26.4 mi) concurrency with SK Hwy 3 begins and the multiplex ends in Prince Albert. Crutwell, a hamlet of Shellbrook No. 493 RM, is located south of the NWWR, and north of the North Saskatchewan River. On the NWWR, at Crutwell, the traffic volume rises to about 3,100. At the city of Prince Albert SK Hwy 55 connects with SK Hwy 3 and SK Hwy 2. Traffic volume west of the city is about 4200 vpd, whereas east of the city the AADT drops to approximately 2,090 vpd. Prince Albert, on the North Saskatchewan River, is within 89.8 km (55.8 mi) of the Prince Albert National Park. Meath Park is a village of about 200 at the junction of SK Hwy 55, SK Hwy 355 and SK Hwy 120 where the traffic volume is heaviest west towards Prince Albert at about 2,000 vpd, and the AADT trickles down to 1,000 vpd east of Meath Park. The NWWR is in the Boreal transition ecoregion which features agricultural fields on the parkland mixed with dense taiga and sparse population. Over the next 37.5 km (23.3 mi) there are three small unincorporated areas with populations less than 100; Weirdale is found in the Garden River No. 490 RM; Foxford in Paddockwood No. 520, RM; and Shipman of Torch River No. 488 RM. At the SK Hwy 55 and SK hwy 255 junction is the village of Smeaton, and at the SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 691 junction is the hamlet of Snowden. Choiceland is 1 km (0.62 mi) north of the SK Hwy 55 and the SK Hwy 6 national highway intersection. Garrick is a part of Torch River No. 488 RM and Love, a village of around 60, marks a turn south east for the NWWR. White Fox, a village of about 375 is near the SK Hwy 55 and SK Hwy 35 intersection where the traffic volume raises to 1,700 vpd. At the intersection, the NWWR turns south and a 12 km (7.5 mi) concurrency begins until the town of Nipawin. Nipawin on the Saskatchewan River, and near both Tobin Lake and Codette Lake is home to the Northern Woods and Water Route Association. West of Nipawin until the SK Hwy 23 intersection the traffic volume remain around 1,300 vpd and following the intersection to the east the traffic falls to about 400 vpd. There are no communities along the SK Hwy 9 route which contributes 40 km (25 mi) to the entire NWWR. At the junction between SK Hwy 55 and Sk hwy 9, the AADT is less than 100 vpd.\n\n### Manitoba\n\nTravel along the NWWR enters Manitoba via the MB PR 283 west ending at The Pas, a town of about 5,500 where the AADT increases to 980 vpd. MB PR 283 provides 38.6 km (24.0 mi) of the NWWR where the economy has been supported by the fur trade, trapping, mining, fishing, logging and agricultural industries. The Pas, which has not yet incorporated as a city (requisite population of 5,000), is located south of the Saskatchewan River and south of the Clearwater Lake Provincial Park and Cormorant Provincial Forest. Travel along the NWWR out of The Pas continues south along MB PTH 10 and continues on MB PTH 10 for 411.6 km (255.8 mi). Pasquia River flows through The Pas, and travels west of the NWWR until it turns west to Saskatchewan near Westray. Freshford and Westray are both within the R.M. of Kelsey. Overflowing River, a small community with less than 100 residents is a part of the Unorganized Division No. 21. Overflowing River community is on the Overflowing River and at the north-west tip of Dawson Bay of Lake Winnipegosis whereas Makefing is east of the Porcupine Provincial Forest. Bellsite, Novra, and Birch River are all small unorganised areas of Mountain (North) RM located west of Swan Lake. Bowsman with a population of over 300, is the next largest village along the NWWR after The Pas. Swan River, in the Swan River valley, is between the Duck Mountains and Porcupine Mountains. North of Swan River, the AADT increases to about 2,000 vpd and the NWWR changes course at Swan River and bears east. Minitonas is on the Favel River and at the junction of MB PTH 10 and MB PR 366 south. West of MB PTH 10 and MB PR 268 north intersection, traffic volume is over 1,100 vpd, and east of MB PR 268 traffic declines to about 750 vpd. Renwer is a small community found in the Minitonas RM. The MB PTH 10 and MB PTH 20 intersection is at the hamlet of Cowan in Mountain (South) RM and here the NWWR resumes its route south. Sclater and Pine River two places with populations less than 100 are also found in Mountain (South) RM. The NWWR is to the east of Duck Mountain Provincial Park and Duck Mountain Provincial Forest and west of Lake Winnipegosis. Garland is at the intersection of MB PR 489 east, MB PR 367 west, MB PTH 10A and MB PTH 10. Ethelbert, a small hamlet of the R.M. of Ethelbert, is at the intersection of MB PR 269 west, MB PR 274 south and MB PTH 10. The AADT along MB PTH 10 declines to about 680 vpd near this intersection. Ashville is located north of the MB PTH 10 and MB PTH 5 junction in this parkland area of R.M. of Gilbert Plains. The NWWR continues east along the MB PTH 5, using this connector route for a total of 40 km (25 mi). The city of Dauphin is located north of Riding Mountain National Park and south of Dauphin Lake. Near this city, the traffic volume jumps to 2,750 vpd, with the heaviest day of the week being Friday, and the highest volume occurring between April and October during daylight hours. Ochre River is at the junction of MB PTH 10 and MB PR 582 south of Rainbow Beach Provincial Park. Ste. Rose du Lac, a town of about 1,000, is at the intersection of MB PTH 5, MB PTH 68 and MB PR 276. Near this intersection, the traffic volume declines to around 1,800 vpd. At Ste. Rose du Lac, cattle capital of Manitoba, the NWWR continues west on MB PTH 68 and this connector highway will carry the NWWR for 128.2 km (79.7 mi). Shergrove is located close to the turn off north from the easterly direction of MB PTH 68. Ebb and Flow Lake is east of Eddystone which is part of R.M. of Alonsa. Wapah, another small community, is between Ebb and Flow Lake, and Lake Manitoba. [R.M. of Siglunes](Rural_Municipality_of_Siglunes \"wikilink\") administrates civic affairs for Vogar which is south of Dog Lake. At Vogar the NWWR returns to an east direction. At Mulvihill the NWWR turns south and the 10.4 km (6.5 mi) concurrency between MB PTH 68 and MB PTH 6 begins. At Eriksdale, MB PTH 68 turns east and the concurrency between MB PTH 68 and MB PTH 6 ends, however the NWWR continues on MB PTH 6 in a southerly direction for the final 135.6 km (84.3 mi) leg of the travel corridor. Deerhorn is found in the R.M. of Eriksdale. The NWWR continues south along PTH 6 and parallel to the eastern shores of Lake Manitoba. Lundar and Clarkleigh are both in R.M. of Coldwell. The unincorporated area of Lundar is at the intersection of MB PR 418 east, PTH 6, and MB PR 419. MB PR 419 west provides access to the Lundar Beach Provincial Park. The hamlet of Clarkleigh is at the intersection of MB PTH 6, and MB PR 229 east. Oakpoint is at the intersection of MB PTH 6, and MB PR 419, and St. Laurent is at MB PTH 6 and MB PR 415. The hamlet of Lake Francis is located west of West Shoal Lake. Both Woodlands and Warren are unincorporated areas with small populations below 100 of R.M. of Woodlands. The AADT along the NWWR increases to over 2,500 vpd near these communities. Woodlands is at thei intersection of PTH 6 and MB PR 518 and Warren is at MB PTH 67 and MB PTH 6. Grosse Isle is the last hamlet along NWWR before arriving at Perimeter Highway, the PTH 101 around Winnipeg, the ending terminus of the NWWR.\n\n## History\n\nThe Long Trail followed the Peace River 100 miles (160 km)530 across northern AB. As the flow of traffic increased due to the fur trade industry along the Long Trail, stopping places developed providing rest and food for travelers. In 1923, the three routes out of Lac La Biche were to the west, which corresponds to the route of AB Hwy 55 along the south shores of Lesser Slave Lake. Edmonton or Saddle Lake trail departed to the south, which would be the initial stages of AB Hwy 55 out of Lac La Biche. Heart Lake trail traveled northeast from Lac La Biche, which would form a base for secondary AB Hwy 858. Work was done on the Athabaska Trail to make it passable for motor traffic as many roads had been graded. Before stopping places developed, caches were set up at stopping points along the way. Before the arrival of rails the waterways such as the Lesser Slave Lake near Athabasca, Alberta and the Saskatchewan River near Prince Albert were traversed by long boat, canoe, and steamship. The rail did not reach the northern areas until the early twentieth century due to the geological hurdles of mountains, muskeg, swamp, boreal forest, and river systems to traverse. A huge flood in 1899 near The Pas left no ground to walk upon, yet the railway track construction work began in 1906, with more continuing in 1911. In 1928, the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) surveyed their line across the Saskatchewan River near Prince Albert, and contractors started work on the bridge. The upper deck served the train, and the lower deck was built for highway traffic opening for vehicles in 1932. In 1929, travel was overland on trails, and rivers were forded in many places.\n\nAs early as 1896 oil wells were drilled at Athabasca supplementing the rich soils and grain growing economy. There was a rush of settlers to the area in the early 20th century, at this time transportation for goods was freighted on Lesser Slave Lake to connecting river routes or via early rail lines overland. Fortune seekers during the gold rush of 1896 traveled north through Edmonton or took the rail as far north as Prince Albert. The westerly route proceeded from Prince Albert to Green Lake, and from there to the Long Trail by following the Beaver River to the Churchill River, Athabaska, Slave and Mackenzie rivers until bearing north following the rivers of the Yukon to Dawson City.\n\nThe first garage to service McLaughlin cars opened in High River as early as 1909. In 1912 travelers could stop here at a filling station for their automobiles. This same year the speed limit through town was not over ten miles per hour (16 km/h) and not over five miles per hour (8 km/h) upon approaching another horse or pedestrian, the fine was not more than\n\n` The Pas, Manitoba saw its first car arrive in 1916, yet it had been active with fur trading posts and explorers in the area since 1741.`\n\nSettlers would not only haul gravel for the new roadways, but they also cleared brush for the road allowance. Early roads did not follow the road allowances of the Dominion Land Survey, but rather kept to higher ground, however due to the nature of the Boreal transition ecoregion, muskegs and swamps still needed to be traversed. The first pioneers filled these watery areas with branches and brush and proceeded along their trip. Later corduroy roads were built across these areas were traffic got mired in the mud. A corduroy road consisted of logs laid across the road as a rail tie is across the rail line, however the logs were placed one against another and mud filled between the logs for a smoother surface. One log provided about 6 inches (15 cm) of roadway, so only the worst areas were constructed in this fashion.\n\nDebden, Saskatchewan had a horse and caboose taxi for settlers as early as 1912 providing regular trips to Prince Albert and taking children to school. In 1945, the taxi service was provided by automobile. Bush planes arrived in the 1920s to the northern bus areas providing communication in an era where travel was limited when the snow fell, or the water froze. In 1968, High Prairie was looking forward to hard surface construction for AB Hwy 2 which would supplement the economic trading base with tourism. A new bridge across the Saskatchewan River at Prince Albert was erected in 1974, and caused re-routing of the highway by one and a half miles (2.4 km). Community groups came together as early as the 1950s to establish a northern travel route.\n\nThe early name proposed for these travel corridor was the Northern Yellowhead Transportation Route. The Northern Woods and Water Route Association was established in 1974, their further promotion of the route was to increase tourist travel. George R. Stephenson (1916–2003), of McLennan was one of the first facilitators to organise the Northern Woods and Water Route across Western Canada in 1974. Henry Andres was chairman of the Northern Woods and Water Association for eight years wherein the association worked on placing NWWR signs both on provincial highways and maps. Brochures promoting tourism were printed, and the association sponsored more than five cavalcades where wagons would traverse the route between Winnipeg and Dawson Creek promoting tourism and the creation of the travel corridor. On August 21, 1975, one of these Northern Woods and Water Cavalcades stopped at Nipawin Regional Park and toured Nipawin.\n\nCurrent engineering concerns would be to determine maintenance of the current travel corridor and construction upgrades. The route does contain a variety of road surfaces ranging from asphalt concrete, thin membrane surface (TMS), granular pavements and gravel highway. Insight into current surface texture, traffic volume, traffic speed, percentage of loaded trucks, climate variations, construction costs and time as well as available materials will affect upgrade procedures. The entire route is paved except for a Class 4 gravel highway segment between Nipawin and the Manitoba border. Here the traffic volume declines to 80 and 85 vpd and two checkpoints near the Manitoba border.\n\n## Major intersections\n\n## See also", "revid": "1157478797", "description": "Highway in Canada", "categories": ["Northern Woods and Water Route"]}
{"id": "48960425", "url": null, "title": "Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Lodge Number 878", "text": "Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Lodge Number 878 (also known as the Queensboro Elks Lodge or Elks Lodge 878) is a historic Elks lodge on Queens Boulevard in the Elmhurst neighborhood of Queens in New York City. The 3+1⁄2-story Italian Renaissance-style main building and two-story annex were both built in 1923–1924 and designed by the Ballinger Company. A three-story rear addition was added in 1930.\n\nThe building is made of granite, limestone, and brick. It features a granite-block terrace with granite balustrade, limestone arched entrance, and an elaborate cornice made of architectural terracotta. Lodge 878 was once was the largest such lodge in the Eastern United States, with 28 inn rooms, bowling alleys, game rooms, ladies' and gentlemen's lounges, and a 60-foot (18 m) bar. A statue of an elk is outside the Queens Boulevard entrance.\n\nFrom its completion in 1924 until the late 20th century, Lodge 878 was extremely influential in Queens politics, with up to 6,600 members in the 1960s. The members were mostly white and male. In the late 20th century, Lodge 878 saw declining membership amid Queens' changing demographics, and the building was rented out for other events. The Elks sold its main building to New Life Fellowship Church in 2001, but it continues to meet in the annex as the Brooklyn Queensborough Elks Lodge. The building is a New York City Designated Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\n## Description\n\nThe Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks' Lodge 878 building was designed by the Ballinger Company in the Italian Renaissance Revival style. It is composed of the 3+1⁄2-story main building at 82-10 Queens Boulevard; a two-story annex to the east at 82-20 Queens Boulevard; and a three-story rear addition to the south of the main building. Elks Lodge 878 occupies a land lot on the south side of Queens Boulevard, between Simonson and Goldsmith Streets. The main building is on the western side of the block, nearer Simonson Street. The lodge's annex is on the east side of the block toward Goldsmith Street, while the rear addition faces south in the direction of Grand Avenue. The lodge and annex each occupy one land lot, but they only take up half of their respective lots, with the remainder being used as parking areas. An electronic sign is at the western end of the block, at the corner of Queens Boulevard and Simonson Street.\n\nAt the time of Lodge 878's construction, the architecture of fraternal organizations' buildings varied drastically. Many lodges built at the time were designed as freestanding structures that acted as monuments, and Elks Lodge 878 was one such example, being highly visible from Queens Boulevard. The main building's facade contained many Italian Renaissance details, including a rusticated limestone facade on its first floor; balustrades; entablatures; and decorative elements such as cornices. Lodge 878 had amenities such as a swimming pool, banquet hall, gym, bowling alley, lodge room, and residential suites for members; it once had a barber shop and restaurant as well. Decorations related to the Elks are prevalent inside, including elk reliefs on the building's doorknobs.\n\n### Main building\n\nThe main building is three and a half stories, with a raised basement. It has a U-shaped floor plan. The structure measures 75 by 116 feet (23 by 35 m), with the longer side facing Simonson Street.\n\n#### Facade\n\nThe facade consists of granite at its base, rusticated limestone on the first floor, and brick with limestone ornament on the upper floors. The main elevation on Queens Boulevard, facing north, consists of five bays, while the elevations to the west and east contain seven bays. Outside the main building's northern elevation is a set of stairs leading to broad terrace with a balustrade. A bronze elk statue is on a pedestal in the middle of the staircase. According to one legend about the building, Elks Lodge 878 members would squeeze the elk's testicles for good luck before they entered.\n\nOn the first story, in the center bay of the northern elevation, is the main entrance arch, which contains a double door and a semicircular window, and is topped by an elaborate keystone. The arch is flanked by a pair of Doric-style engaged columns, which support a frieze with the text queensborough lodge, no. 878 b.p.o.elks. The northern elevation's first floor also contains four segmental-arched openings, two on each side of the main entrance arch, each of which contains a double door and a keystone depicting a lion's head. The side elevations, including the four-bay-wide rear addition, contain casement windows with lion's-head keystones. An entablature and small cornice runs above the first story.\n\nThe second and third stories and the attic are clad with buff brick and contain casement windows. On the original building, but not its rear addition, the second-floor windows are set beneath curved architraves, with balustrades at the bottom of each opening. Similarly, the original building's third-floor window openings are topped by scrolled keystones and set beneath carved limestone panels. The rear addition contains a simple brick facade on the upper stories with rectangular windows. A small cornice separates the third floor from the attic, which contains wide carved limestone panels flanking each of the narrow windows. A larger, more extensively decorated terracotta cornice runs above the attic. The eastern elevation has a fire escape.\n\nThe rear addition's southern elevation is an undecorated brick facade with segmental-arched first floor window and rectangular second- and third-floor windows, as well as a handicap-accessible entrance. The main building's southern elevation is mostly blocked by the rear addition, but the upper stories of the southern elevation are similar to those on the other three elevations. A flagpole and brick elevator room are atop the roof, while a brick chimney stack is at the southeast corner of the rear addition.\n\n#### Features\n\nThe basement had a grill room with a 60-foot-long (18 m) bar and a six-lane bowling alley. Also in the basement were lockers, restrooms, and a barber shop. The bowling alley was subsequently converted to a multipurpose room, while the rest of the basement was reconfigured with classrooms. It has a terrazzo floor, wooden wainscoting, wooden ceiling beams, and wood-sash casement windows with red stained glass. The basement is accessed by a stair from the first floor with wooden wainscoted walls and brass railings.\n\nThe first floor has a vestibule inside the main entrance, which contains limestone walls with wood trim. The vestibule leads to a first-floor lobby measuring 22 by 47 feet (6.7 by 14.3 m). It has plaster ceilings, wood-trimmed limestone walls, and terrazzo floors. There are two rooms, one to each side, which served as the men's and women's lounges; they have bronze chandeliers, parquet wooden floors, and decorative fireplace mantels. Other rooms extend from the lobby; on the east, there are stairs leading up and down, as well as an elevator bank. In the back (south) was a dining room measuring 24 by 72 feet (7.3 by 21.9 m), a ticket office, a coat room, restrooms, and a kitchen. The dining room still exists and has checkerboard terrazzo floors, square piers, and bas reliefs. The interior of the rear addition has a health center. The first floor was available for non-members to use as well.\n\nThe second and third floors contained offices and game rooms. The common area of the second floor has wood-trimmed plaster walls, parquet wooden floors, and wooden ceiling beams. The southern section has the former lodge room (doubling as an auditorium and used as a church room), while the northern section has offices. The lodge room has capacity for up to 700 people. It is themed to Mayan or Aztec culture, with stained glass panels symbolizing charity, justice, brotherly love, and fidelity, the cardinal virtues of the Elks. Inside the lodge room is a 3-rank, 9-manual Wurlitzer organ manufactured in 1924. The third floor is furnished similarly to the second floor, and has balconies overlooking the lodge room, with stationary wooden seats. In the rear addition, there are classrooms and offices.\n\nThe attic contained 28 suites for members to rent. These were arranged as six double-bedroom suites and 22 single-bedroom suites, with connecting bathrooms between pairs of suites. The suites were available to members for a monthly fee; The New York Times reported in 1995 that this fee was \\$220. The suites were on the east and west sides of the main building, and lined a \"T\"-shaped corridor.\n\n### Annex\n\nThe annex is clad with stucco and contains recessed arches with small rectangular windows inside each arch. The main entrance is on Goldsmith Street along the eastern elevation and contains three pairs of doors. A one-story western extension contains a side entrance to Queens Boulevard. A modillioned metal cornice runs atop the annex.\n\nThe annex originally contained the swimming pool on the first floor and a gym in the mezzanine, though the pool is no longer extant. The first floor was converted into a multipurpose room that could be used as a bar, dining room, or handball court. The mezzanine floor is smaller than the first floor and has a conference room and an office. The interior has wooden floors and sheet-rock partitions.\n\n## History\n\n### Planning and construction\n\nDuring the late 1890s, the former town of Newtown was renamed Elmhurst and became part of the City of Greater New York. Elmhurst subsequently became developed as a commercial and residential neighborhood, with the arrival of the New York City Subway and Long Island Rail Road, as well as the construction of Queens Boulevard in the early 20th century, connecting Elmhurst to the Queensboro Bridge to Manhattan. Prior to development, the plot that would later become Lodge 878 was undeveloped, and a stream called Horse Brook ran through the southern side of the lot, though this stream had ceased to run above ground by 1902. To accommodate the 200-foot (61 m) width of Queens Boulevard, buildings along the route were demolished, and the future Lodge 878 lot was decreased in size in 1910.\n\nThe Elks, meanwhile, had been founded in 1868 as an all-white, all-male fraternal organization, growing rapidly in subsequent years. Lodge 878 was founded in 1903, and for its first 21 years, met at the Lodge 828 building at 21-42 44th Drive in Long Island City. A 1906 Elks bylaw subsequently limited the number of Elks chapters to one in each municipality, making Lodge 878 the only Elks chapter in Queens. Lodge 878 bought the plot at the southeast corner of Queens Boulevard and Simonson Street in 1921. The Elmhurst location was chosen after extensive discussion. Elks from Jamaica, Richmond Hill, and Woodhaven favored a location in Forest Hills, while Elks from Long Island City and Long Island's North Shore advocated for the Elmhurst location.\n\nThe cornerstone of the Lodge 878 building was laid on October 6, 1923. To celebrate the groundbreaking and Lodge 878's twentieth anniversary, a parade of almost 300 automobiles carrying 1,500 people drove down Queens Boulevard from Long Island City to the Lodge 878 site. The Ballinger Company had designed plans for the main building and annex's construction, while the McIntee Construction Company was contracted to erect the building. The Elks held a fundraiser for the building's furnishings in late 1924. The lodge was opened on October 26, 1924, and the Elks' grand exalted ruler John G. Price traveled to Queens in December 1924 to dedicate the new building. It had ultimately cost \\$750,000 (equivalent to \\$ million in ). Upon completion, it ranked as the Eastern United States' largest Elks Lodge.\n\n### Elks use\n\nLodge 878 originally had a kitchen behind the main building, measuring 21.67 by 60 feet (7 by 18 m). The Elks planned to eventually add a four-story structure behind the main building, with a connecting passageway, but this was not built. Sidney L. Strauss, a lodge member, was instead hired to design the three-story rear addition, replacing the single-story kitchen. Babor-Comeau and Company constructed the addition, which was finished in 1930.\n\nDuring the mid-20th century, Lodge 878 was influential in Queens politics, with members of Lodge 878 representing both the Democratic and Republican parties. The New York Times said that \"If you wanted a job in 1960's Queens, you came to the Elks.\" By the 1960s, Lodge 878 had 6,600 members and 26 staff, with between 300 and 400 members attending the weekly meetings. Lodge 878 members were highly involved in charity; every year, Lodge 878 held a six-day Elks Bazaar in which it gave away up to 24 new cars. In addition, it was involved in arranging the funerals of its members.\n\nLodge 878 was reported in 1970 to have a membership of 4,093, making it New York state's largest Elks Lodge. A Times reporter, visiting two years later, said that the lodge was among the largest in the United States, with 3,500 members according to the lodge's executive secretary. However, Lodge 878 and the Elks as a whole suffered a major decline in membership in the late 20th century. Lodge 878 lost about 90% of its members between 1975 and 2001. This was despite the fact that people of other races were allowed to join the Elks in 1973, and women were able to gain membership in 1995.\n\n### Decline and sale\n\nAfter the annual property taxes on the building increased from \\$35,000 in 1990 to \\$86,000 in 1995, the Elks placed the Lodge 878 building for sale. Its membership had declined to about 900; the weekly meetings had been cut back to biweekly meetings, and attendance had declined to 50. The annual car raffle had been canceled in 1985 after only a single car was offered at the raffle. Elmhurst's population had changed dramatically from 1980 to 1990; during that time, the white population had declined by 40%, while the Asian population had doubled and overtaken the white population in Elmhurst. Lodge 878's membership was still mostly white and male in 1995; the lodge's treasurer stated that the neighborhood's more recent residents, who were predominantly immigrants, had not shown interest in the Elks. The New York Times described the lodge later that year as \"an anachronism with an all-white membership that has failed to attract minorities\". One of the Elks' problems was that, even though one prerequisite for membership was U.S. citizenship, an increasing number of Queens residents were not U.S. citizens.\n\nThe lodge started to rent out its facilities for celebrations such as Chinese weddings and Latin American quinceañeras. The New Life Fellowship Church, a Korean Pentecostal church, started renting space in the mezzanine in 1995. Wrestling groups started running shows at Lodge 878, including Extreme Championship Wrestling, which rented out the lodge room for several decades. Among the wrestling events at the lodge was the It Ain't Seinfeld supercard event in 1998 and the ROH One Year Anniversary Show in 2003. The building was also rented for film and TV shows. Despite the revenue from renting out the building, Lodge 878 was barely able to make a profit.\n\nIn 2000, the Elks began negotiating with the New Life Fellowship Church to sell the main building because the Elks were unable to pay a \\$60,000 tax bill for the building. During the sale negotiations, the Elks stipulated that they wished to keep occupying the building's first floor for 99 years without paying rent. After a year of negotiations, the Elks sold the main building to the church in 2001. The Elks continued to own the annex, but closed the annex's pool and added partitions. By then, Lodge 878 only had 550 members. Because of the split ownership of the main building and its annex, these were divided into two separate lots for tax purposes. The New Life Fellowship Church turned the main building's rear addition into a health center in 2009, as well as made various improvements for handicap accessibility in the 2010s.\n\n## Critical reception and landmark designations\n\nUpon its completion, the Lodge 878 building received critical acclaim. The new building won the Queens Chamber of Commerce's Annual Building Award for 1925. In the September 1926 edition of Architectural Forum, which had a series of three article on the buildings of fraternal organizations, the building's elk statue was depicted on the first page of the three-article series. The series' last article praised the Ballinger Company as having \"carried out, brilliantly and effectively, an adaptation of the highly decorative style of the ancient Maya builders of Central America.\"\n\nThe New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the main building as a landmark on August 4, 2001, acknowledging its importance to Queens politics and making it the first Elks Lodge in the city to be an official city landmark. Neither the annex nor the rear addition were designated as city landmarks. The lodge, annex, and addition were added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 19, 2014.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Queens\n- National Register of Historic Places listings in Queens County, New York", "revid": "1149987701", "description": null, "categories": ["Buildings and structures completed in 1924", "Clubhouses in Queens, New York", "Clubhouses on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City", "Elks buildings", "Elmhurst, Queens", "National Register of Historic Places in Queens, New York", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Queens, New York", "Renaissance Revival architecture in New York (state)", "Sports venues in Queens, New York"]}
{"id": "4511113", "url": null, "title": "Barnard Castle School", "text": "Barnard Castle School (colloquially Barney School or locally the County School) is a co-educational private day and boarding school in the market town of Barnard Castle, County Durham, in the North East of England. It is a member of The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC). It was founded in 1883 with funding from a 13th-century endowment of John I de Balliol and the bequest of the local industrialist Benjamin Flounders. The ambition was to create a school of the quality of the ancient public schools at a more reasonable cost, whilst accepting pupils regardless of their faith.\n\nOriginally the North Eastern County School, the name was changed in 1924, but is still generally known locally as the \"County School\". The school is set in its own 50-acre (20 ha) grounds in Teesdale, within the North Pennines, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. An on-site prep school caters for pupils aged 4 to 11, while the senior school caters for pupils aged 11 to 18. The school was previously funded by direct grant. Founded as an all-boys school, it has been fully co-educational since 1993. There are around 660 pupils and some 200 members of staff.\n\nSince the 1980s, the school has been one of Britain's most successful at producing top class rugby union players. During this period it schooled England international players Rob Andrew and Tony and Rory Underwood. The school has also produced Mathew Tait, Lee Dickson and Tim Visser, and appeared in three finals of the inter-school Daily Mail Cup. Former pupils in other fields include Edward Mellanby (the discoverer of Vitamin D); industrialist Percy Mills, The Lord Mills; fashion designer Giles Deacon and poet Craig Raine.\n\n## History\n\nThe school can trace its origins to an endowment made by John I de Balliol, then Lord of Barnard Castle, in 1229. The school itself was established in 1883 when it occupied temporary premises in Middleton One Row, County Durham, whilst construction of the school was undertaken in Barnard Castle. Initially there were 25 boarders and 10-day pupils, but by the end of 1884, there were 76 boarders. Originally known as the North Eastern County School, the main school building was completed on 2 February 1886 and initially housed 116 boarders and 12-day pupils. The Bishop of Durham presided over the foundation ceremony. The building was designed by Clark & Moscrop of Darlington in the Jacobean style, and is a Grade II listed building built with local Yorkstone and Lakeland slate. The school was built for the trustees of Benjamin Flounders and the trustees of St. John's Hospital, Barnard Castle, who managed the Baliol endowment, and was overseen by a University of Durham committee. Flounders was a Quaker industrialist who had helped to fund the Stockton and Darlington Railway. The Flounders trustees financed the entirety of the construction of the school with a donation of £31,000. A further £20,000 was raised by subscription to cover initial running costs, £10,000 of which came from St John's Hospital. The gift from St John's was conditional on the school being situated in Barnard Castle, and this determined its location.\n\nThe school's governance was inspired by the county school movement of Joseph Lloyd Brereton, who was largely inspired in turn by the example of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School. The object of the school was to provide a liberal education, with fees a fraction of those charged by public schools. Tolerance of non-conformist denominations such as Methodism and Roman Catholicism informed the school's ethos, and the school has always remained independent of the Church of England. Brereton's son became the first headmaster of the school. In contrast to the largely classical education offered by many of the public schools of the time, the school always maintained a focus on scientific and technological education. A strong sporting programme was believed to build character. Extensions over the next few years included a sanatorium in 1890 (now the music school) and a swimming-bath block in 1896. In 1900 a £4,000 (£400,000 in 2010) science block was opened by Lord Barnard with Brooke Foss Westcott, Bishop of Durham in attendance. The building is now inhabited by Tees and Dale houses.\n\nThe school name was changed to Barnard Castle School in 1924, and it was by this time one of the largest public schools in the North of England. When Harold Birkbeck was appointed headmaster in 1935 there were 193 pupils. In 1942 the school was elected to the Headmaster's Conference, making it an \"official\" public school. Following the introduction of the Education Act 1944, from 1945 the school became a direct grant grammar school and the number of pupils enrolled at the school increased substantially. In April 1961 a £65,000 (£1.1 million in 2010) appeal was launched for funding to build new science blocks and a library building. By this time there were 470 boys at the school, more than half of whom progressed to universities or higher education. Birkbeck introduced squash to the school, and made it one of the best-known schools for the sport in the country in the 1960s and 1970s. The novelist Will Cohu described the school in 1974 as \"a rugged Victorian establishment in a brooding Jacobean-style building overlooking the Tees ... The school was popular with parents who were in the armed forces. It was cheap, did not have any reputation for abuse, and was strong on games\". The direct-grant revenue stream was abolished in 1975, making the school reliant upon independent funding. An appeal was launched that year to ensure the school's survival, with £109,000 (£750,000 in 2011) raised within nine months. The school's first computer was installed in January 1978.\n\nFrank Macnamara became headmaster in 1980, described as \"an affable enthusiast\" in The Guardian. Under his tenure the school would develop its reputation for fostering world-class rugby talent. For the duration of its existence (1980–1997) the school took part in the Assisted Places Scheme. Girls were first admitted to the Sixth Form in 1981, and the school has been fully co-educational since 1993. By 1992 there were around 610 pupils with an approximately 50:50 split between boarding and day pupils. From 1993, as the result of a HMC initiative, Eastern European children were awarded scholarships to study at the school; by 1995, 8 per cent of the school's intake came from overseas. Michael Featherstone, a former England hockey international, was appointed headmaster in 1997, and the school enjoyed considerable academic success during his tenure.\n\n## School site\n\nOne of the North East's most famous schools, Barnard Castle is set in its own 50-acre grounds on the edge of town. It is located in Teesdale, and is within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Giles Deacon has said of the location that \"you could just walk out and you were in the middle of the Pennines\". The Bowes Museum is situated next to the school. The school caters for pupils aged 4 to 18, with pupils younger than 11 being taught in a separate on-site preparatory school (Prep School). The original building is now used mainly for accommodation and administration and is described as \"stately\" by The Independent. The school spire is known colloquially as \"The Pepperpot\". It also contains the dining hall and \"Main School\", public school slang for the school hall. All teaching is undertaken in purpose-built classrooms. The school site contains tennis/netball courts, squash courts, a large sports hall and an AstroTurf pitch. A total of £3 million has been invested in the school's infrastructure since 2008, including a £1.5 million Physics and ICT block, a new hall for the Prep School and a new sports pavilion containing a gym and a dance studio. The school has been used as a filming location for the television sketch show The Fast Show.\n\n### Chapel\n\nThe school's chapel was completed in 1911. It was designed by W. D. Caroe, and Nikolaus Pevsner described it as \"impressive\" both internally and externally. Somewhat unusually, it is oriented in a north–south direction. A large proportion of the funding to build the chapel was provided by Lord Barnard, the local nobleman and a leading freemason (with the remainder made up from public subscription), and accordingly the foundation ceremony was performed in full masonic regalia. The Grade II\\* listed building contains a painting by Ary Scheffer and a Father Willis organ. It has stained glass windows commemorating John Balliol and Benjamin Flounders, the two founders of the school. A roll of honour in the chapel commemorates the 141 former pupils and 4 Masters who died in the First World War, the 55 former pupils who died in the Second World War and one who died in the Falklands War. There is a roll of honour in the main school building for the former pupils who died in the Second Boer War.\n\n### Barnard Castle Preparatory School\n\nThe Prep School has access to all of the facilities of the senior school. It is situated in a separate area of the school grounds with its own organisation, staff and buildings. The school is sited around a main building called Westwick Lodge, \"a sprawling Victorian villa with the modern dormitories and classroom block hidden at the rear. It [has] a long, sloping front lawn, thickly planted with shrubberies ... Round the back [is] a playground and a muddy hill with a few trees\". Members of the Prep School are referred to throughout the school as \"Preppies\".\n\nThe school was founded in 1914 and was originally a girls' school, and independent from the County School. In 1989 there were just 65 pupils, all of them boys. By 2009 there were over 200 pupils, equally split between girls and boys. School on Saturdays was abolished at the Prep School in 1999.\n\n## School life\n\n### Intake\n\n40 per cent of senior school intake comes from the state sector, and over 50 per cent come from the on-site Prep School. 25 per cent of Sixth Form pupil intake is from state schools. Day pupils commute from a wide catchment area that is predominantly rural in nature. These settlements are as far afield as Hurworth and Stanhope as well as larger settlements such as Kirkby Stephen, Durham, Bishop Auckland, Richmond and Darlington. Pupils are from a range of professional, managerial and farming backgrounds. There are 200 boarding pupils, significant numbers of whom have parents who are members of HM Forces, and many families are linked to nearby Catterick Garrison, Europe's largest military base. 15 per cent of boarders have parents living overseas, particularly Hong Kong. An Open Day is held several times a year when the school welcomes prospective students and their families to tour the school.\n\n### Academic and routine\n\nEvery weekday (except for Wednesday) begins with a chapel service. School is held on Saturday mornings, with many sporting fixtures taking place on Saturday afternoons. There is an exeat weekend every term when pupils get respite from Saturday school. The Sunday chapel service is compulsory for boarding pupils. Homework, which is always referred to as \"prep\", (short for preparatory work) is set for every day with the exception of Sunday. During weekdays there is a mid-morning coffee break for all pupils when refreshments are provided, a tradition from when many day pupils would arrive at that time from outlying settlements. The school uniform is traditional, including a navy blue blazer and a tie. Merits are given as rewards for outstanding work. Punishments include weekday afternoon detention and Saturday afternoon detention. Corporal punishment had to be phased out by 1987 in line with state schools, as it received public funding. The headmaster is aided in his running of the school by the monitor (prefect) system. As well as the standard subjects, Latin, Classics, Ancient History, Greek, German and Spanish are taught. The school has a strong reputation for sciences. In 2011 the Independent Schools Inspectorate described the school's ethos as \"traditionally unpretentious\".\n\n### Pastoral\n\nPastoral care is provided through the house system. Each pupil is assigned to a house. Each house has its own accommodation in the school and its own set of tutors to look after members of the house. There are eight vertically integrated houses in total, each with its own colour and heraldic-like shield: The two boys' boarding houses are York (red) and Northumberland (pale blue). The three-day boys' houses are Tees (dark green) and Dale (burgundy), both formed by splitting Teesdale House, the first day boys' house, and finally Durham (gold), which was converted from boarding to day when the school expanded in the 1990s. The boarding girls belong to the original Sixth Form girls' house, Longfield (dark pink), and the new houses formed for day girls when the school became co-educational are Marwood (purple) and more recently Bowes (pale green). The school considered abolishing its boarding facilities when, like many boarding schools, it suffered a significant drop in numbers during the 1990s. However, numbers unexpectedly improved around the turn of the millennium, and this turnaround has often been attributed to the positive image that boarding received from the Harry Potter series. The school is interdenominational, whilst maintaining its foundation in Christian principles and values.\n\n### Governance\n\nThe school is a charitable trust governed by a number of foundation and four nominated governors, the latter with links to Durham and Newcastle Universities, Durham County Council / Barnard Castle Town Council and the Old Barnardians' Club. The school aims to offer the best independent education to children from the North East of England. According to information provided to the Charities Commission, the income of the school was £8.7 million in the 2017-18-year, with the vast majority of the revenue coming from school fees. It has been a member of The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference since 1944.\n\n## Extracurricular activities\n\nThe houses form the basis for much competition within the school. The first competition in the school year is the House Singing Competition in which every member of the school takes part. Thereafter, throughout the school year, the houses compete against each other in a variety of academic, artistic, and sporting events. An extensive range of almost 100 after-school activities are offered throughout the year, such as The Duke of Edinburgh's Award scheme up to Gold level.\n\n### Sport\n\nRugby for boys and hockey for girls are the major sports during the Autumn term. In the Spring Term the boys play football, hockey and squash whilst the girls play netball and lacrosse. Both boys and girls take part in cross country running and swimming. During the Summer term, cricket is the most important sport for boys. Teams have toured Majorca and the Caribbean in recent years. Members of the 1st XI often gain representative honours for their counties and the North of England. The school was described by The Daily Telegraph as \"one of the premier cricketing schools of the north\". Girls focus on rounders in the summer whilst both girls and boys partake in tennis and athletics. Sports Day is a major fixture in the school calendar.\n\n### Barnard Run\n\nThe Barnard Run is a school competition, consisting of a cross-country trial over a hilly course. It is the most important sporting event in the school year. The course has varied considerably over the years. It dates back to 1892 when Lord Barnard donated and presented the trophy. The race takes place annually at the end of the first half of the Spring Term. The girls' and younger boys' race is 23⁄4 miles while the senior boys' is 4 miles.\n\nHistorically the Barnard Run was a seven-mile course which began at Towler Hill Farm, ran to Cotherstone suspension bridge, with an undetermined route back to the school. In 1898 a 4-mile junior Barnard Run was created for 11- to 14-year-olds. In 1904 it was decided that it would be easier for training purposes if the run began at the school, and a new course was developed.\n\n### CCF\n\nThe Junior Officers' Training Corps was established at the school in 1909 following an invitation from Lord Haldane, then Secretary of State for War. By 1911 it had 103 cadets and 3 staff. In 1948 all OTCs were superseded by the Combined Cadet Force (CCF). As of 2012 it had almost 200 cadets and 10 staff, making it one of the largest contingents in the country. Facilities associated with the CCF include an armoury and an indoor shooting range. In 2012 the contingent won the Colts Canter competition, which saw it named the best force in the North of England.\n\n## Rugby union\n\nThe school has produced 38 U19 international rugby players, leading The Times to comment that it has \"a happy knack of producing some of England's finest rugby talents.\" The Observer commented on the rugby success in 2008, \"Someone should analyse what they put in the food\". The most prominent are Rob Andrew, brothers Rory Underwood and Tony Underwood, and Mathew Tait who have all played for England at international level. Former headmaster David Ewart explained the school's rugby ethos: \"We believe the game breeds important life skills in those who play it. It's a civilising game and you need to be a gentlemen on the pitch, as well as off.\" During the period 1970 to 1995 no other British school produced as many England international players. In 2012 Tim Visser described his former school's rugby programme as \"brilliant\".\n\nThe school is a prominent feeder institution for the Newcastle Falcons, with signings over the last decade including Lee Dickson, Tim Visser, Alex Tait, Ed Williamson and Rory Clegg. Recent signings to other premiership clubs include Calum Clark, Alex Gray and Ross Batty. Many Barnardians represent junior international sides, as well as the North of England, several northern county sides (such as Durham, Cumbria, Yorkshire and Cheshire) and the Independent Schools' Barbarians. The 1st VII have appeared in the final of the North of England Sevens and National Schools Sevens.\n\nThe School's 1st XV team reached the final of the national Daily Mail Cup for U18s three times in five seasons between 2002/03 and 2006/07. Nicknamed the Barney Army, the team lost to Oakham School, Colston's School and Warwick School respectively in the 2002, 2003 and 2007 finals. In 2007/2008, the 1st XV were beaten in the semi-finals 19-16 by St Benedict's School. The school reached the finals of the National Schools Sevens in 2002 and 2005.\n\n### International rugby honours\n\nEngland caps\n\n- Howard Marshall (1891–1893)\n- James Hutchinson (1906)\n- Tom Danby (1949)\n- Rory Underwood (1984–1996)\n- Rob Andrew (1985–1997)\n- Tony Underwood (1992–1998)\n- Mathew Tait (2005–2010)\n- Lee Dickson (2012–2014)\n\nScotland caps\n\n- Tim Visser (2012–2017)\n\n## Tradition\n\nCheers: If a school sports team is victorious the entire team will, on return to school, stand on Central Hall Table (Central Hall being the school's focal point) and the captain will lead three cheers for the school. For the 1st XV cheers also take place after home victories. The team gathers in what is known as Back Porch immediately after the match and three cheers are sounded.\n\nFoundation Day: Celebrated every 6 November. Initially the Barnard Run was held on this day. Before 1892 the tradition was to celebrate the day with a paper chase, but this was replaced after Lord Barnard donated the Barnard Cup.\n\nNailing Up: This occurs at every end of term school chapel service. Originally taking place in Central Hall, the captain of the house team which had won that term's major sporting event would climb up to his house shield displayed on the first floor balcony and nail the award to the shield. Nowadays the captain of the winning house team comes to the front of chapel and ceremonially taps the shield. \"Jerusalem\" is always sung at the last service of term.\n\nSpeech Day: Occurring on the final day of the Summer Term (usually a Saturday) the entire school community including parents, relatives and friends of the school, meet for Speech Day. The Chairman of the Governors, the Headmaster, an invited Speaker and the Head of School make speeches, and academic prizes are awarded to pupils. Past speakers have included Hensley Henson, Kenneth Calman, Kevin Whately and Angus Thirlwell.\n\n## Old Barnardians\n\n- Rob Andrew, former England and British & Irish Lions rugby union player and current Rugby Operations Director at the Rugby Football Union.\n- Ross Batty, former professional rugby union player with Bath.\n- Bentley Beetham, ornithologist, photographer and member of the 1924 British Mount Everest expedition.\n- David J. Bodycombe, puzzle author.\n- George Nicholson Bradford, Victoria Cross recipient.\n- Joshua Harold Burn, pharmacologist.\n- Andrew Cantrill, organist.\n- Scott Carpenter, international water polo player.\n- Ian Carr, musician and broadcaster.\n- Mike Carr, jazz musician.\n- Calum Clark, rugby union player with Northampton Saints.\n- Rory Clegg, rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons\n- Andrew Critchlow, business news editor at the Telegraph Media Group.\n- Tom Danby, international rugby union and rugby league player.\n- Giles Deacon, fashion designer.\n- Karl Dickson, rugby union player with Harlequins.\n- Lee Dickson, international rugby union player for England.\n- Robert Dinwiddie, professional golfer.\n- Barrie Dobson, historian\n- Lionel Fanthorpe, priest, entertainer, television presenter, author and lecturer.\n- Nigel Farndale, journalist and novelist.\n- Peter Gilliver, lexicographer and OED historian, and TV presenter.\n- Patrick Grant, fashion designer.\n- Alex Gray, rugby union player with England Sevens, and former England U20s captain.\n- Nicholas Hatch, former first class cricketer with Durham.\n- Glenn Hugill, television producer and presenter.\n- Ben Jones, former rugby union player with Worcester Warriors.\n- George Macaulay, test match cricketer.\n- Howard Marshall, international rugby union player.\n- Edward Mellanby, discoverer of Vitamin D.\n- Kenneth Mellanby, ecologist.\n- Percy Mills, 1st Viscount Mills, Cabinet member and industrialist, Director of EMI and Chairman of its electronics subsidiary.\n- Jack Ormston, speedway pioneer.\n- Jon Paul Phillips, actor.\n- Craig Raine, poet.\n- Walter Raine, Conservative MP\n- Neil Riddell, former captain of Durham County Cricket Club.\n- Geoffrey Smith, horticulturalist and broadcaster.\n- Mark Sowerby, Bishop of Horsham.\n- Alex Tait, rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons.\n- Mathew Tait, international rugby union player for England.\n- RJ Thompson, singer-songwriter\n- Andrew Thornton, jump jockey.\n- Richard Tomlinson, former MI6 officer.\n- Rory Underwood, former rugby union international.\n- Tony Underwood, former rugby union international.\n- Tim Visser, international rugby union player for Scotland.\n- Kevin Whately, Inspector Morse and Lewis actor.\n- Guy Wilks, rally driver.\n- Ed Williamson, former rugby union player with Newcastle Falcons.\n\n## Headmasters\n\n- The Rev Francis Lloyd Brereton 1883–1887, 1893–1924\n- Edward Henry Prest 1887–1893\n- Arthur George Coombe 1924–1935\n- Harold Edward Birkbeck 1935–1965\n- Sidney D Woods 1965–1980\n- Frank MacNamara 1980–1997\n- Michael David Featherstone 1997–2004\n- David Ewart 2004–2010\n- Alan Stevens 2010–2017\n- Tony Jackson 2018-Current\n\nCurrent staff include the former first-class cricketer John Lister and former List A cricketer Benjamin Usher. Notable former staff have included the educationalist George Graham Able, Bentley Beetham and cricketer Martin Speight. Past governors include Joseph Langley Burchnall, who served on the board for twenty years, rising to the level of chairman.\n\n## See also\n\n- Benjamin Flounders – founder of the school\n- John Balliol – founder of the school\n- List of direct grant grammar schools", "revid": "1161157015", "description": "Public school in County Durham, England", "categories": ["1883 establishments in England", "Barnard Castle", "Boarding schools in County Durham", "Charities based in County Durham", "Educational institutions established in 1883", "Member schools of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference", "Private schools in County Durham"]}
{"id": "9383988", "url": null, "title": "Graham Hawkins", "text": "Graham Norman Hawkins (5 March 1946 – 27 September 2016) was an English football player and manager. During a sixteen year playing career in the English Football League he made a total of 502 league and cup appearances, scoring eleven goals. He spent fourteen years coaching and eight years in management, and spent the later years of his life working as a football administrator.\n\nA commanding defender, Hawkins began his career at Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1964, and helped the club to win promotion out of the Second Division in 1966–67. He was sold on to Preston North End for a £35,000 fee in January 1968. In six-and-a-half seasons with Preston he made 269 league and cup appearances, and also served as their captain as they won the Third Division title in 1970–71. He was sold to Blackburn Rovers for a fee of £18,000 in June 1974. He was named on the PFA Team of the Year as the club won the Third Division title in 1974–75. He made 131 league and cup appearances in three-and-a-half seasons at the club before being sold to Port Vale in January 1978 for £6,000. He worked as a player-coach, but left the club in acrimonious circumstances during the 1979–80 season after he was overlooked for the caretaker manager position.\n\nHe served Shrewsbury Town as assistant manager from June 1980 until he was appointed as manager of Wolverhampton Wanderers in August 1982. In his first season of management, 1982–83, he led the club to promotion out of the Second Division despite budget constraints. Wolves were relegated out of the First Division the following season and Hawkins was sacked in April 1984. He then spent six years coaching in the Middle East, with Bahrain SC, Al Hala SC and Al-Arabi SC. He led Bahrain SC to the Bahraini Premier League title in the 1984–85 season. He later worked as Head of Player Development at the Football League and retired in March 2011.\n\n## Early and personal life\n\nGraham Norman Hawkins was born on 5 March 1946 at 10 Castle Street, Darlaston to Ernest Norman Hawkins – a die miller at a forging works – and Ida Mary Hawkins (née Skitt). He had four siblings: Ernie (born 1935) – who drowned at the age of seven, Maureen (born 1950), Susan (born 1954) and Andrew (born 1962). He attended Addenbrooke Street Primary, Slater Street Secondary Modern Boys School and Wednesbury Technical College. He represented both Staffordshire Boys and Birmingham Boys, playing as a full-back. He married Jane on 26 June 1967, a secretary from Wolverhampton, who he had first met at the age of 16. They had two sons, Ian (born December 1969) and Richard (born December 1971). Ian became a financial adviser and played non-League football, whilst Richard attained a PhD in sports science and went on to work for various Football League and Premier League clubs.\n\nHawkins was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma in August 2009. He died on 27 September 2016, at the age of 70.\n\n## Playing career\n\n### Wolverhampton Wanderers\n\nHawkins was spotted playing for Staffordshire Boys by Wolverhampton Wanderers (Wolves) scouts and was taken on as an apprentice on wages of £8-a-week. He made his professional debut in the Black Country derby against West Bromwich Albion on 10 October 1964, which ended in a 5–1 defeat, with West Brom debutant Jeff Astle scoring two of the goals. Under the stewardship of Andy Beattie, Wolves suffered relegation out of the First Division in 1964–65, though Hawkins did not play in any further games. His second appearance came on 11 December 1965, when first-team defenders David Woodfield and John Holsgrove were both out injured, in a 4–1 victory over Ipswich Town at Molineux. His third appearance came on 26 Match 1966, when a win at Norwich City started a run of six unbeaten games, and Hawkins kept his place in the team until the end of the 1965–66 season. He picked up the nickname \"Harry the Horse\" after manager Ronnie Allen criticised his running technique during pre-season, comparing his face with that of a tired horse.\n\nWolves secured a return to the top-flight after finishing second in the Second Division in the 1966–67 campaign, though Hawkins spent most of the season on the bench behind Woodfield and Holsgrove. He also had to spend three months on the sidelines after tearing his ankle ligaments in a clash with Derby County's Kevin Hector. He did start the game that secured promotion, a 4–1 win at Bury on 22 April, though Wolves missed out on the chance to win the division after losing on the final day of the season. In the summer he spent three weeks on tour with the club's affiliated soccer team in the United States, Los Angeles Wolves, where he shared a room with Derek Dougan. He made seven appearances in the first half of the 1967–68 season, playing his final game for the club in a 3–2 defeat to Manchester United on 30 December.\n\n### Preston North End\n\nHawkins joined Preston North End for a £35,000 transfer fee on 13 January 1968. After a slow start to his Deepdale career, primarily due to injury, he became a regular in the starting eleven and was appointed captain by manager Jimmy Milne at the young age of 21. However he would relinquish the captaincy after finding it too much of a burden. Preston finished the 1967–68 season just one place above the Second Division relegation zone, before rising to 14th-place in 1968–69 under the stewardship of Bobby Seith, with Hawkins making 42 appearances in all competitions. He was selected by Jimmy Armfield to tour Asia and New Zealand with an England \"A\" team in the summer of 1969, taking the place of the absent Alan Bloor, for five uncapped matches in Hong Kong, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Tahiti and New Zealand.\n\nPreston finished bottom of the division in 1969–70, though finished only three points short of safety, and Seith was dismissed. Hawkins put in a transfer request, as did many of his teammates, but the board asked him to reconsider. New manager Alan Ball reappointed Hawkins as club captain and Hawkins this time felt experienced enough to accept the role. He was an ever-present as the \"Lilywhites\" made an immediate return to the second tier, winning the Third Division championship by a one-point margin over Fulham in 1970–71. Ball valued his captain at £150,000.\n\nPreston finished 18th in the Second Division in the 1971–72 season, with the highlight of the campaign coming in the FA Cup, where they came close to taking Manchester United to a replay. Hawkins missed the match with injury and Ball stated that Preston could have got a positive result from the match had Hawkins been able to play. Ball was sacked in February 1973 and Preston ended the 1972–73 season above the relegation zone only on goal average. Hawkins was upset at Ball's sacking and felt that his successor, Frank Lord, confused the players with his tactics. Despite former World Cup winner Bobby Charlton being appointed as manager, Preston continued to decline and were relegated at the end of the 1973–74 season, with Nobby Stiles – another World Cup winner – taking Hawkins place as club captain. Plymouth Argyle and Blackburn Rovers made bids for Hawkins in January 1974, though he rejected the former as he did not wish to relocate to the south coast.\n\n### Blackburn Rovers\n\nHawkins signed with Blackburn Rovers for a transfer fee of £18,000 in June 1974. Recently appointed manager Gordon Lee was in the process of revamping the first-team, as he also signed Ken Beamish, Pat Hilton, Don Hutchins, Jimmy Mullen and Graham Oates. Hawkins formed a strong central defensive partnership with Derek Fazackerley, and played 49 games as Rovers won promotion as Third Division champions in 1974–75. For his performances that season, Hawkins was named on the Third Division's PFA Team of the Year alongside teammates Roger Jones (goalkeeper) and Andy Burgin (full-back). Hawkins credited Lee with teaching him the concept of playing the ball out from the back, giving him permission to use flair and patience rather than direct football tactics.\n\nNow managed by Jim Smith, the club finished mid-table in the Second Division in 1975–76 despite Hawkins and other players struggling with various injuries. Hawkins won the club's Player's Player of the Year award, though lost out the Fan's Player of the Year award after receiving only one vote fewer than winner Tony Parkes. Blackburn finished 12th at the end of the 1976–77 campaign and Smith began to blood new signing Glenn Keeley as a future successor to Hawkins at centre-back. Now aged 31, Hawkins became more of a reserve team player at Ewood Park in the first half of the 1977–78 season, and though he looked for a move away he rejected an approach from Shrewsbury Town as he wanted to secure a coaching role as well as a playing one.\n\n### Port Vale\n\nHawkins joined Bobby Smith's Port Vale in January 1978, signing as a player and youth team coach for a transfer fee of £6,000. He scored one goal in 16 Third Division appearances in the 1977–78 relegation campaign, and was appointed as the first-team coach in May 1978, before being promoted to assistant manager by new boss Dennis Butler in September 1978. Hawkins scored twice in 46 games in 1978–79, missing only three Fourth Division matches all season long. When Butler stepped down as manager in August 1979, Hawkins was expecting to be appointed as caretaker manager. However, the board appointed Alan Bloor in this role, and Bloor took up the position on a full-time basis the following month. Feeling slighted by this, Hawkins resigned his position and took out an unfair dismissal claim after the club refused to release his player registration, but dropped the claim in April 1980 when the club offered compensation. Chairman Arthur McPherson described the 1979–80 season as \"probably the worst season in the club's history\".\n\n## Style of play\n\nHawkins was a defender with a commanding presence and excellent ability to read play and organise the backline.\n\n## Coaching and management career\n\nUpon leaving Vale Park, Hawkins coached the reserves at Blackburn Rovers and the youth team at Stoke City. He was appointed as Graham Turner's assistant at Second Division Shrewsbury Town in June 1980.\n\n### Wolverhampton Wanderers\n\nHawkins returned to Wolverhampton Wanderers as manager, having been appointed after the Derek Dougan-led takeover saved the club from extinction in August 1982. Hawkins accepted wages of £20,000-a-year, though the job offer was an unexpected one as he had only applied for the vacant management post at Wrexham. He installed Jim Barron as his assistant, whilst Frank Upton was put in charge of the youth team on the understanding that young players would be important to the first-team due to the club's tight budget. He got the players to devise their own bonus structure, which rewarded them for winning matches; he told the press that \"they must stay in the top bracket if they want to earn their corn\". With regular goalkeeper Paul Bradshaw unavailable, Hawkins signed experienced goalkeeper John Burridge from Queens Park Rangers, who would prove to reliable on the pitch and inspirational in the dressing room, winning the club's Player of the Year award. However, budget constraints meant that he had to rely on four teenage debutants – Ian Cartwright, Paul Butler, Billy Livingstone and Dave Wintersgill – against Blackburn Rovers on the opening day of the 1982–83 season. The club's star striker, Andy Gray, openly agitated for a move away and was also injured. The team were fortunate to be only one goal down to Blackburn at half-time, but Hawkins remained calm and instructed the team to put in crosses to Butler, who went on to score a brace in the second half to give Wolves a 2–1 victory.\n\nHe refused to change his matchday suit until the team were beaten, which finally occurred in a 3–0 home defeat to Leicester City on 16 October, also ending a run of 817 minutes without conceding a league goal. Gray returned to fitness to play the following game, a 5–0 defeat to First Division Sunderland in the FA Cup. Midfielder Kenny Hibbitt was persuaded to return from the United States to captain the team and went on record to say that \"I have never been happier in my 14 years in the game... we were treated like serfs before... now we're treated like human beings\". However, veteran centre-half Joe Gallagher left in acrimonious circumstances as Hawkins tore up his contract after Gallagher made disparaging remarks in the press and refused to appear in the team photograph. Mixed results in November were followed by four wins and a draw in December, which saw Hawkins named as Second Division Manager of the Month with the club three points clear at the top of the table. However, another heavy defeat by Leicester City allowed Queens Park Rangers to catch Wolves in February. Rangers went on to win the league by a ten point margin as Wolves struggled for form in the latter half of the campaign. Wolves secured the second automatic promotion place with a 3–3 draw away at Charlton Athletic, despite throwing away a three goal half-time lead.\n\nHawkins drew up a list of players he wanted for the 1983–84 campaign, at an estimated cost of up to £1 million, with Gary Lineker the number one target. Tony Towner was on the list, though as a winger was not considered a priority, and Hawkins was furious when Dougan signed him for £100,000 whilst both Hawkins and Barron were out of the country on holiday. Wolves secured a 1–1 draw with reigning champions Liverpool on the opening day of the season, with Geoff Palmer converting a penalty won by Gray. Yet promised investment from Bhatti brothers was not forthcoming after their company, Allied Properties, were denied planning permission by the City of Wolverhampton Council, leaving the squad poorly equipped to handle life in the top-flight. The team failed to pick up a victory and were bottom of the table by October, with bare new signings and the existing squad largely unhappy that they had not been granted pay rises for their promotion success. In fact, Gray was sold to Everton the following month for £250,000. The team finally won their first First Division game on 26 November, with new loan signing Danny Crainie scoring two goals in a 3–1 victory at local rivals West Bromwich Albion; this ended a run of 19 games without a win. This was though followed by a 5–0 loss to second-bottom Watford. Wolves remained competitive though, beating Everton and Norwich City in December to remain within two points of safety. Despite being beaten by Coventry City in a second replay in the FA Cup, January saw Wolves beat Liverpool 1–0 at Anfield. Hawkins was sacked on 27 April, four days after relegation was confirmed with a 2–0 defeat at Everton. It took seven years of legal battles for the club to pay him his compensation, by which time Wolves were in the Fourth Division.\n\n### Middle East\n\nHawkins emigrated to Bahrain and managed Bahrain SC in the Bahraini Premier League, winning the league title in the 1984–85 season after a crucial game with Al-Muharraq SC was replayed because of dubious refereeing and the fact that the Muharraq goalkeeper punched Hawkins in the face. Muharraq won the 1985–86 title and Hawkins services were not retained after Riffa SC were crowned champions at the end of the 1986–87 campaign. He successfully applied for the management position at Al Hala SC. He applied for the management position at Kuwait Premier League club Al-Fahaheel at the end of the 1987–88 season, but was not successful. He left Al Hala at the end of the 1988–89 campaign and returned to the UK in December 1989. He returned to Blackburn Rovers as chief scout in 1990, though left this position to take up the lucrative management post at Kuwait club Al-Arabi SC, before his time in the Middle East was ended by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait during pre-season training.\n\n### Later career\n\nHe later did some part-time scouting for Blackburn Rovers, as the chief scout post had been filled in his absence. He also took up employment at John Ritchie's wholesaler business as a door-to-door salesman. In October 1991, he took on the lease of the Coopers Arms public house in Woore. He ran the pub for seven years, at which stage he became a gardener and warehouse worker. He re-entered the football industry after being employed by Elite Sports, helping the company to earn screening contracts in order to prevent the sudden cardiac death of athletes. He was then recruited by Jimmy Armfield to work as the Football League's head of player development. There he expanded the Football League's exit trials to cover players released from Centres of Excellence rather than just Academies. He retired in March 2011, at the age of 65.\n\n## Career statistics\n\n### Playing statistics\n\nSource:\n\n### Managerial statistics\n\n## Honours\n\n### Playing\n\nIndividual\n\n- PFA Third Division Team of the Year: 1974–75\n\nWolverhampton Wanderers\n\n- Football League Second Division second-place promotion: 1966–67\n\nPreston North End\n\n- Football League Third Division: 1970–71\n\nBlackburn Rovers\n\n- Football League Third Division: 1974–75\n\n### Managerial\n\nIndividual\n\n- Football League Second Division Manager of the Month: December 1982\n\nWolverhampton Wanderers\n\n- Football League Second Division second-place promotion: 1982–83\n\nBahrain SC\n\n- Bahraini Premier League: 1984–85", "revid": "1171193823", "description": "English football player and manager", "categories": ["1946 births", "2016 deaths", "Al-Arabi SC (Kuwait) managers", "Association football coaches", "Association football scouts", "Bahraini Premier League managers", "Blackburn Rovers F.C. non-playing staff", "Blackburn Rovers F.C. players", "Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma", "English Football League managers", "English Football League players", "English expatriate football managers", "English expatriate men's footballers", "English expatriate sportspeople in Bahrain", "English expatriate sportspeople in Kuwait", "English expatriate sportspeople in the United States", "English football managers", "English men's footballers", "Expatriate football managers in Bahrain", "Expatriate football managers in Kuwait", "Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States", "Los Angeles Wolves players", "Men's association football defenders", "People from Darlaston", "Port Vale F.C. non-playing staff", "Port Vale F.C. players", "Preston North End F.C. players", "Shrewsbury Town F.C. non-playing staff", "Stoke City F.C. non-playing staff", "United Soccer Association players", "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. managers", "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players"]}
{"id": "20181491", "url": null, "title": "Planet of the Apes (2001 film)", "text": "Planet of the Apes is a 2001 American science fiction adventure film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay by William Broyles Jr., Lawrence Konner, and Mark Rosenthal. The sixth installment in the Planet of the Apes film series, it is loosely based on the 1963 novel of the same name by Pierre Boulle and serves as a remake of the 1968 film version. The film stars Mark Wahlberg, Tim Roth, Helena Bonham Carter, Michael Clarke Duncan, Kris Kristofferson, Estella Warren, and Paul Giamatti. It tells the story of astronaut Leo Davidson (Wahlberg) crash-landing on a planet inhabited by intelligent apes. The apes treat humans as slaves, but with the help of an ape named Ari (Bonham Carter), Leo starts a rebellion.\n\nDevelopment for a Planet of the Apes remake started as far back as 1988 with Adam Rifkin. His project nearly reached the pre-production stage before being canceled. Terry Hayes's script, titled Return of the Apes, would have starred Arnold Schwarzenegger, under the direction of Phillip Noyce. Oliver Stone, Don Murphy, and Jane Hamsher were set to produce. Creative differences ensued between Hayes and distributor 20th Century Fox. Chris Columbus, Sam Hamm, James Cameron, Peter Jackson, and the Hughes brothers later became involved. With Broyles Jr.'s script, Burton was hired as director, and the film was put into active development. Konner and Rosenthal rewrote the script, and filming took place from November 2000 to April 2001.\n\nPlanet of the Apes was released in the United States on July 27, 2001, by 20th Century Fox. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the confusing plot and ending, but praised Rick Baker's prosthetic makeup designs, visual aspects, and musical score. Despite its financial success, Fox chose not to produce a sequel, and later rebooted the film series in 2011 with Rise of the Planet of the Apes.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn 2029, aboard the United States Air Force space station Oberon, Leo Davidson works closely with apes who are trained for space missions. His favorite ape co-worker is a chimpanzee named Pericles. With a deadly electromagnetic storm approaching the station, a small space pod piloted by Pericles is used to probe the storm. Pericles's pod heads into the storm and disappears. Leo takes a second pod and finds Pericles. Entering the storm, Leo loses contact with the Oberon and, in 5021 A.D., crashes on a planet called Ashlar. He learns that the world is ruled by humanoid apes who speak English, use domesticated horses for transportation, and treat human beings as slaves.\n\nLeo meets a female chimpanzee named Ari, who protests the mistreatment humans receive. Ari decides to buy Leo and a female slave named Daena to have them work as servants in the house of her father, Senator Sandar. Leo escapes his cage and frees other humans. Limbo, an orangutan trader in captured humans, sees them but is taken prisoner to ensure his silence. The murderous General Thade and his gorilla junior, Colonel Attar, march ape warriors to pursue the humans. Leo discovers Calima, the forbidden, but holy temple of \"Semos\", the first ape whom the apes revere as a god.\n\nCalima turns out to be the remains of the Oberon which had crashed on the planet's surface and now looks ancient (the name Calima comes from the sign \"CAution LIve aniMAls\", the relevant letters being the only ones not covered in dust). According to the computer logs, the station has been there for thousands of years. Leo deduces that when he entered the vortex, he was pushed forward in time, while the Oberon, searching after him, was not, crashing on the planet long before he did.\n\nThe Oberon's log reveals that the apes on board, led by Semos, organized a mutiny and took over the vessel after it crashed. The human and ape survivors of the struggle left the ship and their descendants are the people Leo has encountered since landing. The apes arrive and attack the humans who have gathered to see Leo, although he is able to even the odds when he uses the Oberon's last fragments of fuel to fire a final blast at the first wave of apes. The battle stops when a familiar vehicle descends from the sky, which Leo immediately identifies as the pod piloted by Pericles, the chimpanzee astronaut who was pushed in time as Leo was and had just now found his way to the planet, the electromagnetic storm actually releasing people from it in an opposite direction in time to their entrance because they were actually traveling backwards not forward in time. When Pericles lands and the pod opens, the apes bow, interpreting his arrival as the return of Semos, and hostilities between humans and apes suddenly cease.\n\nPericles runs into the wreck of the Oberon and Leo runs after him, followed by General Thade. Thade and Leo fight. Pericles tries to help Leo, but Thade throws him hard against a wall. Thade takes Leo's gun from him and tries to fire it at Leo. Leo sees that Thade is within the pilot's deck and closes the automatic door, trapping Thade inside. Thade fires the gun repeatedly at the door, but the ricochets create sparks that scare Thade, who huddles under a control panel. Deciding to escape Ashlar and return to Earth, Leo gives Pericles to Ari, who promises to look after him. After saying farewell to Ari and Daena, Leo climbs aboard Pericles's undamaged pod and returns to the present through the same electromagnetic storm.\n\nLeo crashes in Washington, D.C., on Earth and looks up at what appears to be the Lincoln Memorial, only to find that it is now a monument memorializing General Thade. A swarm of police officers, firefighters, and news reporters descend upon him, revealed to all be apes as Leo realizes that he is on ape-dominated Earth created by the temporal incursion of the crash landing Oberon (aka Calima).\n\n## Cast\n\n- Mark Wahlberg as Captain Leo Davidson\n  An astronaut who accidentally enters a portal to another world inhabited by talking humanoid apes and is captured by them. Leo leads a rebellion of the planet's humans. Wahlberg had backed out of a commitment to Ocean's Eleven to take this role in Planet of the Apes (Matt Damon was eventually cast in the Ocean's Eleven role). Whereas other actors contending for the Leo Davidson role wanted to see the script before signing a contract, Wahlberg signed on after a five-minute meeting with Burton. To avoid evoking associations with his previous work as an underwear model, Wahlberg did not wear a loincloth, even though Heston had worn one in the original film.\n- Tim Roth as General Thade\n  An ambitious and brutal chimpanzee military commander who wants control over the ape civilization. Thade also intends to marry Ari, but she denies him due to his cold soul. Gary Oldman was originally cast in the role but dropped out due to financial reasons. Roth turned down the role of Severus Snape in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone because of his commitment to Planet of the Apes. Alan Rickman was eventually cast as Snape. Roth rewrote some scenes to give his character a more frightening presence.\n- Helena Bonham Carter as Ari\n  A virtuous chimpanzee who protests the way humans are treated. She helps Leo lead the rebellion. Burton met Bonham Carter while casting for the film, telling her \"Don't take this the wrong way, but you were the first person I thought of to play a chimpanzee.\" They were in a relationship for 13 years and had two children.\n- Michael Clarke Duncan as Colonel Attar\n  A gorilla military officer who was Thade's closest associate and second in-command. Djimon Hounsou had turned down the role because of scheduling conflicts with The Four Feathers. Ron Perlman was also a potential candidate that Rick Baker vouched for and even did a design on an old lifecast.\n- Kris Kristofferson as Karubi, Daena's father. Karubi is killed by Thade while trying to escape. Kristofferson had immediately agreed to be cast. \"The director Tim Burton is a hero of mine. I have eight kids and we've seen all of his films from Pee-wee's Big Adventure to Sleepy Hollow many times.\"\n- Estella Warren as Daena\n  A female slave and Karubi's daughter, she develops a romantic attraction to Leo.\n- Paul Giamatti as Limbo\n  A comical orangutan who works in the trade business of human slaves. Limbo is caught in the conflict between humans and apes and tries his best to simply survive. Giamatti drew inspiration from W. C. Fields for his performance.\n- Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as General Krull\n  A firm but fair gorilla and former military leader whose career had been destroyed by Thade. Krull became a servant of Senator Sandar and assisted the humans in their rebellion.\n- David Warner as Senator Sandar, a politician, who is also Ari's father.\n- Erick Avari as Tival, a member of the human resistance.\n- Luke Eberl as Birn, a young human who fights in the rebellion.\n- Lisa Marie as Nova, Senator Nado's chimpanzee companion.\n- Evan Parke as Gunnar, a member of the human resistance.\n- Glenn Shadix as Senator Nado, a pompous orangutan politician in ape society.\n\nOther roles include Freda Foh Shen (Bon), Chris Ellis (Lt. Karl Vasich), Anne Ramsay (Lt. Col. Grace Alexander), Michael Jace (Maj. Frank Santos), Andrea Grano (Maj. Maria Cooper), Kam Heskin (Friend at Leo's Party), and Melody Perkins (Friend at Leo's Party). Jonah & Jacob (both uncredited) as Pericles, the trained chimpanzee who works with Leo on the space station.\n\nThere are also cameo appearances by Charlton Heston (uncredited) as Zaius, Thade's father, and Linda Harrison (the woman in the cart). Both participated in the first two films in the original series, Planet of the Apes (1968) and Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970) as George Taylor and Nova, respectively.\n\n## Development\n\n### Late 1980s\n\n20th Century Fox president Craig Baumgarten was impressed with Adam Rifkin's filmmaking with Never on Tuesday. In 1988, Rifkin was brought in the studio to pitch ideas for films. Rifkin, being a fan of the 1968 Planet of the Apes felt it was best to continue the film series. \"Having independent film experience, I promised I could write and direct a huge-looking film for a reasonable price and budget, like Aliens.\" Fox commissioned Rifkin to write what amounted to a sequel, \"but not a sequel to the fifth film, an alternate sequel to the first film\". He took influences from Spartacus, with the storyline being \"the ape empire had reached its Roman era. A descendant of Charlton Heston's character named Duke would eventually lead a human slave revolt against the oppressive Romanesque apes, led by General Izan. A real sword and sandal spectacular, monkey style. Gladiator did the same movie without the ape costumes.\"\n\nTitled Return to the Planet of the Apes, the project was put on fast track and almost entered pre-production. Rick Baker was hired to design the prosthetic makeup with Danny Elfman composing the film score. Tom Cruise and Charlie Sheen were in contention for the lead role. \"I can't accurately describe in words the utter euphoria I felt knowing that I, Adam Rifkin, was going to be resurrecting the Planet of the Apes. It all seemed too good to be true. I soon found out it was.\" Days before the film was to commence pre-production, new studio executives arrived at Fox, which caused creative differences between Rifkin and the studio. Rifkin was commissioned to rewrite the script through various drafts. The project was abandoned until Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh pitched their own idea, with the apes going through a Renaissance. In the story, the ape government becomes concerned over the new art works, the humans are revolting and the liberal apes shelter a half-human, half-ape from the gorillas. Roddy McDowall was enthusiastic about their proposal and agreed to play the Leonardo da Vinci-type character they had written for him. However, the executive Jackson spoke to was not a fan of the series and seemingly unaware of McDowall's involvement in the series, and Jackson turned his attention back to Heavenly Creatures.\n\n### Oliver Stone\n\nBy 1993, Fox hired Don Murphy and Jane Hamsher as producers. Sam Raimi and Oliver Stone were being considered as possible directors, though Stone signed on as executive producer/co-writer with a \\$1 million salary. On the storyline, Stone explained in December 1993, \"It has the discovery of cryogenically frozen Vedic Apes who hold the secret numeric codes to the Bible that foretold the end of civilizations. It deals with past versus the future. My concept is that there's a code inscribed in the Bible that predicts all historical events. The apes were there at the beginning and figured it all out.\"\n\nStone brought Terry Hayes to write the screenplay entitled Return of the Apes. Set in the near future, a plague is making humans extinct. Geneticist Will Robinson discovers the plague is a genetic time bomb embedded in the Stone Age. He time travels with a pregnant colleague named Billie Rae Diamond to a time when Palaeolithic humans were at war for the future of the planet with highly evolved apes. The apes' supreme commander is a gorilla named Drak. Robinson and Billie Rae discover a young human girl named Aiv (pronounced Eve) to be the next step in evolution. It is revealed that it was the apes that created the virus to destroy the human race. They protect her from the virus, thus ensuring the survival of the human race 102,000 years later. Billie Rae gives birth to a baby boy named Adam.\n\nFox president Peter Chernin called Return of the Apes \"one of the best scripts I ever read\". Chernin was hoping Hayes' script would create a franchise that included sequels, spin-off television shows and merchandise. In March 1994, Arnold Schwarzenegger signed on as Will Robinson with the condition he had approval of director. Chuck Russell was considered as a possible director before Phillip Noyce was hired in January 1995, while pre-production was nearing commencement with a \\$100 million budget. Stone first approached Rick Baker, who worked on Rifkin's failed remake, to design the prosthetic makeup, but eventually hired Stan Winston.\n\nFox became frustrated by the distance between their approach and Hayes' interpretation of Stone's ideas. As producer Don Murphy put it, \"Terry wrote a Terminator and Fox wanted The Flintstones\". Fox studio executive Dylan Sellers felt the script could be improved by comedy. \"What if Robinson finds himself in Ape land and the Apes are trying to play baseball? But they're missing one element, like the pitcher or something.\" Sellers continued. \"Robinson knows what they're missing and he shows them, and they all start playing.\" Sellers refused to give up his baseball scene, and when Hayes turned in the next script, sans baseball, Sellers fired him. Dissatisfied with Sellers' decision to fire Hayes, Noyce left Return of the Apes in February 1995 to work on The Saint.\n\n### Columbus and Cameron\n\nStone pursued other films of his own, Chernin was replaced by Thomas Rothman, and a drunken Sellers crashed his car, killing a much-loved colleague and earning jail time, while producers Murphy and Hamsher were paid off. \"After they got rid of us, they brought on Chris Columbus\", Murphy stated. \"Then I heard they did tests of apes skiing, which didn't make much sense.\" Stan Winston was still working on the makeup designs. Columbus brought Sam Hamm, his co-writer on an unproduced Fantastic Four script, to write the screenplay. \"We tried to do a story that was simultaneously an homage to the elements we liked from the five films, and would also incorporate a lot of material [from Pierre Boulle's novel] that had been jettisoned from the earlier production,\" Hamm continued. \"The first half of the script bore little resemblance to the book, but a lot of the stuff in the second half comes directly from it, or directly inspired by it.\"\n\nHamm's script had an ape astronaut from another planet crash-landing in New York Harbor, launching a virus that will make human beings extinct. Dr. Susan Landis, who works for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Alexander Troy, an Area 51 scientist, use the ape's spacecraft to return to the virus' planet of origin, hoping to find an antidote. They find an urban environment where apes armed with heavy weapons hunt humans. The main villain was Lord Zaius; in contrast to Dr. Zaius, Lord Zaius was very cruel to the humans. Landis and Troy discover the antidote and return to Earth, only to find in their 74-year absence that apes have taken over the planet. \"The Statue of Liberty's once proud porcelain features have been crudely chiseled into the grotesque likeness of a great grinning ape\".\n\nSchwarzenegger remained attached, but Fox had mixed emotions with Hamm's script. When Columbus dropped out in late 1995 to work on Jingle All the Way, Fox offered the director's position to Roland Emmerich in January 1996. James Cameron was in talks during the filming of Titanic as writer and producer. Cameron's version would have drawn elements from the original film and its sequel Beneath the Planet of the Apes. After the financial and critical success of Titanic, Cameron dropped out. After learning about his previous involvement, Chernin and Rothman met with Peter Jackson to learn about his original Renaissance idea. Jackson turned down directing the film with Schwarzenegger and Cameron as his producer, recognizing they would probably conflict over the direction. Schwarzenegger left to work on Eraser. Michael Bay then turned down the director's position. Jackson again turned down the project while facing the possible cancellation of The Lord of the Rings in 1998, because he was unenthusiastic following Roddy McDowall's death. In mid-1999, the Hughes brothers were interested in directing but were committed to From Hell.\n\n### Pre-production\n\nIn 1999, William Broyles Jr. turned down the chance to write the script, but decided to sign on \"when I found out I could have an extensive amount of creative control\". Fox projected the release date for July 2001, while Broyles sent the studio an outline and a chronicle of the fictional planet \"Aschlar\". Entitled The Visitor and billed as \"episode one in the Chronicles of Aschlar\", Broyles' script caught the attention of director Tim Burton, who was hired in February 2000. The film deviated from Burton's usual gothic films. \"I wasn't interested in doing a remake or a sequel of the original Planet of the Apes film,\" Burton said later. \"But I was intrigued by the idea of revisiting that world. Like a lot of people, I was affected by the original film. I wanted to do a 're-imagining'.\" Richard D. Zanuck signed on as producer in March. \"This is a very emotional film for me. I greenlighted the original Apes when I was the head of Fox in 1967.\"\n\nUnder Burton's direction, Broyles wrote another draft, but his script was projected at a \\$200 million budget. Fox wanted to cut it to \\$100 million. In August 2000, two months before principal photography, Fox brought Lawrence Konner and Mark Rosenthal for rewrites. Broyles \"had a lot of respect with the work they [Konner and Rosenthal] did. And to think that given what I'd done and given what Tim wanted, they navigated the right course.\" One of the considered endings had Leo Davidson crash-landing at Yankee Stadium, witnessing apes playing baseball. Various alternatives were considered before the filmmakers decided on the final one. The production of Planet of the Apes was a difficult experience for Burton. This was largely contributed by Fox's adamant release date (July 2001), which meant that everything from pre-production to editing and visual effects work was rushed.\n\nKonner and Rosenthal were rewriting the script even as sets were being constructed. Ari, Helena Bonham Carter's character, was originally a princess. She was changed to \"a Senator's daughter with a liberal mentality\". One of the drafts had General Thade, Tim Roth's character, as an albino gorilla, but Burton felt chimpanzees were more frightening. Limbo, Paul Giamatti's character \"was supposed to turn into a good guy. There was supposed to be this touching personal growth thing at the end,\" Giamatti reflected. \"But Tim [Burton] and I both thought that was kind of lame so we decided to just leave him as a jerk into the end.\"\n\n### Filming\n\nBurton wanted to begin filming in October 2000, but it was pushed back to November 6, 2000 and ended in April 2001. Filming for Planet of the Apes began at Lake Powell, where parts of the original film were shot. Due to a local drought, production crews had to pump in extra water. The film was mostly shot at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California, while other filming locations included lava plains in Hawaii and Trona Pinnacles at Ridgecrest. To preserve secrecy, the shooting script did not include the ending. Fox considered using computer-generated imagery to create the apes, but Burton insisted on using prosthetic makeup designed by Rick Baker. Baker was previously involved with Adam Rifkin's and Oliver Stone's unproduced remakes. Burton commented, \"I have a relationship with both of them (Winston and Baker), so that decision was hard,\" he says. \"Stan worked on Edward Scissorhands and Baker did Martin Landau's makeup [as Béla Lugosi in Ed Wood]\".\n\nOn his hiring, Baker explained, \"I did the Dino De Laurentiis version of King Kong in 1976 and was always disappointed because I wasn't able to do it as realistically as I wanted. I thought Apes would be a good way to make up for that.\" In addition to King Kong, Baker previously worked with designing ape makeup on Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes, Gorillas in the Mist, and the 1998 remake of Mighty Joe Young. The makeup took ranged from 2 to 4 & 1/2 hours to apply and an hour to remove. Burton explained, \"it's like going to the dentist at two in the morning and having people poke at you for hours. Then you wear an ape costume until nine at night.\" Burton was adamant that the apes should be substantially \"more animal-like; flying through trees, climb walls, swing out of windows, and go ape shit when angry.\" For a month and a half before shooting started, the actors who portrayed apes attended \"ape school\" under the choreography of Terry Notary. Industrial Light & Magic, Rhythm and Hues Studios and Animal Logic were commissioned for the visual effects sequences. Rick Heinrichs served as the production designer and Colleen Atwood did costume design.\n\nTo compose the film score, Burton hired regular collaborator Danny Elfman, who had previously been set as composer when Adam Rifkin was attached to do his own remake of the original back in 1989 before various filmmakers, including but eventually Burton himself, were attempted to do so later on. Elfman noted that his work on Planet of the Apes contained more percussion instruments than usual.\n\nDuring filming, Roth held a grudge against Heston due to his work with the National Rifle Association: \"It was very difficult for me. On one level, there's the man and he's my dad. But on the other level, the whole NRA thing is what it is now. I'm so against it, very vocally so. But it was inappropriate for the workplace. If I'm going to talk to him, I'll talk to him outside the workplace. So it was just two guys in makeup doing a scene.\" Roth later claimed he would not have appeared in the film had he known he would be sharing a scene with Heston.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Box office\n\nHasbro released a toy line, while Dark Horse Comics published a comic book adaptation. The original release date for the film was July 4, 2001. Planet of the Apes was released on July 27, 2001 in 3,500 theaters across the United States and Canada, grossing \\$68,532,960 in its opening weekend. This was the second-highest opening weekend of 2001, after Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. The film also dethroned Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace for having the best opening for any 20th Century Fox film. At that point, it had the second-highest opening weekend of any film, behind The Lost World: Jurassic Park. It was the second film of the year to cross the \\$60 million mark during its first three days, following The Mummy Returns. This record would be later joined by Monsters, Inc. and Rush Hour 2. Both the latter film and Planet of the Apes teamed up with Jurassic Park III and American Pie 2 to become the first four consecutive films to make an opening weekend above the \\$45 million mark. Planet of the Apes crushed X-Men's record for having the largest July opening weekend. The film would hold that record until Austin Powers in Goldmember took it in 2002. Additionally, the film surpassed Batman Returns for scoring the biggest opening weekend for a Tim Burton film. It would go on to hold this record for less than a decade until it was taken by Alice in Wonderland in 2010. For its second weekend, the film made a total of \\$28.5 million.\n\nMeanwhile, Planet of the Apes would begin to expand to Asian countries. While the film was unable to take the top chart spot from Hayao Miyazaki's Spirited Away, its opening was still a strong start to the company's international roll-out in one of the most significant international territories. Plus, it had a record opening in Brazil. It took in \\$1.5 million from 366 screens, beating the previous record held by Independence Day. In Mexico, Planet of the Apes earned \\$3.1 million from 547 screens, making it the second largest movie opening in the country, after Dinosaur. The film went on to gross \\$180,011,740 in the United States and Canada and \\$182,200,000 elsewhere, for a worldwide total of \\$362,211,740. Planet of the Apes was the tenth-highest-grossing film in North America, and ninth-highest worldwide, of 2001.\n\n### Project APE\n\nTo help promote the release of Planet of the Apes, 20th Century Fox collaborated with Geocaching and released an internet marketing campaign nicknamed \"Project APE\", that involved people going out into the real world. Geocaching was barely a year old at the time, and was just beginning to become more well known. The promotion's backstory, which actually had no connection to the movie, was that a group of renegade humans were placing artefacts (geocaches) around the globe in an effort to reveal an Alternate Primate Evolution. Over the course of several weeks in 2001, a cache containing props and memorabilia from the movie (prop blindfolds, prop knives, posters, trading cards and more) was released every week. However, the cache's location was not given, but clues were given throughout the week that narrowed down the location until the cache's coordinates were released on a Friday. It was then a race to get to the cache, with the first person arriving at the location getting a pick of the goodies in the cache. The caches were large ammo boxes, with \"Project APE\" spray painted on the front. Fourteen caches were placed in a series of missions numbered 1–12 (one was \"Special Movie\" for the movie premiere in New York and there was a Mission 10a & 10b, with 10b being another cache with the London premiere tickets). Evidence points to a potential Mission 13, but no cache page has been found for it. Most of the caches did not last beyond a couple of finds, as most of them were muggled (stolen). Only two caches are active today, with one located outside of Seattle, Washington, and the other in Brazil.\n\n### Critical response\n\nOn review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes Planet of the Apes has an approval rating of 44% based on 158 reviews, with an average rating of 5.51/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"This remake of Planet of the Apes can't compare to the original in some critics' minds, but the striking visuals and B-movie charms may win you over.\" On Metacritic the film has an average score of 50 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B−\" on an A+ to F scale.\n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 21⁄2 stars. He praised the twist ending, but felt the film lacked a balanced story structure.\n\n> The movie is great-looking. Rick Baker's makeup is convincing even in the extreme closeups, and his apes sparkle with personality and presence. The sets and locations give us a proper sense of alien awe. Tim Burton made a film that's respectful to the original, and respectable in itself, but that's not enough. Ten years from now, it will be the 1968 version that people are still renting.\n\nPeter Travers of Rolling Stone gave a negative review. \"Call it a letdown, worsened by the forces of shoddy screenwriting. To quote Heston in both films, 'Damn them, damn them all'.\" Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times believed \"the actors in the nonhuman roles are mostly too buried by makeup to make strong impressions. Unfortunately, none of the good work counts as much as you'd think it would,\" Turan said. \"Planet of the Apes shows that taking material too seriously can be as much of a handicap as not taking it seriously at all.\" Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times gave a more favorable review, feeling the script was balanced and the film served its purpose as \"pure entertainment\". Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today enjoyed Planet of the Apes, feeling most of the credit should go to prosthetic makeup designer Rick Baker.\n\nMuch criticism was leveled against the ambiguous ending. Tim Roth, who portrayed General Thade, said \"I cannot explain that ending. I have seen it twice and I don't understand anything.\" Helena Bonham Carter, who played Ari, said, \"I thought it made sense, kind of. I don't understand why everyone went, 'Huh?' It's all a time warp thing. He's gone back and he realizes Thade's beat him there.\" Although the ending was ambiguous, it was closer to the ending of the actual Pierre Boulle book than was the ending of the 1968 Charlton Heston movie version. In the first of two twist endings of the Pierre Boulle book, the astronaut escapes back to planet Earth, only to be greeted by a gorilla in a jeep on the landing strip. Burton claimed the ending was not supposed to make any sense, but it was more of a cliffhanger to be explained in a possible sequel. \"It was a reasonable cliffhanger that could be used in case Fox or another filmmaker wanted to do another movie,\" he explained.\n\nThe film was nominated for two BAFTA Awards, one for Best Make-up held by Rick Baker, the other for Best Costume Design. Roth (Supporting Actor), Bonham Carter (Supporting Actress), Colleen Atwood (Costume), and Rick Baker (Make-up) received nominations at the Saturn Awards. Atwood and Baker were nominated at the 55th British Academy Film Awards, while music composer Danny Elfman was nominated for his work at the 43rd Grammy Awards. Planet of the Apes won Worst Remake at the 22nd Golden Raspberry Awards, while Heston (Worst Supporting Actor) and Estella Warren (Worst Supporting Actress) also won awards. At the 2001 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, the film received nominations for Worst Director (Burton), Worst Supporting Actress (Warren), and Worst Screenplay for a Film Grossing Over \\$100M Worldwide Using Hollywood Math, but it failed to win any of those.\n\n## Future\n\n### Cancelled sequel\n\nFox stated that if Planet of the Apes was a financial success, then a sequel would be commissioned. Ultimately, they decided against pursuing another film. When asked whether he would be interested in working on a follow-up, director Tim Burton replied, \"I'd rather jump out a window.\" Mark Wahlberg and Helena Bonham Carter would have returned if Burton had decided to make another Apes film. Paul Giamatti had been interested in reprising his role. \"I think it'd be great to have apes driving cars, smoking cigars,\" Giamatti said. \"Wearing glasses, sitting in a board room, stuff like that.\" Planet of the Apes was the last film Burton worked on with his former fiancée Lisa Marie. After their relationship broke up, Burton started a relationship with Bonham Carter, who portrayed Ari. Planet of the Apes was also Burton's first collaboration with producer Richard D. Zanuck.\n\n### Reboot\n\nFox returned to the franchise in 2011 with Rise of the Planet of the Apes, a reboot of the series that led to its own sequels.\n\n## Video game\n\nIn 1998, after 20th Century Fox had greenlit James Cameron's version of the film remake, the company's video game division, Fox Interactive, started planning a video game tie-in. The film project went on hold when Cameron pulled out, but Fox Interactive remained confident a remake would progress eventually and continued with the game. Fox contracted French company Visiware as developer; with the film on hold, the creators developed their own story inspired by Boulle's novel and the original films. The game is an action-adventure in which the player controls astronaut Ulysses after he crashes on the Planet of the Apes. The game was developed for PC and PlayStation.\n\nThe game experienced serious delays due to setbacks with the film project and Fox Interactive's decision to co-publish with a third party. Despite its long development, the game missed the debut of Burton's film. Fox Interactive and co-publisher Ubisoft finally released the PC version on September 20, 2001; the PlayStation version followed on August 22, 2002. The game received mostly negative reviews.\n\nAdditionally, Ubisoft and developer Torus Games produced a substantially different Planet of the Apes game for Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Color. It is a side-scroller following the first two films; the player controls astronaut Ben on the Planet of the Apes. The Game Boy versions received average reviews.\n\n## Home media\n\nPlanet of the Apes was released on DVD and VHS on November 20, 2001. DVD rentals grossed \\$40.8 million in the United States, as of December 2001. This THX certified two-disc DVD release features rare Nuon technology, which can only be used on Nuon-enhanced DVD players. These Nuon features include viddies and various zoom points during the film. The first disc features audio commentaries with Tim Burton and Danny Elfman, cast and crew profiles and enhanced viewing mode. It also contains a DTS 5.1 audio track and DVD-ROM. On the second disc, there are extended scenes, an HBO special, The Making of Planet of the Apes, behind-the-scenes footage, theatrical trailers, TV spots, previews for Moulin Rouge! and Dr. Dolittle 2, posters and press kit, a music promo, screen tests, galleries, multi-angle featurettes and more.", "revid": "1171343855", "description": "2001 film by Tim Burton", "categories": ["2000s American films", "2000s English-language films", "2001 films", "2001 science fiction films", "20th Century Fox films", "American dystopian films", "American post-apocalyptic films", "American science fiction films", "Fiction set in the 6th millennium", "Films about apes", "Films about slavery", "Films about time travel", "Films based on French novels", "Films directed by Tim Burton", "Films produced by Richard D. Zanuck", "Films scored by Danny Elfman", "Films set in 2029", "Films set in Washington, D.C.", "Films set in the future", "Films shot at Pinewood Studios", "Films shot in Arizona", "Films shot in California", "Films shot in Hawaii", "Films shot in Sydney", "Films shot in Utah", "Golden Raspberry Award winning films", "Planet of the Apes films", "Reboot films", "Remakes of American films", "The Zanuck Company films"]}
{"id": "14995351", "url": null, "title": "Michael Jackson", "text": "Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and philanthropist. Known as the \"King of Pop\", he is regarded as one of the most significant cultural figures of the 20th century. During his four-decade career, his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture. Jackson influenced artists across many music genres. Through stage and video performances, he popularized complicated street dance moves such as the moonwalk, which he named, as well as the robot.\n\nThe eighth child of the Jackson family, Jackson made his public debut in 1964 with his older brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon as a member of the Jackson 5 (later known as the Jacksons). Jackson began his solo career in 1971 while at Motown Records. He became a solo star with his 1979 album Off the Wall. His music videos, including those for \"Beat It\", \"Billie Jean\", and \"Thriller\" from his 1982 album Thriller, are credited with breaking racial barriers and transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool. He helped propel the success of MTV and continued to innovate with videos for the albums Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995), and Invincible (2001). Thriller became the best-selling album of all time, while Bad was the first album to produce five US Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles.\n\nFrom the late 1980s, Jackson became a figure of controversy and speculation due to his changing appearance, relationships, behavior, and lifestyle. In 1993, he was accused of sexually abusing the child of a family friend. The lawsuit was settled out of civil court; Jackson was not indicted due to lack of evidence. In 2005, he was tried and acquitted of further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges. The FBI found no evidence of criminal conduct by Jackson in either case. In 2009, while he was preparing for a series of comeback concerts, This Is It, Jackson died from an overdose of propofol administered by his personal physician, Conrad Murray, who was convicted in 2011 of involuntary manslaughter for his involvement in Jackson's death. His death triggered reactions around the world, creating unprecedented surges of internet traffic and a spike in sales of his music. A televised memorial service for Jackson, held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, was viewed by more than an estimated 2.5 billion people globally.\n\nJackson is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, with estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide. He had 13 Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles (third highest of any artist in the Hot 100 era) and was the first artist to have a top-ten single on the Billboard Hot 100 in five different decades. His honors include 15 Grammy Awards, six Brit Awards, a Golden Globe Award, and 39 Guinness World Records, including the \"Most Successful Entertainer of All Time\". Jackson's inductions include the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (twice), the Vocal Group Hall of Fame, the Songwriters Hall of Fame, the Dance Hall of Fame (making him the only recording artist to be inducted) and the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame.\n\n## Life and career\n\n### Early life and the Jackson 5 (1958–1975)\n\nMichael Joseph Jackson was born in Gary, Indiana, on August 29, 1958. He was the eighth of ten children in the Jackson family, a working-class African-American family living in a two-bedroom house on Jackson Street. His mother, Katherine Esther Jackson (née Scruse), played clarinet and piano, had aspired to be a country-and-western performer, and worked part-time at Sears. She was a Jehovah's Witness. His father, Joseph Walter \"Joe\" Jackson, a former boxer, was a crane operator at US Steel and played guitar with a local rhythm and blues band, the Falcons, to supplement the family's income. Joe's great-grandfather, July \"Jack\" Gale, was a US Army scout; family lore held that he was also a Native American medicine man. Michael grew up with three sisters (Rebbie, La Toya, and Janet) and five brothers (Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, Marlon, and Randy). A sixth brother, Marlon's twin Brandon, died shortly after birth.\n\nIn 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers — a band formed by their father which included Jackie, Tito and Jermaine — as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine. Michael said his father told him he had a \"fat nose\", and physically and emotionally abused him during rehearsals. He recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, ready to punish any mistakes. Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped Michael. Katherine said that although whipping came to be considered abuse, it was a common way to discipline children when Michael was growing up. Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon denied that their father was abusive and said that the whippings, which had a deeper impact on Michael because he was younger, kept them disciplined and out of trouble. Michael said that during his youth he was lonely and isolated.\n\nLater in 1965, Michael began sharing lead vocals with Jermaine, and the group's name was changed to the Jackson 5. In 1965, the group won a talent show; Michael performed the dance to Robert Parker's 1965 song \"Barefootin'\" and sang the Temptations' \"My Girl\". From 1966 to 1968, the Jacksons 5 toured the Midwest; they frequently played at a string of black clubs known as the Chitlin' Circuit as the opening act for artists such as Sam & Dave, the O'Jays, Gladys Knight and Etta James. The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges, where striptease shows were featured, and at local auditoriums and high school dances. In August 1967, while touring the East Coast, they won a weekly amateur night concert at the Apollo Theater in Harlem.\n\nThe Jackson 5 recorded several songs for a Gary record label, Steeltown Records; their first single, \"Big Boy\", was released in 1968. Bobby Taylor of Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers brought the Jackson 5 to Motown after they opened for Taylor at Chicago's Regal Theater in 1968. Taylor produced some of their early Motown recordings, including a version of \"Who's Lovin' You\". After signing with Motown, the Jackson family relocated to Los Angeles. In 1969, Motown executives decided Diana Ross should introduce the Jackson 5 to the public — partly to bolster her career in television — sending off what was considered Motown's last product of its \"production line\". The Jackson 5 made their first television appearance in 1969 in the Miss Black America pageant, performing a cover of \"It's Your Thing\". Rolling Stone later described the young Michael as \"a prodigy\" with \"overwhelming musical gifts\" who \"quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer\".\n\nIn January 1970, \"I Want You Back\" became the first Jackson 5 song to reach number one on the US Billboard Hot 100; it stayed there for four weeks. Three more singles with Motown topped the chart: \"ABC\", \"The Love You Save\", and \"I'll Be There\". In May 1971, the Jackson family moved into a large house at Hayvenhurst, a 2-acre (0.81 ha) estate in Encino, California. During this period, Michael developed from a child performer into a teen idol. Between 1972 and 1975, he released four solo studio albums with Motown: Got to Be There (1972), Ben (1972), Music & Me (1973) and Forever, Michael (1975). \"Got to Be There\" and \"Ben\", the title tracks from his first two solo albums, sold well as singles, as did a cover of Bobby Day's \"Rockin' Robin\".\n\nMichael maintained ties to the Jackson 5. The Jackson 5 were later described as \"a cutting-edge example of black crossover artists\". They were frustrated by Motown's refusal to allow them creative input. Jackson's performance of their top five single \"Dancing Machine\" on Soul Train popularized the robot dance.\n\n### Move to Epic and Off the Wall (1975–1981)\n\nThe Jackson 5 left Motown in 1975, signing with Epic Records and renaming themselves the Jacksons. Their younger brother Randy joined the band around this time; Jermaine stayed with Motown and pursued a solo career. The Jacksons continued to tour internationally, and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984. Michael, the group's main songwriter during this time, wrote songs such as \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" (1978), \"This Place Hotel\" (1980), and \"Can You Feel It\" (1980).\n\nIn 1977, Jackson moved to New York City to star as the Scarecrow in The Wiz, a musical film directed by Sidney Lumet, alongside Diana Ross, Nipsey Russell, and Ted Ross. The film was a box-office failure. Its score was arranged by Quincy Jones, who later produced three of Jackson's solo albums. During his time in New York, Jackson frequented the Studio 54 nightclub, where he heard early hip hop; this influenced his beatboxing on future tracks such as \"Working Day and Night\". In 1978, Jackson broke his nose during a dance routine. A rhinoplasty led to breathing difficulties that later affected his career. He was referred to Steven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson's operations.\n\nJackson's fifth solo album, Off the Wall (1979), established him as a solo performer and helped him move from the bubblegum pop of his youth to more complex sounds. It produced four top 10 entries in the US: \"Off the Wall\", \"She's Out of My Life\", and the chart-topping singles \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\" and \"Rock with You\". The album reached number three on the US Billboard 200 and sold over 20 million copies worldwide. In 1980, Jackson won three American Music Awards for his solo work: Favorite Soul/R&B Album, Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul/R&B Single for \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\". He also won a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for 1979 with \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\". In 1981, Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist. Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release. In 1980, he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit.\n\n### Thriller and Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever (1982–1983)\n\nJackson recorded with Queen's lead singer Freddie Mercury from 1981 to 1983, recording demos of \"State of Shock\", \"Victory\" and \"There Must Be More to Life Than This\". The recordings were intended for an album of duets but, according to Queen's manager Jim Beach, the relationship soured when Jackson brought a llama into the recording studio, and Jackson was upset by Mercury's drug use. \"There Must Be More to Life Than This\" was released in 2014. Jackson went on to record \"State of Shock\" with Mick Jagger for the Jacksons' album Victory (1984).\n\nIn 1982, Jackson contributed \"Someone in the Dark\" to the audiobook for the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Jackson's sixth album, Thriller, was released in late 1982. It was the bestselling album worldwide in 1983, and became the bestselling album of all time in the US and the best-selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated 70 million copies. It topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to produce seven Billboard Hot 100 top-10 singles, including \"Billie Jean\", \"Beat It\", and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\".\n\nOn March 25, 1983, Jackson reunited with his brothers for Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, an NBC television special. The show aired on May 16 to an estimated audience of 47 million, and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars. Jackson's solo performance of \"Billie Jean\" earned him his first Emmy Award nomination. Wearing a glove decorated with rhinestones, he debuted his moonwalk dance, which Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years earlier, and it became his signature dance in his repertoire. Jackson had originally turned down the invitation to the show, believing he had been doing too much television. But at the request of Motown founder Berry Gordy, he performed in exchange for an opportunity to do a solo performance. Rolling Stone reporter Mikal Gilmore called the performance \"extraordinary\". Jackson's performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley's and the Beatles' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show. Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times praised the perfect timing and technique involved in the dance. Gordy described being \"mesmerized\" by the performance.\n\nAt the 26th Annual Grammy Awards, Thriller won eight awards, and Jackson won an award for the E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial storybook. Winning eight Grammys in one ceremony is a record he holds with the band Santana. Jackson and Quincy Jones won the award for Producer of the Year (Non-Classical). Thriller won Album of the Year (with Jackson as the album's artist and Jones as its co-producer), and the single won Best Pop Vocal Performance (Male) award for Jackson. \"Beat It\" won Record of the Year and Best Rock Vocal Performance (Male). \"Billie Jean\" won two Grammy awards: Best R&B Song and Best R&B Vocal Performance (Male), with Jackson as songwriter and singer respectively.\n\nThriller won the Grammy for Best Engineered Recording (Non Classical), acknowledging Bruce Swedien for his work on the album. At the 11th Annual American Music Awards, Jackson won another eight awards and became the youngest artist to win the Award of Merit. He also won Favorite Male Artist, Favorite Soul/R&B Artist, and Favorite Pop/Rock Artist. \"Beat It\" won Favorite Soul/R&B Video, Favorite Pop/Rock Video and Favorite Pop/Rock Single. The album won Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Pop/Rock Album. Thriller's sales doubled after the release of an extended music video, Michael Jackson's Thriller, which sees Jackson dancing with a horde of zombies.\n\nThe success transformed Jackson into a dominant force in global pop culture. Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point, with about \\$2 for every album sold (), and was making record-breaking profits. Dolls modeled after Jackson appeared in stores in May 1984 for \\$12 each. In the same year, The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller, a documentary about the music video, won a Grammy for Best Music Video (Longform). Time described Jackson's influence at that point as \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too.\" The New York Times wrote \"in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else\".\n\nOn May 14, 1984, President Ronald Reagan gave Jackson an award recognizing his support of alcohol and drug abuse charities, and in recognition of his support for the Ad Council's and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign. Jackson allowed the campaign to use \"Beat It\" for its public service announcements.\n\n### Pepsi incident and other commercial activities (1984–1985)\n\nIn November 1983, Jackson and his brothers partnered with PepsiCo in a \\$5 million promotional deal that broke records for a celebrity endorsement (equivalent to \\$ in ). The first Pepsi campaign, which ran in the US from 1983 to 1984 and launched its \"New Generation\" theme, included tour sponsorship, public relations events, and in-store displays. Jackson helped to create the advertisement, and suggested using his song \"Billie Jean\", with revised lyrics, as its jingle.\n\nOn January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen by Phil Dusenberry, a BBDO ad agency executive, and Alan Pottasch, Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. During a simulated concert before a full house of fans, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson's hair on fire, causing second-degree burns to his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter.\n\nPepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated the \\$1.5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California; its now-closed Michael Jackson Burn Center was named in his honor. Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for \\$10 million. The second campaign covered 20 countries and provided financial support for Jackson's Bad album and 1987–88 world tour. Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies, such as LA Gear, Suzuki, and Sony, but none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi.\n\nThe Victory Tour of 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased Jackson's new solo material to more than two million Americans. It was the last tour he did with his brothers. Following controversy over the concert's ticket sales, Jackson donated his share of the proceeds, an estimated \\$3 to 5 million, to charity. During the last concert of the Victory Tour at the Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, Jackson announced his split from the Jacksons during \"Shake Your Body\".\n\nHis charitable work continued with the release of \"We Are the World\" (1985), co-written with Lionel Richie, which raised money for the poor in the US and Africa. It earned \\$63 million (equivalent to \\$ in ), and became one of the best-selling singles of all time, with 20 million copies sold. It won four Grammy Awards in 1985, including Song of the Year for Jackson and Richie as its writers. The project's creators received two special American Music Awards honors: one for the creation of the song and another for the USA for Africa idea. Jackson, Jones, and promoter Ken Kragen received special awards for their roles in the song's creation.\n\nJackson collaborated with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s, and learned that McCartney was making \\$40 million a year from owning the rights to other artists' songs. By 1983, Jackson had begun buying publishing rights to others' songs, but he was careful with his acquisitions, only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him. Jackson's early acquisitions of music catalogs and song copyrights such as the Sly Stone collection included \"Everyday People\" (1968), Len Barry's \"1–2–3\" (1965), and Dion DiMucci's \"The Wanderer\" (1961) and \"Runaround Sue\" (1961).\n\nIn 1984, Robert Holmes à Court announced he was selling the ATV Music Publishing catalog comprising the publishing rights to nearly 4,000 songs, including most of the Beatles' material. In 1981, McCartney had been offered the catalog for £20 million (\\$40 million). Jackson submitted a bid of \\$46 million on November 20, 1984. When Jackson and McCartney were unable to make a joint purchase, McCartney did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles' songs, and did not pursue an offer on his own. Jackson's agents were unable to come to a deal, and in May 1985 left talks after having spent more than \\$1 million and four months of due diligence work on the negotiations.\n\nIn June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman's and Marty Bandier's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative offer to buy ATV Music for \\$50 million; in early August, Holmes à Court contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson's increased bid of \\$47.5 million (equivalent to \\$ in ) was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence. Jackson agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon. His purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10, 1985.\n\n### Increased tabloid speculation (1986–1987)\n\nJackson's skin had been medium-brown during his youth, but from the mid-1980s gradually grew paler. The change drew widespread media coverage, including speculation that he had been bleaching his skin. His dermatologist, Arnold Klein, said he observed in 1983 that Jackson had vitiligo, a condition characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. He also identified discoid lupus erythematosus in Jackson. He diagnosed Jackson with lupus that year, and with vitiligo in 1986. Vitiligo's drastic effects on the body can cause psychological distress. Jackson used fair-colored makeup, and possibly skin-bleaching prescription creams, to cover up the uneven blotches of color caused by the illness. The creams would depigment the blotches, and, with the application of makeup, he could appear very pale. Jackson said he had not purposely bleached his skin and could not control his vitiligo, adding, \"When people make up stories that I don't want to be who I am, it hurts me.\" He became friends with Klein and Klein's assistant, Debbie Rowe. Rowe later became Jackson's second wife and the mother of his first two children.\n\nIn his 1988 autobiography and a 1993 interview, Jackson said he had had two rhinoplasty surgeries and a cleft chin surgery but no more than that. He said he lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet to achieve a dancer's body. Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy, and speculated he was suffering from anorexia nervosa. Periods of weight loss became a recurring problem later in his life. After his death, Jackson's mother said that he first turned to cosmetic procedures to remedy his vitiligo, because he did not want to look like a \"spotted cow\". She said he had received more than the two cosmetic surgeries he claimed and speculated that he had become addicted to them.\n\nIn 1986, tabloids reported that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow aging, and pictured him lying in a glass box. The claim was untrue, and tabloids reported that he spread the story himself. They also reported that Jackson took female hormone shots to keep his voice high and facial hair wispy, proposed to Elizabeth Taylor and possibly had a shrine of her, and had cosmetic surgery on his eyes. Jackson's manager Frank DiLeo denied all of them, except for Jackson having a chamber. DiLeo added \"I don't know if he sleeps in it. I'm not for it. But Michael thinks it's something that's probably healthy for him. He's a bit of a health fanatic.\"\n\nWhen Jackson took his pet chimpanzee Bubbles to tour in Japan, the media portrayed Jackson as an aspiring Disney cartoon character who befriended animals. It was also reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick (the \"Elephant Man\"). In June 1987, the Chicago Tribune reported Jackson's publicist bidding \\$1 million for the skeleton to the London Hospital Medical College on his behalf. The college maintained the skeleton was not for sale. DiLeo said Jackson had an \"absorbing interest\" in Merrick, \"purely based on his awareness of the ethical, medical and historical significance.\"\n\nIn September 1986, using the false hyperbaric chamber story, the British tabloid The Sun branded Jackson \"Wacko Jacko\", a name Jackson came to despise. The Atlantic noted that the name \"Jacko\" has racist connotations, as it originates from Jacko Macacco, a monkey used in monkey-baiting matches at the Westminster Pit in the early 1820s, and \"Jacko\" was used in Cockney slang to refer to monkeys in general.\n\nJackson worked with George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola on the 17-minute \\$30 million 3D film Captain EO, which ran from 1986 at Disneyland and Epcot, and later at Tokyo Disneyland and Euro Disneyland. After having been removed in the late 1990s, it returned to the theme park for several years after Jackson's death. In 1987, Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah's Witnesses. Katherine Jackson said this might have been because some Witnesses strongly opposed the Thriller video. Michael had denounced it in a Witness publication in 1984.\n\n### Bad, autobiography, and Neverland (1987–1990)\n\nJackson's first album in five years, Bad (1987), was highly anticipated, with the industry expecting another major success. It became the first album to produce five US number-one singles: \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\", \"Bad\", \"The Way You Make Me Feel\", \"Man in the Mirror\", and \"Dirty Diana\". Another song, \"Smooth Criminal\", peaked at number seven. Bad won the 1988 Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and the 1990 Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Short Form for \"Leave Me Alone\". Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards in 1989 after Bad generated five number-one singles, became the first album to top the charts in 25 countries and the bestselling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988. By 2012, it had sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide.\n\nThe Bad World Tour ran from September 12, 1987, to January 14, 1989. In Japan, the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record for a single tour. The 504,000 people who attended seven sold-out shows at Wembley Stadium set a new Guinness World Record.\n\nIn 1988, Jackson released his autobiography, Moonwalk, with input from Stephen Davis and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. It sold 200,000 copies, and reached the top of the New York Times bestsellers list. Jackson discussed his childhood, the Jackson 5, and the abuse from his father. He attributed his changing facial appearance to three plastic surgeries, puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hairstyle, and stage lighting. In June, Jackson was honored with the Grand Vermeil Medal of the City of Paris by the then Mayor of Paris Jacques Chirac during his stay in the city as part of the Bad World Tour. In October, Jackson released a film, Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short films starring Jackson and Joe Pesci. In the US it was released direct-to-video and became the bestselling video cassette in the country. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified it as eight times Platinum in the US.\n\nIn March 1988, Jackson purchased 2,700 acres (11 km<sup>2</sup>) of land near Santa Ynez, California, to build a new home, Neverland Ranch, at a cost of \\$17 million (equivalent to \\$ in ). He installed a Ferris wheel, a carousel, a movie theater and a zoo. A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds. Shortly afterwards, he appeared in the first Western television advertisement in the Soviet Union.\n\nJackson became known as the \"King of Pop\", a nickname that Jackson's publicists embraced. When Elizabeth Taylor presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, she called him \"the true king of pop, rock and soul.\" President George H. W. Bush designated him the White House's \"Artist of the Decade\". From 1985 to 1990, Jackson donated \\$455,000 to the United Negro College Fund, and all profits from his single \"Man in the Mirror\" went to charity. His rendition of \"You Were There\" at Sammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination. Jackson was the bestselling artist of the 1980s.\n\n### Dangerous and public social work (1991–1993)\n\nIn March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for \\$65 million (equivalent to \\$ in ), a record-breaking deal, beating Neil Diamond's renewal contract with Columbia Records. In 1991, he released his eighth album, Dangerous, co-produced with Teddy Riley. It was certified eight times platinum in the US, and by 2018 had sold 32 million copies worldwide. In the US, the first single, \"Black or White\", was the album's highest-charting song; it was number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks and achieved similar chart performances worldwide. The second single, \"Remember the Time\" peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. At the end of 1992, Dangerous was the bestselling album of the year worldwide and \"Black or White\" the bestselling single of the year worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards. In 1993, he performed \"Remember the Time\" at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair, saying he twisted his ankle during dance rehearsals. In the UK, \"Heal the World\" made No. 2 on the charts in 1992.\n\nJackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992. The charity brought underprivileged children to Jackson's ranch to use the theme park rides, and sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. That July, Jackson published his second book, Dancing the Dream, a collection of poetry. The Dangerous World Tour ran between June 1992 and November 1993 and grossed \\$100 million (equivalent to \\$ in ); Jackson performed for 3.5 million people in 70 concerts, all of which were outside the US. Part of the proceeds went to Heal the World Foundation. Jackson sold the broadcast rights of the tour to HBO for \\$20 million, a record-breaking deal that still stands.\n\nFollowing the death of HIV/AIDS spokesperson and friend Ryan White, Jackson pleaded with the Clinton administration at Bill Clinton's inaugural gala to give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and research and performed \"Gone Too Soon\", a song dedicated to White, and \"Heal the World\" at the gala. Jackson visited Africa in early 1992; on his first stop in Gabon he was greeted by more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read \"Welcome Home Michael\", and was awarded an Officer of the National Order of Merit from President Omar Bongo. During his trip to Ivory Coast, Jackson was crowned \"King Sani\" by a tribal chief. He thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed documents formalizing his kingship, and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances.\n\nIn January 1993, Jackson performed at the Super Bowl XXVII halftime show in Pasadena, California. The NFL sought a big-name artist to keep ratings high during halftime following dwindling audience figures. It was the first Super Bowl whose half-time performance drew greater audience figures than the game. Jackson played \"Jam\", \"Billie Jean\", \"Black or White\", and \"Heal the World\". Dangerous rose 90 places in the US albums chart after the performance.\n\nJackson gave a 90-minute interview with Oprah Winfrey on February 10, 1993. He spoke of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood, and said that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, and stated for the first time that he had vitiligo. After the interview, Dangerous re-entered the US albums chart in the top 10, more than a year after its release.\n\nIn January 1993, Jackson won three American Music Awards: Favorite Pop/Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul/R&B Single (\"Remember the Time\"), and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence. In February, he won the \"Living Legend Award\" at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. He attended the award ceremony with Brooke Shields. Dangerous was nominated for Best Vocal Performance (for \"Black or White\"), Best R&B Vocal Performance (\"Jam\") and Best R&B Song (\"Jam\"), and Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley won the Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical.\n\n### First child sexual abuse accusations and first marriage (1993–1995)\n\nIn August 1993, Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13-year-old boy, Jordan Chandler, and his father, Evan Chandler. Jordan said he and Jackson had engaged in acts of kissing, masturbation and oral sex. While Jordan's mother initially told police that she did not believe Jackson had molested him, her position wavered a few days later. Evan was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, which Jackson used to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father trying to extort money. Jackson's older sister La Toya accused him of being a pedophile; she later retracted this, saying she had been forced into it by her abusive husband.\n\nPolice raided Jackson's home in August and found two legal large-format art books featuring young boys playing, running and swimming in various states of undress. Jackson denied knowing of the books' content and claimed if they were there someone had to send them to him and he did not open them. Jordan Chandler gave police a description of Jackson's genitals. A strip search was made, and the jurors felt the description was not a match. In January 1994, Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for a reported total sum of \\$23 million. The police never pressed criminal charges. Citing a lack of evidence without Jordan's testimony, the state closed its investigation on September 22, 1994.\n\nJackson had been taking painkillers for his reconstructive scalp surgeries, administered due to the Pepsi commercial accident in 1984, and became dependent on them to cope with the stress of the sexual abuse allegations. On November 12, 1993, Jackson canceled the remainder of the Dangerous World Tour due to health problems, stress from the allegations and painkiller addiction. He thanked his close friend Elizabeth Taylor for support, encouragement and counsel. The end of the tour concluded his sponsorship deal with Pepsi.\n\nIn late 1993, Jackson proposed to Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis Presley, over the phone. They married in La Vega, Dominican Republic, in May 1994 by civil judge Hugo Francisco Álvarez Pérez. The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a publicity stunt to deflect away from Jackson's sexual abuse allegations and jump-start Presley's career as a singer. Their marriage ended little more than a year later, and they separated in December 1995. Presley cited \"irreconcilable differences\" when filing for divorce the next month and only sought to reclaim her maiden name as her settlement. After the divorce, Judge Pérez said, \"They lasted longer than I thought they would. I gave them a year. They lasted a year and a half.\" Presley later said she and Jackson had attempted to reconcile intermittently for four years following their divorce, and that she had traveled the world to be with him.\n\nJackson composed music for the Sega Genesis video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3 (1994), but left the project around the time the sexual abuse allegations surfaced and went uncredited. The Sega Technical Institute director Roger Hector and the Sonic co-creator Naoto Ohshima said that Jackson's involvement was terminated and his music reworked following the allegations. However, Jackson's musical director Brad Buxer and other members of Jackson's team said Jackson went uncredited because he was unhappy with how the Genesis replicated his music.\n\n### HIStory, second marriage, fatherhood and Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix (1995–1997)\n\nIn June 1995, Jackson released the double album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc, HIStory Begins, is a greatest hits album (reissued in 2001 as Greatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I). The second disc, HIStory Continues, contains 13 original songs and two cover versions. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for eight million shipments in the US. It is the bestselling multi-disc album of all time, with 20 million copies (40 million units) sold worldwide. HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year. The New York Times reviewed it as \"the testimony of a musician whose self-pity now equals his talent\".\n\nThe first single from HIStory was \"Scream/Childhood\". \"Scream\", a duet with Jackson's youngest sister Janet, protests the media's treatment of Jackson during the 1993 child abuse allegations against him. The single reached number five on the Billboard Hot 100, and received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals\". The second single, \"You Are Not Alone\", holds the Guinness world record for the first song to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Vocal Performance\" in 1995.\n\nIn 1995 the Anti-Defamation League and other groups complained that \"Jew me, sue me, everybody do me/ Kick me, kike me, don't you black or white me\", the original lyrics of \"They Don't Care About Us\", were antisemitic. Jackson released a version with revised words.\n\nIn late 1995, Jackson was admitted to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance, caused by a stress-related panic attack. In November, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony's music publishing division, creating Sony/ATV Music Publishing. He retained ownership of half the company, earning \\$95 million up front (equivalent to \\$ in ) as well as the rights to more songs.\n\n\"Earth Song\" was the third single released from HIStory, and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995. It became the 87th-bestselling single in the UK. At the 1996 Brit Awards, Jackson's performance of \"Earth Song\" was disrupted by Pulp singer Jarvis Cocker, who was protesting what Cocker saw as Jackson's \"Christ-like\" persona. Jackson said the stage invasion was \"disgusting and cowardly\".\n\nIn 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form, for \"Scream\" and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist. In July 1996, Jackson performed for Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah's fiftieth birthday at Jerudong Park Amphitheater, which was specifically built for that birthday concert. Jackson was reportedly paid \\$17 million (equivalent to \\$ in ). Jackson promoted HIStory with the HIStory World Tour, from September 7, 1996, to October 15, 1997. He performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, his most attended tour. It grossed \\$165 million. During the tour, in Sydney, Australia, Jackson married Debbie Rowe, a dermatology assistant, who was six months pregnant with his first child.\n\nMichael Joseph Jackson Jr. (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997. His sister Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson was born on April 3, 1998. Jackson and Rowe divorced in 2000, Rowe conceded custody of the children, with an \\$8 million settlement (equivalent to \\$ in ). In 2004, after the second child abuse allegations against Jackson, she returned to court to reclaim custody. The suit was settled in 2006.\n\nIn 1997, Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of singles from HIStory and five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at 6 million copies, making it the best-selling remix album. It reached number one in the UK, as did the single \"Blood on the Dance Floor\". In the US, the album reached number 24 and was certified platinum.\n\n### Label dispute and Invincible (1997–2002)\n\nFrom October 1997 to September 2001, Jackson worked on his tenth solo album, Invincible, which cost \\$30 million to record. In June 1999, Jackson joined Luciano Pavarotti for a War Child benefit concert in Modena, Italy. The show raised a million dollars for refugees of the Kosovo War, and additional funds for the children of Guatemala. Later that month, Jackson organized a series of \"Michael Jackson & Friends\" benefit concerts in Germany and Korea. Other artists involved included Slash, The Scorpions, Boyz II Men, Luther Vandross, Mariah Carey, A. R. Rahman, Prabhu Deva Sundaram, Shobana, Andrea Bocelli and Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, the Red Cross and UNESCO. In 1999, Jackson was presented with the \"Outstanding Humanitarian Award\" at Bollywood Movie Awards in New York City where he noted Mahatma Gandhi to have been an inspiration for him. From August 1999 to 2000, he lived in New York City at 4 East 74th Street. At the turn of the century, Jackson won an American Music Award as Artist of the 1980s. In 2000, Guinness World Records recognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer.\n\nIn September 2001, two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson performed with his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featured Mýa, Usher, Whitney Houston, Destiny's Child, Monica, Liza Minnelli and Slash. The first show was marred by technical lapses, and the crowd booed a speech by Marlon Brando. Almost 30 million people watched the television broadcast of the shows in November. After the September 11 attacks, Jackson helped organize the United We Stand: What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., on October 21, 2001. Jackson performed \"What More Can I Give\" as the finale.\n\nThe release of Invincible was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him in the early 2000s, after which he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep the profits, but clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future. Jackson sought an early exit from his contract. Invincible was released on October 30, 2001. It was Jackson's first full-length album in six years, and the last album of original material he released in his lifetime. It debuted at number one in 13 countries, and went on to sell eight million copies worldwide, receiving double-platinum certification in the US.\n\nOn January 9, 2002, Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century. Later that year, an anonymous surrogate mother gave birth to his third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed \"Blanket\"), who had been conceived by artificial insemination. On November 20, Jackson briefly held Blanket over the railing of his Berlin hotel room, four stories above ground level, prompting widespread criticism in the media. Jackson apologized for the incident, calling it \"a terrible mistake\". On January 22, promoter Marcel Avram filed a breach of contract complaint against Jackson for failing to perform two planned 1999 concerts. In March, a Santa Maria jury ordered Jackson to pay Avram \\$5.3 million. On December 18, 2003, Jackson's attorneys dropped all appeals on the verdict and settled the lawsuit for an undisclosed amount.\n\nOn April 24, 2002, Jackson performed at Apollo Theater. The concert was a fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee and former President Bill Clinton. The money collected would be used to encourage citizens to vote. It raised \\$2.5 million. The concert was called Michael Jackson: Live at the Apollo and was one of Jackson's final on-stage performances.\n\nIn July 2002, Jackson called Sony Music chairman Tommy Mottola \"a racist, and very, very, very devilish,\" and someone who exploits black artists for his own gain, at Al Sharpton's National Action Network in Harlem. The accusation prompted Sharpton to form a coalition investigating whether Mottola exploited black artists. Jackson charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a \"fat nigger\". Responding to those attacks, Sony issued a statement calling them \"ludicrous, spiteful, and hurtful\" and defended Mottola as someone who had championed Jackson's career for many years. Sony ultimately refused to renew Jackson's contract and claimed that a \\$25 million promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the US for Invincible.\n\n### Documentary, Number Ones, second child abuse allegations and acquittal (2002–2005)\n\nBeginning in May 2002, a documentary film crew led by Martin Bashir followed Jackson for several months. The documentary, broadcast in February 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson, showed Jackson holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a twelve-year-old boy. He said that he saw nothing wrong with having sleepovers with minors and sharing his bed and bedroom with various people, which aroused controversy. He insisted that the sleepovers were not sexual and that his words had been misunderstood.\n\nIn October 2003, Jackson received the Key to the City of Las Vegas from Mayor Oscar Goodman. On November 18, 2003, Sony released Number Ones, a greatest hits compilation. It was certified five times platinum by the RIAA, and ten times platinum in the UK, for shipments of at least 3 million units.\n\nOn December 18, 2003, Santa Barbara authorities charged Jackson with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of intoxicating a minor with alcoholic drinks. Jackson denied the allegations and pleaded not guilty. The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31, 2005, in Santa Maria, California, and lasted until the end of May. Jackson found the experience stressful and it affected his health. If convicted, he would have faced up to twenty years in prison. On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts. FBI files on Jackson, released in 2009, revealed the FBI's role in the 2005 trial and the 1993 allegations, and showed that the FBI found no evidence of criminal conduct on Jackson's behalf.\n\n### Final years, financial problems, Thriller 25 and This Is It (2005–2009)\n\nAfter the trial, Jackson became reclusive. In June 2005, he moved to Bahrain as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah. In early 2006, it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain startup, Two Seas Records. Nothing came of the deal, and the Two Seas CEO, Guy Holmes, later said it was never finalized. Holmes also found that Jackson was on the verge of bankruptcy and was involved in 47 ongoing lawsuits. By September 2006, Jackson was no longer affiliated with Two Seas.\n\nIn April 2006, Jackson agreed to use a piece of his ATV catalog stake, then worth about \\$1 billion, as collateral against his \\$270 million worth of loans from Bank of America. Bank of America had sold the loans to Fortress Investments, an investment company that buys distressed loans, the year before. As part of the agreement, Fortress Investments provided Jackson a new loan of \\$300 million with reduced interest payments (equivalent to \\$ in ). Sony Music would have the option to buy half of his stake, or about 25% of the catalog, at a set price. Jackson's financial managers had urged him to shed part of his stake to avoid bankruptcy. The main house at Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost-cutting measure, while Jackson lived in Bahrain at the hospitality of Abdullah. At least thirty of Jackson's employees had not been paid on time and were owed \\$306,000 in back wages. Jackson was ordered to pay \\$100,000 in penalties. Jackson never returned to Neverland after his acquittal.\n\nIn mid-2006, Jackson moved to Grouse Lodge, a residential recording studio near Rosemount, County Westmeath, Ireland. There, he began work on a new album with the American producers will.i.am and Rodney Jenkins. That November, Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath. On November 15, Jackson briefly joined in on a performance of \"We Are the World\" at the World Music Awards in London, his last public performance, and accepted the Diamond Award for sales of 100 million records. He returned to the US in December, settling in Las Vegas. That month, he attended James Brown's funeral in Augusta, Georgia, where he gave a eulogy calling Brown his greatest inspiration.\n\nIn 2007, Jackson and Sony bought another music publishing company, Famous Music LLC, formerly owned by Viacom. The deal gave Jackson the rights to songs by Eminem and Beck, among others. In a brief interview, Jackson said he had no regrets about his career despite his problems and \"deliberate attempts to hurt [him]\". That March, Jackson visited a US Army post in Japan, Camp Zama, to greet more than 3,000 troops and their families. As of September, Jackson was still working on his next album, which he never completed.\n\nIn 2008, for the 25th anniversary of Thriller, Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25, with two remixes released as singles: \"The Girl Is Mine 2008\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008\". For Jackson's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums, King of Pop, with different tracklists for different regions. That July, Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch, which Jackson had used as collateral for his loans. Fortress sold Jackson's debts to Colony Capital LLC. In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. The deal earned him \\$35 million. In 2009, Jackson arranged to sell a collection of his memorabilia of more than 1,000 items through Julien's Auction House, but canceled the auction in April.\n\nIn March 2009, amid speculation about his finances and health, Jackson announced a series of comeback concerts, This Is It, at a press conference at the O2 Arena. The shows were to be his first major concerts since the HIStory World Tour in 1997. Jackson suggested he would retire after the shows. The initial plan was for ten concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, the president and chief executive of AEG Live, predicted the first ten dates would earn Jackson £50 million.\n\nThe London residency was increased to fifty dates after record-breaking ticket sales; more than one million were sold in less than two hours. The concerts were to run from July 13, 2009, to March 6, 2010. Jackson moved to Los Angeles, where he rehearsed in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of the choreographer Kenny Ortega, whom he had worked with during his previous tours. Rehearsals took place at the Forum and the Staples Center owned by AEG. By this point, Jackson's debt had grown to almost \\$500 million. By the time of his death, he was three or four months behind payments of his home in San Fernando Valley. The Independent reported that Jackson planned a string of further ventures designed to recoup his debts, including a world tour, a new album, films, a museum and a casino.\n\n## Death\n\nOn June 25, 2009, less than three weeks before his concert residency was due to begin in London, with all concerts sold out, Jackson died from cardiac arrest, caused by a propofol and benzodiazepine overdose. Conrad Murray, his personal physician, had given Jackson various medications to help him sleep at his rented mansion in Holmby Hills, Los Angeles. Paramedics received a 911 call at 12:22 pm Pacific time (19:22 UTC) and arrived three minutes later. Jackson was not breathing and CPR was performed. Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after Jackson's arrival there, but were unsuccessful, and Jackson was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm Pacific time (21:26 UTC).\n\nMurray had administered propofol, lorazepam, and midazolam; his death was caused by a propofol overdose. News of his death spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload, and putting unprecedented strain on services and websites including Google, AOL Instant Messenger, Twitter, and Wikipedia. Overall, web traffic rose by between 11% and 20%. MTV and BET aired marathons of Jackson's music videos, and Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world. MTV briefly returned to its original music video format, and aired hours of Jackson's music videos, with live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities.\n\n### Memorial service\n\nJackson's memorial was held on July 7, 2009, at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park's Hall of Liberty. Over 1.6 million fans applied for tickets to the memorial; the 8,750 recipients were drawn at random, and each received two tickets. The memorial service was one of the most watched events in streaming history, with an estimated US audience of 31.1 million and a worldwide audience of an estimated 2.5 to 3 billion.\n\nMariah Carey, Stevie Wonder, Lionel Richie, Jennifer Hudson, and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the memorial, and Smokey Robinson and Queen Latifah gave eulogies. Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson's children: \"Wasn't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway.\" Jackson's 11-year-old daughter Paris Katherine, speaking publicly for the first time, wept as she addressed the crowd. Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer. On September 3, 2009, the body of Jackson was entombed at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.\n\n### Criminal investigation and prosecution of Conrad Murray\n\nIn August 2009, the Los Angeles County Coroner ruled that Jackson's death was a homicide. Law enforcement officials charged Murray with involuntary manslaughter on February 8, 2010. In late 2011, he was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter and held without bail to await sentencing. Murray was sentenced to four years in prison.\n\n### Posthumous sales\n\nAt the 2009 American Music Awards, Jackson won four posthumous awards, including two for his compilation album Number Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards to 26. In the year after his death, more than 16.1 million copies of Jackson's albums were sold in the US alone, and 35 million copies were sold worldwide, more than any other artist in 2009. He became the first artist to sell one million music downloads in a week, with 2.6 million song downloads. Thriller, Number Ones and The Essential Michael Jackson became the first catalog albums to outsell any new album. Jackson also became the first artist to have four of the top-20 bestselling albums in a single year in the US.\n\nFollowing the surge in sales, in March 2010, Sony Music signed a \\$250 million deal (equivalent to \\$ in ) with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to Jackson's back catalog until at least 2017; it had been due to expire in 2015. It was the most expensive music contract for a single artist in history. They agreed to release ten albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work. The deal was extended in 2017. That July, a Los Angeles court awarded Quincy Jones \\$9.4 million of disputed royalty payments for Off the Wall, Thriller, and Bad. In July 2018, Sony/ATV bought the estate's stake in EMI for \\$287.5 million.\n\nIn 2014, Jackson became the first artist to have a top-ten single in the Billboard Hot 100 in five different decades. The following year, Thriller became the first album to be certified for 30 million shipments by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). A year later, it was certified 33× platinum after Soundscan added streams and audio downloads to album certifications.\n\n### Posthumous releases and productions\n\nThe first posthumous Jackson song, \"This Is It\", co-written in the 1980s with Paul Anka, was released in October 2009. The surviving Jackson brothers reunited to record backing vocals. It was followed by a documentary film about the rehearsals for the canceled This Is It tour, Michael Jackson's This Is It, and a compilation album. Despite a limited two-week engagement, the film became the highest-grossing documentary or concert film ever, with earnings of more than \\$260 million worldwide. Jackson's estate received 90% of the profits. In late 2010, Sony released the first posthumous album, Michael, and the promotional single \"Breaking News\". The Jackson collaborator will.i.am expressed disgust, saying that Jackson would not have approved the release.\n\nThe video game developer Ubisoft released a music game featuring Jackson for the 2010 holiday season, Michael Jackson: The Experience. It was among the first games to use Kinect and PlayStation Move, the motion-detecting camera systems for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. In April 2011, Mohamed Al-Fayed, the chairman of Fulham Football Club, unveiled a statue of Jackson outside the club stadium, Craven Cottage. It was moved to the National Football Museum in Manchester in May 2014, and removed from display in March 2019 following renewed sexual assault allegations.\n\nIn October 2011, the theater company Cirque du Soleil launched Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour, a \\$57-million production, in Montreal, with a permanent show resident in Las Vegas. A larger and more theatrical Cirque show, Michael Jackson: One, designed for residency at the Mandalay Bay resort in Las Vegas, opened on May 23, 2013, in a renovated theater.\n\nIn 2012, in an attempt to end a family dispute, Jackson's brother Jermaine retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Jackson's estate and his mother's advisors over the legitimacy of his brother's will. T.J. Jackson, the son of Tito Jackson, was given co-guardianship of Michael Jackson's children after false reports of Katherine Jackson going missing. Xscape, an album of unreleased material, was released on May 13, 2014. The lead single, a duet between Jackson and Justin Timberlake, \"Love Never Felt So Good\", reached number 9 on the US Billboard Hot 100, making Jackson the first artist to have a top-10 single on the chart in five different decades.\n\nLater in 2014, Queen released a duet recorded with Jackson in the 1980s. A compilation album, Scream, was released on September 29, 2017. A jukebox musical, MJ the Musical, premiered on Broadway in 2022. Myles Frost won the 2022 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical for his portrayal of Jackson. On November 18, 2022, a 40th-anniversary edition reissue of Thriller was released.\n\nA biographical film based on Jackson's life, Michael, is due to enter production through Lionsgate in 2023. It will be directed by Antoine Fuqua, produced by Graham King and written by John Logan. Jackson will be played by Jaafar Jackson, a son of Jackson's brother Jermaine. Deadline Hollywood reported that the film \"will not shy away from the controversies of Jackson's life\".\n\n### Posthumous child sexual abuse allegations\n\nIn 2013, the choreographer Wade Robson filed a lawsuit alleging that Jackson had sexually abused him for seven years, beginning when he was seven years old (1989–1996). In 2014, a case was filed by James Safechuck, alleging sexual abuse over a four-year period from the age of ten (1988–1992). Both had testified in Jackson's defense during the 1993 allegations; Robson did so again in 2005. In 2015, Robson's case against Jackson's estate was dismissed as it had been filed too late. Safechuck's claim was also time-barred.\n\nIn 2017, it was ruled that Jackson's corporations could not be held accountable for his alleged past actions. The rulings were appealed. On October 20, 2020, Safechuck's lawsuit against Jackson's corporations was again dismissed. The judge ruled that there was no evidence that Safechuck had had a relationship with Jackson's corporation, nor was it proven that there was a special relationship between the two. On April 26, 2021, Robson's case was dismissed because of a lack of supporting evidence that the defendants exercised control over Jackson.\n\nRobson and Safechuck described their allegations against Jackson in graphic detail in the documentary Leaving Neverland, released in March 2019. Radio stations in New Zealand, Canada, the UK and the Netherlands removed Jackson's music from their playlists. Jackson's family condemned the film as a \"public lynching\", and the Jackson estate released a statement calling the film a \"tabloid character assassination [Jackson] endured in life, and now in death\". Close associates of Jackson, such as Corey Feldman, Aaron Carter, Brett Barnes, and Macaulay Culkin, said that Jackson had not molested them.\n\nDocumentaries such as Square One: Michael Jackson, Neverland Firsthand: Investigating the Michael Jackson Documentary and Michael Jackson: Chase the Truth, presented information countering the claims suggested by Leaving Neverland. Jackson's album sales increased following the documentary screenings. Billboard senior editor Gail Mitchell said she and a colleague interviewed about thirty music executives who believed Jackson's legacy could withstand the controversy. In late 2019, some New Zealand and Canadian radio stations re-added Jackson's music to their playlists, citing \"positive listener survey results\".\n\nOn February 21, 2019, the Jackson estate sued HBO for breaching a non-disparagement clause from a 1992 contract. The suit sought to compel HBO to participate in a non-confidential arbitration that could result in \\$100 million or more in damages awarded to the estate. HBO said they did not breach a contract and filed an anti-SLAPP motion against the estate. In September 2019, Judge George H. Wu denied HBO's motion to dismiss the case, allowing the Jackson estate to arbitrate. HBO appealed, but in December 2020 the appeals court affirmed Wu's ruling.\n\n## Legacy\n\nJackson has been referred to as the \"King of Pop\" for having transformed the art of music videos and paving the way for modern pop music. For much of Jackson's career, he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation. His influence extended beyond the music industry; he impacted dance, led fashion trends, and raised awareness for global affairs. Jackson's music and videos fostered racial diversity in MTV's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R&B, shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring.\n\nIn songs such as \"Man in the Mirror\", \"Black or White\", \"Heal the World\", \"Earth Song\" and \"They Don't Care About Us\", Jackson's music emphasized racial integration and environmentalism and protested injustice. He is recognized as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time by Guinness World Records. Jackson has also appeared on Rolling Stone′s lists of the Greatest Singers of All Time. He is considered one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, and his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades.\n\n> Trying to trace Michael Jackson's influence on the pop stars that followed him is like trying to trace the influence of oxygen and gravity. So vast, far-reaching and was his impact—particularly in the wake of Thriller's colossal and heretofore unmatched commercial success—that there weren't a whole lot of artists who weren't trying to mimic some of the Jackson formula.\n\nDanyel Smith, chief content officer of Vibe Media Group and the editor-in-chief of Vibe, described Jackson as \"the greatest star\". Steve Huey of AllMusic called him \"an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye-popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power\". BET said Jackson was \"quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time\" whose \"sound, style, movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres\".\n\nIn 1984, Time pop critic Jay Cocks wrote that \"Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever.\" He described Jackson as a \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style, and color too.\" In 2003, The Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson as \"extremely important\" and a \"genius\". At Jackson's memorial service on July 7, 2009, Motown founder Berry Gordy called Jackson \"the greatest entertainer that ever lived\". In a June 28, 2009 Baltimore Sun article, Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson's legacy influenced fields including sound, dance, fashion, music videos and celebrity.\n\nPop critic Robert Christgau wrote that Jackson's work from the 1970s to the early 1990s showed \"immense originality, adaptability, and ambition\" with \"genius beats, hooks, arrangements, and vocals (though not lyrics)\", music that \"will stand forever as a reproach to the puritanical notion that pop music is slick or shallow and that's the end of it\". During the 1990s, as Jackson lost control of his \"troubling life\", his music suffered and began to shape \"an arc not merely of promise fulfilled and outlived, but of something approaching tragedy: a phenomenally ebullient child star tops himself like none before, only to transmute audibly into a lost weirdo\". In the 2000s, Christgau wrote: \"Jackson's obsession with fame, his grotesque life magnified by his grotesque wealth, are such an offense to rock aesthetes that the fact that he's a great musician is now often forgotten\".\n\n## Philanthropy and humanitarian work\n\nJackson is regarded as a prolific philanthropist and humanitarian. Jackson's early charitable work has been described by The Chronicle of Philanthropy as having \"paved the way for the current surge in celebrity philanthropy\", and by the Los Angeles Times as having \"set the standard for generosity for other entertainers\".\n\nBy some estimates, he donated over \\$500 million, not accounting for inflation, to various charities over the course of his life. The total monetary value of Jackson's donations may be substantially higher since Jackson often gave anonymously and without fanfare. In addition to supporting several charities established by others, in 1992 Jackson established his Heal the World Foundation, to which he donated several million dollars in revenue from his Dangerous World Tour.\n\nJackson's philanthropic activities went beyond just monetary donations. He also performed at benefit concerts, some of which he arranged. He gifted tickets for his regular concert performances to groups that assist underprivileged children. He visited sick children in hospitals around the world. He opened his own home for visits by underprivileged or sick children and provided special facilities and nurses if the children needed that level of care.\n\nJackson donated valuable, personal and professional paraphernalia for numerous charity auctions. He received various awards and accolades for his philanthropic work, including two bestowed by presidents of the United States. The vast breadth of Jackson's philanthropic work has earned recognition in the Guinness World Records.\n\n## Artistry\n\n### Influences\n\nJackson was influenced by musicians including James Brown, Little Richard, Jackie Wilson, Diana Ross, Fred Astaire, Sammy Davis Jr., Gene Kelly, and David Ruffin. Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson, but Brown was his greatest inspiration; he later said that as a small child, his mother would wake him whenever Brown appeared on television. Jackson described being \"mesmerized\".\n\nJackson's vocal technique was influenced by Diana Ross; his use of the oooh interjection from a young age was something Ross had used on many of her songs with the Supremes. She was a mother figure to him, and he often watched her rehearse. He said he had learned a lot from watching how she moved and sang, and that she had encouraged him to have confidence in himself.\n\nChoreographer David Winters, who met Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV special Diana!, said that Jackson watched the musical West Side Story almost every week, and it was his favorite film; he paid tribute to it in \"Beat It\" and the \"Bad\" video.\n\n### Vocal style\n\nJackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed. Between 1971 and 1975, his voice descended from boy soprano to lyric tenor. He was known for his vocal range. With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s, Jackson's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded; Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the \"breathless, dreamy stutter\" of Stevie Wonder, and wrote that \"Jackson's feathery-timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that's used very daringly.\" By the time of 1982's Thriller, Rolling Stone wrote that Jackson was singing in a \"fully adult voice\" that was \"tinged by sadness\".\n\nThe turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous. The New York Times noted that on some tracks, \"he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth\" and he had a \"wretched tone\". When singing of brotherhood or self-esteem the musician would return to \"smooth\" vocals. Of Invincible, Rolling Stone wrote that, at 43, Jackson still performed \"exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies\". Joseph Vogel notes Jackson's ability to use non-verbal sounds to express emotion. Neil McCormick wrote that Jackson's unorthodox singing style \"was original and utterly distinctive\".\n\n### Musicianship\n\nJackson had no formal music training and could not read or write music notation. He is credited for playing guitar, keyboard, and drums, but was not proficient in them. When composing, he recorded ideas by beatboxing and imitating instruments vocally. Describing the process, he said: \"I'll just sing the bass part into the tape recorder. I'll take that bass lick and put the chords of the melody over the bass lick and that's what inspires the melody.\" The engineer Robert Hoffman recalled that after Jackson came in with a song he had written overnight, Jackson sang every note of every chord to a guitar player. Hoffman also remembered Jackson singing string arrangements part by part into a cassette recorder.\n\n### Dance\n\nJackson danced from a young age as part of the Jackson 5, and incorporated dance extensively in his performances and music videos. According to Sanjoy Roy of The Guardian, Jackson would \"flick and retract his limbs like switchblades, or snap out of a tornado spin into a perfectly poised toe-stand\". The moonwalk, taught to him by Jeffrey Daniel, was Jackson's signature dance move and one of the most famous of the 20th century. Jackson is credited for coining the name \"moonwalk\"; the move was previously known as the \"backslide\". His other moves included the robot, crotch grab, and the \"anti-gravity\" lean of the \"Smooth Criminal\" video.\n\n### Themes and genres\n\nJackson explored genres including pop, soul, rhythm and blues, funk, rock, disco, post-disco, dance-pop and new jack swing. Steve Huey of AllMusic wrote that Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful. Its tracks included the ballads \"The Lady in My Life\", \"Human Nature\", and \"The Girl Is Mine\", the funk pieces \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\", and the disco set \"Baby Be Mine\" and \"P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)\".\n\nWith Off the Wall, Jackson's \"vocabulary of grunts, squeals, hiccups, moans, and asides\" vividly showed his maturation into an adult, Robert Christgau wrote in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981). The album's title track suggested to the critic a parallel between Jackson and Stevie Wonder's \"oddball\" music personas: \"Since childhood his main contact with the real world has been on stage and in bed.\" With Thriller, Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this on the songs \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\". In \"Billie Jean\", Jackson depicts an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered her child, and in \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\" he argues against gossip and the media. \"Beat It\" decried gang violence in a homage to West Side Story, and was Jackson's first successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey. He observed that \"Thriller\" began Jackson's interest with the theme of the supernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years. In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem \"We Are the World\"; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona.In Bad, Jackson's concept of the predatory lover is seen on the rock song \"Dirty Diana\". The lead single \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" is a traditional love ballad, and \"Man in the Mirror\" is a ballad of confession and resolution. \"Smooth Criminal\" is an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a paradoxical person. The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like \"Jam\" and \"Remember the Time\". It was the first Jackson album in which social ills became a primary theme; \"Why You Wanna Trip on Me\", for example, protests world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and drugs. Dangerous contains sexually charged songs such as \"In the Closet\". The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire. The second half includes introspective, pop-gospel anthems such as \"Will You Be There\", \"Heal the World\" and \"Keep the Faith\". In the ballad \"Gone Too Soon\", Jackson gives tribute to Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS.\n\nHIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia. In the new jack swing-funk rock tracks \"Scream\" and \"Tabloid Junkie\", and the R&B ballad \"You Are Not Alone\", Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs his anger at the media. In the introspective ballad \"Stranger in Moscow\", Jackson laments his \"fall from grace\"; \"Earth Song\", \"Childhood\", \"Little Susie\" and \"Smile\" are operatic pop songs. In \"D.S.\", Jackson attacks lawyer Thomas W. Sneddon Jr., who had prosecuted him in both child sexual abuse cases; he describes Sneddon as a white supremacist who wanted to \"get my ass, dead or alive\". Invincible includes urban soul tracks such as \"Cry\" and \"The Lost Children\", ballads such as \"Speechless\", \"Break of Dawn\", and \"Butterflies\", and mixes hip hop, pop, and R&B in \"2000 Watts\", \"Heartbreaker\" and \"Invincible\".\n\n### Music videos and choreography\n\nJackson released \"Thriller\", a 14-minute music video directed by John Landis, in 1983. The zombie-themed video \"defined music videos and broke racial barriers\" on MTV, which had launched two years earlier. Before Thriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American. Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing \"Billie Jean\" and later \"Beat It\", which led to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, and helped other black music artists gain recognition. The popularity of his videos on MTV helped the relatively new channel's viewing figures, and MTV's focus shifted toward pop and R&B. His performance on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever changed the scope of live stage shows, making it acceptable for artists to lip-sync to music video on stage. The choreography in Thriller has been copied in Indian films and prisons in the Philippines. Thriller marked an increase in scale for music videos, and was named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records.\n\nIn \"Bad\"'s 19-minute video—directed by Martin Scorsese—Jackson used sexual imagery and choreography, and touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Winfrey in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he said it was spontaneously compelled by the music. Time magazine described the \"Bad\" video as \"infamous\". It featured Wesley Snipes; Jackson's later videos often featured famous cameo roles. For the \"Smooth Criminal\" video, Jackson experimented with leaning forward at a 45 degree angle, beyond the performer's center of gravity. To accomplish this live, Jackson and designers developed a special shoe to lock the performer's feet to the stage, allowing them to lean forward. They were granted for the device. The video for \"Leave Me Alone\" was not officially released in the US, but in 1989 was nominated for three Billboard Music Video Awards and won a Golden Lion Award for its special effects. It won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form.\n\nHe received the MTV Video Vanguard Award in 1988; in 2001 the award was renamed in his honor. The \"Black or White\" video simultaneously premiered on November 14, 1991, in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people, the largest audience ever for a music video at the time. Along with Jackson, it featured Macaulay Culkin, Peggy Lipton, and George Wendt. It helped introduce morphing to music videos. It was controversial for scenes in which Jackson rubs his crotch, vandalizes cars, and throws a garbage can through a storefront. He apologized and removed the final scene of the video.\n\n\"In the Closet\" featured Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson. \"Remember the Time\" was set in ancient Egypt, and featured Eddie Murphy, Iman, and Magic Johnson. The video for \"Scream\", directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden, gained a record 11 MTV Video Music Award Nominations, and won \"Best Dance Video\", \"Best Choreography\", and \"Best Art Direction\". The song and its video are Jackson's response to being accused of child molestation in 1993. A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form. It has been reported as the most expensive music video ever made, at \\$7 million; Romanek has contradicted this. The \"Earth Song\" video was nominated for the 1997 Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form.\n\nMichael Jackson's Ghosts, a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston, premiered at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival. At over 38 minutes long, it held the Guinness world record for the longest music video until 2013, when it was eclipsed by the video for the Pharrell Williams song \"Happy\". The 2001 video for \"You Rock My World\" lasts over 13 minutes, was directed by Paul Hunter, and features Chris Tucker and Marlon Brando. It won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Music Video in 2002.\n\nIn December 2009, the Library of Congress selected \"Thriller\" as the only music video to be preserved in the National Film Registry, as a work of \"enduring importance to American culture\". Huey wrote that Jackson transformed the music video into an artform and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameos, while breaking down racial barriers.\n\n## Honors and awards\n\nJackson is one of the best-selling music artists in history, with sales estimated by various sources up to 400 million – 1 billion. He had 13 number-one singles in the US in his solo career—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era. He was invited and honored by a president of the United States at the White House three times. In 1984, he was honored with a \"Presidential Public Safety Commendation\" award by Ronald Reagan for his humanitarian endeavors. In 1990, he was honored as the \"Artist of the Decade\" by George H. W. Bush. In 1992, he was honored as a \"Point of Light Ambassador\" by Bush for inviting disadvantaged children to his Neverland Ranch.\n\nJackson won hundreds of awards, making him one of the most-awarded artists in popular music. His awards include 39 Guinness World Records, including the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time, 13 Grammy Awards, as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and 26 American Music Awards, including the Artist of the Century and Artist of the 1980s. He also received the World Music Awards' Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award. Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as a member of the Jacksons, and in 1984 as a solo artist. He was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Vocal Group Hall of Fame as a member of the Jackson 5 in 1997 and 1999, respectively, and again as a solo artist in 2001. In 2002, he was added to the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In 2010, he was the first recording artist to be inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame, and in 2014, he was posthumously inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame. In 2021, he was among the inaugural inductees into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame.\n\nIn 1988, Fisk University honored him with an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters. In 1992, he was invested as a titular king of Sanwi, a traditional kingdom located in the south-east of Ivory Coast. In July 2009, the Lunar Republic Society named a crater on the Moon after Jackson. In August, for what would have been Jackson's 51st birthday, Google dedicated their Google Doodle to him. In 2012, the extinct hermit crab Mesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoni was named in his honor. In 2014, the British Council of Cultural Relations deemed Jackson's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century. World Vitiligo Day has been celebrated on June 25, the anniversary of Jackson's death, to raise awareness of the auto-immune disorder that Jackson suffered from.\n\n## Earnings\n\nIn 1989, Jackson's annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts were estimated at \\$125 million. Forbes placed Jackson's annual income at \\$35 million in 1996 and \\$20 million in 1997. Estimates of Jackson's net worth during his life range from negative \\$285 million to positive \\$350 million for 2002, 2003 and 2007. Forbes reported in August 2018 that Jackson's total career pretax earnings in life and death were \\$4.2 billion. Sales of his recordings through Sony's music unit earned him an estimated \\$300 million in royalties. He may have earned another \\$400 million from concerts, music publishing (including his share of the Beatles catalog), endorsements, merchandising and music videos.\n\nIn 2013, the executors of Jackson's estate filed a petition in the United States Tax Court as a result of a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) over US federal estate taxes. The executors claim that it was worth about \\$7 million, the IRS that it was worth over \\$1.1 billion. In February 2014, the IRS reported that Jackson's estate owed \\$702 million; \\$505 million in taxes, and \\$197 million in penalties. A trial was held from February 6 to 24, 2017. In 2021, the Tax Court issued a ruling in favor of the estate, ruling that the estate's total combined value of the estate was \\$111.5 million and that the value of Jackson's name and likeness was \\$4 million (not the \\$61 million estimated by the IRS's outside expert witness).\n\nIn 2016, Forbes estimated annual gross earnings by the Jackson Estate at \\$825 million, the largest ever recorded for a celebrity, mostly due to the sale of the Sony/ATV catalog. In 2018, the figure was \\$400 million. It was the eighth year since his death that Jackson's annual earnings were reported to be over \\$100 million, thus bringing Jackson's postmortem total to \\$2.4 billion. Forbes has consistently recognized Jackson as one of the top-earning dead celebrities since his death, and placed him at the top spot from 2013 to 2020.\n\n## Discography\n\n- Got to Be There (1972)\n- Ben (1972)\n- Music & Me (1973)\n- Forever, Michael (1975)\n- Off the Wall (1979)\n- Thriller (1982)\n- Bad (1987)\n- Dangerous (1991)\n- HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995)\n- Invincible (2001)\n\n## Filmography\n\n- The Wiz (1978)\n- Michael Jackson's Thriller (1983)\n- Captain EO (1986)\n- Moonwalker (1988)\n- Michael Jackson's Ghosts (1997)\n- Men in Black II (2002)\n- Miss Cast Away and the Island Girls (2004)\n- Michael Jackson's This Is It (2009)\n- Bad 25 (2012)\n- Michael Jackson's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall (2016)\n\n## Tours\n\n- Bad World Tour (1987–1989)\n- Dangerous World Tour (1992–1993)\n- HIStory World Tour (1996–1997)\n- MJ & Friends (1999)\n\n## See also\n\n- List of dancers", "revid": "1173534779", "description": "American singer (1958–2009)", "categories": ["1958 births", "2009 deaths", "20th-century American businesspeople", "20th-century American male musicians", "20th-century American singers", "21st-century American businesspeople", "21st-century American male musicians", "21st-century American singers", "Accidental deaths in California", "African-American businesspeople", "African-American choreographers", "African-American male dancers", "African-American male singers", "African-American record producers", "African-American rock singers", "African-American songwriters", "American beatboxers", "American child singers", "American choreographers", "American dance musicians", "American disco singers", "American expatriates in Bahrain", "American expatriates in Ireland", "American funk singers", "American humanitarians", "American male dancers", "American male pop singers", "American male songwriters", "American manslaughter victims", "American multi-instrumentalists", "American nonprofit businesspeople", "American philanthropists", "American rhythm and blues singers", "American rock singers", "American rock songwriters", "American soul singers", "American tenors", "Boy sopranos", "Brit Award winners", "Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)", "Businesspeople from California", "Businesspeople from Indiana", "Child pop musicians", "Culture of Gary, Indiana", "Dance-pop musicians", "Dancers from California", "Dancers from Indiana", "Drug-related deaths in California", "Epic Records artists", "Former Jehovah's Witnesses", "Grammy Legend Award winners", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners", "History of Gary, Indiana", "Jackson family (show business)", "MTV Europe Music Award winners", "Michael Jackson", "Modern dancers", "Motown artists", "Music video codirectors", "Musicians from Gary, Indiana", "New jack swing musicians", "People acquitted of sex crimes", "People from Holmby Hills, Los Angeles", "People from Santa Barbara County, California", "People with lupus", "People with vitiligo", "Post-disco musicians", "Presley family", "Record producers from California", "Record producers from Indiana", "Singers from California", "Singers from Indiana", "Songwriters from California", "Songwriters from Indiana", "The Jackson 5 members", "World Music Awards winners", "World record holders", "Writers from California", "Writers from Gary, Indiana"]}
{"id": "294707", "url": null, "title": "Swissair Flight 111", "text": "Swissair Flight 111 (SR111/SWR111) was a scheduled international passenger flight from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, United States, to Cointrin Airport in Geneva, Switzerland. The flight was also a codeshare flight with Delta Air Lines. On 2 September 1998, the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 performing this flight, registration HB-IWF, crashed into the Atlantic Ocean southwest of Halifax Stanfield International Airport at the entrance to St. Margarets Bay, Nova Scotia. The crash site was 8 kilometres (5 mi; 4 nmi) from shore, roughly equidistant from the small fishing and tourist communities of Peggy's Cove and Bayswater. All 229 passengers and crew on board the MD-11 were killed, making the crash the deadliest accident in the history of Swissair and the deadliest accident involving the McDonnell Douglas MD-11. It is also the second-deadliest aviation accident to occur in Canada, behind Arrow Air Flight 1285R.\n\nThe search and rescue response, crash recovery operation, and investigation by the Government of Canada took more than four years and cost CA\\$57 million. The investigation carried out by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) concluded that flammable material used in the aircraft's structure allowed a fire to spread beyond the control of the crew, resulting in the crash of the aircraft. Several wide-ranging recommendations were made which were incorporated into newer US Federal Aviation Administration standards.\n\nSwissair Flight 111 was one of the two ill-fated flights known as the \"UN shuttle\" (the other being Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 in 2019) because of its popularity with United Nations officials traveling between the organization's two biggest centers.\n\n## Aircraft and crew\n\nThe aircraft, a seven-year-old McDonnell Douglas MD-11, serial number 48448, registration HB-IWF, was manufactured in 1991, and Swissair was its only operator. It bore the title of Vaud, in honor of the Swiss canton of the same name. The cabin was configured with 241 passenger seats. First and business class seats were equipped with in-seat in-flight entertainment (IFE) systems from Interactive Flight Technologies. The aircraft was powered by three Pratt & Whitney PW4462 turbofan engines and had logged over 36,000 hours before the crash.\n\nThe in-flight entertainment system was the first of its kind equipped on the plane. It allowed the first and business class passengers to browse the World Wide Web, select their own movies and games, and gamble. The system was installed in business class one year before the incident, between 21 August and 9 September 1997. It was installed in first class five months later, in February 1998, due to delivery delays.\n\nThe pilot-in-command was 49-year-old Urs Zimmermann. At the time of the accident, he had approximately 10,800 hours of total flying time, of which 900 hours were in an MD-11. He was also an instructor pilot for the MD-11. Before his career with Swissair, he was a fighter pilot in the Swiss Air Force from 1966 to 1970. Zimmermann was described as a friendly person with professional skills, who always worked with exactness and precision. Zimmermann was due to turn 50 the day after the accident.\n\nThe first officer, 36-year-old Stefan Löw, had approximately 4,800 hours of total flying time, including 230 hours on the MD-11. He was an instructor on the MD-80 and A320. From 1982 to 1990, he had been a pilot in the Swiss Air Force. The cabin crew comprised a maître de cabine (purser) and eleven flight attendants. All crew members on board Swissair Flight 111 were qualified, certified, and trained in accordance with Swiss regulations under the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA).\n\n## Flight timeline\n\nThe flight took off from New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport at 20:18 EDT (00:18 UTC) on 2 September. From 20:33 – 20:47 EDT (00:33 to 00:47 UTC), the aircraft experienced a radio blackout for approximately thirteen minutes, which was later found to be caused by communication radio tuning errors.\n\nAt 22:10 AT (01:10 UTC, 52 minutes after takeoff), while flying over Yarmouth, the flight crew detected an odour in the cockpit and determined it to be smoke from the air conditioning system. Four minutes later, the odour returned and smoke became visible, prompting the pilots to make a \"pan-pan\" radio call to Moncton air traffic control, the area control center (ACC) station in charge of air traffic over the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. The pan-pan call indicated that there was an urgency due to smoke in the cockpit but did not declare an emergency as denoted by a \"mayday\" call. The crew requested a diversion to Boston (234 nautical miles (433 km; 269 mi) away) before accepting Moncton ATC's offer of radar vectors to the closer Halifax International Airport in Enfield, Nova Scotia, 66 nautical miles (76 mi; 122 km) away.\n\nAt 22:18 AT (01:18 UTC), Moncton Centre handed over traffic control of the plane to Halifax terminal air traffic control, the ATC station in charge of controlling traffic in and out of Halifax International Airport. Upon being advised by Halifax ATC that they were 30 nautical miles (35 mi; 55 km) from the airport, the crew requested more flight distance to allow the aircraft to descend safely from its altitude of 21,000 feet (6,400 m) at the time. The crew then requested to dump fuel to reduce their weight for landing. Halifax thus vectored the plane south toward St. Margaret's Bay where it was safe for the aircraft to dump fuel while remaining within 40 nautical miles (45 mi; 75 km) of the airport.\n\nIn accordance with the Swissair checklist \"In case of smoke of unknown origin\", the crew shut off power to the cabin, which also turned off the recirculating fans in the cabin's ceiling. This allowed the fire to spread to the cockpit, eventually shutting off power to the aircraft's autopilot. At 22:24:28 AT (01:24:28 UTC), the crew informed Halifax that \"we now must fly manually\", followed by declaring an emergency. Ten seconds later, the crew declared an emergency again, saying \"...and we are declaring emergency now, Swissair one eleven\"; this was the last transmission received from Flight 111.\n\nThe aircraft flight data recorder stopped operating at 22:25:40 AT (01:25:40 UTC), followed one second later by the cockpit voice recorder. The aircraft's transponder briefly resumed transmission of secondary radar returns from 22:25:50 to 22:26:04 AT (01:25:50 to 01:26:04 UTC), at which time the aircraft's altitude was 9,700 feet (3,000 m). After this, the aircraft could only be tracked through primary radar, which does not provide altitude information.\n\nAt 22:31:18 AT (01:31:18 UTC), the aircraft struck the ocean at an estimated speed of 345 miles per hour (555 km/h; 154 m/s; 300 kn). The collision with the water decelerated the aircraft with approximately 350 g, causing it to disintegrate instantly. The location of the crash was identified as approximately 44°24′33′′N 63°58′25′′W.\n\n## Victims\n\nThere were 132 American (including one employee each from Delta Air Lines and United Airlines), 41 Swiss (including the 13 crew members), 30 French, three British, four Canadian, three Italian, two Greek, two Lebanese, one each from Afghanistan, China, Germany, India, Iran, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Spain, St. Kitts and Nevis, Mexico, Sweden, and Yugoslavia, and four other passengers on board.\n\nEpidemiologists Jonathan Mann and Mary Lou Clements-Mann, both prominent researchers of HIV/AIDS and a married couple, died in the crash.\n\nJoseph LaMotta, son of boxing legend Jake LaMotta, also perished in the crash. The LaMotta family later sued the airline for his death.\n\n## Post-crash response\n\n### Search and rescue operation\n\nThe search and rescue (SAR) operation was code-named Operation Persistence and was launched immediately by Joint Rescue Coordination Centre Halifax (JRCC Halifax), which tasked the Air Command, Maritime Command and Land Force Command of the Canadian Forces (CF), Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) and Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary (CCGA) resources.\n\nThe first rescue resources to approach the crash site were CCGA volunteer units, which were mostly privately owned fishing boats operating from Peggy's Cove and Bayswater, as well as other harbours on St. Margaret's Bay and the Aspotogan Peninsula. They were soon joined by the dedicated CCG SAR vessel, CCGS Sambro; CH-124 Sea King helicopters, flown from CFB Shearwater by crews from 423 Maritime Helicopter Squadron (MHS) and 406 Maritime Operational Training Squadron (MOTS); and CH-113 Labrador SAR helicopters flown from CFB Greenwood by the 413 Transport and Rescue Squadron (TRS). and CP-140 Aurora aircraft from CFB Greenwood from 405 Long Range Patrol Squadron.\n\nThe crash site's proximity to Halifax placed it within one hour's sailing time of ships docked at Canada's largest naval base, CFB Halifax, and one of the largest CCG bases in Canada, the CCG Regional Headquarters in Dartmouth. Calls went out immediately and ships sailed directly to St. Margaret's Bay.\n\nThe provincial ambulance service, Emergency Health Services (EHS), received word of the crash at 22:39 AT, and ordered 21 emergency units from Halifax, the South Shore, and the Annapolis Valley to respond. An EHS helicopter was also sent to the crash site, and the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre in Halifax was put on emergency alert. The emergency health services were stood down around 3:30 AT the next morning, as expectations of finding survivors diminished.\n\nThe land search, including shoreline searching, was the responsibility of Halifax Regional Search and Rescue. The organization was responsible for all ground operations including military operations and other ground search and rescue teams.\n\n### Search and recovery operation\n\nBy the afternoon of 3 September, it was apparent that there were no survivors from the crash and JRCC Halifax de-tasked dedicated SAR assets (CCGS Sambro and the CH-113 Labrador helicopters). The Royal Canadian Mounted Police were given overall command of the recovery operation, with HMCS Preserver remaining on-scene commander.\n\nThe aircraft broke up on impact with the water and most of the debris sank to the ocean floor (a depth of 55 m, 180 ft). Some debris was found floating in the crash area and over the following weeks debris washed up on the nearby shorelines.\n\nThe initial focus of the recovery was on finding and identifying human remains and on recovering the flight recorders. As the force of impact was \"in the order of at least 350 g\", the aircraft was fragmented and the environmental conditions only allowed the recovery of human remains along with the aircraft wreckage. Only one of the victims was visually identifiable. Eventually, 147 were identified by fingerprint, dental records, and X-ray comparisons. The remaining 81 were identified through DNA tests.\n\nWith CAF divers (navy clearance divers, port inspection divers, ship's team divers, and Army combat divers) working on the recovery, a request was made by the Government of Canada to the Government of the United States for a larger dedicated salvage recovery vessel. USS Grapple was tasked to the recovery effort, arriving from Philadelphia on 9 September. Among Grapple's crew were 32 salvage divers. Additionally, the USS Grapple welcomed two teams of Canadian Navy Clearance Divers that flew across Canada from Fleet Diving Unit (FDU) Pacific.\n\nThe cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and flight data recorder (FDR) were found by the submarine HMCS Okanagan using sonar to detect the underwater locator beacon signals and were quickly retrieved by Canadian Navy divers (the FDR on 6 September and the CVR on 11 September 1998). Both had stopped recording when the aircraft lost electrical power at approximately 10,000 ft (3,000 m), 5 minutes and 37 seconds before impact.\n\nThe recovery operation was guided by the TSB with resources from the Canadian Forces, Canadian Coast Guard, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and other agencies. The area was surveyed using route survey sonar, laser line scanners, and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) to locate items. After being located, the debris was then recovered (initially by divers and ROVs, later by dredging and trawling).\n\nOn 2 October 1998, the TSB initiated a heavy lift operation to retrieve the major portion of the wreckage from the deep water before the expected winter storms began. By 21 October, an estimated 27% of the wreckage was recovered. At that point in the investigation, the crash was generally believed to have been caused by faulty wiring in the cockpit after the IFE system started to overheat. The TSB released its preliminary report on 30 August 2000 and the final report in 2003.\n\nThe final phase of wreckage recovery employed the ship Queen of the Netherlands to dredge the remaining aircraft debris. It concluded in December 1999 with 98% of the aircraft retrieved: approximately 279,000 lb (127,000 kg) of aircraft debris and 40,000 lb (18,000 kg) of cargo.\n\n### Response to victims' families and friends\n\nJFK Airport used the JFK Ramada Plaza Hotel to house relatives and friends of the victims of the crash, due to the hotel's central location relative to the airport. Jerome Hauer, the head of the emergency management task force of New York City, praised the swift actions of Swissair and codeshare partner Delta Air Lines in responding to the accident; he had criticized Trans World Airlines in its response to the TWA Flight 800 crash in 1996.\n\n## Investigation\n\n### Identification of victims\n\nThe RCMP medical examiners positively identified most of the bodies within ten weeks of the accident. Due to extreme impact forces, only one body was identifiable by sight. DNA profiling was used to identify approximately one hundred bodies, in what has been referred to as \"the largest DNA identification project ever undertaken in Canada\". The RCMP contacted relatives of victims to request medical histories and dental records. They were also asked to provide blood samples for genetic matching in the DNA identification of the victims. About 90 bodies were identified by the medical examiners using dental records; owing to the large number of ante-mortem (before death) dental X-rays available to the examiners, these bodies were identified by late October 1998. Fingerprints and ante-mortem X-rays were used to identify around 30 bodies.\n\n### Examination of wreckage\n\nAn estimated 2 million pieces of debris were recovered and brought ashore for inspection at a secure handling facility in a marine industrial park at Sheet Harbour, where small material was hand inspected by teams of RCMP officers looking for human remains, personal effects, and valuables from the aircraft's cargo hold. The material was then transported to CFB Shearwater, where it was sorted and inspected by over 350 investigators from multiple organizations and companies, including the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB), the US National Transportation Safety Board, the US Federal Aviation Administration, the Swiss Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau, Boeing, Pratt & Whitney, Air Line Pilots Association, and Swissair.\n\nAs each piece of wreckage was brought in, it was carefully cleaned with fresh water, sorted, and weighed. The item was then placed in a specific area of a hangar at CFB Shearwater, based on a grid system representing the various sections of the plane. All items not considered significant to the crash were stored with similar items in large boxes. When a box was full, it was weighed and moved to a custom-built temporary structure (J-Hangar) on a discontinued runway for long-term storage. If deemed significant to the investigation, the item was documented, photographed, and kept in the active examination hangar. Particular attention was paid to any item showing heat damage, burns, or other unusual marks. The front 33 ft (10 m) of the aircraft, from the front of the cockpit to near the front of the first-class passenger cabin, was reconstructed. Information gained by this allowed investigators to determine the severity and limits of the fire damage, its possible origins, and progression.\n\nThe lack of flight recorder data for the last six minutes of the flight added significant complexity to the investigation and was a major factor in its lengthy duration. The TSB team had to reconstruct the final six minutes entirely from the physical evidence. The investigation became the largest and most expensive transport accident investigation in Canadian history, costing CA\\$57 million (US\\$48.5 million) over five years.\n\n### Cockpit recordings\n\nThe cockpit voice recorder used a 1⁄4-inch (6 mm) recording tape that operated on a 30-minute loop. It therefore retained only that half-hour of the flight before the recorders failed, six minutes before the crash. The CVR recording and transcript were covered by a strict privilege under section 28 of the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act and thus were not publicly disclosed, although the air traffic control recordings are less strictly privileged: section 29 of the same act provides only that they may not be used in certain legal proceedings. The air traffic control transcripts were released within days of the crash in 1998 and the air traffic control audio was released in May 2007, following a ruling by the Federal Court of Appeal. Several key minutes of the air traffic control audio can be found on the Toronto Star web site.\n\nIn 1999, an article in The Wall Street Journal alleged that the pilots disagreed about whether to dump fuel or descend straight to Halifax. Based on internal TSB summaries of the CVR recording, the Journal claimed that co-pilot Löw suggested steps aimed at a quick landing, which were ignored or rejected by Captain Zimmermann. Swissair and Canadian investigators would not comment on the accuracy of the reporting, with a TSB spokesman deeming it \"a reporter's interpretation of a summary document of what might have been\" on the CVR.\n\n### Probable cause\n\nThe Transportation Safety Board of Canada investigation identified eleven causes and contributing factors of the crash in its final report. The first and most prominent was:\n\n> Aircraft certification standards for material flammability were inadequate in that they allowed the use of materials that could be ignited and sustain or propagate fire. Consequently, flammable material propagated a fire that started above the ceiling on the right side of the cockpit near the cockpit rear wall. The fire spread and intensified rapidly to the extent that it degraded aircraft systems and the cockpit environment, and ultimately led to the loss of control of the aircraft.\n\nInvestigators identified evidence of arcing in wiring of the in-flight entertainment network, but this did not trip the circuit breakers, which were not designed to trip on arcing. The investigation was unable to determine whether this arc was the \"lead event\" that was assumed to have ignited the flammable covering on MPET insulation blankets that quickly spread across other flammable materials. After the crew cut power to \"non-essential\" cabin systems, a reverse flow in the cockpit ventilation ducts increased the amount of smoke reaching the flight deck. By the time the crew became aware of the severity of the fire, it had become so extensive that it was impossible to address as it happened.\n\nThe rapid spread of electrical power failures led to the breakdown of key avionics systems, and the crew was soon rendered unable to control the aircraft. The pilot-in-command was forced to fly manually because he had no light by which to see his controls after the instrument lighting failed. The fuel-laden plane was above maximum landing weight so the flight crew activated dumping of fuel. The pilots lost all control and the doomed plane flew into the ocean uncommanded. Recovered fragments of the plane show that the temperature inside the cockpit became so great that aluminium parts in the flight deck ceiling had melted. The recovered standby attitude indicator and airspeed indicators showed that the aircraft struck the water at 300 knots (560 km/h; 350 mph) in a 20 degrees nose down and 110-degree bank attitude; the impact force of the aircraft crashing into the Atlantic Ocean was calculated to be 350 times the force of gravity (\"g\" force). Death was instantaneous for all passengers and crew due to the impact forces and deceleration.\n\n### Safety recommendations\n\nThe TSB made nine recommendations relating to changes in aircraft materials (testing, certification, inspection, and maintenance), electrical systems, and flight data capture, as both flight recorders had stopped when they lost power six minutes before impact. General recommendations were also made regarding improvements in checklists and in fire-detection and fire-fighting equipment and training. These recommendations have led to widespread changes in Federal Aviation Administration standards, principally affecting wiring and fire hardening.\n\n### Conspiracy and alternative theories\n\nOn October 16th 1998, the involvement of British intelligence, through the planting of a magnesium sulfate-based incendiary device in the cockpit, was posited in an article by Executive Intelligence Review in Volume 25 of the magazine. The author, Dean Andromidas, based his assertion on the fact that former MI6 agent Richard Tomlinson had been scheduled to fly on Swissair 111, which was also reported in the British tabloid News of the World and confirmed by Tomlinson himself. However, Tomlinson was detained on arrival at JFK after disembarking Swissair Flight 110 from Geneva, thereby preventing him from flying back days later on the ill-fated flight. Tomlinson had revealed British state secrets and in the months preceding the crash had threatened to reveal more. Andromidas further alleged that a key Swissair safety official involved in the investigation, upon returning to Switzerland, was banned from speaking to the press and even his superiors.\n\nUnrelated to Andromidas, former RCMP sergeant Tom Juby, who had been part of the Swissair 111 investigation, published a book in 2017 titled \"Twice as Far\" where he alleged that the TSB suppressed strong evidence for the existence of an incendiary device aboard Swissair 111, such as high levels of magnesium, iron and other elements in the part of the cockpit that burned the strongest. Juby also states that a mechanic who serviced the airplane before the flight had provided fake credentials and had disappeared. Further, Juby claims he was asked by senior RCMP officials to retroactively edit his notes for the public record of the investigation so as to omit any mention of his views on the plausibility of an incendiary device having brought down the flight. Reaction to Juby's book was mostly negative. The TSB would not comment explicitly on Juby's claims, saying that it stood by the findings of its investigation. Juby's allegations were initially featured in an episode of the CBC's The Fifth Estate on September 16th 2011. Swiss television co-produced the episode, but withdrew it from being broadcast in Switzerland citing the speculative nature of Juby's conclusions.\n\nOther alternative theories pertain to whether the pilots could have landed at Halifax had they not attempted a fuel dump procedure. It has emerged that the Swiss Federal Archives holds records, still in the 50-year statutory protection period, dating from 1998 to 1999 suggesting Swiss Federal Prosecutors had pursued a criminal investigation of possible involuntary homicide (manslaughter) related to the Swissair 111 crash, though it remains unclear who the exact target of the probe was.\n\n## Legacy\n\n### Lost works\n\nTwo paintings, including Le Peintre (The Painter) by Pablo Picasso, were on board the aircraft and were destroyed in the accident.\n\n### Lawsuit\n\nIn September 1999 Swissair, Delta Air Lines, and Boeing (who had acquired McDonnell Douglas through a merger in 1997) agreed to share liability for the accident and offered the families of the passengers financial compensation. The offer was rejected in favour of a \\$19.8 billion suit against Swissair and DuPont, the supplier of the Mylar insulation sheathing. A US federal court ruled against punitive damages in February 2002. The resulting compensations for one group of plaintiffs totaled over \\$13 million.\n\n### Memorials and tributes\n\nA non-denominational memorial service was held on the grounds of East St. Margaret's Elementary School in Indian Harbour on 9 September 1998. Among those in attendance were 175 relatives of the crash victims, Swiss president Flavio Cotti, Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien, and Nova Scotia premier Russell MacLellan. A memorial service was also held in Zürich on 11 September 1998. The following year, another memorial was held in Nova Scotia.\n\nTwo memorials to those who died in the crash were established by the Government of Nova Scotia. One is to the east of the crash site at The Whalesback, a promontory 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 0.54 nmi) north of Peggy's Cove. The second is a more private, but much larger commemoration located west of the crash site near Bayswater Beach Provincial Park on the Aspotogan Peninsula in Bayswater. Here, the unidentified remains of the victims are interred. A fund was established to maintain the memorials and the government passed an act to recognize the memorials. Various other charitable funds were also created, including one in the name of a young victim from Louisiana, Robert Martin Maillet, which provided money for children in need, and one in the name of Robert's mother, Karen E. Maillet-Domingue (also a victim), which granted scholarships.\n\nA further permanent memorial, albeit not publicly accessible, was created inside the operations centre at Zürich Airport where a simple plaque on the ground floor in the centre opening of a spiral staircase pays tribute to the victims.\n\n### Aftermath and effects on the industry\n\nThe crash of Flight 111 was a severe blow to Swissair and the airline suffered even more loss following the crash, particularly as the in-flight entertainment system that was blamed for causing the accident had been installed on the aircraft to attract more passengers and was removed in order to ease the airline's financial difficulties. Swissair later went bankrupt shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001, an event that caused a significant and widespread disruption to the aviation transportation industry.\n\nAfter the crash of Flight 111, the flight designator for Swissair's New York–Geneva route was changed to SR139, although the route was still operated by MD-11 aircraft. Following the bankruptcy of Swissair in 2002, their international traffic rights were passed to Crossair who began operating flights as Swiss International Air Lines, changing the flight designator for the New York–Geneva route to LX023. The MD-11 was retired from the Swiss fleet in 2004, and the flight today is operated by an Airbus A330-300.\n\n## In popular culture\n\n- The events of Flight 111 were featured in \"Fire on Board\", a Season 1 (2003) episode of the Canadian TV series Mayday (called Air Emergency and Air Disasters in the US and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world). The dramatization was broadcast in the United States with the title \"Fire in the Sky\". The flight was also included in a Mayday Season 6 (2007) Science of Disaster special titled \"Fatal Flaw\", which was called \"Fatal Fix\" in the United Kingdom, Australia and Asia.\n- There have been several other documentaries about Flight 111: an episode of CBC's The Fifth Estate titled \"The Investigation of Swissair 111\"; an episode of the CBC's The Nature of Things; an episode of PBS's NOVA titled \"Aircrash\"; an episode of History Channel's Disasters of the Century; and an episode of National Geographic Channel's Seconds From Disaster.\n- It is featured in season 1, episode 4, of the TV show Why Planes Crash, in an episode called \"Fire in the Sky\".\n- The disaster was featured on the Swiss television channel SRF, in a dramatization called Feuer an Bord – Die Tragödie von Swissair Flug 111 (Fire on Board – The Tragedy of Swissair Flight 111).\n- The Canadian poet Jacob McArthur Mooney's 2011 collection, Folk, tangentially interrogates the disaster and its effect on Nova Scotia residents.\n- The Canadian poet Eleonore Schönmaier's poem from her collection Treading Fast Rivers looks at the effect of the crash on a Nova Scotia village.\n- The song \"TV on 10\" from the 2013 album Hokey Fright by The Uncluded describes being in the company of friends (one of whom was revealed to be Blockhead) as one of them learned their mother had been onboard the flight.\n\n## See also\n\n- Aviation accidents and incidents\n- South African Airways Flight 295 – another aviation accident which occurred due to inflight fire\n- EgyptAir Flight 804 – another case of fire in the cockpit", "revid": "1173878963", "description": "Aviation accident in 1998", "categories": ["1990s fires in North America", "1998 disasters in Canada", "1998 fires", "1998 in Nova Scotia", "1998 in Switzerland", "Accidents and incidents involving the McDonnell Douglas MD-11", "Airliner accidents and incidents caused by in-flight fires", "Airliner accidents and incidents in Canada", "Aviation accidents and incidents in 1998", "Canada–Switzerland relations", "Disasters in Nova Scotia", "Halifax Stanfield International Airport", "History of Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia", "Marine salvage operations", "September 1998 events in Canada", "Swissair accidents and incidents"]}
{"id": "180733", "url": null, "title": "Jack Charlton", "text": "John Charlton OBE DL (8 May 1935 – 10 July 2020) was an English footballer and manager who played as a defender. He was part of the England national team that won the 1966 World Cup and managed the Republic of Ireland national team from 1986 to 1996 achieving two World Cup and one European Championship appearances. He spent his entire club career with Leeds United from 1950 to 1973, helping the club to the Second Division title (1963–64), First Division title (1968–69), FA Cup (1972), League Cup (1968), Charity Shield (1969), Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (1968 and 1971), as well as one other promotion from the Second Division (1955–56) and five second-place finishes in the First Division, two FA Cup final defeats and one Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final defeat. His 629 league and 762 total competitive appearances are club records. He was the elder brother of former Manchester United forward Bobby Charlton, who was also one of his teammates in England's World Cup final victory. In 2006, Leeds United supporters voted Charlton into the club's greatest XI.\n\nCalled up to the England team days before his 30th birthday, Charlton went on to score six goals in 35 international games and to appear in two World Cups and one European Championship. He played in the World Cup final victory over West Germany in 1966, and also helped England to finish third in Euro 1968 and to win four British Home Championship tournaments. He was named FWA Footballer of the Year in 1967.\n\nAfter retiring as a player he worked as a manager, and led Middlesbrough to the Second Division title in 1973–74, winning the Manager of the Year award in his first season as a manager. He kept Boro as a stable top-flight club before he resigned in April 1977. He took charge of Sheffield Wednesday in October 1977, and led the club to promotion out of the Third Division in 1979–80. He left the Owls in May 1983, and went on to serve Middlesbrough as caretaker-manager at the end of the 1983–84 season. He worked as Newcastle United manager for the 1984–85 season. He took charge of the Republic of Ireland national team in February 1986, and led them to their first World Cup in 1990, where they reached the quarter-finals. He also led the nation to successful qualification to Euro 1988 and the 1994 World Cup. He resigned in January 1996 and went into retirement. He was married to Pat Kemp and they had three children.\n\n## Early life\n\nBorn into a footballing family in Ashington, Northumberland, on 8 May 1935, Charlton was initially overshadowed by his younger brother Bobby, who was taken on by Manchester United while Jack was doing his national service with the Household Cavalry. His uncles were Jack Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford City), George Milburn (Leeds United and Chesterfield), Jim Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford Park Avenue) and Stan Milburn (Chesterfield, Leicester City and Rochdale), and legendary Newcastle United and England footballer Jackie Milburn was his mother's cousin.\n\nThe economy of the village of Ashington was based entirely on coal mining, and though his family had a strong footballing pedigree, his father was a miner. The eldest of four brothers – Bobby, Gordon and Tommy – the tight finances of the family meant that all four siblings shared the same bed. His father, Bob, had no interest in football, but his mother, Cissie, played football with her children and later coached the local school's team. As a teenager she took them to watch Ashington and Newcastle United play, and Charlton remained a lifelong Newcastle supporter.\n\nAt the age of 15 he was offered a trial at Leeds United, where his uncle Jim played at left-back, but turned it down and instead joined his father in the mines. He worked in the mines for a short time but handed in his notice after finding out just how difficult and unpleasant it was to work deep underground. He applied to join the police and reconsidered the offer from Leeds United. His trial game for Leeds clashed with his police interview, and Charlton chose to play in the game; the trial was a success and he joined the ground staff at Elland Road.\n\n> \"This part of the world produced its fair share of footballers, and nobody was particularly impressed if a lad went away to play professional football. In fact we never used to say going away to play football, we just used to say 'going away'.\"\n\n## Club career\n\nCharlton played for Leeds United's youth team in the Northern Intermediate League and then for the third team in the Yorkshire League; playing in the physically demanding Yorkshire League at the age of 16 impressed the club's management, and he was soon promoted to the reserve team. Charlton was given his first professional contract when he turned 17. He made his debut on 25 April 1953 against Doncaster Rovers, taking John Charles' place at centre-half after Charles was moved up to centre-forward. It was the final Second Division game of the 1952–53 season, and ended in a 1–1 draw. He then had to serve two years' national service with the Household Cavalry, and captained the Horse Guards to victory in the Cavalry Cup in Hanover. His national service limited his contribution to Leeds, and he made only one appearance in the 1954–55 season.\n\nCharlton returned to the first team in September 1955, and kept his place for the rest of the 1955–56 season, helping Leeds win promotion into the First Division after finishing second to Sheffield Wednesday. He was dropped in the second half of the 1956–57 campaign, partly due to his habit of partying late at night and losing focus on his football. He regained his place in the 1957–58 season, and stopped his partying lifestyle as he settled down to married life. In October 1957 he was picked to represent the English Football League in a game against the League of Ireland.\n\nLeeds struggled after Raich Carter left the club in 1958, and Willis Edwards and then Bill Lambton took charge in the 1958–59 season as Leeds finished nine points above the relegation zone. Jack Taylor was appointed manager, and failed to keep Leeds out of the relegation zone by the end of the 1959–60 campaign. During this time Charlton began taking his coaching badges, and took part in the Football Association's coaching courses at Lilleshall.\n\nLeeds finished just five points above the Second Division relegation zone in the 1960–61 season and Taylor resigned; his replacement, Don Revie, was promoted from the United first team, and initially he was not fond of Charlton. Revie played Charlton up front at the start of the 1961–62 season, but he soon moved him back to centre-half after he proved ineffective as a centre-forward. He became frustrated and difficult to manage, feeling in limbo playing for a club seemingly going nowhere whilst his younger brother was enjoying great success at Manchester United. Revie told Charlton that he was prepared to let him go in 1962, but never actually transfer listed him. Liverpool manager Bill Shankly failed to meet the £30,000 Leeds demanded for Charlton and though Manchester United manager Matt Busby was initially willing to pay the fee he eventually decided to instead try an untested youngster at centre-half. During these discussions Charlton refused to sign a new contract at Leeds, but felt frustrated by Busby's hesitance and so signed a new contract with Leeds whilst making a promise to Revie to be more professional in his approach.\n\nThe 1962–63 season was the beginning of a new era for Leeds United as Revie began to mould the team and the club into his own liking. In a game against Swansea Town in September, Revie dropped many senior players and played Charlton in a young new defensive line-up: Gary Sprake (goalkeeper), Paul Reaney (right-back), Norman Hunter and Charlton (centre-back), and Rod Johnson (left-back). With the exception of Johnson, this defensive line-up would remain consistent for much of the rest of the decade. Charlton took charge of the defence that day, and insisted upon a zonal marking system; Revie agreed to allow Charlton to become the key organiser in defence. Aided by new midfield signing Johnny Giles, Leeds put in a strong promotion challenge and finished fifth, before securing promotion as champions in the 1963–64 campaign, topping the table two points ahead of Sunderland. Other players that began to make their mark on the first team included Billy Bremner, Paul Madeley and Peter Lorimer.\n\nLeeds made an immediate impact on their first season back in the top flight, however the team gained a reputation for rough play, and Charlton said in his autobiography that \"the way we achieved that success made me feel uncomfortable\". They went 25 games unbeaten before losing to Manchester United at Elland Road – their title race meant that the two clubs built up an intense rivalry. Leeds needed a win in their final game of the season to secure the title but could only manage a 3–3 draw with Birmingham City at St Andrew's – Charlton scored the equalising goal on 86 minutes but they could not push on for a winner. They gained some measure of revenge over Man United by beating them 1–0 in the replay of the FA Cup semi-finals. Leeds met Liverpool in the final at Wembley, and the game went into extra-time after a goalless draw. Roger Hunt opened the scoring three minutes into extra-time, but seven minutes later Charlton headed on a cross for Bremner to volley into the net for the equaliser; with seven minutes left Ian St John scored for Liverpool to win the game 2–1.\n\nUnited again competed for honours in the 1965–66 season, finishing second to Liverpool in the league and reaching the semi-finals of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. It was the club's first season in European competition, and they beat Italian side Torino, East German club SC Leipzig, Spanish club Valencia and Hungarian outfit Újpest, before they were beaten 3–1 by Spanish side Real Zaragoza at Elland Road in a tiebreaker game following a 2–2 aggregate draw. Charlton caused controversy against Valencia after he and defender Vidagany began fighting after Vidagany kicked Charlton in an off-the-ball incident; Charlton never actually struck the Spaniard, who hid behind his teammates.\n\nThe 1966–67 season proved frustrating for United, despite the introduction of another club great in the form of Eddie Gray. Leeds finished fourth, five points behind champions Manchester United, and exited the FA Cup at the semi-finals after defeat to Chelsea. They made progress in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, beating DWS (Netherlands), Valencia, Bologna (Italy) and Kilmarnock (Scotland) to reach the final, where they were beaten 2–0 on aggregate by Yugoslavian outfit Dinamo Zagreb. At the end of the season he was named as the Footballer of the Year, succeeding his brother who had won the award the previous year. During the award ceremony he told a number of amusing stories and won a standing ovation from the crowd; this started him on a successful sideline as an after-dinner speaker.\n\nCharlton developed a new ploy for the 1967–68 season by standing next to the goalkeeper during corners to prevent him from coming out to collect the ball; this created havoc for opposition defences and is still a frequently used tactic in the modern era. However, for the second successive season Leeds finished fourth and exited the FA Cup at the semi-finals, this time losing 1–0 to Everton at Old Trafford. They finally won major honours by beating Arsenal 1–0 in the final of the League Cup; Terry Cooper scored the only goal of the game despite allegations that Charlton pushed goalkeeper Jim Furnell in the build-up to the goal. Leeds then went on to lift the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup after beating CA Spora Luxembourg, FK Partizan (Yugoslavia), Hibernian (Scotland), Rangers (Scotland) and Dundee (Scotland) to reach the final with Hungarian club Ferencvárosi. They won 1–0 at Elland Road and drew 0–0 in Budapest to claim their first European trophy.\n\nCharlton helped Leeds to their first ever Football League title in 1968–69, as they lost just two games to finish six points clear of second-place Liverpool. They secured the title with a goalless draw at Anfield on 28 April, and Charlton later recalled the Liverpool supporters affectionately called him \"big dirty giraffe\" and that manager Bill Shankly went into the Leeds dressing room after the match to tell them they were \"worthy champions\".\n\nUnited opened the 1969–70 campaign by winning the Charity Shield with a 2–1 win over Manchester City, and went on to face realistic possibility of winning the treble – the league, FA Cup and European Cup. However they missed out on all three trophies as the games built up towards the end of the season, and the league title was the first to slip out of their hands as Everton went on to build an insurmountable lead. They then bowed out of the European Cup after a 3–1 aggregate defeat to Celtic, including a 2–1 loss at Hampden Park in front of a UEFA record crowd of 136,505. They took two replays to overcome Manchester United in the FA Cup semi-finals (Bremner scored the only goal in 300 minutes of football), but lost 2–1 in the replayed final to Chelsea after the original 2–2 draw, in which Charlton opened the scoring. Charlton took responsibility for Peter Osgood's goal in the replay as he was distracted from marking duties as he was trying to get revenge on a Chelsea player who had kicked him.\n\nCharlton caused controversy early in the 1970–71 season as in an October appearance on the Tyne Tees football programme, he said he'd once had a \"little black book\" of names of players whom he intended to hurt or exact some form of revenge upon during his playing days. He was tried by the Football Association and was found not guilty of any wrongdoing after arguing that the press had misquoted him. He admitted that though he never actually had a book of names he had a short list of names in his head of players who had made nasty tackles on him and that he intended to put in a hard but fair challenge on those players if he got the opportunity in the course of a game. Leeds ended the season in second place yet again, as Arsenal overtook them with a late series of 1–0 wins despite Leeds beating Arsenal in the penultimate game of the season after Charlton scored the winning goal. The final tally of 64 points was a record high for a second-placed team. In the last ever season of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup they beat Sarpsborg FK (Norway), Dynamo Dresden (Germany), Sparta Prague (Czechoslovakia), Vitória (Portugal) and Liverpool to secure a place in the final against Italian club Juventus. They drew 2–2 at the Stadio Olimpico and 1–1 at Elland Road to win the cup on the away goals rule. They had the opportunity to win the cup permanently, but lost 2–1 to Barcelona at Camp Nou in the trophy play-off game.\n\nLeeds finished second in the 1971–72 season for the third successive time, this time ending up just one point behind champions Derby County after losing to Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on the final day of the season. However Charlton managed to complete his list of domestic honours as Leeds beat Arsenal 1–0 in the FA Cup final; he kept Charlie George to a very quiet game as Leeds successfully defended their slender lead.\n\nCharlton was limited to 25 appearances in the 1972–73 campaign and suffered an injury in the FA Cup semi-final against Wolves which ended his season. After failing to regain his fitness for the final, he announced his retirement. Madeley played in his place but Gordon McQueen had been signed as his long-term replacement. He played his testimonial against Celtic, and was given £28,000 of the £40,000 matchday takings.\n\n## International career\n\nWith Charlton approaching his 30th birthday, he was called up by Alf Ramsey to play for England against Scotland at Wembley on 10 April 1965. The game ended 2–2 despite England being forced to end the game with nine men after picking up two injuries; he assisted his brother Bobby for England's first goal. Ramsey later said that he picked Charlton to play alongside Bobby Moore as he was a conservative player able to provide cover to the more skilful Moore, who could get caught out if he made a rare mistake. The defence remained relatively constant in the build up to the 1966 FIFA World Cup: Gordon Banks (goalkeeper), Ray Wilson (left-back), Charlton and Moore (centre-backs), and George Cohen (right-back). After playing in a 1–0 win over Hungary the following month, Charlton joined England for a tour of Europe as they drew 1–1 with Yugoslavia and beat West Germany 1–0 and Sweden 2–1. He played in a 0–0 draw with Wales and a 2–1 win over Northern Ireland to help England win the British Home Championship, though sandwiched between these two games was a 3–2 defeat to Austria – the first of only two occasions he was on the losing side in an England shirt. He played all nine England games in 1965, the final one being a 2–0 win over Spain at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium.\n\nEngland opened the year of 1966 on 5 January with a 1–1 draw with Poland at Goodison Park; Ramsey's managerial ability was demonstrated during the game as the equalising goal came from Bobby Moore, who was allowed to surge forward as Charlton covered the gap he left behind in defence. Charlton played in six of the next seven international victories as England prepared for the World Cup. The run started with impressive victories over West Germany and then Scotland in front of 133,000 fans at Hampden Park. He scored his first international goal with a deflected shot on 26 June, as England recorded a 3–0 victory over Finland at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium. He missed the match against Norway but returned to action with a headed goal in a 2–0 win over Denmark at Idrætsparken.\n\nEngland drew 0–0 in their opening group game of the World Cup against Uruguay after the South Americans came to play for a draw. They then beat Mexico 2–0 after a \"tremendous goal\" from Bobby Charlton opened up the game shortly before the half-time whistle. England beat France 2–0 in the final group game, with Charlton assisting Roger Hunt after heading the ball onto the post. England eliminated Argentina in the quarter finals with a 1–0 win – their efforts were greatly aided after Argentine centre-half Antonio Rattín was sent off for dissent, after which Argentina stopped attacking the ball and concentrated of holding out for a draw with their aggressive defending. England's opponents in the semi-finals were Portugal, who had giant centre-forward José Torres to compete with Charlton for aerial balls. Late in the game Charlton gave away a penalty by sticking out a hand to stop Torres from scoring; Eusébio scored the penalty but was largely contained by Nobby Stiles, and England won the game 2–1 after two goals from Bobby Charlton.\n\nWest Germany awaited in the final at Wembley, and they took the lead through Helmut Haller on 12 minutes; Charlton felt that he could have blocked the shot but at the time he believed that Banks had it covered, though it was Wilson who was at fault for allowing Haller the chance to shoot. England came back and took the lead, but with only a few minutes left in the game Charlton gave away a free kick after fouling Uwe Seeler whilst competing for an aerial ball; Wolfgang Weber scored the equalising goal from a goalmouth scramble created from the free kick. Geoff Hurst scored two goals in extra-time to win the game 4–2.\n\nAfter the World Cup England lost the annual Home Championship to Scotland after a 3–2 defeat in April 1967, Charlton scored for the second successive international game running after also finding the net against Wales the previous November. He injured his foot during the game as he broke two sesamoid bones in his big toe. As his career went on he began to miss England games with niggling injuries so as to avoid friendly games in favour of playing important matches for Leeds; Brian Labone would take his place in the England team during Charlton's absences. He was named in the squad for UEFA Euro 1968, but did not feature in either of England's games. He won five caps in 1969, helping England to a memorable 5–0 win over France and scoring in a 1–0 win over Portugal from a corner taken by his brother Bobby.\n\nIn mid-1970, Ramsey named Charlton in his squad of 22 for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico. However, he favoured Labone over Charlton and only picked Charlton for his 35th and final England game in the 1–0 group win over Czechoslovakia at the Estadio Jalisco. England lost in the quarter finals to West Germany, and on the flight home, Charlton asked Ramsey not to consider him for international duty again. He had agonised over how to break the news to Ramsey, and eventually said: \"Great times ... absolute privilege ... getting older ... slowing down ... not sure I am up to it any more ... time to step down.\" Ramsey listened, then agreed with him: \"Yes, I had reached that conclusion myself.\"\n\n## Managerial career\n\n### Middlesbrough\n\nCharlton was offered the job as manager of Second Division club Middlesbrough on his 38th birthday in 1973. He declined to be interviewed for the position, and instead handed the club a list of responsibilities he expected to take, which if agreed to would give him total control of the running of the club. He refused a contract, and would never sign a contract throughout his managerial career. He took a salary of £10,000 a year despite the chairman being willing to pay a lot more; his only stipulations were a gentleman's agreement that he would not be sacked, assurances that he would have no interference from the board in team affairs, and three days off a week for fishing and shooting. He decided to first repaint Ayresome Park and to publicise the upcoming league campaign so as to generate higher attendance figures.\n\nCharlton took advice from Celtic manager Jock Stein, who allowed him to sign right-sided midfielder Bobby Murdoch on a free transfer. Besides Murdoch the club already had ten players who Charlton moulded into a championship winning side: Jim Platt (goalkeeper), John Craggs (right-back), Stuart Boam and Willie Maddren (centre-backs), Frank Spraggon (left-back), David Armstrong (left midfield), Graeme Souness (central midfield), Alan Foggon (attacking midfield), John Hickton and David Mills (forwards). Some of these players were already settled at the club and in their positions, whilst Charlton had to work with some of the other players. He moved Souness from left midfield to central midfield to compensate for his lack of pace and coached him to play the ball forward rather than side to side as was his instinct. Foggon was played in a new role which Charlton created to break the offside trap set by opposition defenders, an extremely fast player he was instructed to run behind defenders and latch on to the long ball to find himself one-on-one with the goalkeeper.\n\nMiddlesbrough secured promotion with seven games still to play of the 1973–74 season, and Charlton actually told his team to settle for a point away at Luton Town so they could win the title at home but his players ignored his instruction to concede a goal and the title was secured with a 1–0 win at Kenilworth Road. They won the title by a 15-point margin (at the time only two points were awarded for a win); in contrast promoted Carlisle United (3rd) finished only 15 points ahead of Crystal Palace (20th), who were relegated. He was named Manager of the Year, the first time that a manager outside of the top-flight had been given such an honour.\n\nHe continued to manage and change every aspect of the club, and took the decision to disassemble the club's scouting network to instead focus on local talent in Northumberland and Durham. His only major new signing of the 1974–75 season was Terry Cooper, a former Leeds United teammate. They adapted well to the First Division, finishing in seventh place, but would have finished fourth and qualified for Europe had Derby County not scored a last second goal against them on the last day of the season.\n\nBuilding for the 1975–76 campaign he signed Phil Boersma from Liverpool to replace Murdoch, but Boersma never settled at the club and was frequently injured. They finished in 13th place, and went on to win the Anglo-Scottish Cup with a 1–0 win over Fulham. They also reached the semi-finals of the League Cup, and took a 1–0 lead over Manchester City into the second leg at Maine Road, where they were soundly beaten 4–0. However teams had begun to learn how to combat Charlton's attack strategy and left their centre-backs on the outside of the penalty box to neutralise the threat of Foggon. Despite the team's steady progress the club's board voted to sack Charlton in July 1976 after becoming increasingly concerned that he was overstepping his authority in negotiating business deals on behalf of the club and choosing the club's strip. However, the club chairman overruled the decision and Charlton remained in charge.\n\nWith Hickton coming to the end of his career Charlton tried to sign David Cross as a replacement but refused to go above £80,000 and Cross instead went to West Ham United for £120,000. Middlesbrough finished the 1976–77 campaign in 12th place and Charlton left the club at the end of the season on the belief that four years was an optimum time with one group of players and that he had reached his peak with them – he later regretted his decision and stated that he could have led the club to a league title if he had stayed and signed two more top quality players. He applied for the job of England manager after Don Revie quit the role and after Brian Clough was ruled out by the Football Association but did not receive a reply to his application, and he vowed never to apply for another job again and instead wait until he was approached.\n\n### Sheffield Wednesday\n\nIn October 1977, he replaced Len Ashurst as manager at Sheffield Wednesday, who were then bottom of the Third Division. He appointed as his assistant Maurice Setters, who had experience managing at that level but had effectively ruled himself out of another management job after taking Doncaster Rovers to court for unfair dismissal. The two agreed that while the standard of football in the division was low the work rates were high and so the best way to make progress would be to play long balls into the opposition penalty area whilst recruiting big defenders to avoid being caught out by opposition teams with similar tactics. He took the \"Owls\" to mid-table safety with a 14th-place finish in the 1977–78 season, though they did suffer embarrassment by being knocked out of the FA Cup by Northern Premier League side Wigan Athletic.\n\nHis priority in summer 1978 was to find a target man for Tommy Tynan to play alongside and he found it in Andrew McCulloch, who arrived from Brentford for a £70,000 fee. He signed Terry Curran as a winger but eventually moved him up front to play alongside McCulloch. He sold goalkeeper Chris Turner to Sunderland and replaced him with the bigger Bob Bolder. He further raised the average height of the team by signing uncompromising centre-half Mick Pickering from Southampton. The team failed to advance in the league, finishing the 1978–79 season again in 14th spot. They did make their mark on the FA Cup in the Third Round by taking eventual winners Arsenal to four replays before they eventually succumbed to a 2–0 defeat.\n\nCharlton's major acquisition for the 1979–80 campaign was signing Yugoslavia international midfielder Ante Miročević for a £200,0000 fee from FK Budućnost Podgorica. Miročević proved unable to handle the British winter but otherwise added flair to the team in fairer weather. Wednesday went on to secure promotion with a third-place finish and Curran finished as the division's top-scorer.\n\nAs the 1980–81 season came around Wednesday had young talent such as Mark Smith, Kevin Taylor, Peter Shirtliff and Mel Sterland breaking into the first team. The club were comfortable in the Second Division, finishing in tenth position.\n\nWednesday pushed for promotion in the 1981–82 season but ended just one place and one point outside the promotion places and would have actually been promoted under the old two points for a win system that was replaced by the three points for a win system at the beginning of the campaign.\n\nIn building for the 1982–83 campaign, Charlton signed experienced defender Mick Lyons from Everton and by Christmas Wednesday were top of the table. The club had a limited squad and successful cup runs took their toll, as did injuries to McCulloch and Brian Hornsby as they drifted down to sixth place by the close of the season. They reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, losing 2–1 to Brighton & Hove Albion at Highbury with key defender Ian Bailey out with a broken leg sustained the previous week. Charlton announced his departure from Hillsborough in May 1983 despite pleas from the directors for him to stay.\n\nIn March 1984, Malcolm Allison left Middlesbrough and Charlton agreed to manage the club until the end of the 1983–84 to help steer the club away from the Second Division relegation zone. He was unpaid except for expenses and only took the job as a favour to his friend Mike McCullagh, who was the club's chairman. Middlesbrough ended the season in 17th place, seven points clear of the relegation zone.\n\n### Newcastle United\n\nCharlton was appointed manager of Newcastle United in June 1984 after being persuaded to take the job by Jackie Milburn. Arthur Cox had left the club after leading the \"Magpies\" to the First Division and key player Kevin Keegan announced his retirement. His first action was to release Terry McDermott from his contract, who refused to agree to Charlton's offer of a new contract. He had little money to spend in preparation for the 1984–85 season, though he did have young talents in Chris Waddle and Peter Beardsley. He signed midfielder Gary Megson and big striker George Reilly. The \"Toon\" finished safely in 14th place, and a teenage Paul Gascoigne was on the verge of breaking into the first team.\n\nCharlton resigned at the end of pre-season training for the 1985–86 campaign after fans at St James' Park started calling for his dismissal after the club failed to secure the signing of Eric Gates, who instead joined Lawrie McMenemy at Sunderland.\n\n### Republic of Ireland\n\nCharlton was approached by the FAI to manage the Republic of Ireland in December 1985. His first game in charge was on 26 March 1986 against Wales at Lansdowne Road which ended in a 1–0 defeat. In May 1986, Ireland won the Iceland Triangular Tournament at Laugardalsvöllur, in Iceland's capital of Reykjavík, with a 2–1 victory over Iceland and a 1–0 win over Czechoslovakia. By this time Charlton had developed his tactics, which were based on the traditional British 4–4–2 system, as opposed to the continental approach of using deep-lying midfielders, as he noted that most of the Ireland international players plied their trade in England. Crucially he instructed all members of his team to pressure opposition players and in particular force ball-playing defenders into mistakes.\n\n#### Euro 1988\n\nQualification for Euro 1988 meant winning a group containing Belgium, Bulgaria, Luxembourg and Scotland. The campaign opened with Belgium at the Heysel Stadium, and though Ireland contained danger man Nico Claesen, they had to settle for a 2–2 draw after conceding twice from corner-kicks; Frank Stapleton and Liam Brady scored the goals for Ireland. They then dominated Scotland at Lansdowne Road, but failed to find the net and instead drew 0–0. In the return fixture at Hampden Park Mark Lawrenson scored an early goal and another clean sheet won the Irish their first win of qualification. The campaign faltered with a 2–1 loss in Bulgaria, though Charlton was furious with referee Carlos Silva Valente as he felt that both of Lachezar Tanev's goals should not have counted as Nasko Sirakov allegedly pushed Mick McCarthy in the build-up to the first and he felt that Sirakov was outside the penalty box when he was fouled by Kevin Moran – Valente instead gave a penalty. They picked up another point after a 0–0 draw with Belgium in Dublin. Despite not particularly impressing, Ireland then picked up six points with two victories over Luxembourg. They ended the campaign with a 2–0 home win over Bulgaria, Paul McGrath and Kevin Moran the scorers, though Liam Brady (an ever-present in qualification) picked up a two match suspension after lashing out late in the game after being repeatedly kicked by Bulgarian midfielder Ayan Sadakov. Despite the victory the Irish had to rely on a favour from the Scots in order to qualify, who duly obliged with a 1–0 victory, courtesy of Gary Mackay – a substitute earning his first cap – in Sofia to keep Bulgaria one point behind Ireland in the table.\n\nThe build up to Euro 1988 in West Germany was far from ideal, as key player Mark Lawrenson was forced to retire after injuring his Achilles tendon, Liam Brady picked up a serious knee injury and Mark Kelly was also injured. The first match of the tournament was against England at the Neckarstadion, and Charlton reasoned that the threat posed by English wingers Chris Waddle and John Barnes could be nullified by allowing the English defence to feel comfortable on the ball without allowing them a pass; this made the build-up play slow and containable. His game-plan worked and Ireland claimed a 1–0 win after Ray Houghton secured an early lead. He then compensated for a series of injuries by playing Ronnie Whelan and Kevin Sheedy in central midfield, and was rewarded with a great performance and a good point in a 1–1 draw with the Soviet Union at the Niedersachsenstadion, Whelan scoring the goal. To qualify they only needed a point against the Netherlands at the Parkstadion, and Charlton devised a time-wasting plan with goalkeeper Packie Bonner that he was forced to abandon after referee Horst Brummeier was less than impressed. Ireland lost the game 1–0 after Wim Kieft scored an 82nd-minute goal. England and Ireland were eliminated while Netherlands and the Soviet Union qualified – both teams would go on to contest the final, which the Dutch won 2–0.\n\n#### 1990 World Cup\n\nQualification for the 1990 World Cup required Charlton to mastermind a top two finish in a group consisting of Spain, Hungary, Northern Ireland and Malta. The campaign started on hostile ground at Belfast's Windsor Park, and he had stand-in goalkeeper Gerry Peyton to thank for the point gained from a goalless draw with Northern Ireland. A series of injuries left only a skeleton squad to face Spain at the Estadio Benito Villamarín, leaving a recall for defender David O'Leary, and Ireland were well beaten 2–0. They then left Budapest's Népstadion with a point from another goalless draw, though they were criticised for not taking all two points after dominating the game. The next four fixtures would be played at Lansdowne Road, and all four games ended in victory. First they beat Spain 1–0 after an own goal from Míchel, then they overcame Malta and Hungary with 2–0 wins, before beating Northern Ireland 3–0. Qualification for Ireland's first World Cup was assured at the Ta' Qali National Stadium after John Aldridge scored both goals in another 2–0 victory.\n\nIreland's group opponents in Italia '90 were England, Egypt and the Netherlands. Charlton felt that England's four-man midfield of Waddle, Barnes, Bryan Robson and Paul Gascoigne did not offer enough protection to the back four, and he was proved correct when Kevin Sheedy cancelled out Gary Lineker's opener to secure a 1–1 draw in the group opener at the Stadio Sant'Elia. A poor performance against a negative Egyptian side at the Stadio La Favorita meant that neither side scored a goal in a dour draw. They ended the group with a 1–1 draw with the Dutch, Niall Quinn cancelling out Ruud Gullit's opener in the 71st minute, after which both sides settled for a stalemate as a draw meant that both qualified ahead of Egypt. Ireland then defeated Romania in the Second Round match at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris which went to penalties after a 0–0 draw, before the whole team had a meeting with Pope John Paul II at the Vatican.\n\nOne of the most iconic moments from Ireland's unexpected success in Italia 90, (the 1990 FIFA World Cup), took place at Walkinstown roundabout, Dublin on 25 June 1990 after Ireland beat Romania on penalties. Crowds emerged from the nearby public houses of the Kestrel and Cherry Tree and invaded the roundabout to celebrate the win. Amateur footage of the joyous scenes became synonymous with Ireland's success that year and epitomised the sense of hope which prevailed throughout the country, especially after a decade of economic recession. After Charlton passed away in 2020, fans gathered at the roundabout to recreate the moment and pay their respects to the past manager.\n\nIreland eventually went out to the host country, Italy, 1–0 in the quarter-finals at the Stadio Olimpico. A lapse of concentration meant that Italy's Salvatore Schillaci scored on 38 minutes, and Ireland failed to build up enough chances to find the equalising goal. After returning to Dublin over 500,000 people turned out to welcome the team back.\n\n#### Euro 1992 qualifying\n\nQualification for Euro 92 in Sweden left Ireland facing a group of England, Poland and Turkey. They opened in style with a 5–0 home win over the Turks and then drew 1–1 home and away with the English; Ireland were the better team than England in both encounters and Charlton said that they \"twice let them off the hook\" after Houghton missed easy chances in both games. A 0–0 draw at home with Poland followed, and they were then leading 3–1 in the return fixture in Poznań but conceded two late goals to end the match at 3–3. Ireland beat Turkey 3–1 in Istanbul despite the intimidating atmosphere of the İnönü Stadium, but were denied a place in the tournament as England scored a late equalizing goal in Poland to secure the point that would take them above Ireland in the group.\n\n#### 1994 World Cup\n\nTo qualify for the 1994 World Cup in the US, Ireland had to finish first or second in a seven team group of Spain, Denmark, Northern Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Albania. Lithuania, Latvia and Albania proved to be little threat to the Irish, and both home and away fixtures against these three teams earned Ireland the maximum two points. The two most difficult fixtures – Denmark and Spain away – ended in goalless draws, and John Aldridge had a goal disallowed for offside against the Spanish which even Spain manager Javier Clemente said should have stood. Ireland then beat Northern Ireland 3–0 at home before settling for a 1–1 draw with Denmark. The qualification campaign was then derailed in the opening 26 minutes of the home tie with Spain as the Spanish took a three-goal lead; the game ended 3–1, with John Sheridan's late consolation eventually proving crucial at the end of the campaign. The final game was in Belfast against Northern Ireland during a tense period of The Troubles. Jimmy Quinn put Northern Ireland into the lead on 74 minutes, but four minutes later Alan McLoughlin scored the equalising goal to allow the Republic of Ireland to secure second place in the group due to their superior goals scored tally over Denmark. When Quinn scored Northern Ireland assistant manager Jimmy Nicholl shouted \"Up yours!\" to his counterpart Maurice Setters (Charlton's assistant); in response to this Charlton approached Northern Ireland manager Billy Bingham at the final whistle and told him \"Up yours too, Billy\".\n\nIn the build up to the World Cup Charlton gave out first caps to Gary Kelly, Phil Babb and Jason McAteer; he had difficulty convincing McAteer to join Ireland as he first had to turn down an approach by the FA to play for the England under-21s. He scheduled difficult matches before the tournament and Ireland picked up positive results by beating both the Netherlands and Germany away from home. Ireland opened the group stage of the tournament by beating Italy 1–0 at the Giants Stadium, Ray Houghton scoring the winning goal on 11 minutes. They then fell to a 2–1 defeat to Mexico at the Florida Citrus Bowl Stadium, during which Charlton had a pitch-side argument with an official who was preventing substitute John Aldridge (who went on to score the consolation goal) from taking the pitch minutes after his teammate Tommy Coyne had left the pitch and sat down on the bench. For his arguing, Charlton was suspended by FIFA for the final group game against Norway, and had to watch from the commentary box as Ireland qualified with a 0–0 draw. They faced the Netherlands in the Round of 16; Dennis Bergkamp put the Dutch ahead on 11 minutes after Marc Overmars took advantage of a mistake by Terry Phelan, and Wim Jonk scored the second and final goal of the game from 30 yards after Packie Bonner fluffed an otherwise routine save. For his achievements Charlton was awarded the Freedom of the City of Dublin in 1994 by Lord Mayor Tomás Mac Giolla, the first Englishman to be given the honour since 1854.\n\n#### Euro 1996 qualifying\n\nIreland failed to qualify for Euro 96, despite a strong start to the group, when they won their opening three games, including a 4–0 win against Northern Ireland. The Republic's next game was also against Northern Ireland, although the result was a 1–1 draw. From that point onwards the Republic stuttered badly as injuries struck down key players Roy Keane, Andy Townsend, John Sheridan and Steve Staunton. After beating the highly fancied Portugal, the Irish then endured an embarrassing 0–0 draw to Liechtenstein (this was Liechtenstein's only point in their ten matches), before losing twice to Austria, on both occasions by three goals to one. Although they defeated Latvia, Ireland needed to beat Portugal in Lisbon to qualify outright, but lost 3–0. They finished second in the group, ahead of Northern Ireland on goal difference, but as the worst performing runners-up they had to win a play-off game at Anfield against the Netherlands; Ireland lost 2–0 after a brace from Patrick Kluivert. Charlton resigned shortly after the game.\n\n> \"In my heart of hearts, I knew I'd wrung as much as I could out of the squad I'd got – that some of my older players had given me all they had to give.\"\n\n## Personal life\n\nCharlton married Pat Kemp on 6 January 1958, and his brother Bobby acted as his best man. They had three children: John (born in January 1959), Deborah (born 1961) and Peter, who was born just after Charlton senior played in the 1966 World Cup final. During the 1960s he ran two clothes shops in Leeds, and he also later operated the club shop at Elland Road. Charlton was a keen amateur fisherman and took part in field sports. Politically, Charlton was a socialist. He was a founding supporter of the Anti-Nazi League. Along with his wife, he was a supporter of the UK miners' strike of 1984-85, and lent two of his cars to striking miners for travelling to pickets. He appeared on Desert Island Discs in 1972 and 1996, and chose to take with him The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, the Encyclopaedia of How to Survive, a spyglass, and a fishing rod. Charlton was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1973 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.\n\nHe was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1974 Birthday Honours. In 1996, he was awarded honorary Irish citizenship. The honour amounts to full Irish citizenship; it is the highest honour the Irish state gives and is rarely granted. In 1994, he was made a Freeman of the city of Dublin, and was given an Honorary degree of Doctor of Science (D.Sc) by the University of Limerick on 9 September 1994. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Distinguished Service Award for the Irish Abroad in 2020. In 1997, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northumberland. Charlton was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2005 in recognition of his contribution to the English game. There is a life-size statue of him at Cork Airport in Ireland, representing him sitting in his fishing gear and displaying a salmon. On 4 December 2019, he was made a Freeman of the City of Leeds along with the other members of the Revie team of the 1960s and 1970s, but was unable to attend the ceremony.\n\nHe revealed in his 1996 autobiography that he had a strained relationship with his brother Bobby. Jack felt Bobby began to drift away from the Charlton family following his marriage to Norma, who did not get along with their mother. Bobby did not see his mother after 1992 until her death on 25 March 1996 as a result of the feud, though he and Norma did attend her funeral. Though the two brothers remained distant, Jack presented Bobby with his BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award on 14 December 2008.\n\n### Death\n\nCharlton died at his home in Ashington Northumberland on 10 July 2020 at the age of 85 after suffering from lymphoma and dementia. The following day his former club Leeds United won 1-0 over Swansea City with a last minute winner; the goalscorer Pablo Hernández dedicated his goal to Charlton.\n\nOn 20 July, ten days after his death, Irish fans gathered at Walkinstown roundabout in Dublin to recreate the highwater mark of Ireland's success at the 1990 World Cup under Charlton and to pay their respects. Put 'Em Under Pressure, the official song of the Republic of Ireland national football team's 1990 campaign, (which features soundbites of Charlton uttering the eponymous phrase) was played at 12:30pm synchronously with all national radio stations to remember the man who had led Ireland to their first-ever major tournament at Euro '88, as well as two World Cups in Italy (1990) and USA (1994).\n\nCharlton became the 12th player from the 1966 FIFA World Cup squad to die, after Bobby Moore (1993), Alan Ball (2007), John Connelly (2012), Ron Springett (2015), Gerry Byrne (2015), Jimmy Armfield (2018), Ray Wilson (2018), Gordon Banks (2019), Martin Peters (2019), Peter Bonetti (2020) and Norman Hunter (2020).\n\n## Career statistics\n\n### Club\n\n### International\n\nScores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Charlton goal.\n\n### As a manager\n\n## Honours\n\n### Player\n\nLeeds United\n\n- Football League First Division: 1968–69\n- Football League Second Division: 1963–64\n- FA Cup: 1971–72\n- Football League Cup: 1967–68\n- FA Charity Shield: 1969\n- Inter-Cities Fairs Cup: 1967–68, 1970–71\n\nEngland\n\n- British Home Championship: 1964–65, 1965–66, 1967–68, 1968–69\n- FIFA World Cup: 1966\n- UEFA European Championship third place: 1968\n\nIndividual\n\n- FWA Footballer of the Year: 1967\n- English Football Hall of Fame: 2005\n- PFA Team of the Century (1907–1976): 2007\n\n### Manager\n\nMiddlesbrough\n\n- Football League Second Division: 1973–74\n- Anglo-Scottish Cup: 1975–76\n\nSheffield Wednesday\n\n- Football League Third Division third-place promotion: 1979–80\n\nRepublic of Ireland\n\n- Iceland Triangular Tournament: 1986\n\nIndividual\n\n- English Manager of the Year winner: 1974\n- Philips Sports Manager of the Year: 1987, 1988, 1989, 1993\n\n## See also\n\n- Put 'Em Under Pressure, the official song to the Republic of Ireland national football team's 1990 FIFA World Cup campaign in Italy.", "revid": "1171315775", "description": "English footballer and manager (1935–2020)", "categories": ["1935 births", "1966 FIFA World Cup players", "1970 FIFA World Cup players", "1990 FIFA World Cup managers", "1994 FIFA World Cup managers", "2020 deaths", "20th-century British Army personnel", "British Life Guards soldiers", "Deaths from lymphoma", "Deputy Lieutenants of Northumberland", "England men's international footballers", "English Football Hall of Fame inductees", "English Football League managers", "English Football League players", "English Football League representative players", "English autobiographers", "English expatriate football managers", "English expatriate sportspeople in Ireland", "English football managers", "English male non-fiction writers", "English men's footballers", "English miners", "English socialists", "FIFA World Cup-winning players", "Footballers from Ashington", "Leeds United F.C. players", "Men's association football central defenders", "Middlesbrough F.C. managers", "Newcastle United F.C. managers", "Officers of the Order of the British Empire", "People with acquired Irish citizenship", "Republic of Ireland national football team managers", "Sheffield Wednesday F.C. managers", "UEFA Euro 1968 players", "UEFA Euro 1988 managers"]}
{"id": "18043230", "url": null, "title": "UEFA Euro 1984 final", "text": "The UEFA Euro 1984 Final was the final match of Euro 1984, the seventh European Football Championship, UEFA's top football competition for national teams. The match was played at Parc des Princes in Paris, France, on 27 June 1984 and was contested by France and Spain. France qualified for the finals as hosts of the tournament, and faced Denmark, Belgium and Yugoslavia in the group stage before a victory over Portugal in the semi-final saw them progress to their first European Championship final. Spain ended top of their qualifying group, which included a 12–1 win over Malta, and progressed to UEFA Euro 1984 Group 2. There they played Romania, Portugal and West Germany, before defeating Denmark in the semi-final on penalties.\n\nThe final was played in front of 47,368 spectators and was refereed by Vojtech Christov from Czechoslovakia. Both sides had chances to score but the first half ended goalless. In the 54th minute, Yvon Le Roux was booked for fouling Santillana. Three minutes later, France took the lead. The referee awarded a free kick after it appeared that Bernard Lacombe had been fouled on the edge of the Spain penalty area. Michel Platini's low shot curved around the wall, Spain's goalkeeper Luis Arconada fumbled it and ended up pushing it into his own net, to make it 1–0 to France. With five minutes of the match remaining, Le Roux tripped Manuel Sarabia and was sent off after being awarded a second yellow card, reducing France to ten players and becoming the first player ever to be dismissed in a European Championship final. Seconds into stoppage time, Jean Tigana's pass allowed Bruno Bellone to run through and chip the ball over Arconada as he ran off his line. The match ended moments later with France winning 2–0 to claim their first international football title.\n\n## Background\n\nUEFA Euro 1984 was the seventh edition of the UEFA European Football Championship, UEFA's football competition for national teams. Qualifying rounds were played on a home-and-away round-robin tournament basis prior to the final tournament taking place in France, between 12 and 27 June 1984. There, the eight qualified teams were divided into two groups of four with each team playing one another once. The winners of each group then faced the runners-up from the other group in the semi-finals, the winners progressing to the final.\n\nIn the previous international tournament, the 1982 FIFA World Cup, France were knocked out in the semi-final by West Germany after a penalty shoot-out, and lost 3–2 to Poland in the third-place play-off. Spain failed to progress past the second qualifying group stage, losing to West Germany and drawing with England. The UEFA Euro 1984 Final was the twentieth meeting between France and Spain, with ten of those matches being won by Spain, four by France and the remainder ending in a draw. They had never faced each other in a competitive game.\n\n## Route to the final\n\n### France\n\nAs tournament hosts, France automatically qualified for UEFA Euro 1984 Group 1 where they faced Denmark, Belgium and Yugoslavia in a round-robin tournament where each team played every other team once. France's first group match was against Denmark at the Parc des Princes in Paris on 12 June 1984. As the first half was drawing to a close, a tackle between Denmark's Allan Simonsen and Yvon Le Roux left the Danish player with a broken leg and forced his side to substitute him for John Lauridsen. Goalless at half time, the Denmark goalkeeper Ole Qvist made two separate saves from Michel Platini headers but with twelve minutes remaining, France took the lead. Ivan Nielsen's attempt to intercept a pass resulted in the ball falling to Platini whose shot from outside the Denmark penalty area deflected off Søren Busk's head and flew into the goal. In the 87th minute, Manuel Amoros reacted to fouls by both Lauridsen and Jesper Olsen, first by throwing the ball at Olsen and then headbutting him in the face: he was sent off by Volker Roth, the German referee, and the match ended 1–0.\n\nIn their second group game, France faced Belgium at the Stade de la Beaujoire in Nantes on 16 June 1984. In warm conditions, France dominated the match with Georges Grün making a goal-line clearance in the first thirty seconds. In the fourth minute, Patrick Battiston's 30-yard (27 m) shot struck the crossbar and the ball fell to Platini who sidestepped a defender before striking it into the corner of Belgium's goal. Belgium then missed numerous chances to score: Jan Ceulemans saw his header cleared off the goal-line by Luis Fernandez, Michel De Wolf's shot hit the crossbar and Erwin Vandenbergh's header went wide of France's goal. Alain Giresse doubled France's lead in the 33rd minute, chipping the ball over Jean-Marie Pfaff, the Belgium goalkeeper, after playing a one-two with Jean Tigana. In the 44th minute, Didier Six took the ball round Pfaff and crossed it to Giresse. He passed back to Fernandez who headed it into the Belgium goal to make it 3–0 at half time. In the 74th minute, Bernard Genghini pass to Six who was fouled by Pfaff. Platini took the resulting penalty, striking it into the middle of the goal to make it 4–0. With a minute remaining, Platini completed his hat-trick with a header which went in off the goalpost from Giresse's free kick, and France won 5–0.\n\nThe final group match for France was against Yugoslavia at the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard in Saint-Étienne on 19 June 1984. Yugoslavia took the lead in the 31st minute after Miloš Šestić beat Tigana and Giresse, exchanged passes with Safet Sušić before striking the ball into the top corner of the France goal. Giresse's shot then hit the crossbar but the first half ended 1–0 to Yugoslavia. Thirteen minutes after the interval, Jean-Marc Ferreri dispossessed Ljubomir Radanović and passed to Platini who struck the ball under Zoran Simović, the Yugoslavia goalkeeper, to level the score. Three minutes later, Battiston's cross found Platini who scored with a diving header to give France the lead. Joël Bats then saved an attempt from Mehmed Baždarević before Platini completed his second hat-trick of the tournament when he scored with a direct free kick which looped over the wall and into the top corner of the Yugoslavia goal. With ten minutes remaining, Stjepan Deverić was fouled by Maxime Bossis in the France box and Dragan Stojković scored the resulting penalty after a retake. France won the game 3–2 to finish their qualifying group top and progressed to the semi-finals.\n\nThere they faced the runners-up of Group 2, Portugal, at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille on 23 June 1984. O'Brien describes the first twenty minutes of \"one of the most unforgettable internationals of all time\" as \"dismayingly poor\". Midway through the half, Platini was fouled by Jaime Pacheco and Jean-François Domergue struck the resulting free kick from 25 yards (23 m) over the wall and into the top corner of the Portugal goal, and France held a 1–0 lead at half-time. Early in the second half, Bento made saves against Fernandez and Giresse before Fernando Chalana played the ball into the France penalty area and found Jordão who headed it past Bats to equalise in the 74th minute. Bento then made saves to deny Platini and Six and regular time ended with the score at 1–1, sending the match into extra time. Both sides had opportunities to score, but midway through the first period of additional time, Chalana played a cross to Jordão who miskicked his volley into the ground but the ball bounced over Bats and into the France goal to give Portugal a 2–1 lead. Portugal adopted a defensive approach but with six minutes remaining, Domergue scored his and France's second goal, lifting the ball over Bento after play continued despite Platini being brought down by João Pinto. In the final minute, Tigana took possession of the ball, held off João Pinto, before passing to Platini who was 6 yards (5 m) out from goal: he turned and struck the ball into the roof of the Portugal net. France won the match 3–2 and secured passage to their first European Championship final.\n\n### Spain\n\nSpain were drawn into group 7 of the UEFA Euro 1984 qualifying phase, where they faced the Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland, Iceland and Malta in a home-and-away round-robin tournament. They finished top of the group with six wins, including a 12–1 victory over Malta, one draw and one defeat, to the Netherlands. Despite being tied on points and goal difference with the Netherlands, Spain progressed having scored more goals. In UEFA Euro 1984 Group 2, they were drawn alongside Portugal, 1980 winners West Germany and Romania.\n\nThe first group game saw Spain face Romania at the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard in Saint-Étienne on 14 June 1984. In front of the tournament's smallest crowd of 16,972, Spain took the lead midway through the first half. Nicolae Ungureanu conceded possession to Juan Señor who passed to Ricardo Gallego. The Romania goalkeeper Silviu Lung pulled him down and Francisco Carrasco scored the resulting penalty to make it 1–0. The scores were level 13 minutes later when Marcel Coraș passed to László Bölöni who struck the ball into the near corner of Spain's goal. Mircea Rednic then shot wide from 7 yards (6 m). After a second half of limited opportunities to score, the match ended 1–1.\n\nSpain's opponents for their second group match were Iberian rivals Portugal who they played at the Stade Vélodrome on 17 June 1984. Manuel Bento, the Portugal goalkeeper, made saves from Santillana and Gallego in the first half which ended goalless. Soon after the interval, Bento dropped a shot from Santillana but recovered in time to prevent Rafael Gordillo from scoring. In the 52nd minute, Álvaro passed to António Sousa who chipped the ball over Luis Arconada, the Spain goalkeeper, to give Portugal the lead. Chalana went close to doubling his side's lead but his shot struck the Spain crossbar. With 17 minutes to go, Carraasco's corner was not cleared by the Portugal defence and after Andoni Goikoetxea headed it goalbound, Santillana eventually scored to make it 1–1. Bento made a late save from Carrasco, and the match ended in a draw.\n\nIn their final group game which was held at the Parc des Princes in Paris on 20 June 1984, Spain's opponents were West Germany. West Germany started the game strongly: an early header from Hans-Peter Briegel struck the Spain crossbar, José Antonio Camacho cleared the ball off his own goal-line, Arconada's lengthy run ended with him shooting just wide of the post, another Briegel header hit the underside of the bar and Andy Brehme hit the post, while Goikoetxea was substituted through injury for Salva Ballesta after tackling Rudi Völler from behind. Before half-time, Uli Stielike fouled Salva García in the West Germany penalty area but Carrasco's penalty kick was saved by Toni Schumacher. Klaus Allofs missed two chances to score early in the second half before Schumacher blocked a shot from Carrasco and Antonio Maceda's header was cleared off the West Germany goal-line by Stielike. Arconada then saved a strike from Karl-Heinz Rummenigge \"with superhuman speed\" before denying Lothar Matthäus' half-volley. With less than a minute remaining, Pierre Littbarski's shot was off-target and Spain attacked en masse. Matthäus fouled Francisco and from the resulting free kick, Maceda scored with a low header after Schumacher failed to gather the ball. The match ended 1–0 and Spain ended the qualification phase top of the group, although tied with Portugal on points and goal difference, with a superior number of goals scored, and progressed to the semi-finals.\n\nTheir opponents were Denmark and the match was played at the Stade de Gerland in Lyon on 24 June 1984. Qvist made an early save from a Carrasco header before Denmark took the lead in the seventh minute. Frank Arnesen's cross was pushed onto the Spain crossbar by Arconada after a header from Preben Elkjær but Søren Lerby scored from the rebound to make it 1–0 to Denmark. The second half saw chances for both sides, with Denmark, in particular, being profligate in front of goal. Midway through the second half, Gordillo's cross eventually found Maceda who struck the ball into the bottom corner to level the score. Arnesen was then substituted for Olsen and although Denmark had two late chances to score, regular time ended 1–1 and the match went into extra time. Spain increased the pressure and Klaus Berggreen was sent off two minutes into the second period of additional time for a pull on Camacho. Arcando then saved from both Elkjær's free kick and Nielsen's follow-up shot and extra time ended with the scores still level, taking the match to a penalty shoot-out. Both sides scored their first four kicks: Kenneth Brylle, Olsen, Michael Laudrup and Lerby for Denmark; Santillana, Señor, Santiago Urquiaga and Víctor Muñoz for Spain. Elkjær took Denmark's fifth penalty and struck the ball over the crossbar. Manuel Sarabia, a second-half substitute, scored Spain's fifth penalty to secure his side's 5–4 victory and progression to their first European Championship final since the 1964 tournament.\n\n### Summary\n\n## Match\n\n### Pre-match\n\nMaceda and Gordillo were suspended and thus not available for selection by Spain, so Urquiaga and Francisco López were brought into the starting eleven. France made a single change to their team with Bruno Bellone coming in to replace Six.\n\n### Summary\n\nThe final took place at the Parc des Princes in Paris on 27 June 1984 in front of 47,368 spectators and was refereed by Vojtech Christov from Czechoslovakia. In the opening minute, France won a free kick from which Bellone passed to Giresse whose shot was caught by Arconada. Urquiaga's cross was then punched out by Bats but fell to Víctor: his shot was blocked and Francisco's strike went wide of France's goal. In the 12th minute, Bellone's cross was narrowly missed by Lacombe and five minutes later, Señor's free kick was headed across the goal by Santillana and found Víctor but his header went over the France crossbar. In the 26th minute, Spain's Gallego was shown a yellow card for a foul on Bellone, and soon after Fernandez became the first France player to be booked, this time for dissent. Spain's Santillana missed two chances to score before half-time: his header was cleared off the line by Battiston, before his shot was wide of France's goal, and the first half ended goalless.\n\nNeither side made any changes during the interval, and in the 54th minute, Yvon Le Roux was booked for fouling Santillana. Three minutes later, France took the lead. The referee awarded a free kick after it appeared that Lacombe had been fouled by Salva on the edge of the Spain penalty area. Platini's low shot curved around the wall, Arconada fumbled it and ended up pushing it into his own net, to make it 1–0 to France. Salva was then forced to make a clearance from Giresse before Arconda saved Lacombe's volley. Giresse's strike was wide after a run from Tigana in which he beat three Spain defenders. With five minutes of the match remaining, Le Roux tripped Sarabia and was sent off after being awarded a second yellow card, reducing France to ten players and becoming the first player ever to be dismissed in a European Championship final. Seconds into stoppage time, Tigana's pass allowed Bellone to run through and chip the ball over Arconada as he ran off his line. The match ended moments later with France winning 2–0 to claim their first international football title.\n\n### Details\n\n## Post-match\n\nFrance's Giresse, Tigana and Platini, were named in the UEFA team of the tournament, but no Spain player was selected. As of 2021, Platini's nine goals remains the record for the most scored during the tournament finals. He had won the 1983 Ballon d'Or, but retained it at the 1984 ceremony before winning it a third time in 1985. Platini was awarded the European Championship trophy by Jacques Chirac.\n\nThe France manager Michel Hidalgo later suggested that his side's success was \"a triumph for attacking football after years of defensive attitudes\". Platini said \"It was a great moment for French football and for French sport as a whole ... We were superior to everybody and expressed ourselves on the pitch.\" British sports commentator John Motson described Platini as \"unbelievable ... He was playing teams on his own. He was out of this world, a superstar. No team was able to contain him.\" French international footballer Emmanuel Petit later said \"It was probably the most beautiful French team to watch in history.\"\n\nIn the next international tournament, the 1986 FIFA World Cup, France were beaten by West Germany in the semi-finals, but secured third place with a 4–2 victory in the play-off over Belgium, the side which had knocked Spain out in a penalty shoot-out in the quarter-finals.\n\n## See also\n\n- France at the UEFA European Championship\n- Spain at the UEFA European Championship\n- France–Spain football rivalry", "revid": "1173442940", "description": "Final game of the UEFA Euro 1984", "categories": ["1984 in Paris", "France at UEFA Euro 1984", "France national football team matches", "France–Spain relations", "International association football competitions hosted by Paris", "June 1984 sports events in Europe", "Spain at UEFA Euro 1984", "Spain national football team matches", "UEFA Euro 1984", "UEFA European Championship finals"]}
{"id": "59108575", "url": null, "title": "Herbert Vivian", "text": "Herbert Vivian (3 April 1865 – 18 April 1940) was an English journalist, author and newspaper owner, who befriended Lord Randolph Churchill, Charles Russell, Leopold Maxse and others in the 1880s. He campaigned for Irish Home Rule and was private secretary to Wilfrid Blunt, poet and writer, who stood in the 1888 Deptford by-election. Vivian's writings caused a rift between Oscar Wilde and James NcNeil Whistler. In the 1890s, Vivian was a leader of the Neo-Jacobite Revival, a monarchist movement keen to restore a Stuart to the British throne and replace the parliamentary system. Before the First World War he was friends with Winston Churchill and was the first journalist to interview him. Vivian lost as Liberal candidate for Deptford in 1906. As an extreme monarchist throughout his life, he became in the 1920s a supporter of fascism. His several books included the novel The Green Bay Tree with William Henry Wilkins. He was a noted Serbophile; his writings on the Balkans remain influential.\n\n## Early life and education\n\nHerbert Vivian was born on 3 April 1865 in Chichester, the only son of the Reverend Francis Henry and Margaret Vivian. He was baptised by his father on 11 May 1865 at the town's Church of St Peter the Great. He had a sister, Margaret Cordelia Vivian. His grandfather John Vivian was the Liberal MP for Truro, and owned Pencalenick House in St Clement, Cornwall; Herbert recalled shooting his first rabbit there as a child. He always glossed over his grandfather's political role, for example, writing: \"None of my immediate relatives have ever troubled their heads in politics...\" in his newspaper The Whirlwind.\n\nHerbert studied at Harrow School from 1879 until 1883. When he was 14, he was introduced to an old friend of his father's, Thomas Hughes, the author of Tom Brown's School Days. The meeting had a strong impact on the young Vivian, who wrote about it later in his memoirs. In 1881, his grandfather introduced him to Thomas Bayley Potter, the Member of Parliament for Rochdale. Potter was impressed by Vivian and often took him into Parliament during his holidays. There Vivian met many of the MPs and was particularly impressed by Charles Warton, the MP for Bridport. Potter also introduced him to Lord Randolph Churchill, who inspired Vivian to take up Tory democracy. Vivian exchanged letters with Lord Randolph during his school days and continued to correspond with him for many years afterwards. Vivian later became friends with his son, Winston Churchill.\n\nVivian studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1886 with a degree in history and subsequently being promoted to a Master of Arts. In his student years, Vivian and his friend Edward Goulding were the President and Vice-President respectively of the University Carlton Club and invited Lord Randolph to become its President. Never shy of using his connections, Vivian dropped Churchill's name to arrange a meeting in Vevey with Nubar Pasha, the first Prime Minister of Egypt. After spending several hours discussing politics with Pasha, he returned to London and reported his conversation to Churchill. Churchill introduced Vivian to Charles Russell, who later became Baron Russell of Killowen and the Lord Chief Justice of England, and the two became friends. Around 1882, Vivian attended a lecture given by Oscar Wilde at which James NcNeil Whistler was also present and which Vivian would later write about .\n\nAt Cambridge, Vivian struck up friendships with students who went on to be prominent politicians and businessmen. Austen Chamberlain was involved in Cambridge Union politics when Vivian arrived and the two bonded over a shared interest in Radicalism. He was a close friend of Leopold Maxse — later editor of the National Review. Another friend was Ernest Debenham, who went on to lead the family business Debenhams to great commercial success. Vivian recalled Debenham overdosing on hashish during experiments in Buddhism at Cambridge.\n\n## Private secretary to Wilfrid Blunt\n\nVivian and Chamberlain organised speaking events at the Union. In 1886, they invited the English anti-imperialist writer and poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt to speak on the subject of Irish Home Rule, and Vivian and Blunt became friends. Later that year, Vivian visited Blunt at his home, Crabbet Park, and took a position as his private secretary. Vivian spent most weekends at Crabbet during his final year of studies, and continued to work for Blunt after he graduated. While so employed, he met influential politicians, as Blunt prepared to stand for Parliament, among them the Anglo-French historian Hilaire Belloc. Blunt was a cousin of Lord Alfred Douglas and a friend of Oscar Wilde.\n\nIn 1887 Blunt became more vociferously in favour of Irish Home Rule. In November, Lord Randolph wrote to Vivian advising him to distance himself from Blunt, advice Vivian did not take. At the time, Blunt was also developing interest in the Jacobite cause of restoring the House of Stuart to the British throne, which Vivian was to become a passion in his life.\n\nIn late 1887, Vivian left the Conservative Party and joined the Home Rule Union between the Liberal Party and the Irish Parliamentary Party. At the end of the year, he toured Ireland with the leading Irish politician Michael Davitt and Bradford Central MP George Shaw-Lefevre. Shortly after Vivian returned from Ireland he met the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party Charles Stewart Parnell and then the MP for East Mayo, John Dillon. In October 1887, Blunt gave a speech at a meeting in Woodford, County Galway protesting against mass evictions of tenant families. The meeting had been banned by Arthur Balfour, the Chief Secretary for Ireland and Blunt was arrested, tried and imprisoned. While Blunt served his sentence in Dublin, Vivian worked closely with William John Evelyn to promote Blunt in the February 1888 Deptford by-election, caused by Evelyn's resignation as the Conservative MP. Blunt lost by 275 votes. Despite this, Blunt and Vivian were approached in March 1888 by a committee from Parnell's Irish National League, asking Blunt to stand as their candidate for Deptford at the next general election, but by the time the election was called in 1892, Blunt's enthusiasms had moved on.\n\nFor a while, Vivian contributed to Evelyn's Abinger Monthly Record, a magazine he later described as \"[in] part... really scurrilous attacks on the Vicar\". The Vicar was Rev. T. P. Hill, incumbent of Abinger, who had fallen out with Evelyn. The Record was also noted for a campaign against compulsory vaccinations and support of Irish Home Rule.\n\n## Oscar Wilde\n\nIn the late 1880s, Vivian was a friend of Oscar Wilde; they dined together on several occasions. At one such dinner, Vivian claimed he witnessed a famous exchange between Wilde and James NcNeill Whistler. Whistler said a bon mot that Wilde found particularly witty, Wilde exclaimed that he wished that he had said it, and Whistler retorted, \"You will, Oscar, you will\".\n\nIn 1889, Vivian included this anecdote in an article, \"The Reminiscences of a Short Life\", which appeared in The Sun and implied that Wilde had a habit of passing off other people's witticisms as his own, especially Whistler's. Wilde saw Vivian's article as a scurrilous betrayal and it directly caused the break in friendship between Wilde and Whistler. \"The Reminiscences\" also caused acrimony between Wilde and Vivian, Wilde accusing him of \"the inaccuracy of an eavesdropper with the method of a blackmailer\" and banishing him from his circle. After the incident, Vivian and Whistler became friends, exchanging letters for many years.\n\n## Newspaper publishing and the Neo-Jacobite Revival\n\nThe late 1880s and 1890s brought a Neo-Jacobite Revival in Britain. In 1886, Bertram Ashburnham founded the Order of the White Rose, which embraced causes such as Irish, Cornish, Scottish and Welsh independence, Spanish and Italian legitimism, and particularly Jacobitism. Its members included Frederick Lee, Henry Jenner, Whistler, Robert Edward Francillon, Charles Augustus Howell, Stuart Richard Erskine and Vivian. It published a paper, The Royalist, from 1890 to 1903.\n\nVivian first met Erskine when they were at a journalism school together. In 1890, the two founded a weekly newspaper The Whirlwind, A Lively and Eccentric Newspaper with Vivian as editor, noted for including illustrations by artists, including Whistler and Walter Sickert. Sickert was also its art critic, and wrote a weekly column. It carried articles on Oscar Wilde at the height of his fame and notoriety. The paper espoused an individualist, Jacobite political view, championed by Erskine and Vivian. One notable Sickert illustration for The Whirlwind was a portrait of Charles Bradlaugh. Bradlaugh also wrote an article on \"practical individualism\" for the paper.\n\nThe Whirlwind was scourged by Victor Yarros for its anti-Semitic stance, mainly espoused by Vivian in his editorials. In the 23 August 1890 edition, he wrote, \"The Jews are a race rather than a religious body, and, like the Chinese, are often obnoxious to their neighbours. By their financial craft they have acquired a dangerously extensive power, not merely over individuals, but even over the policy of states.... The proper way to deal with Jews is a rigorous boycott... What should be aimed at is a return of the whole Jewish race, as speedily as may be, to Palestine... The countries of their adoption would assuredly have no difficulty in sparing them\".\n\nVivian used his editorship to promote also an individualist philosophy for women, though he was against Women's suffrage. Other causes included the menace of London's tramways and repeated attacks on the journalist and explorer Henry Morton Stanley and other figures of the age. He also published a series of autobiographical articles, Reminiscences of a Short Life, which later formed the basis of his 1923 memoirs, Myself Not Least, being the personal reminiscences of \"X.\" The paper went on hiatus in early 1891, when Vivian stood for election, and did not restart publication.\n\nThe Order of the White Rose split in 1891. It had been a primarily nostalgic, artistic organisation, but Vivian and Erskine wanted a more militant political agenda. With Melville Henry Massue, styling himself the Marquis of Ruvigny, they founded a rival Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland, sometimes using the name White Rose League. Its Central Executive Committee contained Walter Clifford Mellor, Vivian, George G. Fraser, Massue, Baron Valdez of Valdez, Alfred John Rodway, and R. W. Fraser, with Erskine as President. Pittock called the League a \"publicist for Jacobitism on a scale unwitnessed since the Eighteenth Century\".\n\nThe League organised protests often centred on statues of Jacobite heroes. In late 1892, they applied for government permission to lay wreaths at the statue of Charles I at Charing Cross on the anniversary of his execution. This was denied by Prime Minister Gladstone and enforced by George Shaw-Lefevre, Vivian's one-time travelling companion and now First Commissioner of Works. The League tried to lay the wreaths anyway on 30 January 1893. Police were sent to stop this, but after a confrontation, Vivian and other members were allowed to complete their moved, so gaining significant press coverage. The political reporter for the Lancashire Evening Post wrote, \"Mr. Herbert Vivian has been successful at last in placing a wreath upon the Statue of Charles the First.... We trust all parties will feel the better for the operation — especially the bronze statue\". An article in the Western Morning News said, \"A bold and daring man is Mr. Herbert Vivian, Jacobite and journalist.... He announces to all and sundry that, law or no law, he will... attempt to lay a wreath on the statue. I have not heard whether special precautions have yet been taken to cope with this new force of disorder though, perhaps... one constable may be set apart to overawe Mr. Herbert Vivian\".\n\nIn June 1893 came a split between Ruvigny and Vivian, with Vivian seeking to continue the League with support from Viscount Dupplin, Mellor and others. Vivian left the Jacobite League in August 1893, but continued to promote a strongly Jacobite political philosophy.\n\nIn 1892 and 1893, Vivian worked as a journalist for William Ernest Henley at the National Observer. In 1894, he published The Green Bay Tree with a college friend, the anti-immigrant writer William Henry Wilkins. He also contributed to Wilkin's monthly periodical The Albemarle, which was co-edited by a mutual Cambridge friend, Hubert Crackanthorpe. He spent the winter of 1894/1895 in France, where he discussed Jacobite and Carlist politics with the poet François Coppée and contemporary literature with the novelist Émile Zola.\n\nVivian continued his political journalism after The Whirlwind closed. In 1895, he was editor of The White Cockade, a newspaper whose main purpose was to put forward the Jacobite argument. It received poor reviews and no success. Vivian was described in the Bristol Mercury as a \"volatile young gentleman [who] enjoys a European reputation in the spheres of politics and literature.\"\n\nBy 1897, Vivian was the President of the Legitimist Club, another Neo-Jacobite organisation. In 1898, Vivian published letters he had exchanged with the Office of Works demanding that the Club be allowed to lay a wreath at the Statue of James II, Trafalgar Square on 16 September, the anniversary of James' death. Vivian's wreath-laying, tactics and use of the press to publicise his cause, remained the same. Vivian remained president of the Club until at least 1904.\n\n## Writing career\n\nAfter his departure from the Jacobite League in 1893, Vivian became travel correspondent of Arthur Pearson's paper Pearson's Weekly. In February 1896, he launched and edited a new weekly called Give and Take, which was noted for offering its readers coupons for \"a selected set of tradesmen\".\n\nIn 1898, Vivian returned to being a travel journalist, first for the Morning Post (1898–1899) and then for Pearson's newly-founded Daily Express (1899–1900). In 1901 and 1902, he produced a magazine called The Rambler with Richard Le Gallienne, intended as a revival of Samuel Johnson's periodical of the same name. After the turn of the 20th century, Vivian wrote several novels, some anonymously or using pseudonyms, which met mixed reviews. The Master Sinner was seen by The Publisher's Circular as \"unpleasant but clever\", and in The Literary World as having a \"style... jerky and overladen with adjectives\", but still \"a readable book\".\n\nOf Vivian's several travel books, the best-known was Servia: The Poor Man's Paradise (1897), which was widely quoted in newspapers, including The New York Times, the Morning Post and Pearson's Weekly.\n\nIn 1901, Vivian wrote with his wife Olive a book on European religious rituals, described in the Sheffield Independent as \"well written, curious and readable, and marred only by a singularly fatuous surrender to any form of superstition however grovelling\". In 1902, Vivian interviewed the French novelist Joris-Karl Huysmans.\n\nIn 1903, Vivian returned to the subject of Serbia in \"The Servian Character\" for the English Illustrated Magazine. He followed this with a second work, The Servian Tragedy: With Some Impressions of Macedonia (1904), detailing the coup d'état against the Serbian royal family. This was reviewed in the Sheffield Daily Telegraph: \"The author has a thorough personal knowledge of the country, was received in audience by the late King and Queen, and is personally acquainted with all the statesmen. The Belgrade catastrophe is minutely described from full particulars obtained first hand.\" It was reviewed less positively in the London Daily News: \"Mr. Herbert Vivian's new book... presents many interesting chapters on the events leading up to the recent tragedy, but can hardly be looked upon as an authoritative history. The matter is thin, the author does not quote his authorities; and he is too evidently willing to accept hearsay in place of evidence.\"\n\nVivian, as a friend of Winston Churchill, met him several times in the 1900s, seeking political gossip and advice. In 1905 Vivian published the first interview given by Churchill, published in The Pall Mall Magazine, which received attention in the press. Vivian also interviewed David Lloyd George, the President of the Board of Trade, for The Pall Mall Magazine and wrote for The Fortnightly Review.\n\nIn 1904, Vivian made a political speech containing pointed remarks about George Bernard Shaw. Shaw and Vivian exchanged letters on the matter, which Vivian then published, to Shaw's chagrin:\n\n> The publication of my letter to Mr. Vivian was a piece of humourous cruelty in which I had no part. I honestly gave Mr. Vivian the best advice I could in his own interest in a letter obviously not intended for publication; and if he had acted quietly upon it, instead of sending it off to the papers... he might still have a chance at a seat in the next Parliament.... I shall not pretend to be sorry that I have helped Mr. Bowerman, the accredited Labour candidate, to disable an opponent who, if he had played his cards skilfully, might have proved very dangerous... Yours, G. Bernard Shaw\n\nVivian continued his keen interest in the Balkan states. In 1907, he joined a plot to put Prince Arthur of Connaught on the throne of Serbia. A year later, the Montenegrin government considered appointing him as its Honorary Consul in London, and Vivian wrote to his friend Winston Churchill, asking for an exequatur for his appointment.\n\nIn 1908, Vivian proposed a gambling \"system\" for roulette published in The Evening Standard. His system relied on the gambler's fallacy and it was debunked by Sir Hiram Maxim in the Literary Digest in October 1908.\n\nVivian continued to publish books in the First World War, notably a 1917 volume, Italy at War, which despite its title was largely a travelogue. He tried to join the Ministry of Information and met both Lord Beaverbrook and John Buchan as part of his efforts, but his services were rejected, although Buchan admitted to Jacobite sympathies during their meeting. Vivian instead returned to the Daily Express as travel correspondent for 1918.\n\nIn the 1920s Vivian worked as a travel stringer for newspapers that included The Pall Mall Magazine and The Yorkshire Post. In 1927, he wrote Secret Societies Old and New, which received mixed reviews, The Spectator calling it \"well-written and extremely readable\", but Albert Mackey noting, \"The author does not possess sufficient knowledge for his task.\"\n\nIn 1932, Vivian returned to European political history and legitimism with The Life of the Emperor Charles of Austria, the first biography of Charles published in English. It was positively received in the Belfast News Letter. He continued to write on the Balkans, with an article in The English Review in 1933 on racial tensions in Yugoslavia.\n\nVivian's writings were noted in his lifetime and after; he is listed in the 1926 edition of Who's Who in Literature, and the 1967 New Century Handbook of English Literature.\n\n## Political candidate\n\nIn 1889, Vivian sought to stand in the Dover by-election. He withdrew and later alleged that the Irish journalist and candidate for Galway Borough, T. P. O'Connor, had stepped in to prevent his candidacy.\n\nIn April 1891, Vivian announced he was standing in the East Bradford constituency for the Jacobite \"Individualist Party\", of which he was sole member. By May 1891, Vivian was claiming to be the Labour candidate for the seat, though this was denied by the Bradford Trade and Labour Council. During the campaign he was named as co-respondent in a divorce case which was gleefully reported by the local press. He duly lost the 1892 election to William Sproston Caine.\n\nIn 1895, he stood for the North Huntingdonshire constituency on an explicitly Jacobite platform. The seat was comfortably held by A.E. Fellowes.\n\nUndeterred by failures, Vivian again sought election in the 20th century. He was interested in the Deptford constituency, where he had helped Wilfrid Blunt's campaign 15 years earlier. He began to campaign there at the end of 1903 and spoke at a free trade meeting in December, reading letters of support he had received from Winston Churchill and John Dickson-Poynder, MP for Chippenham. Churchill joined the Liberal party in 1904 and Vivian followed him. He was selected as a Liberal candidate to fight the 1906 election, and Churchill spoke in his support at two meetings. Vivian met serious opposition to his candidacy, and received only 726 votes, losing heavily to the Labour Party's C. W. Bowerman.\n\nIn 1908, Vivian looked into standing as a candidate in the Stirling Burghs constituency after the death of the former Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who had held the seat for the Liberals. Vivian again espoused legitimist views in support of restoring the House of Stuart. In the end he did not stand and the seat was won by Arthur Ponsonby.\n\n## Fascist sympathies\n\nIn 1920, Vivian met Benito Mussolini and Gabriele D'Annunzio in Italy and became an admirer of fascism, notably Italian Fascism. In 1926, he wrote of his visits to Mussolini's Italy:\n\n> I find most useful, instead of a passport, is a copy of the first Fascist newspaper, for which I wrote an article in 1920... These fascist syndicates everywhere are not unlike the Soviets, and Fascism is very like Bolshevism in many ways. Except that one means well, and the other not. Fascism is certainly succeeding... All the public services go like clockwork, trains arrive to the tick.\n\nIn May 1929, Vivian and Hugh George de Willmott Newman founded the Royalist International, a group with a stated aim of opposing the spread of Bolshevism and restoring the Italian monarchy, but with a clear pro-fascist agenda. Vivian was General Secretary and editor of the league's publication, the Royalist International Herald. Newman, 24 at the time, went on to be ordained a bishop in the Independent Catholic church and an archbishop in the Catholicate of the West, and was involved in Aleister Crowley's Ordo Templi Orientis. In 1933, Vivian wrote:\n\n> Monarchy...[is] a more satisfactory form of government than the insidious poisons of a plutocracy [and] the distorted democracy of Parliaments... the world's galloping consumption will not be arrested until... Kings forget their ancient animosities to unite in a Royalist International uncontaminated and unhampered by the lying, cowardly, malignant Spirit of the Age.\n\nIn 1936 came Vivian's Fascist Italy, in which he expressed admiration for the Italian fascist regime. It received a scathing review in the Nottingham Journal: \"A facile writer of travel guides... Herbert Vivian must be read as an amusement of a rather grim sort than as an education.... This is a book which need not be taken too seriously, but which may be worth reading with no more attention than is given to works which claim, as this one does not, to be mainly fiction.\" The Dundee Evening Telegraph review noted Vivian \"writes with rapturous enthusiasm. Mussolini is to him a \"saviour\", who \"restored order and glory and pride, cured his country in her calenture, create an imperial future with traditions of ancient Rome\"... Inasmuch as it is a mouthpiece for crude propaganda, Mr. Vivian's book is regrettable.\"\n\n## Political views\n\nVivian's political views varied over his life, embracing at times one-nation Toryism, free-trade liberalism and open fascism. Indeed, he often seemed more interested in the mechanisms of power and power of persuasive political speech than in consistent policies or positions.\n\nDuring a failed campaign for the 1891 Bradford East by-election he wrote:\n\n> I preach fanatically the gospel of individualism according to John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer. The first principle of this gospel is that everyone must be allowed to do whatever he pleases so long as his doing so does not interfere with the liberty of others to do the same. I am a staunch free trader, desiring the abolition of that curse of civilisation, the custom house. I protest against all monopolies, whether exercised by un-wieldy State departments, or by grasping individuals, and I support the claims of all nationalities to the management of their own affairs.\n\nSome of his beliefs were consistent: he held racist views from early days:\n\n> We have already proclaimed ourselves to be hand in glove with a remote island of yellow dwarfs; this policy will doubtless be extended...for every fetish-worshipping savage, for every murderous nigger, for every naked monster who can offer us assistance in our general conspiracy to obtain universal empire.\n\nHe was noted for \"extreme monarchist views\" throughout his life, and became antagonistic to democracy. His 1933 Kings in Waiting – in which he wrote \"Democracy, liberty, and prosperity had been the mirages that had attracted the nations to their shambles\" – was noted for its passionate pro-Monarchist and anti-Democratic stance.\n\nHe was a prominent British Serbophile and an early proponent of a Greater Serbia that encompassed most of the territory of Macedonia.\n\n## Modern perceptions\n\nVivian's books and articles on Serbia remain widely quoted in modern histories of the region. Slobodan Markovich, writing in 2000, describes Servia: A Poor Man's Paradise''' as \"a rather sympathetic account of the Serbian King Alexander and the Serbian Army.... Although biased, the book has an abundance of facts and confirms the extent to which British knowledge on Serbia had accumulated in previous decades.\" Markovich says that Vivian \"among Britons who took part in the creation of the image of Serbia and the Balkans\" was the \"one person [who] should be given a special attention.\" He also put Vivian and anthropologist Edith Durham \"among [the] prominent actors of the 'balkanisation' of the Near East\", who greatly influenced the British perception of the Balkans after the First World War.\"\n\nIn 2013, Servia: The Poor Man's Paradise was described by Radmila Pejic as \"a major contribution to British travel writing about Serbia with its in-depth analysis and rather objective portrayal of the country's political system, religious practices and economic situation.\"\n\nAlthough Vivian's Neo-Jacobite views are now largely forgotten, his 1893 wreath-laying earned him the epithet \"political maverick\" from Smith, who summed up the impact of the event: \"The affair enjoyed publicity out of all proportion to the latter-day significance of the Jacobite cause, which had long been effectively extinct, but as one man's crusade against an aspect of state bureaucracy, it acquired contemporary meaning.\"\n\nMiller and Morelon call him a \"monarchist British historian\" and ascribe his interest in Emperor Charles of Austria to an uncritical admiration of kings.\n\n## Personal life\n\nIn 1892 at the age of 27, Vivian was named as co-respondent in a divorce case. In 1891, he had met Henry Simpson and his wife Maud Mary Simpson in Venice and become a frequent visitor to their home. Henry was an artist and a friend of Whistler. The Simpsons travelled on to Paris, where Mrs Simpson confessed that Vivian had proposed to her. The Simpsons then returned to London and Mrs Simpson left her husband and demanded a divorce, as she and Vivian were living together in Bognor Regis under the assumed names of Mr and Mrs Selwyn. The Simpsons' divorce came in December 1892, one of only 354 granted in England and Wales that year. On 22 June 1893, Vivian married Maud. She pursued her ambition to become an actress and in 1895 she travelled to Holland, where she abandoned Vivian for a Mr Sundt of the Norwegian Legation in Amsterdam. The marriage ended in divorce in 1896.\n\nOn 30 September 1897, Vivian married Olive Walton, daughter of Frederick Walton the inventor of linoleum. Herbert and Olive were well known on the London social scene in the years just after the First World War and appear in Anthony Powell's memoir Infants of the Spring'' throwing a lavish luncheon in honour of Aleister Crowley. Powell notes that their \"marriage did not last long, but was still going at this period.\" Olive kept up a lively correspondence with Powell's father for many years after the divorce.\n\nVivian was made a Knight of the Royal Serbian Order of Takovo in 1902 and a Commander of the Royal Montenegrin Order of Danilo in 1910.\n\nVivian died on 18 April 1940 at Gunwalloe in Cornwall, 17 miles (27 km) from his grandfather's house in St Clement.\n\n## Works\n\n- (published under a pseudonym)\n\nThe following books are commonly attributed to Vivian, but at least one source gives Wilfrid Keppel Honnywill as the author.\n\n- (published anonymously)\n- (published anonymously)", "revid": "1158268780", "description": "English journalist and writer (1865–1940)", "categories": ["1865 births", "1940 deaths", "19th-century British newspaper founders", "19th-century English novelists", "20th-century British journalists", "20th-century British newspaper founders", "20th-century English novelists", "Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge", "British science fiction writers", "English Jacobites", "English fascists", "English journalists", "English travel writers", "Jacobite propagandists", "Liberal Party (UK) parliamentary candidates", "Montenegro–United Kingdom relations", "Neo-Jacobite Revival", "Oscar Wilde", "People educated at Harrow School", "Vivian family"]}
{"id": "186729", "url": null, "title": "Darjeeling", "text": "Darjeeling (/dɑːrˈdʒiːlɪŋ/, , ) is a town and municipality in the northernmost region of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it has an average elevation of 2,045 metres (6,709 ft). To the west of Darjeeling lies the easternmost province of Nepal, to the east the Kingdom of Bhutan, to the north the Indian state of Sikkim, and farther north the Tibet Autonomous Region region of China. Bangladesh lies to the south and southeast, and most of the state of West Bengal lies to the south and southwest, connected to the Darjeeling region by a narrow tract. Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest mountain, rises to the north and is prominently visible on clear days.\n\nIn the early 19th century, during East India Company rule in India, Darjeeling was identified as a potential summer retreat for British officials, soldiers and their families. The narrow mountain ridge was leased from the Kingdom of Sikkim, and eventually annexed to British India. Experimentation with growing tea on the slopes below Darjeeling was highly successful. Thousands of labourers were recruited chiefly from Nepal to clear the forests, build European-style cottages and work in the tea plantations. The widespread deforestation displaced the indigenous peoples. Residential schools were established in and around Darjeeling for the education of children of the domiciled British in India. By the late-19th century, a novel narrow-gauge mountain railway, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, was bringing summer residents into the town and carrying a freight of tea out for export to the world. After India's independence in 1947, as the British left Darjeeling, its cottages were purchased by wealthy Indians from the plains and its tea plantations by out-of-town Indian business owners and conglomerates.\n\nDarjeeling's population today is constituted largely of the descendants of the indigenous and immigrant labourers that were employed in the original development of the town. Although their common language, the Nepali language, has been given official recognition at the state and federal levels in India, the recognition has created little meaningful employment for the language's speakers nor has it increased their ability to have a significantly greater say in their political affairs. The tea industry and tourism are the mainstays of the town's economy. Deforestation in the region after India's independence has caused environmental damage, affecting the perennial springs that supply the town's water. The population of Darjeeling meanwhile has exploded over the years, and unregulated construction, traffic congestion and water shortages are common. Many young locals, educated in government schools, have taken to migrating out for the lack of jobs matching their skills. Like out-migrants from other regions of northeastern India, they have been subjected to discrimination and racism in some Indian cities.\n\nDarjeeling's culture is highly cosmopolitan—a result of diverse ethnic groups intermixing and evolving away from their historical roots. The region's indigenous cuisine is rich in fermented foods and beverages. Tourists have flocked to Darjeeling since the mid-19th century. In 1999, after an international campaign for its support, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. In 2005, Darjeeling tea was given geographical indication by the World Trade Organization as much for the protection of the brand as for the development of the region that produces it.\n\n## Toponymy\n\nAt the time of the first British arrival, Darjeeling was known among its Lepcha inhabitants as Dorje-ling, or the \"Place of the Thunderbolt.\" According to the Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names, Darjeeling is derived from the Tibetan Dorje ling or Dorje-glin, meaning \"Land of Dorje,\" i.e. of the thunderbolt, the weapon of the Hindu god Indra.\n\n## History\n\n### 1780 to 1835\n\nDarjeeling lies between the Mechi and Teesta rivers in the Eastern Himalayas. In the 18th century, it was part of a boundary region that had stirred ambitions and insecurities in several South Asian states. For the greater part of the century, the Chogyal-ruler of the northern Kingdom of Sikkim had asserted possession of this territory. In the closing decades, the Gurkha kingdom of Nepal expanded eastwards to bring Darjeeling into its territory. Its army stopped short of the Teesta, beyond which at the time lay the Kingdom of Bhutan.\n\nThe English East India Company began to show an interest in the Darjeeling hills in the early 19th century. At the time Darjeeling's indigenous population largely consisted of the Lepcha and Limbu peoples. The Company's interference in territorial matters began in the aftermath of its army's victory over the Gurkhas in the Anglo-Nepalese War. Fought between 1814 and 1816, the war concluded with two treaties, the Treaty of Sugauli and the Treaty of Titalia, under which Nepal was required to return the Darjeeling territory to Sikkim.\n\nIn 1829, two East India Company officials, Captain George Lloyd and J. W. Grant, en route to resolving a boundary dispute between Nepal and Sikkim, passed a crescent-shaped mountain ridge which they fancied excellent for a sanitorium for the British, or a resort for sheltering and recuperating from the heat of India's plains. Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India, to whom Lloyd communicated his notion, concurred, recommending a small presence of the army in addition for monitoring the frontier.\n\n### 1835–1857: East India Company rule\n\nTaking the ambition forward, in 1835 the East India Company negotiated the lease of a 40 by 10 kilometres (24 mi × 6 mi) strip of land in a grant deed from the Chogyal. By the end of 1838, sappers from the army were readied for clearing the woods and construction planned in earnest after the monsoon rains. The following year, Archibald Campbell, a physician, was made \"superintendent\" of Darjeeling, and two public buildings, a hotel and a courthouse were raised. Soon, work had begun on bungalows that conformed to British tastes.\n\nTurning Darjeeling into a resort required many more workers than were available in the scattered local populations. The British attracted workers from the neighbouring kingdoms, chiefly from Nepal but also from Sikkim and Bhutan. They did so by offering regular wages and lodgings, a contrast to the burdensome tax and forced labour regimens common in those kingdoms at the time. Tens of thousands arrived in Darjeeling. Not long after the Darjeeling Hill Cart Road was built in Northern Bengal, connecting Siliguri at the base of the Himalayan foothills to Darjeeling.\n\nIn 1833 the East India Company lost its monopoly rights in the tea trade with China. A plan was prepared for growing tea in India. Superintendent Campbell began experimentation in 1840 in Darjeeling which soon proved successful. European planters and sponsors acquired large stretches of the surrounding hillside and converted them to plantations, called tea gardens. Existing tracks and paths in the hills were improved, renamed as roads, and connected to the Hill Cart Road. The botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, who visited Darjeeling in the 1840s, noted that carts and pack animals on these roads were bringing fruit and produce from Nepal, wool and salt from Tibet, and labourers looking for work from just about everywhere.\n\nThe labour migrations created a burgeoning hostility between the East India Company and the neighbouring Himalayan kingdoms. By 1849 the hostility came to a head. Campbell and Hooker were allegedly kidnapped. Despite the two being released without harm, the British exploited the incident to annex some 1,700 square kilometres (640 sq mi) of territory between the Mechi and the Teesta rivers from Sikkim.\n\nDarjeeling became a municipality in 1850. In the span of 15 years, this Himalayan tract had become a hill station, an official retreat for British administrators in a hilly, temperate, region of India. Hill stations, such as Simla (summer capital of the British Indian Empire), Ooty (summer capital of the Madras Presidency), and Nainital (summer capital of the North-Western Provinces) were all established between 1819 and the 1840s, a period during which the rule of the East India Company had spread to the greater part of the Indian subcontinent and the British felt confident about planning them. Darjeeling later became the summer capital of the Bengal Presidency.\n\n### 1858–1947: British Raj\n\nFrom 1850 to 1870 the tea industry in Darjeeling grew to 56 tea gardens employing some 8,000 labourers. The tea gardens' security forces kept a close watch on the labourers and used coercion when necessary to maintain intensive production. The labourers' disparate cultural and ethnic backgrounds and the tea gardens' commonly remote locations ensured the absence of worker mobilization. By the turn of the 20th century, 100 tea gardens employed an estimated 64,000 workers, and more than five million pound sterling were invested in Darjeeling tea. The widespread deforestation caused by the tea industry drastically changed the lives of the region's forest dwellers, who were either forced to relocate to other forests or become employed in their former habitat in new colonial occupations. To the mix of the forest dwellers recruited, more labourers joined from across the Himalayas. They communicated with each other in the Nepali language. Later the language, and their customs and traditions would create the distinctive ethnicity of Darjeeling, called Indian Gorkha.\n\nBy the last decades of the 19th century, large numbers of administrative officials of the imperial and British Raj provincial governments had begun to travel to hill stations during the summers. Commerce in the stations had grown as had the trade with the plains. A train service to Darjeeling was announced in 1872. By 1878 trains could take summer residents from Calcutta, the capital of the British Indian Empire, to Siliguri at the base of the Darjeeling hills. Thereafter, Tonga horse-carriages were required to cover the last stretch on the Hill Cart Road. Ascending some 1,900-metre (6,300 ft), the journey required stopping at \"halting barracks\", or stables for feeding or changing the horses. By 1880, railway tracks were being aligned along the Hill Cart Road, and the East Indian Railway Company Jamalpur Locomotive Workshop had begun to build steam locomotives for the route. Miniature steam engines made by Sharp, Stewart and Company of Manchester, were employed for pulling the train on a narrow gauge of two feet. The train service to Darjeeling was opened in July 1881. After cresting at the Ghoom railway station at 2,300-metre (7,500 ft) above sea level, the train made a descent to Darjeeling. Darjeeling was now within a day's travel from Calcutta.\n\nEducation became another aspect of Darjeeling's notability by the turn of the 20th century. After the Charter Act of 1833, which allowed unrestricted immigration, British women had begun to arrive in India in significantly more numbers than before. Hill stations became popular summer destinations for women and children as colonial physicians recommended them for improved maternal and infant health. The British soon began to consider hill stations promising sites for primary and secondary education. St Paul's, an Anglican boys' school in Calcutta, was moved to Darjeeling in 1864. The Catholic Church opened St Joseph's College for boys in Darjeeling in 1888. For girls, the Loreto Convent had already been established during Company rule; the Calcutta Christian Schools Society established the Queen's Hill School in Darjeeling in 1895. Anglo-Indians (of mixed British and Indian ancestry) were discouraged from attending the better-known schools and Indians were almost always prohibited until after World War I.\n\nIn 1945, as the British Raj was drawing towards a close, the Nepalese-speaking Indian Gorkha residents of Darjeeling had not been granted rights as British Indian subjects. These residents were at the bottom of the economic ladder, and their physical appearance was now the occasional object of racism by Indians from the plains. The 1941 census had shown that the Gorkha in Darjeeling constituted 86% of the population. They made up 96% of the labour force in the tea gardens. Many had been recruited to fight for the British in the Second World War, but the British had been reluctant to displease the governments of Nepal and the Kingdom of Sikkim whose feudal labour regimes many original migrants had sought to escape.\n\n### 1947 onwards: independent India\n\nAfter the partition of India in 1947, Darjeeling became a part of the new province of West Bengal in the Dominion of India, and in 1950, of the state of West Bengal in the Republic of India. A British exodus from Darjeeling quickly followed. Their cottages were quickly purchased by the Indian upper classes from the plains who enrolled their children in the town's many schools. These actions created social and economic tensions with the Indian Gorkha population and further marginalised the latter. Their lack of economic development, caused by a hierarchal economic system set up by the British, continued in some respects in the immediate decades after 1947. The Indian nationalism that emerged seemed to highlight the unclear position of the Indian Nepalis in the newly independent nation. The division of India into states comprising the regions of its different spoken languages had allowed a relatively large proportion of the educated speakers of these languages to find employment in the government-owned enterprises. In the instance of the Gorkhas, the federal and state governments refused to accept their requests for their own Nepali-speaking state in the northern regions of Bengal. Eventually, the demands for autonomy were downsized to calls for the recognition of the Nepali language for official state business in Nepali-speaking regions of Bengal. This was accepted in the West Bengal Official Language Act, 1961.\n\nDarjeeling had a sizeable community of Sherpas, an ethnic group, originally from eastern Tibet whose ancestors had moved to some villages in Nepal below Mount Everest. Sherpas had come to Darjeeling in the second half of the 19th century as seasonal labourers looking for work in road-building. As mountaineering in the Himalayas had gained popularity and Nepal was closed to foreigners, many Western mountaineers and enthusiasts came to Darjeeling to plan their Himalayan expeditions. The Sherpas stood out for their exceptional physical ability as porters. These physical abilities and their fitness elicited visits to Darjeeling by European biochemists in the early 1900s. Among the most famous Sherpas who moved to Darjeeling were Ang Tharkay and Tenzing Norgay. On 29 May 1953, Tenzing and Edmund Hillary became the first two humans to stand atop Mount Everest, vaulting both to instant stardom worldwide. The prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, took Tenzing under his wing. Tenzing became the first field director of the Himalayan Mountaineering Institute after it was established in Darjeeling in November 1954\n\nA trickle of immigrants from Tibet proper into Darjeeling had begun in the second half of the 19th century. Wealthy Tibetan aristocrats had sent their children to Darjeeling's schools, and some went on to settle in the Darjeeling area. After the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1950–1951, many Tibetans emigrated to India, with some settling in the Darjeeling area, including the 14th Dalai Lama's older brother Gyalo Thondup. After the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama himself fled to exile in India, and tens of thousands of Tibetan refugees poured in after him, with many finding refuge in the Darjeeling–Kalimpong area. A Tibetan Refugee Self Help Centre was established in Darjeeling in 1959.\n\nIn May 1975, the Kingdom of Sikkim to the north of Darjeeling was absorbed into the Republic of India through a referendum. A month thereafter, Sikkim, in which nearly two-thirds of the populace spoke Nepali, was made a state of India. It was not lost on the Gorkhas of the Darjeeling region that there were many more speakers of Nepali in the Gorkha districts of northern Bengal, and their calls for autonomy had borne no fruit. The Government of India, moreover, had been reluctant to recognise Nepali as an official language in the Constitution of India. Slights delivered by senior Indian leadership around this issue—Morarji Desai, a former prime minister calling Nepali a foreign language, and Vallabhbhai Patel, a former deputy prime minister, describing the Gorkhas as disloyal and entertaining \"Mongoloid prejudices\"—were all remembered. A decade later, during Rajiv Gandhi's prime ministership, small regions in Assam to the east of Darjeeling, which had been riven by violent ethnic separatism, were granted statehood. All these factors played into creating a militant mood among the Gorkhas for statehood and brought the Gorkhaland movement to the forefront. It led to the founding of the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) under the leadership of Subhas Ghising. Agitation for a separate state in Darjeeling included violent protests, and fighting between the disparate militant groups. The agitation ceased after an agreement was reached between the government and the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF). It resulted in the establishment of an elected body in 1988, the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC), which received some autonomy to govern the district.\n\nIn 1992, the Nepali language was recognized officially at the federal level in India by inclusion in the Indian Constitution. Though Darjeeling became peaceful, the issue of a separate state lingered. Agitation for a new state again erupted in 2008, led by the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM). In July 2011, a pact was signed between GJM, the state and national governments which included an elected Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA), with limited autonomy within the state of West Bengal. It evoked little enthusiasm on the streets. In 2013, fresh agitation broke out in Darjeeling after Telangana, a region in southern India was granted statehood. Four years later, more agitation caused several months of violence, food shortages, and strikes in Darjeeling but resulted in the Morcha splitting into factions. In 2017, Mamata Banerjee, the West Bengal chief minister, appointed a moderate Morcha politician to leadership in a reconstituted GTA, marginalizing and eventually ousting the founder of the movement, Bimal Gurung.\n\n## Geography and geology\n\nThe Darjeeling hills (formally Darjeeling Himalayan hill region) comprise parts of Darjeeling district and all of Kalimpong district; specifically, they contain: Darjeeling Sadar subdivision, Kalimpong subdivision and Kurseong subdivision. Darjeeling town lies in the Sadar subdivision. It is located at an average elevation of 2,045 m (6,709 ft) on the Darjeeling–Jalapahar range which runs south to north starting at Ghum (Map 1). The range is Y-shaped with its base resting at Katapahar and Jalapahar and two arms diverging north of the Observatory Hill. The north-eastern arm dips swiftly and ends in the Lebong spur, while the north-western arm slopes gently, passing through North Point, and ends in the valley near the Tukver Tea Estate. Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest peak at 8,598 m (28,209 ft), which lies 74.4 kilometres (46.2 mi) to the north, is the most prominent mountain visible.\n\nThe Darjeeling hills have been formed by accumulations of folds, faults and tangential thrusts caused by a compression in the north–south direction as the Indian tectonic plate has subducted under the Eurasian plate. Their physical composition varies from unaltered sedimentary rocks in the southern regions to several types of metamorphic rock and some intrusive rocks in the middle and northern, suggesting upward intrusion of the earth's mantle. The collective process has sheared, folded, crushed together, fractured and jointed the rocks, reducing their strength and making them vulnerable to water percolating down their crevices and causing pore water pressure to build up. Phyllites and schists are found in the hills around Kalimpong, which lies to the east, and gneiss predominates the western regions in which Darjeeling lies.\n\nTwo studies (1990 and 2019) recorded that landslides were a serious concern in the area. Most are triggered by excessive rainfall, earthquakes, and quick erosion caused by torrents. They are accelerated by extensive deforestation, defective drainage, poorly built revetments and the presence of steep slopes that have been undercut to make shelves for paths, roads, and houses. Debris flows along existing gullies can sometimes bring along large boulders and cause damage to roads; in 1968, during a catastrophic rainstorm, the 56 kilometres (35 mi) Darjeeling–Siliguri road was cut in 92 places by debris flows.\n\nTeesta, the major river of the Darjeeling region, rises at 6,300 metres (20,700 ft) from a glacier in Sikkim, and flows south, at first meeting the Rangpo river and then the Rangeet before exiting the hills and eventually joining the Brahmaputra river in Bangladesh. The flow rate of the Teesta is 1,500 cubic metres (53,000 cu ft) per second during the summer monsoon; it had had major floods in 1950 and 1968.\n\nThe continual tectonic activity of Darjeeling's ancient past can be inferred from the surrounding landscape in such features as terraces that dip in their middle as a result of earlier horizontal pressure. Eroded fault scarps, or steps, observed in the landscape were caused by vertical slips in the faults below. Alluvial fans at different heights signify a succession of previous rivers that dried up and spread their silt outwards as their beds were raised by the uplift. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, Darjeeling town falls under seismic zone-IV (on a scale of I to V, in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes). A study published in 2018 found that residents of Darjeeling's outer areas, which are lower-income and lower-lying, worried about catastrophic loss during an earthquake. The April 2015 Nepal earthquake was felt in Darjeeling, and these residents feared that in the instance of a major earthquake, the unplanned upper-level construction could very well give way and tumble down on them.\n\n## Climate and environment\n\n### Climate\n\nDarjeeling has a temperate subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification: Cwb). The average annual precipitation in Darjeeling is approximately 3,100 mm (120 in). Eighty percent of the annual rainfall takes place between the months of June and September, due to the monsoon of South Asia. The \"June–May ratio,\" or the percentage by which the rain increases from May to June, is 2.6 or 260%. In contrast, just 3% of the annual rainfall takes place between December and March. Darjeeling's altitude—which is greater than some other regions of the Eastern Himalayas at the same latitude (27° N), such as the Assam hills—and its rarified air causes its UV radiation levels to be correspondingly higher. Its mean monthly UV radiance is approximately 4500 microwatts per square cm per day during the peak months of May, June, and July. It is 50% higher than the Assam hills to the east, whose altitude is 170 metres (560 ft).\n\n### Environment\n\nFrom the beginning of the twentieth century, Darjeeling's average temperature has increased by 4 °C, which is twice the world's average, and the annual averages of its daily maximum and minimum temperatures have increased by greater margins. During the same period, relative humidity has decreased by 7%, and rainfall by 300 millimetres (0.98 ft) annually. For its water the Darjeeling municipality and the surrounding hills depend to a large extent on perennial or seasonal jhora springs (see Map 1), especially during the pre-monsoon months from February to May. The Senchal Lakes, two artificial reservoirs built in 1910 and 1932 in a forested high-altitude area to the southeast (see Map 2), which are filled with water from a surrounding catchment area during the monsoon months, have a greatly reduced supply, as of 2016. Darjeeling's explosive population growth in the period 1961–2011, and extensive deforestation even within the protected catchment area for the lakes, have caused many springs to have vastly reduced yields during the dry months from February to May. Of the 26 springs that had once fed the lakes, 12 have been affected. Forests and pastures have shrunk from 78% in 1900 to 38% in 2000, and cultivated land, which contributes to soil erosion, has correspondingly increased during the same time from 20% to 44%. By 2006, land records in Darjeeling showed that foodgrain-producing farmland had decreased proportionally, caused by accelerated levels of urbanisation and by subsistence farming giving way to commercial cropping, especially of tea. In 2016, acid rain, which can be caused by air pollution and can in turn damage forests, was observed in the Eastern Himalayas; the pH value in Darjeeling was measured at 4.2. A 2022 article quoting another 2016 study reported a pH value of 5.0±0.825 in the rainwater.\n\nAccording to a 2014 study, the influx of the excess population in the tea plantations around Darjeeling into \"marginal areas of town—on backfill, slopes, septic tanks, and jhorās (springs)—has strapped the town’s colonial-era infrastructure. Despite building codes that prohibit buildings taller than three stories, the market for cheap housing in Darjeeling inspires developers to go skyward, often as many as eight stories. Hastily built apartment houses ... are falling into the jhorās and sliding down the mountainside.\"\n\n## Flora and fauna\n\nDarjeeling is a part of the Eastern Himalayan zoo-geographic zone. Flora around Darjeeling comprises sal, oak, semi-evergreen, temperate and alpine forests. Dense evergreen forests of sal and oak lie around the town, where a wide variety of rare orchids are found. The Lloyd's Botanical Garden preserves common and rare species of plants, while the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park specialises in conserving and breeding endangered Himalayan species. The town of Darjeeling and surrounding region face deforestation due to increasing demand for wood fuel and timber, as well as air pollution from increasing vehicular traffic.\n\nForests and wildlife in the district are managed and protected by the Divisional Forest Officer of the Territorial and Wildlife wing of the West Bengal Forest Department. The fauna found in Darjeeling includes several species of ducks, teals, plovers and gulls that pass Darjeeling while migrating to and from Tibet. Small mammals found in the region include civets (such as small and large Indian civets, masked palm civet, spotted linsang and binturong), mongooses (such as Indian grey mongoose and crab-eating mongoose) and badgers (such as Burmese ferret-badger and greater hog badger). Other carnivores found in the area include Himalayan black bear and red panda. A conservation centre for red pandas opened at Darjeeling Zoo in 2014, building on a prior captive breeding program; this Species Survival Plan had about 25 red pandas by 2016. The Himalayan newt Tylotriton verrucosus, one of two salamander species occurring in India, is found in wetlands in the vicinity. The Himalayan relict dragonfly Epiophlebia laidlawi, one of just four species in the family Epiophlebiidae, was first described from the region.\n\n## Demographics\n\nThe Indian decennial census of 2011 (the last for which there is processed data) recorded the population of the Darjeeling municipality to be 118,805 individuals. Of these, 59,618 were females and 59,187 were males, yielding a gender ratio of 1007 females for every 1000 males. The population density of the municipality was 15,990 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (41,000 per square mile). The literacy rate was 93.9%—the female literacy rate was 91.3% and the male was 96.4%. Among groups whose historical disadvantages have been recognized by the Constitution of India and designated for amelioration in subsequent commissions and programmes, the scheduled tribes of Darjeeling town constituted approximately 22.4% of the population, and the scheduled castes 7.7%. The work participation rate was 34.4%. The number of people living in slums was 25,026 individuals (which was 21.1% of the population).\n\nDarjeeling began to be an \"administrative\" town in independent India after being made the headquarters of Darjeeling district in 1947. During the period 1961–2011, the town's population increased at an accelerated rate (Figure 1). An \"aspirational middle class\" arose, comprising families of professionals in the administration, and retail and service industries.\n\n\"Indian Gorkha\" is a term that denotes the Nepali-speaking people of northeastern India, as distinct from the Nepali-speaking inhabitants of Nepal. As of 2016, the population of Darjeeling was predominantly Indian Gorkha. There were also smaller numbers of Lepchas, Bhutias, Tibetans, Bengalis, Marwaris and Biharis. In the 2011 census, between them they practised Hinduism (66.5%), Buddhism (23.9%), Christianity (5.1%) and Islam (3.9%). The Lepchas were considered the main indigenous community of the region; their original religion was a form of animism. The Nepali community was a complex mix of numerous castes and ethnic groups, with many roots in tribal and animist traditions. The accelerated growth of the town's population and the tightly packed living conditions in which different ethnicities mixed created syncretic cultures in Darjeeling which evolved away from their historical roots.\n\nAccording to a 2014 study, although the demand for labour in the tea estates surrounding Darjeeling had stayed roughly constant since 1910, the population of Nepali-speaking workers and their families in the tea estates had grown throughout. As the excess population migrated up to Darjeeling in search of jobs and housing, their cause was championed by the Gorkhaland movement in the 1980s; this had the effect of making a considerable number of non-Gorkha families leave their homes in Darjeeling.\n\nSeasonal migration out of Darjeeling has long been a local feature, especially among the lower-income groups; substantial migration among middle-class youth is a 21st-century occurrence. Many educated young people in Darjeeling have begun to migrate out because the growth of jobs in the area has not kept pace with the numbers of people with tertiary degrees. For both groups of migrants, favoured destinations fall into three groups:\n\n- neighbouring Gangtok in Sikkim, and Siliguri in North Bengal at the base of the Darjeeling hills;\n- the large bustling cities of Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore, and Mumbai; and\n- Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, where there is a linguistic culture in which they feel comfortable. Those looking for immediate employment commonly work in call centres, beauty parlours, and dumpling stands.\n\nThose looking for eventual employment in professional careers pursue higher education. Both groups have experienced racism and economic and social discrimination in India's big cities, caused by their distinctive, more East Asian, physical appearance.\n\n## Governance\n\nThe Darjeeling Municipality is one of the oldest in India, established on 1 July 1850, with ten wards. It was governed by commissioners who were nominated until 1916, then elected until 1932, and nominated again until 1947. After India's independence that year, the commissioners continued to be appointed until 1964, when the first election was held. It was overturned by a court injunction; further elections and continual interference by West Bengal's state government became the prevalent state of affairs. As of 2021, the municipality is governed by a board of councillors headed by a chairperson and a vice chairperson. The number of wards in the municipality increased to 32 in 1988. Wards represent electoral subdivisions; in 2017, 32 councillors were elected, one from each ward. The wards were reorganized and bifurcated in 2011.\n\nThe area of the town (municipality) was reduced from 10.75 square kilometres (4.15 sq mi) to 7.43 square kilometres (2.87 sq mi) in 2011 after bifurcation. By 2016, the municipality was surrounded by tea gardens and forestry department land and had minimal room for expansion.\n\nIn 2021 the town had approximately 22,000 households and 350 hotels and restaurants. That same year the following statistics were collected: the municipality considered wards 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, and 25 to be the core areas; most businesses, hotels, restaurants, and educational institutions were located in these wards and they were better connected to municipal electricity and water; wards 10, 15, 20 and areas of ward 30 were the most developed, whereas wards 1, 2, 13, 14, 27, 31, and 32 were the most deprived; and the latter group of wards contained 37 slums in which 23% of the population of Darjeeling resided.\n\nIn 1988, the Gorkha-dominated hill areas of Darjeeling district were given an autonomous form of governance under the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC). In 2012, the DGHC was replaced by a similar body called the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA). The elected members of GTA manage certain affairs of the hills, including education, industry and land revenue; they cannot legislate or levy taxes. The Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) held power in the municipality until March 2022, when it was defeated by the newly-formed Hamro Party.\n\nDarjeeling town is within the Darjeeling Assembly constituency that elects one member of West Bengal Legislative Assembly in state legislative elections every five years. The town is part of the Darjeeling parliamentary constituency that elects one member for the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India's bicameral Parliament.\n\n## Economy\n\nA 2017 study described the Darjeeling area as entirely dependent on the production of tea and the inflow of tourists to create employment.\n\n### Tea\n\nDarjeeling tea is produced on plantations in which a few leaves on each tea bush are plucked by women. During the tea bush's dormancy period in the short winter season, it is pruned by the women to stimulate growth the following season. Unlike China, where the tea bush grew into a tree, the early British planters devised these means to monocrop tea in tightly packed hedges on vast estates. In the plantation factories, men operate machines to ferment, dry, and package the normally short-lived green tea leaves.\n\nAfter India's independence in 1947, many of Darjeeling's governmental and economic arrangements remained unchanged. When British planters auctioned off their estates, they were bought by Indians from the plains or corporations from elsewhere in India. Darjeeling's labour force had long consisted of workers recruited from Nepal. Mid-19th-century British ethnologists had commended Nepalese for their step farming and other forms of settled agriculture in the Himalayan foothills. They were contrasted with Darjeeling's native population of the Lepcha at the time of British annexation, who practised \"shifting agriculture\". Planters believed that if allotted a house and a yard in which to grow vegetables and fruit, the Nepalis would be more inclined to stay. The arrangement, which lasted during the colonial period, was formalized in independent India's Plantations Labour Act, 1951. As of 2017, workers maintain their two or three-bedroom homes which they do not own, become attached to their upkeep, and eventually hope to retire in them when an adult child who also works on the plantation inherits the house.\n\nIn 2017, the average basic daily wage (that is, without employee benefits) of a Darjeeling tea garden worker was Rupees 144.60 () per day. With benefits, it was Rupees 277.10 () per day. Comparatively, Darjeeling's tea estate workers were paid less in 2017 than tea estate workers in several southern Indian states. The auction price of Darjeeling tea for 2017 was comparatively higher.\n\nA 2017 study found that some 60% of the plantation labour jobs in the Darjeeling area were held by women. The protection and economic development of the tea labour force was one of the motivations for India's enactment of the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. According to a 2017 study, \"India has pursued the recognition of iconic brands, not only to create market share but also to recognise the value of the GI system to encourage development in poor, rural regions with high unemployment rates. This is consistent with the broad WTO objective to encourage trade liberalisation in developing countries to reduce poverty.\" Darjeeling tea was given GI recognition in Europe in spite of some European Union member nations objecting to the use of the indication for blended tea. It was recognized in US Geographical Indication mark, \"DARJEELING, Registration No. 1,632,726.\"\n\nTea is produced in the Darjeeling hills and farther below in two different forms. Orthodox tea looks like the twisted and dried version of the green leaves on the bushes. The Darjeeling sub-division of the Darjeeling hills had 46 tea estates in 2017, producing mostly orthodox tea. This is commonly exported and is some of the world's most expensive. In the crush, tear, curl, or CTC version, which is commonly grown in the Kurseong sub-division (with 29 tea estates), and the Kalimpong (with 6), the tea leaves are mechanically manipulated, fired, and turned into tiny hard pellets that look like instant coffee. Cheaply available, and boiled with milk and sugar, when CTC tea was introduced into the Indian market in the early 1950s, it turned India into a nation of tea drinkers.\n\nThe area of cultivation of Darjeeling tea increased from 16,569 hectares (in 1951) to a high of 20,065 (in 1990) and dropped to 17,820 (in 2014) according to a 2021 study. There were 99 tea estates in 1961; these increased until 1990 (when 102 were recorded) but dropped to 83 by 1995 and to 81 by 2014. The 20% drop from 1990 to 1995 was attributed in the study to India's economic liberalisation which came into force in the very early 1990s. A 2017 study similarly reported the Indian tea industry to have been adversely affected by price drops after India's economic liberalisation in the 1990s. Darjeeling tea garden owners invested their surpluses in more profitable industries elsewhere, causing a decline in productivity in the local tea industry. The Tea Board of India estimated 7,010,000 kilograms (15,450,000 lb) of Darjeeling tea was produced in 2021; this constitutes about 0.5% of total 1,343,060,000 kilograms (2.96094×10<sup>9</sup> lb) produced in India.\n\n### Tourism\n\nDarjeeling has two peak tourism seasons, September to November and April to May. A 2014 study suggested that domestic tourism is the foundation of the town's vacation business. The Chowrasta is a popular shopping and gathering area where a tourist might get their picture taken dressed in colourful and rustic local clothes. The tea plantations below are particularly visited by foreign tourists. Old bungalows in some plantations have been converted to deluxe lodgings in which rooms rent out dearly by any global standard. Some tourists hold dear the escape to a peaceful, unspoilt, and picturesque landscape evoked in Satyajit Ray's 1962-film Kanchenjungha.\n\nDarjeeling had become an important tourist destination as early as 1860. Since India's economic liberalisation in 1991, tourism in Darjeeling has become cheaper, and Darjeeling, once considered a luxury destination, has become accessible to mass tourism. A 2016 study recorded the tourist influx into Darjeeling town between 2009 and 2014 as ranging from a low of 243,255 individuals in the 2010–2011 season to a high of 488,675 in 2012–2013; the large majority were domestic tourists, with foreign tourists never comprising more than 35,000 annual visitors.\n\nDarjeeling can be reached by the narrow-gauge Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (DHR) which travels a route 88 km (55 mi) long from Siliguri. Pulled by steam locomotives, it moves at speeds of between 20 kilometres (12 mi) and 25 kilometres (16 mi) per hour. Although the service was begun in the 19th century to move humans and freight efficiently, its primary clients today are tourists who are availing themselves of the opportunity to experience the mobilities of travel of a bygone era. After an international and national campaign for its support, the railway was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in December 1999 at the 23rd Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee held in Morocco. In Notes on Defining the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway: World Heritage Property, Unpublished manuscript. The DHR Archive, Kurseong, 2005, K. Weise had written:\n\n> The railway begins on the plains of West Bengal and soon begins climbing through a remnant of lowland jungle, including stands of teak. As the railway climbs, so the flora changes and its upper sections are dominated by enormous Himalayan pines, which in misty weather give a surreal quality to the landscape. It frequently hugs the ages of hillsides with drops, often of thousands of feet, to the plains and valleys below. Towering over the entire scene is the perennially snow-covered bulk of Kanchenjungha. ... From Kurseong the railway offers frequent views of this stupendous mountain, which by Ghoom dominates the entire landscape.\n\nIn a 1999 study, it was thought the tourist influx into Darjeeling had been adversely affected by the political instability in the region, including agitations in the 1980s. According to a 2018 study, tourism in Darjeeling is limited to a small area of the town so its effect on local employment is inadequate for alleviating Darjeeling's high unemployment rate. According to the author, \"The majority of the employees and almost all of the top ranking officers in West Bengal Tourism Development Corporation are Bengalis; locals generally get employed as photographers, drivers, and guides.\"\n\n## Utilities\n\nThe chief catchment area for Darjeeling municipality's water is the Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary, located approximately 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) to the southeast, covering an area of 37.97 square kilometres (14.66 sq mi) and lying between 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) and 2,600 metres (8,500 ft) in altitude. Natural springs in the sanctuary, not all perennial, are the main source of the water supply. The steep slopes of the surrounding ridges (at inclines of between 20° and 48°) can lead to high surface run-off, subsequent absorption, and collection of water in partially confined spaces. Upon reaching a critical volume, this groundwater can surge out as seasonal springs. Water collected from 26 perennial and seasonal springs is routed through stone conduits to the Senchal Lakes (Map 2) constructed in 1910 and 1932. From Senchal the water is piped to the town after purification at a filtration plant in Jorebungalow. There are a combined 35 kilometres (22 mi) of pipes transporting water from Senchal to Darjeeling, and a further 83 kilometres (52 mi) in the water distribution system within Darjeeling. In the months before the monsoon during which water in the Senchal lakes is reduced, it is augmented by pumping water electrically from another reservoir located near Khong Khola.\n\nA 2012 report of the Darjeeling Municipality Waterworks Department stated that from the 1930s little or no maintenance had been undertaken on the water pipeline from Senchal. Engineers in the department suggested that there might be up to 35% transmission loss, and more within Darjeeling. Once in Darjeeling, the water is distributed along the colonial pattern, first serving more expensive and sought-after uphill neighbourhoods and then the low-income downhill ones, which have more restricted access to the supply. The system was designed to serve a population of up to 20,000 individuals. Between 1911 and 2011, there had been a six-fold increase in the population of the municipality, not including the large number of transients such as students, migrant workers, and tourists (see Figure 1). Increasing demand has led to a worsening shortfall in the water supply. As a result, many residents have to purchase water from private vendors who either supply it in water tankers or in hand-pushed carts; they sometimes collect the water from the local jhora or springs. (see Map 1). Larger private businesses are involved in supplying households but do so at a substantially higher cost.\n\nAs of 2020, every day 30 metric tonnes of solid waste are generated in Darjeeling, and during the peak tourist seasons, the amount goes up to 50 metric tonnes. Bulk waste, which is chiefly produced in residential areas, markets and hotels, is deposited in common dumping areas from which it is taken in tractor-trailers to dumping grounds. Open dumping, which is the disposal of waste in sites not designed for waste management, is commonly practiced, and has created economic and social tensions in Darjeeling.\n\nIn 1897 Darjeeling became the first town in India to be supplied by hydroelectricity, which was generated at the nearby Sidrapong Hydel Power Station; it was primarily for use in street lighting and private houses. Today, electricity is supplied by the West Bengal State Electricity Board from other locations.\n\n## Transport\n\nDarjeeling has two major arterial roads: Hill Cart Road—which is a continuation of National Highway 110 connecting Siliguri at the base of the Darjeeling hills to Darjeeling—and Lebong Cart Road (see Map 1). The average width of Darjeeling's roads in 2018 was between 6 metres (20 ft) and 7 metres (23 ft). According to a Darjeeling Municipality report of 2008, a little over half (55%) of Darjeeling's roads were both metalled (paved with asphalt, or bitumen) and motorable; the rest were too narrow to admit traffic whether concrete roads or unpaved. There were three parking areas that were not located on the street and 13 on-street. Illegal parking along narrow roads has created congestion for both pedestrians and wheeled transport.\n\nAs of 2018, Darjeeling had no public transport system of buses. Less than one in 20 residents owned any form of vehicular transport, two-wheeled or four. For both locals and tourists motorized travel was limited to six- or eight-seater paratransit taxis that have no set routes or timetables. Passengers embark and disembark in the central shopping district of the town, making the area both congested and polluted. In 2015, in an attempt to tackle the pollution, the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA), which governs the district, introduced three battery-powered street-legal golf-cart-taxis on a trial basis. The taxis had cost approximately Rupees 36 lakh (or \\$14,670 in the 2015 exchange rate) per vehicle. Although the vehicles were factory-designed for a battery life of 60 kilometres (37 mi) before requiring a recharge, their batteries were found to run out in 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). Chalking up the disparity to the challenges of Darjeeling's steep streets, and the lack of mechanics to correct the malfunction, the administration withdrew the vehicles from the streets in 2016.\n\nDarjeeling can be reached by motorized vehicles on National Highway 110, from Siliguri, 77 km (48 mi) away. Darjeeling has road connections with Bagdogra, Gangtok and Kathmandu and the neighbouring towns of Kurseong and Kalimpong. However, road and railway communications often get disrupted in the monsoons because of landslides. The nearest airport is Bagdogra Airport, located 90 km (56 mi) from Darjeeling.\n\n## Culture\n\nThe culture of Darjeeling is diverse and includes a variety of indigenous practices and festivals; it has a regional distinctness from the rest of India. Mixing and intermarriage between ethnic groups have led to hybrid cultural forms and practices.\n\nMajor festivals are Dashain (Vijayadashami), Tihar (Diwali), Holi, Lakshmi Puja, Maghe Sankranti, Losar, Buddha Jayanti, and Christmas. Tibetan Buddhism is followed by some ethnic groups such as Tibetans, Lepchas, Bhutias, Sherpas, Yolmos, Gurungs, and Tamangs; their common festivals are the Tibetan new year festival Losar, Saga Dawa and Tendong Lho Rumfaat. The Kirati ethnic group Rais, Limbus, Sunuwars and Yakkhas celebrate Udhauli and Ubhauli as their main festival.\n\nPopular Hindu deities are Durga, Kali, and Shiva; other deities with both Hindu and Buddhist influences, such as Manjushri and Macchindranāth, are popular among Newar people, and Gorakhnath, and worshipped by Gorkhas. The Mahakal Temple on Observatory Hill is a pilgrimage site for Hindu and Buddhists. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism, or Lamaism, have established several gompa or monasteries. Ghoom Monastery (8 km or 5 miles from the town), Bhutia Busty monastery, and Mag-Dhog Yolmowa preserve ancient Buddhist scripts. A Peace Pagoda was built in 1992 by the Japanese Buddhist organisation Nipponzan Myohoji. In the Tibetan Refugee Self Help Centre, Tibetan crafts like carpets, wood and leather work are displayed.\n\nThe Darjeeling Initiative, a civil society movement, holds the ten-day Darjeeling Carnival; it celebrates Darjeeling Hill's musical and cultural heritage each year usually in November. A literary culture has matured in the Nepali-speaking population of the Darjeeling region; in 2013, Asit Rai, a resident and Nepali-language writer, was elected to the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship, the highest honour of India's National Academy of Letters.\n\nAccording to a 2017 study, Western music has long been popular in Darjeeling. In the \"lively hippie music scene\" in Kathmandu in the late 1960s, some of the earliest \"Western pop performers\" were from Darjeeling. The earliest Nepali-led hotel bands were from Darjeeling and many among them had played in hotels in Calcutta before. A 2004 study suggested that one possible reason for such leadership might have been that many Nepalis in Darjeeling had become Christians and were no longer bound by Hindu caste prejudices in which \"musical performance is associated with low caste standing\". By the early 1990s, a common middle-class western popular music culture was much in evidence among the young people of Kathmandu, Nepal and the Nepalese-speaking youth in Darjeeling.\n\nFootball is the most popular sport in Darjeeling; the annual Gold Cup tournament was once a favourite event in the hills. An improvised form of ball made of rubber bands is often used for playing in the steep streets, and is known as Chungi.\n\nColonial architecture is exemplified in Darjeeling by cottages, Gothic churches, Planters' Club, the Raj Bhawan and various educational institutions.\n\n### Food\n\nThe traditional dietary culture of the town of Darjeeling has much in common with that of the Darjeeling hills, though urbanisation has affected the food habits throughout the region. A mug of tea with milk, with or without sugar, is traditionally the first drink of the day. Butter tea, made from compressed tea leaves, butter, water, milk and salt is a popular delicacy. The staple diet is eaten twice a day. The food in these regions is less spicy, cooked with either little or no oil, and semi-boiled. The first meal is eaten in the morning with cooked rice, dal, cooked vegetables mixed with potatoes, some fermented meat or milk products—dahi, or yoghurt; mohi, which is spicy buttermilk; and chhurpi, a kind of hard cheese made from cow or yak milk—and pickles commonly called bhat-dal-tharkari-achar. The second meal is dinner in the early evening, which consists of the same bhat-dal-tharkari-achar. Bhutia and Lepcha usually eat thukpa noodles in soup.\n\nTraditionally, the people of the region have preferred cooked rice as the staple; however, roti made of wheat is also popular, mostly among the urban population. Cooked ground maize is sometimes eaten as staple food mostly in rural areas, where it might be eaten with mohi and gundruk, a fermented vegetable. Goyang, another fermented food, is made from the leaves of a local wild plant, abundantly available during the monsoon. The leaves are fermented for a month and then consumed for several months afterwards. Boiled with yak meat or beef to make a hearty thukpa soup, it is commonly prepared in Sherpa homes though seldom sold.\n\nSome ethnic foods have cultural value in festivals. Celebration of festivals with the consumption of sel roti, a fermented cereal-based fried doughnut-like confectionery, is a custom of the Gorkha. Dahi, a fermented milk product, is consumed as a savoury addition to daily diets. It is also used by the Gorkha to make a paste with rice and food colour for applying to the foreheads of the younger members of the family by their elders during festivals and marriages. Alcoholic drinks can have a similar dual purpose; in addition to being consumed directly they are offered to gods and in the veneration of the dead. In some communities, they have been employed in spirit possession rituals.\n\nSome Brahmin Gorkhas are vegetarians. Non-vegetarians eat chicken, mutton, buffalo, and pork. Beef is taboo to a majority of the Gorkha except for Tamang and Sherpa. Newar prefers buffalo meat. About two-thirds of people prepare ethnic fermented foods at home for consumption. Cooking is usually done by women. Traditionally members of the family sit together on bamboo mats in the kitchen, and meals are served by the female members of the family and then usually eaten by hand, though chopsticks made of bamboo are commonly used by the Bhutia and Tibetans. Plates are made of brass or have a thin layer of brass.\n\nPopular alcoholic beverages sold in Darjeeling town include tongba, Jnaard (pronounced as Jaar) and chhaang, variations of a local beer made from fermenting finger millet. A popular food in Darjeeling is the momo, a steamed dumpling containing pork, beef, chicken or vegetables (cabbage or potatoes) cooked in a doughy wrapping and served with watery soup. Wai-Wai, originally a product of Nepal, is a packaged snack consisting of noodles which are eaten either dry or in soup form.\n\n## Education\n\nA study conducted between 2012 and 2014 observed that the elite schools established in Darjeeling during the late 19th century for the education of British children were offering English-medium instruction of high quality to Indian children. The Jesuit boys' school, St Joseph's (usually called North Point), the Anglican boarding school for boys, St Paul's, and the Catholic girls' school Loreto Convent (see Map 1) were attracting students from faraway places, including Burma and Thailand. North Point and Loreto had established colleges, St. Joseph's College and Loreto College (now Southfield College); these along with the Darjeeling Government College, a co-educational college founded in 1948, made up the three colleges of Darjeeling. All were affiliated to University of North Bengal in Siliguri. The same study suggested that the private schools were no longer catering only to children of the affluent. Some lower-middle-class families in Darjeeling were sending their children to North Point and Loreto, despite their high fees, in order to give them better future opportunities. By 2014, colleges had increased the enrollment of students from rural backgrounds. In fields such as engineering and computer science, the local colleges, however, were less able to offer the professional training or career placement facilities of India's growth centres, which had caused some students to leave Darjeeling after high school.\n\nIn the Darjeeling municipality in 2003–2004, there were 16,015 students in primary schools, 5169 in higher-secondary schools, and 3,825 in colleges and universities. According to a 2013 study, few students attended college for there seemed little scope for realizing \"middle-class aspirations in Darjeeling through educational credentials\". It noted that the fees in the better-funded private colleges, although affordable for the upper-level government officials or successful businesspersons, were too high for the lower-middle-classes in town. This put pressure on the only affordable college, the government college in the town's centre. It was lower-priced but poorly funded, with broken windows, leaking roofs, and absent teachers, causing the students to feel neglected and affecting their attendance. The teachers for their part were unable to meet the extra demands placed on them.\n\nA 2022 study noted that among the population of Darjeeling that lives in slums (comprising 11.72% of the town's population as per the 2011 census), 13% had finished primary school but had gone no further, 45% had finished high school (grade 10) but no further, 13% had finished higher-secondary (grade 10+2), and 10% had been to college. A 2018 study reported that the water crisis in the Darjeeling town has especially affected adolescent girl students who go to government schools. Many do not have access to hygiene facilities such as toilets and bathrooms, either in their homes or at school, particularly for hygiene management during menstruation. The study found that most toilets in government schools were not usable and that no government schools had \"proper sanitary facilities for girls. There is no system of water in the toilets and no arrangement for cleaning the toilets daily.\" It stated that many girls do not drink water during the day for fear of having to use the school toilets.\n\nMost tea plantations make no more than lower primary school instruction available on site. As a result, tea garden workers have typically had fewer opportunities for education. As of 2022, a little over a third of the female workforce and half the male were educated up to grade 8. The workers attributed this to their tea garden's remoteness and lack of means in the family during their childhood. Some families have raised chickens or livestock or opened a corner shop to make more money; their children have gone to nearby towns to study in private schools in which the medium of instruction is English, which is thought to offer better career opportunities. The Nepali language was accepted as a teaching language in all primary schools with a Nepali-speaking majority in the Darjeeling district in 1935.\n\n## Explanatory notes", "revid": "1173641588", "description": "Town in West Bengal, India", "categories": ["All articles containing potentially dated statements", "Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011", "Cities and towns in Darjeeling district", "Cities in West Bengal", "Darjeeling", "Hill stations in West Bengal"]}
{"id": "12869560", "url": null, "title": "Hell–Sunnan Line", "text": "The Hell–Sunnan Line (Norwegian: Hell–Sunnanbanen) is a 105-kilometer-long (65 mi) railway line between Hell, Stjørdal and Sunnan, Steinkjer in Nord-Trøndelag, Norway. The name is no longer in official use and the line is now considered part of the Nordland Line. The Hell–Sunnan Line branches from the Meråker Line at Hell and runs on the east shore of the Trondheimsfjord passing through the municipalities of Stjørdal, Levanger, Verdal, Inderøy and Steinkjer.\n\nThe Norwegian State Railways (NSB) started construction in 1899 and the first part of the line, from Hell to Stjørdalshalsen, opened on 1 February 1902. The railway opened to Levanger on 29 October 1902, to Verdalsøra on 1 November 1904 and to Sunnan on 15 November 1905. Sunnan was chosen as terminus because of its location on the southern end of the lake of Snåsavatnet. The line was further extended to Snåsa in 1926, after which it has been classified as part of the Nordland Line. The railway is the most heavily trafficked non-electrified line in Norway, with the Trøndelag Commuter Rail running south of Steinkjer. It is also used by intercity passenger and freight trains.\n\n## Route\n\nThe Hell–Sunnan Line constitutes the section of the Nordland Line between Hell, Stjørdal and Sunnan, Steinkjer. At the time of the line's opening, it was 105.2 kilometers (65.4 mi) long. The railway is single track, standard gauge, non-electrified, and equipped with centralized traffic control, partial automatic train control, and GSM-R. The railway line is owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration.\n\nStarting in the south at Hell Station, which is located 31.54 kilometers (19.60 mi) from Trondheim Central Station (Trondheim S), the Meråker Line branches from the Nordland Line. The latter crosses the river of Stjørdalselva on a 149-meter-long (489 ft) truss bridge. It passes the closed Sandferhus Station before reaching Trondheim Airport Station (33.17 km or 20.61 mi from Trondheim S), which serves as an airport rail link and is situated below the terminal of Trondheim Airport, Værnes. Previously there was a 3-kilometer-long (1.9 mi) spur from Sandferhus to Værnes and Øyanmoen. The mainline continues under the airport's taxiway and runway in the two Værnes Tunnels, the latter which is 150 meters (490 ft) long, after which the line reaches Stjørdal Station (34.67 km or 21.54 mi).\n\nThe line continues past the closed Vold Station, which was built to serve a mill, to Skatval, through which the line makes a semi-circular detour. Here it serves Skatval Station (41.90 km or 26.04 mi) and the closed Alstad Station. Alstad was previously an important station as it was conveniently placed for boat access from Frosta. Located at 89.6 meters (294 ft) above mean sea level (AMSL), it was the highest elevated station on the line. The line then enters the municipality of Levanger, where it first reaches the closed Langstein Station and then the closed Vudu Station. After Vudu, the line reaches its highest elevation of 99 meters (325 ft) when it crosses over European Road 6 (E6). The line then reaches Åsen Station (61.40 km or 38.15 mi) before continuing past the closed Hammerberg Station to Ronglan Station (69.65 km or 43.28 mi).\n\nBefore reaching Skogn Station (76.01 km or 47.23 mi), a 2.8-kilometer-long (1.7 mi) spur branches off to Fiborgtangen, serving Norske Skog Skogn. The mainline continues past Eggen Station and over the E6, past the closed Sykehuset Levanger Station, which served Levanger Hospital, before reaching Levanger Station (83.90 km or 52.13 mi). It then crosses the river Levangselva on a 27.4-meter-long (90 ft) bridge. It passes the closed Elberg Station and to reach HiNT Station (69.65 km or 43.28 mi), which serves the Levanger campus of Nord-Trøndelag University College.\n\nThe line continues past the closed Østborg Station and Rinnan Station before entering the municipality of Verdal. After Bergsgrav Station (93.70 km or 58.22 mi), which serves the neighborhood of Vinne, a spur branches off to Verdal's industrial area. The mainline crosses the river of Verdalselva on a 210-meter-long (690 ft) truss bridge before reaching Verdal Station (96.23 km or 59.79 mi). It is followed by the closed Fleskhus Station and Bjørga Station before entering the municipality of Inderøy at the 103-meter-long (338 ft) Koabjørgen Tunnel. The only station in Inderøy is Røra Station (105.47 km or 65.54 mi); however the line does not enter Steinkjer before passing through the 385-meter-long (1,263 ft) Lunnan Tunnel.\n\nAfter passing the closed Vollan Station, the line reaches Sparbu Station (112.93 km or 70.17 mi). It then passes the closed Mære Station and Vist Station and crosses over the 46-meter (151 ft) bridge over Figgja to reach Steinkjer Station (125.50 km or 77.98 mi). The line runs over the river of Steinkjerelva on a 96-meter-long (315 ft) truss bridge. Then come two spurs, to Eggebogen and Byafossen. The line continues past the closed Byafossen Station and Fossemvatnet Station and terminates at the closed Sunnan Station (1,136.66 km or 706.29 mi). The Nordland Line continues over a bridge across Snåsavatnet.\n\n## History\n\n### Planning\n\nPlanning of a railway to connect Trøndelag and Jämtland, Sweden, started in 1869, with one of the proposals being to build a line from Trondheim via Verdal to Sweden. However, surveys along the Verdal proposed route deemed it unsuitable, and instead the line was built via Stjørdalen and Meråker. To conform with Swedish standards, the line was built with standard gauge instead of the in Norway more common narrow gauge. The Meråker Line opened on 22 July 1882.\n\nIn Stjørdal, controversy arose over the route. The river of Stjørdalselva creates a barrier just north of Hell, which made it cheaper to build the line on the south shore of the river to Hegra. However, the major population center was located at Stjørdalshalsen, on the north shore of the river. Locally, there were many protests against the line bypassing such a large town, but the cost of the bridge made Parliament choose the southern alternative. This gave residents in the town an around 3 kilometres (2 miles) route to the train, since they had to cross the river to get access to the railway. This decreased the railway's ability to compete with the steam ships and thus the overall profitability of the line. With the arrival of the railway, transport to Trondheim became much easier than to Stjørdalshalsen and Levanger, helping Trondheim grow as a regional center.\n\nThe Nordland Line was first publicly proposed by Ole Tobias Olsen in a letter to the editor in Morgenbladet in 1872, where he argued for a railway between Trondheim and his home county of Nordland. The same year, Nord-Trøndelag County Council voted in favor to start planning of a railway between Trondheim and Namsos. The county council appointed a railway committee in 1875, who on 23 August 1876 published a report to encourage national authorities to consider the line, which resulted in surveying starting in 1877. On 27 April 1881, the committee made its recommendation to the county council and ceased its work. No planning was done the next three years, until three county councilors, Vilhelm Andreas Wexelsen, Peter Theodor Holst and Bernhard Øverland, made a new proposal. However, it was not until 1889 that the county council appointed a new railway committee, which was led by Wexelsen.\n\nIn 1891, the county's road committee, led by Øverland, sent an official request to the railway committee, asking for details about their plans, so the appropriate roads could be planned. This spurred the committees work and a cooperation with Nordland County Council was initiated to increase the projects priority by national politicians. On 2 March 1896, with 87 against 27 votes, Parliament passed legislation approving a railway from Hell to Sunnan. Costs were estimated at 8.75 million Norwegian krone (NOK), of which 15 percent was to be financed with local grants and the remainder by the state. Construction was scheduled to take 15 years. The decision initially called for the railway to be built in two stages, with the split at Rinnan in Levanger—the site of the military camp Rinnleiret. Final approval of construction was made by Parliament on 11 June 1898.\n\n### Construction\n\nAt Hell, there arose a disagreement about where the Hell–Sunnan Line should branch from the Meråker Line. Initial proposals were to place the branch from a location before Hell Station, thus forcing trains to back up from Hell Station before continuing northwards. The station building at Hell was also too small for the increased traffic, so it was moved to Sunnan Station and a new station building, with capacity for 25 employees, was built at Hell. In Skatval, there was a controversy as to whether the station should be built at Mæhre or Alstad. Mæhre (later Skatval) had support from the municipal council and was closer to the larger share of the area's population. However, the military wanted Alstad, as it was a rally point for the military in case of a Swedish invasion, and gave easy waterway access from Frosta. The station was placed at Mæhre, while a passing loop was built at Alstad.\n\nThe most difficult work was through Grubbåsen, near Åsen. The ground consisted of quick clay, which the railway was to pass through in a trench. On 5 May 1900, a landslide filled the trench, killing three navvies. Past the lake of Nesvannet, there was also weak soil mechanics, resulting in the need for piling. One worker was killed after getting hit by a piling log. In Levanger, there was debate as to whether the station should be on the west or east side of the tracks, with the decision falling on the west side. The 3.0-kilometer-long (1.9 mi) section from Hell to Stjørdal started revenue service on 1 February 1902. The 49.4-kilometer-long (30.7 mi) section from Stjørdalshalsen to Levanger was officially opened on 27 October 1902, with ordinary services starting on 29 October.\n\nConstruction on the line's second part, from Levanger to Sunnan, started in 1901. Part of the reason for the early start was to help employ older navvies who were working on the southern section during the summer. By early 1904, the right-of-way to Fleskhus was completed and the laying of tracks could begin. The bridge over Verdalselva was built using 473 tonnes (466 long tons; 521 short tons) of stone, which had to be transported 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) from Bagloåsen in Levanger. The superstructure was built by Vulkan of Oslo and was installed between 9 September and 27 November 1903.\n\nIn Verdalsøra there again arose a debate over which side of the tracks the station should be on. The townspeople wanted it on the west side, which was on the same side as the town center, while farmers wanted it east side, which was most accessible from the valley. The result was that the station was placed on the east side. The 12.4-kilometer-long (7.7 mi) section from Levanger to Verdal was opened on 1 November 1904, although the station building was not completed until 1905. At the time there were two trains per direction per day, one passenger train and one post train.\n\nFor the bridge over Ydseelva in Verdal, which had a main span of only 1.5 meters (4 ft 11 in), construction started in April 1903 and was completed on 21 November. The area has quick clay, so the bridge needed piling. At Røra, a spur was originally planned to Hylla, but this was discarded late in the planning phase. At Hellem in Inderøy the right-of-way had to be moved because of poor soil mechanics. There were similar issues north of the Lunnan Tunnel, forcing the tunnel to be extended and a support being built. Construction of the tunnel was performed by 40 men during the winter of 1904 and 1905. It cost NOK 90,179 and took 23.9 man-hours per meter to build.\n\nIn the former municipality of Sparbu, there was a contentious debate over both the route and the location of the station. Although the line was built where it had originally been planned, two alternatives were launched, both which saw the line go further east and higher up in the terrain. At the time both the dairy and store were located at Lein. The current villages of Sparbu and Mære had not been established, and locals wanted the railway to go through Lein, which was the de facto municipal center. However, the alternatives were 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) longer and would run through more rolling terrain, so the engineers insisted on the original route. The plans called for a station at Leira (today known as Sparbu) and at Vist, but many locals instead wanted it at Mære, in part to serve the new Mære Agricultural School. On 5 June 1900, Parliament voted in favor of only one station, at Mære. However, the decision was reverted by Parliament on 24 April 1901.\n\nA support wall was built at Sørlia, just south of Steinkjer, after there was a clay landslide. Construction of the bridge over Figgja, just south of Steinkjer, was performed in 1904. The superstructure was built by Kværner of Oslo and installed between 11 November and 21 December 1904. The bridge over Steinkjerelva took up a significant portion of the old river port in Steinkjer, resulting in a spur being built to a new port location. The railway ran right through the town center, forcing 20 houses to be demolished and splitting the town in two. The arrival and route of the railway was described by some locals as vandalism. A counter-proposal which saw the line run further up and cross through Steinkjersannan and Furuskogen—and thus avoid the town itself—was discarded because it would wreck the military camp at Steinkjersannan and would be located too far from the port. There was also a major debate as to whether the station should be on the south side or north side of the river. The municipal council voted for the south side with the mayor's double vote being decisive. Construction of the bridge over Steinkjerelva started in August 1902 and was completed on 7 May 1904. A proposal to build the bridge as a swing bridge was dropped, forcing the railways to pay NOK 45,402 in compensation to companies with facilities upstream.\n\nSteinkjer is surrounded by a moraine which had to be traversed with a cutting, 85 meters (279 ft) long and up to 21 meters (69 ft) deep. 125,000 cubic meters (4,400,000 cu ft) of earthwork was removed, half with a steam shovel, and largely used to build reclaimed land for the railway's right-of-way through Steinkjer. The official opening of the 40.4-kilometer-long (25.1 mi) section between Verdal and Sunnan took place on 14 November 1905. Revenue service started the following day.\n\n### Operation\n\nThe choice of route through Innherred was largely without much debate, as the line naturally went through all the towns and most of the important villages. Sunnan was a natural place to halt construction, as it is located at the foot of the lake of Snåsavatnet, allowing connection with steam ships. Scheduled services on Snåsavatnet started in 1871 with SS Dina, which was replaced with SS Bonden in 1885. From 1904 to 1921, Bonden was supplemented with MS St. Olaf, although SS Bonden remained in corresponding service with the train until 1926.\n\nEven before planning of the Hell–Sunnan Line was completed, there arose disagreement as to the route onwards. In a plan from the 1870s, there was consensus that the towns of Stjørdal, Levanger, Steinkjer and Namsos should receive a line, but there was a disagreement as to the route. The Beitstad Line would run from Steinkjer via Beitstad and Namdalseid to Namsos and from there to Grong, while the Snåsa Line would run from Sunnan via Snåsa to Grong, with a branch from Grong to Namsos. The Beitstad Line would run through the most densely populated areas, while the Snåsa Line was shorter. Parliament decided on the Snåsa Line in 1900. The railway was extended from Sunnan to Snåsa Station on 30 October 1926, with the section from Hell to Sunnan becoming classified as part of the Nordland Line. The railway was completed to Bodø on 7 June 1962.\n\nIn 1909, a station was opened at Fossemvatnet, followed by a station at Fleskhus in 1913. Mære continued to be the dominant center of Sparbu, so in 1915, the national authorities offered to build a station there. However, the municipality would not grant the necessary NOK 6,300, so the station was funded with private donations. Construction started in 1916 and Mære Station opened on 1 April 1917. In the original plans for the railway, a spur was planned from north of Steinkjerelva to Eggebogen in Egge. However, in the parliamentary voting for the line, the spur was removed. In 1915, a public report criticized the railway for not having sufficient access to a proper port in Steinkjer, as Sørsileiret was located on the river and did not have a deep quay. The municipal council voted in favor of a new quay at Eggebogen on 16 May 1916, which was completed in 1924. The 2.2-kilometer-long (1.4 mi) spur to Bogakaia opened on 15 August 1927, having cost NOK 139,200. A station was opened at Østborg in 1923, at Alstad in 1934, and at Hammerberg, Eggen and Bergsgrav in 1938.\n\nIn 1940, a 3-kilometer-long (1.9 mi) spur was built to Værnes Air Station and Øyanmoen. A new, wooden station building was built at Åsen in 1943 and 1944. The section to Værnes was removed in 1947. Vudu Station opened in 1950, followed by Vollan in 1952 and Bjørga and Sandferhus in the following year. From June to October 1953, a station was in use at Bjørga. From 1957, NSB started replacing steam trains on the line by introducing Di 3 locomotives. In 1956, NATO granted funding for an expansion of the runway at Trondheim Airport, Værnes. The easiest way was to extend the runway by building it over the road and railway and into the river. Construction started in 1959 and on 1 June 1960, the Værnes Tunnel was brought into use. A 2.8-kilometer-long (1.7 mi) spur was built to Fiborgtangen in February 1966. Two years later, Elberg Station wax opened. Fossemvatnet Station was closed in 1972.\n\nThe line received centralized traffic control in four phases: from Trondheim to Stjørdal on 11 January 1976, to Levanger on 9 January 1977, to Steinkjer on 6 December 1977 and to Snåsa on 23 November 1984. Bergsgrav Station was opened on 6 December 1977. In 1981, Di 4-locomotives were introduced. The spur to Øyanmoen was taken out of use and removed in October 1982. NSB introduced Class 92 diesel multiple units in 1985, cutting travel time on local services between Steinkjer and Trondheim by 25 minutes. In 1989, the station building at Sunnan was demolished. In 1989 and 1990, five stations were closed, consisting on Sandferhus, Vold, Vollan, Vist and Sunnan.\n\nOn 1 September 1993, NSB launched the Trøndelag Commuter Rail, of which the main service ran from Steinkjer to Trondheim. The initial plans called for the continued use of the Class 92 rolling stock, but saw change in schedules and the upgrading platforms for NOK 15 million. At the same time, the stations of Alstad, Langstein and Fleskhus were closed. The service from Trondheim to Steinkjer had ten daily round trips. After six months operation, the service had experienced a 40 percent growth in patronage. This was further increased with the opening of Trondheim Airport Station on 15 November 1994, which cost NOK 24 million. The upgrades to the airport also included a new taxiway, which resulted in second Værnes Tunnel being built. A station was also established to serve Levanger Hospital on 20 December 1995. On 10 November 1994, the line received automatic train control. NSB was split up on 1 December 1996 and the ownership of the tracks and infrastructure was inherited by the Norwegian National Rail Administration, while the operation of trains was taken over by the new NSB. From 1994, Di 6 and Di 8 locomotives were introduced, but the Di 6 proved unreliable and returned to the manufacturer.\n\nIn 2000, NSB started using Class 93 diesel multiple units on intercity trains, retiring the Di 3. In March 2000, NSB announced the closing of several stations for the commuter train service. Fifty percent of the stations were responsible for only two percent of the traffic, and NSB instead wanted buses to transport people to the closest railway station, which would reduce overall transport time for most passengers. From 7 January 2001, a fixed, hourly headway was introduced on the trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim. Mære, Østborg, Rinnan and Elberg were closed, but HiNT Røstad opened. From June 2001, NSB introduced additional rush-hour trains between Trondheim and Steinkjer, giving a half-hour headway. The Nordland Line had not received NSB's first generation of train radio, Scanet, so was among the first lines to receive GSM-R from 1 December 2004. In 2010, CargoNet started using Vossloh Euro locomotives. Sykehuset Levanger Station was closed on 11 December 2010. Despite generating some 90,000 annual patrons and being one of the busiest stations on the line, it was located too close to Levanger Station to meet safety requirements.\n\n## Architecture\n\nThe stations were designed by Paul Due (1835–1919) and his son, Paul Armin Due (1870–1926). Original stations between Stjørdal and Levanger were designed by Paul Due, while those from Rinnan to Byafossen, as well as Hell Station, were designed by Paul Armin Due. The designs are characterized by the transition period between Dragestil and Art Nouveau, with early stations dominated more by the former and later stations more by the latter. Norway went through a nationalistic period during the construction, and Paul Due chose to replace his older buildings' foreign elements with traditional Norwegian elements. Røra and Byafossen were the only stations not custom designed, while Sunnan was designed by Peter Andreas Blix—as it was originally built at Hell in 1881.\n\nAt the time of construction, the railways provided a leap in transport for the communities it passed through. NSB saw beautiful and grand stations as a way to draw patronage, and chose, in addition to impressive architecture, to build a park adjacent each stations. As construction went by, funding for stations were reduced, resulting in less grandeur further north. Most stations had two stories and an attic, although some of the stations serving lesser places had smaller buildings. From Steinkjer to Skogn, the ground floors were built in random rubble. As construction continued, budgets were reduced and station costs were cut. From Rinnan to Sparbu, the ground floors were instead built in brick, and from Mære and north, the stations have wooden ground floors. In addition to a station buildings, stations consisted of an outhouse and a freight house; selected stations also featured a water tower and motive power depot.\n\nLevanger Station is the most spectacular station on the line and also the best preserved town station. Built entirely in stone, it has a dominant position in town and with a park in front of the station. It was designed in combined Medieval style, with strong elements of Gothic and Romanesque style. Steinkjer Station was the other station entirely built in stone. It has a combined Baroque Revival and Art Nouveau style, and is more anonymous than Levanger Station. Its characteristics were largely lost after it was connected with the bus station. Three stations, Langstein, Skogn and Levanger, have been preserved, while Skatval and Hell have been protected.\n\nIn 1993, NSB built new sheds on all stations served by the commuter rail. Linje Arkitekter designed sheds which combined the existing architectural traditions in material and roof shapes, with modern style. The sheds have a roof, glass walls and a framework in wood. They were optimized to give good protection from various types weather.\n\n## Service\n\nThe main passenger service on the section from Hell to Steinkjer is the Trøndelag Commuter Rail. Operated by SJ Norge, it runs at a fixed hourly headway—with additional rush-hour services—between Lerkendal Station in Trondheim and Steinkjer, calling at 13 stations on the Hell–Sunnan Line. Travel time from Steinkjer is 24 minutes to Verdal, 37 minutes to Levanger, 1 hour and 24 minutes to Stjørdal and 2 hours and 4 minutes to Trondheim. The services are operated with Class 92 diesel multiple units.\n\nNSB also operates intercity services from Trondheim to Bodø on the Nordland Line. These consist of two daily through trains, one day and one night service, with an additional service between Trondheim and Mo i Rana. Stjørdal and Steinkjer are the only stations along the line which remain manned. NSB uses a combination of Class 93 diesel multiple units and Di 4-hauled trains. CargoNet and Cargolink operate freight trains along the line. CargoNet hauls using Vossloh Euro, while Cargolink uses Di 6 locomotives, respectively.\n\n## Future\n\nPoliticians have signalized that they want to electrify the tracks from Trondheim to Steinkjer along with the Meråker Line. NSB will need to replace the Class 92 trains towards the end the 2010s, and want to coordinate the new stock with electrification. The county municipalities of Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag proposed during the early 2000s that the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Steinkjer be upgraded reduce travel time to one hour. This would require the average speed to be increased to 115 kilometers per hour (71 mph), mainly through a modernization of the existing line. Specific projects include electrification, double track between Trondheim and Trondheim Airport, additional passing loops, a new bridge over Stjørdalselva and a rearrangement of the tracks at Hell. This would have to be combined with a reduction in the number of stops. The National Rail Administration estimates that the mentioned investments, which would cost between NOK 4 and 6 billion, will allow a travel time of one hour and ten minutes. If a number of curves are straightened, increased capacity is introduced between Stjørdal and Steinkjer and a further number of stops are removed, travel time could be reduced to one hour.\n\nNorsk Bane, a lobbyist organization which is suggesting to build a high-speed line from Oslo to Trondheim and onwards to Steinkjer, have proposed building an all-new right-of-way on the route. They estimate that regional trains would, with their infrastructure, be able to operate trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim in 40 minutes. The proposals involves only keeping the stations at Trondheim Airport, Stjørdal, Åsen, Levanger, Verdal, Røra and Steinkjer along the Hell–Sunnan segment. It would involve three services per hour and direct trains to Oslo, with speeds up to 300 kilometers per hour (190 mph).", "revid": "1141596006", "description": "Railway line in Norway", "categories": ["1902 establishments in Norway", "Art Nouveau architecture in Norway", "Art Nouveau railway stations", "National Romantic architecture in Norway", "Nordland Line", "Railway lines in Norway", "Railway lines in Trøndelag", "Railway lines opened in 1902"]}
{"id": "48835", "url": null, "title": "Battle of the Wilderness", "text": "The Battle of the Wilderness was fought on May 5–7, 1864, during the American Civil War. It was the first battle of Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant's 1864 Virginia Overland Campaign against General Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. The fighting occurred in a wooded area near Locust Grove, Virginia, about 20 miles (32 km) west of Fredericksburg. Both armies suffered heavy casualties, nearly 29,000 in total, a harbinger of a war of attrition by Grant against Lee's army and, eventually, the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia. The battle was tactically inconclusive, as Grant disengaged and continued his offensive.\n\nGrant attempted to move quickly through the dense underbrush of the Wilderness of Spotsylvania, but Lee launched two of his corps on parallel roads to intercept him. On the morning of May 5, the Union V Corps under Major General Gouverneur K. Warren attacked the Confederate Second Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell, on the Orange Turnpike. That afternoon the Third Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General A. P. Hill, encountered Brigadier General George W. Getty's division (VI Corps) and Major General Winfield S. Hancock's II Corps on the Orange Plank Road. Fighting, which ended for the evening because of darkness, was fierce but inconclusive as both sides attempted to maneuver in the dense woods.\n\nAt dawn on May 6, Hancock attacked along the Plank Road, driving Hill's Corps back in confusion, but the First Corps of Lieutenant General James Longstreet arrived in time to prevent the collapse of the Confederate right flank. Longstreet followed up with a surprise flanking attack from an unfinished railroad bed that drove Hancock's men back, but the momentum was lost when Longstreet was wounded by his own men. An evening attack by Brigadier General John B. Gordon against the Union right flank caused consternation at the Union headquarters, but the lines stabilized and fighting ceased. On May 7, Grant disengaged and moved to the southeast, intending to leave the Wilderness to interpose his army between Lee and Richmond, leading to the Battle of Todd's Tavern and Battle of Spotsylvania Court House.\n\n## Background\n\nIn the three years since fighting in the American Civil War began in 1861, the United States Army (a.k.a. the Union Army) made little progress against the Confederate Army in the Eastern Theater. The Union Army's most impressive successes came in the Western Theater, especially at the Battle of Vicksburg where nearly 30,000 Confederates surrendered. President Abraham Lincoln wanted a military leader who would fight. In March 1864, Major General Ulysses S. Grant was summoned from the Western Theater, promoted to lieutenant general, and given command of all the Union armies. Grant was the Union commander at Vicksburg, and also had major victories at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Shiloh, and Chattanooga. He chose to make his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, although Major General George Meade retained formal command of that army. Major General William Tecumseh Sherman succeeded Grant in command of most of the western armies.\n\n`Grant believed that the eastern and western Union armies were too uncoordinated in their actions, and that the previous practice of conquering and guarding new territories required too many resources. Grant's new strategy was to attack with all forces at the same time, making it difficult for the Confederates to transfer forces from one battlefront to another. His objective was to destroy the Confederate armies rather than conquering territory. The two largest Confederate armies became the two major targets, and they were General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and General Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee. This new strategy pleased President Lincoln.`\n\nGrant considered Lee's army \"the strongest, best appointed and most confident Army in the South.\" Lee was a professional soldier who fought in the Mexican–American War. At the beginning of the American Civil War, he rejected an offer to be commander of the United States Army. He was considered a master tactician in individual battles, and had the advantage of fighting mostly on familiar (Virginia) territory. Although the Confederate Army had fewer resources and men than the Union Army, Lee made good use of railroads to move his forces from one front to another. By the time Grant appeared in the Eastern Theater, the Confederate soldiers knew that his six predecessors all failed against Lee, and believed that Grant's successes in the Western Theater were against inferior opponents.\n\n### Grant's plan\n\nGrant's plan for Meade's Army of the Potomac was to move south to confront Lee's army between the Union and Confederate capital cities, Washington and Richmond. At the same time, General Benjamin Butler's Army of the James would approach Richmond, Petersburg, and Lee from the southeast near the James River. Major General Franz Sigel's Army of the Shenandoah would move through the Shenandoah Valley and destroy the rail line, agricultural infrastructure, and granaries used to feed the Confederate armies. Brigadier Generals George Crook and William W. Averell would attack the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, and salt and lead mines, in western Virginia before moving east to join Sigel. Sherman would attack Georgia with the similar goal of destroying rail line, resources, and infrastructure used to equip and feed the Confederate armies.\n\nGrant's campaign objective of the destruction of Lee's army coincided with the preferences of both Lincoln and his military chief of staff, Henry Halleck. Grant instructed Meade, \"Lee's army will be your objective point. Wherever Lee goes, there you will go also.\" Although he hoped for a quick, decisive battle, Grant was prepared to fight a war of attrition. Both the Union and Confederate casualties could be high, but the Union had greater resources to replace lost soldiers and equipment. By May 2, Grant had four corps positioned to begin Meade's portion of Grant's plan against Lee's army. Three of the corps, plus cavalry, composed Meade's Army of the Potomac. A fourth corps, reporting directly to Grant, added additional firepower. The Rapidan River divided the two foes. A few days later, Grant and Meade would cross the river and begin what became known as the Overland Campaign, and the Battle of the Wilderness was its first battle.\n\n## Opposing forces\n\n### Union\n\nThe Union force in the Battle of the Wilderness was the Army of the Potomac and a separate IX Corps. The Army of the Potomac was commanded by Major General George G. Meade, and Major General Ambrose E. Burnside was commander of the IX Corps. Both Meade and Burnside reported to Grant, who rode with Meade and his army. The II Corps was the largest of the corps, with 28,333 officers and enlisted men present for duty and equipped as of April 30, 1864. At the beginning of the campaign in May, Grant's Union forces totaled 118,700 men and 316 artillery pieces (a.k.a. guns) including Meade's Army of the Potomac and Burnside's IX Corps.\n\n- II Corps, commanded by Major General Winfield S. Hancock, consisted of four divisions of infantry. This was Meade's premier fighting unit.\n- V Corps, commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren, had four divisions of infantry.\n- VI Corps had three divisions and was commanded by Major General John Sedgwick.\n- Cavalry Corps, newly commanded by Major General Philip Sheridan, had three divisions. The 3rd Division's 5th New York Cavalry Regiment was armed with seven-shot Spencer carbines, as was the First Brigade of the 1st Division, known as the Michigan Brigade.\n- Additional men in Meade's army that were not part of the four corps were from the provost guard, a small group of guards and orderlies, and portions of the artillery not assigned to a corps.\n- IX Corps, commanded by Burnside, consisted of four divisions of infantry, each with its own artillery. Burnside also had reserve artillery and two regiments of cavalry. Only about 6,000 men in the IX Corps were seasoned veterans.\n\n### Confederate\n\nThe Confederate force in the Battle of the Wilderness was the Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee. Listed below are Lee's three infantry corps and one cavalry corps, which totaled to 66,140 men including staff and men in the artillery. Each corps had three divisions plus artillery except the First Corps, which had only two divisions. The Third Corps was the largest, with 22,675 men plus another 1,910 for artillery.\n\n- First Corps was commanded by Lieutenant General James Longstreet. This was Lee's elite fighting unit.\n- Second Corps was commanded by Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell.\n- Third Corps was commanded by Lieutenant General Ambrose Powell \"A.P.\" Hill.\n- Cavalry Corps was commanded by Major General James Ewell Brown \"Jeb\" Stuart.\n\n## Disposition of forces and movement to battle\n\n### The Wilderness\n\nThe Wilderness is located south of the Rapidan River in Virginia's Spotsylvania County and Orange County. Its southern border is Spotsylvania Court House, and western border is usually considered the Rapidan River tributary Mine Run. Its eastern border is less definite, causing estimates of the size of the Wilderness to vary. While the maximum area for the Wilderness is 132 square miles (340 km<sup>2</sup>) to 156 square miles (400 km<sup>2</sup>), historians discussing the battles fought there typically use 70 square miles (180 km<sup>2</sup>). At the time of the battle, the region was a \"patchwork of open areas and vegetation of varying density.\" Much of the vegetation was a dense second-growth forest consisting of small trees, bushes, shrubs, and pines.\n\nSince clearings were scarce, and the region had only a few narrow winding roads, mounted cavalry fighting was nearly impossible. The dense woods, often filled with smoke, made it difficult to see enemy soldiers. This put attackers at a disadvantage, as soldiers often fired at sounds instead of visual cues. Infantry units had difficulty keeping alignment, and often became lost or were involved in friendly-fire incidents. The Confederates had a better knowledge of the terrain, and it diminished the Union advantage of greater manpower. The terrain also diminished the effectiveness of artillery. Grant was aware of how the Wilderness made his advantages in size and artillery less effective, and preferred to move his army further south to fight Lee in open ground.\n\n### Lee prepares\n\nOn May 2, Lee met with his generals on Clark Mountain, obtaining a panoramic view of the Union camps. He realized that Grant was getting ready to attack, but did not know the precise route of advance. He predicted (correctly) that Grant would cross to the east of the Confederate fortifications on the Rapidan, using the Germanna and Ely Fords, but he could not be certain.\n\nTo retain flexibility of response, Lee had dispersed his Army over a wide area. Longstreet's First Corps was around Gordonsville, from where they had the flexibility to respond by railroad to potential threats to the Shenandoah Valley or to Richmond. Hill's Third Corps was outside Orange Court House. Ewell's Second Corps was near Morton's Ford and Mine Run, northeast of Hill. Stuart's cavalry was scattered further south from Gordonsville to Fredericksburg.\n\n### Grant crosses the river\n\nOn May 4, 1864, the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan River at three places and converged on the Wilderness of Spotsylvania in east central Virginia. Brigadier General James H. Wilson led his 3rd Cavalry Division across the river at Germanna Ford between 4:00 am and 6:00 am, and drove off a small group of Confederate cavalry pickets. After engineers placed pontoon bridges, the V Corps (Warren) and later the VI Corps (Sedgwick) crossed safely. Wilson continued south on the Germanna Plank Road toward Wilderness Tavern and the Orange Turnpike. He halted at Wilderness Tavern at noon to wait for the V Corps, and sent scouts to the south and west.\n\nA few miles east, Brigadier General David M. Gregg led his 2nd Cavalry Division across the river at Ely's Ford. They tried to capture the nearby Confederate outpost, but the southerners fled into the darkness. By 9:00 am a pontoon bridge was placed across the water, and the II Corps (Hancock) began crossing. Gregg's cavalry moved south to Chancellorsville, where Hancock's men planned to camp. Once Hancock's men began arriving, Gregg moved further south to Alrich near the intersection of the Orange Plank Road and Catharpin Road, where they would protect Hancock and the army's wagons.\n\nThe IX Corps (Burnside) remained north of the river near Germanna Ford, with orders to protect the supply train. Although Grant insisted that the army travel light with minimal artillery and supplies, its supply train was 60 to 70 miles (97 to 110 km) long. Meade had an estimated 4,300 wagons, 835 ambulances, and a herd of cattle. The supply train crossed the Rapidan at Ely's and Culpeper Mine Fords. At Culpeper Mine Ford, it was guarded by Brigadier General Alfred T. A. Torbert's 1st Cavalry Division. Grant and Meade gambled that they could move the army quickly enough to avoid being ensnared in the Wilderness, but Meade halted the II and V Corps to allow the wagon train to catch up.\n\n### Lee responds\n\nAt the Wilderness a year earlier, Lee defeated the Army of the Potomac in the Battle of Chancellorsville despite having an army less than half the size of the Union army. Much of the fighting at that time occurred slightly east of the Union army's current route. Having already secured a victory one year ago in similar circumstances, Lee hoped to fight Grant in the Wilderness. However, Lee needed Longstreet's First Corps to be in position to fight before the battle started.\n\nAs Grant's plan became clearer to Lee on May 4, Lee arranged his forces to use the advantages of the Wilderness. He needed his Second and Third Corps to delay Grant's army until Longstreet's First Corps could get in place. Ewell's Second Corps was sent east on the Orange Turnpike, reaching Robertson's Tavern at Locust Grove. His lead column camped about two miles (3.2 km) from the unsuspecting Union soldiers. Hill was sent east on the Orange Plank Road and stopped at the hamlet of New Verdiersville. Hill had two of his three divisions. The division commanded by Major General Richard H. Anderson was left at Orange Court House to guard the river. These two corps were to avoid battle, if possible, until Longstreet's First Corps arrived. That evening, Lee decided that Ewell and Hill should strike first, preserving the initiative. Longstreet would arrive a day later, or Ewell and Hill could retreat west to Mine Run if necessary. Orders were sent around 8:00 pm to move early in the morning.\n\n### Union cavalry\n\nAt Wilderness Tavern, Wilson sent a small force west on the Orange Turnpike. After the head of the V Corps reached Wilderness Tavern around 11:00 am, Wilson continued south. He arrived at Parker's Store near the Orange Plank Road at 2:00 pm. Scouts were sent south to Catharpin Road and west to Mine Run where they found only small enemy squads. During that time, his squad on the Orange Turnpike skirmished with Confederate soldiers near Robertson's Tavern (Locust Grove). Assuming they were fighting with a small group of Confederate pickets, they withdrew and by evening rejoined the division at Parker's Store.\n\nMeade's original plan was to have Torbert's 1st Cavalry Division join Wilson, but he received an erroneous report that the Confederate cavalry was operating in his Army's rear, in the direction of Fredericksburg. He ordered his 1st and 2nd cavalry divisions to move east to deal with that perceived threat, leaving only Wilson's Division to screen for three corps. Wilson had little experience with cavalry, and the 3rd Division was the smallest of the three cavalry divisions. Meade believed that Lee would fight from behind (west of) Mine Run, and aligned his army north to south from Germanna Ford to Shady Grove Church while it spent the night in the Wilderness. This change of plans by the Union leadership did not serve the army well. Not only were the Union forces spending the night in the Wilderness, \"lax cavalry patrols\" were causing leadership to be unaware of the proximity of Lee's Second Corps (Ewell).\n\n## Battle May 5\n\nThe Battle of the Wilderness had two distinct fronts, the Orange Turnpike and the Orange Plank Road, where most of the fighting was conducted by infantry. Any efforts to bridge the gap between those two fronts did not last long. Most of the cavalry fighting occurred south of the infantry, especially along Catharpin Road and Brock Road.\n\n### Hammond's cavalry\n\nAt 5:00 am on May 5, Wilson's Division proceeded southward from Parker's Store. The 5th New York Cavalry, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Hammond, was detached and instructed to patrol west of the Parker's Store area until relieved by Warren's V Corps. A probe west on the Orange Plank Road discovered Confederate soldiers. Despite being reinforced, the Union probe was driven back toward Parker's Store. It was soon discovered that they were fighting infantry from most of Hill's Third Corps.\n\nHammond's total force consisted of only about 500 men. Hammond understood that the dense woods and the large infantry force made fighting on horseback inadvisable. The command fought dismounted and spread out as a skirmish line while utilizing their Spencer repeating rifles. The regiment slowly retreated east, moving toward and beyond Parker's Store on the Orange Plank Road. Once the Confederates advanced east of Parker's Store, the remainder of Wilson's cavalry division was cut off from Meade and Warren's VI Corps.\n\n### Orange Turnpike\n\nAt 6:00 am on May 5, Warren's V Corps began moving south over farm lanes toward the Parker's Store. The Confederate infantry was observed in the west near the Orange Turnpike, and Meade was notified. Grant instructed \"If any opportunity presents itself of pitching into a part of Lee's army, do so without giving time for disposition.\" Meade halted his army and directed Warren to attack, assuming that the Confederates were a division and not an entire infantry corps. Hancock was held at Todd's tavern. Although Meade told Grant that the threat was probably a delaying tactic without the intent to give battle, he stopped his entire army—the exact thing Lee wanted him to do. The Confederate force was Ewell's Second Corps, and his men erected earthworks on the western end of the clearing known as Saunders Field. Ewell's instructions from Lee were to not advance too fast, since his corps was out of the reach of Hill's Third Corps—and Longstreet's First Corps was not yet at the battlefield.\n\nWarren approached the eastern end of Saunders Field with the division of Brigadier General Charles Griffin along the road on the right and the division of Brigadier General James S. Wadsworth on the left. Brigadier General Samuel W. Crawford's division was too far away on the left near Chewning Farm, and the division of Brigadier General John C. Robinson was in reserve closer to Wilderness Tavern. It took time to align Warren's divisions, and there was some concern about Griffin's northern (right) flank. A major problem was that \"once a division left the roads or fields it disappeared utterly, and its commander could not tell whether it was in line with the others....\" Brigadier General Horatio Wright's 1st Division from Sedgwick's VI Corps began to move south on the Germanna Plank Road to Spotswood Road to protect Warren's right. Warren requested a delay from attacking to wait for Wright. By 12:00 pm, Meade was frustrated by the delay and ordered Warren to attack before Sedgwick's VI Corps could arrive. Warren's troops arrived at Saunders Field around 1:00 pm. The Confederate division of Major General Edward Johnson was positioned on the Orange Turnpike west of Sanders Field, and it also guarded the Spotswood Road route of Sedgwick. Behind Johnson and further south was the division of Major General Robert E. Rodes, while the division of Major General Jubal Early waited further west in reserve.\n\n### Fight at Saunders Field\n\nBy the time the Union line arrived near the enemy, it had numerous gaps and some regiments faced north instead of west. The concerns about Warren's right flank were justified. As Griffin's division advanced, Ayres's brigade held the right but had difficulty maintaining its lines in a \"blizzard of lead\". They received enfilading fire on their right from the brigade of Confederate Brigadier General Leroy A. Stafford, causing all but two regiments (140th and 146th New York) to retreat east across Saunders Field. On the left of Ayres, the brigade of Brigadier General Joseph J. Bartlett made better progress and overran the position of Confederate Brigadier General John M. Jones, who was killed. However, since Ayres's men were unable to advance, Bartlett's right flank was now exposed to attack and his brigade was forced to flee back across the clearing. Bartlett's horse was shot out from under him and he barely escaped capture.\n\nTo the left of Bartlett was Wadsworth's Iron Brigade, which was composed of regiments from the Midwest and commanded by Brigadier General Lysander Cutler. The Iron Brigade advanced through woods south of Saunders Field and contributed to the collapse of Jones' Brigade while capturing battle flags and taking prisoners. However, the Iron Brigade outdistanced Bartlett's men—exposing the Midwesterner's right flank. The Confederate brigade of Brigadier General George P. Doles attacked the exposed flank, and the Iron Brigade's 6th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment suffered nearly 50 casualties in only a few minutes. Soon the Confederate brigade of Brigadier General John B. Gordon joined in the attack, tearing through the Union line and forcing the Iron Brigade to break and retreat.\n\nFurther to the Union left, near the Higgerson farm, the Union brigade of Colonel Roy Stone was ambushed in waist-high swamp water, and the survivors fled northeast to the fields of the Lacy House (a.k.a. Ellwood Manor). One soldier blamed the fiasco on the gap between Stone's Brigade and the Iron Brigade. On Wadsworth's farthest left, the brigade of Brigadier General James C. Rice suffered severe losses when the North Carolina brigade commanded by Brigadier General Junius Daniel got around Rice's unprotected left. The problem was compounded when Stone's Brigade fell back from Rice's right. Rice's survivors were chased by Daniel's men almost back to the Lacy House, where the V Corps artillery was used to slow the pursuing Confederates. A quick fight over the guns resulted in casualties for both sides. Rice's losses were severe, including two of his five regimental commanders wounded.\n\nFurther south, Crawford's First Brigade, commanded by Colonel William McCandless, did not reach the fighting in time to help Wadsworth's left. The brigade became surrounded by Confederates and its 7th Pennsylvania Reserve Regiment was captured. Crawford was in danger of the having the remaining portion of his division cut off, so it withdrew toward the Lacy House while the Confederates occupied the Chewning farm. Back at Saunders Field, Warren had ordered an artillery section into Saunders Field to support his attack, but it was captured by Confederate soldiers, who were pinned down and prevented by rifle fire from moving the guns. In the midst of hand-to-hand combat at the guns, the field caught fire and men from both sides were shocked as their wounded comrades burned to death. The first phase of fighting on the Orange Turnpike was over by 2:30 pm.\n\nThe lead elements of Sedgwick's VI Corps reached Saunders Field around 3:00 pm. Wright commanded the renewal of fighting until Sedgwick arrived around 3:30 pm. The fighting was now in the woods north of the Turnpike and both sides traded attacks and counterattacks. Ewell held his position for the remainder of the afternoon. During the fray, Confederate Brigadier General Leroy A. Stafford was shot through the shoulder blade, the bullet severing his spine. Despite being paralyzed from the waist down and in agonizing pain, he managed to still urge his troops forward. He died four days later.\n\n### Getty and Hancock at Orange Plank Road\n\nVisibility was limited near Orange Plank Road, and officers had difficulty controlling men and maintaining formations. Attackers would move blindly and noisily forward, becoming targets for concealed defenders. Unable to duplicate the surprise that was achieved by Ewell on the Turnpike, A.P. Hill's approach was detected from the Chewning farm location of Crawford's 3rd Division of the V Corps. Crawford notified Meade, and his message arrived at Meade's headquarters around 10:15 am.\n\nCrawford sent the 13th Pennsylvania Reserve Regiment (a.k.a. the Bucktails) as skirmishers toward Hill, but Hammond's line was falling apart before the Bucktails arrived near the Orange Plank Road. Crawford did not support his Pennsylvanians, and instead worked to solidify his position at the Chewning Farm and get ready to assist in the Orange Turnpike fighting. By the time this was accomplished, Hammond was beyond helping. Meade's army was in danger if Hill could push Hammond beyond Brock Road and take control of the intersection (Orange Plank and Brock roads). That would cause Warren's V Corps to have large enemy forces on two sides, and Hancock's II Corps could get isolated from the rest of Meade's army.\n\nAlthough Hancock was not far from the intersection of Orange Plank Road and Brock Road, he would have to move four miles (6.4 km) on a twisting road that was a narrow wagon route. The VI Corps lead division of Brigadier General George W. Getty was waiting at Wilderness Tavern, so at 10:30 am Meade sent it to defend the important intersection until Hancock could get there. Hammond's 500-man cavalry force, employing repeating carbines and fighting dismounted, succeeded in slowing Hill's approach. However, Hammond's small force was vastly outnumbered and continued to gradually retreat east.\n\nBy noon, Hill had the division of Major General Henry Heth past the Widow Tapp farm, and the division of Major General Cadmus M. Wilcox followed near Parker's Store. Hammond was nearly out of ammunition and was eventually pushed back to the vital intersection around noon, but was relieved by Getty's advance brigade just before Hill's forces arrived. Hammond's force moved further east behind Getty, and was done fighting. Because of Hammond's repeating rifles, the Confederate prisoners stated that they believed they had been fighting an entire brigade. Getty's men skirmished briefly with Heth's advance, and held the intersection.\n\nGetty held the intersection for hours waiting for Hancock's II Corps to arrive. By 3:30 pm, initial elements of Hancock's corps were arriving, and Meade ordered Getty to assault the Confederate line. Getty attacked at 4:15 pm while elements of Hancock's II Corps began arriving shortly thereafter. Getty was reinforced by Hancock's men, while Confederate commander Heth was reinforced by Wilcox's Division. The fighting was fierce, with casualties for the brigade commanded by Brigadier General Alexander Hays particularly high—including Hays who was killed while addressing the 63rd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment. Attacks and counterattacks continued into the night as casualties grew while neither side gained an advantage. Getty's Division was relieved by the II Corps after dark, and Getty's horse was killed in the day's fighting.\n\n### Wilson at Catharpin Road\n\nLeaving Hammond's regiment at Parker's Store at 5:00 am on May 5, Wilson moved his two brigades south. His Second Brigade led the way, and it was commanded by Colonel George H. Chapman. His First Brigade was commanded by Colonel Timothy M. Bryan. Chapman reached Catharpin Road and moved west beyond Craig's Meeting House, where he found 1,000 men from a Confederate cavalry brigade commanded by Brigadier General Thomas L. Rosser. After initially driving Rosser back, both of Wilson's brigades fled east after finding Hill's infantry on their north side and Rosser's cavalry on the Catharpin Road on their south side. The 18th Pennsylvania Cavalry Regiment was the rear guard, and it became surrounded on three sides. The regiment left the road and blended into the woods and a swamp.\n\nWhile Wilson battled Rosser, Sheridan's other two cavalry divisions were further east. Around noon, Meade notified Sheridan that Wilson had been cut off, and Gregg's 2nd Cavalry Division was sent to explore the Catharpin Road. Gregg found Wilson and confronted Rosser, who was driven back across the Po River bridge. In late afternoon, Gregg also fought Major General Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry division on the Brock Road near Alsop. At nightfall, Rosser sat on the high ground west of the Po River bridge, Lee's men camped near Alsop, and Wilson's exhausted division camped north and east of Todd's Tavern. Wilson was surprised that evening when the 18th Pennsylvania Cavalry, thought to be captured, rejoined the division. During the night, Gregg remained at Todd's Tavern, Wilson put Chapman's Brigade on the Brock Road, and the brigade of George Armstrong Custer from Torbert's Division began moving to relieve Wilson. While the remaining portion of Torbert's Division was south of Chancellorsville at Alrich, Torbert checked into a hospital and Brigadier General Wesley Merritt assumed command of the division.\n\n## Battle May 6\n\nGrant's plan for May 6 was to resume the attacks at 5:00 am. Sedgwick and Warren would renew their attack on Ewell at the Orange Turnpike, and Hancock and Getty would attack Hill again on the Orange Plank Road. At the same time, an additional force of men currently stationed around the Lacy House would move south and attack Hill's exposed northern flank. Wadsworth requested leadership of this force, and it consisted of his division plus a fresh brigade from Robinson's division commanded by Brigadier General Henry Baxter. Adding to Wadsworth, two divisions from Burnside's IX Corps were to move through the area between the Turnpike and the Plank Road and move south to flank Hill.\n\nHill's weary men spent the evening of May 5 and the early morning hours of May 6 resting where they had fought—with little line integrity and some regiments separated from their brigades. The men from Heth's Division were generally on the north side of the Orange Plank Road, while the men from Wilcox's Division were mostly on the south side. Although he was aware that Hill's front line along the Orange Plank Road needed to be reformed, Lee chose to allow Hill's men to rest where they were—assuming that Longstreet's First Corps and Hill's remaining division, commanded by Major General Anderson, would arrive in time to relieve Heth and Wilcox. Longstreet's men had marched 32 miles (51 km) in 24 hours, but were still 10 miles (16 km) from the battlefield. Once Longstreet's men arrived, Lee planned to shift Hill to the left to cover some of the open ground between his divided forces. Longstreet calculated that he had sufficient time to allow his men, tired from marching all day, to rest and the First Corps did not resume marching until 1:00 am. Moving cross-country in the dark, they made slow progress and lost their way at times, and by sunrise had not reached their designated position.\n\n### Attacks begin\n\nDuring the night, Ewell placed his artillery on his extreme left and on both sides of the Orange Turnpike. He also had an abatis in front of his trenchline. He attacked Sedgwick on the north side of the turnpike at 4:45 am. His line moved forward and then back on multiple occasions, and some ground was fought over as much as five times.\n\nTo the south on the Orange Plank Road, Hancock's II Corps with Getty's Division attacked Hill at 5:00 am, overwhelming the ill-prepared Third Corps in concert with Wadsworth. Following Hill's orders, Lieutenant Colonel William T. Poague's 12 guns at the Widow Tapp farm fired tirelessly at the road—despite the Confederate soldiers retreating in front of the guns. This slowed the Union advance, but could not stop it.\n\nWhile Hill's Corps retreated, reinforcements arrived. Longstreet rode ahead of his men and arrived at the battlefield around 6:00 am. His men marched east and then turned north, arriving on the Orange Plank Road near Parker's Store where they found men from Hill's Corps retreating. Brigadier General John Gregg's Texas Brigade was the vanguard of Longstreet's column. General Lee, relieved and excited, waved his hat over his head and shouted, \"Texans always move them!\" Caught up in the excitement, Lee began to move forward behind the advancing brigade. As the Texans realized this, they halted and grabbed the reins of Lee's horse, Traveller, telling the general that they were concerned for his safety and would only go forward if he moved to a less exposed location. Longstreet was able to convince Lee that he had matters well in hand and the commanding general relented.\n\n### Longstreet counterattacks\n\nStarting from near Poague's guns, Longstreet counterattacked with the divisions of Major General Charles W. Field on the left and Brigadier General Joseph B. Kershaw on the right. A series of attacks by both sides caused the front line to move back and forth between the Widow Tapp farm and Brock Road. The Texans leading the charge north of the road fought gallantly at a heavy price—only 250 of the 800 men emerged unscathed. Field's Division drove back Wadsworth's force on the north side of the Widow Tapp Farm, while Kershaw's Division fought along the road. Although Wadsworth and his brigadier Rice tried to restore order near the front, most of his troops fled to the Lacy House and were done fighting for the remainder of the battle.\n\nAt 10:00 am, Lee's chief engineer, Major General Martin L. Smith, reported to Longstreet that he had explored an unfinished railroad bed south of the Plank Road and that it offered easy access to the Union left flank. Longstreet assigned his aide, Lieutenant Colonel Moxley Sorrel, to the task of leading three fresh brigades for a surprise attack. An additional brigade, which was reduced in strength from the morning's fighting, volunteered to join them. Sorrel and the senior brigade commander, Brigadier General William Mahone, struck at 11:00 am while Longstreet resumed his main attack. The Union line was broken and driven back, Wadsworth was mortally wounded, and Hancock reorganized his line in trenches near the Brock Road. Hancock wrote later that the flanking attack rolled up his line \"like a wet blanket.\"\n\nBy noon, a Confederate victory seemed likely. Longstreet rode forward on the Orange Plank Road with several of his officers while another fire caused Mahone's 12th Virginia Infantry Regiment to become separated from its brigade. An aide suggested that Longstreet was too close to the front, but his advice was disregarded. As the Virginians moved through the woods back to the road, their brigade mistook them for Union soldiers, and the two Confederate forces began shooting at each other. Longstreet's mounted party was caught in the crossfire, and Longstreet was severely wounded in his neck. Brigadier General Micah Jenkins, aide-de-camp Captain Alfred E. Doby and orderly Marcus Baum were killed. Longstreet was able to turn over his command directly to division commander Field and told him to \"Press the enemy.\" Burnside finally arrived on the Confederate northern flank with three brigades, and attacked around 2:00 pm. His fighting for the day, beginning against Colonel William F. Perry's Alabama Brigade, was a standoff. Lee organized another attack on Hancock around 4:15 pm that Hancock repelled in about an hour. Another fire threatened the wounded in the woods and Hancock's breastworks, as fighting on the Orange Plank Road front gradually ended near evening. The following day, Lee appointed Richard Anderson to temporary command of the First Corps.\n\n### Gordon attacks at Orange Turnpike\n\nAt the Orange Turnpike, inconclusive fighting proceeded for most of the day. During the morning, Gordon scouted the Union line and recommended to his division commander, Jubal Early, that he conduct a flanking attack in Sedgwick's right. Early initially dismissed the venture as too risky, and Ewell did not have enough men to attack until 1:00 pm when the brigade of Brigadier General Robert D. Johnston arrived. Gordon's attack was authorized around 5:30 pm. The attack went well and caused some of the men in the Union brigade commanded by Brigadier General Alexander Shaler to simply run away. Shaler and another brigade commander, Brigadier General Truman Seymour were captured. Sedgwick was almost captured, and his horse was injured, while the color-bearer standing next to him was shot. The Union line fell back about a mile (1.6 km) while the two generals and several hundred men were captured. Eventually the darkness and the dense foliage took their toll as the Union flank received reinforcements and recovered. Sedgwick's line was extended overnight to the Germanna Plank Road.\n\nReports of the collapse of this part of the Union line caused great consternation at Grant's headquarters, leading to an interchange that is widely quoted in Grant biographies. An officer accosted Grant, proclaiming, \"General Grant, this is a crisis that cannot be looked upon too seriously. I know Lee's methods well by past experience; he will throw his whole army between us and the Rapidan, and cut us off completely from our communications.\" Grant seemed to be waiting for such an opportunity and snapped, \"Oh, I am heartily tired of hearing about what Lee is going to do. Some of you always seem to think he is suddenly going to turn a double somersault, and land in our rear and on both of our flanks at the same time. Go back to your command, and try to think what we are going to do ourselves, instead of what Lee is going to do.\"\n\n### Cavalry\n\nCuster's First Brigade reached Brock Road about daylight on May 6. Custer extended his right toward Hancock and his left toward Gregg's 2nd Division at Todd's Tavern. Torbert's Second Brigade, commanded by Colonel Thomas Devin, began the trip from Chancellorsville to join Custer's right, bringing a battery. Hancock's infantry was hard pressed by two divisions from Longstreet's corps, but he worried about the location of Longstreet's other two divisions. Although Hancock wanted Custer to move down Brock Road to look for Longstreet's other divisions, Custer was attacked after 8:00 am by Rosser's Brigade. The arrival of Devin with his six-gun battery plus two more guns from Gregg turned the fight into Custer's favor, and Rosser backed off.\n\nHancock still did not know what was behind the Confederate cavalry, and he kept a substantial portion of his corps outside of the fighting with Longstreet in order to protect his left. While Custer was fighting, Gregg was fighting Wickham's Brigade on the Brock Road near Todd's Tavern. This effectively blocked the Union Army from Spotsylvania Court House. Concern after Hancock's left had been turned by Longstreet's surprise attack from the unfinished railroad caused the Union leadership to order the cavalry to withdraw. At 2:30 pm Gregg was ordered to withdraw to Piney Branch Church, and Custer and Devin were sent further east back to Catharine Furnace.\n\n## Fighting ends\n\nOn the morning of May 7, Grant was faced with the prospect of attacking strong Confederate earthworks. His cavalry was south of the infantry fighting in the Battle of Todd's Tavern. Instead of more infantry attacks, Grant chose to maneuver. By moving south on the Brock Road, he hoped to reach the crossroads at Spotsylvania Court House, which would interpose his army between Lee and Richmond, forcing Lee to fight on ground more advantageous to the Union army. He ordered preparations for a night march on May 7 that would reach Spotsylvania, 10 miles (16 km) to the southeast, by the morning of May 8. Once Lee found out Grant was moving south instead of turning back, he correctly predicted Grant would move to Spotsylvania Court House. Lee got his army there first, and erected formidable earthworks. Grant's infantry fought the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House before maneuvering yet again as the campaign continued south toward Richmond.\n\n### Casualties\n\nWith over 28,000 casualties, the Battle of the Wilderness ranks in the top five American Civil War battles in terms of casualties for both sides combined. The official report for the Union listed 2,246 officers and men killed, 12,037 wounded, and 3,383 captured or missing—a total of 17,666 casualties for the Union side of the battle. Historian Rhea notes that this number is probably larger, since a lieutenant witnessed Warren lowering the number of casualties reported. Other Union casualty estimates are typically between 17,500 and 18,000. Based on correspondence from Grant, at least six brigadier generals were among the Union casualties. Wadsworth and Alexander Hays were killed, Seymour and Shaler were taken prisoner, and Getty and Bartlett were wounded.\n\nYoung's study reveals Confederate casualties of 1,477 killed, 7,866 wounded, and 1,690 missing, for a total of 11,033 casualties. Among the wounded are 233 wounded and captured—they are counted herein in the wounded total and not double-counted in the missing category. This study is close to some of the estimates made by other sources. Like the Union, Lee lost some generals. His report at the end of May 5 concluded with the \"gallant Brig. Gen. J. M. Jones was killed, and Brig. Gen. L. A. Stafford, I fear, mortally wounded while leading his command with conspicuous valor.\" His evening report for May 6 mentions the wounding of Longstreet and Brigadier General John Pegram, and the death of Jenkins.\n\n## Aftermath\n\n### Performance and impact\n\nCriticisms of the Union performance revolve around the \"woefully inadequate\" cavalry positioning. The decision to have Sheridan's most inexperienced general, Wilson, lead the smallest cavalry division to scout the Union army's right flank was not a good one. Wilson's 3rd Cavalry Division was not of sufficient size to screen the Union front by itself, and Wilson got his division cut off from the remainder of the Union army. Earlier, Wilson's inexperience caused him to fail to leave pickets on the Orange Turnpike—resulting in a surprise for the Union infantry and contributing to the Union Army being forced to fight in the Wilderness. Additionally, the decision to have the cavalry abandon Todd's Tavern on May 6 led to a delay in getting the Union army to Spotsylvania Court House. A few of the cavalry's regimental commanders fought well, such as Hammond, Brinton, and the 1st New Jersey Cavalry Regiment's Lieutenant Colonel John W. Kester. The performance of the Union infantry was also below expectations, and all four corps commanders accomplished little.\n\nDiscussions of the Confederate performance revolve around Lee, Longstreet, and Gordon. Lee put Ewell's and Hill's corps in good position to face Meade, but kept Longstreet's First Corps too far away. Hill and Ewell defended well on May 5 against enemy forces that were larger. Lee's decision to let Hill's Second Corps men to rest on the evening of May 5 instead of reforming their lines was called by historian Peter S. Carmichael \"a horrendous decision, maybe the worst of his career\". Longstreet's men fought well under his direction, but they enjoyed only brief success after Longstreet retired from the field wounded. Longstreet, surely aware that Jackson was mortally wounded by friendly-fire in the same Wilderness a year earlier, disregarded advice and rode into friendly-fire where he was wounded and others were killed. Ewell and his Second Corps defended well, and the criticism of Ewell and Early by Gordon for delaying his flanking maneuver is not justified. Early had received (incorrect) intelligence that the Union IX Corps was moving between the river and the Confederate left flank, which contributed to his caution against using his outnumbered troops to attack the entrenched Union infantry.\n\nThe Battle of the Wilderness had no obvious winner, and neither side was driven from the battlefield. The National Park Service calls the battle \"indecisive\". One historian says that Lee won a victory because he fought Grant to a standoff, but he also adds that the battle was a failure for the Confederacy because it was unable to maintain the initiative and Lee's offensive capacity was eliminated. A major point discussed by historians is that after the battle, Grant did not retreat north across the nearest river—like other leaders earlier in the war. Instead, the Union army continued south presenting a threat to Lee's army and the Confederate capital city of Richmond. This was the first time in a Virginia campaign that the Army of the Potomac continued on the offensive after an initial battle, and morale was boosted to the point that the Union soldiers sang as they marched south. Sherman called this movement \"the grandest act of [Grant's] life\", and added that he now felt \"that the rebellion will be crushed\". The battle confirmed a warning made by Longstreet to Lee about Grant, that he would fight \"every day and every hour till the end of the war\". By April 1865, Lee's army needed supplies and his men were starving. His army was trapped between Sheridan's and Meade's forces. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered his army to Grant after the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse.\n\n### Preservation\n\nPortions of the Wilderness battlefield are preserved as part of Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park, established in 1927 to memorialize the battlefields of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Spotsylvania Court House, and the Wilderness. In addition to the land that has been protected by the National Park Service, two major volunteer organizations have been active in preservation activities. The Friends of the Wilderness Battlefield have been active in helping to preserve and enhance Ellwood Manor (the Lacy House), which was the headquarters for Major General Warren during the battle and is the site of a family cemetery where Confederate Lieutenant General Stonewall Jackson's arm was buried. The American Battlefield Trust has saved more than 294 acres (119 ha) through mid-2023.", "revid": "1160291521", "description": "Major battle of the American Civil War", "categories": ["1864 in Virginia", "Battles commanded by Ulysses S. Grant", "Battles of the American Civil War in Virginia", "Battles of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War", "Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park", "Inconclusive battles of the American Civil War", "May 1864 events", "Overland Campaign"]}
{"id": "896953", "url": null, "title": "William Hanna", "text": "William Denby \"Bill\" Hanna (July 14, 1910 – March 22, 2001) was an American animator and cartoonist who was the creator of Tom and Jerry as well as the voice actor for the two title characters. Alongside Joseph Barbera, he also founded the animation studio and production company Hanna-Barbera.\n\nHanna joined the Harman and Ising animation studio in 1930 and steadily gained skill and prominence while working on cartoons such as Captain and the Kids. In 1937, while working at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Hanna met Joseph Barbera. In 1957, they co-founded Hanna-Barbera, which became the most successful television animation studio in the business, creating or producing programs such as The Flintstones, The Huckleberry Hound Show, The Jetsons, Scooby-Doo, The Smurfs, and Yogi Bear. In 1967, Hanna-Barbera was sold to Taft Broadcasting for \\$12 million, but Hanna and Barbera remained heads of the company until 1991. At that time, the studio was sold to Turner Broadcasting System, which in turn was merged with Time Warner in 1996; Hanna and Barbera stayed on as advisors.\n\nTom and Jerry won seven Academy Awards, while Hanna and Barbera were nominated for two others and won eight Emmy Awards. Their cartoons have become cultural icons, and their cartoon characters have appeared in other media such as films, books, and toys. Hanna-Barbera's shows had a worldwide audience of over 300 million people in their 1960s heyday, and have been translated into more than 28 languages.\n\n## Early and personal life\n\nWilliam Hanna was born to William John (1873–1949) and Avice Joyce (Denby) Hanna (1882–1956) on July 14, 1910, in Melrose, New Mexico Territory. He was the third of seven children. Hanna described his family as \"a red-blooded, Irish-American family\". His father was a construction superintendent for railroads as well as water and sewer systems throughout the western regions of America, requiring the family to move frequently.\n\nWhen Hanna was three years old, the family moved to Baker City, Oregon, where his father worked on the Balm Creek Dam. It was there that Hanna would develop his love of the outdoors. The family moved to Logan, Utah, before moving to San Pedro, California, in 1917. During the next two years they moved several times before eventually settling in Watts, California, in 1919.\n\nIn 1922, while living in Watts, he joined the Boy Scouts. He attended Compton High School from 1925 through 1928, where he played the saxophone in a dance band. His passion for music carried over into his career; he helped write songs for his cartoons, including the theme for The Flintstones. Hanna became an Eagle Scout as a youth and remained active in Scouting throughout his life. As an adult, he served as a Scoutmaster and was recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with their Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in 1985. Despite his numerous career-related awards, Hanna was most proud of this Distinguished Eagle Scout Award. His interests also included sailing and singing in a barbershop quartet. Hanna studied both journalism and structural engineering at Compton City College, but had to drop out of college with the onset of the Great Depression.\n\nOn August 7, 1936, Hanna married Violet Blanch Wogatzke (July 23, 1913 – July 10, 2014), and they had a marriage lasting over 64 years, until his death. The marriage produced two children, David William and Bonnie Jean, and seven grandchildren. In 1996, Hanna, with assistance from Los Angeles writer Tom Ito, published his autobiography—Joe Barbera had published his own two years earlier.\n\n## Early career\n\nAfter dropping out of college, Hanna worked briefly as a construction engineer and helped build the Pantages Theatre in Hollywood. He lost that job during the Great Depression and found another at a car wash. His sister's boyfriend encouraged him to apply for a job at Pacific Title and Art, which produced title cards for motion pictures. While working there, Hanna's talent for drawing became evident, and in 1930 he joined the Harman and Ising animation studio, which had created the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series. Despite a lack of formal training, Hanna soon became head of their ink and paint department. Besides inking and painting, Hanna also wrote songs and lyrics. For the first several years of Hanna's employment, the studio partnered with Pacific Title and Art's Leon Schlesinger, who released the Harman-Ising output through Warner Bros. When Hugh Harman and Rudolph Ising chose to break with Schlesinger and begin producing cartoons independently for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) in 1933, Hanna was one of the employees who followed them.\n\nHanna was given the opportunity to direct his first cartoon in 1936; the result was To Spring, part of the Harman-Ising Happy Harmonies series. The following year, MGM decided to terminate their partnership with Harman-Ising and bring production in-house. Hanna was among the first people MGM hired away from Harman-Ising to their new cartoon studio. During 1938–1939, he served as a senior director on MGM's Captain and the Kids series, based upon the comic strip of the same name (an alternate version of the Katzenjammer Kids that had resulted from a 1914 lawsuit). The series did not do well; consequently, Hanna was demoted to a story man and the series was canceled. Hanna's desk at MGM was opposite that of Joseph Barbera, who had previously worked at Terrytoons. The two quickly realized they would make a good team. By 1939 they had solidified a partnership that would last over 60 years. Hanna and Barbera worked alongside animation director Tex Avery, who had created Daffy Duck and Bugs Bunny for Warner Bros. and directed Droopy cartoons at MGM.\n\n## Tom and Jerry\n\nIn 1940, Hanna and Barbera jointly directed Puss Gets the Boot, which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best (Cartoon) Short Subject. The studio wanted a diversified cartoon portfolio, so despite the success of Puss Gets the Boot, Hanna and Barbera's supervisor, Fred Quimby, did not want to produce more cat and mouse cartoons. Surprised by the success of Puss Gets the Boot, Hanna and Barbera ignored Quimby's resistance and continued developing the cat-and-mouse theme. By this time, however, Hanna wanted to return to working for Ising, to whom he felt very loyal. Hanna and Barbera met with Quimby, who discovered that although Ising had taken sole credit for producing Puss Gets the Boot, he never actually worked on it. Quimby, who had wanted to start a new animation unit independent of Ising, then gave Hanna and Barbera permission to pursue their cat-and-mouse idea. The result was their most famous creation, Tom and Jerry.\n\nModeled after the Puss Gets the Boot characters with slight differences, the series followed Jerry, the rodent who continually outwitted his feline foe, Tom. Hanna said they settled on the cat and mouse theme for this cartoon because: \"We knew we needed two characters. We thought we needed conflict, and chase and action. And a cat after a mouse seemed like a good, basic thought.\" The revamped characters first appeared in 1941's The Midnight Snack. Over the next 17 years Hanna and Barbera worked almost exclusively on Tom and Jerry, directing more than 114 highly popular cartoon shorts. During World War II they also made animated training films. Tom and Jerry relied mostly on motion instead of dialog. Despite its popularity, Tom and Jerry has often been criticized as excessively violent. Nonetheless, the series won its first Academy Award for the 11th short, The Yankee Doodle Mouse (1943)—a war-time adventure. Tom and Jerry was ultimately nominated for 14 Academy Awards, winning 7. No other character-based theatrical animated series has won more awards, nor has any other series featuring the same characters. Tom and Jerry also made guest appearances in several of MGM's live-action films, including Anchors Aweigh (1945) and Invitation to the Dance (1956) with Gene Kelly, and Dangerous When Wet (1953) with Esther Williams.\n\nQuimby accepted each Academy Award for Tom and Jerry without inviting Hanna and Barbera onstage. The cartoons were also released with Quimby listed as the sole producer, following the same practice for which he had condemned Ising. When Quimby retired in late 1955, Hanna and Barbera were placed in charge of MGM's animation division. As the studio began to lose more revenue due to television, MGM soon realized that re-releasing old cartoons was far more profitable than producing new ones. In 1957, MGM ordered Hanna and Barbera's business manager to close the cartoon division and lay off everyone by a phone call. Hanna and Barbera found the no-notice closure puzzling because Tom and Jerry had been so successful.\n\n## Television\n\nDuring his last year at MGM, Hanna branched out into television, forming the short-lived company Shield Productions with fellow animator Jay Ward, who had created the series Crusader Rabbit. Their partnership soon ended, and in 1957 Hanna reteamed with Joseph Barbera to produce cartoons for television and theatrical release. The two brought different skills to the company; Barbera was a skilled gag writer and sketch artist, while Hanna had a gift for timing, story construction, and recruiting top artists. Major business decisions would be made together, though each year the title of president alternated between them. A coin toss determined that Hanna would have precedence in the naming of the new company, first called H-B Enterprises but soon changed to Hanna-Barbera Productions. Barbera and Hanna's MGM colleague George Sidney, the director of Anchors Aweigh, became the third partner and business manager in the company, and arranged a deal for distribution and working capital with Screen Gems, the television division of Columbia Pictures, who took part ownership of the new studio.\n\nThe first offering from the new company was The Ruff & Reddy Show, a series which detailed the friendship between a dog and cat. Despite a lukewarm response for their first theatrical venture, Loopy De Loop, Hanna-Barbera soon established themselves with two successful television series: The Huckleberry Hound Show and The Yogi Bear Show. A 1960 survey showed that half of the viewers of Huckleberry Hound were adults. This prompted the company to create a new animated series, The Flintstones. A parody of The Honeymooners, the new show followed a typical Stone Age family with home appliances, talking animals, and celebrity guests. With an audience of both children and adults, The Flintstones became the first animated prime-time show to be a hit. Fred Flintstone's signature exclamation \"yabba dabba doo\" soon entered everyday usage, and the show boosted the studio to the top of the TV cartoon field. The company later produced a space-age version of The Flintstones, known as The Jetsons. Although both shows reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s, The Flintstones was far more popular.\n\nBy the late 1960s, Hanna-Barbera Productions was the most successful television animation studio in the business. The Hanna-Barbera studio produced over 3,000 animated half-hour television shows. Among the more than 100 cartoon series and specials they produced were: Atom Ant, Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy (an imitation of the earlier Spike and Tyke MGM cartoons), Jonny Quest, Josie and the Pussycats, Magilla Gorilla, Pixie and Dixie and Mr. Jinks, Quick Draw McGraw, and Top Cat. Top Cat was based on Phil Silvers's character Sgt. Bilko, though it has been erroneously reported that Sgt. Bilko was the basis for Yogi Bear. The Hanna-Barbera studio also produced Scooby-Doo (1969–91) and The Smurfs (1981–89). The company also produced animated specials based on Alice in Wonderland, Jack and the Beanstalk, Cyrano de Bergerac, as well as the feature-length film Charlotte's Web (1973).\n\nAs popular as their cartoons were with 1960s audiences, they were disliked by artists. Television programs had lower budgets than theatrical animation, and this economic reality caused many animation studios to go out of business in the 1950s and 1960s, putting many people in the industry out of work. Hanna-Barbera was key in the development of limited animation, which allowed television animation to be more cost-effective, but also reduced quality. Hanna and Barbera had first experimented with these techniques in the early days of Tom and Jerry. To reduce the cost of each episode, shows often focused more on character dialogue than detailed animation. The number of drawings for a seven-minute cartoon decreased from 14,000 to nearly 2,000, and the company implemented innovative techniques such as rapid background changes to improve viewing. Reviewers criticized the change from vivid, detailed animation to repetitive movements by two-dimensional characters. Barbera once said that their choice was to adapt to the television budgets or change careers. The new style did not limit the success of their animated shows, enabling Hanna–Barbera to stay in business, providing employment to many who would otherwise have been out of work. Limited animation became the standard for television animation, and continues to be used today in television programs such as The Simpsons and South Park.\n\nIn 1966, Hanna-Barbera Productions was sold to Taft Broadcasting (renamed Great American Communications in 1987) for \\$12 million. Hanna and Barbera remained at the head of the company until 1991. At that point, the company was sold to the Turner Broadcasting System for an estimated \\$320 million, which itself merged with Time Warner, owners of Warner Bros., in 1996. This began a close association with the Cartoon Network. Hanna and Barbera continued to advise their former company and periodically worked on new Hanna-Barbera shows, including The Cartoon Cartoon Show series and hit silver screen versions of The Flintstones (1994) and Scooby-Doo (2002).\n\n## Death\n\nHanna died of esophageal cancer at his home in North Hollywood, Los Angeles, California on March 22, 2001, at the age of 90. After his death, Cartoon Network aired a 20-second segment with black dots tracing Hanna's portrait with the words \"We'll miss you – Cartoon Network\" fading in on the right-hand side. This same type of tribute happened for Chuck Jones in 2002 and Hanna's partner, Joseph Barbera in 2006, when each of them died. However, Barbera, unlike the other two, had an audio clip of his voice playing in his Cartoon Network promotional tribute. Hanna is buried at Ascension Cemetery in Lake Forest, California.\n\n## Legacy\n\nMost of the cartoons Hanna and Barbera created revolved around close friendship or partnership; this theme is evident with Yogi Bear and Boo Boo, Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble, Ruff and Reddy, The Jetsons family, and the friends in Scooby-Doo. These may have been a reflection of the close business friendship and partnership that Hanna and Barbera shared for almost 60 years. Professionally, they balanced each other's strengths and weaknesses very well, but Hanna and Barbera traveled in completely different social circles. Hanna's personal friends primarily included other animators; Barbera tended to socialize with Hollywood celebrities. Their division of work roles complemented each other but they rarely talked outside of work since Hanna was interested in the outdoors and Barbera liked beaches, good food and drink. Nevertheless, in their long partnership, in which they worked with over 2,000 animated characters, Hanna and Barbera rarely exchanged a cross word. Barbera said: \"We understood each other perfectly, and each of us had deep respect for the other's work.\"\n\nHanna is considered one of the all-time great animators and on a par with Tex Avery. Hanna and Barbera were among the most successful animators on the cinema screen and successfully adapted to the change television brought to the industry. Leonard Maltin says the Hanna–Barbera team \"[may] hold a record for producing consistently superior cartoons using the same characters year after year—without a break or change in routine. Their characters are not only animated superstars, but also a very beloved part of American pop culture\". They are often considered as Walt Disney's only rivals as cartoonists.\n\nHanna and Barbera had a lasting impact on television animation. Cartoons they created often make greatest lists. Many of their characters have appeared in film, books, toys, and other media. During the 1960s their TV shows had a worldwide audience of over 300 million people and have since been translated into more than 20 languages. The works of Hanna and Barbera also have been recognized for their music, such as The Cat Concerto (1946) and Johann Mouse (1952), called \"masterpieces of animation\" in part due to their use of classical music.\n\nIn all, the Hanna–Barbera team won seven Academy Awards and eight Emmy Awards, including the 1960 award for The Huckleberry Hound Show, which was the first Emmy awarded to an animated series. They also won these awards: Golden Globe for Television Achievement (1960), Golden IKE Award—Pacific Pioneers in Broadcasting (1983), Pioneer Award—Broadcast Music Incorporated (1987), Iris Award—NATPE Men of the Year (1988), Licensing Industry Merchandisers' Association Award for Lifetime Achievement (1988), Governors Award of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (1988), Jackie Coogan Award for Outstanding Contribution to Youth through Entertainment Youth in Film (1988), Frederic W. Ziv Award for Outstanding Achievement in Telecommunications—Broadcasting Division College—Conservatory of Music University of Cincinnati (1989), stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (1976), several Annie Awards, several environmental awards, and were recipients of numerous other accolades prior to their induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1994. In March 2005 the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences and Warner Bros. Animation dedicated a wall sculpture at the Television Academy's Hall of Fame Plaza in North Hollywood to Hanna and Barbera.\n\nHanna's audio of Tom Cat's screams and various vocal effects he provided for the cat and mouse from the original Tom and Jerry cartoons over at MGM back in the 1940s and 1950s were reused in the 2006 direct-to-video film, Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers, Tom and Jerry Tales (2006-2008 TV series, several season 1 episodes), The Tom and Jerry Show (2014 TV series), Tom & Jerry (2021 film), Tom and Jerry Special Shorts (2021 series), Tom and Jerry in New York (2021 series), the upcoming educational TV series, Tom and Jerry Time (previously known as Tom and Jerry Junior) (2022 series), the recent direct-to-video film, Tom and Jerry: Cowboy Up! (2022 film), the Holiday direct-to-video film, Tom and Jerry: Snowman's Land (2022 film) and the video game, MultiVersus (2022 video game). Outside of Tom and Jerry, his screams were modified for the Critters in Critters 2 and Critters 3, it also was used in the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only and for the caveman in the game Prehistorik Man.\n\n## See also\n\n- Golden age of American animation\n- Tom and Jerry filmography\n- List of works produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions\n- Peace on Earth (remade by Hanna and Barbera as Good Will to Men)\n- Tom and Jerry awards and nominations\n- Tom and Jerry: The Movie", "revid": "1173558596", "description": "American animator and cartoonist (1910–2001)", "categories": ["1910 births", "2001 deaths", "20th-century American artists", "20th-century American screenwriters", "American animated film directors", "American animated film producers", "American animators", "American cartoonists", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male voice actors", "American people of Irish descent", "American voice directors", "Animal impersonators", "Animation screenwriters", "Animators from New Mexico", "Compton High School alumni", "Daytime Emmy Award winners", "Deaths from cancer in California", "Deaths from esophageal cancer", "Directors of Best Animated Short Academy Award winners", "El Camino College Compton Center alumni", "Film directors from Los Angeles", "Film directors from New Mexico", "Hanna-Barbera people", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio people", "People from Curry County, New Mexico", "Primetime Emmy Award winners", "Television producers from California"]}
{"id": "30959340", "url": null, "title": "SMS Berlin", "text": "SMS Berlin (\"His Majesty's Ship Berlin\") was the second member of the seven-vessel Bremen class of light cruisers, built for the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) in the early 1900s. She and her sister ships were ordered under the 1898 Naval Law that required new cruisers be built to replace obsolete vessels in the fleet. The design for the Bremen class was derived from the preceding Gazelle class, utilizing a larger hull that allowed for additional boilers that increased speed. Named for the German capital of Berlin, the ship was armed with a main battery of ten 10.5 cm (4.1 in) guns and had a top speed of 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph).\n\nBerlin served with the main fleet's scouting forces for the majority of her early career; during this period, she conducted unit and fleet training exercises, visits to foreign countries, and in 1908 and 1909, several long-distance training cruises into the central Atlantic. In 1911, the ship was involved in the Agadir Crisis over the French annexation of part of Morocco, which resulted in a diplomatic defeat for Germany. Berlin was reduced to reserve status in late 1912, remaining out of service until the start of World War I in July 1914. She was used to support German coastal defense forces and to scout for the High Seas Fleet; on two different occasions, she had to tow her sister ship Danzig back to port after the latter struck naval mines, and she had to tow her sister München after that vessel was torpedoed by a submarine. Berlin was reduced to a tender in early 1917 and saw no further active service for the rest of the war.\n\nAmong the handful of vessels permitted to Weimar Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, Berlin was initially used as a stationary training vessel before being modernized between 1921 and 1922. She thereafter served as a training ship for naval cadets, and over the course of the mid-1920s, embarked a series of long-distance training cruises. The furthest of these, lasting from late 1927 to early 1929, saw the ship voyage as far as East Asia. She was decommissioned in March 1929 and kept in reserve until 1935, when she was converted into a barracks ship, a role she filled through World War II. After the war, she was loaded with chemical weapons and scuttled in the Skagerrak in 1947.\n\n## Design\n\nThe German 1898 Naval Law called for the replacement of the fleet's older cruising vessels—steam corvettes, unprotected cruisers, and avisos—with modern light cruisers. The first tranche of vessels to fulfill this requirement, the Gazelle class, were designed to serve both as fleet scouts and as station ships in Germany's colonial empire. They provided the basis for subsequent designs, beginning with the Bremen class that was designed in 1901–1903. The principle improvements consisted of a larger hull that allowed for an additional pair of boilers and a higher top speed.\n\nBerlin was 111.1 meters (365 ft) long overall and had a beam of 13.3 m (44 ft) and a draft of 5.51 m (18.1 ft) forward. She displaced 3,278 metric tons (3,226 long tons) as designed and up to 3,792 t (3,732 long tons) at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of two triple-expansion steam engines with steam provided by ten coal-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers. Her propulsion system was rated at 10,000 metric horsepower (9,900 ihp) for a top speed of 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph). Berlin carried up to 860 t (850 long tons) of coal, which gave her a range of 4,270 nautical miles (7,910 km; 4,910 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). She had a crew of 14 officers and 274–287 enlisted men.\n\nThe ship was armed with ten 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/40 guns in single mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, six were located amidships, three on either side, and two were placed side by side aft. The guns could engage targets out to 12,200 m (13,300 yd). They were supplied with 1,500 rounds of ammunition, for 150 shells per gun. For defense against torpedo boats, she carried ten 3.7 cm (1.5 in) Maxim guns in individual mounts. She was also equipped with two 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes. They were submerged in the hull on the broadside. In 1915, Berlin was modified to carry 80 naval mines. The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm (3.1 in) thick. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides, and the guns were protected by 50 mm (2 in) thick gun shields.\n\n## Service history\n\n### Construction – 1910\n\nBerlin was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Zieten and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Danzig in 1902. She was launched on 22 September 1903, and the Mayor of Berlin, Martin Kirschner, gave a speech and christened the ship. After completing fitting-out work, she was commissioned for sea trials on 4 April 1905. Initial testing lasted until 15 June, and she immediately thereafter joined Hohenzollern, the yacht of Kaiser Wilhelm II, on a voyage that began on 18 June. The ships went to a series of sailing regattas over the course of the next few weeks; the first was in the Elbe river, followed by Kiel Week, and finally Travemünde Week. The two ships then embarked on the Kaiser's annual summer cruise in July, during which they visited Gefle, Norway, from 12 to 16 July. There, Wilhelm II was met by King Oscar II of what was then Sweden–Norway. Berlin then escorted Hohenzollern for a cruise into the Baltic Sea that culminated with a visit to the island of Björkö, off the coast of Finland; there, Wilhelm met his cousin, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia between 23 and 24 July. The voyage concluded with a visit to Copenhagen, Denmark, from 31 July to 3 August, where Wilhelm met with King Christian IX of Denmark. Berlin arrived back in Kiel, German, on 8 August.\n\nThe ship was then assigned to the fleet, though she did not take part in the annual fleet maneuvers held in late August and early September. Following the conclusion of the exercises, Korvettenkapitän (KK—Corvette Captain) Hugo Kraft took command of the ship. She officially joined the fleet's Reconnaissance Unit on 29 September, taking the place of the light cruiser Amazone that was decommissioned at that time; Amazone's crew transferred to Berlin, replacing her initial crew that had been assembled just for trials. Berlin then joined the other vessels of the Reconnaissance Unit for squadron training in the Baltic in November. Fleet maneuvers in the North Sea followed in December. The years 1906 and 1907 consisted of a similar routine of training exercises: unit exercises were held in the North Sea and the Skagerrak early in the year, followed by fleet maneuvers in May and June, summer cruises in July and August, and the annual large-scale fleet maneuvers held every August and September. Further unit and fleet maneuvers were conducted toward the end of both years. In October 1907, Fregattenkapitän (FK—Frigate Captain) Arthur Tapken relieved Kraft as the ship's commander.\n\nAt the urging of the commander of the High Seas Fleet, Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia, the fleet conducted four major training cruises into the Atlantic Ocean in early 1908 and 1909. In both years, the fleet cruised to Spain twice, in February and July. During the February cruises, Berlin visited Vigo, Spain, and during the July cruises, she stopped in A Coruña, Spain, and Horta, Azores in 1908 and Vilagarcía in 1909. Berlin escorted Wilhelm II on another cruise abroad, this time with the Kaiser aboard the fleet flagship, the pre-dreadnought battleship Deutschland, on a cruise to Helgoland and then to Bremerhaven that lasted from 8 to 11 March 1908. The routine of unit and fleet maneuvers followed the same pattern as in previous years. In 1910, Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff replaced Heinrich as the fleet commander, and he ended the program of Atlantic cruises, instead preferring to focus on training exercises in the North and Baltic Seas. The year's summer cruise returned to Norwegian waters. In September, KK Heinrich Löhlein took command of the ship.\n\n### Agadir Crisis\n\nThe year 1911 began with a squadron cruise to Norway. In May, Berlin was dry-docked for several weeks for maintenance, after which she rejoined the fleet for maneuvers in the Baltic Sea that ended with a cruise back to the North Sea and a visit to Emden. On 27 June, Berlin's crew received orders to deploy to the coast of west Africa during the Agadir Crisis to replace the gunboat Panther there. She got underway the following day and passed through the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. She steamed through the Strait of Dover during the night of 30 June – 1 July and reached Agadir, Morocco, three days later. Since there was no way to coal Berlin in Moroccan waters, the German command decided to retain Panther so that a German warship could be kept on station at all times. On 20 July, the gunboat Eber arrived to relieve Panther, allowing her to return to Germany. While they operated in Agadir, Berlin and Eber made alternating trips to Las Palmas in the Canary Islands to replenish their coal stocks.\n\nWhile Berlin was in Agadir, a French Army unit disguised as merchants entered the port and raised the French tricolor over the city's kasbah and announced the French annexation of the port. Löhlein telegraphed the German command in Berlin to determine what course of action he should take in view of the French provocation, and he was instructed to avoid conflict. The dispute was eventually resolved diplomatically, and the French flag was temporarily removed from the kasbah, though the crisis was resolved with Germany accepting the French position in Morocco and marked a serious defeat for German interests in Africa. The deployment was marked by trouble communicating between Berlin and the long-range Nauen Transmitter Station in Germany, as French stations in the region would not relay German signals; Berlin was forced to rely on merchant ships fitted with transmitters in the area to communicate with the German government.\n\nBy October, the situation had calmed, and the planned change of command for Berlin was able to take place as scheduled on 3 November, with FK Wilhelm Tägert replacing Löhlein. Berlin and Eber were thereafter recalled, and the cruiser got underway on 28 November. On the way back, she visited Mogador, Casablanca, and Tangiers in French North Africa. While passing through the Bay of Biscay, she encountered a severe storm that damaged the ship and delayed her voyage north by five days. She had to stop at Portsmouth, Britain, to coal and repair some of the storm damage. She passed back through the Strait of Dover on 12 December and arrived back in Kiel two days later.\n\nAfter returning home, Berlin was assigned to the Reconnaissance Unit. She participated in squadron and fleet maneuvers held in the North Sea in February and March 1912. Another series of exercises were held in the Baltic in July and August, followed by the annual fleet maneuvers in August and September. On 27 September, she arrived in Kiel where Tägert and part of the crew left the ship to prepare the new cruiser Strassburg to be commissioned on 1 October. The rest of Berlin's crew took the ship to Wilhelmshaven, where she was decommissioned on 29 October and placed in reserve, where she remained through mid-1914.\n\n### World War I\n\nWith the outbreak of World War I in July 1914, Berlin was reactivated as part of Germany's mobilization for the conflict. She was recommissioned on 17 August under the command of FK Friedrich von Bülow and conducted a short period of sea trials and individual training from 3 to 17 September. While she was still working up, Berlin was assigned as the flotilla leader for the torpedo boat flotilla stationed in Jade Bay. Bülow at that time commanded both the ship and the flotilla, but on 17 September, she was instead transferred to IV Scouting Group, her place in the Jade flotilla being taken by the coastal defense ship Siegfried. IV Scouting Group then assembled in the western Baltic for training exercises. The ships were temporarily allocated to the Coastal Defense Division of the Baltic Sea and were tasked with patrolling the area off Langeland in the Danish straits from 27 September to 2 October. The next day, the ships were transferred to the German Bight, where they supported the patrols guarding the German North Sea coast.\n\nBerlin remained there through 24 October 1915, though the rest of IV Scouting Group typically operated with the High Seas Fleet through 1915. During this period, Berlin joined the ships of II Scouting Group to cover a minelaying operation in the area of the Swarte Bank from 17 to 18 April. During another minelaying operation off the Dogger Bank on 18 May, Berlin's sister ship Danzig struck a British mine and Berlin took her under tow until the tugboat Boreas arrived and took over. Berlin was overhauled between 30 July and 28 August and she was retrofitted to carry eighty mines. The ship was detached from IV Scouting Group on 24 October and transferred to the Baltic Sea Naval Forces, being moved to Kiel that day. She got underway the next day in company with the light cruiser Stuttgart and V Torpedo-boat Flotilla, bound for Libau. After arriving, she joined the Reconnaissance Ships of the Eastern Baltic and then steamed north to Windau, where she replaced her sister ship Bremen. Berlin had to tow Danzig, which had struck another mine, back to Neufahrwassar from 25 to 26 November.\n\nIn late 1915 and early 1916, the Germans significantly reduced naval forces in the Baltic and Berlin was transferred back to IV Scouting Group. She left the eastern Baltic on 6 January 1916 in company with the pre-dreadnoughts Braunschweig and Mecklenburg and X Torpedo-boat Flotilla and arrived in Kiel the next day. From there, she proceeded through the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal to Wilhelmshaven, arriving the following day. After completing a short overhaul there, she rejoined the unit on 3 February and resumed patrol duties in the German Bight. She participated in a pair of fleet sorties on 3–4 and 25–26 March, both of which went as far as the Amrun Bank, and neither of which encountered British forces. On 18 May, she was dry-docked for another overhaul, so she was unavailable when the fleet sortied for the operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June. Berlin emerged from the shipyard on 8 June.\n\nWhile on patrol in company with her sister München on 19 October, Berlin was attacked by the British submarine HMS E38. The torpedo launched at Berlin missed, but the one that E38 launched at München found its mark. Berlin took her damaged sister under tow back to port, though she was relieved the next day by a shipyard tugboat. In December, Berlin was transferred to II Scouting Group, but her stay there was short-lived, since on 14 January 1917 she was reassigned to coastal patrol duty in the North Sea. In early February she moved to Kiel and then to Danzig on the 5th; there, she was decommissioned on 11 February. She was disarmed and converted into a tender for the commander of coastal defense forces in the Baltic, serving in that role from 26 April 1918 to the end of the war in November.\n\n### Later career\n\nBerlin was among the six light cruisers Germany was permitted to retain by the Treaty of Versailles that ended the war. She was initially used as a training hulk for boiler room crews; she was moved to Kiel on 16 December 1919 for this role, which she filled for the next year and a half. During this period, Oberleutnant zur See (First Lieutenant) Clamor von Trotha served as the ship's commander from December 1920 to April 1921, when he was briefly replaced by KL Hans Walther. By mid-1921, the post-war German navy, the Reichsmarine (Navy of the Realm) had decided to reactivate the vessel to serve as a training ship for naval cadets and she was transferred to Wilhelmshaven, where she was decommissioned on 10 June and dry-docked for a thorough overhaul and modernization. The work included replacing her original ram bow with a more modern clipper bow. She was recommissioned on 2 July 1922, under the command of KzS Wilfried von Loewenfeld, and was assigned to the Naval Training Inspectorate. Later that year, she embarked on a training cruise that included port calls in Scandinavian and Dutch cities. The following year saw a lengthy training cruise during which the ship visited Norway, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. In October 1923, KzS Paul Wülfing von Ditten replaced Loewenfeld.\n\nOn 15 January 1924, Berlin embarked on the first major overseas cruise by a German warship since the end of the war. She traveled into the central Atlantic, visiting Ponta Delgada in the Azores, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, Funchal in Madeira, and Cartagena, Spain. She arrived back in Kiel on 18 March. The ship took part in the annual fleet maneuvers held in August and September that year, during which she hosted Otto Gessler, the Minister of the Reichswehr. The next major training cruise began on 1 November and went as far as Central and South America. Berlin stopped in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, Cartagena, Colombia, Veracruz, Mexico, Havana, Cuba, La Guaira, Venezuela, San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Ponta Delgada during the voyage. While passing through the Bay of Biscay on the way back to Germany, she encountered a severe storm. Berlin reached Kiel on 16 March 1925. KzS Ernst Junkermann relieved Ditten as the ship's commander in July.\n\nThe next major cruise began on 9 September; this time, Berlin cruised as far as the western coast of South America. She visited Ponta Delgada, Hamilton, Bermuda, Port au Prince, Haiti, Colón, Venezuela, Puerto Madryn, Argentina, Guayaquil, Ecuador, Callao, Peru, and several ports in Chile, including Valparaiso, Corral, Talcahuano, and Punta Arenas. After returning to the Atlantic, she stopped in Mar del Plata and Buenos Aires, Argentina, Montevideo, Uruguay, and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She then steamed back to European waters, stopping in Vigo, Spain, before arriving in Kiel on 22 March 1926. Her crew was reduced there until 25 September, since the new light cruiser Emden would be taking her place as a training vessel. At the same time, FK Hans Kolbe took command of the vessel. Berlin was transferred from the Naval Training Inspectorate to the Marinestation der Ostsee (Baltic Sea Naval Station) for service with the fleet. She and the other vessels of the fleet conducted a long-range cruise to the central Atlantic between April and June 1927, which included visits to Santa Cruz de Tenerife, various ports in the Azores, and cities in Portugal and Spain. While in Horta, Spain, on 19 May, Berlin assisted a Portuguese sailing ship that had been in danger of sinking.\n\nAfter the fleet maneuvers that concluded with a naval review for President Paul von Hindenburg on 14 September, Hindenburg moved from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein to Berlin, which carried him to Königsberg in East Prussia. After Berlin's sister Hamburg was decommissioned earlier that year on 30 June, the decision was made to return Berlin to the Naval Training Inspectorate. She was reassigned on 1 October, and she began her furthest training cruise on 1 December. This voyage, which lasted some fifteen months, took the ship as far as East Asia. During the cruise, she stopped in Fremantle, Australia. Berlin arrived back in Cuxhaven on 7 March 1929; from there, she was moved to Kiel, where she was decommissioned for the last time on 27 March. She remained in reserve until 1 October 1935, at which time the German navy, by then renamed the Kriegsmarine (War Navy), struck the ship from the naval register and then employed the vessel as a barracks ship in Kiel. There, she survived World War II; in the aftermath of the war, she was loaded with chemical weapons and scuttled in the Skaggerak to dispose of them, on 31 May 1947.", "revid": "1166151700", "description": "Light cruiser of the German Imperial Navy", "categories": ["1903 ships", "Bremen-class cruisers", "Maritime incidents in 1947", "Scuttled vessels of Germany", "Ships built in Danzig", "Shipwrecks of Denmark"]}
{"id": "8964599", "url": null, "title": "Ollagüe", "text": "Ollagüe () or Ullawi () is a massive andesite stratovolcano in the Andes on the border between Bolivia and Chile, within the Antofagasta Region of Chile and the Potosi Department of Bolivia. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, its highest summit is 5,868 metres (19,252 ft) above sea level and features a summit crater that opens to the south. The western rim of the summit crater is formed by a compound of lava domes, the youngest of which features a vigorous fumarole that is visible from afar.\n\nOllagüe is mostly of Pleistocene age. It started developing more than one million years ago, forming the so-called Vinta Loma and Santa Rosa series mostly of andesitic lava flows. A fault bisects the edifice and two large landslides occurred in relation to it. Later two groups of dacitic lava domes formed, Ch'aska Urqu on the southeastern slope and La Celosa on the northwestern. Another centre named La Poruñita formed at that time on the western foot of the volcano, but it is not clear whether it is part of the main Ollagüe system. Activity at the summit continued during this time, forming the El Azufre sequence.\n\nThis phase of edifice growth was interrupted by a major collapse of the western flank of Ollagüe. Debris from the collapse spread in the form of hummocks down the western slope and into an adjacent salt pan, splitting it in two. The occurrence of this collapse was perhaps facilitated by a major crustal lineament that crosses Ollagüe from southeast to northwest. Later volcanic activity filled up the collapse scar, forming the Santa Cecilia series. This series includes lava flows as well as a compound lava dome on the western rim of the summit crater, which represent the youngest volcanic activity of Ollagüe. While there is no clear evidence of historical eruptions at Ollagüe, the volcano is considered to be potentially active and is monitored by the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) of Chile. Hydrothermal alteration has formed sulfur deposits on the volcano, which is the site of several sulfur mines. Later glaciations have formed moraines on the volcano.\n\n## Name\n\nThe original Aymara name of the volcano was Ullawi. It is derived from Aymara ullaña to see, to look at, to watch, and wi which is a nominalizing suffix to indicate a place, thus \"viewpoint\".\n\nThe common name is Ollagüe. Other alternate names are Oyague, Ollagua and Oyahué.\n\n## Geography and geomorphology\n\nOllagüe straddles the border between Chile and Bolivia, with most of the edifice lying on the Bolivian side. The Chilean portion lies in the commune of Ollague, in the El Loa province of the Antofagasta Region, while the Bolivian segment lies in the Potosi department. Towns and human sites close to Ollagüe are Amincha, Buenaventura, Cosca, El Chaco, Ollague and Santa Rosa, and the main road of Ollagüe runs along the western foot of the volcano. The mountain reportedly can be climbed from the eastern side. The occurrence of warning signs about minefields has been reported.\n\n### Regional\n\nOllagüe is part of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), one of the volcanic arcs that exist in the Andes. The Andes have segments with volcanic activity and segments without; volcanic activity occurs only where the angle of subduction is relatively steep. There are four such segments, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the CVZ, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The subducted part of the plate (slab) loses water as it sinks into the mantle, and this water and other components migrate into the mantle that lies between the subducted plate and the overlying crust (mantle wedge) and cause the formation of melts in the wedge.\n\nThe CVZ is located between 16° and 28° southern latitude, on the western margin of South America. At this latitude, 240–300 kilometres (150–190 mi) west of the CVZ, the oceanic Nazca Plate subducts steeply beneath the continental South America Plate in the Peru–Chile Trench. East of the CVZ lies the Altiplano, a plateau with average elevations of 3,800 metres (12,500 ft). The CVZ contains about 1,100 volcanoes of Cenozoic age, including Parinacota, San Pedro and Tata Sabaya. Many volcanoes in the CVZ have summit heights exceeding 5,500 metres (18,000 ft), forming the Occidental Cordillera of the Andes at these latitudes. About 34 of these volcanoes are considered to be active; most of the volcanoes have not received detailed scientific reconnaissance. A notable feature of the volcanoes of the CVZ is that they formed over a fairly thick crust, which reaches a thickness of 70 kilometres (43 mi); as a consequence contamination with crustal material has heavily affected the magmas that formed the volcanoes. The crust is not uniform along the length of the south-central CVZ because the northern segment is of Proterozoic and the southern of Paleozoic age.\n\nThe Central Andes formed first during the Paleozoic–Eocene and were worn down by erosion during the Oligocene. The recent volcanic activity started during the Miocene and includes major ignimbrite eruptions of dacitic to rhyolitic composition; such large eruptions began 23 million years ago and caused the formation of calderas like Galán. The total volume of this formation exceeds 10,000 cubic kilometres (2,400 cu mi). Stratovolcanoes also began to form 23 million years ago, although most were constructed in the last 6 million years. They are volumetrically much smaller and were formed by magmas whose composition ranges from basaltic andesite to dacite. Finally, small alkaline volcanic centres are found primarily in the back-arc region and appear to be young. A notable trait of the Central Andes are the long strike-slip faults that extend from the Eastern Cordillera northwest through the Altiplano into the volcanic arc. These include from north to south the Pastos Grandes–Lipez–Coranzuli, Calama–Olacapato–El Toro, Archibarca–Cerro Galan and Chulumpaja–Cerro Negro lineaments. Monogenetic centres are aligned on these faults.\n\n### Local\n\nOllagüe is a stratovolcano and lies isolated slightly east of the main volcanic arc. The volcano is usually covered with snow, which together with yellow and red colours gives Ollagüe a \"beautiful\" appearance. Other than some past glacial activity, the arid climate of the Altiplano region has kept erosion rates low, meaning that the volcanic edifice is well preserved. On the other hand, lack of erosion also means that relatively little of its internal structure is exposed.\n\nOllagüe has two summits, Ollagüe South is 5,868 metres (19,252 ft) high and Ollagüe North 5,863 metres (19,236 ft). Southwest of the summit is the summit crater 300 metres (1,000 ft) below the summit with a narrow opening towards the south, which forms the Quebrada El Azufre. The rim of the crater culminates into 5,868 metres (19,252 ft) high Ollagüe South. The western rim is formed by several lava domes. These lava domes feature landslide deposits and lava flows that emanate from the foot of the dome. Originally they were considered to be a single lava dome, before it was found that the dome is formed by four individual domes. Just north of the summit crater lies another semicircular crater rim which encircles the summit crater on its northern side and whose high point is 5,863 metres (19,236 ft) high Ollagüe North. The northeastern part of the edifice is old and affected by glaciation and the development of gullies, while the southwestern part has experienced younger activity and flank collapses. The volume of the well exposed edifice is about 85 to 91 cubic kilometres (20 to 22 cu mi) covering a surface area of 260 square kilometres (100 sq mi). Ollagüe rises about 2,065 metres (6,775 ft) above the surrounding terrain.\n\nThe volcano has a number of adventive vents on its slopes, especially the northwestern and southeastern slope. These include Ch'aska Urqu on the southeastern slope and La Celosa (4,320 metres (14,170 ft); also known as El Ingenio) on the northwestern. They lie at distances of 4–8 kilometres (2.5–5.0 mi) and 1–4 kilometres (0.62–2.49 mi) from the summit vent, respectively. The alignment of these subsidiary vents with the summit vents suggests that a N55°W striking lineament influenced their eruption; such channelling of magma along radial fractures has also been observed on other volcanoes such as Medicine Lake volcano, Mount Mazama and South Sister. A normal fault runs across the main edifice but is not aligned with these adventive vents, and the Pastos Grandes-Lipez-Coranzuli lineament intersects with the volcanic arc at Ollagüe. Fault scarps are found on the northwestern and southeastern side of the edifice. Overall, northwest trending lineaments exercised a strong influence on the tectonic development of Ollagüe, and may be the path that feeder dykes of the more recent eruptions followed. The basement undergoes extension perpendicularly to the lineament.\n\nA 700 metres (2,300 ft) wide phreatomagmatic vent named La Poruñita lies on the western slope, on the deposit formed by the sector collapse. It lies at an elevation of 3,868 metres (12,690 ft), is constructed out of tephra and formed on the sector collapse deposit. Farther up on the edifice, two cinder cones are found just north and west of the highest summit of Ollagüe.\n\nOlder volcanic centres around Ollagüe are Cerro Chijliapichina southwest (also known as Cerro Peineta), Cerro Canchajapichina south and Wanaku east of the volcano. These centres are unrelated to Ollagüe and were deeply affected by glaciation. On the eastern foot the Carcote ignimbrite crops out, a 5.9–5.5 million years old ignimbrite that is part of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex. These ignimbrites form the basement in much of the region. The Carcote ignimbrite originally formed a plateau that extended around the volcano. Off the western foot of Ollagüe lies a smaller volcanic centre that forms an effusive shield.\n\nThe Salar de Ollague is located due north, while the Salar de San Martin lies southwest and Salar de Chiguana northeast of Ollagüe. They are situated at elevations of 3,690–3,694 metres (12,106–12,119 ft). The Salar de San Martin and the Salar de Ascotán farther south form a northwest–southeast trending graben delimited by the same normal fault that crosses the edifice of Ollagüe. A ring plain formed by debris shed from Ollagüe surrounds the volcano.\n\n### Glaciation\n\nPresently, high insolation and evaporation as well as the dry climate prevent the formation of glaciers or the existence of a snow cover. Ollagüe lies in one of the driest regions of South America. Thus, the present-day snowline is higher than the volcano. Underground ice deposits have been found on Ollagüe; presumably they form through evaporation cooling.\n\nOllagüe has experienced glacial activity. Moraines are found on top of young lava flows and glacial valleys cut into the slopes. On the western side, there are remnants of a moraine girdle, which reaches an elevation of 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) on the southwestern foot of the volcano. Another possibly separate moraine girdle has been reported in the summit region, at elevations of about 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). This moraine is thought to have been formed during the Little Ice Age. The Pleistocene snowline may have occurred at elevations of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft).\n\n### Debris avalanche\n\nA major sector collapse occurred on the western flank of the edifice, with the deposit formed by the collapse extending west from it. Debris from the collapse flowed for 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) into the Salar de San Martin/Salar de Carcote, which slowed down the landslide. Only the distal sector of the collapse deposit is still visible; the parts higher up on the edifice have been buried by more recent lava domes and lava flows. The distal segment is also slightly raised compared to the more proximal parts. The collapse deposit covers a surface area of 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) and has a hummocky appearance, similar to the collapse deposit formed by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The avalanche deposit separates the Salar de San Martin from the Salar de Ollague.\n\nThe younger debris avalanche deposit has a volume of about 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi). It was believed that it occurred about 600,000–400,000 years or 800,000 ± 100,000 years ago, but dating of the andesites cut by the collapse yielded a maximum age of 292,000 ± 25,000 years ago. Later the deposit was covered by lake deposits and debris from the piedmont, and evaporites accumulated in depressions within the deposit. Several lake terraces are set into the avalanche deposit, with the traces of the highstand of Lake Tauca being recognizable; thus the sector collapse predates the highstand.\n\nAndesitic lava bombs on top of the deposit may indicate that an eruption occurred during the collapse. Indeed, pyroclastic materials have been found at the foot of the volcano within the collapse deposit, where they fill small depressions. These materials are formed by several units of pumice and ash, generated by fallout and lava dome collapses.\n\nThe sector collapse was probably caused by the edifice oversteepening as it grew, with Ollagüe reaching a critical height before the collapse. Magma pressurization probably triggered the failure, as the remnants of a lava lake in its summit indicate that magma pressure in the edifice was high at the time of the collapse. Conversely, hydrothermal alteration – which tends to weaken the stability of a volcanic edifice – was not involved in the onset of instability. The northwest–southeast cutting fault probably additionally destabilized the edifice, allowing it to fail into a southwestern direction. A previous southwesterly tilt of the basement also assisted in focusing the failure into that direction.\n\nThe sector collapse formed a 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) wide collapse scar on the upper western flank, although the summit itself was probably unaffected. This scar however was later filled by subsequent volcanic activity and modified by glaciation and is thus not conclusively identifiable.\n\nTwo old sector collapses occurred during the older stages of volcanic activity. Their collapse scars are noticeable on the southeastern-southern and northwestern areas of the summit. The first is 400 metres (1,300 ft) high and 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) long, the second 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) long and many 10 metres (33 ft) high. Hydrothermally altered breccia with block sizes of several 0.1–1 metre (3.9 in – 3 ft 3.4 in) from the first collapse fills a valley on the western slope of the volcano. Compared to the younger collapse, they are much narrower and have a highly unusual rectilinear form. These collapses occurred about 450,000 years ago along the strike of a normal fault that cuts across Ollagüe. Like in the young collapse, the summit was unaffected. The lava domes that form the western rim of the summit crater have been subject to smaller sector collapses as well.\n\n## Composition\n\nOllagüe has erupted rocks ranging from basaltic andesite to dacite. Blobs of basaltic andesite are found in all rocks from the volcano; they probably formed when mafic magma was quenched by colder felsic magma. The andesites and dacites are relatively rich in crystals. Phenocrysts in the main andesite-dacite series include amphibole, apatite, biotite, clinopyroxene, ilmenite, magnetite, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and rarely olivine, quartz and zircon. The more acidic rocks also contain rare sphene. Some of the phenocrysts are surrounded by reaction rims, suggesting that they were not in chemical equilibrium with surrounding magma. Cumulates of phenocrysts indicate their formation during the magma differentiation process.\n\nOverall, the composition of Ollagüe's rocks fits into a high-potassium calc-alkaline series. Gabbroic clots embedded in the lavas probably formed from cumulates. Xenocrysts with large reaction rims testify to a strong crustal contamination of the forming magma.\n\nAreas of hydrothermal alteration are found on Ollagüe, including in the summit crater, on its northeastern and northwestern rim and low on the northwestern slope. Alunite, gypsum and sulfur were formed by the alteration on the summit and the northwestern slope, and chalcedony, clay, kaolinite and opal are found as well.\n\nThe overall magma temperatures ranged 825–1,000 °C (1,517–1,832 °F) for the andesitic and dacitic magmas and 1,010–1,060 °C (1,850–1,940 °F) in the basaltic andesite. The magmas became cooler over time, with the post-collapse magmas being colder than the pre-collapse eruptive products. Variations in temperature between the outside and the inside of phenocrysts suggest that the magma chamber of Ollagüe was occasionally reheated by fresh magmas. Water contents of the main edifice magmas range 3-5% by weight; in the Ch'aska Urqu and La Celosa magmas the water content is less well determined, but is comparable to that of the main edifice magmas. Later research, however, has raised questions about the reliability of the method used to determine water content in magma, which may have been lower than 3–5%.\n\nElement compositions match those of other volcanoes in the CVZ. Ollagüe magmas did not exclusively form from fractional crystallization; magma mixing and crustal contamination contributed to the formation of the magmas although it is not easy to determine what the composition of contaminants was. Probably, it was in part hydrothermally altered upper crustal rock, and in part Miocene age ignimbrites that crop out close to the volcano in Bolivia. Crystal fractionation with some minor contamination by crustal components is probably the most satisfactory explanation for the magma chemistry of Ollagüe. It is however difficult to tell the relative importance of contamination vs. assimilation.\n\nThe composition data indicate that Ollagüe was underpinned by a large magma chamber that was the source of the main edifice building andesite magmas. In this main magma chamber, differentiation processes generated the andesitic and dacitic magmas from basaltic andesite. The chamber itself was chemically zoned. Episodically, new mafic magmas were injected into the magma chamber from below. Subsidiary magma chambers which developed beneath the northwestern and southeastern flank gave rise to the La Celosa and Ch'aska Urqu volcanic centres, respectively. These subsidiary pathways also allowed basaltic andesite magmas to ascend to the surface; the main magma chamber would have intercepted any mafic magmas ascending into the central vent as such mafic magmas are denser. The walls of the magma chamber were also affected by strong hydrothermal alteration processes, with weaker alteration also occurring in the walls of the subsidiary magma chambers. La Poruñita was probably formed by magmas from the floor of the main magma chamber, or from the magma that enters the magma chamber from below; it had already undergone some crustal contamination in the depths of the crust when it erupted.\n\n## Fumarolic activity\n\nA major fumarole is active on the summit of the volcano, its plume reaching heights of 100 metres (330 ft). It is strong enough that it can be seen on the ground from over 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away. The vent of the fumarole lies in the summit lava domes, more specifically in a 200 metres (660 ft) high and 350 metres (1,150 ft) wide collapse scar in the southeasternmost lava dome of the compound summit lava dome. Other volcanoes in the area with fumarolic activity include San Pedro and Putana.\n\nFumarole temperatures appear to be so low (less than 100 °C (212 °F)) that in 1989 the exhalations could not be detected in the Thematic Mapper infrared band of the Landsat satellite even during night. More recent satellite observations have shown the existence of hotspots with temperature anomalies of about 5 K (9.0 °F); the relatively poor visibility of the hotspots in satellite images contrasts with the good visibility of the fumarole from the ground and may reflect the relatively small surface area of the hotspots, which makes them difficult to isolate in satellite images.\n\nFumarolic gases are made up primarily by SO\n<sub>2</sub> and H\n<sub>2</sub>O; CO\n<sub>2</sub> is a subordinate component. The amounts of SO\n<sub>2</sub> released have been measured; quantities vary but in December 2013 appeared to be about 150 ± 162 tonnes per day (1.74 ± 1.88 kg/s).\n\n## Eruption history\n\nNot many radiometric dates have been obtained on Ollagüe. Most dates are younger than one million years. One proposed timeline subdivides the volcano into three stages: Ollagüe I between 1.2 million and 900,000 years ago, Ollagüe II 900,000–600,000 years ago and Ollagüe III 400,000 years ago to present. La Poruñita, once considered of Holocene age, has been dated at 680,000 ± 200,000 to 420,000 ± 200,000 years ago; it is also not clear if it belongs to the Ollagüe volcanic system. Magma output during the history of the volcano is about 0.09 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.0029 m<sup>3</sup>/s).\n\n### Vinta Loma and Santa Rosa\n\nThe oldest stage of activity is known as Vinta Loma and formed the bulk of the volcanic edifice, especially on the eastern side and in the summit area. During this stage, lava flows and some pyroclastic flows were erupted from a central vent. The pyroclastic flows are exposed as a 60 metres (200 ft) thick sequence in a cirque close to the summit and reflect the occurrence of Plinian eruptions during this stage of volcanic activity. The Vinta Loma series is subdivided into two groups separated by an unconformity, which are dated to 870,000 ± 80,000–641,000 ± 9,000 and 910,000 ± 170,000–1,230,000 ± 80,000 years ago respectively. The Vinta Loma series more recently was partitioned into two series, Vinta Loma proper and the younger Santa Rosa. Two summit crater rims and sector collapses formed during these stages. The northern summit cinder/scoria cone and some lateral lava flows have been assigned to the Santa Rosa series.\n\nLava flows from these stages have gray colours and rocky appearance which sometimes appears like it is covered by plates, with flow folds and some breccia. Their thicknesses and widths range 20–90 metres (66–295 ft), increasing on gentler slopes. Especially on the upper slopes, old colluvium conceals the surface of Vinta Loma lava flows. The texture of the lavas ranges from porphyritic to seriate. Two-pyroxene andesite is the dominant component but dacite has been found as well.\n\nThe Vinta Loma edifice developed on top of an older fault. During the progression of volcanism the fault itself progressively propagated up and across the edifice and caused the southwest sector of the volcano to subside, without changes in volcanic activity. Eventually, the subsidence prevented lava flows of the Santa Rosa series from flowing northeast across the fault trace. Then, the two older sector collapses occurred on the southwestern sides of the fault.\n\n### Ch'aska Urqu, El Azufre and La Celosa series\n\nLater the Ch'aska Urqu stage was erupted on top of Vinta Loma deposits through radial vents on the southeastern flank. This stage is named after the 300 metres (980 ft) high Ch'aska Urqu lava dome on the southeastern flank. The stage generated lava flows, lava domes and coulees with compositions ranging from basaltic andesite to dacite, the former forming the base of the stage and the andesites and dacites being deposited above it. These basaltic andesites form 1–2 metres (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in) thick grey coloured lava flows and a 20 metres (66 ft) thick plate-covered flow on top of the smaller ones.\n\nAbout 10 lava andesitic-dacitic domes and coulees were erupted on top of the basaltic andesite lava flows. They are short and have steep slopes, often ending with scree at the front. On the foot of the volcano they sometimes developed pressure ridges, and a 80 metres (260 ft) deep cleft in Ch'aska Urqu may have formed when the dome spread laterally during its formation. As with Vinta Loma lavas, the upper parts of the coulees are covered with thin colluvium.\n\nSimultaneously, another dacitic lava dome stage occurred on the northwestern flank, forming the La Celosa lava dome-coulee complex. Its age has been controversial, with it being first associated with the youngest post collapse stages through argon–argon dating; then with the oldest stages of volcanic activity. Eventually potassium-argon dating yielded an age of 507,000 ± 14,000 years ago. Two other dates obtained from northern lava domes are 450,000 ± 100,000 and 340,000 ± 150,000 years ago. It has a lobate appearance, and similar to the Ch'aska Urqu dome a 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) wide rift cuts through the dome. The La Celosa complex was erupted from two separate vents, and owing to its low altitude it has not been affected by glaciation.\n\nThe andesites and dacites are of grey to light grey colour respectively, with porphyritic to vitrophyric textures. In this stage, dacites are more common than in the Vinta Loma deposits. Basaltic andesite contains olivine, while the dacites tend to contain more amphibole and biotite. There is a tendency of silicic acid contents to increase in the upper parts of the exposure.\n\nLater evidence has indicated that some lava flows were erupted from the summit during the Ch'aska Urqu stage. Also, a structure interpreted as a former lava lake formed close to the summit during this time. The lava lake-like structure itself is undated; one of the lava flows was dated 410,000 ± 80,000 years ago and the southern summit cinder cone is 292,000 ± 25,000 years old. This series is known as El Azufre. The El Azufre series was emplaced within a sector collapse, a collapse which generated pyroclastic deposits in the Poroto section of the southwestern flank.\n\n### Post-collapse and Santa Cecilia series\n\nThe principal sector collapse occurred after the Ch'aska Urqu stage. It was followed by the eruption of andesitic lava flows and the compound lava dome in the summit region, all focused into the collapse scar; this focusing is a phenomenon noted at other volcanoes which underwent flank collapses such as Planchón-Peteroa. This formation has been named the Santa Cecilia series. The compound summit lava dome probably fills the collapse scar but young lavas and glacial erosion make this assessment difficult. Dates obtained on the summit lava domes range from 220,000 ± 50,000 years ago to 130,000 ± 40,000 years ago. The youngest date was obtained on the youngest dome and shows an age of 65,000 years ago. Tephras identified in the Salar Grande close to the Pacific coast and dated to be less than 330,000 years old may come from Ollagüe or Irruputuncu.\n\nThe lava flows are best exposed on the western flank and have a grey colour. They display levees and pressure ridges and appear to be younger than the Ch'aska Urqu flows. They originate at elevations of 4,800 metres (15,700 ft) and extend over distances of 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi). The summit lava dome has a volume of 0.35 cubic kilometres (0.084 cu mi); blocks with sizes of up to 10 metres (33 ft) were formed by landslides during its growth. Later research has shown that the summit lava dome is actually formed by several separate lava domes that extend southeast along a feeder fissure and become younger to the southeast. The foot of the compound dome is formed by scree-like breccia deposits.\n\nCompositionally, the post-collapse magmas appear to fit into two distinct groups. Older flows are dominated by pyroxene with only small quantities of amphibole and biotite. Younger shorter flows farther up on the edifice and the summit lava dome conversely contain relatively large quantities of amphibole and biotite.\n\n### Recent activity and hazards\n\nThe post-collapse lava flows have been affected by glacial activity, indicating that eruptive activity ceased before the end of the last glacial stage; thus the volcano was largely constructed in pre-Holocene times. However, a 300 metres (980 ft) long and 150 metres (490 ft) wide lava flow extending from the youngest summit lava dome appears to post-date glaciation, and the dome itself is also unmodified.\n\nAn uncertain report of an eruption on 3 December 1903 exists, as well as on 8 October 1927. Increased fumarolic activity was observed in 1854, 1888, 1889, and 1960. Substantial earthquake activity occurs at Ollagüe in a diffuse pattern around the volcano, sometimes in the form of seismic swarms.\n\nThe volcano is considered to be potentially active because of the fumarolic activity, and SERNAGEOMIN publishes a volcano hazard index for Ollagüe. A seismometer array was deployed in 2010–2011. Future eruptions of Ollagüe may threaten the town of Ollague 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) away and the highway .\n\n## Sulfur mining and processing\n\nSulfur deposits on Ollague and neighbouring Aucanquilcha have been mined, with the Santa Cecilia mine located on the northwestern rim and the Santa Rosa mine in the centre of the crater. In 1990, it was estimated that 3,000,000 tonnes (3,000,000 long tons; 3,300,000 short tons) of sulfur can be mined at the Santa Rosa mine. According to a report in 1894, fumes released from sulfur beds on the volcano can incapacitate a man in seconds, making ascents difficult.\n\nLarge-scale exploitation of natural resources in the area commenced in the late 19th century, when after the Saltpeter War Chile acquired the territories, began to exploit them and capitalism and industrialization came to the region. A private company, Luis Borlando, began to mine sulfur on Ollagüe in response to demand by the saltpeter and copper industries. Mining was still underway in 1988 but eventually ceased in the 1990s as fluctuations in the global markets and the inability of the Chilean sulfur industry to compete on global markets forced its decline. Only after the cessation of mining did the Chilean government become active in the area and set up the infrastructure of the town of Ollague.\n\nA road reaching up to an altitude of 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) leads to the western and southern mines. Sulfur was transported through an aerial tramway, which had replaced llamas. A reduction plant with autoclaves is also found at Ollagüe, it was the first such plant in Chile, while south of the town a mining camp was set up at Buenaventura. Worker camps and railway stations, part of the Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia railway between Bolivia and Chile, completed the infrastructure.\n\nMining activity at Ollagüe is mostly documented by many technical reports and by local oral tradition. Presently, much of the infrastructure is in ruins and is the backdrop of a past interplay between migration, modernization and economic activity. Some of the sites were dismantled, others were left with virtually all their equipment. Since 2015, an investigation project has been running in the town of Ollagüe to record and preserve the history of sulfur mining and industrialization in the region.\n\nSulfur mining was mostly carried out by an indigenous workforce, as other people are not adapted to the extreme conditions at high altitudes (cold, hypoxia, intense winds) and thus unable to perform the work. The harsh climate and precarious social status of this workforce conditioned work at Ollagüe, where sulfur mining and processing occurred under unique conditions. Contemporary references to working conditions are ambiguous, as there were both concerns about the working conditions in newspapers of the 1930s and the impact that working conditions could have on economic productivity. There was a high turnover in the workforce, which came to a large degree from Bolivia to the point that the Bolivian government curtailed it in 1925, triggering a decline in the Chilean sulfur industry.\n\n## See also\n\n- Aucanquilcha\n- Olca\n- List of volcanoes in Bolivia\n- List of volcanoes in Chile", "revid": "1172405115", "description": "Stratovolcano in Bolivia and Chile", "categories": ["Bolivia–Chile border", "Five-thousanders of the Andes", "International mountains of South America", "Pleistocene stratovolcanoes", "Polygenetic volcanoes", "Stratovolcanoes of Chile", "Volcanoes of Antofagasta Region", "Volcanoes of Potosí Department"]}
{"id": "205928", "url": null, "title": "George Moore (novelist)", "text": "George Augustus Moore (24 February 1852 – 21 January 1933) was an Irish novelist, short-story writer, poet, art critic, memoirist and dramatist. Moore came from a Roman Catholic landed family who lived at Moore Hall in Carra, County Mayo. He originally wanted to be a painter, and studied art in Paris during the 1870s. There, he befriended many of the leading French artists and writers of the day.\n\nAs a naturalistic writer, he was amongst the first English-language authors to absorb the lessons of the French realists, and was particularly influenced by the works of Émile Zola. His writings influenced James Joyce, according to the literary critic and biographer Richard Ellmann, and, although Moore's work is sometimes seen as outside the mainstream of both Irish and British literature, he is as often regarded as the first great modern Irish novelist.\n\n## Life\n\n### Family origins\n\nGeorge Moore's family had lived in Moore Hall, near Lough Carra, County Mayo, for almost a century. The house was built by his paternal great-grandfather—also called George Moore—who had made his fortune as a wine merchant in Alicante. The novelist's grandfather—another George—was a friend of Maria Edgeworth, and author of An Historical Memoir of the French Revolution. His great-uncle, John Moore, was president of the Province of Connacht in the short-lived Irish Republic of 1798 during the Irish Rebellion of 1798.\n\nGeorge Moore's father, George Henry Moore, sold his stable and hunting interests during the Great Irish Famine, and from 1847 to 1857 served as an Independent Member of Parliament (MP) for Mayo in the British House of Commons. George Henry was renowned as a fair landlord, fought to uphold the rights of tenants, and was a founder of the Catholic Defence Association. His estate consisted of 5000 ha (50 km<sup>2</sup>) in Mayo, with a further 40 ha in County Roscommon.\n\n### Early life\n\nMoore was born in Moore Hall in 1852. As a child, he enjoyed the novels of Walter Scott, which his father read to him. He spent a good deal of time outdoors with his brother, Maurice George Moore, and also became friendly with the young Willie and Oscar Wilde, who spent their summer holidays at nearby Moytura. Oscar was to later quip of Moore: \"He conducts his education in public\".\n\nHis father had again turned his attention to horse breeding and in 1861 brought his champion horse, Croagh Patrick, to England for a successful racing season, together with his wife and nine-year-old son. For a while, George was left at Cliff's stables until his father decided to send him to his alma mater facilitated by his winnings. Moore's formal education started at St. Mary's College, Oscott, a Catholic boarding school near Birmingham, where he was the youngest of 150 boys. He spent all of 1864 at home, having contracted a lung infection brought about by a breakdown in his health. His academic performance was poor while he was hungry and unhappy. In January 1865, he returned to St. Mary's College with his brother Maurice, where he refused to study as instructed and spent time reading novels and poems. That December the principal, Spencer Northcote, wrote a report that: \"he hardly knew what to say about George.\" By the summer of 1867, he was expelled, for (in his own words) 'idleness and general worthlessness', and returned to Mayo. His father once remarked, about George and his brother Maurice: \"I fear those two redheaded boys are stupid\", an observation which proved untrue for all four sons.\n\n### London and Paris\n\nIn 1868, Moore's father was again elected MP for Mayo and the family moved to London the following year. Here, Moore senior tried, unsuccessfully, to have his son follow a career in the military though, prior to this, he attended the School of Art in the South Kensington Museum where his achievements were no better. He was freed from any burden of education when his father died in 1870. Moore, though still a minor, inherited the family estate that generated a yearly income of £3,596. He handed the estate over to his brother Maurice to manage and in 1873, on attaining his majority, moved to Paris to study art. It took him several attempts to find an artist who would accept him as a pupil. Rodolphe Julian, who had previously been a shepherd and circus masked man, took him on for 40 francs a month. At Académie Julian he met Louis Welden Hawkins who became Moore's flatmate and whose trait, as a failed artist, shows up in Moore's own characters. He met many of the key artists and writers of the time, including Pissarro, Degas, Renoir, Monet, Daudet, Mallarmé, Turgenev and, above all, Zola, who was to prove an influential figure in Moore's subsequent development as a writer.\n\nWhile still in Paris his first book, a collection of lyric poems called The Flowers of Passion, was self-published in 1877. The poems were derivative, and were maliciously reviewed by the critics who were offended by some of the depravities in store for moralistic readers. The book was withdrawn by Moore. He was forced to return to Ireland in 1880 to raise £3,000 to pay debts incurred on the family estate, owing to his tenants refusing to pay their rent and the drop in agricultural prices. During his time back in Mayo, he gained a reputation as a fair landlord, continuing the family tradition of not evicting tenants and refusing to carry firearms when travelling round the estate. While in Ireland, he decided to abandon art and move to London to become a professional writer. There he published his second poetry collection, Pagan Poems, in 1881. These early poems reflect his interest in French symbolism and are now almost entirely neglected. In 1886 Moore published Confessions of a Young Man, a lively memoir about his 20s spent in Paris and London among bohemian artists. It contains a substantial amount of literary criticism for which it has received a fair amount of praise, for instance The Modern Library chose it in 1917 to be included in the series as \"one of the most significant documents of the passionate revolt of English literature against the Victorian tradition.\"\n\n### Controversy in England\n\nDuring the 1880s, Moore began work on a series of novels in a realist style. His first novel, A Modern Lover (1883) was a three-volume work, as preferred by the circulating libraries, and deals with the art scene of the 1870s and 1880s in which many characters are identifiably real. The circulating libraries in England banned the book because of its explicit portrayal of the amorous pursuits of its hero. At this time the British circulating libraries, such as Mudie's Select Library, controlled the market for fiction, and the fee-paying public expected them to guarantee the morality of the novels provided. His next realist novel, A Mummers Wife (1885) was also regarded as unsuitable by Mudie's, and W H Smith refused to stock it on their news-stalls. Despite this, during its first year of publication the book went through fourteen editions, mainly because of the publicity stirred up by its opponents. The French newspaper Le Voltaire published it in serial form as La Femme du cabotin in July–October 1886. His next novel, A Drama in Muslin was again banned by Mudie's and Smith's. In response Moore declared war on the circulating libraries by publishing two provocative pamphlets; Literature at Nurse and Circulating Morals. In these, he complained that the libraries profit from salacious popular fiction while refusing to stock serious literary fiction.\n\nMoore's publisher Henry Vizetelly began to issue unabridged mass-market translations of French realist novels that endangered the moral and commercial influence of the circulating libraries around this time. In 1888, the circulating libraries fought back by encouraging the House of Commons to implement laws to stop \"the rapid spread of demoralising literature in this country\". Vizetelly was brought to court by the National Vigilance Association (NVA) for \"obscene libel\". The charge arose from the publication of the English translation of Zola's La Terre. A second case was brought the following year to force implementation of the original judgement and to remove all of Zola's works. This led to the 70-year-old publisher becoming involved in the literary cause. Throughout Moore supported the avant garde publisher, and on 22 September 1888, about a month before the trial, wrote a letter that appeared in the St. James Gazette. In it Moore suggested that, rather than a jury of twelve tradesmen, Vizatelly should be judged by three novelists. Moore pointed out that such celebrated books as Madame Bovary and Gautier's Mademoiselle de Maupin had morals equivalent to Zola's, though their literary merits might differ.\n\nBecause of his willingness to tackle such issues as prostitution, extramarital sex, and lesbianism, Moore's novels were initially met with scandal, but this subsided as the public's taste for realist fiction grew. Moore began to find success as an art critic with the publication of books such as Impressions and Opinions (1891) and Modern Painting (1893), the first significant attempt to introduce the Impressionists to an English audience. By this time Moore was first able to live from the proceeds of his literary work.\n\nOther realist novels by Moore from this period include A Drama in Muslin (1886), a satiric story of the marriage trade in Anglo-Irish society that hints at same-sex relationships among the unmarried daughters of the gentry, and Esther Waters (1894), the story of an unmarried housemaid who becomes pregnant and is abandoned by her footman lover. Both of these books have remained almost constantly in print since their first publication. His 1887 novel A Mere Accident is an attempt to merge his symbolist and realist influences. He also published a collection of short stories: Celibates (1895).\n\n### Dublin and the Celtic Revival\n\nIn 1901, Moore returned to Dublin at the suggestion of his cousin and friend, Edward Martyn. Martyn had been involved in Ireland's cultural and dramatic movements for some years, and was working with Lady Gregory and William Butler Yeats to establish the Irish Literary Theatre. Moore soon became deeply involved in this project and in the broader Irish Literary Revival. He had already written a play, The Strike at Arlingford (1893), which was produced by the Independent Theatre. The play was the result of a challenge between Moore and George Robert Sims over Moore's criticism of all contemporary playwrights in Impressions and Opinions. Moore won the one hundred pound bet made by Sims for a stall to witness an \"unconventional\" play by Moore, though Moore insisted the word \"unconventional\" be excised.\n\nThe Irish Literary Theatre staged his satirical comedy The Bending of the Bough (1900), adapted from Martyn's The Tale of a Town, originally rejected by the theatre but unselfishly given to Moore for revision, and Martyn's Maeve. Staged by the company which would later become the Abbey Theatre, The Bending of the Bough was a historically important play and introduced realism into Irish literature. Lady Gregory wrote that it: \"hits impartially all round\". The play was a satire on Irish political life, and as it was unexpectedly nationalist, was considered the first to deal with a vital question that had appeared in Irish life. Diarmuid and Grania, a poetic play in prose co-written with Yeats in 1901, was also staged by the theatre, with incidental music by Elgar. After this production Moore took up pamphleteering on behalf of the Abbey, and parted company with the dramatic movement.\n\nMoore published two books of prose fiction set in Ireland around this time; a second book of short stories, The Untilled Field (1903) and a novel, The Lake (1905). The Untilled Field deals with clerical interference in the daily lives of the Irish peasantry, and of the issue of emigration. The stories were originally written for translation into Irish, to serve as models for other writers working in the language. Three of the translations were published in the New Ireland Review, but publication was then paused because of their perceived anti-clerical sentiment. In 1902 the entire collection was translated by Tadhg Ó Donnchadha and Pádraig Ó Súilleabháin, and published in a parallel-text edition by the Gaelic League as An-tÚr-Ghort. Moore later revised the texts for the English edition. These stories were influenced by Turgenev's A Sportsman's Sketches, a book recommended to Moore by W. K. Magee, a sub-librarian of the National Library of Ireland, who had earlier suggested that Moore \"was best suited to become Ireland's Turgenev\". The tales are recognised by some as representing the birth of the Irish short story as a literary genre.\n\nIn 1903, following a disagreement with his brother Maurice over the religious upbringing of his nephews, Moore declared himself to be Protestant. His conversion was announced in a letter to the Irish Times newspaper. Moore remained in Dublin until 1911. In 1914, he published Hail and Farewell, a gossipy three-volume memoir of his time there, which entertained readers but infuriated former friends. Moore quipped, \"Dublin is now divided into two sets; one half is afraid it will be in the book, and the other is afraid that it won't\".\n\nIn his later years he was increasingly friendless, having quarrelled bitterly with Yeats and Osborn Bergin, among others: Oliver St. John Gogarty said: \"It was impossible to be a friend of his, because he was incapable of gratitude\".\n\n### Later life\n\nMoore returned to London in 1911, where, with the exception of frequent trips to France, he was to spend much of the rest of his life. In 1913, he travelled to Jerusalem to research his next novel, The Brook Kerith (1916). Moore once again courted controversy, as the story was based on the supposition that a non-divine Christ did not die on the cross but instead was nursed back to health and repented of his pride in declaring himself Son of God. Other books from this period include a further collection of short-stories called A Storyteller's Holiday (1918), a collection of essays called Conversations in Ebury Street (1924) and a play, The Making of an Immortal (1927). Moore also spent considerable time revising and preparing his earlier writings for new editions.\n\nPartly because of his brother Maurice's pro-treaty activity, Moore Hall was burnt by anti-treaty partisans in 1923, during the final months of the Irish Civil War. Moore eventually received compensation of £7,000 from the government of the Irish Free State. By this time the brothers had become estranged, mainly because of George's unflattering portrait of Maurice in Hail and Farewell. Tension also arose from their religious differences: Maurice frequently made donations to the Roman Catholic Church from estate funds. George later sold a large part of the estate to the Irish Land Commission for £25,000.\n\nMoore was friendly with many members of the expatriate artistic communities in London and Paris, and had a long-lasting relationship with Maud, Lady Cunard. Moore took a special interest in the education of Maud's daughter, the well-known publisher and art patron, Nancy Cunard. It has been suggested that Moore, rather than Maud's husband, Sir Bache Cunard, was Nancy's father, but this is not generally credited by historians, and it is not certain that Moore's relationship with Nancy's mother was ever more than platonic. Moore's last novel, Aphrodite in Aulis, was published in 1930.\n\nHe died at his address of 121 Ebury Street in the London district of Belgravia in early 1933, leaving a fortune of £70,000. He was cremated in London at a service attended by Ramsay MacDonald among others. An urn containing his ashes was interred on Castle Island in Lough Carra in view of the ruins of Moore Hall. A blue plaque commemorates his residency at his London home.\n\n## Works\n\n- Flowers of Passion London: Provost & Company, 1878\n- Martin Luther: A Tragedy in Five Acts London: Remington & Company, 1879\n- Pagan Poems London: Newman & Company, 1881\n- A Modern Lover London: Tinsley Brothers, 1883\n- A Mummer's Wife London: Vizetelly & Company, 1885\n- Literature at Nurse London: Vizetelly & Company, 1885\n- A Drama in Muslin London: Vizetelly & Company, 1886\n- A Mere Accident London: Vizetelly & Company, 1887\n- Parnell and His Island London: Swan Sonnenshein Lowrey & Company, 1887\n- Confessions of a Young Man London: Swan Sonnenshein Lowrey & Company, 1888\n- Spring Days London: Vizetelly & Company, 1888\n- Mike Fletcher London: Ward & Downey, 1889\n- Impressions and Opinions London: David Nutt, 1891\n- Vain Fortune London: Henry & Company, 1891\n- Modern Painting London: Walter Scott, 1893\n- The Strike at Arlingford London: Walter Scott, 1893\n- Esther Waters London: Walter Scott, 1894\n- Celibates London: Walter Scott, 1895\n- Evelyn Innes London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898\n- The Bending of the Bough London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1900\n- Sister Teresa London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1901\n- The Untilled Field London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1903\n- The Lake London: William Heinemann, 1905\n- Memoirs of My Dead Life London: William Heinemann, 1906\n- The Apostle: A Drama in Three Acts Dublin: Maunsel & Company, 1911\n- Hail and Farewell London: William Heinemann, 1911, 1912, 1914\n- Elizabeth Cooper Dublin: Maunsel & Company, 1913\n- Muslin London: William Heinemann, 1915\n- The Brook Kerith: A Syrian Story London: T. Warner Laurie, 1916\n- Lewis Seymour and Some Women London: William Heinemann, 1917 (reworking of A Modern Lover)\n- A Story-Teller's Holiday London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1918\n- Avowals London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1919\n- The Coming of Gabrielle London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1920\n- Heloise and Abelard London: Cumann Sean-eolais na hÉireann (privately printed), 1921\n- In Single Strictness London: William Heinemann, 1922\n- Conversations in Ebury Street London: William Heinemann, 1924\n- Pure Poetry: An Anthology London: Nonesuch Press, 1924\n- The Pastoral Loves of Daphnis and Chloe London: William Heinemann, 1924\n- Daphnis and Chloe, Peronnik the Fool New York: Boni & Liveright, 1924\n- Ulick and Soracha London: Nonesuch Press, 1926\n- Celibate Lives London: William Heinemann, 1927 (reworking of Celibates including the short story \"Albert Nobbs\" from A Story-Teller's Holiday, which was made into a film starring Glenn Close in 2011.)\n- The Making of an Immortal New York: Bowling Green Press, 1927\n- The Passing of the Essenes: A Drama in Three Acts London: William Heinemann, 1930\n- Aphrodite in Aulis New York: Fountain Press, 1930\n- The Talking Pine Paris: The Hours Press, 1931\n- A Communication to My Friends London: Nonesuch Press, 1933\n- Diarmuid and Grania: A Play in Three Acts Co-written with W. B. Yeats, Edited by Anthony Farrow, Chicago: De Paul, 1974\n\nLetters\n\n- Moore Versus Harris Detroit: privately printed, 1921\n- Letters from George Moore to Ed. Dujardin 1886-1922 New York: Crosby Gaige, 1929\n- Letters of George Moore Bournemouth: Sydenham, 1942\n- GM: Memories of George Moore by Nancy Cunard. London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956\n- Letters to Lady Cunard Ed. Rupert Hart-Davis. London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1957\n- George Moore in Transition Ed. Helmut E. Gerber, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1968", "revid": "1168229559", "description": "Irish novelist, short-story writer, poet, art critic, memoirist and dramatist", "categories": ["1852 births", "1933 deaths", "19th-century Anglo-Irish people", "19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights", "19th-century Irish novelists", "19th-century Irish poets", "19th-century Irish short story writers", "20th-century Anglo-Irish people", "20th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century Irish male writers", "20th-century Irish memoirists", "20th-century Irish novelists", "20th-century Irish poets", "20th-century Irish short story writers", "Académie Julian alumni", "Alumni of St Mary's College, Oscott", "Irish male dramatists and playwrights", "Irish male novelists", "Irish male short story writers", "Moore family of Mayo", "People from Carnacon", "Victorian poets", "Writers from County Mayo"]}
{"id": "41079742", "url": null, "title": "Drakengard", "text": "Drakengard, known in Japan as is a series of action role-playing video games created by Yoko Taro. The eponymous first game in the series was released in 2003 on the PlayStation 2, and has since been followed by a sequel, a prequel and several spin-offs. A spin-off series titled Nier, taking place in an alternative timeline set after a different ending to the first Drakengard than the one 2005's Drakengard 2 followed, was started in 2010 with the eponymous game. Yoko directed every game in both series, with the exception of Drakengard 2 in which he only had minor involvement.\n\nThe stories of both Drakengard and Nier generally focus on the fortunes and personalities of a small group of protagonists either directly or indirectly connected to and affected by the events of the story. Dark or mature plot and character themes and multiple endings have become a staple of the series. The setting of the Drakengard games is a Northern Europe-like dark fantasy world where humans and creatures from myth and legends live side by side, while the Nier games are set in the distant future of a different ending to the first Drakengard from the one Drakengard 2 follows, leading to 2017's Nier: Automata taking place in a much different, post-apocalyptic science fiction setting. Both series have been largely praised for their complex characters and storylines, although the practical gameplay of the Drakengard games has been criticized.\n\nBoth Drakengard and the original Nier were long considered popular in Japan, selling well and gaining a cult following, and resulting in multiple adaptations and additional media such as books (including several novelizations), manga, comics, and a stage play. They remained little-known outside of Japan until the 2017 release of Nier: Automata, which was a worldwide commercial and critical hit and led to an increase in interest from western countries, resulting in a remaster of the original Nier, subtitled Replicant ver.1.22474487139..., being released in 2021 to larger attention and substantially better sales than the original.\n\n## Games\n\n- Drakengard, the first installment in the franchise. It released for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) in September 2003 in Japan, March and May 2004 in North America and Europe respectively. Square Enix published the title in Japan and North America, while Take-Two Interactive published it in European territories. A Europe-exclusive mobile port was released in August 2004. The mobile version was co-developed and co-published with Macrospace.\n  - Drakengard 2, the second installment in the series and direct sequel to the first game. It released on the PS2 in June 2005 in Japan, February 2006 in North America and March of the same year in Europe and Australia. For its release in western territories, Square Enix partnered with European game developer and publisher Ubisoft. Ubisoft also handled the game's localization.\n  - Drakengard 3, the third main installment in the series and a prequel to the first game. It released on the PS3 in December 2013 in Japan and May 2014 in North America and Europe. Like Nier, it was published in all regions by Square Enix.\n- Nier, a spin-off from the main series stemming from the last of Drakengards five possible endings. Nier was released on the PlayStation 3 (PS3) and Xbox 360 (as Nier Replicant in Japan for PS3 only, Nier Gestalt in Japan for Xbox 360, and Nier in North America and Europe) in April 2010 across all regions. It was published by Square Enix across all regions. An updated version titled Nier Replicant ver.1.22474487139... was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows in April 2021.\n  - Nier: Automata, a distant sequel to Nier, set in the same universe but thousands of years in the future. It was released for PlayStation 4 in February 2017, Microsoft Windows in March 2017, Xbox One in June 2018, and Nintendo Switch October 2022.\n  - Nier Reincarnation''', a spin-off title for mobile platforms, set in the Nier universe but disconnected from the other titles as it takes place in a pocket dimension called the Cage. It was released for Android and iOS in February 2021.\n\n## Development\n\n### History\n\nThe idea for Drakengard originated in 1999 between Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki. The gameplay was conceived as a blend of elements from Ace Combat and Dynasty Warriors 2. The team developing the game went under the moniker \"Project Dragonsphere\". The game was developed by Cavia and directed by Yoko Taro, who was the main drive behind the game's dark atmosphere. It was Shiba's first project as a producer. As Yoko was told there would not be a sequel, multiple endings were created. When it was localized and released in the west, references to things such as sexual taboos were censored. In addition, the title was changed, as Drag-On Dragoon was considered wrong for a western audience. Drakengard was considered enough of a success that a sequel was commissioned. Multiple staff members returned for the creation of the second game, although Yoko was mostly tied up with other projects and was replaced as director by Akira Yasui. Yoko still had a role in development, and he and Yasui had creative clashes during development. Yasui ended up making Drakengard 2 the thematic opposite of the previous game, employing a lighter tone and broader color palette.\n\nNier originated when Yoko and Shiba teamed up to create a third Drakengard game. As the project continued, it became more detached from the main continuity and eventually developed into an entirely new spin-off. Despite what it became, Yoko has stated that he considers Nier to be the true Drakengard 3. It was the last game developed by Cavia. After its release, Cavia closed down and was absorbed by AQ Interactive, then Yoko Taro left to pursue a wider range of projects. A stalled attempt to begin production of further games in the series at AQ Interactive was blamed by Shiba on a prevalent trend at the time for light-weight games for the general gaming community. Later, Yoko and Shiba came together again to create a proper second sequel to Drakengard, with the intention of creating a hard core RPG for the fanbase. Unlike the previous games in the series, Drakengard 3 was developed by Access Games, a developer whose noted games included Deadly Premonition, and brought in team members used to create action games. During the run-up to Drakengard 3's release, both Yoko and Shiba expressed their willingness to continue the series on the PlayStation 4 if the latest game was enough of a success. Speaking in 2014 after the game's release, Yoko stated that the series was on hold due to lack of funds. A new Nier game was revealed to be in development at Square Enix and PlatinumGames.\n\n### Writing and character design\n\nThe stories of the original game's characters were written by Yoko, Shiba and Iwasaki, while the main game script was written by Sawako Natori, who would go on to co-write the main scenarios for future Drakengard games. Yoko designed the darker elements to both contrast and actively compete with the likes of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy. Yoko conceived the \"insane\" characters around the premise that people who killed hundreds of people in pursuit of their goals and took satisfaction from it were naturally insane. During the production of Nier, his focus changed to writing a story where everyone believed they were in the right whatever their actions. Through the series, Yoko has also been attempting to answer the question of why people are driven to kill. Although some of the dark narrative themes were kept for Drakengard 2, many of the other narrative elements were made more mainstream.\n\n`Drakengard 3 was intended to return to a dark aesthetic, but also to include moments of humor and tie in with Nier.`\n\nThe character designer for the Drakengard games is Kimihiko Fujisaka. Initially a minor staff member at Cavia, the team were impressed by his skill as an amateur artist and he was recommended for the post of character designer for the game. The designs for both the characters and the world were influenced by armor and clothing of Medieval Europe. He returned in the same capacity for Drakengard 2, and later for Nier. Disliking some of his initial designs for Drakengard, he took the opportunity to remodel them more to his liking for the arcade game Lord of Vermilion. In Drakengard 3, Fujisaka designed the protagonist Zero around the dark themes of the game, although some unusual elements were nearly cut. The other female characters were inspired by Puella Magi Madoka Magica, while the male characters, considered a low priority, were designed around male archetypes and approved quickly.\n\nThe character designs for Nier were handled by an artist under the moniker D.K. For Nier's international release, the protagonist was redesigned from a teenager to an adult character. This was because the publishers felt an older character would appeal more to western players. For Nier: Automata, the main character designs were handled by Akihiko Yoshida, an artist noted for his work on the Final Fantasy series. While he was initially expected to refuse, he agreed as several staff members at his company CyDesignation were fans of Nier. For his designs, Yoko requested he focus on smooth outlines and black coloring. Other characters were designed by Yuya Nagai and Toshiyuki Itahana.\n\n### Music\n\nThe first game's soundtrack was created by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara. The two created the score using samples from well-known classical composers. The second game's soundtrack was composed by Ryoki Matsumoto and Aoi Yoshiki, who had never before been involved with video game soundtracks. The game's Japanese theme song, Hitori, was sung by Mika Nakashima. The music for Nier was composed by Keiichi Okabe, who composed the soundtrack as something different from the main series, and to directly reflect the sombre tone of the game's setting and story. Singer Emi Evans (Emiko Rebecca Evans) wrote and sung the vocal tracks, and performed many tracks in an invented language dubbed \"Chaos Language\". \"Chaos Language\" is less a language and more a writing style, as each individual song has a different language based on a real-world language. The one exception to this is \"Song Of The Ancients\" which is sung in a language based upon multiple different languages, instead of a single language. Okabe returned to compose the soundtrack for Drakengard 3: in an interview, he stated that, in composing the music, he tried to emulate the work of the earlier composer without imitating them. He also commented that the result was very unlike the traditional Square Enix game. The game features two theme songs: \"Black Song\", performed by Eir Aoi, and \"This Silence is Mine\", the game's theme song proper, written and sung by Chihiro Onitsuka. Okabe is again providing the music for Nier: Automata, with singer Emi Evans also returning.\n\n## Common elements\n\n### Setting\n\nThe Drakengard games take place in a dark fantasy version of Medieval Europe called Midgard. Humans appear to be the predominant species, although races such as dragons, fairies and elves are shown to exist. The setting, mythos, and landscape borrow extensively from the lore of Northern Europe. The world is overseen by a group of unnamed gods who have yet to make a personal appearance. The gods are served by beings known as the Watchers, entities created to destroy humanity because they are considered a failure. The Watchers are kept from entering the world with the seals, which act to keep the world in balance: should the seals be destroyed, the Watchers would enter the world and destroy humanity. At the core of the seals is the Goddess of the Seal, a mortal virgin female chosen and branded with the final seal: if all the seals are destroyed, all that stands between the Watchers and the world is the death of the Goddess herself. A core element of the Drakengard universe is the ability for humans and beasts to form a Pact, a magical bond which links their souls and grants the human partner great power at the cost of some physical ability or personal trait (their voice, singing abilities, etc.). Pacts are normally entered into by beasts so they can feed off negative emotions, but sometimes they will enter a pact for other reasons. A recurring element across the series is the representation of magic using the Celestial Alphabet, with a common letter arrangement representing the human gene.\n\nThe universe of the Drakengard series is split between multiple timelines. Events in those timelines are separate, but they can overlap. The core timeline is formed from Drakengard and its sequel. Drakengard 3 acts as the first game's prequel, but most of its events take place in separate timelines leading to different outcomes. In Drakengard 3, a malevolent flower uses servants called the Intoners, women gifted with the power to use magic through song, as instruments of humanity's destruction. In Drakengard, which succeeds the fifth version of Drakengard 3's events detailed in a supplementary novel, the Watchers use a group known as the Cult of Watchers to spark a religious war and destroy the seals. In Drakengard 2, the Watchers continue to use the former head of the cult to destroy the new seals, while the dragons prepare to usurp the gods and rule over the world. Nier is set in an alternative reality created by events stemming from Drakengard's fifth ending: in this reality, our modern world was decimated by a plague created by the magical beings who came through the portal, bringing humanity to the brink of extinction. Nier: Automata takes place after the fourth ending of Nier, featuring appearances and mentions of characters from both Nier and the Drakengard games.\n\n### Gameplay\n\nThe Drakengard games feature a mix of action-based hack-and-slash combat during ground-based battles and aerial combat mixed in with RPG leveling mechanics. In the original, the player guides the characters around ground-based battles to combat small groups of enemy units. In aerial combat, the player takes control of the protagonist's dragon partner. In these situations, the dragon can either lock onto a target and unleash a barrage of small fireballs, or the player can manually aim and fire large bursts of flame, which do more damage but do not home in on a target. Basic gameplay changed little for Drakengard 2, but there are some differences and additions, such as weapon types being tied to the character they are associated with, with changing them also swapping the character. The dragon gameplay remained virtually unchanged, apart from the ability, during air-ground missions, for the dragon to swoop down on a group of enemies in a special attack depicted in a short cutscene.\n\nIn Nier and Drakengard 3, the player controls the main protagonist with two other characters acting as AI-controlled supports. Drakengard 3 was designed to be a faster experience than the previous games, with the protagonist being given a special hyper-mode and the ability to freely switch between weapons without pausing the action. Aerial gameplay was also changed, with the dragon now capable of ground combat. Nier, while featuring similar hack-and-slash combat, also includes other gameplay types such as a top-down view for puzzle areas, 2D style areas for buildings or similar structures. Side-quests were also added, which often involved fetch quests, fishing and farming.\n\n### Themes and influences\n\nOne of the running narrative themes for the main series is Immorality, which also became the key character theme and was expressed through their personalities and actions. The second game also focused on themes of war and death. The theme for the world of Drakengard 3, as described by composer Keiichi Okabe, is \"the sense of contrast\". Multiple anime series have influenced the series' characters over the years, including Neon Genesis Evangelion, Sister Princess and Puella Magi Madoka Magica. The series writer, Sawako Natori, drew inspiration for her writing from shōnen manga. The original game world was designed around Celtic and Norse myths, together with Japanese-style revisionism. The team for the original game were influenced by Asian epic movies and western action-adventure films such as the 1999 remake of The Mummy and Dragonheart. While developing Nier, the team drew inspiration from the God of War series, while the narrative structure was inspired by the September 11 attacks and the War on Terror. The central theme of Nier: Automata is struggling out of a bad situation, defined by the game's staff using the Japanese word \"agaku\".\n\n### Related media\n\nThe games received multiple adaptations and additional story content in the form of novelizations, manga and supplementary material. The first game received two novelizations: Drag-On Dragoon: Side Story on November 28, 2003, and Drag-On Dragoon: Magnitude \"Negative\" on January 23, 2004. The first book was written by Emi Nagashima, writing under her pen name of Jun Eishima, and the second by Takashi Aizawa. The novelization of Drakengard 2, written again by Nagashima, was released on September 30, 2005.\n\nNagashima wrote character stories and manga for Drakengard 3 leading up to that game's release. The manga was Drag-On Dragoon: Utahime Five, a prequel following the game's main antagonists, and Drag-On Dragoon: Shi ni Itaru Aka, which acts as a sequel, although for Branch A, as it along with Branches B, C, D, and E lead to alternative timelines. A book detailing the narrative connection between Drakengard 3 and Drakengard, titled Drag-On Dragoon 3 Story Side, which serves as the fifth branch similar to the events of B and D, narrated by Brother One, was released on 28 August 2014. Drag-On Dragoon 3 Complete Guide + Setting, a complete guide to the game with extra features explaining the game chronology and a novella set after the events of Shi ni Itaru Aka, was published by ASCII Media Works in 2014.\n\nNier was expanded after release with a CD drama which told of events immediately after the events of Drakengard's fifth ending, and a supplementary book titled Grimoire Nier containing extra stories and concept art alongside a fifth ending for the game. Square Enix also paired up with WildStorm to create a digital comic, which detailed the backstories of the game's characters and world.\n\nThe Japanese girl band Yorha performed on the Drakengard 3 soundtrack, and in 2015 performed a stage production written by Yoko Taro that is directly related to the plot of Nier: Automata. The band's fictional backstory places them as military androids similar to the playable characters in Automata.\n\n## Reception\n\nThe Drakengard series has received mixed to positive reviews over the years. So far, the original Drakengard has received the most positive response of the main series games. Drakengard 2 and Drakengard 3 have received lower scores. Each title in the series has received favorable review scores from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu.\n\nThe common point of praise for the series through most of its life has been the story. While individual aspects have come in for criticism, the dark atmospheres, unconventional characters and general scenarios have been cited as one of each game's strengths. Despite some mixed feelings from reviewers either for the story as a whole or certain aspects of it, the characters and plot of Drakengard 3 have also been praised. The major exception is Drakengard 2: the story's lighter tone and more traditional narrative were noted and sometimes criticized for being overly simplistic or too similar to other games in the genre. The Drakengard characters have remained popular in Japan, with Dengeki holding a popularity contest for those characters to celebrate the series' tenth anniversary and the announcement of Drakengard 3. Among the most popular characters were the first game's main protagonists, Caim and Angelus (the former having earned the nickname Prince (王子, ouji) among fans). The characters of Drakengard 3 have also proved to be highly popular.\n\nThe gameplay has so far come in for major criticism, with the original title's aerial and ground-based gameplay being seen as repetitive and dull, although some reviewers found it entertaining. Drakengard 2 also came in for such criticism, although minor improvements were cited. In contrast, the gameplay of Drakengard 3 was generally praised or seen as an improvement upon the previous two entries, though the dragon-riding segments came in for criticisms for difficult controls. Opinions were divided on Nier's unconventional mix of gameplay styles from multiple game genres, with some praising the variety and others seeing it as poorly executed. The series as a whole has gained a cult following in Japan.\n\nEach game has sold relatively well in its home market. The original game was a commercial success, selling over 120,000 units in the first week of release and eventually selling over 240,000 copies in Japan. Drakengard 2's first-week sales were similarly impressive, selling 100,000 units. It sold over 203,000 copies by the end of 2005. Drakengard 3 sold just under 115,000 units in its first week, and over 150,000 units by May 2014. The two versions of Nier—Gestalt and Replicant—sold roughly 12,500 and 60,000 copies in their first week respectively. Replicant eventually sold over 121,000 in Japan by the end of May 2010. The series has sold over 770,000 units in Japan as of May 2014. Sales figures for western regions are unavailable. The first two games in the main series have both been included in Square Enix's Ultimate Hits series, re-releases of popular titles developed or published by them. Nier: Automata became a worldwide success, shipping over 4 million copies by June 2019, becoming the best-selling title in the franchise. As of July 2021, Automata has sold over 6 million units worldwide. Less than two months after its release, the remaster of Replicant'' had shipped over one million copies worldwide, two times the estimated sales of the original game.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Square Enix video game franchises", "revid": "1169200165", "description": "Video game series", "categories": ["Action role-playing video games", "Drakengard", "Elves in popular culture", "Extinction in fiction", "Fantasy video games", "Fiction about sacrifices", "Postmodern works", "Square Enix franchises", "Video game franchises", "Video game franchises introduced in 2003", "Video games about ghosts", "Video games about parallel universes"]}
{"id": "4376380", "url": null, "title": "God of War II", "text": "God of War II is an action-adventure hack and slash video game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE). First released for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) console on March 13, 2007, it is the second installment in the God of War series, the sixth chronologically, and the sequel to 2005's God of War. The game is based on Greek mythology and set in ancient Greece, with vengeance as its central motif. The player character is protagonist Kratos, the new God of War who killed the former, Ares. Kratos is betrayed by Zeus, the King of the Olympian gods, who strips him of his godhood and kills him. Slowly dragged to the Underworld, he is saved by the Titan Gaia, who instructs him to find the Sisters of Fate, as they can allow him to travel back in time, avert his betrayal, and take revenge on Zeus.\n\nThe gameplay is similar to the previous installment. It focuses on combo-based combat which is achieved through the player's main weapon—Athena's Blades—and secondary weapons acquired throughout the game. It features quick time events (QTEs) that require players to quickly complete various game controller actions to defeat stronger enemies and bosses. The player can use up to four magical attacks and a power-enhancing ability as alternative combat options. The game also features puzzles and platforming elements. Compared to its predecessor, God of War II features improved puzzles and four times as many bosses.\n\nGod of War II has been acclaimed as one of the best video games of all time and was 2007's \"PlayStation Game of the Year\" at the Golden Joystick Awards. In 2009, IGN listed it as the second-best PlayStation 2 game of all time, and both IGN and GameSpot consider it the \"swan song\" of the PlayStation 2 era. In 2012, Complex magazine named God of War II the best PlayStation 2 game of all time. It was the best-selling game in the UK during the week of its release and went on to sell 4.24 million copies worldwide, making it the sixteenth-best-selling PlayStation 2 game of all time. God of War II, along with God of War, was remastered and released on November 17, 2009, as part of the God of War Collection for the PlayStation 3 (PS3). The remastered version was re-released on August 28, 2012, as part of the God of War Saga, also for the PlayStation 3. A novelization of the game was published in February 2013. A sequel, God of War III, was released on March 16, 2010.\n\n## Gameplay\n\nGod of War II is an action-adventure game with hack and slash elements. It's a third-person single-player video game viewed from a fixed camera perspective. The player controls the character Kratos in combo-based combat, platforming, and puzzle game elements, and battles foes who primarily stem from Greek mythology, including harpies, minotaurs, Gorgons, griffins, cyclopes, cerberuses, Sirens, satyrs, and nymphs. Other monsters were created specifically for the game, including undead legionnaires, ravens, undead barbarians, beast lords, rabid hounds, wild boars, and the army of the Fates, including sentries, guardians, juggernauts, and high priests. Many of the combination attacks used in God of War reappear, and the game features more than double the amount of boss fights and more difficult puzzles than the original. Platforming elements require the player to climb walls and ladders, jump across chasms, swing on ropes, and balance across beams to proceed through sections of the game. Some puzzles are simple, such as moving a box so that the player can use it as a jumping-off point to access a pathway unreachable with normal jumping, while others are more complex, such as finding several items across different areas of the game to unlock one door.\n\nIn addition to the regular health, magic, and experience chests that are found throughout the game world, there are three Uber Chests to be found. Two of these chests provide an additional increment to the Health and Magic Meters, respectively, and the third chest contains an abundance of red and gold orbs. Several urns are also hidden in the game (e.g., the Urn of Gaia) which, upon completion of the game, unlocks special abilities (e.g., unlimited magic) for use during bonus play.\n\n### Combat\n\nKratos' main weapon is a pair of blades attached to chains that are wrapped around the character's wrists and forearms. Called Athena's Blades (also known as the Blades of Athena) in this game, they can be swung offensively in various maneuvers. As the game progresses, Kratos acquires new weapons—the Barbarian Hammer, the Spear of Destiny, and periodically, the Blade of Olympus—offering alternative combat options. Although Kratos begins the game with Athena's Blades and the magic ability Poseidon's Rage (both at maximum power), the blades' power is reduced and the magic is relinquished after an encounter with Zeus (Poseidon's Rage can be regained by obtaining a certain urn). As with previous games, Kratos learns to use up to four magical abilities, such as Typhon's Bane that acts as a bow and arrow for distant targets, giving him a variety of ways to attack and kill enemies. Other new magical abilities include Cronos' Rage, Head of Euryale, and Atlas Quake. The special ability Rage of the Gods featured in the previous game is replaced by Rage of the Titans; unlike the previous game, the Rage meter—which allows usage of the ability—does not have to be full in order to use the ability, and can be switched on and off at will.\n\nKratos retains the relic Poseidon's Trident from the original installment, and gains new relics; the Amulet of the Fates, the Golden Fleece, and Icarus' Wings, each being required to advance through certain stages of the game. For example, the Amulet of the Fates slows time, but this does not affect Kratos and allows puzzle-solving that can not be achieved in normal game time. The Amulet of the Fates has limited usage before needing to be recharged (which occurs automatically and is represented by the Amulet of the Fates Meter). The Golden Fleece deflects enemy projectiles back at the enemies (used to solve certain puzzles). Icarus' Wings allows Kratos to glide across large chasms that cannot be crossed with normal jumping.\n\nThis game's challenge mode is called the Challenge of the Titans (seven trials), and requires players to complete a series of specific tasks (e.g., kill all enemies without being attacked). The player may unlock bonus costumes for Kratos, behind-the-scenes videos, and concept art of the characters and environments, as rewards, as well as usage of the abilities found in the urns during the first playthrough. Completion of each difficulty level unlocks additional rewards, as does collecting twenty eyes from defeated cyclopes. A new mode, called Arena of the Fates, allows players to set difficulty levels and choose their own opponents to improve their skills.\n\n## Synopsis\n\n### Setting\n\nAs with its predecessor, God of War II is set in an alternate version of ancient Greece, populated by the Olympian gods, Titans, heroes, and other beings of Greek mythology. With the exception of flashbacks, the events are set between those of the games Betrayal (2007) and God of War III (2010). Several locations are explored, including a real-world setting in the ancient city of Rhodes, and several fictional locations, including a brief scene in the Underworld, the Lair of Typhon, the Island of Creation and its locales, Tartarus, and a brief scene on Mount Olympus.\n\nRhodes, its skyline dominated by the massive statue, the Colossus of Rhodes, is a war-torn city under assault by Kratos, the God of War, and his Spartan army. The Lair of Typhon, hidden in an unknown location, is a snow-topped mountain and prison of the Titans Typhon and Prometheus. The Island of Creation is a vast island located at the edge of the world and home to the Sisters of Fate. The island is host to deadly traps, puzzles, and monsters. On the outskirts of the island are the Steeds of Time, and on the island itself are the Temples of Lakhesis and Atropos, and the Bog of the Forgotten, which hides the Gorgon Euryale and is the site of Jason of the Argonauts' last battle. Beyond the Bog are the Lowlands and the Great Chasm: a huge divide that blocks the way to the Palace of the Fates. At the base of the Chasm is the realm of Tartarus—prison of the Titan Atlas, condemned to hold the world on his shoulders. The Temple of the Fates is also filled with traps and monsters, while the final battle occurs on Mount Olympus, home to the gods.\n\n### Characters\n\nThe protagonist of the game is Kratos (voiced by Terrence C. Carson), a Spartan warrior who became the God of War after killing the former, Ares. Other characters include Athena (Carole Ruggier), the Goddess of Wisdom; Zeus (Corey Burton), the King of the Gods and the main antagonist; several Titans—including Gaia (Linda Hunt), Atlas (Michael Clarke Duncan), Prometheus (Alan Oppenheimer), Typhon (Fred Tatasciore), and Cronos (Lloyd Sherr)—heroes Theseus (Paul Eiding) and Perseus (Harry Hamlin); the insane Icarus (Bob Joles); the Gorgon Euryale (Jennifer Martin); an undead version of the Barbarian King (Bob Joles); and the Sisters of Fate—Lakhesis (Leigh-Allyn Baker), Atropos (Debi Mae West), and Clotho (Susan Silo). Minor characters include the boat captain (Keith Ferguson) and a loyal Spartan soldier (Josh Keaton; credited as the Last Spartan). Kratos' wife Lysandra, their daughter Calliope, and the Titan Rhea appear in flashbacks. The gods Hades and Poseidon appear in flashbacks of the Great War, and in the final cutscene alongside Zeus, Helios, and Hermes on Olympus.\n\n### Plot\n\nKratos, the new God of War following Ares' death, is still haunted by nightmares of his past and is shunned by the other gods for his destructive ways. Ignoring Athena's warnings, Kratos joins the Spartan army in an attack on Rhodes, during which a giant eagle, which Kratos assumes to be Athena, suddenly drains a huge portion of his powers and uses it to animate the Colossus of Rhodes. While battling the statue, Zeus offers Kratos the Blade of Olympus, a mighty sword that Zeus had forged and wielded to end the Great War, requiring Kratos to infuse the blade with the remainder of his godly power. Although mortal once again, Kratos defeats the Colossus but is mortally wounded. The eagle reveals itself to have been Zeus all along, who states he was forced to intervene as Athena refused to do so. Zeus then grants Kratos a final opportunity to be loyal to the gods, but Kratos refuses. Enraged by his defiance, Zeus kills him with the blade and destroys the Spartan army.\n\nKratos is slowly dragged to the Underworld, but is saved by the Titan Gaia. Gaia tells Kratos that she once raised the young Zeus, who eventually betrayed the Titans as vengeance for the cruelty inflicted on his siblings by Zeus' father, Cronos. She instructs Kratos to find the Sisters of Fate, who can alter time, prevent his death, and allow him his revenge on Zeus. With the aid of Pegasus, Kratos finds the lair of Gaia's brother Typhon. Imprisoned under a mountain, Typhon is angered at the intrusion and traps Pegasus, forcing Kratos to explore on foot. Kratos encounters the Titan Prometheus, who is chained in mortal form and tortured at Zeus' directive for giving fire to mankind. Prometheus begs to be released from his torment, so Kratos confronts Typhon to steal his magical bow. He blinds the massive Titan with it to escape and then uses it to free Prometheus, who falls into the Flames of Olympus and dies, finally free of eternal torture. The immolation releases the power of the Titans which Kratos absorbs, using it to free Pegasus and then fly to the Island of Creation.\n\nJust before reaching the island, Kratos fights and kills Theseus to awaken the gigantic stone Steeds of Time—a gift to the Sisters of Fate from Cronos in an attempt to change his own fate—which grants Kratos access to the island. There, Kratos encounters and defeats several foes, some of whom are also seeking the Sisters of Fate, including an undead version of his old foe the Barbarian King, the Gorgon Euryale, Perseus, and a deranged Icarus, who throws himself with Kratos into Tartarus. After defeating Icarus and ripping his wings off to take for himself, Kratos eventually encounters the imprisoned Titan Atlas, who initially resents Kratos for his current predicament. After Kratos explains his intent, Atlas reveals that Gaia and the other Titans also seek revenge on Zeus for their defeat in the Great War. Atlas also reveals that the Blade of Olympus is the key to defeating Zeus and helps Kratos to reach the Palace of the Fates.\n\nAfter evading traps and defeating more enemies, Kratos encounters an unseen foe, revealed to be a loyal Spartan soldier also in search of the Sisters. Before he dies, the soldier informs Kratos that Zeus has destroyed Sparta in Kratos' absence. Outraged, Kratos defeats the Kraken and frees a phoenix, riding the creature to the Sisters' stronghold where he confronts two, Lakhesis and Atropos. After they refuse his request to alter time, Kratos battles them. During this, the Sisters try to change the outcome of Kratos' battle with Ares, but Kratos kills them both, then confronts the remaining Sister, Clotho. He kills her using her own traps, and acquires the Loom of Fate in order to return to the point at which Zeus betrayed him.\n\nKratos surprises Zeus, seizes the Blade of Olympus, and finally incapacitates him. Athena intervenes and implores Kratos to stop, as by killing Zeus, he will destroy Olympus. Kratos ignores her and tries to kill Zeus, but Athena sacrifices herself by impaling herself upon the blade, granting Zeus' escape. Before she dies, Athena reveals that Kratos is actually Zeus' son. Zeus was afraid Kratos would usurp him, just as Zeus had usurped his own father, Cronos. Kratos declares that the rule of the gods is at an end, then travels back in time and rescues the Titans just before their defeat in the Great War. He returns with the Titans to the present, and the gods watch as their former foes climb Mount Olympus. Kratos, standing on the back of Gaia, declares that he has brought the destruction of Olympus.\n\n## Development\n\nA sequel to God of War was first teased at the end of its credits, which stated, \"Kratos Will Return\". God of War II was officially announced at the 2006 Game Developers Conference (GDC). God of War Game Director David Jaffe stepped down and became the Creative Director of its sequel. God of War's lead animator Cory Barlog assumed the role of Game Director. In an interview with Computer and Video Games (CVG) in June 2006, Barlog said that while working on the first few drafts of script, he studied the mythology extensively. He said that the mythology is so large that \"the real difficulty is picking things that really fit within the story of Kratos as well as being easy to swallow for audiences.\" Although he loves the idea of teaching things through storytelling (in this case Greek mythology), Barlog said, \"you can't let your story get bogged down by that.\" He said that in the game, players would see \"a larger view of Kratos' role within the mythological world.\" He also said that he liked the idea of a trilogy, but there were no plans \"as of right now.\"\n\nLike God of War, the game uses Santa Monica's Kinetica engine. Senior combat designer Derek Daniels said that for God of War II, they were basing the magical attacks on elements (e.g., air and earth). He said the combat system was updated so that it flowed smoothly between attacks and switching between weapons and magic. He said that they were working for a similar balance of puzzle solving, exploration, and combat seen in the first game, and they used elements that worked in that game as a base for the overall balance. Unlike God of War where magic had a small role, Daniels said that for God of War II, their goal was to make magic an integral part of the combat system and to make it more refined. Barlog said the game would feature new creatures and heroes from the mythology, and he wanted to put more boss battles in it. Commenting on multiplayer options, Barlog said that \"there are possibilities for that but it is not something we are doing right now.\" He said that he felt that God of War is a single-player experience, and although multiplayer \"would be cool,\" it did not appeal to him to work on. As for a PlayStation Portable (PSP) installment, he said that he thought it \"would be freaking awesome,\" but not something he had time to work on and it was Sony's decision whether or not to make a PSP installment.\n\nIn an interview with IGN in February 2007, Barlog said that his goals for God of War II were to continue the previous game's story, expand on several elements, and to feature more epic moments as opposed to cinematics during gameplay. He said there were many additions to the game, but they did not differ greatly from the style of the previous game. Set-pieces and large scale epic moments were reworked \"so that each battle you have really feels epic and unique.\" Barlog also hinted that another sequel would be made; he said, \"The story has not yet been completed. The end has only just begun.\"\n\nIn another interview with IGN, both Jaffe and Barlog said that they did not view God of War II as a sequel, but rather a continuation of the previous game. Jaffe said that they did not want to include the Roman numeral number two (II) in the title for this reason, but they did not want the title to convey the impression it was an expansion pack. Both Jaffe and Barlog said that the reason God of War II appeared on the PlayStation 2 instead of the PlayStation 3—which was released four months prior to God of War II—was because \"there's a 100 million people out there that will be able to play God of War II as soon as it launches.\" Barlog assured that the game would be playable on the newer platform, which at the time, had PlayStation 2 backwards-compatibility.\n\nFour of the voice actors from the previous installment returned to reprise their roles, including Terrence C. Carson and Keith Ferguson, who voiced Kratos and the boat captain, respectively. Linda Hunt returned as the narrator, who was revealed to be the Titan Gaia, and Carole Ruggier returned as Athena; this was her final time voicing the character until a brief cameo in 2018's God of War. Both Paul Eiding, who had voiced Zeus and the gravedigger, and Fred Tatasciore, who had voiced Poseidon, returned but did not reprise those roles, and instead voiced the characters Theseus and Typhon, respectively. Corey Burton assumed the role of Zeus, having previously voiced the character in the 1998 Disney animated film Hercules: Zero to Hero and the subsequent animated series Hercules. Famed actors Michael Clarke Duncan and Leigh-Allyn Baker lent their voices for the characters Atlas and Lakhesis, respectively. Actor Harry Hamlin was chosen to voice the character Perseus because of his previous portrayal of the same character in the 1981 feature film Clash of the Titans. Although removed early in the game's development, Cam Clarke is credited for the voice of Hercules. Keythe Farley was the voice director alongside Kris Zimmerman and Gordon Hunt.\n\n## Release\n\nGod of War II was released in North America on March 13, 2007, in Europe on April 27, and May 3 in Australia. It was released in Japan on October 25 by Capcom, under the title God of War II: Shūen no Jokyoku (ゴッド・オブ・ウォーII 終焉への序曲). The North American version was packaged in a two-disc set. The first disc was the PlayStation 2 game disc and the second disc was a DVD documentary of the game's development. The European/Australian PAL version was released as two different editions: a single-disc standard edition and a two-disc \"Special Edition\" with different box art and a bonus DVD. On April 6, 2008, it became available in the PlayStation 2 line up of Greatest Hits. Upon release, the game was banned in the United Arab Emirates due to \"one topless scene\".\n\nUpon release, God of War II was commercially successful in multiple markets. In North America, it sold 833,209 copies by the end of March 2007, twice as many copies as the next-best selling game. It was the best-selling game in the UK in the first week of release. It sold over one million copies in the first three months after release, and in June 2012, Sony reported it sold more than 4.24 million copies worldwide.\n\n### Marketing\n\nAs a pre-order incentive, the demo disc of God of War II was made available to all customers who pre-ordered the game. On March 1, 2007, Sony held a media event that featured scantily clad women and a dead goat in Athens as part of the game's marketing campaign. The following month, the Daily Mail learned of the event from the UK Official PlayStation Magazine, called it a \"depraved promotion stunt\", and reported that Member of Parliament and anti-video game violence campaigner Keith Vaz said he would understand if the incident resulted in a boycott of Sony products. In response, Sony said the event had been sensationalized with hyperbole and that the article contained several inaccuracies, but apologized for the event.\n\n### Remastered port\n\nThe game and its predecessor, God of War, were released in North America on November 17, 2009, as part of the God of War Collection, featuring remastered ports of both games for the PlayStation 3 platform, with upscaled graphics and support for PlayStation 3 Trophies. It became available in Japan on March 18, 2010, Australia on April 29, and the UK on April 30. The \"God of War II Bonus Materials\"—content included on the second disc of the original North American PlayStation 2 version—was included with the retail version of the collection. God of War Collection was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store on November 2, 2010, and was the first product containing PlayStation 2 software available via download. PlayStation Plus subscribers could download a one-hour trial of each game. The bonus materials, however, are not included in the digital download version. A PlayStation Vita version of God of War Collection was released on May 6, 2014. By June 2012, God of War Collection had sold more than 2.4 million copies worldwide. On August 28, 2012, God of War Collection, God of War III, and God of War: Origins Collection were included in the God of War Saga under Sony's line of PlayStation Collections for the PlayStation 3 in North America.\n\n## Other media\n\n### Soundtrack\n\nGod of War II: Original Soundtrack from the Video Game, composed by Gerard K. Marino, Ron Fish, Mike Reagan, and Cris Velasco, was released on CD by Sony Computer Entertainment on April 10, 2007. Dave Valentine of Square Enix Music Online gave the soundtrack an 8 out of 10, and said that it features a wide variety of ominous orchestral pieces, and each composer's contributions seem slightly more distinctive than the previous installment. Spence D. of IGN wrote that the score \"is an impressive orchestral accomplishment within the ever-growing and constantly changing arena of videogame composition,\" but that it was aimed more towards the gaming experience of God of War II, rather than being a stand-alone musical experience. At the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards, the score was nominated for \"Best Original Score\". In March 2010, the soundtrack was released as downloadable content as part of the God of War Trilogy Soundtrack in the God of War III Ultimate Edition.\n\n### Novel\n\nAn official novelization of the game, titled God of War II, was announced in July 2009, along with a novelization of the original God of War. It was written by Robert E. Vardeman and published on February 12, 2013, by Del Rey Books in North America, and on February 19, 2013, in Europe by Titan Books. It is available in paperback, Kindle, and audio formats. The novel recounts the events of the game and adds even more layers than what the first book did in relation to the first game. The Sisters of Fate are given more story instead of only being the next to last boss fight of the game. They are introduced in Chapter 2 and have several chapters dedicated to what they were doing throughout Kratos' journey. For example, they allowed the Titans to come back due to their boredom and Lahkesis in particular liked to toy with Kratos. Due to how much the Sisters dabbled with Kratos' fate, it allowed him to make it as far as he did and also allowed him to act on his own will due to the many alterations to his life thread.\n\nThe intentions of some characters actions are also explained, and some characters are given more backstory. The Titan Typhon did not want to help Kratos because if he failed, Zeus would kill Typhon's wife Echidna and their children, who Zeus had allowed to live in freedom while Typhon was imprisoned. Theseus, the King of Athens, wanted the Sisters to give the god Dionysus a new lover so that he could have Ariadne back, and wanted to revive his father Aegus, who committed suicide as he thought Theseus had died. Theseus had the Aegean Sea named after his father. Jason of the Argonauts had stolen the Golden Fleece from Aeëtes of Colchis. He also loved a witch named Medea, who helped him steal the Fleece by killing her own brother. She also convinced Jason's nieces to murder his uncle Pelias and eat him as Pelias was going to betray Jason due to a false prophecy. Jason forsook Medea and married the daughter of King Creon, Creus, who was killed by Medea, along with their children. Despite this, Jason wanted Medea back because Creus did not truly love him. Jason died by Kratos' hand instead of the cerberus' as Jason tried to kill Kratos to get the Fleece back. Perseus was also given some backstory. He had fought the Graeae, a trio of witches. He fought the Gorgons and killed a monster that King Cepheus had tried to appease with a sacrifice. He wanted the Sisters to revive Andromeda, who was not explicitly mentioned in the game.\n\nThe novel introduced some characters who were not present in the game, or any other game. The goddesses Demeter and Hestia both made a very brief appearance just prior to Kratos joining the Spartans in Rhodes where Kratos overheard them discussing their displeasure of the endless war in Greece. Iris, the Goddess of the Rainbow and an occasional messenger, was another new character and had a more substantial role. Atropos contacted Iris and had her lie to Zeus about Kratos on several instances, and was the cause of distrust among the Olympians due to her rumor spreading and half-truths. She eventually replaced Hermes as the Messenger of the Gods. She also told Zeus that he would need to appoint a new God of War. Zeus pondered about making Hercules the new God of War. Athena wished Kratos to be returned as the God of War, thinking by doing so, it would stop the chaos and dissension between the gods. Hermes had thought to suggest Perseus as the new God of War and gifted him his invisibility helmet. Hermes eventually regained his position as the Messenger of the Gods when he finally convinced Zeus that Iris had been lying to him about Kratos. Iris was subsequently banished from Olympus, only to appear at sunrise and sunset, and when it rained.\n\nThe novel also explained that the Titans Rhea, Themis, Iapetus, and Mnemosyne, along with Hyperion, were banished to Tartarus after the Great War. At the end of the novel, the Titan Atlas was one of the Titans brought back from the past to reignite the Great War; in the game, Atlas was not brought back. Also in the game, Kratos and Theseus' fight was to determine who was the greatest warrior in all of Greece. This was not the bases for their fight in the novel. Another omission is that during Kratos' fight with the Barbarian King, the Boat Captain was not summoned to fight Kratos. Kratos also did not keep Euryale's head as a weapon. The first book omitted Kratos receiving the Blades of Athena; this book did not explain how he received them as he already had them at the start of the novel.\n\n## Reception\n\nRegarded as one of the best PlayStation 2 and action games of all time, God of War II received \"universal acclaim\", according to review aggregator Metacritic. It has been praised for its story and improvements over its predecessor, such as gameplay and graphics. Chris Roper of IGN said that God of War II is \"one of gaming's most intense and engaging experiences available.\" He said it \"is practically devoid\" of the minor flaws of the original, citing an example that players can now quickly navigate wall climbing, such as being able to vertically slide down walls. Furthering his praise of the gameplay, he said that it is one of the most \"polished and refined experiences...in gaming.\" Although he said that the combat mechanics were practically identical to the original, he had no complaints, stating it is \"for good reason as it was already perfect the first time out.\"\n\nKristan Reed of Eurogamer said that \"God of War II sports one of the most satisfyingly honed game designs we've ever come across.\" He said that it would not overwhelm players and that it motivates them to improve their skills. He said that the balance \"always feels spot-on,\" and the \"learning curve is just right,\" adding that the magic attacks are more useful than those in God of War. He also said that God of War II's gameplay, like the original, \"finds a comfortable middle ground\" between hardcore and casual players. Alex Navarro of GameSpot praised the pace of the game and the puzzle designs, and said the \"scale of some of the levels is unbelievably massive.\" He also said that the story is interesting because it is more about what happens around Kratos, than what happens to him. Matt Leone of 1UP said that the strongest aspect \"is how it excels as both a story and an action game,\" and it is the story that \"allows the game to feel like a true sequel.\" Roper praised the scale of the levels, as well as the variety in environments, in comparison to the original installment, and said the art direction is \"once again absolutely outstanding.\"\n\nReed praised the amount of detail and said that \"at no stage did we ever see even a hint of frame-rate drop or v-syncing glitches.\" He also said that playing the game on the PS3 sharpens up the visuals. Navarro said that both the sound and graphics were \"superb\" and the technical graphics are impressive for the PlayStation 2. GameTrailers said that in terms of visuals, \"there aren't that many PlayStation 2 games in the same league as God of War II.\" GameZone said that despite the issue of clipping, the game is \"unbelievably gorgeous\".\n\nRoper said that there were a couple of puzzles \"that seemed a little rough around the edges and whose otherwise straightforward solution suffered a bit from imperfect implementation.\" He also criticized the difficulty of unlocking some of the bonus content, as some requirements are \"punishingly hard for most everyone.\" Reed, however, said if players can find any flaws, they are based on \"personal taste\", but also stated that regardless of refinement, \"you can never quite replicate the wow factor of the original—even if it ends up being a better game.\" Navarro said that at times, the combat is \"overly straightforward ... and still prone to button mashing,\" and said that it was \"a bit disappointing\" that more was not done to the combat system. He criticized the cliffhanger ending and said a few of the bonus challenges \"aren't all that great.\" GameTrailers criticized the invisible walls, stating that \"There are places you should be able to go that you simply can't.\" They also cited inconsistency issues in regards to navigation. Leone said his \"only real\" disappointment is that he did not feel the game was evolving the series.\n\n### Awards and accolades\n\nBoth IGN and GameSpot consider God of War II to be the \"swan song\" of the PlayStation 2 era. In 2007, it was awarded \"PlayStation Game of the Year\" at the 25th annual Golden Joystick Awards, and UGO awarded it \"PS2 Game of the Year\". At the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards, it was a nominee for \"Best Action Game\" and \"Best Original Score\". At the 12th Satellite Awards, God of War II received the Outstanding Platform Action/Adventure Game award. At the 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Video Game Awards, God of War II received the \"Story and Character\" and \"Technical Achievement\" awards, and was a nominee for \"Action and Adventure\", \"Original Score\", and \"Use of Audio\". In 2009, IGN named God of War II the second-best PlayStation 2 game of all time—five ahead of its predecessor. In November 2012, Complex magazine named God of War II the best PlayStation 2 game of all time—where God of War was named the eleventh-best—and also considered it better than its successor, God of War III.", "revid": "1171080995", "description": "2007 video game", "categories": ["2007 video games", "Action-adventure games", "BAFTA winners (video games)", "Cultural depictions of Jason", "God of War (franchise)", "Hack and slash games", "Novels based on video games", "PlayStation 2 games", "PlayStation 2-only games", "Santa Monica Studio games", "Single-player video games", "Sony Interactive Entertainment games", "Video game sequels", "Video games about revenge", "Video games about time travel", "Video games based on Greek mythology", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games scored by Cris Velasco", "Video games scored by Gerard Marino", "Video games scored by Mike Reagan", "Video games set in ancient Greece", "Video games set in antiquity"]}
{"id": "588741", "url": null, "title": "Space Oddity", "text": "\"Space Oddity\" is a song by the English singer-songwriter David Bowie. It was first released on 11 July 1969 by Philips Records as a 7-inch single, then as the opening track of his second studio album David Bowie. Produced by Gus Dudgeon and recorded at Trident Studios in London, it is a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom; its title and subject matter were partly inspired by 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Bowie's feelings of alienation at that point in his career. One of the most musically complex songs he had written up to that point, it represented a change from the music hall-influenced sound of his debut to a sound akin to psychedelic folk and inspired by the Bee Gees.\n\nRush-released as a single to capitalise on the Apollo 11 Moon landing, it received critical praise and was used by the BBC as background music during its coverage of the event. It initially sold poorly but soon reached number five in the UK, becoming Bowie's first and only chart hit for another three years. A 1972 reissue by RCA Records was Bowie's first US hit and was promoted with a new music video filmed by Mick Rock. Another 1975 reissue as part of a maxi-single became Bowie's first UK number-one single. Bowie re-recorded an acoustic version in 1979. A mainstay during Bowie's concerts, Bowie revisited the Major Tom character in his later singles, notably the sequel song \"Ashes to Ashes\" (1980).\n\nA range of artists have covered \"Space Oddity\" and others have released songs that reference Major Tom. A 2013 cover by the astronaut Chris Hadfield gained widespread attention; its music video was the first filmed in space. The song has appeared in numerous films and television series, and has a pivotal role in the 2013 film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. In 2019, Visconti remixed Bowie's original recording to mark the 50th anniversary of its first release, with a new music video directed by Tim Pope. Initially viewed as a novelty track, \"Space Oddity\" is now considered one of Bowie's finest recordings and remains one of his most popular songs. It has appeared in numerous \"best-of\" lists, including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's \"500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll\".\n\n## Background and writing\n\nAfter a string of unsuccessful singles, David Bowie released his music hall-influenced self-titled debut studio album through Deram Records in 1967. The album was a commercial failure and did little to gain Bowie notice, becoming his last release for two years. Around this time, Bowie acquired a new manager, Kenneth Pitt. In 1968, Bowie began a romantic relationship with dancer Hermione Farthingale, which lasted until February 1969. With Farthingale and guitarist John Hutchinson, Bowie formed a group called Feathers. With Bowie on acoustic guitar, the trio performed a small number of concerts between September 1968 and early 1969, combining folk, Merseybeat, poetry and mime. After the commercial failure of David Bowie, Pitt authorised the production of a promotional film in an attempt to introduce Bowie to a larger audience. The film, Love You till Tuesday, which marked the end of Pitt's mentorship of Bowie, went unreleased until 1984.\n\nBy the end of 1968, Bowie had begun to feel alienation from his career. Knowing Love You till Tuesday did not have a guaranteed audience and would not feature any new material, Pitt asked Bowie to write something new; \"a very special piece of material that would dramatically demonstrate David's remarkable inventiveness and would probably be the high spot of the production\". With this in mind, Bowie wrote \"Space Oddity\", a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom, the first of Bowie's famous characters. Its title and subject matter were influenced by Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, which premiered in May 1968. Bowie said, \"I went stoned out of my mind to see the movie and it really freaked me out, especially the trip passage\". Biographer Marc Spitz stated the song was likely inspired by the scene in which an astronaut communicates with his daughter on her birthday, saying \"Tell mama that I telephoned\" before ingesting a \"stress pill\", rather than the film's opening or ending. Malcolm Thompson, who directed Love You till Tuesday, later said he and his girlfriend Susie Mercer contributed to the songwriting process. Bowie's break-up with Farthingale deeply affected Bowie. He later said, \"It was Hermione who got me writing for and on a specific person\". Spitz stated Bowie's feelings of loneliness and heartache following the break-up inspired \"Space Oddity\".\n\nOne of the first people to hear \"Space Oddity\" was Calvin Mark Lee, the head of A&R at Mercury Records in London, who considered the song \"otherworldly\" and knew it was Bowie's ticket to be signed by the label. According to Mercury associate Simon Hayes, \"Lee was really on the case with 'Space Oddity', a total convert. He wanted to sign David – and I said 'Fantastic idea'.\" At the time, Bowie's future wife Angela Barnett, whom he met in late 1968, was dating Lou Reizner, the head of Mercury, who was unimpressed with Bowie's output. Eager to sign Bowie, Lee, without Reizner's knowledge, financed a demo session for \"Space Oddity\". Lee later told Spitz: \"We had to do it all behind Lou's back. But it was such a good record.\"\n\n## Composition\n\n### Lyrics\n\n\"Space Oddity\" tells the story of an astronaut named Major Tom, who is informed by Ground Control that a malfunction has occurred in his spacecraft but Major Tom does not get the message because he either misses it or is in such awe of outer space he does not hear it. He remains in space \"sitting in a tin can, far above the world\", preparing for his lonely death. In 1969, Bowie compared Major Tom's fate to the ending of 2001: A Space Odyssey, saying: \"At the end of the song Major Tom is completely emotionless and expresses no view at all about where he's at. He's fragmenting ... at the end of the song his mind is completely blown – he's everything then.\" Authors David Buckley and Peter Doggett comment on the unusual vocabulary in the lyrics, such as \"Ground Control\" rather than \"Mission Control\", \"space ship\" rather than \"rocket\", \"engines on\" rather than \"ignition\", and the \"unmilitary combination\" of rank and first name for the character.\n\nBowie's biographers have provided different interpretations of the lyrics. According to Doggett, the lyrics authentically reflect Bowie's mind and thoughts at the time. He writes that Bowie shone a light on the way advertisers and the media seek to own a stake in a lonely man in space while he himself is exiled from Earth. Chris O'Leary said the song is a \"moonshot-year prophecy\" that humans are not fit for space evolution and the sky is the limit. Similarly, James Perone views Major Tom acting as a \"literal character\" and a \"metaphor\" for individuals who are unaware of, or do not make an effort to learn, what the world is. In 2004, American feminist critic Camille Paglia identified the lyrics as representing the counterculture of the 1960s, stating, \"As his psychedelic astronaut, Major Tom, floats helplessly into outer space, we sense that the '60s counterculture has transmuted into a hopelessness about political reform ('Planet earth is blue / And there's nothing I can do')\".\n\n### Music\n\n\"Space Oddity\" has been characterised as a psychedelic folk ballad. It represented Bowie's new interest in acoustic music since joining Feathers. Pegg and Doggett compare the song's style, structure, lyrics and arrangement to those of the Bee Gees' 1967 single \"New York Mining Disaster 1941\", which has similar minor chords and chorus. Hutchinson later stated: \"'Space Oddity' was a Bee Gees type song. David knew it, and he said so at the time ... the way he sang it, it's a Bee Gees thing.\"\n\n\"Space Oddity\" is one of the most complex songs Bowie had written up to that point. He storyboarded each section, all leading into the next until completion. According to O'Leary, in a little over five minutes, the song includes \"a faded-in intro, a 12-bar solo verse, a 'liftoff' sequence, a duet verse, a bridge, a two-bar acoustic guitar break, a six-bar guitar solo, a third verse, another bridge, break and solo, and a 'Day in the Life'-style outro to the fade\". Bowie stated in 2002 he was \"keen on ... writing in such a way that it would lead me into leading some kind of rock musical\".\n\nAlthough primarily in the key of C major, the song has a variety of chord changes and resonances that aid in telling the story. The intro has a pairing of F major7/E and E minor, while the first verse alternates between C major and E minor. Wayne's guitar harmonises E and B while on Stylophone, Bowie \"drones\" C and B. A D major chord plays on the line \"God's love be with you\" during the pre-liftoff countdown sequence. In the second verse, an E7 chord on the line \"really made the grade\" counteracts the overall key of C major. O'Leary said this change \"brightens\" the song. The bridge's \"planet earth is blue\" has a standard folk-style descending progression; (B major 9th/A minor add9/G major add9/F). According to O'Leary, the B major9 chord \"ratifies Major Tom's choice (or doom) to stay out in space\". The acoustic-guitar break has a C–F–G–A–A note sequence with the two A notes emphasised.\n\n## Recording\n\n### Early demos and first studio version\n\nOne of the early demos of \"Space Oddity\", recorded in January 1969, differs greatly from the album version, including unused vocal harmonies and different lyrics. Rather than the softly spoken \"lift-off\", an American-accented \"blast-off!\" is present. \"I'm floating in a most peculiar way\" is replaced with \"Can I please get back inside now, if I may?\" The demo also includes the later-revised lines:\n\nAnd I think my spaceship knows what I must do\n\nAnd I think my life on Earth is nearly through\n\nGround Control to Major Tom,\n\nyou're off your course, direction's wrong.\n\nThe demo's instrumentation uses only acoustic guitar and Stylophone, which were played by Hutchinson and Bowie, respectively. Bowie had used the Stylophone, a recently released electronic instrument that was mainly marketed to children, to compose the song's melody. Both Bowie and Hutchinson sang vocals on the recording; they recorded another demo version in approximately mid-April 1969.\n\nThe first full studio version of \"Space Oddity\", which was for Love You till Tuesday, was recorded on 2 February 1969 at Morgan Studios, London. At this point, the lyrics were finalised. The session was produced by Jonathan Weston; Bowie and Hutchinson were joined by Colin Wood on Hammond organ, Mellotron and flute; Dave Clague on bass and Tat Meager on drums. As in the early demos, Bowie and Hutchinson shared lead vocals, with Bowie voicing Major Tom's dialogue and Hutchinson singing Ground Control's lines. Bowie also played an ocarina solo for this recording, which Hutchinson later called \"just silly\". According to Pegg, this version is significantly inferior to the David Bowie recording.\n\n### Album version\n\nIn June 1969, after Bowie left Deram, Pitt negotiated a one-album deal, with options for a further one or two albums, with Mercury Records and its UK subsidiary Philips. Mercury executives had heard an audition tape that included the demo of \"Space Oddity\" Bowie and Hutchinson recorded in early 1969. The search for a producer began. After Beatles' producer George Martin turned down the project, Pitt hired Tony Visconti, who produced Bowie's later Deram sessions, to produce the album. Before recording for the album began, \"Space Oddity\" had been selected as the lead single. Visconti, however, saw it as a \"novelty record\"; in 2016, he told Yahoo! Music he found it derivative of works by the Beatles and Simon & Garfunkel, calling it \"a cheap shot – a gimmick to cash in on the moonshot\". Visconti produced the rest of the album but passed production responsibility for \"Space Oddity\" to Bowie's former engineer Gus Dudgeon. Dudgeon had worked as an engineer with Bowie on his Deram recordings. On hearing Bowie's demo, Dudgeon said it was \"unbelievable\"; he and Bowie then planned \"every detail\" of the recording.\n\nWork on the album version of \"Space Oddity\" and its B-side \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" began at Trident Studios in London on 20 June 1969. Bowie fell ill with conjunctivitis and overdubs were completed a few days later. Mercury insisted the single was released the following month, ahead of the Apollo 11 Moon landing. Guitarist Mick Wayne of the British band Junior's Eyes and keyboardist Rick Wakeman were brought on at Visconti's suggestion, while composer Paul Buckmaster was hired to arrange the orchestra, which consisted of eight violins, two violas, two cellos, two arco basses, two flutes and an organ. Buckmaster became an integral part in Bowie's songwriting; he advised Bowie to focus on creating the overall sound rather than the narrative. Dudgeon hired bassist Herbie Flowers and drummer Terry Cox of the folk band Pentangle, and Bowie on acoustic guitar and Stylophone completed the lineup. Bowie later said he added the Stylophone at Marc Bolan's suggestion; \"[Bolan] said, you like this kind of stuff, do something with it. And I put it on 'Space Oddity', so it served me well.\"\n\nDudgeon outlined a plan for the Stylophone and Mellotron parts by scribbling notes on paper; he later told biographer Paul Trynka; \"When we hit that studio we knew exactly what we wanted – no other sound would do.\" At one point in the session, Wayne thought he had finished his guitar take early so began retuning one of the strings. Dudgeon like the warped effect of the retuning and asked Wayne to repeat it on the next take. According to Trynka, towards the end of the session, the musicians knew they were a part of something special. Wakeman recorded his part in two takes after hearing the demo once; he later said; \"it was one of half a dozen occasions where it made the hair stand up on your neck and you know you're involved in something special. 'Space Oddity' was the first time it ever happened to me\". Cox also felt a sense of excitement after the session finished.\n\nThe session cost £500. Dudgeon was paid £100 for his work on the two songs; in June 2002, he instigated a lawsuit against Bowie claiming he did not receive the agreed two per cent of royalties for \"Space Oddity\". Dudgeon intended to sue for a settlement of £1 million; the suit, however, was halted after Dudgeon's death in a car accident the following month. Dudgeon had told biographer David Buckley he felt \"Space Oddity\" was among the finest work of Bowie's career.\n\n### Mixing\n\n\"Space Oddity\" was mixed in both mono and stereo formats, a rarity for radio singles at the time. Wakeman later said it was Bowie's idea to mix it in both formats, according to him: \"To the best of my knowledge nobody released stereo singles at that time, and they pointed that out to David ... and I can remember David saying, 'That's why this one will be stereo!' And he just stood his ground ... he wasn't being awkward, but he had a vision of how things should be.\" Biographer Kevin Cann stated stereo copies were given to the media and radio stations while mono copies were given to retailers. According to Nicholas Pegg, the stereo single was sold only in specific territories, including Italy and the Netherlands; the mono single appeared in both Britain and America.\n\n## Release and promotion\n\nPhilips Records released \"Space Oddity\" as a 7-inch (18 cm) single on 11 July 1969 with the catalogue number Philips BF 1801 and \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" as the B-side. Mercury handled its US release. Despite being a rarity for singles at the time, in some territories, the single's sleeve included a photograph of Bowie playing an acoustic guitar. The label rush-released the single to capitalise on the Apollo 11 Moon mission, which was launched five days later. According to Bowie: \"It was picked up by British television and used as the background music for the landing itself in Britain ... Though I'm sure they really weren't listening to the lyric at all; it wasn't a pleasant thing to juxtapose against a moon landing. Of course, I was overjoyed that they did.\" Upon realising the dark lyrics, the BBC ceased playing it until the Apollo 11 crew safely returned home.\n\nShortly after its release, \"Space Oddity\" received some glowing reviews. Penny Valentine of Disc and Music Echo predicted the record was \"going to knock back everyone senseless\", and later named \"Space Oddity\" as the magazine's record of the year. In Melody Maker, Chris Welch wrote: \"This Bee Geeian piece of music and poetry is beautifully written, sung and performed. Strangely, it could be a hit and escalate Bowie to the top.\" Record World said it's \"a blastoff set to music, and it's haunting and eerie and right on the dot.\" Despite the positive reviews and Pitt's attempts at chart rigging, the single initially failed to sell. In September 1969, the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 48. Mercury's publicist Ron Oberman wrote a letter to American journalists describing \"Space Oddity\" as \"one of the greatest recordings I've ever heard. If this already controversial single gets the airplay, it's going to be a huge hit.\" Despite this, the single failed to sell in the US, peaking at 124, which Pitt attributed to Oberman's use of the word \"controversial\" in his statement, causing it to be banned by multiple US radio stations.\n\nThe single's success in the UK earned Bowie a number of television appearances in the latter half of 1969, starting with a performance on Dutch television show Doebidoe on 25 August 1969 that was broadcast five days later. This was followed by his first appearance on the BBC's Top of the Pops on 2 October, for which Bowie was filmed in a separate studio so his image could be interspersed with NASA space footage. He played Stylophone and guitar over backing tracks prepared by Dudgeon, who was in charge of synchronising the BBC Orchestra to the backing track. According to Dudgeon in 1991, it was a \"nightmare\": they were given enough time for only two takes, the second of which had a tighter orchestra but sloppy cohesion between the space footage and Bowie. Dudgeon stated, \"If we had had the chance of a third take it would have been brilliant\". The performance was broadcast on 9 October and repeated on 16 October; it helped \"Space Oddity\" peak at number five by early November. The Top of the Pops performance was followed by performances on Germany's 4-3-2-1 Musik Für Junge Leute on 22 October (broadcast on 22 November) and on Switzerland's Hits A-Go-Go on 3 November. On 10 May 1970, Bowie performed \"Space Oddity\" at the Ivor Novello Awards, where he was awarded with Most Original Song.\n\nPhilips released David Bowie in the UK, with \"Space Oddity\" as the opening track on 14 November 1969. According to biographer Christopher Sandford, despite the commercial success of \"Space Oddity\", the remainder of the album bears little resemblance to it, resulting in its commercial failure on its initial release. Although Bowie was named 1969's Best Newcomer in a readers' poll for Music Now!, David Bowie sold just over 5,000 copies by March 1970. In mid-December 1969, Philips requested a new version of \"Space Oddity\" with Italian lyrics after learning that one had already been recorded in Italy. Pitt thought the idea was \"ridiculous\" and said, \"it was explained to us that 'Space Oddity' could not be translated into Italian in a way that the Italians could understand\". The Italian version was recorded on 20 December at Morgan Studios with accent coach and producer Claudio Fabi producing and lyrics being translated by Italian lyricist Mogol. This version, titled \"Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola\" (transl. \"Lonely Boy, Lonely Girl\"), was released as a single in Italy in 1970 and failed to chart.\n\nWhen asked about the single's success, Visconti said: \"[I was surprised] and years later [Bowie] and I joked about it so much. But the one thing I predicted was that he would not have a hit after that.\" Bowie did not have another hit after \"Space Oddity\" for three years until the release of \"Starman\". According to Pegg, in a year of novelty hits that began with the Scaffold's \"Lily the Pink\" and ended with Rolf Harris's \"Two Little Boys\", \"Space Oddity\" was destined for the same fate; nothing more than a novelty hit. He also noted that by 1969 numerous space-themed songs had already charted, including Zager and Evans's \"In the Year 2525\", which was a UK number one in the three weeks immediately before \"Space Oddity\"'s entry into the top 40. Only later did Bowie's song \"transcend\" the novelty hit to be regarded as a \"genuine classic\".\n\n### Rereleases\n\nAfter the commercial breakthrough of Bowie's fifth studio album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, RCA Records undertook a reissue campaign for his Mercury albums that included repackaging David Bowie with the title Space Oddity. To promote this release, in the US on 13 December 1972, RCA rereleased \"Space Oddity\" as a single backed by \"The Man Who Sold the World\" with the catalogue number 74-0876. The single reached number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Bowie's first hit single in the country. In Canada, it reached number 16. RCA again reissued the song in the UK on 26 September 1975 as a maxi single, in which it was backed by \"Changes\" and the then-unreleased 1972 outtake \"Velvet Goldmine\"; its catalogue number is RCA 2593. The UK reissue was Bowie's first number-one single in the country, replacing \"I Only Have Eyes for You\" by Art Garfunkel at number one in November. Record World said of the reissued single that \"this disc is a winner from liftoff to fade.\"\n\nIn December 1979, Bowie re-recorded \"Space Oddity\" for the ITV New Year special Will Kenny Everett Ever Make It to 1980? Show. The idea came from the show's director, David Mallet. Bowie recalled:\n\n> I agreed as long as I could do it again without all its trappings and do it strictly with three instruments. Having played it with just an acoustic guitar on stage early on, I was always surprised at how powerful it was just as a song, without all the strings and synthesisers. I really wanted to do it as a three-piece song.\n\nVisconti produced this new version; he stripped the original recording to acoustic guitar, bass, drums and piano. Doggett said this instrumentation mirrors John Lennon's 1970 album Plastic Ono Band, which had influenced Bowie's vocal performance on his 1977 album \"Heroes\". The new recording has a number of differences from the original; replacing the liftoff sequence is 12 seconds of silence and a snare drum fade-out ends the song. O'Leary said while the original \"Space Oddity\" ends \"unresolved\", the 1979 version leaves empty space. This version was issued in February 1980 as the B-side of Bowie's single \"Alabama Song\", which Visconti later said was \"never meant\" to occur. The 1979 recording was released in a remixed form in 1992 on the Rykodisc reissue of Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps), and in 2017 it was rereleased on Re:Call 3, part of the compilation A New Career in a New Town (1977–1982).\n\nIn July 2009, EMI issued the digital-only extended play (EP) \"Space Oddity 40th Anniversary EP\" to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the original single. The EP includes the original UK and US mono single edits, the 1979 re-recording and eight stem tracks that isolate the lead vocal, backing vocals, acoustic guitar, string, bass and drums, flute and cellos, Mellotron and Stylophone. These stem tracks are accompanied with a mobile app that allows users to create their own remixes. Pegg said the EP \"provid[es] a fascinating insight into the component sounds of a classic recording\". In 2015, the original UK mono single edit was included on Re:Call 1, as part of the box set Five Years (1969–1973). The song's 50th anniversary was marked on 12 July 2019 by the release of digital and vinyl singles of a new remix of the song by Tony Visconti. The vinyl version was issued in a box set that also includes the original UK mono single edit.\n\n### Related releases\n\nSeveral demo versions of \"Space Oddity\" have been commercially released. Two early demos, including a fragment that may be the first-recorded demo of the song, were released for the first time in April 2019 on the box set Spying Through a Keyhole. The January 1969 demo remained officially unreleased for more than 40 years until it appeared on the 2009 two-CD special edition of David Bowie, and was debuted on vinyl in May 2019 in the box set Clareville Grove Demos. An edited version of the April 1969 demo originally appeared as the opening track on the 1989 box set Sound + Vision. The unedited recording was released in June 2019 on the album The 'Mercury' Demos. All the abovementioned demos and another previously unreleased one were compiled for the 5-CD box set Conversation Piece, which was released in November 2019. The February 1969 studio recording became commercially available in 1984 on a VHS release of the film Love You till Tuesday and its accompanying soundtrack album. A shorter edit appeared on the 1997 compilation album The Deram Anthology 1966–1968 and an alternative take was released for the first time on Conversation Piece.\n\n## Live versions\n\n\"Space Oddity\" remained a concert staple and a live favourite throughout Bowie's career. On 22 May 1972, Bowie played the song for BBC Radio 1's Johnny Walker Lunchtime Show but the recording was not broadcast. It was eventually released on the 1996 compilation BBC Sessions 1969–1972 (Sampler) and Bowie at the Beeb (2000). For the BBC session, Bowie inserted \"I'm just a rocket man!\" between verses; Elton John had recently released \"Rocket Man\", which is also about an astronaut and was also produced by Gus Dudgeon.\n\nA version of the song that was recorded at Santa Monica Civic Auditorium on 20 October 1972 during the Ziggy Stardust Tour was first released on Santa Monica '72 before becoming officially available in 2008 on Live Santa Monica '72. A live performance that was recorded at the Hammersmith Odeon, London, on 3 July 1973 was released on Ziggy Stardust: The Motion Picture (1983). During the 1974 Diamond Dogs Tour, Bowie sang \"Space Oddity\" while being raised and lowered above the stage by a cherry picker crane and used a radio microphone that was disguised as a telephone. A July 1974 performance of the song was released on the 2005 reissue of David Live while a September performance from the same tour was released in 2017 on Cracked Actor (Live Los Angeles '74).\n\nA concert performance that was recorded on 12 September 1983 was included on the live album Serious Moonlight (Live '83), which was included in the 2018 box set Loving the Alien (1983–1988) and released separately the following year. The same performance appears on the concert video Serious Moonlight (1984). Bowie effectively retired the song from live performances during his 1990 Sound+Vision Tour, after which he sang it on a few occasions, most notably closing his 50th birthday party concert in January 1997 with a solo performance on acoustic guitar; this version was released on a limited edition CD-ROM that was issued with Variety magazine in March 1999. He then performed it at the Tibet House US benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in February 2002; this new version includes an orchestra conducted by Visconti, with string arrangements played by Scorchio and Kronos Quartet. Bowie's final performance of \"Space Oddity\" was at Denmark's Horsens Festival during the 2002 Heathen Tour.\n\n## Music videos\n\nOn 6 February 1969, a clip of the first version of \"Space Oddity\" for Love You till Tuesday was filmed at Clarence Studios. Bowie plays both the tee-shirt-wearing Ground Control character and Major Tom; he wears a silver suit, a blue visor and breast plate. Final touches were made the following day. RCA used this clip to promote the September 1975 UK single reissue.\n\nTo promote RCA's December 1972 US reissue of \"Space Oddity\", a new promotional video was created at RCA's New York studios by photographer Mick Rock; Bowie, who was tired and wore little makeup, mimes to the song with a guitar. Bowie later said:\n\n> I really hadn't much clue why we were doing this, as I had moved on in my mind from the song, but I suppose the record company were re-releasing it again or something like that. Anyway, I know I was disinterested in the proceedings and it shows in my performance. Mick's video is good, though.\"\n\nA promotional video for the 1979 version was debuted in the UK on 31 December 1979 on the Will Kenny Everett Ever Make It to 1980? Show, and in the US on Dick Clark's Salute to the Seventies. A fourth video, which was directed by Tim Pope and combines footage from Bowie's 50th birthday concert in Madison Square Garden with backdrop footage choreographer Édouard Lock filmed for the Sound+Vision Tour (1990), was created for the 2019 remix of the song to promote the box set Conversation Piece. The video was premiered at the Kennedy Space Center and in Times Square on 20 July, and uploaded to YouTube hours later.\n\n## Legacy\n\n### Major Tom\n\nBowie revisited the character Major Tom in the 1980 single \"Ashes to Ashes\", from Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps) (1980). In the song, Major Tom is described as a \"junkie\" who is \"strung out in heaven's high, hitting an all time low\" but Ground Control still believes Major Tom is doing as well as he was ten years prior. The song has been interpreted as Bowie's confrontation of his past; after years of drug addiction in the 1970s, he used those struggles as a metaphor for Major Tom becoming a drug addict. The song's music video reuses visual elements from the December 1979 television performance of \"Space Oddity\".\n\nThe 1996 Pet Shop Boys remix of the single \"Hallo Spaceboy\", from Outside (1995), also revisits Major Tom. The idea for the song came from Pet Shop Boys member Neil Tennant, who informed Bowie he would be adding \"Space Oddity\"-related lines to the remix. Although Bowie was hesitant at first, he accepted. Tennant sang the \"Space Oddity\"-related lines in the remix: \"Ground to Major, bye-bye Tom / Dead the circuit, countdown's wrong\".\n\nMajor Tom may have influenced the music video for Bowie's 2015 single \"Blackstar\", the title track from his final album Blackstar (2016). The video, a surreal, ten-minute short film that was directed by Johan Renck, depicts a woman with a tail (Elisa Lasowski), who discovers a dead astronaut and takes his jewel-encrusted skull to an ancient, otherworldly town. The astronaut's bones float towards a solar eclipse while in the town's centre, a circle of women perform a ritual with the skull. Renck initially refused to confirm or deny that the astronaut in the video is Major Tom but he later said on a BBC documentary: \"to me, it was 100% Major Tom\".\n\n### Retrospective appraisal\n\n\"Space Oddity\" remains one of Bowie's most-popular songs and has frequently been listed by publications as one of his greatest songs. In 2015, Mojo magazine rated it Bowie's 23rd-best track in a list of his 100 greatest songs. Following Bowie's death in 2016, Rolling Stone named \"Space Oddity\" one of the 30 most-essential songs of Bowie's catalogue. A year later, the staff of Consequence of Sound voted it Bowie's tenth best track. In 2017, the readers of NME voted \"Space Oddity\" Bowie's seventh-best track while the publication's staff placed it at number 18 in a list of Bowie's 40 best songs.\n\nThe Guardian's Alexis Petridis voted \"Space Oddity\" number 25 in his list of Bowie's 50 greatest songs, writing: \"Bowie perfectly inhabits its mood of blank-eyed, space-age alienation\". In 2020, Tom Eames of Smooth Radio listed \"Space Oddity\" as Bowie's fifth-greatest song. Ultimate Classic Rock listed it as Bowie's greatest song in 2016. Spencer Kaufman wrote: \"The song was revolutionary for its time, musically and lyrically, and helped introduce the masses to one of the most dynamic and creative music acts we will ever know.\" In a list ranking every Bowie single from worst to best, Ultimate Classic Rock placed \"Space Oddity\" at number four.\n\n\"Space Oddity\" has appeared on numerous best-of lists. In a 2000 list compiling the 100 greatest rock songs, VH1 placed \"Space Oddity\" at number 60. In 2012, Consequence of Sound included it in their list of the 100 greatest top songs of all time, ranking it number 43. In lists ranking the greatest songs of the 1960s, NME ranked \"Space Oddity\" at number 20, Pitchfork placed it at number 48, Paste magazine ranked it number three and Treble magazine placed it at number two. In 2021, Rolling Stone ranked \"Space Oddity\" at number 189 in their list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". The magazine stated as Bowie's first hit, it \"offer[ed] just a glimpse of the ever-evolving star he would become\". Several publications, including Mojo (39), NME (67), and Sounds (41), have also listed \"Space Oddity\" as one of the greatest singles of all time. Channel 4 and The Guardian similarly ranked it the 27th-greatest British number-one single in 1997 while NME ranked it number 26 in their 2012 list of the greatest number-one singles in history.\n\nThe Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included \"Space Oddity\" in their list of \"The 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll\". The song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2018.\n\n## Track listing\n\nAll songs written by David Bowie.\n\n1969 UK original\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" – 4:33 (mono)\n2. \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" – 3:52\n\n1969 US original\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" – 3:26\n2. \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" – 3:20\n\n1969 \"Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola\"\n\n1. \"Ragazzo solo, ragazza sola\" (Bowie, Mogol) – 5:15\n2. \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" (Bowie) – 4:59\n\n1973 US Reissue\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" – 5:05\n2. \"The Man Who Sold the World\" – 3:53\n\n1975 UK reissue\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" – 5:15\n2. \"Changes\" – 3:33\n3. \"Velvet Goldmine\" – 3:14\n\n2009 EMI reissue (Digital EP)\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" (Original UK mono single edit)\n2. \"Space Oddity\" (US mono single edit)\n3. \"Space Oddity\" (US stereo single edit)\n4. \"Space Oddity\" (1979 rerecording)\n5. \"Space Oddity\" (Bass and drums)\n6. \"Space Oddity\" (Strings)\n7. \"Space Oddity\" (Acoustic guitar)\n8. \"Space Oddity\" (Mellotron)\n9. \"Space Oddity\" (Backing vocal, flute and cellos)\n10. \"Space Oddity\" (Stylophone and guitar)\n11. \"Space Oddity\" (Lead vocal)\n12. \"Space Oddity\" (Main backing vocal including countdown)\n\n2019 reissue (2×7\")\n\nDisc 1\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" (Original Mono Single Edit)\n2. \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" (Original Mono Single Version)\n\nDisc 2\n\n1. \"Space Oddity\" (2019 Mix – Single Edit)\n2. \"Wild Eyed Boy from Freecloud\" (2019 Mix – Single Version)\n\n## Personnel\n\nCredits apply to the 1969 original release:\n\n- David Bowie –  vocals, 12-string acoustic guitar, Stylophone, handclaps\n- Mick Wayne –  lead guitar\n- Herbie Flowers –  bass guitar\n- Terry Cox –  drums\n- Paul Buckmaster –  string arrangement\n- Tony Visconti –  flutes, woodwinds\n- Rick Wakeman –  Mellotron\n\nProduction\n\n- Gus Dudgeon –  producer\n\nRagazzo solo, ragazza sola (1969)\n\n- Producers: Gus Dudgeon\n- Musicians:\n  - David Bowie – vocals, guitar, Stylophone\n  - Herbie Flowers – bass\n  - Terry Cox – drums\n  - Rick Wakeman – Mellotron\n  - String Section (unnamed)\n\n## Charts and certifications\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n### Certifications\n\n## Cover versions and appearances in media\n\n\"Space Oddity\" has been covered by numerous artists. Performers on the original recording Rick Wakeman and Terry Cox, specifically the latter's band Pentangle, have covered the song. One of Bowie's favourite versions was a recording by the Langley Schools Music Project, a 60-voice choir of Canadian children who were recorded in the late 1970s and reissued on CD in 2002. Bowie said: \"The backing arrangement is astounding. Coupled with the earnest if lugubrious vocal performance, you have a piece of art that I couldn't have conceived of, even with half of Colombia's finest export products in me.\" Many artists have written songs that reference or develop the story of \"Space Oddity\"; these include German singer Peter Schilling's 1983 song \"Major Tom (Coming Home)\", Panic on the Titanic's \"Major Tom\", and Def Leppard's 1987 single \"Rocket\". English singer-songwriter Jonathan King released a mashup of \"Space Oddity\" together with Peter Schilling's \"Major Tom (Coming Home)\" titled \"Space Oddity / Major Tom (Coming Home)\". This release reached No. 77 on the UK Singles Chart in May 1984.\n\n\"Space Oddity\" has been heard and referenced in numerous films and television series, including the American sitcom Friends, the British series EastEnders and Shooting Stars, and the films Mr. Deeds (2002), The Mother (2003) and C.R.A.Z.Y. (2005). The original single version is heard on the soundtrack of the 2004 film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers and a 2015 episode of the American drama series Mad Men. It was also featured in a 2011 Renault Clio commercial and played on the radio of Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster during its launch aboard the Falcon Heavy's maiden flight in February 2018.\n\nThe song plays a pivotal role in the 2013 film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, in which Walter Mitty (Ben Stiller) is frequently referred to as \"Major Tom\" for daydreaming while at work. \"Space Oddity\" is featured in a scene in which Mitty decides to leap onto a helicopter after imagining his coworker Cheryl (Kristen Wiig) singing the song. For the scene, Wiig's vocal was mixed into Bowie's original track. Stiller said about the importance of \"Space Oddity\" in the scene:\n\n> I felt like the way it fits into the story, we got to this point and this scene which was sort of how the fantasy and reality come together for Walter, and that was what that came out of. That song, and what he mentioned in his head, and what he imagines and what he does, it all just seemed to come together over that song.\n\n\"Space Oddity\" was played throughout the entire opening montage for the 2017 film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets, which showed humans making contact with extraterrestrial life. Director Luc Besson timed the sequences of the scene to the guitar chords of \"Space Oddity\", and it took many hours for the shots from the film to be synched with the song, and the bass riff was used to signify humanity's first contact with aliens. The opening sequence had originally been storyboarded with the intention of 'Space Oddity' being played in the background, with Besson saying \"It's almost a music video; I matched the song to the image.\" Besson previously worked with Bowie on Arthur and the Invisibles (2006), and the singer agreed to allow Besson to use \"Space Oddity\" in Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets, although Bowie died before the film was released.\n\n### Chris Hadfield version\n\nIn May 2013, Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield, commander of Expedition 35 to the International Space Station (ISS), recorded a video of \"Space Oddity\" on the ISS that went viral and generated a great deal of media exposure. It was the first music video to be recorded in space. In the video, which was filmed at the end of Hadfield's time at the ISS, Hadfield sang and played guitar while floating around the space station. On Earth, Joe Corcoran produced and mixed the backing track with a piano arrangement by multi-instrumentalist Emm Gryner, who worked with Bowie during his 1999–2000 concert tours. Gryner said she was \"so proud to be a part of it\".\n\nThe lyrics were somewhat altered; rather than losing communication with Ground Control and being lost in space as a result, Major Tom receives his orders to land and does so safely, reflecting Hadfield's imminent return from his final mission to the ISS. Hadfield announced the video on his Twitter account, writing: \"With deference to the genius of David Bowie, here's Space Oddity, recorded on Station. A last glimpse of the World.\" Bowie's social media team responded to the video, tweeting back to Hadfield, \"Hallo Spaceboy ...\", and later called the cover \"possibly the most poignant version of the song ever created\".\n\nHadfield's performance was the subject of a piece by Glenn Fleishman in The Economist on 22 May 2013 analyzing the legal implications of publicly performing a copyrighted work of music while in Earth orbit. The song is the only one of Bowie's for which he did not own the copyright. Bowie's publisher granted Hadfield a one-year licence to the song. On 13 May 2014, when the one-year licence expired, the official video was taken offline despite Bowie's explicit wishes for the publisher to grant Hadfield a licence at no charge to record the song and produce the video. Following negotiations, the video was restored to YouTube on 2 November 2014 with a two-year licence agreement in place. According to Pegg, Hadfield's video is \"Breathtakingly beautiful and extraordinarily moving, [and] offers a rare opportunity to deploy that overused adjective 'awesome' with complete justification\".\n\n## See also\n\n- \"Ashes to Ashes\" (David Bowie song)\n- \"Hallo Spaceboy\"\n- \"Blackstar\" (song)", "revid": "1173387538", "description": "1969 song by David Bowie", "categories": ["1960s ballads", "1969 singles", "1969 songs", "1973 singles", "1975 singles", "David Bowie songs", "Folk ballads", "Major Tom", "Mercury Records singles", "Number-one singles in France", "Philips Records singles", "Psychedelic folk songs", "RCA Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Gus Dudgeon", "Songs about fictional male characters", "Songs about spaceflight", "Songs written by David Bowie", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles"]}
{"id": "60991", "url": null, "title": "University of Bristol", "text": "The University of Bristol is a red brick Russell Group research university in Bristol, England. It received its royal charter in 1909, although it can trace its roots to a Merchant Venturers' school founded in 1595 and University College, Bristol, which had been in existence since 1876.\n\nBristol is organised into six academic faculties composed of multiple schools and departments running over 200 undergraduate courses, largely in the Tyndalls Park area of the city. The university had a total income of £833.1 million in 2021–22, of which £186.4 million was from research grants and contracts. It is the largest independent employer in Bristol. Current academics include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences, 13 fellows of the British Academy, 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society. The University of Bristol's alumni and faulty include 9 Nobel laureates.\n\nBristol is a member of the Russell Group of research-intensive British universities, the European-wide Coimbra Group and the Worldwide Universities Network, of which the university's previous vice-chancellor, Eric Thomas, was chairman from 2005 to 2007. In addition, the university holds an Erasmus Charter, sending more than 500 students per year to partner institutions in Europe. It has an average of 6.4 (Sciences faculty) to 13.1 (Medicine & Dentistry Faculty) applicants for each undergraduate place.\n\n## History\n\n### Foundation\n\nThe earliest antecedent of the university was the engineering department of the Merchant Venturers' Technical College (founded as a school as early as 1595) which became the engineering faculty of Bristol University. The university was also preceded by Bristol Medical School (1833) and University College, Bristol, founded in 1876, where its first lecture was attended by only 99 students. The university was able to apply for a royal charter due to the financial support of the Wills, Fry and Colston families, who made their fortunes in tobacco plantations, chocolate, and (via Edward Colston) the transatlantic slave trade, respectively. A 2018 study commissioned by the university estimated 85% of the philanthropic funds used for the institution's foundation was directly connected with the transatlantic slave trade.\n\nThe royal charter was gained in May 1909, with 288 undergraduates and 400 other students entering the university in October 1909. Henry Overton Wills III became its first chancellor. The University College was the first such institution in the country to admit women on the same basis as men. However, women were forbidden to take examinations in medicine until 1906.\n\n### Historical development\n\nSince the founding of the university itself in 1909, it has grown considerably and is now one of the largest employers in the local area, although it is smaller by student numbers than the nearby University of the West of England. It is a member of the Russell Group of research-led UK universities, the Coimbra Group of leading European universities and the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN).\n\n#### Early years\n\nAfter the founding of the university college in 1876, government support began in 1889. Funding from mergers with the Bristol Medical School in 1893 and the Merchant Venturers' Technical College in 1909, allowed the opening of a new medical school and an engineering school — two subjects that remain among the university's greatest strengths. In 1908, gifts from the Fry and Wills families, particularly £100,000 from Henry Overton Wills III (£6m in today's money), were provided to endow a University for Bristol and the West of England, provided that a royal charter could be obtained within two years. In December 1909, the king granted such a charter and erected the University of Bristol. Henry Wills became its first chancellor and Conwy Lloyd Morgan the first vice-chancellor. Wills died in 1911 and in tribute his sons George and Harry built the Wills Memorial Building, starting in 1913 and finally finishing in 1925. Today, it houses parts of the academic provision for earth sciences and law, and graduation ceremonies are held in its Great Hall. The Wills Memorial Building is a Grade II\\* listed building.\n\nIn 1920, George Wills bought the Victoria Rooms and endowed them to the university as a students' union. The building now houses the Department of Music and is a Grade II\\* listed building.\n\nAt the point of foundation, the university was required to provide for the local community. This mission was behind the creation of the Department of Extra-Mural Adult Education in 1924 to provide courses to the local community. This mission continues today; a new admissions policy specifically caters to the 'BS' postcode area of Bristol.\n\nAmong the famous names associated with Bristol in this early period is Paul Dirac, who graduated in 1921 with a degree in engineering, before obtaining a second degree in mathematics in 1923 from Cambridge. For his subsequent pioneering work on quantum mechanics, he was awarded the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics. Later in the 1920s, the H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory was opened by Ernest Rutherford. It has since housed several Nobel Prize winners: Cecil Frank Powell (1950); Hans Albrecht Bethe (1967); and Sir Nevill Francis Mott (1977). The laboratory stands on the same site today, close to the Bristol Grammar School and the city museum.\n\nSir Winston Churchill became the university's third chancellor in 1929, serving the university in that capacity until 1965. He succeeded Richard Haldane who had held the office from 1912 following the death of Henry Wills.\n\nDuring World War II, the Wills Memorial was bombed, destroying the Great Hall and the organ it housed, along with 7,000 books removed from King's College London for safe keeping. It has since been restored, complete with oak panelled walls and a new organ.\n\n#### Post-war development\n\nIn 1946, the university established the first drama department in the country. In the same year, Bristol began offering special entrance exams and grants to aid the resettlement of servicemen returning home. Student numbers continued to increase, and the Faculty of Engineering eventually needed the new premises that were to become Queen's Building in 1955. This substantial building housed all of the university's engineers until 1996, when the electrical engineering and computer science departments moved over the road into the new Merchant Venturers' Building to make space for these rapidly expanding fields. Today, Queen's Building caters for most of the teaching needs of the faculty and provides academic space for the \"heavy\" engineering subjects (civil, mechanical, and aerospace).\n\nWith unprecedented growth in the 1960s, particularly in undergraduate numbers, the Students' Union eventually acquired larger premises in a new building in the Clifton area of the city, in 1965. This building was more spacious than the Victoria Rooms, which were now given over to the Department of Music. The University of Bristol Union provides many practice and performance rooms, some specialist rooms, as well as three bars: Bar 100, the Mandela (also known as AR2) and the Avon Gorge. Whilst spacious, the Union building is thought by many to be ugly and out of character compared to the architecture of the rest of the Clifton area, having been mentioned in a BBC poll to find the worst architectural eyesores in Britain. The university has proposed relocating the Union to a more central location as part of its development 'masterplan'. More recently, plans for redevelopment of the current building have been proposed.\n\nThe 1960s were a time of considerable student activism in the United Kingdom, and Bristol was no exception. In 1968, many students marched in support of the Anderson Report, which called for higher student grants. This discontent culminated in an 11-day sit-in at the Senate House (the administrative headquarters of the university). A series of chancellors and vice-chancellors led the university through these decades, with Henry Somerset, 10th Duke of Beaufort taking over from Churchill as chancellor in 1965 before being succeeded by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1970 who spent the next 18 years in the office.\n\nAs the age of mass higher education dawned, Bristol continued to build its student numbers. The various undergraduate residences were repeatedly expanded and, more recently, some postgraduate residences have been constructed. These more recent ventures have been funded (and are run) by external companies in agreement with the university.\n\nOne of the few centres for deaf studies in the United Kingdom was established in Bristol in 1981, followed in 1988 by the Norah Fry Centre for research into learning difficulties. Also in 1988, and again in 2004, the Students' Union AGM voted to disaffiliate from the National Union of Students (NUS). On both occasions, however, the subsequent referendum of all students reversed that decision and Bristol remains affiliated to the NUS.\n\nIn 1988, Sir Jeremy Morse, then chairman of Lloyds Bank, became chancellor.\n\n### 21st century\n\nAs the number of postgraduate students has grown (particularly the numbers pursuing taught master's degrees), there eventually became a need for separate representation on university bodies and the Postgraduate Union (PGU) was established in 2000. Universities are increasingly expected to exploit the intellectual property generated by their research activities and, in 2000, Bristol established the Research and Enterprise Division (RED) to further this cause (particularly for technology-based businesses). In 2001, the university signed a 25-year research funding deal with IP2IPO, an intellectual property commercialisation company. In 2007, research activities were expanded further with the opening of the Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS) and The Bristol Institute for Public Affairs (BIPA).\n\nIn 2002, the university was involved in an argument over press intrusion after details of then-prime minister Tony Blair's son's application to university were published in national newspapers. In the same year, the university opened the new Centre for Sports, Exercise and Health in the heart of the university precinct. At a cost, local residents are also able to use the facilities.\n\nBrenda Hale, the first female Law Lord, became chancellor of the university in 2003. Sir Paul Nurse succeeded Lady Hale as chancellor on 1 January 2017.\n\nExpansion of teaching and research activities continues. In 2004, the Faculty of Engineering completed work on the Bristol Laboratory for Advanced Dynamics Engineering (BLADE). This £18.5m project is intended to further the study of dynamics and is the most advanced such facility in Europe. It was built as an extension to the Queen's Building and was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in March 2005.\n\nIn January 2005, the School of Chemistry was awarded £4.5m by the Higher Education Funding Council for England to create Bristol ChemLabS: a Centre for Excellence in Teaching & Learning (CETL), with an additional £350k announced for the capital part of the project in February 2006. Bristol ChemLabS stands for Bristol Chemical Laboratory Sciences; it is the only chemistry CETL in the UK.\n\nSeptember 2009 saw the opening of the university's Centre for Nanoscience and Quantum Information. This £11 million building is known as the quietest building in the world and has other technologically sophisticated features such as self-cleaning glass. Advanced research into quantum computing, nanotechnology, materials and other disciplines are being undertaken in the building.\n\nThere is also a plan to significantly redevelop the centre of the University Precinct in the coming years. The first step began in September 2011, with the start of construction of a state-of-the-art Life Sciences building.\n\nIn 2018 while building work was underway in the Fry Building, the building caught fire.\n\nIn 2018 the University of Bristol Students' Union (Bristol SU) adopted a motion that banned trans-exclusionary radical feminists (TERFs) from appearing as speakers at Bristol SU events and that called upon the university to adopt the same policy. The motion said the TERF ban was necessary because TERF activity on the university campus \"put[s] trans students' safety at risk ... in direct violation of the aims outlined in the Code of Conduct\".\n\nIn February 2021, University of Bristol professor David Miller called for the \"end of Zionism\", said that Israel is \"trying to exert its will all over the world\" and called members of the University of Bristol Jewish Society \"political pawns by a violent, racist foreign regime\", comments that the All-Party Parliamentary Group Against Anti-Semitism deemed to \"incit[e] hatred against Jewish students\". On 17 March, the university announced that it had begun an investigation of Miller, and observed that it did not endorse his remarks. The Avon and Somerset Police announced about a week later that they had opened a hate crime investigation. Miller's employment at the university was terminated \"with immediate effect\" at the beginning of October 2021.\n\nIn 2021, Raquel Rosario-Sánchez, a Dominican graduate student at Bristol who had attended meetings of feminist groups that opposed allowing trans women into female-only spaces, filed a civil action against Bristol University; Rosario-Sánchez alleges that she was the victim of a campaign of bullying and abuse against her by other members of the university, and that the university failed to protect her because it was afraid of upsetting trans-rights activists. The case went to trial in February 2022. The judgment was delivered in April 2022. The judge acknowledged that she had been subject to threats of violence, but dismissed all her claims, saying that there had been no actionable breach of duty by the university. He said that his ruling focused on how the university managed her complaints rather than any judgment about gender rights. In February 2023, following its previous disciplinary action against Rosario-Sánchez and the Women Talk Back group, it emerged that the Bristol Students Union has agreed out-of-court that \"affiliated clubs and societies may lawfully offer single-sex services and be constituted as single-sex associations\".\n\n## Campus\n\n### Buildings and sites\n\nThe university does not have a main campus but is spread over a considerable geographic area. Most of its activities, however, are concentrated in the area of the city centre, referred to as the \"University Precinct\".\n\nSome of the University of Bristol's buildings date to its pre-charter days when it was University College Bristol. These buildings were designed by Charles Hansom, and suffered being built in stages due to financial pressure. The first large scale building project the University of Bristol undertook on gaining a charter was the Wills Memorial Building. The armorials on the Founder's Window represent all of the interests present at the founding of the University of Bristol including the Wills and Fry families. Other notable buildings and sites include Royal Fort House, the University of Bristol Botanic Garden, many large Victorian houses which were converted for teaching in the Faculty of Arts, and the Victoria Rooms which house the Music Department and were designed by Charles Dyer. The tympanum of the building depicts a scene from The Advent of Morning designed by Jabez Tyley.\n\nGoldney gardens entered the property of the University of Bristol through George Wills who had hoped to build an all-male hall of residence there. This was prevented due to the moral objection of the then warden of Clifton Hill House who objected to the idea of male and female residences being in such close proximity. University records show that Miss Starvey was prepared to resign over the issue and that she had the support of the then Chancellor Conwy Lloyd Morgan. Eventually land was purchased in Stoke Bishop, allowing the building of what has been described as a \"quasi-Oxbridge\" hall, Wills Hall, to which was added the Dame Monica Wills Chapel by George Wills' widow after his death. When Goldney did become student accommodation in 1956, the flats were designed by Michael Grice who received an award from the Civic Trust for their design.\n\nBurwalls, a mansion house on the other side of the Avon Gorge, was used as a halls of residence in the past and was a home of Sir George Oatley. The building is now used to house the Centre for Continuing Education.\n\nMany of the more modern buildings, including Senate House and the newer parts of the HH Wills Physics Laboratory, were designed by Ralph Brentnall using funds from the University Grants Committee. He is also responsible for the extension to the Wills Memorial Building library which was completed to such standard that few now realise that is an extension to the original building.\n\nIn May 2022, the university announced the opening of the Gambling Harms and Research Centre (GHRC). The centre worth £4 million aims to increase awareness and understanding of the dangers of gambling. The project was funded by the GambleAware charity, which chose the university for its history in researching gambling issues, and will integrate research from six facilities.\n\n### Planned expansion\n\nIn November 2016, the university announced that it plans to build a £300 million Temple Quarter Campus for c. 5,000 students, next to Bristol Temple Meads railway station within Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone. The new campus, which will include a business school, digital research facilities and a student village, is expected to open in 2021. For the existing campus, there are plans to remodel Tyndall Avenue, pedestrianise the surrounding area and build a new library and resource hub.\n\n## Organisation and governance\n\nIn common with most UK universities, Bristol is headed formally by the chancellor, currently Sir Paul Nurse and led on a day-to-day basis by the vice-chancellor, currently Professor Evelyn Welch, who is the academic leader and chief executive. There are four pro vice-chancellors and three ceremonial pro-chancellors. The chancellor may hold office for up to ten years and the pro-chancellors for up to three, unless the University Court determines otherwise, but the vice-chancellor and pro-vice-chancellors have no term limits. The vice-chancellor is supported by a deputy vice-chancellor.\n\nResponsibility for running the university is held at an executive level by the vice-chancellor, but the council is the only body that can recommend changes to the university's statutes and charter, with the exception of academic ordinances. These can only be made with the consent of the senate, the chief academic body in the university which also holds responsibility for teaching and learning, examinations and research and enterprise. The chancellor and pro chancellors are nominated by council and appointed formally by court, whose additional powers are now limited to these appointments and a few others, including some lay members of council. Finally, Convocation, the body of all staff, ceremonial officers and graduates of the university, returns 100 members to court and one member to council, but is otherwise principally a forum for discussion and to ensure graduates stay in touch with the university.\n\nThe university is made up of a number of schools and departments organised into six faculties:\n\n### Faculty of Arts\n\n- School of Arts\n  - Anthropology and Archaeology\n  - Film and Television\n  - Music\n  - Philosophy\n  - Theatre (see also the University of Bristol Theatre Collection)\n- School of Humanities\n  - Classics and Ancient History\n  - English\n  - History\n  - History of Art\n  - Religion and Theology\n- School of Modern Languages\n  - French\n  - German\n  - Hispanic, Portuguese and Latin American Studies\n  - Italian\n  - Russian\n- Centre for English Language and Foundation Studies\n- Centre for Innovation\n\n### Faculty of Engineering\n\n- School of Computer Science, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, and Engineering Mathematics\n  - Computer Science\n  - Electrical & Electronic Engineering\n  - Engineering Mathematics\n- School of Civil, Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering\n  - Aerospace Engineering\n  - Civil Engineering\n  - Mechanical Engineering\n  - Engineering Design\n  - Engineering with Management\n\n### Faculty of Life Sciences\n\n- School of Biological Sciences\n- School of Biochemistry\n- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine\n- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience\n- School of Psychological Science\n\n### Faculty of Science\n\n- School of Chemistry\n- School of Earth Sciences\n- School of Geographical Sciences\n- School of Mathematics\n- School of Physics\n  - Centre for Device Thermography and Reliability\n  - Centre for Nanoscience & Quantum Information\n  - Interface Analysis Centre\n\n### Faculty of Health Sciences\n\n- Bristol Dental School\n- Bristol Medical School\n  - Population Health Sciences\n  - Translational Health Sciences\n- Bristol Veterinary School\n- Centre for Health Sciences Education\n  - Centre for Applied Anatomy\n  - Master's in Teaching and Learning for Health Professionals\n\n### Faculty of Social Sciences and Law\n\n- School of Education\n- School for Policy Studies\n- School of Economics\n- Centre for Market and Public Organisation\n- School of Sociology, Politics and International Studies\n- University of Bristol Business School\n- University of Bristol Law School\n\n### Academic dress\n\nThe university specifies a mix of Cambridge and Oxford academic dress. For the most part, it uses Oxford-style gowns and Cambridge-style hoods, which are required to be 'university red' (see the logo at the top of the page).\n\n### Logo and arms\n\nIn 2004, the university unveiled its new logo. The icons in the logo are the sun for the Wills family, the dolphin for Colston, the horse for Fry and the ship-and-castle from the medieval seal of the City of Bristol, as also used in the coat of arms. The shape of the whole logo represents the open book of learning. This logo has replaced the university arms shown, but the arms continue to be used where there is a specific historical or ceremonial requirement. The arms comprise:\n\nThe inscription on the book is the Latin opening of the 124th Psalm, \"If the Lord Himself had not (been on our side...)\". The latin motto granted with the Arms below the shields is Vim promovet insitam, from the fourth Ode of Horace's fourth book meaning '[Learning] promotes one's innate power'.\n\n## Academics\n\n### Admissions\n\nBristol had the 8th highest average entry qualification for undergraduates of any UK university in 2015, with new students averaging 485 UCAS points, equivalent to just above AAAaa in A-level grades. Competition for places is high with an average 7.7 applications per place according to the 2014 Sunday Times League Tables, making it the joint 11th most competitive university in the UK. The university gives offers of admission to 67.3% of its applicants, the 8th lowest amongst the Russell Group.\n\nAccording to the 2017 Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide, approximately 40% of Bristol's undergraduates come from independent schools. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 78:5:17 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 55:45.\n\n### Rankings and reputation\n\nThe University of Bristol ranks number 5 in the UK for research quality according to the most recent Research Excellence Framework assessment. Chemistry (1st), Physics (5th), Engineering (6th), Mathematical sciences (4th), Computer science and informatics (7th), Earth systems and environmental sciences (2nd), Biological sciences (8th), Geography and environmental studies (1st), Law (3rd), Economics and econometrics (7th), and Modern languages and linguistics (4th) are among the highly rated subjects. The Complete University Guide 2024 ranks Bristol 4th for the quality of its research. Bristol also ranks 5th for number of spin outs created and has the best business incubator in the world according to UBI Global.\n\nThe University of Bristol was the fourth most targeted university by the UK's top 100 employers, according to the Graduate Market in 2023 report produced by High Fliers. It was ranked joint 7th in the U.K. for graduate employability.\n\nInternationally, the 2024 QS World University Rankings placed Bristol at 55th overall in the world and 9th in the UK.The Times Higher Education World University Ranking placed Bristol at 76th globally and 9th in the U.K. in 2023. Another international ranking, the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities, placed Bristol 88th globally and 8th in the UK in 2023.\n\n### Degrees\n\nBristol awards a range of academic degrees spanning bachelor's and master's degrees as well as junior doctorates and higher doctorates. The postnominals awarded are the degree abbreviations used commonly among British universities. The university is part of the Engineering Doctorate scheme, and awards the Eng. D. in systems engineering, engineering management, aerospace engineering and non-destructive evaluation.\n\nBristol notably does not award by title any bachelor's degrees in music, which is available for study but awarded BA (although it does award MMus and DMus), nor any degree in divinity, since divinity is not available for study (students of theology are awarded a BA). Similarly, the university does not award BLitt (Bachelor of Letters), although it does award both MLitt and DLitt. In regulations, the university does not name MD or DDS as higher doctorates, although they are in many universities as these degrees are normally accredited professional doctorates.\n\nThe degrees of DLitt, DSc, DEng, LLD and DMus, whilst having regulations specifying the grounds for award, are most often conferred as honorary degrees (in honoris causa). Those used most commonly are the DLitt, DSc and LLD, with the MA (and occasionally the MLitt) also sometimes conferred honorarily for distinction in the local area or within the university.\n\n## Publishing and commercial activities\n\nUniversity of Bristol has various activities including publication, joint ventures, and catering and accommodation services.\n\n### Bristol University Press\n\nBristol University Press is scholarly press based at University of Bristol. In 1996, the University of Bristol established Policy Press, an academic publisher based in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Law at the University of Bristol and specialising in the social sciences. In October 2016, Policy Press became an imprint of newly founded Bristol University Press.\n\nIt is not-for-profit university press which publishes 15 journals and 200 books a year in subjects including: Ageing and Gerontology, Business and Management, Criminology, Economics and Society, Environment and Sustainability, International Development, Law, Politics and International Relations, Science, Technology and Society, and Sociology. It achieved journal citation metrics with gains in Journal Impact Factors and improved results in Journal Citation Indicator, Scopus CiteScore and SJR.\n\n### Bristol is Open\n\nBristol is Open, abbreviated as BiO, is a joint venture project between Bristol City Council and University of Bristol. It is for delivering research contributing to the development of a Smart City and deploying a city-scale open and programmable testbed for experimentation and digital innovation. The collaboration of two organisations started in April 2015 and ended in December 2019 with Bristol City Council taking full control of BiO's operations. It has completed many technical trials and experiments including open access to Wi-Fi as a reduction of the digital divide and development for Smart City technology.\n\n## Student life\n\n### Students' Union\n\nThe University of Bristol Students' Union (Bristol SU) located on Queen's Road in the Richmond Building is a founding member of the National Union of Students and is amongst the oldest students' unions in England. The union oversees three media outlets: UBTV, the Bristol University Radio Station (BURST) and the student newspaper Epigram. There is also a local branch of The Tab. The Union is responsible for representing students' academic interests through elections of student representatives and democratic events. The Union is also responsible for the organisation of the annual Welcome Fair, the co-ordination of Bristol Student Community Action, which organises volunteering projects in the local community, and the organisation of entertainment events and over 400 student groups, societies and clubs. Previous presidents have included Sue Lawley and former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik. There is a separate union for postgraduate students, as well as an athletic union, which is a member of the British Universities & Colleges Sport. In distinction to the \"blues\" awarded for sporting excellence at Oxford and Cambridge, Bristol's most successful athletes are awarded \"reds\".\n\n### Halls of residence\n\nAccommodation for students is primarily in the central precinct of the university and two areas of Bristol: Clifton and Stoke Bishop, known respectively as the West and North Villages.\n\nIn Stoke Bishop, Wills Hall on the edge of the Clifton Downs was the first to be opened, in 1929, by the then chancellor, Winston Churchill. Its original quadrangle layout has been expanded twice, in 1962 and 1990. Churchill Hall, named for the chancellor, followed in 1956, then Badock Hall in 1964. At the time of Badock Hall's establishment, some of the buildings were called Hiatt Baker Hall, but two years later, Hiatt Baker moved to its own site and is now the largest hall in the university. The first self-catering hall in Stoke Bishop was University Hall, established in 1971 with expansion in 1992.\n\nIn Clifton, Goldney Hall was built first in the early 18th century by the wealthy merchant Goldney family and eventually became part of the university in 1956. It is a popular location for filming, with The Chronicles of Narnia, The House of Eliott and Truly, Madly, Deeply, as well as episodes of Only Fools and Horses and Casualty, being filmed there. The Grotto in the grounds is a Grade I listed building. Clifton Hill House is another Grade I listed building now used as student accommodation in Clifton. The original building was constructed between 1745 and 1750 by Isaac Ware, and has been used by the university since its earliest days in 1909. Manor Hall comprises five separate buildings, the principal of which was erected from 1927 to 1932 to the design of George Oatley following a donation from Henry Herbert Wills. Manor Hall houses the largest and most dated rooms, some dating back to the early 20th century. One of its annexes, Manor House, has recently been refurbished and officially 'reopened' in 1999.\n\nOn the central precinct sits The Hawthorns, a student house accommodating 115 undergraduate students. The house started life as a collection of villas built somewhere between 1888 and 1924 that were later converted, bit by bit, into a hotel by John Dingle. The Hawthorns also houses conferencing facilities, the staff refectory and bar, the Accommodation Office and the Student Houses Office. 33 Colston Street was opened in the city centre in October 2011 after the university acquired the property in 2009. Several of the residences in the central precinct are more recent and have been built and are managed by third-party organisations under exclusivity arrangements with the university. These include New Bridewell House, opened in 2016, which is in the former police HQ, it includes en-suite bedrooms and studios and is operated by Fresh Student Housing, Unite House and Chantry Court, opened in 2000 and 2003 respectively by the UNITE Group, as well as Dean's Court (2001, postgraduates only) and Woodland Court (2005), both run by the Dominion Housing Group.\n\nAll of the main halls elect groups of students to the Junior Common Room to organise the halls social calendar for the next year. Residents of student houses, private accommodation and students living at home become members of Orbital – a society organising social events for students throughout the year.\n\n### Sport\n\nThe University of Bristol has a rich heritage and reputation for sports. Sports membership at Bristol University totals up to 4,000 students across a wide range of unique teams and individual pursuits. Its network of over 70 sports clubs and four sites are run by the university's Student Union and its Sport,Exercise and Health Department. Competing with other universities in the British Universities and Colleges Sport league (BUCS), Bristol university is placed 8th in the country.\n\nThe university caters to its students with sporting facilities split across four primary complexes:\n\nBristol University Indoor Sports Centre- The Indoor Sports Centre is located at the heart of the university campus and is home to a fully equipped two-storey gym, fitness studios, sports hall and Sports Medicine Clinic.\n\nCoombe Dingle Sports Complex- This 38-acre site in the heart of Stoke Bishop, features the only indoor tennis centre in Bristol and is where the university's more traditional outdoor sports reside. Coombe Dingle is typically used for training and competition. Throughout the year Coombe Dingle hosts a variety of competitive fixtures, including inter-university BUCS matches, plus local and national league matches.:\n\nFacilities available at Coombe Dingle Sports Complex: • 3G pitch • Artificial pitches (sand dressed and floodlit) • Grass pitches (football and rugby) • Cricket squares and nets (including grass) • Tennis courts, indoor and outdoor (floodlit) • Lacrosse pitch • Netball courts (outdoor) • Olympic weight lifting gym • Softball and rounders facilities • Pavilion, lounge bar and meeting rooms • Sports Medicine Clinic\n\nRichmond Building- The university swimming pool is located inside the student union (Richmond Building). This six-lane swimming pool has a moveable bulkhead, creating a competition-length main pool, alongside a comfortable teaching pool for lessons. The pool is available to students, staff and the community for lane and casual swimming, or lessons, on a membership or pay-as-you-go basis.\n\nSaltford Boathouse- The University Boathouse is based at Saltford, halfway to Bath on the River Avon. Used for term-time training/competition and out-of-term recreational water sport, the Boathouse moors up the universities rowing and sailing boats.\n\n## Controversy\n\n### 2003 admissions controversy\n\nThe university has been regarded as being elitist by some commentators, taking 41% of its undergraduate students from non-state schools, according to the most recent 2009/2010 figures, despite the fact that such pupils make up just 7% of the population and 18% of 16+ year old pupils across the UK. The intake of state school pupils at Bristol is lower than many Oxbridge colleges. The high ratio of undergraduates from non-state school has led to some tension at the university. In late February and early March 2003, Bristol became embroiled in a row about admissions policies, with some private schools threatening a boycott based on their claims that, in an effort to improve equality of access, the university was discriminating against their students. These claims were hotly denied by the university. In August 2005, following a large-scale survey, the Independent Schools Council publicly acknowledged that there was no evidence of bias against applicants from the schools it represented. In 2016, the 93% Club was established at Bristol University after students from a working-class state-school were criticised for their background and upbringing.\n\nThe university has a new admissions policy, which lays out in considerable detail the basis on which any greater or lesser weight may be given to particular parts of an applicant's backgrounds – in particular, what account may be taken of which school the applicant hails from. This new policy also encourages greater participation from locally resident applicants.\n\n### Simon Hall and Bristol Innocence Project\n\nIn the late 2000s, Bristol law students in the University of Bristol Innocence Project (UoBIP) wrongly campaigned for a convicted murderer, who later went on to formally confess to the murder he was convicted of and prove he was rightly convicted. The students helped produce a Rough Justice programme promoting his false claims of innocence, and continued to assert he had been wrongly convicted even after his appeal was rejected in 2011. In 2013, Hall confessed to the crime to police and dropped his appeals, and one year later was found dead in an act of suicide. His case was described as an embarrassment for such 'miscarriage of justice' activists and greatly undermined the claims of many prisoners who claim their innocence.\n\n### Student Mental Health Crisis\n\nIn November 2016, three first-year students died within a few weeks of joining the university. All three deaths were suspected suicides. The Guardian attributed the deaths to a mental health crisis caused by academic and social pressure. Between October 2016 and January 2018, seven students died by suicide. In May 2018, three students died suddenly during exam season. The university has received increasing criticism for its handling of these deaths and confirmed suicides. In March 2017, it was reported that five students committed suicide in the 2016/2017 academic year. Between August 2017 to 2019, a reported 11 university students committed suicide. A further student suicide was reported in August 2019.\n\nIn September 2017, the university spent £1 million on well-being advisers following a string of students suicides.\n\nIn April 2018, a suicidal student, Natasha Abrahart, also died by suicide after not having her anti-depressants for a month. The student in question was found dead on the day she was due to take a \"terrifying\" oral exam. The coroner criticised the Avon and Wiltshire Mental Health Partnership NHS Trust whilst her parents blamed the university for lack of measures for her during the six-month period she was struggling. In 2019, her parents were due to sue the university after the suicide. The case was heard at Bristol County Court in March 2022. Judgment was given in May 2022. The judge found that the university had breached its duties under the Equality Act to make reasonable adjustments for disability in the way it had assessed Natasha Abrahart, and had treated her unfavourably. He awarded her parents £50,000 in damages.\n\nAnother death by suicide, James Murray, occurred in May 2018. He had been dismissed from his course in February 2018 due to lack of attendance.\n\nAround late 2018, the university launched a new opt-in emergency contact system for students' parents, friends and guardians. The system, which was pressurised by the parents of Murray, alerts those concerned if the student if there were severe concerns about their wellbeing. The system, in which 94% of students opted in, was used 36 times in its first year. The former vice-chancellor Hugh Brady, in February 2018, blamed the social media and \"the cult of perfectionism\" for the mental health crisis among young people following a string of student suicides.\n\nIn 2019, students who attended a course based around the \"science of happiness\" by the university was found to have \"significantly higher mental wellbeing than a control group\". The course has both academic and practical elements and give academic credits with no exams. However, those who took the course online during the COVID-19 pandemic did not feel happier but were more resilient than a control group. In addition there were certain caveats as most participants were white women.\n\n### The Forced Swim Test\n\nThe University of Bristol has been subject to criticism for its use of the controversial 'forced swim test', an experiment popularised in the 1970s which has involved scientists at the University placing rodents in inescapable containers of cold water for 15 minutes to observe their responses to what the scientists call a \"life-threatening situation\". Once they are removed from the water they are killed via decapitation. The research can be dated as far back as 1998 by scientists from the University of Bristol and they have released at least 11 research papers using the test have been released in this time.\n\nThe University of Bristol was one of only two universities known to have used the forced swim test in 2022, the other being University College London. In October 2022 the University of Bristol renewed its license to carry out this experiment until 2027. More than half of the UK's Russell Group universities have shunned the test with Newcastle University's animal welfare ethics review body describing the test as \"outdated and ethically unacceptable\" adding that it \"cannot foresee any research where this test would be proposed or could be scientifically or ethically justified\".\n\nThe University faced particular opposition from animal rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. The campaign of opposition has seen several University events disrupted by activists, including the Vice Chancellor, Evelyn Welch being confronted on two occasions, once on 16 May 2023 at an alumni event in New York and again on 13th July at a panel event which included Labour MP Matt Western, and University of Birmingham Vice Chancellor Adam Tickell.\n\n## Notable people\n\n### Academics\n\nCurrent academics at the University of Bristol include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences, 13 fellows of the British Academy, 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society. These include, Sir Michael Berry, one of the discoverers of quantum mechanics' \"geometric phase\", John Rarity international expert on quantum optics, quantum cryptography and quantum communication, David May, computer scientist and lead architect for the transputer, Mark Horton, a British maritime and historical archaeologist and Bruce Hood, a world-leading experimental psychologist.\n\nAcademics in computer science include, David Cliff, inventor of the seminal \"ZIP\" trading algorithm, Peter Flach, Mike Fraser, professor of human-computer interaction, Julian Gough and Nigel Smart. Academics in engineering include the materials scientist Stephen Eichhorn.\n\nPast academics of the university include, Patricia Broadfoot, vice-chancellor of the University of Gloucestershire, Nigel Thrift, vice-chancellor of the University of Warwick, and Wendy Larner, provost of Victoria University of Wellington. Anthony Epstein, co-discoverer of the Epstein-Barr virus, was Professor of Pathology at the university from 1968 to 1982, Sir John Lennard-Jones, discoverer of the Lennard-Jones potential in physics and Alfred Marshall, one of the University College's principals and influential economist in the latter part of the 19th century. Mathematicians and philosophers Rohit Parikh and Brian Rotman lectured in the mathematics department, and philosophers of science Paul Feyerabend and Alexander Bird taught in the department of philosophy. Another notable current academic in the department of philosophy includes Havi Carel. Notable mathematicians who have worked in the department of mathematics include Hannes Leitgeb, Philip Welch, Ben Green, Andrew Booker, Julia Wolf, Jens Marklof, John McNamara, Howell Peregrine, Christopher Budd John Hogan, Jeremy Rickard, Richard Jozsa, Corinna Ulcigrai, David Evans and the statistician Harvey Goldstein.\n\nThe University of Bristol is associated with three Ig Nobel Prizes, an award for unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research. Sir Michael Berry shared the award (with Andre Geim, a Nobel Laureate) for using magnets to levitate a frog. Gareth Jones also shared an Ig Nobel prize for scientifically documenting fellatio in fruit bats. Dr. Len Fisher was awarded the 1999 prize for physics for calculating the optimal way to dunk a biscuit.\n\n### Alumni\n\nBristol alumnus Paul Dirac went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933 for his contribution to the formulation of quantum mechanics and is considered one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century. Other notable scientists include Dani Rabaiotti, an environmental scientist and science communicator, and Eliahu Nissim, a professor of aeronautical engineering, and the president of the Open University of Israel.\n\nWriters to have studied at Bristol include Dick King-Smith; Sarah Kane; Angela Carter; Dorothy Simpson; David Gibbins; Julia Donaldson; Olivier award-winning playwright Laura Wade; Maddie Mortimer; and David Nicholls, author of the novel Starter for Ten, turned into a screenplay set in the University of Bristol.\n\nIn government and politics, notable alumni include Albert II, Prince of Monaco; Prime Minister Hun Manet of Cambodia; former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik, who was president of Bristol University Students' Union; Sir Jonathan Evans, former head of MI5; Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, Chairperson of the African Union Commission from October 2012 to January 2017; and Paul Boateng, the UK's first Black Cabinet Minister.\n\nIn current affairs, former students include journalist and McMafia author Misha Glenny; BBC News Chief Political Correspondent James Landale (who founded the university independent newspaper Epigram); author and journalist Julie Myerson; editor-in-chief of the Telegraph Media Group William Lewis; editor-in-chief of The Observer Will Hutton; Radio 4 presenter Sue Lawley; newsreader Alastair Stewart; and Sky News US Correspondent Dominic Waghorn. BBC Breakfast and Good Morning Britain anchor Susanna Reid was an editor of Epigram.\n\nIn entertainment, former students include rapper Shygirl; singer James Blunt; illusionist Derren Brown; comedians Jon Richardson, Marcus Brigstocke (who did not graduate), Matt Lucas and David Walliams; actors Simon Pegg, Chris Langham and Pearl Mackie; anime YouTuber Gigguk; Brass Eye creator Chris Morris; and Stath Lets Flats creator Jamie Demetriou.\n\nNotable alumni from the Film and Television Production department include film directors Mick Jackson; Michael Winterbottom; Marc Evans; Christopher Smith; Alex Cox; Peter Webber; and Maddie Moate.\n\nOther alumni include Anne McClain, member of the 2013 NASA Astronaut Class; mathematician Iain Gordon; long jumper Jazmin Sawyers; Luke Bond, an organist at Windsor Castle; and baker Kim-Joy Hewlett.\n\n## Gallery\n\n## See also\n\n- Armorial of UK universities\n- CHOMBEC\n- Education in Bristol\n- List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945)\n- List of universities in the United Kingdom\n- University of Bristol Theatre Collection", "revid": "1172048120", "description": "Research university located in Bristol, England", "categories": ["1909 establishments in England", "Russell Group", "Universities UK", "Universities and colleges established in 1909", "University of Bristol"]}
{"id": "74654", "url": null, "title": "Hoyt Wilhelm", "text": "James Hoyt Wilhelm (July 26, 1922 – August 23, 2002), nicknamed \"Old Sarge\", was an American Major League Baseball pitcher with the New York Giants, St. Louis Cardinals, Cleveland Indians, Baltimore Orioles, Chicago White Sox, California Angels, Atlanta Braves, Chicago Cubs, and Los Angeles Dodgers between 1952 and 1972. Wilhelm was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985.\n\nWilhelm grew up in North Carolina, fought in World War II, and then spent several years in the minor leagues before starting his major league career at the age of 29. He was best known for his knuckleball, which enabled him to have great longevity. He appeared occasionally as a starting pitcher, but pitched mainly as a reliever. Wilhelm won 124 games in relief, which is still the major league record. He was the first pitcher to reach 200 saves, and the first to appear in 1,000 games.\n\nWilhelm was nearly 30 years old when he entered the major leagues, and pitched until he was nearly 50. He retired with one of the lowest career earned run averages, 2.52, in baseball history. After retiring as a player in 1972, Wilhelm held longtime coaching jobs with the New York Yankees and Atlanta Braves. He lived in Sarasota, Florida, for many years, and died there in 2002.\n\n## Early life\n\nWilhelm was born in 1922, long thought to have been 1923. He was one of eleven children born to poor tenant farmers John and Ethel (née Stanley) Wilhelm in Huntersville, North Carolina. He played baseball at Cornelius High School in Cornelius, North Carolina. Knowing he could not throw fast, he began experimenting with a knuckleball after reading about pitcher Dutch Leonard. He practiced honing it with a tennis ball, hoping it was his best shot at Big League success.\n\nWilhelm made his professional debut with the Mooresville Moors of the Class-D North Carolina State League in 1942. He served in the United States Army in the European Theater during World War II and participated in the Battle of the Bulge, where he was wounded, earning the Purple Heart for his actions. He rose to the rank of staff sergeant while in the Army, and played his entire career with a piece of shrapnel lodged in his back as a result of the wounds he received in battle. Wilhem carried the nickname \"Old Sarge\" because of his service in the military.\n\nAfter his release from the military, Wilhelm returned to the Moors for the 1946 season, and earned 41 wins over the 1946 and 1947 seasons. He later recalled being dropped from a Class D minor league team and having the manager tell him to forget about the knuckleball, but he persisted with it. The Boston Braves purchased Wilhelm from Mooresville in 1947, and on November 20, 1947, he was drafted by the New York Giants from the Braves in the 1947 minor league draft.\n\nWilhelm's first assignment in the Giants organization was in Class B with the 1948 Knoxville Smokies, for whom he registered 13 wins and 9 losses. He also spent a few games that season with the Class A Jacksonville Tars of the South Atlantic League, and returned to Jacksonville in 1949, earning a 17–12 win–loss record and a 2.66 earned run average (ERA). Wilhelm was promoted to the Class AAA Minneapolis Millers in 1950, where he was the starting pitcher in 25 of the 35 games he pitched in, registering a 15–11 record with a 4.95 ERA. His role in 1951 with the Millers was the same as the year before, primarily as a starter, but also making eleven relief appearances. His ERA came down to 3.94 in 1951, but his record fell to 11–14.\n\n## Major league career\n\n### Early years\n\nThough Wilhelm was primarily a starting pitcher in the minor leagues, he had been called up to a Giants team whose strong starting pitchers had led them to a National League (NL) pennant the year before. Giants manager Leo Durocher did not think that Wilhelm's knuckleball approach would be effective for more than a few innings at a time. He assigned Wilhelm to the team's bullpen.\n\nWilhelm made his MLB debut with the Giants on April 18, 1952, at age 29, giving up a hit and two walks while only recording one out. On April 23, 1952, in his third game with the New York Giants, Wilhelm batted for the first time in the majors. Facing rookie Dick Hoover of the Boston Braves, Wilhelm hit a home run over the short right-field fence at the Polo Grounds. Although he went to bat a total of 432 times in his career, he never hit another home run.\n\nPitching exclusively in relief, Wilhelm led the NL with a 2.43 ERA in his rookie year. He won 15 games and lost three. Wilhelm finished fourth in the NL Most Valuable Player Award voting that season, behind rookie reliever Joe Black of the Dodgers. Jim Konstanty had won it for the Phillies in 1950, and Ellis Kinder had finished seventh in the AL voting in 1951, so it was a time when relief pitchers were starting to receive appreciation from the sportswriters. Wilhelm finished second in the Rookie of the Year Award voting to Joe Black. Wilhelm made 69 relief appearances in 1953, his win–loss record decreased to 7–8 and he issued 77 walks against 71 strikeouts. Wilhelm was named to the NL All-Star team that year, but he did not play in the game because team manager Charlie Dressen did not think that any of the catchers could handle his knuckleball. The Giants renewed Wilhelm's contract in February 1954.\n\nIn 1954, Wilhelm was a key piece of the pitching staff that led the 1954 Giants to a world championship. He pitched 111 innings, finishing with a 12–4 record and a 2.10 ERA. During one of Wilhelm's appearances that season, catcher Ray Katt committed four passed balls in one inning to set the major league record; the record has subsequently been tied twice. When Stan Musial set a record by hitting five home runs in a doubleheader that year, Wilhelm was pitching in the second game and gave up two of the home runs. The 1954 World Series represented Wilhelm's only career postseason play. He pitched 2+1⁄3 innings over two games, earning a save in the third game. The team won the World Series in a four-game sweep.\n\nWilhelm's ERA increased to 3.93 over 59 games and 103 innings pitched in 1955, but he managed a 4–1 record. He finished the 1956 season with a 4–9 record and a 3.83 ERA in 89+1⁄3 innings. Sportswriter Bob Driscoll later attributed Wilhelm's difficulties in the mid-1950s to the decline in the career of Giants catcher Wes Westrum, writing that baseball was \"a game of inches, and for Hoyt, Wes had been that inch in the right direction.\"\n\n### Middle career\n\nOn February 26, 1957, Wilhelm was traded by the Giants to the St. Louis Cardinals for Whitey Lockman. At the time of the trade, St. Louis manager Fred Hutchinson described Wilhelm as the type of pitcher who \"makes us a definite pennant threat ... He'll help us where we need help the most.\" In 40 games with the Cardinals that season, he earned 11 saves but finished with a 1–4 record and his highest ERA to that point in his career (4.25). The Cardinals placed him on waivers in September and he was claimed by the Cleveland Indians, who used him in two games that year.\n\nIn 1958, Cleveland manager Bobby Bragan used Wilhelm occasionally as a starter. Although he had a 2.49 ERA, none of the Indians' catchers could handle Wilhelm's knuckleball. General manager Frank Lane, alarmed at the large number of passed balls, allowed the Baltimore Orioles to select Wilhelm off waivers on August 23, 1958. In Baltimore, Wilhelm lived near the home of third baseman Brooks Robinson and their families became close friends. On September 20 of that year, Wilhelm no-hit the eventual World Champion New York Yankees 1–0 at Memorial Stadium, in only his ninth career start. He allowed two baserunners on walks and struck out eight. The no-hitter had been threatened at one point in the ninth inning when Hank Bauer bunted along the baseline, but Robinson allowed the ball to roll and it veered foul. The no-hitter was the first in the franchise's Baltimore history; the Orioles had moved from St. Louis after the 1953 season.\n\nOrioles catchers had difficulty catching the Wilhelm knuckleball again in 1959 and they set an MLB record with 49 passed balls. During one April game, catcher Gus Triandos had four passed balls while catching for Wilhelm and he described the game as \"the roughest day I ever put in during my life.\" Author Bill James has written that Wilhelm and Triandos \"established the principle that a knuckleball pitcher and a big, slow catcher make an awful combination.\" Triandos once said, \"Heaven is a place where no one throws a knuckleball.\"\n\nDespite the passed balls, Wilhelm won the American League ERA title with a 2.19 ERA. During the 1960 season, Orioles manager Paul Richards devised a larger mitt so his catchers could handle the knuckleball. Richards was well equipped with starting pitchers during that year. By the middle of the season, he said that eight of his pitchers could serve as starters. Wilhelm started 11 of the 41 games in which he appeared. He earned an 11–8 record, a 3.31 ERA and seven saves. He started only one game the following year, but he was an All-Star, registered 18 saves and had a 2.30 ERA.\n\nIn 1962, Wilhelm had his fourth All-Star season, finishing with a 7–10 record, a 1.94 ERA and 15 saves. On January 14, 1963, Wilhelm was traded by the Orioles with Ron Hansen, Dave Nicholson and Pete Ward to the Chicago White Sox for Luis Aparicio and Al Smith. Early in that season, White Sox manager Al López said that Wilhelm had improved his pitching staff by 40 percent. He said that Wilhelm was \"worth more than a 20-game winner, and he works with so little effort that he probably can last as long as Satchel Paige.\" He registered 21 saves and a 2.64 ERA.\n\nIn 1964, Wilhelm finished with career highs in both saves (27) and games pitched (73). His ERA decreased to 1.99 that season; it remained less than 2.00 through the 1968 season. In 1965, Wilhelm contributed to another passed balls record when Chicago catcher J. C. Martin allowed 33 of them in one season. That total set a modern single-season baseball record for the category. Wilhelm's career-low ERA (1.31) came in 1967, when he earned an 8–3 record for the White Sox with 12 saves.\n\nIn the 1968 season, Wilhelm was getting close to breaking the all-time games pitched record belonging to Cy Young (906 games). Chicago manager Eddie Stanky began to think about using Wilhelm as a starting pitcher for game number 907. However, the White Sox fired Stanky before the record came up. Wilhelm later broke the record as a relief pitcher. He also set MLB records for consecutive errorless games by a pitcher, career victories in relief, games finished and innings pitched in relief. Despite Wilhelm's success, the White Sox, who had won at least 83 games per season in the 1960s, performed poorly. They finished 1968 with a 67–95 record.\n\nWilhelm was noted during this period for his mentoring of relief pitcher Wilbur Wood, who came to the 1967 White Sox in a trade. Wood sometimes threw a knuckleball upon his arrival in Chicago, but Wilhelm encouraged him to throw it full-time. By 1968, Wood won 13 games, saved 16 games and earned a 1.87 ERA. He credited Wilhelm with helping him to master the knuckleball, as the White Sox coaches did not know much about how to throw it. Between 1968 and 1970, Wood pitched in more games (241) than any other pitcher and more innings―400+1⁄3―than any other relief pitcher.\n\nAfter the 1968 season, MLB expanded and an expansion draft was conducted in which the new teams could select certain players from the established teams. The White Sox left Wilhelm unprotected, possibly because they did not believe that teams would have interest in a much older pitcher. On October 15, 1968, Wilhelm was chosen in the expansion draft by the Kansas City Royals as the 49th pick. That offseason, he was traded by the Royals to the California Angels for Ed Kirkpatrick and Dennis Paepke.\n\n### Later career\n\nWilhelm pitched 44 games for the 1969 California Angels and had a 2.47 ERA, ten saves, and a 5–7 record. On September 8, 1969, Wilhelm and Bob Priddy were traded to the Atlanta Braves for Clint Compton and Mickey Rivers. He finished the 1969 season by pitching in eight games for the Braves, earning four saves and recording a 0.73 ERA over  innings pitched. Wilhelm then spent most of the 1970 season with the Braves, pitching in 50 games for the team and earning ten saves.\n\nOn September 21, 1970, Wilhelm was selected off waivers by the Chicago Cubs, for whom he appeared in three games. He was traded back to the Braves for Hal Breeden on November 30, 1970. As the Cubs had acquired Wilhelm late in the season to bolster their playoff contention, the trade back to the Braves was a source of controversy. Commissioner Bowie Kuhn investigated the transaction, and in December ruled that he did not find evidence of impropriety associated with the transactions that sent Wilhelm to the Cubs and quickly back to the Braves.\n\nWilhelm was released by the Braves on June 29, 1971, having pitched in three games for that year's Braves. He signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 10, 1971, and appeared in nine games for the Dodgers, giving up two earned runs in innings. He also pitched in eight games that season for the team's Class AAA minor league affiliate, the Spokane Indians. Wilhelm started six of those games and registered a 3.89 ERA.\n\nWilhelm pitched in 16 games for the Dodgers in 1972, registering a 4.62 ERA over 25 innings. The Dodgers released him on July 21, 1972. He never appeared in another game.\n\nAt the time of his retirement, Wilhelm had pitched in a then major league record 1,070 games. He is recognized as the first pitcher to have saved 200 games in his career, and the first pitcher to appear in 1,000 games. Wilhelm is one of the oldest players to have pitched in the major leagues; his final appearance was 16 days short of his 50th birthday.\n\nWilhelm retired with the lowest career earned run average of any major league hurler after 1927 (Walter Johnson) who had pitched more than 2,000 innings.\n\n## Later life\n\nAfter his retirement as a player, Wilhelm managed two minor league teams in the Atlanta Braves system for single seasons. He led the 1973 Greenwood Braves of the Western Carolinas League to a 61–66 record, then had a 33–33 record with the 1975 Kingsport Braves of the Appalachian League. He also worked as a minor league pitching coach for the New York Yankees for 22 years. As a coach, Wilhelm said that he did not teach pitchers the knuckleball, believing that people had to be born with a knack for throwing it. He sometimes worked individually with major league players who wanted to improve their knuckleballs, including Joe Niekro. The Yankees gave Wilhelm permission to work with Mickey Lolich in 1979 even though Lolich pitched for the San Diego Padres.\n\nWilhelm was on the ballot for the Baseball Hall of Fame for eight years before he was elected. After Wilhelm failed to garner enough votes for induction in 1983, sportswriter Jim Murray criticized the voters, saying that while Wilhelm never had the look of a baseball player, he was \"the best player in history at what he does.\" He fell short by 13 votes in 1984. Wilhelm was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985. At his induction ceremony, he said that he had achieved all three of his initial major league goals: appearing in a World Series, being named to an All-Star team, and throwing a no-hitter.\n\nHe and his wife Peggy lived in Sarasota, Florida. They raised three children together: Patti, Pam, and Jim. Wilhelm died of heart failure in a Sarasota nursing home in 2002.\n\nIn 2013, the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honored Wilhelm as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Army during World War II.\n\n## Legacy\n\nWilhelm was known as a \"relief ace\", and his teams used him in a new way that became a trend. Rather than bringing in a relief pitcher only when the starting pitcher had begun to struggle, teams increasingly called upon their relief pitchers toward the end of any close game. Wilhelm was the first relief pitcher elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame.\n\nHe is also remembered as one of the most successful and \"probably the most famous 'old' player in history.\" Although, due largely to his military service, Wilhelm did not debut in the major leagues until he was already 29 years old, he nonetheless managed to appear in 21 major league seasons. He earned the nickname \"Old Folks\" while he still had more than a decade left in his playing career. He was the oldest player in Major League Baseball for each of his final seven seasons.\n\nFormer teammate Moose Skowron commented on Wilhelm's key pitch, saying, \"Hoyt was a good guy, and he threw the best knuckleball I ever saw. You never knew what Hoyt's pitch would do. I don't think he did either.\" Baseball executive Roland Hemond agreed, saying, \"Wilhelm's knuckleball did more than anyone else's ... There was so much action on it.\"\n\nBefore Wilhelm, the knuckleball was primarily mixed in to older pitchers' repertoires at the end of their careers to offset their slowing fastballs and to reduce stress on their arms, thereby extending their careers. Wilhelm broke with tradition when he began throwing the pitch as a teenager and threw it nearly every pitch. The New York Times linked his knuckleball with that of modern pitcher R. A. Dickey, as Wilhelm taught pitcher Charlie Hough the knuckleball in 1971, and Hough taught it to Dickey while coaching with the Texas Rangers.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of knuckleball pitchers\n- List of Major League Baseball career ERA leaders\n- List of Major League Baseball career saves leaders\n- List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders\n- List of Major League Baseball no-hitters\n- List of Major League Baseball leaders in games finished\n- List of players with a home run in first major league at-bat", "revid": "1167799885", "description": "American baseball player (1922-2002)", "categories": ["1922 births", "2002 deaths", "American League All-Stars", "American League ERA champions", "Atlanta Braves players", "Baltimore Orioles players", "Baseball players from North Carolina", "Baseball players from Sarasota, Florida", "Burials in Florida", "California Angels players", "Chicago Cubs players", "Chicago White Sox players", "Cleveland Indians players", "Jacksonville Tars players", "Knoxville Smokies players", "Knuckleball pitchers", "Los Angeles Dodgers players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Minneapolis Millers (baseball) players", "Mooresville Moors players", "National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees", "National League All-Stars", "National League ERA champions", "New York Giants (NL) players", "People from Huntersville, North Carolina", "Spokane Indians players", "Sportspeople from Mecklenburg County, North Carolina", "St. Louis Cardinals players", "United States Army personnel of World War II", "United States Army soldiers"]}
{"id": "166919", "url": null, "title": "Fancy rat", "text": "The fancy rat (Rattus norvegicus domestica) is the domesticated form of Rattus norvegicus, the brown rat, and the most common species of rat kept as a pet. The name fancy rat derives from the use of the adjective fancy for a hobby, also seen in \"animal fancy\", a hobby involving the appreciation, promotion, or breeding of pet or domestic animals. The offspring of wild-caught specimens, having become docile after having been bred for many generations, fall under the fancy type.\n\nFancy rats were originally targets for blood sport in 18th- and 19th-century Europe. Later bred as pets, they now come in a wide variety of coat colors and patterns, and are bred and raised by several rat enthusiast groups around the world. They are sold in pet stores and by breeders. Fancy rats are generally easy to care for, and are quite affordable, even compared to other small pets; this is one of their biggest draws. Additionally, they are quite independent, affectionate, loyal and easily trained. They are considered more intelligent than other domesticated rodents. Healthy fancy rats typically live 2 to 3 years, but are capable of living a year or so longer.\n\nFancy rats are used widely in medical research, as their physiology is very similar to that of humans. When used in this field, they are referred to as laboratory rats (lab rats).\n\nDomesticated rats are physiologically and psychologically different from their wild relatives, and typically pose no more of a health risk than other common pets. For example, domesticated brown rats are not considered a disease threat, although exposure to wild rat populations could introduce pathogens like the bacteria Streptobacillus moniliformis into the home. Fancy rats have different health risks from their wild counterparts, and thus are unlikely to succumb to the same illnesses as wild rats.\n\n## History\n\nThe origin of the modern fancy rat begins with the rat-catchers of the 18th and 19th centuries who trapped rats throughout Europe. These rat-catchers would then either kill the rats, or, more likely, sell the rats to be used in blood sport. Rat-baiting was a popular sport until the beginning of the 20th century. It involved filling a pit with several rats and then placing bets on how long it would take a terrier to kill them all. It is believed that both rat-catchers and sportsmen began to keep certain, odd-colored rats during the height of the sport, eventually breeding them and then selling them as pets. The two men thought to have formed the basis of rat fancy are Jack Black, self-proclaimed rat-catcher to Queen Victoria, and Jimmy Shaw, manager of one of the largest sporting public houses in London. These two men are responsible for beginning many of the color varieties present today. Black, specifically, was known for taming the \"prettier\" rats of unusual color, decorating them with ribbons, and selling them as pets.\n\nRat fancy as a formal, organized hobby began when a woman named Mary Douglas asked for permission to bring her pet rats to an exhibition of the National Mouse Club at the Aylesbury Town Show in England on October 24, 1901. Her black-and-white hooded rat won \"Best in Show\" and ignited interest in the area. After Douglas' death in 1921, rat fancy soon began to fall back out of fashion. The original hobby formally lasted from 1912 to 1929 or 1931, as part of the National Mouse and Rat Club, at which point Rat was dropped from the name, returning it to the original National Mouse Club. The hobby was revived in 1976 with the formation of the English National Fancy Rat Society (NFRS). Pet rats are now commonly available in stores and from breeders, and there exist several rat fancier groups worldwide.\n\n## Differences from wild rats\n\nWhile domesticated rats are not removed enough from their wild counterparts to justify a distinct subspecies (like the dog versus grey wolf), there are significant differences that set them apart; the most apparent is coloring. Random color mutations may occur in the wild, but these are rare. Most wild R. norvegicus are a dark brown color, while fancy rats may be anything from white to cinnamon to blue.\n\nBehaviorally, domesticated pet rats are tamer than those in the wild. They are more comfortable around humans and known to seek out their owners while roaming freely. They have decreased reactions to light and sound, are less cautious of new food, and have better tolerance to overcrowding. Domesticated rats are shown to mate earlier, more readily, and for a longer period of time over their lifespan. Also, domesticated rats exhibit different behaviors when fighting with each other; while wild rats almost always flee a lost battle, caged rats spend protracted amounts of time in a belly-up or boxing position. These behavioral traits are thought to be products of environment as opposed to genetics. However, it is also theorized that there are certain underlying biological reasons for why some members of a wild species are more receptive to domestication than others, and that these differences are then passed down to offspring (compare domesticated silver fox).\n\nThe body structure of domesticated rats differs from that of a wild rat as well. The body of a fancy rat is smaller, with larger ears and a longer tail. Domesticated rats have generally smaller and sharper facial features as well.\n\nDomesticated rats have a longer lifespan than that of wild rats. Because domesticated rats are protected from predators and have ready access to food, water, shelter, and medical care, their average lifespan is around two to three years, in contrast to wild R. norvegicus, which average a lifespan of less than one year. However, wild rats generally have larger brains, hearts, livers, kidneys, and adrenal glands than laboratory rats. The fancy rat and wild rat also each face a multitude of differing health concerns; the former is at risk of developing a pneumococcal infection from exposure to humans, while the latter may harbor tapeworms after coming in contact with carriers such as cockroaches and fleas.\n\n## Varieties\n\nAs in other pet species, a variety of colors, coat types, and other features that do not appear in the wild have either been developed, or have appeared spontaneously. Fancy rats in themselves are a subspecies and as such do not have distinctive breeds. Any individual rat may be defined one or more ways by its color, coat, marking, and non-standard body type. This allows for very specific classifications such as a ruby-eyed cinnamon Berkshire rex Dumbo.\n\n### Coloring\n\nWhile some pet rats retain the agouti coloring of the wild brown rat (three tones on the same hair), others have solid colors (a single color on each hair), a trait derived from rats with black coats. Agouti-based colors include agouti, cinnamon, and fawn. Black-based colors include black, beige, blue, and chocolate.\n\nEye color is considered a subset of coloring, and coat color definitions often include standards for the eyes, as many genes which control eye color will also affect the coat color or vice versa. The American Fancy Rat and Mouse Association (AFRMA) lists black, pink, ruby, and odd-eyed (two differently colored eyes) as possible eye colors, depending on the variety of rat shown. Ruby refers to eyes which at a glance appear black, but on closer observation are a deep, dark red.\n\nColor names can vary for more vaguely defined varieties, like lilac and fawn, while the interpretations of standards can fluctuate between (and even within) different countries or clubs.\n\n### Markings\n\nFurther dividing the varieties of fancy rats are the many different markings. Fancy rats can appear in any combination of colors and markings. The markings are typically in reference to the patterns and ratios of colored hair versus white hair. Two extremes would be a self (completely solid, non-white color) and a Himalayan (completely white except blending into colored areas at the nose and feet, called points, as in a Himalayan cat's markings).\n\nMarkings have a strict standard, with detailed terminology, for showing in fancy rat pet shows. However, many domestic rats are not closely bred to any color standard; many of those found in pet shops will have mismarkings from a formal breeding perspective, which are defined as variations in markings that are not recognized as conforming to a breed standard published by a rat fancier organisation.\n\nCommonly recognized standards include:\n\n- Berkshire – colored top, white belly\n- hooded – color runs in a saddle, a single, unbroken line from the full head down to the spine and possibly partly down the tail\n- capped – color on the full head only\n- blazed – colored head (capped) or body (Irish, Berkshire or self) with a triangular wedge of white fur over the face.\n- variegated – any form of mismatched oddities in the fur. Can be anything from a broken or spotted hood to a misshaped blaze.\n- Irish or English Irish – In England, the Irish is standardized by the NFRS as an equilateral triangle of white with a side that begins at the chest, or between the front legs, and where the point ends mid-length. In the United States and elsewhere, clubs like the AFRMA distinguish this marking as the English Irish and allow for another standardized Irish in which the rat may have white of an even or symmetrical nature anywhere along its underside.\n\nOther marking varieties include spotted or Dalmatian (named for the spotted Dalmatian dog), Essex, masked, Himalayan (typically a gradient of color along the body, darkest at the base of the tail and nose as in Siamese cats), and Down Under or Downunder (an Australian variety that has a solid color stripe on the belly or a color marking there that corresponds to the markings on the top).\n\n### Body type\n\nTwo of the most prominent and standardized physical changes applied to rats through selective breeding are the development of the Manx rat and Dumbo rat. The Dumbo rat, whose origins are in the United States, is characterized by having large, low, round ears on the sides of its head caused by a recessive mutation, and was named for its resemblance to the fictional character Dumbo the Flying Elephant. The Manx rat is tailless due to a genetic mutation, and was named for the Manx cat which shares this feature, though not necessarily due to the same mutation. Breeding Manx rats does raise some ethical and health concerns however, as rats use their tails for both balance and thermoregulation.\n\n### Coat types\n\nThere is a relatively small variety of coats compared to the number of colors and markings, and not all are internationally standardized. The most common type is the normal or standard, which is allowed variance in coarseness between the sexes; males have a coarse, thick, rough coat, while females' coats are softer and finer. Other standardized coats include: rex, in which all the hairs are curly, even the whiskers; velveteen, a softer variation of the rex; satin or silky coat, which is extra-soft and fine, with a sheen; and Harley, characterized by wispy long straight hairs. Remaining coat types are not defined by the hair itself, but rather by the lack of it, such as hairless rats.\n\n#### Hairless rats\n\nHairless rats are a coat variety characterized by varying levels of hair loss. One type of hairless rat is bred from curly-coated rexes. These range from having areas of very short fur to being completely bald. Since rex is a dominant trait, there only needs to be one rex parent to produce curly rex-coated offspring. However, when two rex parents are bred, two copies of the trait may be present in the offspring. This causes varying levels of hairlessness, and has earned the colloquial name \"double rex\". The other type of hairless rat is sometimes referred to as a \"true hairless\". This is caused by a different gene, and is distinguishable from a hairless double rex by the absence of whiskers. Unlike a double rex, this type of hairless rat is incapable of growing hairs on any part of the body. One additional subset of semi-hairless rats, patchwork rex, constantly lose their hair and regrow it in different \"patches\" several times throughout their life. Hairless rats may be prone to more health problems than their standard- or rex-coated counterparts, including a reduced tolerance for cold, kidney and liver failure, more prone to skin injury, skin conditions, and shortened life span.\n\n### Ethics of selective breeding\n\nThere is controversy among rat fanciers in regard to selective breeding. On one hand, breeding rats to \"conform\" to a specific standard or to develop a new one is a large part of what the fancy was founded on. On the other hand, the process results in many rats who do not \"conform\", and are then either given away, sold as food, or killed—the latter referred to as culling.\n\nThere are concerns as to whether breeding hairless and tailless rats is ethical. The tail is vital for rats' balance and for adjusting body temperature. Tailless rats have greater risk of heat exhaustion, poor bowel and bladder control, falling from heights, and can be at risk for life-threatening deformities in the pelvic region, like hind leg paralysis and megacolon. Similarly, hairless rats are less protected from scratches and the cold without their coat. Groups such as the NFRS prohibit the showing of these varieties at their events and forbid advertisement through affiliated services.\n\n### Availability\n\nBecause R. norvegicus and related species are seen as pests, their intentional import into foreign countries is often regulated. For example, the importation of foreign rodents is prohibited in Australia, and so various coat types, colors, and varieties have been bred separately from foreign lines, or are just not obtainable within that country (for example, hairless and Dumbo rats do not exist in Australia). In other areas, like the Canadian province of Alberta, which is considered rat-free, the ownership of domestic fancy rats outside of schools, laboratories, and zoos is illegal.\n\n## Health\n\nHuman-raised R. norvegicus are more prone to specific health risks and diseases than their wild counterparts, but they are also far less likely to succumb to certain illnesses that are prevalent in the wild. The major considerations for susceptibility include exposure, living conditions, and diet.\n\nRats that live their entire lives indoors usually are able to avoid disease-causing bacteria such as Salmonella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; the latter is absent in treated water. They may also more easily avoid vectors like cockroaches, beetles, and fleas which are essential for the spread of endemic typhus and intestinal parasites like the rat tapeworm. Additionally, pet or laboratory rats enjoy the intrinsic benefits of having a consistent and well-balanced diet, along with access to medical care.\n\nPorphyrin is a browny-red substance that fancy rats can develop around the eyes and nose. It may appear like dried blood, but is a mucus-like substance that is released at times of stress or if the rat has a respiratory infection. It can also be caused by temporary irritation in the eye, such as the rat accidentally scratching its eye while grooming.\n\nMites also pose a health risk. Mites are microscopic bloodsucking parasites that can irritate the skin of fancy rats, and if they have a preexisting health condition, it can cause them to die from their bodies' inability to handle two problems at once.\n\nWhile living indoors decreases the risk of contracting certain diseases, living in close quarters with other rats, lack of proper protection from environmental factors (e.g. temperature, humidity), an unhealthy diet, and the stresses inherently associated with living in an unnatural habitat can all adversely affect a rat's health to make them more prone to specific conditions. Specifically, Tyzzer's disease, protozoic infections (e.g. Giardia muris), and pseudotuberculosis are usually seen in stressed or young rats. Additionally, pet rats are exposed to Streptococcus pneumoniae, a zoonotic disease caught from humans, not the same bacteria associated with pneumonia. A human-associated fungus, Pneumocystis carinii (also found in almost all domesticated animals), is usually asymptomatic in the rat, unless the rat's immune system is compromised by illness. If this occurs, the infection can develop into pneumonia.\n\nSeveral diseases, like Rat Coronavirus Infection (RCI), Sendai virus, and Murine Respiratory Mycoplasmosis (MRM, Mycoplasma pulmonis), are prevalent simply because their highly contagious natures work in tandem with the way rats are kept in laboratories, pet stores, and by breeders. MRM is far less likely to occur in laboratory rats than in those kept as pets.\n\nPet rats can also develop pituitary tumors if fed high-calorie diets, and ringtail if placed in areas with low humidity or high temperatures. Staphylococcus spp. are a mostly benign group of bacteria that commonly reside on the top of the skin, but cuts and scratches from social and hierarchical fighting can open up the pathways for them to cause ulcerative dermatitis.\n\nThere is some evidence that spayed female rats (\"does\") are less likely to develop mammary and pituitary tumors than intact females. Research into prevention of common diseases and health issues in rats is ongoing. Dietary changes are among the main suggestions for improved health and longevity in fancy rats, including feeding rat-friendly superfoods in moderation to reduce the risk of cancers, heart disease, and stroke.\n\n### Risks to owners\n\nKeeping rats as pets can come with the stigma that rats supposedly transmit dangerous diseases to their owners. Usually, rats bred as pets are tested and treated for diseases and parasites. One fear is that all rats carry plague, when in fact R. norvegicus is not among the list of species considered a threat. In 2004, an outbreak of salmonella in the United States was connected to people who owned pet rats. However, it has been determined that a pet rat's initial exposure to salmonella, along with many other zoonotic rat diseases, typically indicates exposure to wild rodent populations, either from an infestation in the owner's home, or from the pet's contaminated food, water, or bedding.\n\nAnother risk to rat owners is rat-bite fever. This is a rare disease among domesticated rats and is most often found in rats from large chain pet stores that breed their stock of rats in masses (usually with the intention of being snake food rather than pets) or from breeders with neglectful rat husbandry. This disease is fairly unnoticeable in the rat, but is characterized by swelling of the bite or scratch site, fever, vomiting, and body aches. It is contracted by the bite or scratch of an infected rat. As an early breeder of fancy rats, Jack Black recounted that he nearly died several times after bites.\n\nIn 2017, the Centers for Disease Control reported an outbreak of Seoul virus spread by pet rats.\n\n## Fiction\n\nIn fiction, pet brown rats are often depicted as tamed rather than domesticated, akin to when a character befriends a wolf. As tamed pets, they have been portrayed in roles that vary from evil to ambiguous to lovable.\n\nSamantha Martin, a professional animal trainer for films, commercials, and music videos, has claimed that rats are one of the easiest animals to train due to their adaptability, intelligence, and focus.\n\nIn the direct-to-video sequels to the 1987 film The Brave Little Toaster, The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue and The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars, Ratso is the pet rat of Rob McGroarty.\n\nThe novella Ratman's Notebooks by Stephen Gilbert was the basis for the films Willard (1971) and Ben (1972), and a 2003 remake of the first film. Here, the protagonist befriends the rats found in his home and builds up a close relationship, only to have it end tragically. While these movies generally emphasize the popular perception of malevolence—they kill people and cats and ransack grocery stores—other wild rats who become pets are portrayed in more neutral to positive ways; the television show, House, briefly featured \"Steve McQueen\", the pet rat of the titular character.\n\nIn certain versions of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise, the master and adoptive father of the turtles is Splinter, who was once the pet rat of ninja Hamato Yoshi and learned his martial arts skills by imitating his owner.\n\nIn the 1996 point-and-click adventure game Phantasmagoria: A Puzzle of Flesh, the protagonist Curtis Craig owns a pet rat named Blob, which is seen various times in the game and is even involved in one of the many puzzles that the player must decipher.\n\nPet rats are unofficially allowed at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in the Harry Potter series, but are not generally seen as desirable pets. Ronald Weasley has a pet rat, Scabbers, who was later revealed to be an illegal animagus named Peter Pettigrew in reality.\n\nChristopher Boone, the autistic protagonist of The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time has a pet rat named Toby.\n\n## See also\n\n- Fancy mouse\n- Experimental evolution\n- List of fictional rodents\n- Rat agility\n- Rat Genome Database\n- Working rat", "revid": "1170019137", "description": "Domesticated brown rat subspecies", "categories": ["Forma taxa", "Mammals described in 1769", "Rats as pets", "Taxa named by John Berkenhout"]}
{"id": "1065357", "url": null, "title": "Mental status examination", "text": "The mental status examination (MSE) is an important part of the clinical assessment process in neurological and psychiatric practice. It is a structured way of observing and describing a patient's psychological functioning at a given point in time, under the domains of appearance, attitude, behavior, mood and affect, speech, thought process, thought content, perception, cognition, insight, and judgment. There are some minor variations in the subdivision of the MSE and the sequence and names of MSE domains.\n\nThe purpose of the MSE is to obtain a comprehensive cross-sectional description of the patient's mental state, which, when combined with the biographical and historical information of the psychiatric history, allows the clinician to make an accurate diagnosis and formulation, which are required for coherent treatment planning.\n\nThe data are collected through a combination of direct and indirect means: unstructured observation while obtaining the biographical and social information, focused questions about current symptoms, and formalised psychological tests.\n\nThe MSE is not to be confused with the mini–mental state examination (MMSE), which is a brief neuropsychological screening test for dementia.\n\n## Theoretical foundations\n\nThe MSE derives from an approach to psychiatry known as descriptive psychopathology or descriptive phenomenology, which developed from the work of the philosopher and psychiatrist Karl Jaspers. From Jaspers' perspective it was assumed that the only way to comprehend a patient's experience is through his or her own description (through an approach of empathic and non-theoretical enquiry), as distinct from an interpretive or psychoanalytic approach which assumes the analyst might understand experiences or processes of which the patient is unaware, such as defense mechanisms or unconscious drives.\n\nIn practice, the MSE is a blend of empathic descriptive phenomenology and empirical clinical observation. It has been argued that the term phenomenology has become corrupted in clinical psychiatry: current usage, as a set of supposedly objective descriptions of a psychiatric patient (a synonym for signs and symptoms), is incompatible with the original meaning which was concerned with comprehending a patient's subjective experience.\n\n## Application\n\nThe mental status examination is a core skill of qualified (mental) health personnel. It is a key part of the initial psychiatric assessment in an outpatient or psychiatric hospital setting. It is a systematic collection of data based on observation of the patient's behavior while the patient is in the clinician's view during the interview. The purpose is to obtain evidence of symptoms and signs of mental disorders, including danger to self and others, that are present at the time of the interview. Further, information on the patient's insight, judgment, and capacity for abstract reasoning is used to inform decisions about treatment strategy and the choice of an appropriate treatment setting. It is carried out in the manner of an informal enquiry, using a combination of open and closed questions, supplemented by structured tests to assess cognition. The MSE can also be considered part of the comprehensive physical examination performed by physicians and nurses although it may be performed in a cursory and abbreviated way in non-mental-health settings. Information is usually recorded as free-form text using the standard headings, but brief MSE checklists are available for use in emergency situations, for example, by paramedics or emergency department staff. The information obtained in the MSE is used, together with the biographical and social information of the psychiatric history, to generate a diagnosis, a psychiatric formulation and a treatment plan.\n\n## Domains\n\n### Appearance\n\nClinicians assess the physical aspects such as the appearance of a patient, including apparent age, height, weight, and manner of dress and grooming. Colorful or bizarre clothing might suggest mania, while unkempt, dirty clothes might suggest schizophrenia or depression. If the patient appears much older than his or her chronological age this can suggest chronic poor self-care or ill-health. Clothing and accessories of a particular subculture, body modifications, or clothing not typical of the patient's gender, might give clues to personality. Observations of physical appearance might include the physical features of alcoholism or drug abuse, such as signs of malnutrition, nicotine stains, dental erosion, a rash around the mouth from inhalant abuse, or needle track marks from intravenous drug abuse. Observations can also include any odor which might suggest poor personal hygiene due to extreme self-neglect, or alcohol intoxication. Weight loss could also signify a depressive disorder, physical illness, anorexia nervosa or chronic anxiety.\n\n### Attitude\n\nAttitude, also known as rapport or cooperation, refers to the patient's approach to the interview process and the quality of information obtained during the assessment.\n\n### Behavior\n\nAbnormalities of behavior, also called abnormalities of activity, include observations of specific abnormal movements, as well as more general observations of the patient's level of activity and arousal, and observations of the patient's eye contact and gait. Abnormal movements, for example choreiform, athetoid or choreoathetoid movements may indicate a neurological disorder. A tremor or dystonia may indicate a neurological condition or the side effects of antipsychotic medication. The patient may have tics (involuntary but quasi-purposeful movements or vocalizations) which may be a symptom of Tourette's syndrome. There are a range of abnormalities of movement which are typical of catatonia, such as echopraxia, catalepsy, waxy flexibility and paratonia (or gegenhalten). Stereotypies (repetitive purposeless movements such as rocking or head banging) or mannerisms (repetitive quasi-purposeful abnormal movements such as a gesture or abnormal gait) may be a feature of chronic schizophrenia or autism.\n\nMore global behavioural abnormalities may be noted, such as an increase in arousal and movement (described as psychomotor agitation or hyperactivity) which might reflect mania or delirium. An inability to sit still might represent akathisia, a side effect of antipsychotic medication. Similarly, a global decrease in arousal and movement (described as psychomotor retardation, akinesia or stupor) might indicate depression or a medical condition such as Parkinson's disease, dementia or delirium. The examiner would also comment on eye movements (repeatedly glancing to one side can suggest that the patient is experiencing hallucinations), and the quality of eye contact (which can provide clues to the patient's emotional state). Lack of eye contact may suggest depression or autism.\n\n### Mood and affect\n\nThe distinction between mood and affect in the MSE is subject to some disagreement. For example, Trzepacz and Baker (1993) describe affect as \"the external and dynamic manifestations of a person's internal emotional state\" and mood as \"a person's predominant internal state at any one time\", whereas Sims (1995) refers to affect as \"differentiated specific feelings\" and mood as \"a more prolonged state or disposition\". This article will use the Trzepacz and Baker (1993) definitions, with mood regarded as a current subjective state as described by the patient, and affect as the examiner's inferences of the quality of the patient's emotional state based on objective observation.\n\nMood is described using the patient's own words, and can also be described in summary terms such as neutral, euthymic, dysphoric, euphoric, angry, anxious or apathetic. Alexithymic individuals may be unable to describe their subjective mood state. An individual who is unable to experience any pleasure may have anhedonia.\n\nAffect is described by labelling the apparent emotion conveyed by the person's nonverbal behavior (anxious, sad etc.), and also by using the parameters of appropriateness, intensity, range, reactivity and mobility. Affect may be described as appropriate or inappropriate to the current situation, and as congruent or incongruent with their thought content. For example, someone who shows a bland affect when describing a very distressing experience would be described as showing incongruent affect, which might suggest schizophrenia. The intensity of the affect may be described as normal, blunted affect, exaggerated, flat, heightened or overly dramatic. A flat or blunted affect is associated with schizophrenia, depression or post-traumatic stress disorder; heightened affect might suggest mania, and an overly dramatic or exaggerated affect might suggest certain personality disorders. Mobility refers to the extent to which affect changes during the interview: the affect may be described as fixed, mobile, immobile, constricted/restricted or labile. The person may show a full range of affect, in other words a wide range of emotional expression during the assessment, or may be described as having restricted affect. The affect may also be described as reactive, in other words changing flexibly and appropriately with the flow of conversation, or as unreactive. A bland lack of concern for one's disability may be described as showing la belle indifférence, a feature of conversion disorder, which is historically termed \"hysteria\" in older texts.\n\n### Speech\n\nThe patient's speech is assessed by observing the patient's spontaneous speech, and also by using structured tests of specific language functions. This heading is concerned with the production of speech rather than the content of speech, which is addressed under thought process and thought content (see below). When observing the patient's spontaneous speech, the interviewer will note and comment on paralinguistic features such as the loudness, rhythm, prosody, intonation, pitch, phonation, articulation, quantity, rate, spontaneity and latency of speech. Many acoustic features have been shown to be significantly altered in mental health disorders. A structured assessment of speech includes an assessment of expressive language by asking the patient to name objects, repeat short sentences, or produce as many words as possible from a certain category in a set time. Simple language tests also form part of the mini-mental state examination. In practice, the structured assessment of receptive and expressive language is often reported under Cognition (see below).\n\nLanguage assessment will allow the recognition of medical conditions presenting with aphonia or dysarthria, neurological conditions such as stroke or dementia presenting with aphasia, and specific language disorders such as stuttering, cluttering or mutism. People with autism spectrum disorders may have abnormalities in paralinguistic and pragmatic aspects of their speech. Echolalia (repetition of another person's words) and palilalia (repetition of the subject's own words) can be heard with patients with autism, schizophrenia or Alzheimer's disease. A person with schizophrenia might use neologisms, which are made-up words which have a specific meaning to the person using them. Speech assessment also contributes to assessment of mood, for example people with mania or anxiety may have rapid, loud and pressured speech; on the other hand depressed patients will typically have a prolonged speech latency and speak in a slow, quiet and hesitant manner.\n\n### Thought process\n\nThought process in the MSE refers to the quantity, tempo (rate of flow) and form (or logical coherence) of thought. Thought process cannot be directly observed but can only be described by the patient, or inferred from a patient's speech. Form of the thought is captured in this category. One should describe the thought from as thought directed A→B(normal) vs formal thought disorders. A pattern of interruption or disorganization of thought processes is broadly referred to as formal thought disorder, and might be described more specifically as thought blocking, fusion, loosening of associations, tangential thinking, derailment of thought, or knight's move thinking. Thought may be described as circumstantial when a patient includes a great deal of irrelevant detail and makes frequent diversions, but remains focused on the broad topic. Regarding the tempo of thought, some people may experience flight of ideas (a manic symptom), when their thoughts are so rapid that their speech seems incoherent, although in flight of ideas a careful observer can discern a chain of poetic, syllabic, rhyming associations in the patient's speech. (i.e. I love to eat peaches, beach beaches, sand castles fall in the waves, braves are going to the finals, fee fi fo fum. Golden egg.) Alternatively an individual may be described as having retarded or inhibited thinking, in which thoughts seem to progress slowly with few associations. Poverty of thought is a global reduction in the quantity of thought and one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. It can also be a feature of severe depression or dementia. A patient with dementia might also experience thought perseveration. Thought perseveration refers to a pattern where a person keeps returning to the same limited set of ideas. Circumstantial thinking might be observed in anxiety disorders or certain kinds of personality disorders.\n\n### Thought content\n\nA description of thought content would be the largest section of the MSE report. It would describe a patient's suicidal thoughts, depressed cognition, delusions, overvalued ideas, obsessions, phobias and preoccupations. One should separate the thought content into pathological thought, versus non-pathological thought. Importantly one should specify suicidal thoughts as either intrusive, unwanted, and not able to translate in the capacity to act on these thoughts (mens rea), versus suicidal thoughts that may lead to the act of suicide (actus reus).\n\nAbnormalities of thought content are established by exploring individuals' thoughts in an open-ended conversational manner with regard to their intensity, salience, the emotions associated with the thoughts, the extent to which the thoughts are experienced as one's own and under one's control, and the degree of belief or conviction associated with the thoughts.\n\n#### Delusions\n\nA delusion has three essential qualities: it can be defined as \"a false, unshakeable idea or belief (1) which is out of keeping with the patient's educational, cultural and social background (2) ... held with extraordinary conviction and subjective certainty (3)\", and is a core feature of psychotic disorders. For instance an alliance to a particular political party, or sports team would not be considered a delusion in some societies.\n\nThe patient's delusions may be described within the SEGUE PM mnemonic as somatic, erotomanic delusions, grandiose delusions, unspecified delusions, envious delusions (c.f. delusional jealousy), persecutory or paranoid delusions, or multifactorial delusions. There are several other forms of delusions, these include descriptions such as: delusions of reference, or delusional misidentification, or delusional memories (i.e., I was a goat last year) among others.\n\nDelusional symptoms can be reported as on a continuum from: full symptoms (with no insight), partial symptoms (where they may start questioning these delusions), nil symptoms (where symptoms are resolved), or after complete treatment there are still delusional symptoms or ideas that could develop into delusions you can characterize this as residual symptoms.\n\nDelusions can suggest several diseases such as schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, mania, depression with psychotic features, or delusional disorders. One can differentiate delusional disorders from schizophrenia for example by the age of onset for delusional disorders being older with a more complete and unaffected personality, where the delusion may only partially impact their life and be fairly encapsulated off from the rest of their formed personality. I.e. believing that a spider lives in their hair, but this belief not affecting their work, relationships, or education. Whereas schizophrenia typically arises earlier in life with a disintegration of personality and a failure to cope with work, relationships, or education.\n\nOther features differentiate diseases with delusions as well. Delusions may be described as mood-congruent (the delusional content in keeping with the mood), typical of manic or depressive psychosis, or mood-incongruent (delusional content not in keeping with the mood) which are more typical of schizophrenia. Delusions of control, or passivity experiences (in which the individual has the experience of the mind or body being under the influence or control of some kind of external force or agency), are typical of schizophrenia. Examples of this include experiences of thought withdrawal, thought insertion, thought broadcasting, and somatic passivity. Schneiderian first rank symptoms are a set of delusions and hallucinations which have been said to be highly suggestive of a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Delusions of guilt, delusions of poverty, and nihilistic delusions (belief that one has no mind or is already dead) are typical of depressive psychoses.\n\n#### Overvalued Ideas\n\nAn overvalued idea is an emotionally charged belief that may be held with sufficient conviction to make believer emotionally charged or aggressive but that fails to possess all three characteristics of delusion—most importantly, incongruity with cultural norms. Therefore, any strong, fixed, false, but culturally normative belief can be considered an \"overvalued idea\". Hypochondriasis is an overvalued idea that one has an illness, dysmorphophobia that a part of one's body is abnormal, and anorexia nervosa that one is overweight or fat.\n\n#### Obsessions\n\nAn obsession is an \"undesired, unpleasant, intrusive thought that cannot be suppressed through the patient's volition\", but unlike passivity experiences described above, they are not experienced as imposed from outside the patient's mind. Obsessions are typically intrusive thoughts of violence, injury, dirt or sex, or obsessive ruminations on intellectual themes. A person can also describe obsessional doubt, with intrusive worries about whether they have made the wrong decision, or forgotten to do something, for example turn off the gas or lock the house. In obsessive-compulsive disorder, the individual experiences obsessions with or without compulsions (a sense of having to carry out certain ritualized and senseless actions against their wishes).\n\n#### Phobias\n\nA phobia is \"a dread of an object or situation that does not in reality pose any threat\", and is distinct from a delusion in that the patient is aware that the fear is irrational. A phobia is usually highly specific to certain situations and will usually be reported by the patient rather than being observed by the clinician in the assessment interview.\n\n#### Preoccupations\n\nPreoccupations are thoughts which are not fixed, false or intrusive, but have an undue prominence in the person's mind. Clinically significant preoccupations would include thoughts of suicide, homicidal thoughts, suspicious or fearful beliefs associated with certain personality disorders, depressive beliefs (for example that one is unloved or a failure), or the cognitive distortions of anxiety and depression.\n\n#### Suicidal thoughts\n\nThe MSE contributes to clinical risk assessment by including a thorough exploration of any suicidal or hostile thought content. Assessment of suicide risk includes detailed questioning about the nature of the person's suicidal thoughts, belief about death, reasons for living, and whether the person has made any specific plans to end his or her life. The most important questions to ask are: Do you have suicidal feeling now; have you ever attempted suicide (highly correlated with future suicide attempts); do you have plans to commit suicide in the future; and, do you have any deadlines where you may commit suicide (i.e. Numerology calculation, doomsday belief, Mother's Day, Anniversary, Christmas)\n\n### Perceptions\n\nA perception in this context is any sensory experience, and the three broad types of perceptual disturbance are hallucinations, pseudohallucinations and illusions. A hallucination is defined as a sensory perception in the absence of any external stimulus, and is experienced in external or objective space (i.e. experienced by the subject as real). An illusion is defined as a false sensory perception in the presence of an external stimulus, in other words a distortion of a sensory experience, and may be recognized as such by the subject. A pseudohallucination is experienced in internal or subjective space (for example as \"voices in my head\") and is regarded as akin to fantasy. Other sensory abnormalities include a distortion of the patient's sense of time, for example déjà vu, or a distortion of the sense of self (depersonalization) or sense of reality (derealization).\n\nHallucinations can occur in any of the five senses, although auditory and visual hallucinations are encountered more frequently than tactile (touch), olfactory (smell) or gustatory (taste) hallucinations. Auditory hallucinations are typical of psychoses: third-person hallucinations (i.e. voices talking about the patient) and hearing one's thoughts spoken aloud (gedankenlautwerden or écho de la pensée) are among the Schneiderian first rank symptoms indicative of schizophrenia, whereas second-person hallucinations (voices talking to the patient) threatening or insulting or telling them to commit suicide, may be a feature of psychotic depression or schizophrenia. Visual hallucinations are generally suggestive of organic conditions such as epilepsy, drug intoxication or drug withdrawal. Many of the visual effects of hallucinogenic drugs are more correctly described as visual illusions or visual pseudohallucinations, as they are distortions of sensory experiences, and are not experienced as existing in objective reality. Auditory pseudohallucinations are suggestive of dissociative disorders. Déjà vu, derealization and depersonalization are associated with temporal lobe epilepsy and dissociative disorders.\n\n### Cognition\n\nThis section of the MSE covers the patient's level of alertness, orientation, attention, memory, visuospatial functioning, language functions and executive functions. Unlike other sections of the MSE, use is made of structured tests in addition to unstructured observation. Alertness is a global observation of level of consciousness i.e. awareness of, and responsiveness to the environment, and this might be described as alert, clouded, drowsy, or stuporous. Orientation is assessed by asking the patient where he or she is (for example what building, town and state) and what time it is (time, day, date).\n\nAttention and concentration are assessed by several tests, commonly serial sevens test subtracting 7 from 100 and subtracting 7 from the difference 5 times. Alternatively: spelling a five-letter word backwards, saying the months or days of the week in reverse order, serial threes (subtract three from twenty five times), and by testing digit span. Memory is assessed in terms of immediate registration (repeating a set of words), short-term memory (recalling the set of words after an interval, or recalling a short paragraph), and long-term memory (recollection of well known historical or geographical facts). Visuospatial functioning can be assessed by the ability to copy a diagram, draw a clock face, or draw a map of the consulting room. Language is assessed through the ability to name objects, repeat phrases, and by observing the individual's spontaneous speech and response to instructions. Executive functioning can be screened for by asking the \"similarities\" questions (\"what do x and y have in common?\") and by means of a verbal fluency task (e.g. \"list as many words as you can starting with the letter F, in one minute\"). The mini-mental state examination is a simple structured cognitive assessment which is in widespread use as a component of the MSE.\n\nMild impairment of attention and concentration may occur in any mental illness where people are anxious and distractible (including psychotic states), but more extensive cognitive abnormalities are likely to indicate a gross disturbance of brain functioning such as delirium, dementia or intoxication. Specific language abnormalities may be associated with pathology in Wernicke's area or Broca's area of the brain. In Korsakoff's syndrome there is dramatic memory impairment with relative preservation of other cognitive functions. Visuospatial or constructional abnormalities here may be associated with parietal lobe pathology, and abnormalities in executive functioning tests may indicate frontal lobe pathology. This kind of brief cognitive testing is regarded as a screening process only, and any abnormalities are more carefully assessed using formal neuropsychological testing.\n\nThe MSE may include a brief neuropsychiatric examination in some situations. Frontal lobe pathology is suggested if the person cannot repetitively execute a motor sequence (e.g. \"paper-scissors-rock\"). The posterior columns are assessed by the person's ability to feel the vibrations of a tuning fork on the wrists and ankles. The parietal lobe can be assessed by the person's ability to identify objects by touch alone and with eyes closed. A cerebellar disorder may be present if the person cannot stand with arms extended, feet touching and eyes closed without swaying (Romberg's sign); if there is a tremor when the person reaches for an object; or if he or she is unable to touch a fixed point, close the eyes and touch the same point again. Pathology in the basal ganglia may be indicated by rigidity and resistance to movement of the limbs, and by the presence of characteristic involuntary movements. A lesion in the posterior fossa can be detected by asking the patient to roll his or her eyes upwards (Parinaud's syndrome). Focal neurological signs such as these might reflect the effects of some prescribed psychiatric medications, chronic drug or alcohol use, head injuries, tumors or other brain disorders.\n\n### Insight\n\nThe person's understanding of his or her mental illness is evaluated by exploring his or her explanatory account of the problem, and understanding of the treatment options. In this context, insight can be said to have three components: recognition that one has a mental illness, compliance with treatment, and the ability to re-label unusual mental events (such as delusions and hallucinations) as pathological. As insight is on a continuum, the clinician should not describe it as simply present or absent, but should report the patient's explanatory account descriptively.\n\nImpaired insight is characteristic of psychosis and dementia, and is an important consideration in treatment planning and in assessing the capacity to consent to treatment.\n\n### Judgment\n\nJudgment refers to the patient's capacity to make sound, reasoned and responsible decisions. One should frame judgement to the functions or domains that are normal vs impaired. (I.e. poor judgement is isolated to petty theft, able to function in relationships, work, academics.)\n\nTraditionally, the MSE included the use of standard hypothetical questions such as \"what would you do if you found a stamped, addressed envelope lying in the street?\"; however contemporary practice is to inquire about how the patient has responded or would respond to real-life challenges and contingencies. Assessment would take into account the individual's executive system capacity in terms of impulsiveness, social cognition, self-awareness and planning ability.\n\nImpaired judgment is not specific to any diagnosis but may be a prominent feature of disorders affecting the frontal lobe of the brain. If a person's judgment is impaired due to mental illness, there might be implications for the person's safety or the safety of others.\n\n## Cultural considerations\n\nThere are potential problems when the MSE is applied in a cross-cultural context, when the clinician and patient are from different cultural backgrounds. For example, the patient's culture might have different norms for appearance, behavior and display of emotions. Culturally normative spiritual and religious beliefs need to be distinguished from delusions and hallucinations - these may seem similar to one who does not understand that they have different roots. Cognitive assessment must also take the patient's language and educational background into account. Clinician's racial bias is another potential confounder. Consultation with cultural leaders in community or clinicians when working with Aboriginal people can help guide if any cultural phenomena has been considered when completing an MSE with Aboriginal patients and things to consider from a cross-cultural context ; Working Together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and Practice\n\n## Children\n\nThere are particular challenges in carrying out an MSE with young children and others with limited language such as people with intellectual impairment. The examiner would explore and clarify the individual's use of words to describe mood, thought content or perceptions, as words may be used idiosyncratically with a different meaning from that assumed by the examiner. In this group, tools such as play materials, puppets, art materials or diagrams (for instance with multiple choices of facial expressions depicting emotions) may be used to facilitate recall and explanation of experiences.\n\n## See also\n\n- Diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry\n- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\n- DSM-IV Codes\n- Glossary of psychiatry\n- Self-administered Gerocognitive Examination (SAGE)", "revid": "1171401479", "description": "Way of observing and describing a patient's current state of mind", "categories": ["Clinical psychology", "Medical diagnosis", "Medical mnemonics", "Psychiatric assessment"]}
{"id": "6176", "url": null, "title": "Cecil B. DeMille", "text": "Cecil Blount DeMille (/ˈsɛsəl dəˈmɪl/; August 12, 1881 – January 21, 1959) was an American filmmaker and actor. Between 1914 and 1958, he made 70 features, both silent and sound films. He is acknowledged as a founding father of American cinema and the most commercially successful producer-director in film history. His films were distinguished by their epic scale and by his cinematic showmanship. His silent films included social dramas, comedies, Westerns, farces, morality plays, and historical pageants. He was an active Freemason and member of Prince of Orange Lodge \\#16 in New York City.\n\nDeMille was born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, and grew up in New York City. He began his career as a stage actor in 1900. He later moved to writing and directing stage productions, some with Jesse Lasky, who was then a vaudeville producer. DeMille's first film, The Squaw Man (1914), was also the first full-length feature film shot in Hollywood. Its interracial love story made it commercially successful, and it first publicized Hollywood as the home of the U.S. film industry. The continued success of his productions led to the founding of Paramount Pictures with Lasky and Adolph Zukor. His first biblical epic, The Ten Commandments (1923), was both a critical and commercial success; it held the Paramount revenue record for twenty-five years.\n\nDeMille directed The King of Kings (1927), a biography of Jesus, which gained approval for its sensitivity and reached more than 800 million viewers. The Sign of the Cross (1932) is said to be the first sound film to integrate all aspects of cinematic technique. Cleopatra (1934) was his first film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. After more than thirty years in film production, DeMille reached a pinnacle in his career with Samson and Delilah (1949), a biblical epic that became the highest-grossing film of 1950. Along with biblical and historical narratives, he also directed films oriented toward \"neo-naturalism\", which tried to portray the laws of man fighting the forces of nature.\n\nHe received his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Director for his circus drama The Greatest Show on Earth (1952), which won both the Academy Award for Best Picture and the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama. His last and best known film, The Ten Commandments (1956), also a Best Picture Academy Award nominee, is currently the eighth-highest-grossing film of all time, adjusted for inflation. In addition to his Best Picture Awards, he received an Academy Honorary Award for his film contributions, the Palme d'Or (posthumously) for Union Pacific (1939), a DGA Award for Lifetime Achievement, and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award. He was the first recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award, which was named in his honor. DeMille's reputation had a renaissance in the 2010s, and his work has influenced numerous other films and directors.\n\n## Biography\n\n### 1881–1899: early years\n\nCecil Blount DeMille was born on August 12, 1881, in a boarding house on Main Street in Ashfield, Massachusetts, where his parents had been vacationing for the summer. On September 1, 1881, the family returned with the newborn DeMille to their flat in New York. DeMille was named after his grandmothers Cecelia Wolff and Margarete Blount. He was the second of three children of Henry Churchill de Mille (September 4, 1853 – February 10, 1893) and his wife, Matilda Beatrice deMille (née Samuel; January 30, 1853 – October 8, 1923), known as Beatrice. His brother, William C. DeMille, was born on July 25, 1878. Henry de Mille, whose ancestors were of English and Dutch-Belgian descent, was a North Carolina-born dramatist, actor, and lay reader in the Episcopal Church. DeMille's father was also an English teacher at Columbia College (now Columbia University). He worked as a playwright, administrator, and faculty member during the early years of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, established in New York City in 1884. Henry deMille frequently collaborated with David Belasco in playwriting; their best-known collaborations included \"The Wife\", \"Lord Chumley\", \"The Charity Ball\", and \"Men and Women\".\n\nCecil B. DeMille's mother, Beatrice, a literary agent and scriptwriter, was the daughter of German Jews. She had emigrated from England with her parents in 1871 when she was 18; the newly arrived family settled in Brooklyn, New York, where they maintained a middle-class, English-speaking household.\n\nDeMille's parents met as members of a music and literary society in New York. Henry was a tall, red-headed student. Beatrice was intelligent, educated, forthright, and strong-willed. The two were married on July 1, 1876, despite Beatrice's parents' objections because of the young couple's differing religions; Beatrice converted to Episcopalianism.\n\nDeMille was a brave and confident child. He gained his love of theater while watching his father and Belasco rehearse their plays. A lasting memory for DeMille was a lunch with his father and actor Edwin Booth. As a child, DeMille created an alter-ego, Champion Driver, a Robin Hood-like character, evidence of his creativity and imagination. The family lived in Washington, North Carolina, until Henry built a three-story Victorian-style house for his family in Pompton Lakes, New Jersey; they named this estate \"Pamlico\". John Philip Sousa was a friend of the family, and DeMille recalled throwing mud balls in the air so neighbor Annie Oakley could practice her shooting. DeMille's sister, Agnes, was born on April 23, 1891; his mother nearly did not survive the birth. Agnes would die on February 11, 1894, at the age of three from spinal meningitis. DeMille's parents operated a private school in town and attended Christ Episcopal Church. DeMille recalled that this church was the place where he visualized the story of his 1923 version of The Ten Commandments.\n\nOn January 8, 1893, at age 40, Henry de Mille died suddenly from typhoid fever, leaving Beatrice with three children. To provide for her family, she opened the Henry C. de Mille School for Girls in her home in February 1893. The aim of the school was to teach young women to properly understand and fulfill the women's duty to herself, her home, and her country. Before Henry de Mille's death, Beatrice had \"enthusiastically supported\" her husband's theatrical aspirations. She later became the second female play broker on Broadway. On Henry de Mille's deathbed, he told his wife that he did not want his sons to become playwrights. DeMille's mother sent him to Pennsylvania Military College (now Widener University) in Chester, Pennsylvania, at age 15. He fled the school to join the Spanish–American War, but failed to meet the age requirement. At the military college, even though his grades were average, he reportedly excelled in personal conduct. DeMille attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts (tuition-free due to his father's service to the Academy). He graduated in 1900, and for graduation, his performance was the play The Arcady Trail. In the audience was Charles Frohman, who would cast DeMille in his play Hearts are Trumps, DeMille's Broadway debut.\n\n### 1900–1912: theater\n\n#### Charles Frohman, Constance Adams, and David Belasco\n\nCecil B. DeMille began his career as an actor on the stage in the theatrical company of Charles Frohman in 1900. He debuted as an actor on February 21, 1900, in the play Hearts Are Trumps at New York's Garden Theater. In 1901, DeMille starred in productions of A Repentance, To Have and to Hold, and Are You a Mason? At the age of 21, Cecil B. DeMille married Constance Adams on August 16, 1902, at Adams's father's home in East Orange, New Jersey. The wedding party was small. Beatrice DeMille's family was not in attendance, and Simon Louvish suggests that this was to conceal DeMille's partial Jewish heritage. Adams was 29 years old at the time of their marriage, eight years older than DeMille. They had met in a theater in Washington D.C. while they were both acting in Hearts Are Trumps.\n\nThey were sexually incompatible; according to DeMille, Adams was too \"pure\" to \"feel such violent and evil passions\". DeMille had more violent sexual preferences and fetishes than his wife. Adams allowed DeMille to have several long-term mistresses during their marriage as an outlet while maintaining an outward appearance of a faithful marriage. One of DeMille's affairs was with his screenwriter Jeanie MacPherson. Despite his reputation for extramarital affairs, DeMille did not like to have affairs with his stars, as he believed it would cause him to lose control as a director. He related a story that he maintained his self-control when Gloria Swanson sat on his lap, refusing to touch her.\n\nIn 1902, he played a small part in Hamlet. Publicists wrote that he became an actor in order to learn how direct and produce, but DeMille admitted that he became an actor in order to pay the bills. From 1904 to 1905, DeMille attempted to make a living as a stock theatre actor with his wife, Constance. DeMille made a 1905 reprise in Hamlet as Osric. In the summer of 1905, DeMille joined the stock cast at the Elitch Theatre in Denver, Colorado. He appeared in eleven of the fifteen plays presented that season, although all were minor roles. Maude Fealy would appear as the featured actress in several productions that summer and would develop a lasting friendship with DeMille. (He would later cast her in The Ten Commandments.)\n\nHis brother, William, was establishing himself as a playwright and sometimes invited DeMille to collaborate. DeMille and William collaborated on The Genius, The Royal Mounted, and After Five. However, none of these were very successful; William deMille was most successful when he worked alone. DeMille and his brother at times worked with the legendary impresario David Belasco, who had been a friend and collaborator of their father. DeMille would later adapt Belasco's The Girl of the Golden West, Rose of the Rancho, and The Warrens of Virginia into films. DeMille was credited with creating the premise of Belasco's The Return of Peter Grimm. The Return of Peter Grimm sparked controversy, because Belasco had taken DeMille's unnamed screenplay, changed the characters, and named it The Return of Peter Grimm, producing and presenting it as his own work. DeMille was credited in small print as \"based on an idea by Cecil DeMille\". The play was successful, and DeMille was distraught that his childhood idol had plagiarized his work.\n\n#### Losing interest in theatre\n\nDeMille performed on stage with actors whom he would later direct in films: Charlotte Walker, Mary Pickford, and Pedro de Cordoba. DeMille also produced and directed plays. His 1905 performance in The Prince Chap as the Earl of Huntington was well received by audiences. DeMille wrote a few of his own plays in-between stage performances, but his playwriting was not as successful. His first play was The Pretender-A Play in a Prologue and 4 Acts set in seventeenth century Russia. Another unperformed play he wrote was Son of the Winds, a mythological Native American story. Life was difficult for DeMille and his wife as traveling actors; however, traveling allowed him to experience part of the United States he had not yet seen. DeMille sometimes worked with the director E. H. Sothern, who influenced DeMille's later perfectionism in his work. In 1907, due to a scandal with one of Beatrice's students, Evelyn Nesbit, the Henry de Mille School lost students. The school closed, and Beatrice filed for bankruptcy. DeMille wrote another play originally called Sergeant Devil May Care, which was renamed The Royal Mounted. He also toured with the Standard Opera Company, but there are few records to indicate DeMille's singing ability. DeMille had a daughter, Cecilia, on November 5, 1908, who would be his only biological child. In the 1910s, DeMille began directing and producing other writer's plays.\n\nDeMille was poor and struggled to find work. Consequently, his mother hired him for her agency The DeMille Play Company, and taught him how to be an agent and a playwright. Eventually, he became manager of the agency and later, a junior partner with his mother. In 1911, DeMille became acquainted with vaudeville producer Jesse Lasky when Lasky was searching for a writer for his new musical. He initially sought out William deMille. William had been a successful playwright, but DeMille was suffering from the failure of his plays The Royal Mounted and The Genius. However, Beatrice introduced Lasky to DeMille instead. The collaboration of DeMille and Lasky produced a successful musical called California, which opened in New York in January 1912. Another DeMille-Lasky production that opened in January 1912 was The Antique Girl. DeMille found success in the spring of 1913, producing Reckless Age by Lee Wilson, a play about a high society girl wrongly accused of manslaughter starring Frederick Burton and Sydney Shields. However, changes in the theater rendered DeMille's melodramas obsolete before they were produced, and true theatrical success eluded him. He produced many flops. Having become disinterested in working in theatre, DeMille's passion for film was ignited when he watched the 1912 French film Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth.\n\n### 1913–1914: entering films\n\nDesiring a change of scene, Cecil B. DeMille, Jesse Lasky, Sam Goldfish (later Samuel Goldwyn), and a group of East Coast businessmen created the Jesse L. Lasky Feature Play Company in 1913, over which DeMille became director-general. Lasky and DeMille were said to have sketched out the organization of the company on the back of a restaurant menu. As director-general, DeMille's job was to make the films. In addition to directing, DeMille was the supervisor and consultant for the first year of films made by the Lasky Feature Play Company. Sometimes, he directed scenes for other directors at the Feature Play Company in order to release films on time. Moreover, when he was busy directing other films, he would co-author other Lasky Company scripts as well as create screen adaptations that others directed.\n\nThe Lasky Play Company sought out William deMille to join the company, but he rejected the offer because he did not believe there was any promise in a film career. When William found out that DeMille had begun working in the motion picture industry, he wrote DeMille a letter, disappointed that he was willing \"to throw away [his] future\" when he was \"born and raised in the finest traditions of the theater\". The Lasky Company wanted to attract high-class audiences to their films, so they began producing films from literary works. The Lasky Company bought the rights to the play The Squaw Man by Edwin Milton Royle and cast Dustin Farnum in the lead role. They offered Farnum a choice to have a quarter stock in the company (similar to William deMille) or \\$250 per week as salary. Farnum chose \\$250 per week. Already \\$15,000 in debt to Royle for the screenplay of The Squaw Man, Lasky's relatives bought the \\$5,000 stock to save the Lasky Company from bankruptcy. With no knowledge of filmmaking, DeMille was introduced to observe the process at film studios. He was eventually introduced to Oscar Apfel, a stage director who had been a director with the Edison Company.\n\nOn December 12, 1913, DeMille, his cast, and crew boarded a Southern Pacific train bound for Flagstaff via New Orleans. His tentative plan was to shoot a film in Arizona, but he felt that Arizona did not typify the Western look they were searching for. They also learned that other filmmakers were successfully shooting in Los Angeles, even in winter. He continued to Los Angeles. Once there, he chose not to shoot in Edendale, where many studios were, but in Hollywood. DeMille rented a barn to function as their film studio. Filming began on December 29, 1913, and lasted three weeks. Apfel filmed most of The Squaw Man due to DeMille's inexperience; however, DeMille learned quickly and was particularly adept at impromptu screenwriting as necessary. He made his first film run sixty minutes, as long as a short play. The Squaw Man (1914), co-directed by Oscar Apfel, was a sensation, and it established the Lasky Company. This was the first feature-length film made in Hollywood. There were problems with the perforation of the film stock, and it was discovered the DeMille had brought a cheap British film perforator, which had punched in sixty-five holes per foot instead of the industry-standard of sixty-four. Lasky and DeMille convinced film pioneer Siegmund Lubin of the Lubin Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia to have his experienced technicians reperforate the film This was also the first American feature film; however, only by release date, as D. W. Griffith's Judith of Bethulia was filmed earlier than The Squaw Man, but released later. Additionally, this was the only film in which DeMille shared director's credit with Oscar C. Apfel.\n\nThe Squaw Man was a success, which led to the eventual founding of Paramount Pictures and Hollywood becoming the \"film capital of the world\". The film grossed over ten times its budget after its New York premiere in February 1914. DeMille's next project was to aid Oscar Apfel in directing Brewster's Millions, which was wildly successful. In December 1914, Constance Adams brought home John DeMille, a fifteen-month-old, whom the couple legally adopted three years later. Biographer Scott Eyman suggested that this may have been a result of Adams's recent miscarriage.\n\n### 1915–1928: silent era\n\n#### Westerns, Paradise, and World War I\n\nCecil B. DeMille's second film credited exclusively to him was The Virginian. This is the earliest of DeMille's films available in a quality, color-tinted video format. However, this version is actually a 1918 re-release. The first few years of the Lasky Company were spent in making films nonstop, literally writing the language of film. DeMille himself directed twenty films by 1915. The most successful films during the beginning of the Lasky Company were Brewster's Millions (co-directed by DeMille), Rose of the Rancho, and The Ghost Breaker. DeMille adapted Belasco's dramatic lighting techniques to film technology, mimicking moonlight with U.S. cinema's first attempts at \"motivated lighting\" in The Warrens of Virginia. This was the first of few film collaborations with his brother William. They struggled to adapt the play from the stage to the set. After the film was shown, viewers complained that the shadows and lighting prevented the audience from seeing the actors' full faces, complaining that they would only pay half price. However, Sam Goldwyn realized that if they called it \"Rembrandt\" lighting, the audience would pay double the price. Additionally, because of DeMille's cordiality after the Peter Grimm incident, DeMille was able to rekindle his partnership with Belasco. He adapted several of Belasco's screenplays into film.\n\nDeMille's most successful film was The Cheat; DeMille's direction in the film was acclaimed. In 1916, exhausted from three years of nonstop filmmaking, DeMille purchased land in the Angeles National Forest for a ranch that would become his getaway. He called this place, \"Paradise\", declaring it a wildlife sanctuary; no shooting of animals besides snakes was allowed. His wife did not like Paradise, so DeMille often brought his mistresses there with him, including actress Julia Faye. In addition to his Paradise, DeMille purchased a yacht in 1921, which he called The Seaward.\n\nWhile filming The Captive in 1915, an extra, Bob Fleming, died on set when another extra failed to heed DeMille's orders to unload all guns for rehearsal. DeMille instructed the guilty man to leave town and would never reveal his name. Lasky and DeMille maintained the widow Fleming on the payroll; however, according to leading actor House Peters Sr., DeMille refused to stop production for the funeral of Fleming. Peters claimed that he encouraged the cast to attend the funeral with him anyway since DeMille would not be able to shoot the film without him. On July 19, 1916, the Jesse Lasky Feature Play Company merged with Adolph Zukor's Famous Players Film Company, becoming Famous Players–Lasky. Zukor became president with Lasky as the vice president. DeMille was maintained as director-general, and Goldwyn became chairman of the board. Goldwyn was later fired from Famous Players–Lasky due to frequent clashes with Lasky, DeMille, and Zukor. While on a European vacation in 1921, DeMille contracted rheumatic fever in Paris. He was confined to bed and unable to eat. His poor physical condition upon his return home affected the production of his 1922 film Manslaughter. According to Richard Birchard, DeMille's weakened state during production may have led to the film being received as uncharacteristically substandard.\n\nDuring World War I, the Famous Players–Lasky organized a military company underneath the National Guard called the Home Guard made up of film studio employees with DeMille as captain. Eventually, the Guard was enlarged to a battalion and recruited soldiers from other film studios. They took time off weekly from film production to practice military drills. Additionally, during the war, DeMille volunteered for the Justice Department's Intelligence Office, investigating friends, neighbors, and others he came in contact with in connection with the Famous Players–Lasky. He volunteered for the Intelligence Office during World War II as well. Although DeMille considered enlisting in World War I, he stayed in the United States and made films. However, he did take a few months to set up a movie theater for the French front. Famous Players–Lasky donated the films. DeMille and Adams adopted Katherine Lester in 1920, whom Adams had found in the orphanage over which she was the director. In 1922, the couple adopted Richard deMille.\n\n#### Scandalous dramas, Biblical epics, and departure from Paramount\n\nFilm started becoming more sophisticated and the subsequent films of the Lasky company were criticized for primitive and unrealistic set design. Consequently, Beatrice deMille introduced the Famous Players–Lasky to Wilfred Buckland, who DeMille had known from his time at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, and he became DeMille's art director. William deMille reluctantly became a story editor. William deMille would later convert from theater to Hollywood and would spend the rest of his career as a film director. Throughout his career, DeMille would frequently remake his own films. In his first instance, in 1917, he remade The Squaw Man (1918), only waiting four years from the 1914 original. Despite its quick turnaround, the film was fairly successful. However, DeMille's second remake at MGM in 1931 would be a failure.\n\nAfter five years and thirty hit films, DeMille became the American film industry's most successful director. In the silent era, he was renowned for Male and Female (1919), Manslaughter (1922), The Volga Boatman (1926), and The Godless Girl (1928). DeMille's trademark scenes included bathtubs, lion attacks, and Roman orgies. Many of his films featured scenes in two-color Technicolor. In 1923, DeMille released a modern melodrama The Ten Commandments, which was a significant change from his previous stint of irreligious films. The film was produced on a large budget of \\$600,000, the most expensive production at Paramount. This concerned the executives at Paramount; however, the film turned out to be the studio's highest-grossing film. It held the Paramount record for twenty-five years until DeMille broke the record again.\n\nIn the early 1920s, scandal surrounded Paramount; religious groups and the media opposed portrayals of immorality in films. A censorship board called the Hays Code was established. DeMille's film The Affairs of Anatol came under fire. Furthermore, DeMille argued with Zukor over his extravagant and over-budget production costs. Consequently, DeMille left Paramount in 1924 despite having helped establish it. He joined the Producers Distributing Corporation. His first film in the new production company, DeMille Pictures Corporation, was The Road to Yesterday in 1925. He directed and produced four films on his own, working with Producers Distributing Corporation because he found front office supervision too restricting. Aside from The King of Kings, none of DeMille's films away from Paramount were successful. The King of Kings established DeMille as \"master of the grandiose and of biblical sagas\". Considered at the time to be the most successful Christian film of the silent era, DeMille calculated that it had been viewed over 800 million times around the world. After the release of DeMille's The Godless Girl, silent films in America became obsolete, and DeMille was forced to shoot a shoddy final reel with the new sound production technique. Although this final reel looked so different from the previous eleven reels that it appeared to be from another movie, according to Simon Louvish, the film is one of DeMille's strangest and most \"DeMillean\" film.\n\nThe immense popularity of DeMille's silent films enabled him to branch out into other areas. The Roaring Twenties were the boom years and DeMille took full advantage, opening the Mercury Aviation Company, one of America's first commercial airlines. He was also a real estate speculator, an underwriter of political campaigns, and vice president of Bank of America. He was additionally vice president of the Commercial National Trust and Savings Bank in Los Angeles where he approved loans for other filmmakers. In 1916, DeMille purchased a mansion in Hollywood. Charlie Chaplin lived next door for a time, and after he moved, DeMille purchased the other house and combined the estates.\n\n### 1929–1956: sound era\n\n#### MGM and return to Paramount\n\nWhen \"talking pictures\" were invented in 1928, Cecil B. DeMille made a successful transition, offering his own innovations to the painful process; he devised a microphone boom and a soundproof camera blimp. He also popularized the camera crane. His first three sound films were produced at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. These three films, Dynamite, Madame Satan, and his 1931 remake of The Squaw Man were critically and financially unsuccessful. He had completely adapted to the production of sound film despite the film's poor dialogue. After his contract ended at MGM, he left, but no production studios would hire him. He attempted to create a guild of a half a dozen directors with the same creative desires called the Director's Guild. However, the idea failed due to lack of funding and commitment. Moreover, DeMille was audited by the Internal Revenue Service due to issues with his production company. This was, according to DeMille, the lowest point of his career. DeMille traveled abroad to find employment until he was offered a deal at Paramount.\n\nIn 1932, DeMille returned to Paramount at the request of Lasky, bringing with him his own production unit. His first film back at Paramount, The Sign of the Cross, was also his first success since leaving Paramount besides The King of Kings. DeMille's return was approved by Zukor under the condition that DeMille not exceed his production budget of \\$650,000 for The Sign of the Cross. Produced in eight weeks without exceeding budget, the film was financially successful. The Sign of the Cross was the first film to integrate all cinematic techniques. The film was considered a \"masterpiece\" and surpassed the quality of other sound films of the time. DeMille followed this epic uncharacteristically with two dramas released in 1933 and 1934. This Day and Age and Four Frightened People were box office disappointments, though Four Frightened People received good reviews. DeMille would stick to his large-budget spectaculars for the rest of his career.\n\n#### Politics and Lux Radio Theatre\n\nCecil B. DeMille was outspoken about his strong Episcopalian integrity, but his private life included mistresses and adultery. DeMille was a conservative Republican activist, becoming more conservative as he aged. He was known as anti-union and worked to prevent the unionizing of film production studios. However, according to DeMille himself, he was not anti-union and belonged to a few unions himself. He said he was rather against union leaders such as Walter Reuther and Harry Bridges, whom he compared to dictators. He supported Herbert Hoover and in 1928 made his largest campaign donation to Hoover. DeMille also liked Franklin D. Roosevelt, however, finding him charismatic, tenacious, and intelligent and agreeing with Roosevelt's abhorrence of Prohibition. DeMille lent Roosevelt a car for his campaign for the 1932 United States presidential election and voted for him. However, he would never again vote for a Democratic candidate in a presidential election.\n\nFrom June 1, 1936, until January 22, 1945, Cecil DeMille hosted and directed Lux Radio Theater, a weekly digest of current feature films. Broadcast on the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) from 1935 to 1954, the Lux Radio show was one of the most popular weekly shows in the history of radio. While DeMille was host, the show had forty million weekly listeners, gaining DeMille an annual salary of \\$100,000. From 1936 to 1945, he produced, hosted, and directed all shows with the occasional exception of a guest director. He resigned from the Lux Radio Show because he refused to pay a dollar to the American Federation of Radio Artists (AFRA) because he did not believe that any organization had the right to \"levy a compulsory assessment upon any member.\" Consequently, he had to resign from the radio show.\n\nDeMille sued the union for reinstatement but lost. He then appealed to the California Supreme Court and lost again. When the AFRA expanded to television, DeMille was banned from television appearances. Consequently, he formed the DeMille Foundation for Political Freedom in order to campaign for the right to work. He began presenting speeches across the United States for the next few years. DeMille's primary criticism was of closed shops, but later included criticism of communism and unions in general. The United States Supreme Court declined to review his case. Despite his loss, DeMille continued to lobby for the Taft–Hartley Act, which passed. This prohibited denying anyone the right to work if they refuse to pay a political assessment, however, the law did not apply retroactively. Consequently, DeMille's television and radio appearance ban lasted for the remainder of his life, though he was permitted to appear on radio or television to publicize a movie. William Keighley was his replacement. DeMille would never again work on radio.\n\n#### Adventure films and dramatic spectacles\n\nIn 1939, DeMille's Union Pacific was successful through DeMille's collaboration with the Union Pacific Railroad. The Union Pacific gave DeMille access to historical data, early period trains, and expert crews, adding to the authenticity of the film. During pre-production of Union Pacific, DeMille was dealing with his first serious health issue. In March 1938, he underwent a major emergency prostatectomy. He suffered from a post-surgery infection from which he nearly did not recover, citing streptomycin as his saving grace. The surgery caused him to suffer from sexual dysfunction for the rest of his life, according to some family members. Following his surgery and the success of Union Pacific, in 1940, DeMille first used three-strip Technicolor in North West Mounted Police. DeMille wanted to film in Canada; however, due to budget constraints, the film was instead shot in Oregon and Hollywood. Critics were impressed with the visuals but found the scripts dull, calling it DeMille's \"poorest Western\". Despite the criticism, it was Paramount's highest-grossing film of the year. Audiences liked its highly saturated color, so DeMille made no further black-and-white features. DeMille was anti-communist and abandoned a project in 1940 to film Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls due to its communist themes, despite the fact he had already paid \\$100,000 for the rights to the novel. He was so eager to produce the film that he hadn't yet read the novel. He claimed he abandoned the project in order to complete a different project, but in reality, it was to preserve his reputation and avoid appearing reactionary. While concurrently filmmaking, he served in World War II at the age of sixty as his neighborhood air-raid warden.\n\nIn 1942, DeMille worked with Jeanie MacPherson and brother William deMille in order to produce a film called Queen of Queens, which was intended to be about Mary, mother of Jesus. After reading the screenplay, Daniel A. Lord warned DeMille that Catholics would find the film too irreverent, while non-Catholics would have considered the film Catholic propaganda. Consequently, the film was never made. Jeanie MacPherson would work as a scriptwriter for many of DeMille's films. In 1938, DeMille supervised the compilation of film Land of Liberty to represent the contribution of the American film industry to the 1939 New York World's Fair. DeMille used clips from his own films in Land of Liberty. Though the film was not high-grossing, it was well-received, and DeMille was asked to shorten its running time to allow for more showings per day. MGM distributed the film in 1941 and donated profits to World War II relief charities.\n\nIn 1942, DeMille released Paramount's most successful film, Reap the Wild Wind. It was produced with a large budget and contained many special effects including an electronically operated giant squid. After working on Reap the Wild Wind, in 1944, he was the master of ceremonies at the rally organized by David O. Selznick in the Los Angeles Coliseum in support of the Dewey–Bricker ticket as well as Governor Earl Warren of California. DeMille's subsequent film Unconquered (1947) had the longest running time (146 minutes), longest filming schedule (102 days), and largest budget (\\$5 million). The sets and effects were so realistic that 30 extras needed to be hospitalized due to a scene with fireballs and flaming arrows. It was commercially very successful.\n\nDeMille's next film, Samson and Delilah in 1949, became Paramount's highest-grossing film up to that time. A Biblical epic with sex, it was a characteristically DeMille film. Again, 1952's The Greatest Show on Earth became Paramount's highest-grossing film to that point. Furthermore, DeMille's film won the Academy Award for Best Picture and the Academy Award for Best Story. The film began production in 1949, Ringling Brothers-Barnum and Bailey were paid \\$250,000 for use of the title and facilities. DeMille toured with the circus while helping write the script. Noisy and bright, it was not well-liked by critics, but was a favorite among audiences. DeMille signed a contract with Prentice Hall publishers in August 1953 to publish an autobiography. DeMille would reminisce into a voice recorder, the recording would be transcribed, and the information would be organized in the biography based on the topic. Art Arthur also interviewed people for the autobiography. DeMille did not like the first draft of the biography, saying that he thought the person portrayed in the biography was an \"SOB\"; he said it made him sound too egotistical. Besides filmmaking and finishing his autobiography, DeMille was involved in other projects. In the early 1950s, DeMille was recruited by Allen Dulles and Frank Wisner to serve on the board of the anti-communist National Committee for a Free Europe, the public face of the organization that oversaw the Radio Free Europe service. In 1954, Secretary of the Air Force Harold E. Talbott asked DeMille for help in designing the cadet uniforms at the newly established United States Air Force Academy. DeMille's designs, most notably his design of the distinctive cadet parade uniform, won praise from Air Force and Academy leadership, were ultimately adopted, and are still worn by cadets.\n\n#### Final works and unrealized projects\n\nIn 1952, DeMille sought approval for a lavish remake of his 1923 silent film The Ten Commandments. He went before the Paramount board of directors, which was mostly Jewish-American. The members rejected his proposal, even though his last two films, Samson and Delilah and The Greatest Show on Earth, had been record-breaking hits. Adolph Zukor convinced the board to change their minds on the grounds of morality. DeMille did not have an exact budget proposal for the project, and it promised to be the most costly in U.S. film history. Still, the members unanimously approved it. The Ten Commandments, released in 1956, was DeMille's final film. It was the longest (3 hours, 39 minutes) and most expensive (\\$13 million) film in Paramount history. Production of The Ten Commandments began in October 1954. The Exodus scene was filmed on-site in Egypt with the use of four Technicolor-VistaVision camera filming 12,000 people. They continued filming in 1955 in Paris and Hollywood on 30 different sound stages. They were even required to expand to RKO sound studios for filming. Post-production lasted a year, and the film premiered in Salt Lake City. Nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture, it grossed over \\$80 million, which surpassed the gross of The Greatest Show on Earth and every other film in history, except for Gone with the Wind. A unique practice at the time, DeMille offered ten percent of his profit to the crew.\n\nOn November 7, 1954, while in Egypt filming the Exodus sequence for The Ten Commandments, DeMille (who was seventy-three) climbed a 107-foot (33 m) ladder to the top of the massive Per Rameses set and suffered a serious heart attack. Despite the urging of his associate producer, DeMille wanted to return to the set right away. DeMille developed a plan with his doctor to allow him to continue directing while reducing his physical stress. Although DeMille completed the film, his health was diminished by several more heart attacks. His daughter Cecilia took over as director as DeMille sat behind the camera with Loyal Griggs as the cinematographer. This film would be his last.\n\nDue to his frequent heart attacks, DeMille asked his son-in-law, actor Anthony Quinn, to direct a remake of his 1938 film The Buccaneer. DeMille served as executive producer, overseeing producer Henry Wilcoxon. Despite a cast led by Charlton Heston and Yul Brynner, the 1958 film The Buccaneer was a disappointment. DeMille attended the Santa Barbara premiere of The Buccaneer in December 1958. DeMille was unable to attend the Los Angeles premiere of The Buccaneer. In the months before his death, DeMille was researching a film biography of Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of the Scout Movement. DeMille asked David Niven to star in the film, but it was never made. DeMille also was planning a film about the space race as well as another biblical epic about the Book of Revelation. DeMille's autobiography was mostly completed by the time DeMille died and was published in November 1959.\n\n#### Death\n\nCecil B. DeMille suffered a series of heart attacks from June 1958 to January 1959, and died on January 21, 1959, following an attack. DeMille's funeral was held on January 23 at St. Stephen's Episcopal Church. He was entombed at the Hollywood Memorial Cemetery (now known as Hollywood Forever). After his death, notable news outlets such as The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, and The Guardian honored DeMille as \"pioneer of movies\", \"the greatest creator and showman of our industry\", and \"the founder of Hollywood\". DeMille left his multi-million dollar estate in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, in Laughlin Park to his daughter Cecilia because his wife had dementia and was unable to care for an estate. She would die one year later. His personal will drew a line between Cecilia and his three adopted children, with Cecilia receiving a majority of DeMille's inheritance and estate. The other three children were surprised by this, as DeMille did not treat the children differently in life. Cecilia lived in the house for many years until her death in 1984, but the house was auctioned by his granddaughter Cecilia DeMille Presley who also lived there in the late 1980s.\n\n## Filmmaking\n\n### Influences\n\nDeMille believed his first influences to be his parents, Henry and Beatrice DeMille. His playwright father introduced him to the theater at a young age. Henry was heavily influenced by the work of Charles Kingsley, whose ideas trickled down to DeMille. DeMille noted that his mother had a \"high sense of the dramatic\" and was determined to continue the artistic legacy of her husband after he died. Beatrice became a play broker and author's agent, influencing DeMille's early life and career. DeMille's father worked with David Belasco who was a theatrical producer, impresario, and playwright. Belasco was known for adding realistic elements in his plays such as real flowers, food, and aromas that could transport his audiences into the scenes. While working in theatre, DeMille used real fruit trees in his play California, as influenced by Belasco. Similar to Belasco, DeMille's theatre revolved around entertainment rather than artistry. Generally, Belasco's influence of DeMille's career can be seen in DeMille's showmanship and narration. E. H. Sothern's early influence on DeMille's work can be seen in DeMille's perfectionism. DeMille recalled that one of the most influential plays he saw was Hamlet, directed by Sothern.\n\n### Method\n\nDeMille's filmmaking process always began with extensive research. Next, he would work with writers to develop the story that he was envisioning. Then, he would help writers construct a script. Finally, he would leave the script with artists and allow them to create artistic depictions and renderings of each scene. Plot and dialogue were not a strong point of DeMille's films. Consequently, he focused his efforts on his films' visuals. He worked with visual technicians, editors, art directors, costume designers, cinematographers, and set carpenters in order to perfect the visual aspects of his films. With his editor, Anne Bauchens, DeMille used editing techniques to allow the visual images to bring the plot to climax rather than dialogue. DeMille had large and frequent office conferences to discuss and examine all aspects of the working film including story-boards, props, and special effects.\n\nDeMille rarely gave direction to actors; he preferred to \"office-direct\", where he would work with actors in his office, going over characters and reading through scripts. Any problems on the set were often fixed by writers in the office rather than on the set. DeMille did not believe a large movie set was the place to discuss minor character or line issues. DeMille was particularly adept at directing and managing large crowds in his films. Martin Scorsese recalled that DeMille had the skill to maintain control of not only the lead actors in a frame but the many extras in the frame as well. DeMille was adept at directing \"thousands of extras\", and many of his pictures include spectacular set pieces: the toppling of the pagan temple in Samson and Delilah; train wrecks in The Road to Yesterday, Union Pacific and The Greatest Show on Earth; the destruction of an airship in Madam Satan; and the parting of the Red Sea in both versions of The Ten Commandments.\n\nIn his early films, DeMille experimented with photographic light and shade, which created dramatic shadows instead of glare. His specific use of lighting, influenced by his mentor David Belasco, was for the purpose of creating \"striking images\" and heightening \"dramatic situations\". DeMille was unique in using this technique. In addition to his use of volatile and abrupt film editing, his lighting and composition were innovative for the time period as filmmakers were primarily concerned with a clear, realistic image. Another important aspect of DeMille's editing technique was to put the film away for a week or two after an initial edit in order to re-edit the picture with a fresh mind. This allowed for the rapid production of his films in the early years of the Lasky Company. The cuts were sometimes rough, but the movies were always interesting.\n\nDeMille often edited in a manner that favored psychological space rather than physical space through his cuts. In this way, the characters' thoughts and desires are the visual focus rather than the circumstances regarding the physical scene. As DeMille's career progressed, he increasingly relied on artist Dan Sayre Groesbeck's concept, costume, and storyboard art. Groesbeck's art was circulated on set to give actors and crew members a better understanding of DeMille's vision. His art was even shown at Paramount meetings when pitching new films. DeMille adored the art of Groesbeck, even hanging it above his fireplace, but film staff found it difficult to convert his art into three-dimensional sets. As DeMille continued to rely on Groesbeck, the nervous energy of his early films transformed into more steady compositions of his later films. While visually appealing, this made the films appear more old-fashioned.\n\nComposer Elmer Bernstein described DeMille as \"sparing no effort\" when filmmaking. Bernstein recalled that DeMille would scream, yell, or flatter—whatever it took to achieve the perfection he required in his films. DeMille was painstakingly attentive to details on set and was as critical of himself as he was of his crew. Costume designer Dorothy Jeakins, who worked with DeMille on The Ten Commandments (1956), said that he was skilled in humiliating people. Jeakins admitted that she received quality training from him, but that it was necessary to become a perfectionist on a DeMille set to avoid being fired. DeMille had an authoritarian persona on set; he required absolute attention from the cast and crew. He had a band of assistants who catered to his needs. He would speak to the entire set, sometimes enormous with countless numbers of crew members and extras, via a microphone to maintain control of the set. He was disliked by many inside and outside of the film industry for his cold and controlling reputation.\n\nDeMille was known for autocratic behavior on the set, singling out and berating extras who were not paying attention. Many of these displays were thought to be staged, however, as an exercise in discipline. He despised actors who were unwilling to take physical risks, especially when he had first demonstrated that the required stunt would not harm them. This occurred with Victor Mature in Samson and Delilah. Mature refused to wrestle Jackie the Lion, even though DeMille had just tussled with the lion, proving that he was tame. DeMille told the actor that he was \"one hundred percent yellow\". Paulette Goddard's refusal to risk personal injury in a scene involving fire in Unconquered cost her DeMille's favor and a role in The Greatest Show on Earth. DeMille did receive help in his films, notably from Alvin Wyckoff, who shot forty-three of DeMille's films; brother William deMille who would occasionally serve as his screenwriter; and Jeanie Macpherson, who served as DeMille's exclusive screenwriter for fifteen years; and Eddie Salven, DeMille's favorite assistant director.\n\nDeMille made stars of unknown actors: Gloria Swanson, Bebe Daniels, Rod La Rocque, William Boyd, Claudette Colbert, and Charlton Heston. He also cast established stars such as Gary Cooper, Robert Preston, Paulette Goddard and Fredric March in multiple pictures. DeMille cast some of his performers repeatedly, including Henry Wilcoxon, Julia Faye, Joseph Schildkraut, Ian Keith, Charles Bickford, Theodore Roberts, Akim Tamiroff, and William Boyd. DeMille was credited by actor Edward G. Robinson with saving his career following his eclipse in the Hollywood blacklist.\n\n### Style and themes\n\nCecil B. DeMille's film production career evolved from critically significant silent films to financially significant sound films. He began his career with reserved yet brilliant melodramas; from there, his style developed into marital comedies with outrageously melodramatic plots. In order to attract a high-class audience, DeMille based many of his early films on stage melodramas, novels, and short stories. He began the production of epics earlier in his career until they began to solidify his career in the 1920s. By 1930, DeMille had perfected his film style of mass-interest spectacle films with Western, Roman, or Biblical themes. DeMille was often criticized for making his spectacles too colorful and for being too occupied with entertaining the audience rather than accessing the artistic and auteur possibilities that film could provide. However, others interpreted DeMille's work as visually impressive, thrilling, and nostalgic. Along the same lines, critics of DeMille often qualify him by his later spectacles and fail to consider several decades of ingenuity and energy that defined him during his generation. Throughout his career, he did not alter his films to better adhere to contemporary or popular styles. Actor Charlton Heston admitted DeMille was, \"terribly unfashionable\" and Sidney Lumet called DeMille, \"the cheap version of D.W. Griffith\", adding that DeMille, \"[didn't have]...an original thought in his head\", though Heston added that DeMille was much more than that.\n\nAccording to Scott Eyman, DeMille's films were at the same time masculine and feminine due to his thematic adventurousness and his eye for the extravagant. DeMille's distinctive style can be seen through camera and lighting effects as early as The Squaw Man with the use of daydream images; moonlight and sunset on a mountain; and side-lighting through a tent flap. In the early age of cinema, DeMille differentiated the Lasky Company from other production companies due to the use of dramatic, low-key lighting they called \"Lasky lighting\" and marketed as \"Rembrandt lighting\" to appeal to the public. DeMille achieved international recognition for his unique use of lighting and color tint in his film The Cheat. DeMille's 1956 version of The Ten Commandments, according to director Martin Scorsese, is renowned for its level of production and the care and detail that went into creating the film. He stated that The Ten Commandments was the final culmination of DeMille's style.\n\nDeMille was interested in art and his favorite artist was Gustave Doré; DeMille based some of his most well-known scenes on the work of Doré. DeMille was the first director to connect art to filmmaking; he created the title of \"art director\" on the film set. DeMille was also known for his use of special effects without the use of digital technology. Notably, DeMille had cinematographer John P. Fulton create the parting of the Red Sea scene in his 1956 film The Ten Commandments, which was one of the most expensive special effects in film history, and has been called by Steven Spielberg \"the greatest special effect in film history\". The actual parting of the sea was created by releasing 360,000 gallons of water into a huge water tank split by a U-shaped trough, overlaying it with a film of a giant waterfall that was built on the Paramount backlot, and playing the clip backward.\n\nAside from his Biblical and historical epics, which are concerned with how man relates to God, some of DeMille's films contained themes of \"neo-naturalism\", which portray the conflict between the laws of man and the laws of nature. Although he is known for his later \"spectacular\" films, his early films are held in high regard by critics and film historians. DeMille discovered the possibilities of the \"bathroom\" or \"boudoir\" in the film without being \"vulgar\" or \"cheap\". DeMille's films Male and Female, Why Change Your Wife?, and The Affairs of Anatol can be retrospectively described as high camp and are categorized as \"early DeMille films\" due to their particular style of production and costume and set design. However, his earlier films The Captive, Kindling, Carmen, and The Whispering Chorus are more serious films. It is difficult to typify DeMille's films into one specific genre. His first three films were Westerns, and he filmed many Westerns throughout his career. However, throughout his career, he filmed comedies, periodic and contemporary romances, dramas, fantasies, propaganda, Biblical spectacles, musical comedies, suspense, and war films. At least one DeMille film can represent each film genre. DeMille produced the majority of his films before the 1930s, and by the time sound films were invented, film critics saw DeMille as antiquated, with his best filmmaking years behind him.\n\nDeMille's films contained many similar themes throughout his career. However, the films of his silent era were often thematically different from the films of his sound era. His silent-era films often included the \"battle of the sexes\" theme due to the era of women's suffrage and the enlarging role of women in society. Moreover, before his religious-themed films, many of his silent era films revolved around \"husband-and-wife-divorce-and-remarry satires\", considerably more adult-themed. According to Simon Louvish, these films reflected DeMille's inner thoughts and opinions about marriage and human sexuality. Religion was a theme that DeMille returned to throughout his career. Of his seventy films, five revolved around stories of the Bible and the New Testament; however many others, while not direct retellings of Biblical stories, had themes of faith and religious fanaticism in films such as The Crusades and The Road to Yesterday. Western and frontier American were also themes that DeMille returned to throughout his career. His first several films were Westerns, and he produced a chain of westerns during the sound era. Instead of portraying the danger and anarchy of the West, he portrayed the opportunity and redemption found in Western America. Another common theme in DeMille's films is the reversal of fortune and the portrayal of the rich and the poor, including the war of the classes and man versus society conflicts such as in The Golden Chance and The Cheat. In relation to his own interests and sexual preferences, sadomasochism was a minor theme present in some of his films. Another minor characteristic of DeMille's films include train crashes, which can be found in several of his films.\n\n## Legacy\n\nKnown as the father of the Hollywood motion picture industry, Cecil B. DeMille made 70 films including several box-office hits. DeMille is one of the more commercially successful film directors in history, with his films before the release of The Ten Commandments estimated to have grossed \\$650  million worldwide. Adjusted for inflation, DeMille's remake of The Ten Commandments is the eighth highest-grossing film in the world.\n\nAccording to Sam Goldwyn, critics did not like DeMille's films, but the audiences did, and \"they have the final word\". Similarly, scholar David Blanke, argued that DeMille had lost the respect of his colleagues and film critics by his late film career. However, his final films maintained that DeMille was still respected by his audiences. Five of DeMille's films were the highest-grossing films at the year of their release, with only Spielberg topping him with six of his films as the highest-grossing films of the year. DeMille's highest-grossing films include: The Sign of the Cross (1932), Unconquered (1947), Samson and Delilah (1949), The Greatest Show on Earth (1952), and The Ten Commandments (1956). Director Ridley Scott has been called \"the Cecil B. DeMille of the digital era\" due to his classical and medieval epics.\n\nDespite his box-office success, awards, and artistic achievements, DeMille has been dismissed and ignored by critics both during his life and posthumously. He was consistently criticized for producing shallow films without talent or artistic care. Compared to other directors, few film scholars have taken the time to academically analyze his films and style. During the French New Wave, critics began to categorize certain filmmakers as auteurs such as Howard Hawks, John Ford, and Raoul Walsh. DeMille was omitted from the list, thought to be too unsophisticated and antiquated to be considered an auteur. However, Simon Louvish wrote \"he was the complete master and auteur of his films\", and Anton Kozlovic called him the \"unsung American auteur\". Andrew Sarris, a leading proponent of the auteur theory, ranked DeMille highly as an auteur in the \"Far Side of Paradise\", just below the \"Pantheon\". Sarris added that despite the influence of the styles of contemporary directors throughout his career, DeMille's style remained unchanged. Robert Birchard wrote that one could argue the auteurship of DeMille on the basis that DeMille's thematic and visual style remained consistent throughout his career. However, Birchard acknowledged that Sarris's point was more likely that DeMille's style was behind the development of film as an art form. Meanwhile, Sumiko Higashi sees DeMille as \"not only a figure who was shaped and influenced by the forces of his era but as a filmmaker who left his own signature on the culture industry.\" The critic Camille Paglia has called The Ten Commandments one of the ten greatest films of all time.\n\nDeMille was one of the first directors to become a celebrity in his own right. He cultivated the image of the omnipotent director, complete with megaphone, riding crop, and jodhpurs. He was known for his unique working wardrobe, which included riding boots, riding pants, and soft, open necked shirts. Joseph Henabery recalled that DeMille looked like \"a king on a throne surrounded by his court\" while directing films on a camera platform.\n\nDeMille was liked by some of his fellow directors and disliked by others, though his actual films were usually dismissed by his peers as a vapid spectacle. Director John Huston intensely disliked both DeMille and his films. \"He was a thoroughly bad director\", Huston said. \"A dreadful showoff. Terrible. To diseased proportions.\" Said fellow director William Wellman: \"Directorially, I think his pictures were the most horrible things I've ever seen in my life. But he put on pictures that made a fortune. In that respect, he was better than any of us.\" Producer David O. Selznick wrote: \"There has appeared only one Cecil B. DeMille. He is one of the most extraordinarily able showmen of modern times. However much I may dislike some of his pictures, it would be very silly of me, as a producer of commercial motion pictures, to demean for an instant his unparalleled skill as a maker of mass entertainment.\" Salvador Dalí wrote that DeMille, Walt Disney, and the Marx Brothers were \"the three great American Surrealists\". DeMille appeared as himself in numerous films, including the MGM comedy Free and Easy. He often appeared in his coming-attraction trailers and narrated many of his later films, even stepping on screen to introduce The Ten Commandments. DeMille was immortalized in Billy Wilder's Sunset Boulevard when Gloria Swanson spoke the line: \"All right, Mr. DeMille. I'm ready for my close-up.\" DeMille plays himself in the film. DeMille's reputation had a renaissance in the 2010s.\n\nAs a filmmaker, DeMille was the aesthetic inspiration of many directors and films due to his early influence during the crucial development of the film industry. DeMille's early silent comedies influenced the comedies of Ernst Lubitsch and Charlie Chaplin's A Woman of Paris. Additionally, DeMille's epics such as The Crusades influenced Sergei Eisenstein's Alexander Nevsky. Moreover, DeMille's epics inspired directors such as Howard Hawks, Nicholas Ray, Joseph L. Mankiewicz, and George Stevens to try producing epics. Cecil B. DeMille has influenced the work of several well-known directors. Alfred Hitchcock cited DeMille's 1921 film Forbidden Fruit as an influence of his work and one of his top ten favorite films. DeMille has influenced the careers of many modern directors. Martin Scorsese cited Unconquered, Samson and Delilah, and The Greatest Show on Earth as DeMille films that have imparted lasting memories on him. Scorsese said he had viewed The Ten Commandments forty or fifty times. Famed director Steven Spielberg stated that DeMille's The Greatest Show on Earth was one of the films that influenced him to become a filmmaker. Furthermore, DeMille influenced about half of Spielberg's films, including War of the Worlds. The Ten Commandments inspired DreamWorks Animation's later film about Moses, The Prince of Egypt. As one of the establishing members of Paramount Pictures and co-founder of Hollywood, DeMille had a role in the development of the film industry. Consequently, the name \"DeMille\" has become synonymous with filmmaking.\n\nPublicly Episcopalian, DeMille drew on his Christian and Jewish ancestors to convey a message of tolerance. DeMille received more than a dozen awards from Christian and Jewish religious and cultural groups, including B'nai B'rith. However, not everyone received DeMille's religious films favorably. DeMille was accused of antisemitism after the release of The King of Kings, and director John Ford despised DeMille for what he saw as \"hollow\" biblical epics meant to promote DeMille's reputation during the politically turbulent 1950s. In response to the claims, DeMille donated some of the profits from The King of Kings to charity. In the 2012 Sight & Sound poll, both DeMille's Samson and Delilah and 1923 version of The Ten Commandments received votes, but did not make the top 100 films. Although many of DeMille's films are available on DVD and Blu-ray release, only 20 of his silent films are commercially available on DVD\n\n### Commemoration and tributes\n\nThe original Lasky-DeMille Barn in which The Squaw Man was filmed was converted into a museum named the \"Hollywood Heritage Museum\". It opened on December 13, 1985, and features some of DeMille's personal artifacts. The Lasky-DeMille Barn was dedicated as a California historical landmark in a ceremony on December 27, 1956; DeMille was the keynote speaker. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014. The Dunes Center in Guadalupe, California, contains an exhibition of artifacts uncovered in the desert near Guadalupe from DeMille's set of his 1923 version of The Ten Commandments, known as the \"Lost City of Cecil B. DeMille\". Donated by the Cecil B. DeMille Foundation in 2004, the moving image collection of Cecil B. DeMille is held at the Academy Film Archive and includes home movies, outtakes, and never-before-seen test footage.\n\nIn summer 2019, The Friends of the Pompton Lakes Library hosted a Cecil B DeMille film festival to celebrate DeMille's achievements and connection to Pompton Lakes. They screened four of his films at Christ Church, where DeMille and his family attended church when they lived there. Two schools have been named after him: Cecil B. DeMille Middle School, in Long Beach, California, which was closed and demolished in 2010 to make way for a new high school; and Cecil B. DeMille Elementary School in Midway City, California. The former film building at Chapman University in Orange, California, is named in honor of DeMille. During the Apollo 11 mission, Buzz Aldrin referred to himself in one instance as \"Cecil B. DeAldrin\", as a humorous nod to DeMille. The title of the 2000 John Waters film Cecil B. Demented alludes to DeMille.\n\nDeMille's legacy is maintained by his granddaughter Cecilia DeMille Presley who serves as the president of the Cecil B. DeMille Foundation, which strives to support higher education, child welfare, and film in Southern California. In 1963, the Cecil B. DeMille Foundation donated the \"Paradise\" ranch to the Hathaway Foundation, which cares for emotionally disturbed and abused children. A large collection of DeMille's materials including scripts, storyboards, and films resides at Brigham Young University in L. Tom Perry Special Collections.\n\n## Awards and recognition\n\nCecil B. DeMille received many awards and honors, especially later in his career. The American Academy of Dramatic Arts honored DeMille with an Alumni Achievement Award in 1958. In 1957, DeMille gave the commencement address for the graduation ceremony of Brigham Young University wherein he received an honorary Doctorate of Letter degree. Additionally, in 1958, he received an honorary Doctorate of Law degree from Temple University. From the film industry, DeMille received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the Academy Awards in 1953, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Directors Guild of America Award the same year. In the same ceremony, DeMille received a nomination from Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures for The Greatest Show on Earth. In 1952, DeMille was awarded the first Cecil B. DeMille Award at the Golden Globes. An annual award, the Golden Globe's Cecil B. DeMille Award recognizes lifetime achievement in the film industry. For his contribution to the motion picture and radio industry, DeMille has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The first, for radio contributions, is located at 6240 Hollywood Blvd. The second star is located at 1725 Vine Street.\n\nDeMille received two Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"37 years of brilliant showmanship\" in 1950 and a Best Picture award in 1953 for The Greatest Show on Earth. DeMille received a Golden Globe Award for Best Director and was additionally nominated for the Best Director category at the 1953 Academy Awards for the same film. He was further nominated in the Best Picture category for The Ten Commandments at the 1957 Academy Awards. DeMille's Union Pacific received a Palme d'Or in retrospect at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.\n\nTwo of DeMille's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: The Cheat (1915) and The Ten Commandments (1956).\n\n## Filmography\n\nCecil B. DeMille made 70 features. 52 of his features are silent films. The first 24 of his silent films were made in the first three years of his career (1913–1916). Eight of his films were \"epics\" with five of those classified as \"Biblical\". Six of DeMille's films—The Arab, The Wild Goose Chase, The Dream Girl, The Devil-Stone, We Can't Have Everything, and The Squaw Man (1918)—were destroyed due to nitrate decomposition, and are considered lost. The Ten Commandments is broadcast every Saturday at Passover in the United States on the ABC Television Network.\n\n### Directed features\n\nFilmography obtained from Fifty Hollywood Directors.\n\nSilent films\n\nSound films\n\n### Directing or producing credit\n\nThese films represent those which DeMille produced or assisted in directing, credited or uncredited.\n\n- Brewster's Millions (1914, lost)\n- The Master Mind (1914)\n- The Only Son (1914, lost)\n- The Man on the Box (1914)\n- The Ghost Breaker (1914, lost)\n- After Five (1915)\n- Nan of Music Mountain (1917)\n- Chicago (1927, Producer)\n- When Worlds Collide (1951, executive producer)\n- The War of the Worlds (1953, executive producer)\n- The Buccaneer (1958, producer)\n\n### Acting and cameos\n\nDeMille frequently made cameos as himself in other Paramount films. Additionally, he often starred in prologues and special trailers that he created for his films, having an opportunity to personally address the audience.\n\n## Explanatory notes\n\n## General sources", "revid": "1173477915", "description": "American film director, producer and actor (1881–1959)", "categories": ["1881 births", "1959 deaths", "20th-century American dramatists and playwrights", "20th-century American male actors", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American memoirists", "20th-century American screenwriters", "Academy Honorary Award recipients", "American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni", "American Episcopalians", "American Freemasons", "American anti-communists", "American film editors", "American male dramatists and playwrights", "American male film actors", "American male screenwriters", "American male stage actors", "American people of Belgian descent", "American people of British-Jewish descent", "American people of Dutch descent", "American people of English descent", "American people of German-Jewish descent", "American radio directors", "American radio personalities", "American radio producers", "American theatre directors", "American theatre managers and producers", "Articles containing video clips", "Best Director Golden Globe winners", "Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery", "California Republicans", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "DeMille family", "Directors of Palme d'Or winners", "Episcopalians from Massachusetts", "Film directors from Massachusetts", "Film directors from New Jersey", "Film directors from North Carolina", "Film producers from Massachusetts", "Film producers from New Jersey", "Golden Globe Award-winning producers", "Harold B. Lee Library-related film articles", "Members of The Lambs Club", "Old Right (United States)", "People from Ashfield, Massachusetts", "People from Los Feliz, Los Angeles", "People from Pompton Lakes, New Jersey", "People from Washington, North Carolina", "Producers who won the Best Picture Academy Award", "Recipients of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award", "Screenwriters from Massachusetts", "Screenwriters from New Jersey", "Screenwriters from North Carolina", "Silent film directors", "Special effects people", "Western (genre) film directors", "Widener University alumni"]}
{"id": "173294", "url": null, "title": "Darren Aronofsky", "text": "Darren Aronofsky (born February 12, 1969) is an American filmmaker. His films are noted for their surreal, melodramatic, and often disturbing elements, frequently in the form of psychological fiction.\n\nAronofsky studied film and social anthropology at Harvard University before studying directing at the AFI Conservatory. He won several film awards after completing his senior thesis film, Supermarket Sweep, which became a National Student Academy Award finalist. In 1997, he founded the film and TV production company Protozoa Pictures. His feature film debut, the surrealist psychological thriller Pi (1998), was produced for \\$60,000 and grossed over \\$3 million; it won Aronofsky the Directing Award at the Sundance Film Festival and an Independent Spirit Award for Best First Screenplay. Aronofsky's follow-up, the psychological drama Requiem for a Dream (2000), garnered strong reviews and received an Academy Award nomination for Ellen Burstyn's performance.\n\nAfter writing the World War II horror film Below (2002), Aronofsky released his third film, the romantic fantasy sci-fi drama The Fountain (2006). It received mixed reviews and performed poorly at the box-office, but has since garnered a cult following. His fourth film, the sports drama The Wrestler (2008), was released to critical acclaim; both of the film's stars, Mickey Rourke and Marisa Tomei, received Academy Award nominations. His fifth film, the psychological horror Black Swan (2010), received further acclaim and many accolades, with five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director, and a Best Actress win for Natalie Portman. His sixth feature film, the biblically inspired epic Noah (2014), became his first film to open at No. 1 at the box office despite its mixed reception from critics and audiences. His seventh and eighth films, mother! (2017) and The Whale (2022), sparked controversy and received both widespread praise and criticism.\n\n## Early life\n\nAronofsky was born in the Brooklyn borough of New York City on February 12, 1969, the son of teachers Charlotte and Abraham Aronofsky. He grew up in Brooklyn's Manhattan Beach neighborhood. He said he was \"raised culturally Jewish, but there was very little spiritual attendance in the temple. It was a cultural thing—celebrating the holidays, knowing where you came from, knowing your history, having respect for what your people have been through.\" He graduated from Edward R. Murrow High School. He has one sister, Patti, who attended a professional ballet school through high school. His parents would often take him to Broadway performances, which sparked his interest in show business.\n\nDuring his youth, Aronofsky trained as a field biologist with The School for Field Studies in Kenya in 1985 and Alaska in 1986. He attended school in Kenya to pursue an interest in learning about ungulates. He later said that the School for Field Studies \"changed the way [he] perceived the world\". Aronofsky's interest in the outdoors led him to backpack his way through Europe and the Middle East. At the age of 18, he entered Harvard University, where he majored in social anthropology and studied filmmaking; he graduated in 1991. He became seriously interested in film while attending Harvard after befriending Dan Schrecker, an aspiring animator, and Sean Gullette, who would go on to star in Aronofsky's first film, Pi. His cinematic influences included Akira Kurosawa, Roman Polanski, Terry Gilliam, Shinya Tsukamoto, Hubert Selby Jr. Spike Lee, Satoshi Kon, and Jim Jarmusch.\n\nAronofsky's senior thesis film, Supermarket Sweep, was a finalist in the 1991 Student Academy Awards. In 1992, Aronofsky received his MFA degree in directing from the AFI Conservatory, where his classmates included Todd Field, Doug Ellin, Scott Silver, and Mark Waters. He won the institute's Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal.\n\n## Career\n\n### Early work\n\nAronofsky's debut feature, titled Pi—sometimes stylized as π—was shot in October 1997. The film was financed in part from \\$100 donations from his friends and family. In return, he promised to pay each back \\$150 if the film made money, and they would at least get screen credit if the film lost money. Producing the film with an initial budget of \\$60,000, Aronofsky premiered Pi at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival, where he won the Best Director award. The film itself was nominated for a special Jury Award. Artisan Entertainment bought distribution rights for \\$1 million. The film was released to the public later that year to critical acclaim and it grossed a total of \\$3,221,152 at the box-office. Pi was the first film to be made available for download on the Internet.\n\nAronofsky followed his debut with Requiem for a Dream, a film based on Hubert Selby Jr.'s novel of the same name. He was paid \\$50,000, and worked for three years with nearly the same production team as his previous film. Following the financial breakout of Pi, he was capable of hiring established actors, including Ellen Burstyn and Jared Leto, and received a budget of \\$3,500,000 to produce the film. Production of the film occurred over the period of one year, with the film being released in October 2000. The film went on to gross \\$7,390,108 worldwide. Aronofsky received acclaim for his stylish direction, and was nominated for another Independent Spirit Award, this time for Best Director. The film itself was nominated for five awards in total, winning two, for Best Actress and Cinematography. Clint Mansell's soundtrack for the film was also well-regarded, and since their first collaboration in 1996, Mansell has composed the music to every Aronofsky film (except for Mother!, 2017 and The Whale, 2022). Ellen Burstyn was nominated for numerous awards, including for an Academy Award for Best Actress, and won the Independent Spirit Award. Aronofsky was awarded the PRISM Award from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation with the National Institute on Drug Abuse for the film's depiction of drug abuse.\n\nIn May 2000, Aronofsky was briefly attached to make an adaptation of David Wiesner's 1999 children's book Sector 7 for Nickelodeon Movies, the project remains unmade. In mid-2000, Warner Bros. hired Aronofsky to write and direct Batman: Year One, which was to be the fifth film in the Batman franchise. Aronofsky, who collaborated with Frank Miller on an unproduced script for Ronin, brought Miller to co-write Year One with him, intending to reboot the series. \"It's somewhat based on the comic book\", Aronofsky later said. \"Toss out everything you can imagine about Batman! Everything! We're starting completely anew\", who intended to re-imagine the titular character in a darker, adult-oriented and grounded style, with his adaptation aiming for an R-rating. Regular Aronofsky collaborator Matthew Libatique was set as cinematographer, and Aronofsky had also approached Christian Bale for the role of Batman. Bale was ultimately cast in the role for Batman Begins. After that project failed to develop, Aronofsky declined the opportunity to direct a film in the Batman franchise. In March 2001, he helped write the screenplay to the horror film Below, which he also produced.\n\nIn April 2001, Aronofsky entered negotiations with Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow to direct a then-untitled science fiction film, with Brad Pitt in the lead role. In June 2001, actress Cate Blanchett entered talks to join the film, which Aronofsky, wanting the title to remain secret, had given the working title of The Last Man. Production was postponed to wait for a pregnant Blanchett to give birth to her child in December 2001. Production was ultimately set for late October 2002 in Queensland and Sydney.\n\nBy now officially titled The Fountain, the film had a budget of \\$70 million, co-financed by Warner Bros. and New Regency, which had filled the gap after Village Roadshow withdrew. Pitt left the project seven weeks before the first day of shooting, halting production. In February 2004, Warner Bros. resurrected it on a \\$35 million budget with Hugh Jackman in the lead role. In August, actress Rachel Weisz filled the vacancy left by Blanchett. The Fountain was released on November 22, 2006, a day before the American Thanksgiving holiday; ultimately it grossed \\$15,978,422 in theaters worldwide. Audiences and critics were divided in their responses to it.\n\n### Breakthrough\n\nIn 2007, Aronofsky hired writer Scott Silver to develop The Fighter with him. Aronofsky approached Bale to star in the film, but Aronofsky dropped out because of its similarities to The Wrestler and to work on MGM's RoboCop remake. In July 2010, Aronofsky had left the project due to uncertainty over the financially distressed studio's future. When asked about the film, he said, \"I think I'm still attached. I don't know. I haven't heard from anyone in a while\". Later during 2007, Aronofsky said he was planning to film a movie about Noah's Ark.\n\nAronofsky had the idea for The Wrestler for over a decade. He hired Robert Siegel to turn his idea into a script. The actor Nicolas Cage entered negotiations in October 2007 to star as Randy, the film's protagonist. The following month Cage left the project, and Mickey Rourke replaced him in the lead role. Aronofsky said that Cage pulled out of the movie because Aronofsky wanted Rourke to star; Aronofsky said, stating that Cage was \"a complete gentleman, and he understood that my heart was with Mickey and he stepped aside. I have so much respect for Nic Cage as an actor and I think it really could have worked with Nic but, you know, Nic was incredibly supportive of Mickey and he is old friends with Mickey and really wanted to help with this opportunity, so he pulled himself out of the race.\" Cage responded, \"I wasn't quote 'dropped' from the movie. I resigned from the movie because I didn't think I had enough time to achieve the look of the wrestler who was on steroids, which I would never do\". The roughly 40-day shoot began in January 2008.\n\nThe Wrestler premiered at the 65th Venice International Film Festival. Initially receiving little attention, the film wound up winning the Golden Lion, the highest award at the world's oldest film festival. The Wrestler received critical acclaim, and both Rourke and co-star Marisa Tomei received Academy Award, Golden Globe, SAG, and BAFTA nominations for their performances. Rourke won a Golden Globe, as did Bruce Springsteen for his original song written for the film. The Wrestler grossed \\$44,674,354 worldwide on a budget of \\$6,000,000 making it Aronofsky's highest-grossing film to that point.\n\nAronofsky's next film was Black Swan, which had been in development since 2001, a psychological thriller horror film about a New York City ballerina. The film starred actress Natalie Portman, whom Aronofsky had known since 2000. She introduced Aronofsky to Mila Kunis, who joined the cast in 2009. Black Swan had its world premiere as the opening film at the 67th Venice Film Festival in September 2010. It received a standing ovation whose length Variety said made it \"one of the strongest Venice openers in recent memory\".\n\nBlack Swan has received high praise from film critics, and received a record 12 Broadcast Film Critics Association nominations, four Independent Spirit Award nominations, four Golden Globe nominations, three SAG nominations, and many more accolades. Aronofsky received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Director. The film broke limited-release box-office records and grossed an unexpectedly high \\$329,398,046. On January 25, 2011, the film was nominated for a total of five Academy Awards; Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress, Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing. On February 27, 2011, Portman won for Best Actress. The film was awarded the PRISM Award from the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration for its depiction of mental health issues. Aronofsky served as an executive producer on The Fighter, which was also nominated for Best Picture at the Oscars and won two for Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress for Christian Bale and Melissa Leo.\n\n### Larger-budget productions\n\nAronofsky was attached to The Wolverine, which was scheduled to begin production in March 2011, but he left the project due to scheduling issues. The film was set to be sixth entry of the X-Men film series, featuring a story revolving around Wolverine's adventures in Japan. In April 2011, Aronofsky was announced as the President of the Jury for the 68th Venice International Film Festival.\n\nIn December 2011, Aronofsky directed the music video for Lou Reed and Metallica's \"The View\" from their album Lulu.\n\nAronofsky was set to direct an HBO series pilot called Hobgoblin. Announced on June 16, 2011, the series would have depicted a group of magicians and con artists who use their powers of deception to defeat Hitler during World War II. He was set to work on the project with Pulitzer Prize winning author Michael Chabon and his wife Ayelet Waldman. In June 2013, it was announced that HBO had dropped the show and Aronofsky had pulled out, as well.\n\nIn 2011, Aronofsky tried to launch production on Noah, a retelling of the Bible story of Noah's Ark, projected for a \\$115 million budget. By the following year, the film had secured funding and distribution from New Regency and Paramount Pictures, with Russell Crowe hired for the title role. The film was adapted into a serialized graphic novel written by Aronofsky and Ari Handel, published in French in October 2011 by the Belgian publisher Le Lombard. By July 2012, Aronofsky's crews were building an ark set in Oyster Bay, New York. Aronofsky announced the start of filming on Noah on Twitter in the same month, tweeting shots of the filming in Iceland. The film featured Emma Watson, Anthony Hopkins, Logan Lerman, and Jennifer Connelly, with the latter having also starred in Requiem for a Dream. During its opening weekend, Noah held the largest non-sequel opening within Russia and Brazil, and the fourth-largest opening of all time. Aronofsky did not use live animals for the film, saying in a PETA video that \"there's really no reason to do it anymore because the technology has arrived\". The Humane Society of the United States gave him their inaugural Humane Filmmaker Award in honor of his use of computer-generated animals. That same year, he was announced as the President of the Jury for the 65th Berlin International Film Festival for February 2015.\n\nAronofsky's next film, mother!, was released by Paramount Pictures on September 15, 2017. It stars Jennifer Lawrence, Javier Bardem, Michelle Pfeiffer, Domhnall Gleeson, Ed Harris and Kristen Wiig. The film sparked controversy upon release for its depiction of violence, and, though it received generally positive reviews, it polarized audiences, becoming one of few films to receive a \"F\" CinemaScore grade. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 68% based on 278 reviews, and an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"There's no denying that mother! is the thought-provoking product of a singularly ambitious artistic vision, though it may be too unwieldy for mainstream tastes.\"\n\nHis next film would be \"A courtroom drama of Artificial intelligence\", in which he would cooperate again with Paramount Pictures, having doing so in mother!. In 2018, he was the co-executive producer of SPHERES, a virtual reality journey through the universe, that was acquired in a seven figure deal at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival.\n\nIn January 2021, his next film was announced to be The Whale, a film adaptation of Samuel D. Hunter's play of the same name, starring Brendan Fraser. The Whale had its world premiere at the 79th Venice International Film Festival on September 4, 2022, where it received a six-minute standing ovation. Fraser's performance was highly praised and won him the Academy Award for Best Actor.\n\n### Nonfiction work\n\nIn 2018, Aronofsky executive produced One Strange Rock for NatGeo. This 10-part cinematic event series explores the fragility and wonder of planet Earth—one of the most peculiar, unique places in the universe. Host Will Smith guides viewers on an unprecedented exploration, bolstered by an elite group of eight astronauts who provide unique perspectives and relate personal memoirs of the planet seen from a distance. Hourlong episodes delve into monumental events such as genesis, cosmic violence, human intelligence and alien life, oxygen, and survival vs. destruction. The series is now available on Disney Plus. A second season, titled Welcome to Earth is currently in production and expected to premiere this year. Aronofsky is also producing Limitless for NatGeo. This upcoming series features Chris Hemsworth as it delves into the science of longevity and how to live better and longer.\n\nIn 2020, Aronofsky produced director Lance Oppenheim's debut feature documentary, Some Kind of Heaven. Set in The Villages retirement community in Florida, the film follows four residents who struggle to fit into the community's prepackaged paradise. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival before being released by Magnolia Pictures in 2021.\n\n## Directing style\n\nAronofsky's first two films, Pi and Requiem for a Dream, were low budget and used montages of extremely short shots, also known as hip hop montages. While an average 100-minute film has 600 to 700 cuts, Requiem for a Dream features more than 2,000. Split-screen is used extensively, along with extremely tight closeups. Long tracking shots, including those shot with an apparatus strapping a camera to an actor, called the Snorricam, and time-lapse photography are also prominent stylistic devices. Often with his films, Aronofsky alternates between extreme closeups and extreme wide shots to create a sense of isolation.\n\nWith The Fountain, Aronofsky restricted the use of computer-generated imagery. Henrik Fett, the visual effects supervisor of Look Effects, said, \"Darren was quite clear on what he wanted and his intent to greatly minimize the use of computer graphics ... and I think the results are outstanding.\" He used more subtle directing in The Wrestler and Black Swan, in which a less-visceral directing style better showcases the acting and narratives. Aronofsky filmed both works with a muted palette and a grainy style. Part of this consistent style involves collaborations with frequent partners cinematographer Matthew Libatique, editor Andrew Weisblum and composer Clint Mansell. Mansell's music is often an important element of the films.\n\n### Themes and influences\n\nPi features several references to mathematics and mathematical theories. In a 1998 interview, Aronofsky acknowledged several influences for Pi: \"I'm a big fan of Kurosawa and Fellini. In this film in particular I think there's a lot of Roman Polanski influence and Terry Gilliam influence as well as a Japanese director named Shinya Tsukamoto—he directed The Iron Man, Tetsuo.\" The visual style of Pi and Requiem for a Dream features numerous similarities to Tetsuo: The Iron Man.\n\nThe majority of reviewers characterized Requiem for a Dream in the genre of \"drug movies\", along with films like The Basketball Diaries, Trainspotting, Spun, and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. But, Aronofsky placed his movie in a wider context, saying:\n\n> Requiem for a Dream is not about heroin or about drugs ... The Harry-Tyrone-Marion story is a very traditional heroin story. But putting it side by side with the Sara story, we suddenly say, 'Oh, my God, what is a drug?' The idea that the same inner monologue goes through a person's head when they're trying to quit drugs, as with cigarettes, as when they're trying to not eat food so they can lose 20 pounds, was really fascinating to me. I thought it was an idea that we hadn't seen on film and I wanted to bring it up on the screen.\n\nDream logic is another leitmotif.\n\nWith his friend Ari Handel, Aronofsky developed the plot for The Fountain; the director wrote the screenplay. In 1999, Aronofsky thought that The Matrix redefined the science fiction genre in film. He sought to make a science fiction film that explored new territory, as did The Matrix and its predecessors Star Wars and 2001: A Space Odyssey. He wanted to go beyond science fiction films with plots driven by technology and science.\n\nIn the Toronto International Film Festival interview conducted by James Rocchi, Aronofsky credited the 1957 Charles Mingus song \"The Clown\" as a major influence on The Wrestler. It is an instrumental piece, with a poem read over the music about a clown who accidentally discovers the bloodlust of the crowds and eventually kills himself in performance.\n\nAronofsky called Black Swan a companion piece to The Wrestler, recalling one of his early projects about a love affair between a wrestler and a ballerina. He eventually separated the wrestling and the ballet worlds, considering them as \"too much for one movie\". He compared the two films: \"Wrestling some consider the lowest art—if they would even call it art—and ballet some people consider the highest art. But what was amazing to me was how similar the performers in both of these worlds are. They both make incredible use of their bodies to express themselves.\" About the psychological thriller nature of Black Swan, actress Natalie Portman compared the film's tone to Polanski's 1968 film Rosemary's Baby, while Aronofsky said Polanski's Repulsion (1965) and The Tenant (1976) were \"big influences\" on the final film. Actor Vincent Cassel also compared Black Swan to Polanski's early films, commenting that it was also influenced by Alejandro Jodorowsky's movies and David Cronenberg's early work.\n\nAronofsky has also mentioned that he \"learned a lot\" from Jean-Luc Godard's film Breathless.\n\n## Reception to films\n\nRequiem for a Dream was originally set for release in 2000, but it was met with controversy in the United States, being rated NC-17 by the MPAA due to a graphic sex scene. Aronofsky appealed the rating, claiming that cutting any portion of the film would dilute its message. The appeal was denied and the film's distributor Artisan Entertainment decided to release the film unrated.\n\nThe question of who had designed 40 ballet costumes for Portman and the dancers in Black Swan was one publicized controversy related to the film. The media gave substantial coverage to the dance double controversy: how much credit for the dancing in the film was being given to Portman and how much to her \"dance double\", Sarah Lane, an American Ballet Theatre soloist. Lane claimed to have danced more than she was credited. The director and Fox Searchlight disputed Lane's claim. Their released statements said, \"We were fortunate to have Sarah there to cover the more complicated dance sequences and we have nothing but praise for the hard work she did. However, Natalie herself did most of the dancing featured in the final film.\"\n\nAronofsky said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly:\n\n> I had my editor count shots. There are 140 dance shots in the film. 111 are Natalie Portman untouched. 28 are her dance double Sarah Lane. If you do the math, that's 80% Natalie Portman. What about duration? The shots that feature the double are wide shots and rarely play for longer than one second. There are two complicated longer dance sequences that we used face replacement. Even so, if we were judging by time, over 90% would be Natalie Portman. And to be clear, Natalie did dance en pointe in pointe shoes. If you look at the final shot of the opening prologue, which lasts 85 seconds, and was danced completely by Natalie, she exits the scene on pointe. That is completely her without any digital magic.\n\nWhile Aronofsky's other movies have evoked significant emotional response, they were surpassed by the controversy aroused by Noah. It was screened for the first time on March 28, 2014, and despite its PG-13 rating, it has quickly been recognized by Box Office Mojo as one of the most controversial movies of the last 35 years along with such titles as The Passion of the Christ or The Da Vinci Code. Noah has been banned in United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Indonesia on religious grounds with other countries following suit.\n\nAronofsky's films have also been criticized for content and casting. His seventh film mother! (2017) sparked controversy upon release due to its graphic and disturbing content, polarizing both critics and audiences. His eighth film The Whale (2022) also received controversy for lead star Brendan Fraser wearing a prosthetic suit; and for casting the heterosexual Fraser as a homosexual character. Some critics labeled the film's messaging relating to its lead character's obesity as fatphobic. In preparing for the role, Fraser consulted the Obesity Action Coalition (OAC) and conversed with members of the group about their life experiences. The OAC recognized the controversial use of prosthetics in portraying obesity, but the organization supported its role in the film because it helped \"realistically portray one person's story with obesity, something rarely seen in media\" rather than existing to \"demean or ridicule\".\n\n## Environmental activism\n\nAronofsky is known for his environmental activism. A number of his films, notably Noah and mother!, can be read as environmental parables. In 2014 he traveled to the Alberta Tar Sands with the Sierra Club's Michael Brune and Leonardo DiCaprio. In 2015, he traveled to Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge with Brune, Keri Russell, and the leaders of several veterans groups.\n\nIn 2014, he received the Humane Filmmaker Award from the Humane Society of the United States.\n\nIn 2015, he collaborated with the artist JR on The Standing March, a public art installation in Paris encouraging diplomats at COP21 to take action against climate change.\n\nHe coproduced the 2022 documentary The Territory about a Brazilian rainforest tribe's fight to protect its existence from encroaching land grabbers.\n\nHe is a board member of the Sierra Club Foundation and The School for Field Studies.\n\n## Personal life\n\nAronofsky began dating English actress Rachel Weisz in 2001, and they were engaged in 2005. They lived in Manhattan's East Village and had a son on May 31, 2006. Noted mohel Philip Sherman performed their son's brit milah. In November 2010, they announced that they had been separated for months but were raising their son together.\n\nIn September 2016, he began dating American actress Jennifer Lawrence, whom he met during the filming of mother!. The relationship ended in November 2017.\n\nSince 2018, he has been dating Russian actress Aglaya Tarasova.\n\nAronofsky said of his spiritual beliefs in 2014, \"I think I definitely believe. My biggest expression of what I believe is in The Fountain.\" In 2022, he said, \"I do TM [Transcendental Meditation] and I love it. It's a really helpful exercise.\"\n\n## Filmography\n\n### Feature films\n\n### Student short films\n\nProducer only\n\n- Jackie (2016)\n- Aftermath (2017)\n- White Boy Rick (2018)\n- Some Kind of Heaven (2020)\n- Catch the Fair One (2021)\n- The Territory (2022)\n- The Good Nurse (2022)\n\nExecutive producer\n\n- The Fighter (2010)\n- Zipper (2015)\n- Serendipity (2020)\n- Limitless with Chris Hemsworth (2022)\n\n### Other productions\n\n## Accolades\n\nDirected Academy Award performances\n\nAronofsky has directed multiple Oscar nominated performances.\n\n## See also\n\n- Darren Aronofsky's unrealized projects", "revid": "1173802862", "description": "American filmmaker", "categories": ["1969 births", "20th-century American Jews", "20th-century American male writers", "20th-century American screenwriters", "21st-century American Jews", "21st-century American male writers", "21st-century American screenwriters", "AFI Conservatory alumni", "Activists from New York City", "American film directors", "American film producers", "American male screenwriters", "American music video directors", "American television producers", "Camp Rising Sun alumni", "Darren Aronofsky", "Directors of Golden Lion winners", "Edward R. Murrow High School alumni", "Film directors from New York City", "Film producers from New York (state)", "Harvard College alumni", "Horror film directors", "Independent Spirit Award for Best Director winners", "Independent Spirit Award winners", "Jewish American film directors", "Jewish American film producers", "Jewish American screenwriters", "Jewish American writers", "Living people", "People from Manhattan Beach, Brooklyn", "People from the East Village, Manhattan", "Postmodernist filmmakers", "Screenwriters from New York (state)", "Sierra Club people", "Television producers from New York (state)", "Television producers from New York City", "Writers from Brooklyn"]}
{"id": "179516", "url": null, "title": "Battle of Milne Bay", "text": "The Battle of Milne Bay (25 August – 7 September 1942), also known as Operation RE or the Battle of Rabi (ラビの戦い) by the Japanese, was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II. Japanese marines, known as Kaigun Tokubetsu Rikusentai (Special Naval Landing Forces), with two small tanks attacked the Allied airfields at Milne Bay that had been established on the eastern tip of New Guinea. Due to poor intelligence work, the Japanese miscalculated the size of the predominantly Australian garrison and, believing that the airfields were defended by only two or three companies, initially landed a force roughly equivalent in size to one battalion on 25 August 1942. The Allies, forewarned by intelligence from Ultra, had heavily reinforced the garrison.\n\nDespite suffering a significant setback at the outset, when part of their small invasion force had its landing craft destroyed by Royal Australian Air Force aircraft as they attempted to land on the coast behind the Australian defenders, the Japanese quickly pushed inland and began their advance towards the airfields. Heavy fighting followed as they encountered the Australian Militia troops that formed the first line of defence. These troops were steadily pushed back, but the Australians brought forward veteran Second Australian Imperial Force units that the Japanese had not expected. Allied air superiority helped tip the balance, providing close support to troops in combat and targeting Japanese logistics. Finding themselves heavily outnumbered, lacking supplies and suffering heavy casualties, the Japanese withdrew their forces, with fighting coming to an end on 7 September 1942.\n\nThe battle is often described as the first major battle of the war in the Pacific in which Allied troops decisively defeated Japanese land forces. Although Japanese land forces had experienced local setbacks elsewhere in the Pacific earlier in the war, unlike at Milne Bay, these earlier actions had not forced them to withdraw completely and abandon their strategic objective. Nor did they have such a profound impact upon the thoughts and perceptions of the Allies towards the Japanese, and their prospects for victory. Milne Bay showed the limits of Japanese capability to expand using relatively small forces in the face of increasingly larger Allied troop concentrations and command of the air. As a result of the battle, Allied morale was boosted and Milne Bay was developed into a major Allied base, which was used to mount subsequent operations in the region.\n\n## Background\n\n### Geography\n\nMilne Bay is a sheltered 97-square-mile (250 km<sup>2</sup>) bay at the eastern tip of the Territory of Papua (now part of Papua New Guinea). It is 22 miles (35 km) long and 10 miles (16 km) wide, and is deep enough for large ships to enter. The coastal area is flat with good aerial approaches, and therefore suitable for airstrips, although it is intercut by many tributaries of rivers and mangrove swamps. Owing to the swampy lands and high rainfall, about 200 inches (5,100 mm) per year, the area is prone to malaria and flooding. After floods, the coastal plains become \"virtually impassable quagmires of glutinous mud\", and the ground is not suited for development. The bay is bounded to its north and south by the Stirling Ranges, which at points rise to 3,000–5,000 feet (910–1,520 m) and are covered in Kunai grass and dense scrubland. The main area of firm ground suitable for construction and development is found directly at the head of the bay. In 1942 this area was occupied by plantations of palm oil, coconuts and cocoa, as well as a number of jetties and villages, connected by what was described by Major Sydney Elliott-Smith of the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit (ANGAU) as a \"modest 'road' system\" that was, in actuality, only a dirt track 10–12 metres (33–39 ft) wide. The area was sparsely populated, although there were a number of villages along the track. Ahioma was situated the farthest east, and together with Gili Gili in the west, it bounded Lilihoa, Waga Waga, Goroni, KB Mission, Rabi and Kilarbo.\n\n### Military situation\n\nThe Japanese thrust into the Pacific region had begun in early December 1941 with attacks against British and Commonwealth forces in the Battle of Hong Kong and the Malayan campaign, and against the US Pacific Fleet, much of which was caught at anchor in Pearl Harbor. They rapidly advanced south, overwhelming resistance in Malaya, capturing Singapore in February 1942, and successfully occupying Timor, Rabaul and the Dutch East Indies. While a Japanese naval operation aimed at capturing Port Moresby was defeated in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May, elsewhere American forces in the Philippines capitulated, and Japanese forces advanced towards India through Burma.\n\nAlthough the Japanese had been defeated in the Coral Sea, another attempt at capturing Port Moresby was anticipated. The Allied Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific Area, General Douglas MacArthur, decided to establish airbases to protect Port Moresby. To the west, he authorised the construction of an airbase at Merauke in Netherlands New Guinea. Another, codenamed \"Boston\" was authorised to the east in the largely unexplored Abau–Mullins Harbour area on 20 May. Any Japanese force approaching Port Moresby by sea would have to sail past these bases, allowing them to be detected and attacked earlier; but the base in the east had other advantages too. Bombers flying missions to Rabaul and other Japanese bases to the north from there would not have to overfly the Owen Stanley Range, and would not be subject to the vagaries of the weather and air turbulence over the mountains. For that reason, an airstrip suitable for heavy bombers was desired so that they could stage there from Port Moresby and bases in northern Australia.\n\nThe Commander in Chief of Allied Land Forces, General Sir Thomas Blamey, selected a garrison for Boston on 24 May. The troops were informed that their mission was only to defend against Japanese raids, and in the event of a major attack they would destroy everything of value and withdraw. The Boston project fell through, as a reconnaissance of the area gave an unfavourable report and Elliott-Smith suggested Milne Bay as a more suitable alternative site. A party of twelve Americans and Australians set out to explore Milne Bay in a Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat on 8 June. They were impressed by the flat areas, the roads and the jetties, all of which would ease airbase construction. On receipt of a favourable report from the party, MacArthur's General Headquarters (GHQ) cancelled Boston on 11 June and substituted Milne Bay. Milne Bay was given the codename \"Fall River\". The use of place names as code names proved to be unwise, as some supplies were mistakenly sent to the real Fall River, in Massachusetts.\n\n## Prelude\n\n### Allies\n\nThe first troops arrived at Milne Bay from Port Moresby in the Dutch KPM ships Karsik and Bontekoe, escorted by the sloop and the corvette on 25 June. Karsik docked at a pontoon wharf that had been hastily constructed from petrol drums by Papuan workers, who had been recruited by ANGAU and who subsequently assisted in unloading the ships. The troops included two and a half companies and a machine gun platoon from the 55th Infantry Battalion of the 14th Infantry Brigade, the 9th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery with eight Bofors 40 mm guns, a platoon of the US 101st Coast Artillery Battalion (Anti-Aircraft) with eight .50 calibre machine guns, and two 3.7 inch anti-aircraft guns of the 23rd Heavy Anti-Aircraft Battery. Company E of the 46th Engineers of the US Army Corps of Engineers arrived on Bontekoe with airbase construction equipment. Some 29 KPM ships had escaped to Australia after the fall of the Dutch East Indies. They were manned by Dutch and Javanese crews, and were the lifeline of the garrison at Milne Bay, making roughly two out of every three voyages there during the campaign, the remainder being by Australian, British and US ships. Five KPM ships would be lost during the fighting in Papua.\n\nWork on the first airfield, which became known as No. 1 Airstrip, had commenced on 8 June, with the area near Gili Gili being cleared by Papuan workers under the supervision of ANGAU and by US 96th Engineer Separate Battalion personnel. Company E of the 46th Engineers began working on it on 30 June. In addition to the runway, they had to build camouflaged dispersal areas for 32 fighters, taxiways and accommodation for 500 men. To support the airbase and the garrison, a platoon was diverted to working on the docks and roads. Although the channels in Milne Bay allowed deep draught ships to approach within 40 feet (12 m) of the shore, they had to be unloaded onto pontoons and the stores manhandled onto vehicles, a labour-intensive process.\n\nThree Kittyhawks from No. 76 Squadron RAAF landed on the airstrip on 22 July, while additional aircraft from No. 76 and also No. 75 Squadron RAAF arrived on 25 July. They found that only 4,950 by 80 feet (1,509 by 24 m) of the 6,000-by-100-foot (1,829 by 30 m) runway was covered with Marston Matting, and that water was frequently over it. Landing aircraft sprayed water about, and sometimes skidded off the runway and became bogged.\n\nWith No. 1 Airstrip operational, work began on two more airfields. Some 5,000 coconut trees were removed for No. 2 Airstrip, and the site was levelled and graded, but its use first required the construction of at least two 60-foot (18 m) bridges, so work moved to No. 3 Airstrip near Kilarbo. Its construction was undertaken by the 2nd Battalion of the US 43rd Engineers (less Company E), which arrived on 4 August. That day Japanese aircraft began to bomb and strafe Milne Bay, focusing upon attacking the airfields and the engineers as they worked. Four Zeros and a dive bomber attacked No. 1 Airstrip. One Kittyhawk was destroyed on the ground, while a Kittyhawk from No. 76 Squadron shot down the dive bomber. Following this, the Australians established a workable radar system to provide early warning. On 11 August, 22 Kittyhawks intercepted 12 Zeroes. Despite their numerical advantage, the Australians lost three Kittyhawks, while claiming four Japanese Zeros shot down.\n\nOn 11 July, troops of the 7th Infantry Brigade, under the command of Brigadier John Field, began arriving to bolster the garrison. The brigade consisted of three Militia battalions from Queensland, the 9th, 25th and 61st Infantry Battalions. They brought with them guns of the 4th Battery of the 101st Anti-Tank Regiment, the 2/6th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Battery, and the 2/9th Light Anti-Aircraft Battery, along with the first Australian engineer unit, the 24th Field Company. Field assumed command of \"Milne Force\", a task force which exercised operational control over all Allied air, land and naval forces in the area, but only when an attack was imminent. He reported directly to Blamey's Allied Land Forces in Brisbane rather than New Guinea Force in Port Moresby. His most urgent tasks were of an engineering nature. While the American engineers built the airstrips and wharves, the Australians worked on the roads and accommodation. The small force of sappers had to be augmented by infantry and Papuan labourers.\n\nAlthough malaria was known to be endemic in the Milne Bay area, precautions taken against the disease were haphazard. Men wore shorts and kept their sleeves rolled up. Their mosquito repellent cream was ineffective, quinine was in short supply and many men arrived without their mosquito nets, which were stowed deep in the ships' holds and took several days to unload. A daily dosage of 10 grains (0.65 g) was prescribed but Field's troops were told not to take their quinine until they had been in the area a week. By this time, many had become infected with the disease. The Director of Medicine at Allied Land Forces Headquarters was Brigadier Neil Hamilton Fairley, an expert on tropical medicine. He visited Port Moresby in June, and was alarmed at the ineffectiveness of the measures being taken to combat the disease, which he realised was capable of destroying the entire Allied force in Papua. He made sure that the 110th Casualty Clearing Station left Brisbane for Milne Bay with a fully equipped pathological laboratory and a large quantity of anti-malarial supplies, including 200,000 quinine tablets. However, some equipment was lost or ruined in transit, and the danger from malaria was not yet appreciated at Milne Bay.\n\nThe 55th Infantry Battalion's companies were already badly afflicted by malaria and other tropical diseases, and were withdrawn and sent back to Port Moresby in early August, but the garrison was further reinforced with Second Australian Imperial Force troops of Brigadier George Wootten's 18th Infantry Brigade of the 7th Division, which began arriving on 12 August, although it would not be complete until 21 August. This veteran brigade, which had fought in the siege of Tobruk earlier in the war, consisted of the 2/9th, 2/10th and 2/12th Infantry Battalions. Anti-aircraft and artillery support was provided by the 9th Battery of the 2/3rd Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, the US 709th Anti-Aircraft Battery and the 9th Battery of the 2/5th Field Regiment, while various signals and logistics troops provided further support.\n\nWith two brigades now at Milne Bay, Major General Cyril Clowes was appointed to command Milne Force, which was placed under the control of New Guinea Force, now commanded by Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell, on 12 August. Clowes' headquarters was formed in Sydney at the end of July and was flown up to Milne Bay. He arrived with some of his staff on 13 August, but had to wait until the rest arrived before he could formally assume command of Milne Force on 22 August. By this time there were 7,459 Australian and 1,365 US Army personnel at Milne Bay, of whom about 4,500 were infantry. There were also about 600 RAAF personnel.\n\nClowes assigned the inexperienced 7th Infantry Brigade a defensive role, guarding key points around Milne Bay from seaborne or airborne attack, and kept the veteran 18th Infantry Brigade in reserve, ready to counterattack. Lacking accurate maps and finding that their signals equipment was unreliable in the conditions, the Australian command and control system consisted largely of cable telephones, or where there was not enough line available, runners. The soft ground made movement by road and even on foot difficult.\n\n### Japanese\n\nJapanese aircraft soon discovered the Allied presence at Milne Bay, which was appreciated as a clear threat to Japanese plans for another seaborne advance on Port Moresby, which was to start with a landing at Samarai Island in the China Strait, not far from Milne Bay. On 31 July the commander of the Japanese XVII Army, Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake, requested that Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa's 8th Fleet capture the new Allied base at Milne Bay instead. Mikawa therefore altered his plans for the Samarai operation, and substituted the capture of Milne Bay, which was codenamed Operation RE, and scheduled for the middle of August. Operation RE received a high priority after aircraft from the 25th Air Flotilla discovered the new Milne Bay airfields on 4 August, but was then postponed due to the American landings on Guadalcanal on 7 August.\n\nUnder the misconception that the airfields were defended by only two or three companies of Australian infantry (300–600 men), the initial Japanese assault force consisted of only about 1,250 personnel. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) was unwilling to conduct the operation as it feared that landing barges sent to the area would be attacked by Allied aircraft. Following an argument between IJA and Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) officers, it was agreed that the Navy would have responsibility for the landing. As a result, the assault force was drawn from the Japanese naval infantry, known as Kaigun Rikusentai (Special Naval Landing Forces). Some 612 naval troops from the 5th Kure Special Naval Landing Force (SNLF), led by Commander Masajiro Hayashi, were scheduled to land on the east coast near a point identified by the Japanese as \"Rabi\", along with 197 men from the 5th Sasebo SNLF, led by Lieutenant Fujikawa. It was planned that a further 350 personnel from the 10th Naval Landing Force, along with 100 men from the 2nd Air Advance Party, would land via barge on the northern coast of the peninsula at Taupota, in Goodenough Bay, from where it would strike out over the Stirling Ranges to attack the Australians from behind. Following the battle, the chief of staff of the Japanese Combined Fleet, Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki, assessed that the landing force was not of a high calibre as it contained many 30- to 35-year-old soldiers who were not fully fit and had \"inferior fighting spirit\". Naval support was to be provided by the 18th Cruiser Division under the command of Rear Admiral Mitsuharu Matsuyama. The Japanese enjoyed some initial advantage in the form of possessing two Type-95 light tanks. After an initial attack, however, these tanks became marooned in the mud and abandoned. They also had control of the sea during the night, allowing reinforcement and evacuation.\n\n### Allied intelligence advantage\n\nCountering these Japanese tactical advantages, the Allies enjoyed the strategic advantage of possessing superior intelligence about Japanese plans. The Japanese knew very little about Allied forces at Milne Bay, while the Allies received advance warning that the Japanese were planning an invasion. In mid-July codebreakers under the command of Commander Eric Nave informed MacArthur that toward the end of August the Japanese planned to attack Milne Bay. They provided detailed information about the numbers of soldiers to expect, which units would be involved, their standard of training, and the names of the ships that the Japanese had allocated to the operation. MacArthur's Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence, Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby, had anticipated a Japanese reaction against Milne Force, and interpreted the Japanese reconnaissance on 4 August as foreshadowing an operation. After Allied Naval Forces signals intelligence, given the code word Ultra which covered a number of codes including the Japanese naval code JN-25, decrypted a message that disclosed that a Japanese submarine picquet line had been established to cover the approaches to Milne Bay, Willoughby predicted that an attack was imminent. In response, MacArthur rushed the 18th Infantry Brigade to Milne Bay. Major General George Kenney, the commander of the Allied Air Forces, ordered air patrols stepped up over the likely Japanese invasion routes. He also ordered pre-emptive air strikes against the Japanese airfields at Buna on 24 and 25 August, which reduced the number of Japanese fighters available to support the attack on Milne Bay to just six.\n\n## Battle\n\n### Initial landing\n\nOver the course of 23 and 24 August, aircraft from the 25th Air Flotilla carried out preparatory bombing around the airfield at Rabi. The main Japanese invasion force left Rabaul on 24 August, under Matsuyama's command, at 7:00 am. The fleet was made up of two light cruisers, Tenryū and Tatsuta, as well as three destroyers, Urakaze, Tanikaze and Hamakaze, in concert with the transports, Nankai Maru and Kinai Maru, and the submarine chasers CH-22 and CH-24.\n\nAt 8:30 am on 24 August, Milne Bay GHQ was alerted by an RAAF Hudson bomber near Kitava Island, off the Trobriand Islands, and coastwatchers that a Japanese convoy was approaching the Milne Bay area.  – escorting the transport SS Tasman – left the Milne Bay area and sailed for Port Moresby after learning of the invasion force. Reports of the second Japanese convoy, consisting of seven barges, which had sailed from Buna carrying the force that would land at Taupota were also received at this time. In response to this sighting, after the initially poor weather had cleared, 12 RAAF Kittyhawks were scrambled at midday. The barges were spotted beached near Goodenough Island where the 350 troops of the 5th Sasebo SNLF, led by Commander Tsukioka, had gone ashore to rest. The Australian pilots then proceeded to strafe the barges and, over the course of two hours, destroyed them all and stranded their former occupants.\n\nAfter the initial sighting, the main invasion force, consisting of the heavy naval screening force and the two transports, remained elusive until the morning of 25 August. In an effort to intercept it, US B-17s operating from bases at Mareeba and Charters Towers in Queensland, were dispatched, although they were unable to complete their mission as bad weather closed in. Later in the afternoon, a number of Kittyhawks and a single Hudson bomber strafed the convoy and attempted to bomb the transports with 250 lb (110 kg) bombs near Rabi Island. Only limited damage was caused to the convoy and no ships were sunk. After this, due to the withdrawal of the only Allied naval presence in the area – Arunta and Tasman – an RAAF tender was sent to act as a picket in the bay, ready to provide early warning of the approaching Japanese.\n\nMeanwhile, earlier in the day, Clowes decided to shorten his lines and passed the order for D Company, 61st Infantry Battalion, which had been sent to Akioma in the east, to withdraw back behind 'B' Company at KB Mission and reposition itself at the No. 3 Airstrip at Gili Gili. A shortage of water craft, however, delayed D Company's departure until the evening of 25/26 August after requisitioning three luggers Bronzewing, Elevala and Dadosee. At around 10:30 pm, the Japanese main force, consisting of over 1,000 men and two Type 95 Ha-Go tanks, had made landfall near Waga Waga, on the northern shore of the bay; due to an error in navigation they came ashore about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) east of where they had intended, placing them further away from their objective. Nevertheless, they quickly sent out patrols to secure the area, rounding up local villagers, and established a beachhead.\n\nLater that evening, two of the small water craft that D Company were using to withdraw to Gili Gili encountered the Japanese landing force. In the firefight that followed, one of the craft – Elevala – was forced to beach and its occupants forced to return by taking to the jungle on foot, eventually reaching Gili Gili some time later; the other, Bronzewing, was holed and of its passengers, 11 were killed either in the engagement or by the Japanese following their capture.\n\n### Japanese advance inland\n\nBy dawn of 26 August, advancing west along the coast with armoured support, the Japanese had reached the main position manned by troops from B Company, 61st Infantry Battalion, around KB Mission. The Japanese force moved through the jungle at the edge of the coastal track, and was headed by two light tanks. Although they lacked anti-armour weapons, the Australians were able to turn back the Japanese attack. At this stage, the Japanese suffered a serious setback when their base area was heavily attacked at daylight by RAAF Kittyhawks and a Hudson aircraft, along with B-25s, B-26s and B-17s from the US Fifth Air Force. As a result of the attack, a number of Japanese troops were killed, while a large quantity of supplies was destroyed, as were a number of the landing barges which were beached near the KB Mission. Aside from severely hampering the Japanese supply system, the destruction of the landing barges also prevented their use to outflank the Australian battalions. The Japanese did not have any air cover as the fighters based at Buna which were to patrol over Milne Bay were shot down by Allied fighters shortly after they took off and other aircraft based at Rabaul were forced to turn back due to bad weather.\n\nNevertheless, the Japanese were still pressing on the 61st Infantry Battalion's positions throughout the day. Field, who had command responsibility for the local area, decided to send two platoons from the 25th Infantry Battalion to provide support. Later, the remaining two rifle companies from the 61st were also dispatched, along with their mortar platoon. The muddy track meant that the Australians were unable to move anti-tank guns into position; however, as a stop-gap measure quantities of sticky bombs and anti-tank mines were moved up to the forward units. At 4:45 pm, with air and artillery support, the Australians launched a minor attack upon the Japanese forward positions which were located about 600 yards (550 m) to the east of the mission, pushing the Japanese back a further 200 yards (180 m). Weary from the day's fighting, though, they withdrew to Motieau, west of the mission.\n\nThe Australians then attempted to break contact and withdraw towards a creek line where they hoped to establish a defensive line as darkness came. The Japanese stayed in close contact with the Australians, harassing their rear elements. The men from B Company then sought to establish their position, while the 2/10th Infantry Battalion made preparations to move eastwards towards Ahioma, passing through the lines of the 25th and 61st Infantry Battalions. In the early evening, Japanese ships shelled the Australian positions and later, at 10:00 pm, the Japanese launched a heavy attack on the Australians which continued sporadically through the night. By 4:00 am the following morning, the Japanese began to employ infiltration and deception techniques to try to outflank the Australian positions. Anticipating an armoured attack at dawn, the Australians withdrew back to the Gama River, which was situated 1 mile (1.6 km) to the west. During the night, the destroyer Hamakaze entered the bay to make contact with the Japanese troops and land supplies. The landing force had been out of radio contact since 2:00 pm, and the destroyer was unable to raise it with either her radio or visual signalling devices. As a result, Hamakaze departed Milne Bay at 2:30 am without having landed any supplies.\n\nShortly after dawn, in the air, a Japanese force consisting of eight dive bombers with 12 Zero fighter escorts attacked the Allied airfield at Gili Gili. One of the attacking aircraft was shot down, while only a small amount of damage was inflicted. Meanwhile, around the mission as the Japanese reconnoitred Australian positions, the 2/10th Infantry Battalion, consisting of just 420 men, was ordered to the Gama River by Clowes. This operation was badly planned and did not have a clear purpose; it was launched as both a reconnaissance in force and a counter-attack, but evolved into an attempt to establish a blocking force at KB Mission. Moreover, while the Australians had no knowledge of the strength or intentions of the Japanese, no force would be able to reinforce the battalion once it moved outside the main defensive lines near the airstrips. The 2/10th's forward patrols made contact with the 61st Infantry Battalion at around 10:30 am on 27 August and, upon arrival at around 5:00 pm, they began to establish their position; with only limited entrenching tools, they found the going difficult. At this point, the troops from the 25th and 61st Battalion were ordered to pull back, having lost 18 men killed and a further 18 wounded, along with an unknown number missing in action.\n\nAt 8:00 pm the Japanese sent two Type 95 tanks with bright headlights into the plantation. The men from the 2/10th tried to disable them with sticky bombs, but due to the humid conditions the bombs failed to adhere to the Japanese armour. In the fighting that followed over the course of two and a half hours, the Australians suffered heavy casualties. Receiving indirect fire support from the 2/5th Field Regiment's 25 pounder guns situated near Gili Gili, they repelled four frontal attacks. However, by midnight the Japanese were inside the Australian position and in the confusion the 2/10th withdrew in some disorder to a number of scattered positions on the west bank of the Gama, which they reached by about 2:00 am on 28 August. A further assault, however, by tank-mounted infantry forced them back further, moving back through the 61st and 25th Infantry Battalions towards No. 3 Airstrip, which was still under construction, south of Kilarbo. During the brief engagement around KB Mission, they had lost 43 men killed and another 26 wounded.\n\nAs the 2/10th withdrew, the 25th Infantry Battalion, which had moved forward from Gili Gili to relieve the 61st, deployed around the airstrip and at Rabi, Duira Creek and Kilarbo, laying mines in key locations. The airstrip proved a perfect defensive location, offering a wide, clear field of fire, while at its end, thick mud served to prevent the movement of Japanese tanks. Around dawn the advancing Japanese troops reached the airstrip and, under the cover of field artillery and mortars, they launched an attack. Although the Australians did not know it, the tanks that were supporting the attack became stuck in the mud and were subsequently abandoned; they would later be discovered by an Australian patrol on 29 August. Meanwhile, troops from the 25th and 61st Infantry Battalions, along with Americans from the 709th Anti-Aircraft Battery turned back the attacking Japanese infantry. Further strafing by Kittyhawks followed, and the Japanese were forced to fall back 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east of Rabi.\n\nFollowing this, for the next two days there was a lull in the fighting. During this time, the Australians consolidated their defences. The 61st Infantry Battalion, despite being seriously depleted from the previous fighting, were ordered back to the perimeter around the airstrip, subsequently deploying around Stephen's Ridge, tying in with the 25th Battalion's positions between the coast and Wehria Creek. Fire support was provided by mortars from the 25th along with Vickers machine guns from the 61st and .30 and .50 calibre machine guns mounted on the American half-tracks. The American engineers and anti-aircraft gunners became the first American troops to engage in ground combat in New Guinea.\n\nElsewhere, the 2/12th Infantry Battalion began moving forward from Waigani to enable it to join the fighting later as a counterattacking force. They, along with the 2/9th, were subsequently tasked to carry out an attack from No. 3 Airstrip to KB Mission. Meanwhile, the Japanese also sought to reconfigure their forces and Mikawa decided to reinforce the forces that were already ashore. These reinforcements, consisting of 567 men from the 3rd Kure SNLF and 200 from the 5th Yokosuka SNLF, left Rabaul on 28 August. At around 4:30 pm an RAAF patrol spotted the Japanese convoy – consisting of one cruiser and nine destroyers – and subsequently reported this to the Allied headquarters. Believing that further landings were about to occur, Clowes cancelled his plans to begin a counterattack with the troops from the 18th Brigade. Orders were also passed for the 30 Kittyhawks at Gili Gili to be flown off to Port Moresby in case the Japanese succeeded in breaking through to the airfield. The attack did not take place, though, and consequently early in the morning on 29 August they returned, albeit minus two aircraft which had crashed during the move.\n\nThe Japanese convoy arrived off Waga Waga at 8:15 pm on 29 August, and began landing troops and supplies. While this was taking place the warships shelled Allied positions around Gili Gili and by 11:30 pm, had completed their landing. The shelling was not significant, however, and no casualties resulted from it. Throughout 30 August, the Australians carried out patrolling operations while the Japanese laid up in the jungle in preparation for an attack that night.\n\nLater that night the Japanese began forming up along the track at the eastern end of No. 3 Airstrip by the sea, and at 3:00 am on 31 August they launched their attack. Advancing over open ground and illuminated by flares fired by the Australians, the first Japanese attack was repelled by heavy machine gun and mortar fire from 25th and 61st Infantry Battalions as well as the 46th Engineer General Service Regiment, and artillery fire from the Australian 2/5th Field Regiment. A further two banzai charges were attempted only to meet the same fate, with heavy Japanese casualties, including the Japanese commander, Hayashi. At this point, Commander Minoru Yano, who had arrived with the Japanese reinforcements on 29 August, took over from Hayashi, and after the survivors of the attack had reformed in the dead ground around Poin Creek, he led them about 200 yards (180 m) north of the airstrip in an attempt to outflank the 61st Infantry Battalion's positions on Stephen's Ridge. After running into a platoon of Australians who engaged them with Bren light machine guns, the Japanese withdrew just before dawn to the sounds of a bugle call. The Japanese troops who survived this attack were shocked by the heavy firepower the Allied forces had been able to deploy, and the assault force was left in a state of disarray.\n\n### Australian counterattack\n\nEarly on 31 August, the 2/12th Infantry Battalion began moving towards KB Mission, with 'D' Company leading the way and struggling through muddy conditions along the track, which had been turned into a quagmire due to the heavy rain and equally heavy traffic. After passing through the 61st Infantry Battalion's position, at around 9:00 am they began their counterattack along the north coast of Milne Bay. As the Australians went they were harassed by snipers and ambush parties. They also encountered several Japanese soldiers who tried to lure the Australians in close for attack by pretending to be dead. In response, some Australians systematically bayoneted and shot the bodies of Japanese soldiers. At noon, the 9th Infantry Battalion, a Militia unit from the 7th Infantry Brigade, dispatched two companies to occupy some of the ground that the 2/12th had regained around No. 3 Airstrip and the mission.\n\nMaking slow going amidst considerable resistance, the Australians nevertheless reached KB Mission late in the day. A force of Japanese remained there, and the Australians attacked with bayonets fixed. In the fighting that followed 60 Japanese were killed or wounded. The Australians were then able to firmly establish themselves at the mission. Meanwhile, the two companies from the 9th Battalion took up positions at Kilarbo and between the Gama River and Homo Creek with orders to establish blocking positions to allow the 2/12th to continue its advance the following morning.\n\nThat night, a force of around 300 Japanese who had been falling back since they had run into the 61st Infantry Battalion on Stephen's Ridge, encountered positions manned by the 2/12th and 9th Infantry Battalions around the Gama River. In a surprise attack, the Australians inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese. After the battle the Australians estimated that up to 90 had been killed. Following this the Japanese began to employ infiltration techniques in an attempt to pass through the numerous listening posts that had been set up along the side of the track which formed the front of one side of the 2/12th's position. Elsewhere, at the mission, starting at around 8:00 pm, they carried out harassment operations in an effort to distract the Australians and assist their comrades to try to break through the Australian positions from the Gama River. This lasted throughout the night.\n\nThe following morning, 1 September, the 2/12th Infantry Battalion went on the offensive again, while a force of seven Kittyhawks attacked the Japanese headquarters around Waga Waga. By this time, the Japanese had abandoned the objective of reaching the airfields and instead sought only to hold off the Australians long enough to be evacuated. This information was not known by the Allies, however, who were in fact expecting the Japanese to undertake further offensive action. In this regard, the 2/9th, initially with orders to join the 2/12th's counterattack, was delayed an extra day after an erroneous intelligence report from MacArthur's headquarters warning Clowes of a renewed Japanese attack forced him to briefly adopt a more defensive posture. The attack did not occur and, as a result, on 2 September the 2/9th was moved by barge up to the KB Mission. The next day it took over from the 2/12th and led the Australian advance. With the Japanese position at Milne Bay close to collapse, on 2 September Yano sent a radio message to the headquarters of the 8th Fleet which stated: \"[w]e have reached the worst possible situation. We will together calmly defend our position to the death. We pray for absolute victory for the empire and for long-lasting fortune in battle for you all\".\n\nThe terrain in this part of the bay offered significant advantage to defending forces, lined as it was with numerous creeks which slowed movement and obscured firing lanes. Throughout 3 September, the 2/9th Infantry Battalion came up against significant resistance; in one engagement that took place around mid-morning along a stream to the west of Elevada Creek they lost 34 men killed or wounded as they attempted to force their way across a creek. Engaged with sustained machine gun fire, the two assault platoons withdrew back across the creek while elements of another company that was in support moved to the northern flank. Launching their assault, they found that the Japanese had withdrawn, leaving about 20 of their dead.\n\nFollowing this, the 2/9th advanced a further 500 yards (460 m), reaching Sanderson's Bay, before deciding to set up their night location. That night Japanese ships again shelled Australian positions on the north shore of the bay, but without causing any casualties among the defenders.\n\nOn 4 September, the Australian advance continued as the 2/9th moved up the coast either side of the coastal track. After about one hour, the advance company struck a Japanese defensive position at Goroni. Throughout the day the Australians worked to outflank the position before launching an attack at 3:15 pm. During this action, one of the 2/9th's sections was held up by fire from three Japanese machine gun positions. Corporal John French ordered the other members of the section to take cover before he attacked and destroyed two of the machine guns with grenades. French then attacked the third position with his Thompson submachine gun. The Japanese firing ceased and the Australian section advanced to find that the machine gunners had been killed and that French had died in front of the third position. He was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his \"cool courage and disregard of his own personal safety\" which \"saved members of his section from heavy casualties and was responsible for the successful conclusion of the attack\". By the end of the 4th, the Japanese force included only 50 fully fit soldiers; all the other surviving troops were either incapacitated or could only offer token resistance. In addition, the commanders of all the Japanese companies had been killed and only three or four platoon leaders remained.\n\n### Japanese withdrawal\n\nFollowing the fighting on 31 August, the Japanese forces ashore had reported the situation to their headquarters at Rabaul. In response, plans were made to send the Aoba Detachment, which comprised the Army's 4th Infantry Regiment and an artillery company, to Rabi to complete the capture of the airfield. However, they were not scheduled to arrive until 11 September and so it was planned in the meantime to reinforce Yano's men with 130 men from the 5th Yokosuka SNLF. An abortive attempt was made to land these troops on 2 September and then again on 4 September. By that time, however, as further reports were received by the Japanese headquarters, it became apparent that Yano's troops would not be able to hold out until the Aoba Detachment could arrive. As a result, on 5 September, the Japanese high command ordered a withdrawal. This was carried out from the sea that evening.\n\nMeanwhile, six Beauforts of No. 100 Squadron RAAF had arrived at Milne Bay on 5 September. An additional three Beaufighters of No. 30 Squadron RAAF, the first to operate this aircraft, joined them the following day. The Beauforts were tasked with providing additional support against further landings and undertaking anti-shipping missions. On 6 September, the Allied offensive reached the main camp of the Japanese landing force, fighting a number of minor actions against small groups that had been left behind after the evacuation.\n\nShortly after ten on the evening of 6 September, as the freighter was continuing unloading cargo under her lights, the port came under fire from the Japanese cruiser Tenryū and the destroyer Arashi with Anshun receiving about ten hits from the cruiser and rolling onto her side. The Japanese ships also shelled shore positions at Gili Gili and Waga Waga and illuminated, but did not fire on, the hospital ship Manunda which was displaying her hospital ship colours and lights. The next night, two Japanese warships – a cruiser and a destroyer – bombarded Australian positions causing a number of casualties for 15 minutes before leaving the bay; it would be their final act in the battle. During the mopping up operations that followed, patrols by Australian troops tracked down and killed a number of Japanese troops who were attempting to trek overland to Buna.\n\nThe 350 Japanese troops who had been stranded on Goodenough Island after their barges were destroyed on 24 August were not rescued until late October. An attempt to evacuate the force on 11 September ended in failure when the two destroyers assigned to this mission were attacked by USAAF aircraft, resulting in the loss of Yayoi. Two further attempts to rescue the force on 13 and 22 September were unsuccessful, though supplies were air-dropped on Goodenough Island. A submarine landed further supplies and evacuated 50 sick personnel on 3 and 13 October. As part of the preparations for the attack on Buna and Gona, the 2/12th Infantry Battalion was assigned responsibility for securing Goodenough Island on 19 October. The battalion landed on the island three days later. A series of small engagements on 23 and 24 October cost the Australian force 13 killed and 19 wounded, and the Japanese suffered 20 killed and 15 wounded. The remaining Japanese troops were evacuated by two barges to nearby Fergusson Island on the night of 24 October, and the light cruiser Tenryū rescued them two days later. After securing the island, the 2/12th began work on building Vivigani Airfield on its east coast.\n\n## Aftermath\n\n### Base development\n\nThe Allies continued to develop the base area at Milne Bay in support of the counter-offensive along the northern coast of Papua and New Guinea. The American base became US Advanced Sub Base A on 21 April 1943, US Advance Base A on 14 August and US Base A on 15 November. Its Australian counterpart, the Milne Bay Base Sub Area, was formed on 14 June 1943. Two 155-millimetre (6.1 in) coastal guns with searchlights were provided to protect the base from naval threats. New roads were built and the existing ones upgraded to make them passable in the wet conditions. A meteorological record was set on 29 April 1944, when 24 inches (610 mm) of rain fell in a 24-hour period. By June 1944, there was over 100 miles (160 km) of road in the area.\n\nA bitumen-surfaced second runway was built at No. 1 Airstrip by No. 6 Mobile Works Squadron RAAF, after which the original runway was only used for emergencies and taxiing. The minefield around No. 3 Airstrip was lifted and the airstrip was completed, with revetments and hardstands for 70 medium bombers. A new wharf, known as Liles' wharf after the American engineer who supervised its construction, was built in September and October 1942. This was capable of handling Liberty ships. Henceforth ships could sail direct to Milne Bay from the United States, reducing the pressure on Australian ports and saving two or three days' sailing time in addition to the time formerly taken to unload and then reload the cargo on smaller ships in those ports. PT boats were based at Milne Bay from December 1942, with PT boat overhaul facilities, a destroyer base, a transshipment and staging area and a Station Hospital also constructed.\n\nOn 14 April 1943, the Allied base was attacked by 188 Japanese aircraft during the Japanese air offensive, Operation I-Go. The base's anti-aircraft defences were limited, but a force of 24 RAAF Kittyhawk fighters were on hand to respond to the attack. Minor damage was inflicted on the supply dumps around the airfields, while one British motorship, Gorgon, was damaged and Van Heemskerk, a Dutch transport carrying US troops was sunk. At least three Allied aircraft were shot down, while the Japanese lost seven aircraft. Later, Milne Bay was used as a staging area for mounting the landing at Lae in September 1943, and the New Britain Campaign in December. The base at Milne Bay remained operational until the end of the war.\n\n### War crimes\n\nDuring the Australian counterattack, the advancing troops found evidence that the Japanese had committed a number of war crimes at Milne Bay, specifically the execution of prisoners of war (POWs) and civilians. None of the 36 Australian troops who were captured by the Japanese survived; a number of them were found to have been executed with some showing signs of having been mutilated as well. In addition, at least 59 civilians were also murdered between 25 August and 6 September; included in this were a number of Papuan women who were sexually assaulted before being killed. The war crimes committed at Milne Bay hardened Australian soldiers' attitudes towards Japanese troops for the remainder of the war. Historian Mark Johnston has written that \"the Australians' relentless killing of Japanese then and thereafter owed much to a determination both to retaliate in kind and to take revenge for Japanese atrocities and rumoured maltreatment of POWs\".\n\nLater, the Australian Minister for External Affairs, Dr. H. V. Evatt, commissioned a report by William Webb on war crimes committed by the Japanese. Webb took depositions about the Milne Bay incident from members of the Allied forces who had been present, and used them to form part of his report. In 1944 this was submitted to the United Nations War Crimes Commission, which had been set up by the Allies following the Moscow Declaration. Evidence about the crimes was presented to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal on 2 January 1947, but no Japanese personnel were prosecuted for actions during the fighting at Milne Bay.\n\n### Results\n\nThe Australians estimated Japanese casualties to be around 700 to 750 killed in action, and a Japanese source reported 625 killed in action. Of the 1,943 Japanese soldiers that were landed at Milne Bay, ships from the Japanese 18th Cruiser Division managed to evacuate 1,318 personnel, including 311 who were wounded. The Australians suffered 373 casualties, of which 167 were killed or missing in action. US forces lost 14 personnel killed and several wounded.\n\nAlthough Allied casualties during the battle had been light, in the wake of the battle, Milne Bay suffered an epidemic of malaria that posed a threat to the base as great as that from the Japanese attack. Over one-sixth of Milne Force, including Clowes, came down with the disease. The incidence of malaria soared to 33 per thousand per week in September (equivalent to 1,716 per thousand per annum), and to 82 per thousand per week in December (equivalent to 4,294 per thousand per annum). At this rate, the whole force could have been incapacitated in a matter of months. It placed enormous strain on the medical units and the supplies of anti-malarial drugs. The Chief Pathologist of New Guinea Force, Lieutenant Colonel Edward Ford went to see Blamey, who was now in personal command of New Guinea Force, and told him that 1,000 men and a large quantity of anti-malarial supplies were urgently required at Milne Bay to avert a disaster. Blamey took a personal interest in the matter. He expedited supply shipments, and made the required personnel available. The arrival of quantities of the new drug atabrine allowed this more effective drug to be substituted for quinine. The incidence of malaria dropped dramatically after December, the month in which atabrine became the official Australian prophylactic drug, and by March 1943 the crisis had passed. After this, the incidence of malaria amongst the garrison at Milne Bay was similar to other bases in Papua and New Guinea.\n\nStrategically, as a result of the fighting around Milne Bay, Japanese operations within the region were constrained. The defeat at Milne Bay kept them from bypassing the holding action that the Australians were conducting on the Kokoda Track. Milne Bay showed the limits of Japanese capability to expand using relatively small forces in the face of increasingly larger Allied troop concentrations and command of the air. The Japanese commanders were then forced to change their plans in the region, shifting their focus towards repelling the US forces that had landed on Guadalcanal, while maintaining a smaller effort around Buna–Gona, under Major General Tomitarō Horii. Once they had retaken Guadalcanal, they planned to reinforce Horii's forces and launch a reinvigorated attack on the Australians around Port Moresby. In the end, subsequent defeats at Buna–Gona and on Guadalcanal did not allow them to implement these plans, as the Allies gained the ascendency in the region throughout late 1942 and the Japanese were forced to fall back to the northern coast of New Guinea. In the aftermath of the battle, a large amount of intelligence was also gained by the Allies, providing their planners with a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the Japanese and their equipment. It also demonstrated that the Militia were an effective fighting force.\n\nThe most significant result, though, was the effect that the victory had on the morale of Allied servicemen elsewhere in Asia and the Pacific, especially those on the Kokoda Track, and British troops fighting in Burma. Although the Japanese had previously suffered minor local defeats, such as those around Changsha in China, as well the first landing at Wake Island and the Battle of the Tenaru on Guadalcanal, these actions, unlike Milne Bay, had not resulted in complete Japanese withdrawal and the abandonment of the military campaign. The Allied victory at Milne Bay therefore represented the first \"full-scale defeat [of the Japanese] on land\".\n\nIn Australia, initial public reaction to the victory at the time was one of cautious optimism. An article in The Canberra Times from early September 1942 labelled the victory a \"tonic surprise\", and while highlighting the example as a portent of future battlefield success by Australian forces in the region, also pointed out the task that lay ahead of the Australians in New Guinea remained a \"major problem\". Most significantly, though, it highlighted the importance of morale in turning the tide in the war, describing it as \"the bridge that must carry all the vast and complicated effort being directed towards victory\". Another article, which appeared in The West Australian at the same time, while also preparing the Australian public for the tough fighting that would follow in New Guinea, hailed the victory at Milne Bay as a \"turning point\", the instance of which signalled an end of a \"rearguard campaign\" and the start of an Allied offensive in the region.\n\nAmongst individual Australian soldiers, the news of the victory helped to dispel some of the notions about the invincibility of the Japanese soldier that had developed in the psyche of Allied soldiers following the defeats of early 1942, and which had impacted on Allied planning up to that point. Some of these notions would remain until the end of the war, but the news of Milne Bay allowed some soldiers to rationalise the Japanese soldiers' past victories as being the result of tangible factors, such as numerical superiority, that could be overcome, rather than innate factors associated with the intangible qualities of the Japanese soldier that were not so easily overcome. After this, amongst the Allies there was \"a sense that fortune's wheel was turning\", and although leaders such as Blamey emphasised the difficulties that lay ahead, a feeling of confidence in eventual victory emerged. MacArthur warned the War Department that success was attributable to good intelligence that allowed him to concentrate a superior force at Milne Bay, and might not be repeatable.\n\nAfter the war, the Australian Army commemorated the battle through the awarding of a battle honour titled \"Milne Bay\" to a number of the units that took part. The units chosen were the 9th, 25th, 61st, 2/9th, 2/10th and 2/12th Infantry Battalions. The two RAAF fighter squadrons that had taken part in the fighting were also singled out for praise by the Australian commanders for their role in the battle. Rowell stated: \"the action of 75 and 76 Squadrons RAAF on the first day was probably the decisive factor\", a view Clowes endorsed in his own report.\n\n## See also\n\n- Battle of Milne Bay order of battle", "revid": "1172221891", "description": "Battle of World War II", "categories": ["1942 in Papua New Guinea", "August 1942 events", "Australia–Japan military relations", "Battles and operations of World War II involving Papua New Guinea", "Battles of World War II involving Australia", "Battles of World War II involving Japan", "Battles of World War II involving the United States", "Conflicts in 1942", "Milne Bay Province", "September 1942 events", "South West Pacific theatre of World War II", "Territory of Papua"]}
{"id": "22521170", "url": null, "title": "Eucalyptus wandoo", "text": "Eucalyptus wandoo, commonly known as wandoo, dooto, warrnt or wornt and sometimes as white gum, is a small to medium-sized tree that is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It has smooth bark, lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds in groups of nine to seventeen, white flowers and conical to cylindrical fruit. It is one of a number of similar Eucalyptus species known as wandoo.\n\nE. wandoo was first described in 1934 by the Australian botanist William Faris Blakely in his book A Key to the Eucalypts using material collected by the English collector Augustus Frederick Oldfield from a sand plain along the Kalgan River. As of January 2023, Plants of the World Online lists Eucalyptus redunca var. elata as a taxonomic synonym of E. wandoo.\n\nThe range of the tree extends from Morawa in the north extending south through the Darling Range down to around the Stirling Range to the south coast near the Pallinup River. There is an outlying population found to the east of Narembeen at Twine Reserve. It is native to the following IBRA bioregions: Geraldton Sandplains and Avon Wheatbelt in the north through the Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest to the Esperance Plains and Mallee in the south.\n\nE. wandoo was listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as of 2019 as a result of its severely fragmented population.\n\n## Description\n\nEucalyptus wandoo is a tree that typically grows to a height of 3 to 25 m (9.8 to 82.0 ft) and sometimes to 30–31 m (98–102 ft), and has a 80 to 100 cm (31 to 39 in) DBH. The bole or trunk of the tree is usually straight and comprises 50–65% of the total height of the tree. E. wandoo can have a long lifetime, with some trees in excess of 150 years of age and others in excess of 400 years. As trees age the growth rate slows down making an accurate determination of age more difficult. It forms an inconspicuous lignotuber, the woody tuber that begins to develop near the base of seedlings, but can become huge in older trees and contains embedded epicormic buds that allow the plant to regenerate following destruction of the crown following fire or drought.\n\nSaplings, young trees and coppice regrowth have rough and fibrous yellow-brown bark on the stems that become smoother as trees mature. The stems of saplings can be circular or square shaped in cross section and have a powdery coating (glaucous). Older trees have smooth powdery or non-powdery white bark, often with patches of white, grey or light brown giving the trunk a mottled appearance. Old layers of darker coloured bark are scattered and loosely held and are shed in flakes; it is not uncommon for a few flakes to persist on the trunk for a long time. The bark is shed in irregular slabs. Branchlets do not have a powdery coating as the bark of older trees can. The soft central cylinder of tissue within, the pith, contains many glands.\n\nYoung plants and coppice regrowth have blue-green leaves that are arranged oppositely (borne at the same level but on directly opposite sides of their common axis) for two to four nodes where the leaves arise then arranged alternately (found singly at different levels along the stem). The leaves can be egg-shaped, broadly lance-shaped or D-shaped. The leaves can have a length of 45–150 mm (1.8–5.9 in) and a width of 25–75 mm (0.98–2.95 in). Adult leaves are the same shade of greyish-green or greyish-blue on both sides but can sometimes be a glossy green. The adult leaves are lance-shaped or have a curved lance shape. Adult leaves are 75–125 mm (3.0–4.9 in) in length and 10–28 mm (0.39–1.10 in) wide on a petiole 10–20 mm (0.39–0.79 in) long. The side veins in the leaves are at an angle greater than 45° to the midrib and there is moderate to dense reticulation; the leaf oil glands are found at the intersections of the veinlets.\n\nThe inflorescences are arranged in leaf axils in groups of nine to seventeen on an unbranched peduncle 8–20 mm (0.31–0.79 in) long, the individual buds on pedicels 3–5 mm (0.12–0.20 in) long. Mature buds are spindle-shaped but curved and with a scar present, the buds are 8–14 mm (0.31–0.55 in) in length and 2–4 mm (0.079–0.157 in) wide with a conical operculum up to twice as long as the floral cup. There are some erect outer stamens; the majority of stamen are bent sharply downward to some degree. The oblong anthers are attached dorsally to the filament and burst open spontaneously via longitudinal slits. It has a straight and long style and a blunt to rounded stigma leading to the ovary that has three to four cavities containing four vertically arranged rows of ovules. Flowering occurs between March and June for wandoo found to the north of the Avon Valley; these are known as the winter wandoo. The spring wandoo found to the south of Wandering flowers in spring and early summer or from September to January, while the summer wandoo, also found to the south of Wandering, flowers from January to February. The flowers are white or cream-coloured. The pollen and nectar are a valuable source of protein, vitamins, fats and minerals for honey bees. Analysis of amino acids in the pollen yield results of 1.69–1.91% aspartic acid, 2.23–2.54% glutamic acid, 2.52–2.67% proline and 1.63–1.69% arginine. The total amount of protein in the pollen was 21.8–23.7%.\n\nThe fruit is a woody capsule 6–10 mm (0.24–0.39 in) long and 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) wide with the valves near rim level. The woody fruits that form after flowering have cylindrical to oblong-obconical shape and are on stalks that are 0.1 to 0.4 cm (0.039 to 0.157 in) in length. The fruits are 0.6 to 1 cm (0.24 to 0.39 in) in length and have a width of 0.5 to 0.6 cm (0.20 to 0.24 in) with a descending disc and three to four valves that are at the rim level or enclosed. The seeds inside have a sub-spherical to cuboid shape with a smooth straw to mid-brown coloured surface. The seeds are 0.7 to 1.3 mm (0.028 to 0.051 in) in length with marks (hilum) on the seed coat where it was once attached to the ovary wall.\n\nThe species has a haploid chromosome number of 12.\n\n## Taxonomy\n\nEucalyptus wandoo was first described in 1934 by the Australian botanist William Faris Blakely in his book A Key to the Eucalypts. The specific epithet \"wandoo\" comes from the Noongar name for the tree. The type specimen was collected by the English collector Augustus Frederick Oldfield from a sand plain along the Kalgan River. The holotype is held at Kew Gardens.\n\nIn 1991, Ian Brooker and Stephen Hopper described two subspecies and the names have been accepted by the Australian Plant Census and Plants of the World Online:\n\n- Eucalyptus wandoo subsp. pulverea has powdery bark, glaucous branchlets and larger juvenile leaves than the autonym.\n- Eucalyptus wandoo subsp. wandoo has bark that is not powdery, yellow new bark, branchlets that are not glaucous and narrower juvenile leaves than those of subspecies pulverea.\n\nPlants of the World Online, but not the Australian Plant Census, lists Eucalyptus redunca var. elata, formally described in 1867 by George Bentham in Flora Australiensis, as a synonym of E. wandoo.\n\nE. wandoo is a part of the Symphyomyrtus subgenus and belongs to section Bisectae and the Glandulosae subsection, which all have bisected cotyledons, an operculum scar and where oil glands are found in the pith of the branchlets. Within the Glandulosae subsection wandoo forms a group of 14 species that are a part of series Levispermae and subseries Cubiformes. All of this subseries have a smooth cuboid shaped seed and narrow spindle-like shaped buds that have some stamens that are erect and others that are deflexed.\n\nThe tree is most closely related to Eucalyptus capillosa (inland wandoo) and Eucalyptus nigrifunda. The bark of E. capillosa is usually more colourful than that of E. wandoo and E. nigrifunda often retains more rough basal bark than E. wandoo. Wandoo is also closely related to Eucalyptus salmonophloia (salmon gum). Although Eucalyptus accedens is known as powderbark wandoo it belongs to a taxonomic series.\n\nE. accedens is easily confused with E. wandoo, and the two are often found growing in the same soil types. Wandoo is usually a larger tree and E. accedens often has an orange tinge to the bark. When rubbed with the hand the bark of E. accedens rubs off as a white powder.\n\n## Distribution and habitat\n\nWandoo occurs in the south west of Western Australia from Morawa in the north extending south through the Darling Range down to around the Stirling Range to the south coast near the Pallinup River. There is an outlying population found to the east of Narembeen at Twine Reserve. It grows in sandy loams, clay loams or dark brown loamy soils and stony soils, that can contain laterite, granite or gravel as part of an undulating landscape. It is found along the base of the Darling Scarp and spreads south and east out into the Wheatbelt and as far as the Great Southern. It is native to the following IBRA bioregions; Geraldton Sandplains and Avon Wheatbelt in the north through the Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest to the Esperance Plains and Mallee in the south. Wandoo is absent from the high rainfall areas between these regions. Subspecies pulverea is less common and occurs between Cataby and Morawa. It is usually found at elevations of 100 to 300 m (330 to 980 ft) in valleys or on plateaux and ridges where there is a Mediterranean climate and most rainfall occurs in the winter months and there is an average rainfall of 500 to 1,000 mm (20 to 39 in) per annum although it can be dry for six to seven months of the year. The average temperature range is usually 2 to 35 °C (36 to 95 °F). It is often part of jarrah forest in medium rainfall areas but is not usually found in high rainfall areas. The tree forms an open woodland where it often forms the overstorey mixed in with jarrah and marri trees. Agricultural clearing has significantly altered the distribution of the tree and it now has a fragmented distribution and is mostly situated in conservation reserves, state forests, on roadside verges and as paddock trees.\n\nIt is able to grow in slightly saline soils and can tolerate salinity levels of 50–100 mS/m. It is regarded as a moderately salt tolerant species when compared to other species of Eucalyptus that are endemic to Western Australia.\n\nE. wandoo has been introduced into parts of Africa. It is cultivated in southern Africa as well as in Tunisia and Algeria.\n\nThe tree is also grown in the United States in the states of Arizona and California.\n\n## Conservation status\n\nBoth subspecies of E. wandoo are classified as \"not threatened\" by the Government of Western Australia's Department of Parks and Wildlife. Decline of the habitat and crown decline of wandoo has been studied. It is estimated that there has been a decline in the crown size of Wandoo trees since the 1980s which is due to a decline in the health of the population. Some of the causes are thought to be changed fire regimes, climate variability, land clearing, fungal and insect activity and salinity. E. wandoo is endemic to south western parts of Western Australia where it was once widespread. Only about 5% of the tree's habitat now remains with the rest having been cleared for agriculture.\n\nE. wandoo was listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as of 2019. The population was described as stable but severely fragmented and it is currently spread across an area of over 14,000 km<sup>2</sup> (5,400 sq mi) compared to a pre-clearing area of over 92,000 km<sup>2</sup> (36,000 sq mi).\n\n## Ecology\n\nThe woodlands formed by wandoo are composed of open stands of widely spaced trees over sparse understoreys of shrubs, grasses and herbs. The range of plants which flower through the year provide a constant source of nectar for birds, including honeyeaters, as well as insects. The insects then provide a source of food for other birds including the golden whistler, western yellow robin and rufous treecreeper. Wandoo is vital for native wildlife with various animal species using tree hollows and shed branches as habitat. The flowers are a good source of nectar for birds and insects. The bark and foliage of the tree is home to an abundance of spiders and insects, including native cockroaches, thrips, beetles and flies. These organisms are important for pollination, seed dispersal and recycling nutrients as well as attracting insectivorous birds. E. wandoo acts as a host plant for the parasitic species of mistletoe Amyema miquelii. Hollows in live or dead trees with a diameter at breast height of over 300 mm (12 in) are known nesting areas for black cockatoos, including Carnaby's black cockatoo. The birds use these sites, when situated in woodlands or forests, as a breeding habitat. Carnaby's black cockatoos are also known to use the flowers and seeds as a food source and the trees as a roosting site. Hollow logs of these trees found on the ground are used as habitat by echidnas through the Wheatbelt region.\n\n### Destructors\n\nE. wandoo is affected by the beetle Cisseis fascigera, causing a condition known as crown decline. The beetle lays its eggs during the summer months in the twig bark. Once the eggs hatch then the larvae bore straight down into the twigs and consume the bark and cambium tissue underneath into the twigs and branches causing damaging branch tissue. Consequently flagging (where groups of terminal foliage die off) and death of branches occurs, usually in autumn. Trees are also affected by psyllid bugs or lerp that can attack the foliage causing discolouration then the loss of leaves.\n\n### Reproduction\n\nLarge masses of white or cream-coloured flowers are produced by the tree between December and May, but individual trees usually flower at different times and the male stamens mature before the female stigmas. Flowering occurs between March and June for wandoo found to the north of the Avon Valley; these are known as the winter wandoo. The spring wandoo found to the south of Wandering flower in spring and early summer or from September to January while the summer wandoo, also found to the south of Wandering, flower from January to February. Pollination by animals is required by the flowers to set the woody fruit capsules. The seeds commonly have a limited dispersal throughout the ecosystem. E. wandoo trees found in saline areas and amongst smaller populations are inclined to produce a smaller number of fruits and seeds.\n\n### Pollinators\n\nWandoo is pollinated by both birds and insects and has a mixed mating system. Trees that are part of smaller populations are found to have noticeably higher pollination levels than trees that are part of larger populations. Up to 65% of pollen that is transferred to plants in fragmented populations is sourced from other populations that are located over 1 km (0.62 mi) apart.\n\n### Disease\n\nThe tree is susceptible to root rot caused by the Armillaria luteobubalina fungus and is known to have a high mortality rate. Wandoo is among several eucalypts that are resistant to the Phytophthora cinnamomi fungi commonly known as dieback.\n\n## Uses\n\nThe indigenous Noongar peoples used wandoo as a medicinal plant with antibacterial properties and the leaves are steamed or used to make poultices to relieve congestion. The dried gum of the plant was ground up and utilised as an ointment.\n\nThe wandoo also has outer parts of the roots that are juicy and sweet and were scratched off and consumed. When the flowers are soaked for a while in water it will produce a sweet drink. The wood of this species is extremely dense, with a air-dry density of 1,100 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (1,900 lb/cu yd) and a green density of 1,100 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (1,900 lb/cu yd), and is used for a range of heavy-duty construction purposes, including as railway sleepers, poles, wood flooring joists, beams, girders and by wheelwrights. Wandoo was renowned as being the most suitable timber for the production of railway sleepers. There was once an industry in the extraction of tannin from the bark and wood. These days the wood is not much available, as the wandoo forests are preserved for recreation and watershed protection. The wood and bark contains 10–12% tannin. In the 1960s over 68,000 long tons (69,000 t) of wandoo was used to produce tannins for the petroleum, leather and fishing industries. The wood has a yellow to light reddish brown colour, is textured with a wavy to interlocked grain, and is considered extremely durable and resistant to termites. The wood also has no chemical reactions with metal fastenings. In the 1960s 2.7×10^<sup>6</sup> cu ft (76×10^<sup>3</sup> m<sup>3</sup>) mill logs of the wood was harvested. Demand for the wood was such that sawmills in Narrogin and Boyup Brook were entirely dependent upon the supply of wandoo.\n\nWhen dried, E. wandoo is among Australia's hardest timber when measured by the Janka hardness test. At 15,000 kN, E. wandoo is twice as hard as jarrah, and of comparable hardness to grey ironbark, making it Australia's second or third hardest timber. E. wandoo has a density rating of 1280 kg/m3, making it Australia's densest species of true Eucalyptus. As per the CSIRO 1996 Timber Durability Class Ratings, which assesses the natural resistance or durability of the heartwood of various species of Australian timber species, E. wandoo has a rating of \"1 for decay\", and \"1 for decay + termites\", classifying it as a timber of the highest natural durability.\n\nWandoo is also famous for the honey produced by bees from the tree's pollen and nectar and is a mainstay for Western Australia's apiculture industry.\n\nEssential oils can also be extracted from the leaves. The composition and quantity of oil varies from plant to plant but the leaves can contain up to 1.8% essential oil including chemicals such as cymene, pinene, terpinene and 1,8-cineole. In a 2021 study, leaves of E. wandoo grown in Tunisia were found to contain 2.0% essential oil with 37.7% of the oil being composed on 1,8 cineole, 35.8% of cymene, 6.5% of β-Pinene and 3.9% of γ-Terpinene. The oil was found to have antibacterial properties against six bacterial strains.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Eucalyptus species", "revid": "1168674924", "description": "Species of eucalyptus", "categories": ["Endemic flora of Southwest Australia", "Eucalypts of Western Australia", "Eucalyptus", "Myrtales of Australia", "Plants described in 1934", "Taxa named by William Blakely", "Trees of Australia", "Trees of Mediterranean climate"]}
{"id": "31331517", "url": null, "title": "The Day We Died", "text": "\"The Day We Died\" is the third season finale of the Fox science fiction drama television series Fringe. It is the season's 22nd episode and the series' 65th episode overall. The finale follows the aftermath of Peter Bishop entering and activating the doomsday device, events which took place in the previous episode. He finds himself 15 years in the future; though the device has destroyed the parallel universe, his universe is nevertheless gradually disintegrating. Peter comes to realize the background of the doomsday device and wakes up in 2011. After getting the two universes to agree to work together, he inexplicably disappears.\n\nThe episode's teleplay was co-written by Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman, while Pinkner and Wyman co-wrote the story with consulting producer Akiva Goldsman. Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director. The writers wrote the script without knowing if the series was going to be renewed for a fourth season; Fox's renewal announcement came in late March, but no changes were made to the storyline. They designed the episode as a set-up for the following season, equating it to a book chapter that \"propels\" the reader forward. Unlike previous season finales, \"The Day We Died\" was one hour long and was linked to the previous two episodes in one continuous story arc. \"The Day We Died\" featured one-time guest actors Brad Dourif and Emily Meade.\n\n\"The Day We Died\" aired on May 6, 2011 in the United States to an estimated 3.0 million viewers, though this number almost doubled once time-shifted views were taken into account. While its 1.4 ratings share among adults 18 to 49 was an eight percent decrease from the previous episode, it helped Fox tie for first place that night. Reviews of the episode have been generally positive, with many critics writing that Peter's disappearance was a good direction for the series. Multiple reviewers ranked it as one of the best episodes of the television season, including The Futon Critic and TV.com. The cast were also receptive to the episode, and actor John Noble submitted his performance for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn May 2026, the prime universe is suffering from the same singularities that have already destroyed the parallel universe, as a result of the two universes being inextricably linked together. Though the Fringe Division that developed in this universe has been able to use amber to contain these vortices, a group called the \"End of Dayers\", led by a man named Moreau (Brad Dourif), attempts to breach the fabric of reality at soft spots and create more vortices. After one such incident at a theater, Peter and Olivia (Anna Torv), now married, along with Astrid (Jasika Nicole) and Ella (Emily Meade), Olivia's niece and now a rookie Fringe agent, find an unactivated container that they believe the End of Dayers used to trigger the breach. Fringe is unable to determine how the container works, and Peter convinces Broyles (Lance Reddick), now a senator, to allow him to release his father Walter (Noble), currently in maximum security prison as punishment for activating the doomsday device, to help identify its workings.\n\nAfter tearfully reuniting with his son and new daughter-in-law, Walter discovers the device uses a unique radioactive signature that they can track. The strongest source points to a used campground, where Peter discovers a key. He recognizes the key as from Walter's old home near Reiden Lake and travels there alone, and finds his biological father, Walternate, present. Walternate admits to being behind the End of Dayers group, as his revenge for Peter activating the doomsday device and destroying the parallel world that was his home. Walternate promises that Peter will face the same pain and suffering he has faced since crossing to the prime universe on a mission of mercy, one piece at a time. Peter realizes that Walternate is implying a threat to Olivia, and finds that Walternate was speaking to him remotely through a holographic simulation. In Central Park, where Moreau has set off another breach to expose an existing wormhole, Olivia is helping to cordon off the breach when Walternate approaches and shoots her. Peter and the rest of Fringe division struggle with her death at her funeral.\n\nWalter continues to study the Central Park wormhole and discovers that it links to the past, approximately 250 million years ago. He comes to realize a temporal paradox (a bootstrap paradox): he will have sent the doomsday device piece by piece into the past, effectively becoming the \"First People\" mythos, and convinces Peter that they can influence Peter in the past by having him experience the end of days himself and make a different decision when he enters the machine.\n\nPeter suddenly wakes up to find himself in the machine in 2011, only one minute since he entered it, and Olivia waiting by his side; concurrently, in the parallel universe, Walternate attempts to convince Fauxlivia to help stop the machine. Peter recalls the memories from the future, and uses the machine to merge the machine rooms from both universes into one thus creating a bridge. While Olivia and Walter and their doppelgangers stare each other down, Peter convinces the two sides to work together to try to repair the damage to save both universes, then suddenly disappears. The Olivias and Walters cautiously agree that they need to put aside their differences to save both worlds, apparently unaware of Peter's disappearance. Outside on Liberty Island in the prime universe, the Observers watch as September (Michael Cerveris) notes to December (Eugene Lipinski) that Peter has already been forgotten by his friends, his purpose having been served, and explains that Peter now never existed.\n\n## Production\n\n### Casting\n\nDespite the show not yet being officially renewed for a fourth season, Fringe began casting in mid-March for a \"green FBI agent... to come aboard for the finale and possibly recur next year\", as reported by E! Online. TVLine's Michael Ausiello announced later in the month that actress Emily Meade has been cast for the role, describing her character as \"a wide-eyed and eager rookie who’s ready to face all of the challenges in front of her\", and that she would make her first appearance in the finale. In the months leading up to the finale, Wyman responded to reports the character would be recurring by calling her casting more of a \"safety net\"; much like Seth Gabel's casting, he did not want to commit himself to her character yet, saying, \"We always protect ourselves by saying that because you never know\". The actress was later revealed to be playing a grown up version of Olivia's niece, Ella.\n\nAnother casting call for the finale was released, as the show began looking for a \"well-known male Japanese actor in his late 40s to late 50s who speaks English\" to appear as a new character called \"Moreau\". Despite the casting call's description, they later cast American actor Brad Dourif for the part. On whether Dourif would be returning, executive producer J.H. Wyman commented in a May 2011 interview, \"Brad is such a fantastic actor. We are keeping our options open\".\n\n### Writing\n\nCo-showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman co-wrote the episode's teleplay, while Pinkner, Wyman, and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman co-wrote the story. Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director. A full season renewal of Fringe was announced on March 24, 2011. They had written the finale without knowing if there would be another season, but decided not to make any changes to the script even after hearing of its renewal. Pinkner explained that \"we wrote the episode, perhaps foolishly, assuming that we would be on for Season 4. We never for one second entertained that it would be the end of the series. So therefore, we didn't have to change a word!\" In an interview with the New York Post, Pinkner warned that events in the finale will \"unfurl in a very unexpected way for the characters and the audience\". He also commented that the finale \"hopefully will make you sort of revisit and look at everything that's happened all year through a fresh pair of glasses\".\n\nPinkner stated in another interview that it \"will be as much as anything about setting up next season,\" and Wyman agreed, writing \"It’s like when you read a great novel and you finish a chapter, you’re like, 'Oh my gosh, something happened that’s going to propel me forward!' That’s something we desire to emulate.\" In March 2011, Pinkner confirmed with TVLine that unlike previous Fringe season finales, the third season's finale would not be two hours long. He did however note that \"the last three episodes will be linked in one continuous story arc.\"\n\nThe cast was receptive to the finale storyline. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, actor John Noble noted he liked how the story ultimately ended with having the two Walters \"perhaps negotiate a truce and put their minds together\" through a \"very inventive intervention by Peter, who basically took control of destiny and forced his two fathers to look each other in the eye, as if telling them: Sort it out, gentlemen.'\" He later noted, \"We finish [the finale] in a very dramatic place.\" Joshua Jackson praised the role-reversal of his character with Walter's, \"You had Peter wracked with guilt over the circumstances tied to the decision he made [to activate The First People's so-called \"doomsday\" machine] and clinging to hope that there might be some way out. I can’t have made a cosmically bad decision! There must be some way to put this right! Which is fascinating, because that’s basically been Walter for as long as we’ve known him. So I loved how Peter ceases to be so stubborn when it comes to Walter, comes to understand him and even begins to see things the way he does.\"\n\nThe finale contained a new, grey credit sequence that was meant to reflect the new timeline. It contained new scientific words such as \"Thought Extraction\" and \"Dual Maternity\", as well as \"Water\" and \"Hope\". Wyman explained their reasoning for the change, \"[The credits] weren’t so much pertinent to the finale but for the introduction of the future of the show. In the past, we used words in the credit sequence as signposts for the episode. But this is a new paradigm.\"\n\nAfter the finale aired, Pinkner stated in an interview that \"one of the things we love to play with is the notion of choice versus fate/synchronicity. Clearly, what Peter did at the end of that episode is that he fundamentally changed the future. Our team is [now] on a separate path. It is unlikely that we’ll get to that specific outcome in 2026. But are events like what happened in Detroit inevitable in any version of the future? TBD.\"\n\n### Marketing\n\nLeading up to the episode's broadcast, Fox released a promotional trailer that recapped relevant scenes and previewed events in the finale. Fox had previously produced similar trailers for \"Entrada\", \"Marionette\", and \"Bloodline\", three episodes from earlier in the season. As with other Fringe episodes, Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children, focusing on the science seen in \"The Day We Died\", with the intention of having \"students learn about reverse engineering and disassembling devices.\"\n\n## Reception\n\n### Ratings\n\nThe finale first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 6, 2011. It was watched by an estimated 3.0 million viewers. It scored a 1.2/4 ratings share among viewers 18–49, an 8 percent decrease from the previous week's episode. The finale and its lead-in, Kitchen Nightmares, did however help Fox tie for first place in that demographic with ABC and CBS. The rating for this episode almost doubled when DVR time shifted viewing was taken into account. Because of its comparatively low live ratings, SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall speculated that only \"the core of the core audience\" watched the episode, as \"no outsiders could have possibly fathomed what went on in that 45 minutes.\"\n\n### Reviews\n\n\"The Day We Died\" has generally received positive reviews from television critics. Sam McPherson from TV Overmind graded the finale with an A, writing \"From a show known for its mindbending episodes came the most mindbending episode of all. 'The Day We Died'... not only reinvigorated the show's fantastic (but inevitably aging) premise, but gave the show a breath of life that has me waiting -- no, begging -- for the show's fourth season.\" Though he wouldn't call the finale the best Fringe episode yet, McPherson referred to the season as the best of the three and \"probably the best season of television that's aired in recent years\". Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker lauded the finale, commenting in his review's conclusion \"Consider about the whole arc of this season and tell me this wasn’t one of the most moving, thrilling, funny, inspiring chunks of television you’ve watched. The performances by Noble, Torv, and Jackson were extraordinarily adroit, never showy or merely clever. I was so glad that, by season’s end, Jackson/Peter had once again taken center-stage — a central importance — to a season that, by the nature of its design, needed to concentrate a lot on Walter(s) and Olivia(s).\"\n\nIGN's regular Fringe reviewer Ramsey Isler rated the episode 8/10. He compared the plot to Lost, remarking \"Apparently one thoroughly confusing and unnecessarily convoluted TV series wasn't enough... But hey, I understand why J.J. and his Fringe collaborators... might have done this. They had kind of written themselves into a corner where one of the universes had to go, and they couldn't stretch that storyline out forever. A restart like this is a good way to allow themselves room to write something new, even if it may require some clever thinking to explain themselves out of this situation adequately.\" Isler had trouble rating the finale, noting that he had to see how the events are explained in the fourth season before he can make a complete judgment.\n\nNoel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the finale with a B+; he praised the writers \"for once again introducing a new world that feels fully formed, with its own rich backstory that they could choose to explore if they have the time and the inclination.\" Murray concluded his review, \"It may be that Fringe has bitten off more than it can chew here, and the storytelling is about to get hopelessly convoluted, as it often does once time-travel enters the picture. But for now, I’m going to enjoy living with and thinking over what I’ve seen so far. And I’m going to trust that no matter how crazy Fringe's fourth season gets, the writers are going to keep bringing everything back to less mind-bending questions\". Some reviewers questioned the logic of Peter having never existed, though others expressed their trust in the writers' ability to make it work.\n\nThe Futon Critic and TV.com staff highlighted \"The Day We Died\" as one of the best television episodes of the 2010–11 United States network television schedule. Likewise, Give Me My Remote contributor Marisa Rothman ranked \"The Day We Died\" one of the best episodes of the year, explaining \"Between Walter's eventual reunion with his loved ones and Olivia's tragic demise, few episodes were as heartbreaking as 'The Day We Died'...not to mention, no episode shocked me as much with a plot twist. (I literally bolted up in my seat when Peter vanished into thin air after creating a bridge between the universes.)\" Entertainment Weekly included the episode's ending in their list of television's best cliffhangers of 2011, and later named it the sixteenth best episode of the series. Time gave \"The Day We Died\" an honorable mention on their list of the best episodes of the season.\n\n### Awards and nominations\n\nAt the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards, John Noble submitted \"The Day We Died\", along with \"Entrada\" and \"The Firefly\", for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category, but did not receive a nomination. At the 2012 Golden Reel Awards, \"The Day We Died\" received nominations in the categories \"Best Sound Editing: Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television\" and \"Best Sound Editing: Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television\" from the Motion Picture Sound Editors. It lost in both categories, the former to the Raising Hope episode \"Prodigy\", the latter to the pilot episode of the HBO television series Game of Thrones.", "revid": "1161305883", "description": null, "categories": ["2011 American television episodes", "Fringe (season 3) episodes", "Television episodes written by Akiva Goldsman"]}
{"id": "248130", "url": null, "title": "John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu", "text": "John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu (c. 1431 – 14 April 1471) was a major magnate of fifteenth-century England. He was a younger son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, and the younger brother of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, the \"Kingmaker\".\n\nFrom an early age, he was involved in fighting for his House, particularly in the feud that sprang up in the 1450s with the Neville family's major regional rivals, the Percy family. John Neville was personally responsible for much of the violence until, with his brothers, they defeated and imprisoned their enemies. This was taking place against the backdrop of a crisis in central government. The king, Henry VI, already known to be a weak ruler, suffered a mental collapse which led to a protectorate headed by John's uncle, Richard, Duke of York. Within two years an armed conflict had broken out, with York openly in rebellion against the king, and his Neville cousins supporting him. John fought with his father and Warwick against the king at the first Battle of St Albans, at which they had the victory.\n\nFollowing a few years of uneasy peace, the Yorkists' rebellion erupted once again, and John Neville fought alongside his father and elder brother Thomas at the Battle of Blore Heath in September 1459. Although the Earl of Salisbury fought off the Lancastrians, both his sons were captured, and John, with Thomas, spent the next year imprisoned. Following his release in 1460, he took part in the Yorkist government. His father and brother died in battle just after Christmas 1460, and in February the next year, John – now promoted to the peerage as Lord Montagu – and Warwick fought the Lancastrians again at St Albans. John was once again captured and not released until his cousin Edward, York's son, won a decisive victory at Towton in March 1461, and became King Edward IV.\n\nJohn Neville soon emerged, with Warwick, as representatives of the king's power in the north, which was still politically turbulent, as there were still a large number of Lancastrians on the loose attempting to raise a rebellion against the new regime. As his brother Warwick became more involved in national politics and central government, it devolved to John to finally defeat the last remnants of Lancastrians in 1464. Following these victories, Montagu, in what has been described as a high point for his House, was created Earl of Northumberland. At around the same time, however, his brother Warwick became increasingly dissatisfied with his relationship with the king, and began instigating rebellions against Edward IV in the north, finally capturing him in July 1469. At first, Montagu helped suppress this discontent, and also encouraged Warwick to release Edward. Eventually, however, his brother went into French exile with the king's brother George, Duke of Clarence, in March 1470.\n\nDuring Warwick's exile, King Edward stripped Montagu of the Earldom of Northumberland, making him Marquis of Montagu instead. John Neville appears to have seen this as a reduction in rank, and accepted it with poor grace. He seems particularly to have complained about the lack of landed estate that his new marquisate brought with it, calling it a \"pie's nest\". When the Earl of Warwick and Clarence returned, they distracted Edward with a rebellion in the north, which the king ordered Montagu to raise troops to repress in the king's name. Montagu, however, having raised a small army, turned against Edward, almost capturing him at Olney, Buckinghamshire; the king, with his other brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, fled into exile in Burgundy.\n\nWhile in exile, Warwick had allied with the old king, Henry VI and his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, Henry was restored to the throne, and Warwick now effectively ruled the kingdom, This return to Lancastrianism did not, however, last long; within the year, Edward and Gloucester had returned. Landing only a few miles from Montagu in Yorkshire – who did nothing to stop them – the Yorkists marched south, raising an army. Montagu followed them, and, meeting up with his brother at Coventry, they confronted Edward over a battlefield at Barnet. John Neville was cut down in the fighting, Warwick died soon after, and within a month Edward had reclaimed his throne and Henry VI and his line was extinguished.\n\n## Youth and early career\n\nMontagu was the third son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, and Alice Montacute, 5th Countess of Salisbury, and a younger brother of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, \"the Kingmaker.\"\n\nJohn Neville's upbringing and career was entwined with that of the north of England and specifically, the marcher areas, the eastern and western borders between Scotland and England, controlled from Berwick and Carlisle respectively. His early activity there consisted of diplomatic meetings with the Scots, at which he acted as a witness, between 1449 and 1451. He was also one of three men who were instructed, in a letter of 3 February 1449, to not attend the forthcoming parliament and remain in the north guarding the border. He was knighted by King Henry VI at Greenwich on 5 January 1453, alongside Edmund and Jasper Tudor, his brother Thomas Neville, William Herbert, Roger Lewknor, and William Catesby.\n\n### Feud with the Percys\n\nSir John Neville was from the branch of the Neville family based at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire, rather than that of Westmorland. It has been claimed that he, as a \"landless younger son\" was partially to blame for his family's long-running feud with the Lancastrian Percy family of Northumberland. The first outburst of violence that took place was a result of the 1 May 1453 royal licence for John Neville's brother, Thomas Neville to marry Maud Stanhope being issued. News of this must have reached the north within the fortnight, for by the twelfth, one of the Earl of Northumberland's younger sons, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, began recruiting men. In August 1453, John Neville raided the Percy castle of Topcliffe, possibly with the intention of seizing Egremont. Failing to find him, Neville resorted to threatening the Percy tenantry who were in residence. He and Egremont were subsequently summoned to appear before the Royal Council, a summons which was ignored by both. Feuding continued through summer 1453, and even though they had been instructed to keep the peace, by 27 July, the council was issuing letters to Northumberland and Salisbury regarding their sons. This was followed by more letters to the sons. In Knaresborough, the locals generally aligned themselves with John Neville due to the unpopularity of Sir William Plumpton (the king's man), from whom they began stealing with impunity, which resulted in severe injuries when the Neville brothers demonstrated a \"show of force\" in January 1454.\n\nJohn Neville was with his brother's wedding party when Egremont ambushed them on the return from Tattershall Castle. This took place on Heworth Moor on 24 August 1453. The next month, John took a raiding party and ransacked Egremont's Catton manor, \"breaking windows and shattering tiles.\" With his brothers, Thomas and Richard, as well as the Earl of Salisbury, they faced the Earl of Northumberland and his sons at Topcliffe on 20 October 1453, although a peace was then negotiated. The feud continued for much of the next year, and only came to a halt with a battle at Salisbury's manor of Stamford Bridge, near York on 31 October 1454. Thomas and John confronted, and decisively beat, Egremont and Richard Percy, whom the Nevilles captured.\n\n## Marriage\n\nJohn Neville married Isabel Ingoldsthorpe (c.1441 – 20 May 1476), of Burrough Green and Sawston, Cambridgeshire, on 25 April 1457; Archbishop Thomas Bourchier officiated the marriage at Canterbury Cathedral. Isabel was not only the heiress of her father, Sir Edmund Ingoldsthorpe (who had died on 2 September 1456), but also the heiress of her maternal uncle, John Tiptoft and his Earldom of Worcester. It may have been that Earl of Worcester had engineered the match. A letter to John Paston on 1 May 1457 described how \"the Erle [of Warwick's] yonger broþere maryed to Ser Edmund Ynglthorp's doughter upon Seynt Markes Day; the Erle of Worcestre broght aboute the maryage.\" She was a greater heiress than might have been expected for a youngest son like John. John was granted seven southern manors by his father and mother, the Earl and Countess of Salisbury, for his part.\n\nJohn Neville's marriage caused a dispute with Queen Margaret: even though Isabel was over fourteen years old (and therefore of legal age), the Queen claimed that Isabel was still her ward. As a result, Queen Margaret insisted that John pay her a fine for his marriage to Isabel: he was bound to pay her £1,000 in ten instalments.\n\n## Wars of the Roses\n\nThe king had become incapacitated in August 1453, which had led to the Duke of York being appointed protector and controlling the government. By Christmas of 1454, however, King Henry had recovered from his illness, which removed the basis for York's authority. Having reconvened the court at Westminster by mid-April 1455, Henry and a select council of nobles decided to hold a great council at Leicester. York and the Nevilles anticipated that Somerset would bring charges against them at this assembly. John Neville included, they gathered an armed retinue and marched to stop the royal party from reaching Leicester, intercepting them at St Albans.\n\nAlthough only a small affray, it resulted in the deaths of some important people; viz. the Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland, and Lord Clifford. It has been suggested that, whilst Somerset might have been targeted by York, the latter too might have been intentionally slain by the Neville brothers. It was John who, after the battle, appears to have been responsible for the victorious Duke of York removing Sir William Skipwith from the household offices the latter held of the Duke. Neville was said to have achieved this by pointing out how Skipwith failed to join York in battle; John Neville subsequently shared in the profits of York's redistribution of Skipwith's ex-offices.\n\nIn December 1456, the new Duke of Somerset tried to attack John Neville in London's Cheapside; Somerset had already attempted something similar to John's brother Warwick the previous month. John's encounter, reported contemporary chroniclers, would have become a \"skirmish\" if the mayor had not intervened. As it had been John who had \"spearheaded\" the Neville retaliation to the Percies during their feud, Salisbury entered into a bond for Thomas and John's behaviour on 23 March 1458. John, however, continued to receive commissions from the government. He was part of a delegation of twenty-two Ambassadors nominated to discuss breaches of the Truce with Burgundy on 14 May that year, and two months later he was investigating the murder of a royal serjeant. In 1459, he was appointed steward of the Honour of Pontefract.\n\nReconciliation between the crown and the sons of the dead lords of St Albans on the one half and of York and his Neville allies did not last, however. In mid-September 1459, the Earl of Salisbury, intending to meet York at the latter's castle at Ludlow, marched south from Middleham Castle with his household, retainers, and a force of around five-thousand men. John and Thomas were with him. Salisbury's force was engaged by a much larger royal army under the command of Lord Audley on 23 September at Blore Heath, near Mucklestone, Staffordshire. Even though he had numerical superiority the result was a defeat for Audley, who was killed. However at some point John Neville – along with his brother Thomas and their father's retainer James Harrington were captured. This might have occurred in their pursuit of fleeing Lancastrians the next day or alternatively they may have been injured in battle and had been sent home. Either way, captured at Acton Bridge near Tarporley, Cheshire, the four were imprisoned in Chester Castle.\n\nJohn Neville was not released until July 1460. As a result, he was not present at the Yorkists' rout at the Battle of Ludford Bridge, which resulted in his father and brother's exile in Calais. He had still been attainted at the Parliament of Devils in October 1459 and only restored in August the next year. He was not released until June that year, and remained in London during York's return from exile, and his claiming of the throne. On 1 November 1460, York appointed John the king's Chamberlain for a crown-wearing ceremony at St Paul's Cathedral. He stayed in London as word arrived that Lancastrians were gathering an army in the north; York, Salisbury, and John's brother Thomas marched north to confront them. On 30 December 1460, they went down to a crushing defeat outside York's castle at Sandal, at the Battle of Wakefield where York and Thomas were killed, and Salisbury captured and beheaded the next day.\n\nJohn Neville appears to have been Lieutenant of the castle of Calais, whilst Warwick served as its Captain. During the Protector's absence that winter, and after York's and Salisbury's death, alongside his brothers Warwick and George (the Chancellor) Neville was part of the head of government.\n\n## Elevation to the peerage and war in the north\n\nAccording to Benet's Chronicle, John Neville was elevated to the peerage as Lord Montagu in the January 1461 parliament. It was also at this parliament that he presented a petition, regarding his wife, in which he reiterated that in common law women receive livery of their lands at fourteen years of age, and he requested parliament to reaffirm this. In February he was elected to the Order of the Garter. He was installed on 21 March 1462, when he took his father's choir stall in Windsor Castle's St. George's Chapel.\n\nBy February 1461 Queen Margaret's army was marching south. Warwick and John, with their \"frantically raised\" army, collected the King and marched north to confront the Queen's army on the Great North Road. The two armies met on 17 February at the Second Battle of St Albans – this time, just outside the town. In the resulting encounter, Warwick was \"outflanked and now outmatched,\" whereas John seems to have kept his army together up until the point the King's person was regained by the Lancastrians. Montagu commanded the left flank of the Yorkist army, which itself was subdivided into a group of archers in the town itself, with the majority posted on Bernards Heath, stretching eastwards towards Warwick's vanguard. This \"bloody and bitter encounter\" saw Warwick and John's army defeated. The Earl escaped; Montagu was captured and sent to York Castle.\n\nIt seems probable that he escaped execution after the battle because, as the Milanese Ambassador wrote, \"a brother of my lord of Somerset is a prisoner [of Warwick's] at Calais.\"\n\nAs a result of his capture and imprisonment in York, Montagu escaped participation in the biggest and probably bloodiest battle of the Wars of the Roses which took place on 29 March 1461 at Towton in Yorkshire. This decisive Yorkist victory led to Montagu being released the next day, when the son of the Duke of York – and England's de facto new king – Edward IV entered York in triumph. Montagu and Warwick then stayed in the north to attempt the recapture of northern castles still in Lancastrian hands; as John Gillingham has put it, \"the unfinished military business would have to be left to the Nevilles.\" And on 10 May 1461 Montagu was commissioned to raise troops against both the Lancastrian remnants and the king of Scotland. One of Montagu's first actions was to successfully raise the siege of Carlisle, \"with prompt action.\" Carlisle had had its suburbs burnt and been under siege from June by a Scottish-Lancastrian force, but was easily relieved by him, apparently killing 6,000 Scots and Lord Clifford's brother in the process, before Warwick had even arrived.\n\nThe military campaign that followed was focused on the recapture of strategically vital castles on the Northumbrian border. Alnwick Castle was commanded by a shell keep, to which extra towers had been added, as well as to the curtain wall, with a solid barbican and gatehouse. Bamburgh Castle was on a high spur ridge with three baileys, a large keep, and fortified gateways. Dunstanburgh Castle stood on a dolerite spur which had the sheer drop of a cliff on one side. Montagu besieged Bamburgh, the most important of these northern bulwarks, due to its distance from London and proximity to Scotland. By 26 December 1462, when the garrison surrendered, they \"had been reduced to eating their horses.\"\n\nMontagu joined Warwick in escorting the chariot of six horses in the funeral cortege conveying the mortal remains of their father and brother from Pontefract Castle to the family mausoleum at Bisham Abbey, on 14–15 February 1463. On 6 May he was appointed Warden of the Eastern March; Warwick was his counterpart on the western marches. Later that year, he led an expedition to Norham Castle, which had been besieged by the Scots for the previous eighteen days, and relieved it on 26 July; this was followed by a Chevauchée into Scotland which only ceased when Montagu's force ran out of supplies.\n\n### Royal patronage\n\nIn the meantime though, John received the first royal patronage of the reign, being granted the royal gold and silver mines in Devon and Cornwall worth £110 annually, for life. This was followed by duty payments from York and Kingston upon Hull and manors belonging to the dead Lancastrian Viscount Beaumont. In June 1461 he received the wardship of Edward Tiptoft, the heir of John Tiptoft, during his minority, and also the lands of Lord Clifford (who had died at Ferrybridge in a sharp encounter the night before Towton). Professor A. J. Pollard has noted, ironically, that Neville \"had to earn his rewards.\" In 1462 he was appointed Steward of the Household of the Palatinate of Durham, for which he received around £40 a year. This was twice the salary his legally-trained and \"non-noble\" successors would receive from the Bishop in later years, and has been described as a \"unique post.\"\n\n## Hexham and Hedgeley Moor\n\nIn spite of Montagu's and Warwick's northern successes in the years following Towton, a not-insubstantial Lancastrian army was still active in the area; it had been slowly re-taking castles, like Bamburgh, Langley, Norham, and Prudhoe Castles, between February and March 1464. This threatened Newcastle, a major Yorkist supply centre. Local Lancastrians were returning to their estates, such as the Cliffords, who regained their castle at Skipton Craven with no royal response, military or otherwise. They \"virtually controlled most of the country immediately south of the Scottish border\", wrote Charles Ross, although very few local gentry directly supported them. The situation was severe enough that in April 1464 he was too occupied with the northern situation to travel to London, and was exempted from attending the Order of the Garter Chapter meeting on the 29th of the month. He has been described as the king's 'resident commander' in the north and a \"confident and aggressive commander.\"\n\nIn early 1464, the Lancastrians having coalesced in the East March, the ongoing peace negotiations with the Scots were moved from Newcastle to York. Montagu was sent to escort their embassy through now-unfriendly territory. On his way to pick them up at Norham, he only avoided an ambush near Newcastle, by a small force of eighty spear and bowmen under Sir Humphrey Neville, by changing his route.\n\nThe Scottish embassy he eventually collected at Norham had been delayed, and it was on the return journey that the Duke of Somerset with Lords Roos and Hungerford, Sir Richard Turnstall, and Sir Thomas Findern and the bulk of the Lancastrian army (approximately 5,000 men) ambushed Montagu at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor on 25 April 1464. The assault failed, and left Sir Ralph Percy dead on the field.\n\nMontagu, having delivered the Scottish embassy to Newcastle, left there on 14 May, either with Lords Greystoke and Willoughby or picking them up en route with other supporters, to seek out the Lancastrians. The next day, at Hexham – having crossed the Tyne \"either at Bulwell or Corbridge\" – he attacked the rebels in their camp which was on the south side of Devil's Water river. Montagu, his army swelled with new recruits from Newcastle, and men raised by Montagu's brother, the Archbishop of York, may have had up to 10,000 men. Leading his army \"forward at the charge,\" Montagu's attack soon became a rout, with the Lancastrian army dissolving and attempting escape over the bridge. Lords Roos, Hungerford, Findern, and Tallboys survived the battle only to be executed, on Montagu's order – and probably in his presence – with the Duke of Somerset in Newcastle. Following Hexham, Montagu ordered the largest number of beheadings the civil wars had yet seen.\n\n### Earl of Northumberland\n\nIn May 1464, Hexham, Langley and Bywell castles surrendered to Montagu. Eight days later, on 27 May, he was created Earl of Northumberland, while Henry Percy was imprisoned in the Tower. The Earldom gave an income of between £700 and £1,000 a year. This, wrote Cora L. Scofield, was his reward for his decisive victories, since the Crown \"had played no direct part in them.\" That summer Montagu recaptured the three Northumberland castles – Dunstanburgh, Alnwick, and Bamburgh – that had been previously lost. Later that year – the \"high watermark of his House, the zenith of the Nevilles\" – Montagu's brother George was appointed Archbishop of York, with John his Treasurer at his enthronement feast. During the feast, John's wife Isabel, sat at the children's table, supervising Warwick's two daughters and the young Duke of Gloucester.\n\n## Later years\n\nFollowing the final crushing of the Lancastrian resistance, Montagu's role focussed on diplomacy and peacekeeping. In June 1465 he was commissioned to contract marriages \"between English and Scottish subjects\" as well as to treat for perpetual peace with Scotland, as a result of which, Montagu returned the captured Duke of Albany to Scotland, for which he was paid fifty marks. It was during this time (Hicks has suggested around January 1465) that Montagu and Lord Scales were requested by the Duke of Brittany to accompany a force of 3,000 Breton archers supplied by him, for the League of the Public Weal against Louis XI of France. However, due to commitments in the north with Warwick, Montagu ended up taking no part in this campaign.\n\nIn 1465 Montagu received the main grant of the Percy Earldom of Northumberland estates, and on 25 March the following year he was granted the constableships and honours of Knaresborough and Pontefract Castles, which Warwick and before him their father had previously held, and also the castles of Tickhill, Snaith, and Dunstanburgh. This was to repay his arrears in back wages from his Wardenship of the East March, from an indenture of 1 June 1463. On the same day he was made Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster (north of the Trent), and it was from the profits of the duchy that his wages were coming from, amounting to approximately £1,000.\n\n### Warden of the Marches\n\nThe Wardens were the military guardians of the border from the late fourteenth century, and their salaries made them the highest-paid among Crown officers, but this was inclusive of the cost of raising troops and maintaining defence. This has also been described as controlling \"private armies raised at the Crown's expense.\" By the mid-fifteenth century, the Wardenship of the East March was the most important of the two northern marcher lordships. Marcher Wardens were granted the right to recruit by their being \"explicitly\" exempted from the 1468 Statute of Livery, which restrained- or attempted to restrain- retaining. Montagu, however, was allowed to continue retaining in times of peace as well as war. At this point Humphrey Neville was still on the run, and Montagu required troops to be raised on various occasions; in 1467, for example, Beverley sent him troops to deal with Humphrey's resistance.\n\n### Warwick's rebellion\n\nIn 1467, as part of his brother's plan for a closer relationship with the French, John and Isabelle accompanied Warwick in escorting the French King's envoys to Canterbury. However, by this time, it was being rumoured that Warwick was moving towards supporting the House of Lancaster, as a result of dissatisfaction over the king's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and his pursuit of an anti-French foreign policy. In 1469, Warwick organised Robin of Redesdale's rebellion against Edward IV in Yorkshire and in July that year the king's brother George, Duke of Clarence married Warwick's daughter Isabelle whilst anchored off Calais; this was in direct defiance of the king's own wishes. It seems that Montagu, however, reacted strongly against his brother's machinations, and, unlike him, was satisfied with his current position.\n\nOn 27 October 1469, Henry Percy had taken his oath of fealty to the King, and had been released from the Tower. The following year saw the return of Robin of Redesdale and another rebellion on behalf of Warwick. Montagu was forced to come down from the Scottish border to suppress it; this he did, but, one historian has suggested, albeit that he \"allowed the leaders to escape ... ensuring that the rebellion could rise again\" at a more opportune moment. Almost immediately, Montagu was forced to crush another rebellion, this time led by a Robin of Holderness, but calling for the return of Percy to the Northumberland Earldom. The Redesdale rebels soon reformed into an army big enough to march south and defeat a royal force at the Battle of Edgcote on 24 July 1469.King Edward still accepted that Montagu was uninvolved in his brother's rebellion, and in the event, Montagu was the only Neville to accompany the king on his journey from the north back to London.\n\nHowever, it was while Edward was in York that he ordered the rehabilitation of Henry Percy to his family Earldom on 25/27 March 1470. On the same day John was elevated to the Marquessate of Montagu, and now outranked his brother, an Earl, in the English peerage. Historians have since questioned, however, whether his new title had the gravitas that his previous Earldom had had, and have even suggested that the king was \"walking a tightrope\" as to whether Montagu would actually accept it or not. To compensate him for the loss of the Percy estates Montagu was granted the lands of the dead Earl of Devon, and Montagu's son, George was created Duke of Bedford. These were substantial estates, providing an income of at least £600 per annum. Montagu was to be the new regional magnate – as he had been in the north – to fill an existing power vacuum.\n\n## Rebellion and death\n\nMontagu, though, was not happy with the new arrangements, and King Edward has been held responsible for turning Montagu from a friend to an enemy. Warkworth's Chronicle describes him as condemning these grants to him as \"a [mag]pyes] nest.\" Montagu had been on the Scottish border since at least January 1470. Following unrest in Lincolnshire and the subsequent Lincolnshire rebellion, the king marched from London to crush the rising. This he did at the Battle of Empingham. Following the battle, Edward headed north where he was met by Montagu and Northumberland at Doncaster. Warwick and Clarence's involvement in the Lincolnshire uprising had by now been established, and they fled to Calais. Further trouble broke out in the summer of 1470 in the north, with friends and relatives of Warwick in open rebellion. The new Earl of Northumberland was unable to put down these risings, so the king, once again marched north to deal with it personally. Modern historians generally consider that these rebellions were a deliberate trap, instigated by Warwick and Clarence from Calais. On 24 June 1470 the Wardenship of the East March was stripped from Montagu and given to Percy. Edward was still in the north with Percy when he received word that Warwick and Clarence had landed in Dartmouth.\n\nAt Doncaster, the king awaited Montagu, who was in the north raising a substantial force in Edward's name. Edward waited; but on 29 September 1470, marching to the King, Montagu declared for Warwick. His last-minute, surprise defection from the king has been called \"decisive\". The king was trapped; disbanding his army, and with a few followers, he escaped to Bishop's Lynn, sailing for Burgundy on 2 October.\n\n### Readeption of Henry VI\n\nOn 3 October, with Edward IV in exile, Henry VI was released from the Tower and returned to the throne by Warwick. Almost immediately, Montagu was granted the wardship of the executed Earl of Worcester's heir and estates, as well as of the young Lord Clifford. He was reappointed to the Wardenship of the East March, with its salary, on 22 October 1470.\n\nHowever, Montagu did not profit from the new regime as he probably expected to. He did not regain the Earldom of Northumberland. Further, he lost some of the Courtney lands that had come with his Marquessate to the newly returned Earl of Devon. Montagu had no active role in government, and does not seem to have sat in Council, although he was appointed Chamberlain to the King's Household. Although he was confirmed in command of the new King's forces in the north and in possession of the manor of Wressle on 21 March 1471, he did not regain any other Percy estates. Indeed, it has been suggested that his loyalty might still have been suspected by the newly arrived Lancastrians: having been summoned to the November 1470 parliament, Polydor Virgil states that he had to apologise there for his prior support of Edward. Montagu even had to pay cash for the king's pardon, which he only received after making a lengthy speech, declaring that he had only remained faithful to Edward out of fear.\n\nMontagu, having responsibility for the defence of the north, received various commissions of array, which reflected the government's knowledge that King Edward was equipping a Burgundian-backed fleet in order to re-invade. Montagu was to raise men from all across the north. On 14 March 1471, King Edward landed at Ravenspur, on the coast of Yorkshire; he had intended to land in East Anglia, but this had been established as being unsafe. Montagu, it has been suggested, could have \"snuffed out\" Edward's army almost immediately had he moved fast enough. Montagu was in Pontefract Castle as Edward passed by (where even his castle bailiff deserted him for the returning king, taking the castle's funds with him). Montagu's army, composed of local militias, was probably in the region of several thousand men, between 6,000 and 7,000, and increased as he trailed Edward south. Montagu arrived at Coventry, where the Earl of Warwick was camped, in early April 1471; this was probably the day after Clarence had defected back to his brother Edward, and taken his army with him.\n\n### Battle of Barnet Heath\n\nBy 12 April 1471, Montagu, with his brother Warwick and the Duke of Exeter, the Earl of Oxford, and Viscount Beaumont were approaching London with their army.\n\nEdward, having arrived in London on 11 April and been reunited with his queen, met Montagu and Warwick a few miles north of London, outside the village of Barnet. It is possible that he commanded a smaller army, perhaps of only 9,000 men, and probably no more than 14,000.\n\nThe battle on 14 April was a \"confused affair\" and fought in fog. It has been suggested that it was Montagu who persuaded Warwick to fight on foot at Barnet, leaving the horses tethered at the rear, in order to demonstrate their commitment to the cause by taking the same risks as the common soldier. Montagu probably controlled the central section of Warwick's army, facing Edward's own section, on the Great North Road from Barnet to St. Albans. Warkworth's Chronicle states that Warwick had an army of 20,000 men and that the battle beginning at 0400, lasted until ten o'clock that morning. Contemporaries have favourably described Montagu's martial skill at Barnet. Philippe de Commines called him \"a very courageous knight,\" and the Burgundian observer Jean de Waurin wrote that, in the thick of the fighting, Montagu was \"cutting off arms and heads like a hero of romance.\"\n\nThe Earl of Oxford, commanding the right wing of the Neville army, broke the opposing Yorkist line, under William, Lord Hastings, early in the battle. Oxford's men proceeded to chase the fleeing soldiers, and ended up looting away from the battlefield. Oxford managed to regroup his men, but, returning to the battlefield, as James Ross has put it, \"disaster struck\". In the time he and his force had been absent, the line of battle had shifted almost ninety degrees, so instead of returning to attack Edward's rear, he crashed into Montagu's section. The fog prevented identification, and Oxford's men fought with Montagu's. Montagu may, one chronicler suggests, have mistakenly seen Oxford's \"Streaming star\" banner as the king's \"Sunne in splendour,\" and thus believe that the Earl had gone over to York. Recently though, one historian has pointed out that, in fact, Oxford had never previously used such a cognizance, and it was more prosaically just a case of men confused by fog.\n\nAt some point, possibly around this time, Montagu was killed; he was certainly dead before his brother. The Arrivall chronicler states this occurred \"in plain battle,\" and in the thick of the fighting, rather than in the rout that later followed.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nThe bodies of Warwick and Montagu were laid out \"on the morrow after\" and \"openly shewed and naked\" in St. Paul's, to prevent rumour stating that they had in fact survived the battle; Warkworth too said that the King personally directed this, and arranged for the corpses \"to be put in a cart ... to be laid in the church of Paul's, on the pavement, that every man might see them; and so they lay for three or four days\" before granting permission to their brother George for their burial at Bisham Priory.\n\n## Issue\n\nBy his wife Isabel Ingoldsthorpe (c.1441-1476), daughter and heiress of Sir Edmund Ingaldsthorpe (d.1456) of Burrough Green and Sawston, Cambridgeshire (who survived him and remarried, on 25 April 1472 (as his second wife), to Sir William Norreys of Yattendon), he had a son and five daughters:\n\n- George Neville, Duke of Bedford (c. 1461–1483), eldest son and heir. It appears that Montagu had wanted to marry George to Anne Holland, heiress of Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter; however by 1466 she had already married Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset . He died without issue, having been stripped of his dukedom in 1478.\n- Anne Neville, eldest daughter, who married Sir William Stonor of Stonor in Pyrton, Oxfordshire, a grandson of William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk.\n- Elizabeth Neville, who married firstly Thomas Scrope, 6th Baron Scrope of Masham, a dedicated Yorkist, and secondly Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlestead.\n- Margaret Neville, who married firstly Sir John Mortimer (died before 12 November 1504), only son of Sir Hugh Mortimer and Eleanor Cornwall; secondly Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk (marriage annulled 1507), and thirdly Robert Downes, Gentleman.\n- Lucy Neville (died 1534), who married firstly Sir Thomas FitzWilliam of Aldwark, North Yorkshire, and secondly Sir Anthony Browne. After 1485, her loyalty to the Tudors was always deeply suspect, and she was noted in official reports as \"one who loves not the King (Henry VII)\".\n- Isabel Neville, who married firstly Sir William Huddleston of Millom, Cumberland (an important regional family and old allies of the Nevilles), and secondly Sir William Smythe of Elford in Staffordshire.\n\n### Arms\n\nMontagu took for his crest \"a griffin issuing from a ducal crown\". His coat of arms was the Neville \"Gules a saltire argent\" with a label \"gobony argent and azure crescent\" for differencing, as a younger son, being a reference to the arms of Beaufort (Neville arms with label compony of Beaufort, borne as a difference to the paternal Neville arms (Gules, a saltire argent) by the descendants of the second marriage of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland (d.1425) to Joan Beaufort, a legitimised daughter of John of Gaunt, 4th son of King Edward III). This coat, when he was made Marquis of Montagu, was later augmented with further quarterings.", "revid": "1162997947", "description": "English nobleman", "categories": ["1430s births", "1471 deaths", "15th-century English nobility", "Barons Montagu", "Burials at Bisham Abbey", "Earls of Northumberland", "English military personnel killed in action", "Knights of the Garter", "Marquesses in the Peerage of England", "Neville family", "People of the Wars of the Roses", "Younger sons of earls"]}
{"id": "48259106", "url": null, "title": "Transfer function matrix", "text": "In control system theory, and various branches of engineering, a transfer function matrix, or just transfer matrix is a generalisation of the transfer functions of single-input single-output (SISO) systems to multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) systems. The matrix relates the outputs of the system to its inputs. It is a particularly useful construction for linear time-invariant (LTI) systems because it can be expressed in terms of the s-plane.\n\nIn some systems, especially ones consisting entirely of passive components, it can be ambiguous which variables are inputs and which are outputs. In electrical engineering, a common scheme is to gather all the voltage variables on one side and all the current variables on the other regardless of which are inputs or outputs. This results in all the elements of the transfer matrix being in units of impedance. The concept of impedance (and hence impedance matrices) has been borrowed into other energy domains by analogy, especially mechanics and acoustics.\n\nMany control systems span several different energy domains. This requires transfer matrices with elements in mixed units. This is needed both to describe transducers that make connections between domains and to describe the system as a whole. If the matrix is to properly model energy flows in the system, compatible variables must be chosen to allow this.\n\n## General\n\nA MIMO system with m outputs and n inputs is represented by a m × n matrix. Each entry in the matrix is in the form of a transfer function relating an output to an input. For example, for a three-input, two-output system, one might write,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} y_1 \\\\\\\\ y_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} g\\_{11} & g\\_{12} & g\\_{13} \\\\\\\\ g\\_{21} & g\\_{22} & g\\_{23} \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} u_1 \\\\\\\\ u_2 \\\\\\\\ u_3 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhere the u<sub>n</sub> are the inputs, the y<sub>m</sub> are the outputs, and the g<sub>mn</sub> are the transfer functions. This may be written more succinctly in matrix operator notation as,\n\n$\\mathbf Y = \\mathbf G \\mathbf U$\n\nwhere Y is a column vector of the outputs, G is a matrix of the transfer functions, and U is a column vector of the inputs.\n\nIn many cases, the system under consideration is a linear time-invariant (LTI) system. In such cases, it is convenient to express the transfer matrix in terms of the Laplace transform (in the case of continuous time variables) or the z-transform (in the case of discrete time variables) of the variables. This may be indicated by writing, for instance,\n\n$\\mathbf Y (s) = \\mathbf G (s) \\mathbf U (s)$\n\nwhich indicates that the variables and matrix are in terms of s, the complex frequency variable of the s-plane arising from Laplace transforms, rather than time. The examples in this article are all assumed to be in this form, although that is not explicitly indicated for brevity. For discrete time systems s is replaced by z from the z-transform, but this makes no difference to subsequent analysis. The matrix is particularly useful when it is a proper rational matrix, that is, all its elements are proper rational functions. In this case the state-space representation can be applied.\n\nIn systems engineering, the overall system transfer matrix G (s) is decomposed into two parts: H (s) representing the system being controlled, and C(s) representing the control system. C (s) takes as its inputs the inputs of G (s) and the outputs of H (s). The outputs of C (s) form the inputs for H (s).\n\n## Electrical systems\n\nIn electrical systems it is often the case that the distinction between input and output variables is ambiguous. They can be either, depending on circumstance and point of view. In such cases the concept of port (a place where energy is transferred from one system to another) can be more useful than input and output. It is customary to define two variables for each port (p): the voltage across it (V<sub>p</sub>) and the current entering it (I<sub>p</sub>). For instance, the transfer matrix of a two-port network can be defined as follows,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\\\\\\\ V_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} z\\_{11} & z\\_{12} \\\\\\\\ z\\_{21} & z\\_{22} \\\\\\\\ \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\\\\\\\ I_2 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhere the z<sub>mn</sub> are called the impedance parameters, or z-parameters. They are so called because they are in units of impedance and relate port currents to a port voltage. The z-parameters are not the only way that transfer matrices are defined for two-port networks. There are six basic matrices that relate voltages and currents each with advantages for particular system network topologies. However, only two of these can be extended beyond two ports to an arbitrary number of ports. These two are the z-parameters and their inverse, the admittance parameters or y-parameters.\n\nTo understand the relationship between port voltages and currents and inputs and outputs, consider the simple voltage divider circuit. If we only wish to consider the output voltage (V<sub>2</sub>) resulting from applying the input voltage (V<sub>1</sub>) then the transfer function can be expressed as,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} \\dfrac{R_2}{R_1 + R_2} \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhich can be considered the trivial case of a 1×1 transfer matrix. The expression correctly predicts the output voltage if there is no current leaving port 2, but is increasingly inaccurate as the load increases. If, however, we attempt to use the circuit in reverse, driving it with a voltage at port 2 and calculate the resulting voltage at port 1 the expression gives completely the wrong result even with no load on port 1. It predicts a greater voltage at port 1 than was applied at port 2, an impossibility with a purely resistive circuit like this one. To correctly predict the behaviour of the circuit, the currents entering or leaving the ports must also be taken into account, which is what the transfer matrix does. The impedance matrix for the voltage divider circuit is,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\\\\\\\ V_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} R_1 + R_2 & R_2 \\\\\\\\ R_2 & R_2 \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\\\\\\\ I_2 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhich fully describes its behaviour under all input and output conditions.\n\nAt microwave frequencies, none of the transfer matrices based on port voltages and currents are convenient to use in practice. Voltage is difficult to measure directly, current next to impossible, and the open circuits and short circuits required by the measurement technique cannot be achieved with any accuracy. For waveguide implementations, circuit voltage and current are entirely meaningless. Transfer matrices using different sorts of variables are used instead. These are the powers transmitted into, and reflected from a port which are readily measured in the transmission line technology used in distributed-element circuits in the microwave band. The most well known and widely used of these sorts of parameters is the scattering parameters, or s-parameters.\n\n## Mechanical and other systems\n\nThe concept of impedance can be extended into the mechanical, and other domains through a mechanical-electrical analogy, hence the impedance parameters, and other forms of 2-port network parameters, can be extended to the mechanical domain also. To do this an effort variable and a flow variable are made analogues of voltage and current respectively. For mechanical systems under translation these variables are force and velocity respectively.\n\nExpressing the behaviour of a mechanical component as a two-port or multi-port with a transfer matrix is a useful thing to do because, like electrical circuits, the component can often be operated in reverse and its behaviour is dependent on the loads at the inputs and outputs. For instance, a gear train is often characterised simply by its gear ratio, a SISO transfer function. However, the gearbox output shaft can be driven round to turn the input shaft requiring a MIMO analysis. In this example the effort and flow variables are torque T and angular velocity ω respectively. The transfer matrix in terms of z-parameters will look like,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} T_1 \\\\\\\\ T_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} z\\_{11} & z\\_{12} \\\\\\\\ z\\_{21} & z\\_{22} \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} \\omega_1 \\\\\\\\ \\omega_2 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nHowever, the z-parameters are not necessarily the most convenient for characterising gear trains. A gear train is the analogue of an electrical transformer and the h-parameters (hybrid parameters) better describe transformers because they directly include the turns ratios (the analogue of gear ratios). The gearbox transfer matrix in h-parameter format is,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} T_1 \\\\\\\\ \\omega_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} h\\_{11} & h\\_{12} \\\\\\\\ h\\_{21} & h\\_{22} \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} \\omega_1 \\\\\\\\ T_2 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhere\n\nh<sub>21</sub> is the velocity ratio of the gear train with no load on the output,\n\nh<sub>12</sub> is the reverse direction torque ratio of the gear train with input shaft clamped, equal to the forward velocity ratio for an ideal gearbox,\n\nh<sub>11</sub> is the input rotational mechanical impedance with no load on the output shaft, zero for an ideal gearbox, and,\n\nh<sub>22</sub> is the output rotational mechanical admittance with the input shaft clamped.\n\nFor an ideal gear train with no losses (friction, distortion etc), this simplifies to,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} T_1 \\\\\\\\ \\omega_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} 0 & N \\\\\\\\ N & 0 \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} \\omega_1 \\\\\\\\ T_2 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhere N is the gear ratio.\n\n## Transducers and actuators\n\nIn a system that consists of multiple energy domains, transfer matrices are required that can handle components with ports in different domains. In robotics and mechatronics, actuators are required. These usually consist of a transducer converting, for instance, signals from the control system in the electrical domain into motion in the mechanical domain. The control system also requires sensors that detect the motion and convert it back into the electrical domain through another transducer so that the motion can be properly controlled through a feedback loop. Other sensors in the system may be transducers converting yet other energy domains into electrical signals, such as optical, audio, thermal, fluid flow and chemical. Another application is the field of mechanical filters which require transducers between the electrical and mechanical domains in both directions.\n\nA simple example is an electromagnetic electromechanical actuator driven by an electronic controller. This requires a transducer with an input port in the electrical domain and an output port in the mechanical domain. This might be represented simplistically by a SISO transfer function, but for similar reasons to those already stated, a more accurate representation is achieved with a two-input, two-output MIMO transfer matrix. In the z-parameters, this takes the form,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} V \\\\\\\\ F \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} z\\_{11} & z\\_{12} \\\\\\\\ z\\_{21} & z\\_{22} \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} I \\\\\\\\ v \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nwhere F is the force applied to the actuator and v is the resulting velocity of the actuator. The impedance parameters here are a mixture of units; z<sub>11</sub> is an electrical impedance, z<sub>22</sub> is a mechanical impedance and the other two are transimpedances in a hybrid mix of units.\n\n## Acoustic systems\n\nAcoustic systems are a subset of fluid dynamics, and in both fields the primary input and output variables are pressure, P, and volumetric flow rate, Q, except in the case of sound travelling through solid components. In the latter case, the primary variables of mechanics, force and velocity, are more appropriate. An example of a two-port acoustic component is a filter such as a muffler on an exhaust system. A transfer matrix representation of it may look like,\n\n<math>\n\n\\begin{bmatrix} P_2 \\\\\\\\ Q_2 \\end{bmatrix} = \\begin{bmatrix} T\\_{11} & T\\_{12} \\\\\\\\ T\\_{21} & T\\_{22} \\end{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} P_1 \\\\\\\\ Q_1 \\end{bmatrix} </math>\n\nHere, the T<sub>mn</sub> are the transmission parameters, also known as ABCD-parameters. The component can be just as easily described by the z-parameters, but transmission parameters have a mathematical advantage when dealing with a system of two-ports that are connected in a cascade of the output of one into the input port of another. In such cases the overall transmission parameters are found simply by the matrix multiplication of the transmission parameter matrices of the constituent components.\n\n## Compatible variables\n\nWhen working with mixed variables from different energy domains consideration needs to be given on which variables to consider analogous. The choice depends on what the analysis is intended to achieve. If it is desired to correctly model energy flows throughout the entire system then a pair of variables whose product is power (power conjugate variables) in one energy domain must map to power conjugate variables in other domains. Power conjugate variables are not unique so care needs to be taken to use the same mapping of variables throughout the system.\n\nA common mapping (used in some of the examples in this article) maps the effort variables (ones that initiate an action) from each domain together and maps the flow variables (ones that are a property of an action) from each domain together. Each pair of effort and flow variables is power conjugate. This system is known as the impedance analogy because a ratio of the effort to the flow variable in each domain is analogous to electrical impedance.\n\nThere are two other power conjugate systems on the same variables that are in use. The mobility analogy maps mechanical force to electric current instead of voltage. This analogy is widely used by mechanical filter designers and frequently in audio electronics also. The mapping has the advantage of preserving network topologies across domains but does not maintain the mapping of impedances. The Trent analogy classes the power conjugate variables as either across variables, or through variables depending on whether they act across an element of a system or through it. This largely ends up the same as the mobility analogy except in the case of the fluid flow domain (including the acoustics domain). Here pressure is made analogous to voltage (as in the impedance analogy) instead of current (as in the mobility analogy). However, force in the mechanical domain is analogous to current because force acts through an object.\n\nThere are some commonly used analogies that do not use power conjugate pairs. For sensors, correctly modelling energy flows may not be so important. Sensors often extract only tiny amounts of energy into the system. Choosing variables that are convenient to measure, particularly ones that the sensor is sensing, may be more useful. For instance, in the thermal resistance analogy, thermal resistance is considered analogous to electrical resistance, resulting in temperature difference and thermal power mapping to voltage and current respectively. The power conjugate of temperature difference is not thermal power, but rather entropy flow rate, something that cannot be directly measured. Another analogy of the same sort occurs in the magnetic domain. This maps magnetic reluctance to electrical resistance, resulting in magnetic flux mapping to current instead of magnetic flux rate of change as required for compatible variables.\n\n## History\n\nThe matrix representation of linear algebraic equations has been known for some time. Poincaré in 1907 was the first to describe a transducer as a pair of such equations relating electrical variables (voltage and current) to mechanical variables (force and velocity). Wegel, in 1921, was the first to express these equations in terms of mechanical impedance as well as electrical impedance.\n\nThe first use of transfer matrices to represent a MIMO control system was by Boksenbom and Hood in 1950, but only for the particular case of the gas turbine engines they were studying for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Cruickshank provided a firmer basis in 1955 but without complete generality. Kavanagh in 1956 gave the first completely general treatment, establishing the matrix relationship between system and control and providing criteria for realisability of a control system that could deliver a prescribed behaviour of the system under control.\n\n## See also\n\n- Transfer-matrix method (optics)", "revid": "1141502292", "description": "Matrix relating system inputs and outputs", "categories": ["Automation", "Control engineering", "Control theory", "Frequency-domain analysis", "Matrices", "Signal processing", "Systems engineering", "Systems theory", "Types of functions"]}
{"id": "6139438", "url": null, "title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System", "text": "The formation of the Solar System began about 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed.\n\nThis model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy, chemistry, geology, physics, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the Space Age in the 1950s and the discovery of exoplanets in the 1990s, the model has been both challenged and refined to account for new observations.\n\nThe Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are thought to have formed independently and later to have been captured by their planets. Still others, such as Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar System. Beyond Neptune, many sub-planet sized objects formed. Several thousand trans-Neptunian objects have been observed. Unlike the planets, these trans-Neptunian objects mostly move on eccentric orbits, inclined to the plane of the planets. The positions of the planets might have shifted due to gravitational interactions. Planetary migration may have been responsible for much of the Solar System's early evolution.\n\nIn roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter (becoming a red giant), before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, and others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it.\n\n## History\n\nIdeas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings; however, for almost all of that time, there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence of a \"Solar System\", simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System, in the sense we now understand it, existed. The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism, which placed the Sun at the centre of the system and the Earth in orbit around it. This concept had been developed for millennia (Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC), but was not widely accepted until the end of the 17th century. The first recorded use of the term \"Solar System\" dates from 1704.\n\nThe current standard theory for Solar System formation, the nebular hypothesis, has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century. The most significant criticism of the hypothesis was its apparent inability to explain the Sun's relative lack of angular momentum when compared to the planets. However, since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas, exactly as the nebular hypothesis predicts, which has led to its re-acceptance.\n\nUnderstanding of how the Sun is expected to continue to evolve required an understanding of the source of its power. Arthur Stanley Eddington's confirmation of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity led to his realisation that the Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion reactions in its core, fusing hydrogen into helium. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other elements also might form within stars. Fred Hoyle elaborated on this premise by arguing that evolved stars called red giants created many elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in their cores. When a red giant finally casts off its outer layers, these elements would then be recycled to form other star systems.\n\n## Formation\n\n### Presolar nebula\n\nThe nebular hypothesis says that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud, most likely at the edge of a Wolf-Rayet bubble. The cloud was about 20 parsecs (65 light years) across, while the fragments were roughly 1 parsec (three and a quarter light-years) across. The further collapse of the fragments led to the formation of dense cores 0.01–0.1 parsec (2,000–20,000 AU) in size. One of these collapsing fragments (known as the presolar nebula) formed what became the Solar System. The composition of this region with a mass just over that of the Sun () was about the same as that of the Sun today, with hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of lithium produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, forming about 98% of its mass. The remaining 2% of the mass consisted of heavier elements that were created by nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars. Late in the life of these stars, they ejected heavier elements into the interstellar medium. Some scientists have given the name Coatlicue to a hypothetical star that went supernova and created the presolar nebula.\n\nThe oldest inclusions found in meteorites, thought to trace the first solid material to form in the presolar nebula, are 4,568.2 million years old, which is one definition of the age of the Solar System. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that only form in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae occurred nearby. A shock wave from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating relatively dense regions within the cloud, causing these regions to collapse. The highly homogeneous distribution of iron-60 in the Solar System points to the occurrence of this supernova and its injection of iron-60 being well before the accretion of nebular dust into planetary bodies. Because only massive, short-lived stars produce supernovae, the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars, possibly similar to the Orion Nebula. Studies of the structure of the Kuiper belt and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1,000 and 10,000 stars with a diameter of between 6.5 and 19.5 light years and a collective mass of . This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close-passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produced anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as detached objects.\n\nBecause of the conservation of angular momentum, the nebula spun faster as it collapsed. As the material within the nebula condensed, the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency, converting their kinetic energy into heat. The center, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. Over about 100,000 years, the competing forces of gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation caused the contracting nebula to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of about 200 AU and form a hot, dense protostar (a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun) at the centre.\n\nAt this point in its evolution, the Sun is thought to have been a T Tauri star. Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of . These discs extend to several hundred AU—the Hubble Space Telescope has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star-forming regions such as the Orion Nebula—and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1,000 K (730 °C; 1,340 °F) at their hottest. Within 50  million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main-sequence star today.\n\nAs the early Solar System continued to evolve, it eventually drifted away from its siblings in the stellar nursery, and continued orbiting the Milky Way's center on its own. The Sun likely drifted from its original orbital distance from the center of the galaxy. The chemical history of the Sun suggests it may have formed as much as 3 kpc closer to the galaxy core.\n\n### Solar system birth environment\n\nLike most stars, the Sun likely formed not in isolation but as part of a young star cluster. There are several indications that hint at the cluster environment having had some influence of the young still forming solar. For example, the decline in mass beyond Neptune and the extreme eccentric-orbit of Sedna have been interpreted as a signature of the solar system having been influenced by its birth environment. Whether the presence of the isotopes iron-60 and aluminium-26 can be interpreted as a sign of a birth cluster containing massive stars is still under debate. If the Sun was part of a star cluster, it might have been influenced by close flybys of other stars, the strong radiation of nearby massive stars and ejecta from supernovae occurring close by.\n\n### Formation of the planets\n\nThe various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula, the disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun's formation. The currently accepted method by which the planets formed is accretion, in which the planets began as dust grains in orbit around the central protostar. Through direct contact and self-organization, these grains formed into clumps up to 200 m (660 ft) in diameter, which in turn collided to form larger bodies (planetesimals) of \\~10 km (6.2 mi) in size. These gradually increased through further collisions, growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years.\n\nThe inner Solar System, the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminium) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars). These compounds are quite rare in the Universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses () and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes.\n\nWhen terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. Pressure partially supported the gas and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting drag and, more importantly, gravitational interactions with the surrounding material caused a transfer of angular momentum, and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits.\n\nThe giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, which is the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed the Jovian planets were more abundant than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial planets, allowing the giant planets to grow massive enough to capture hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Planetesimals beyond the frost line accumulated up to within about 3 million years. Today, the four giant planets comprise just under 99% of all the mass orbiting the Sun. Theorists believe it is no accident that Jupiter lies just beyond the frost line. Because the frost line accumulated large amounts of water via evaporation from infalling icy material, it created a region of lower pressure that increased the speed of orbiting dust particles and halted their motion toward the Sun. In effect, the frost line acted as a barrier that caused the material to accumulate rapidly at \\~5 AU from the Sun. This excess material coalesced into a large embryo (or core) on the order of , which began to accumulate an envelope via accretion of gas from the surrounding disc at an ever-increasing rate. Once the envelope mass became about equal to the solid core mass, growth proceeded very rapidly, reaching about 150 Earth masses \\~10<sup>5</sup> years thereafter and finally topping out at . Saturn may owe its substantially lower mass simply to having formed a few million years after Jupiter, when there was less gas available to consume.\n\nT Tauri stars like the young Sun have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did, when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material. As a result, those planets accumulated little hydrogen and helium—not more than each. Uranus and Neptune are sometimes referred to as failed cores. The main problem with formation theories for these planets is the timescale of their formation. At the current locations it would have taken millions of years for their cores to accrete. This means that Uranus and Neptune may have formed closer to the Sun—near or even between Jupiter and Saturn—and later migrated or were ejected outward (see Planetary migration below). Motion in the planetesimal era was not all inward toward the Sun; the Stardust sample return from Comet Wild 2 has suggested that materials from the early formation of the Solar System migrated from the warmer inner Solar System to the region of the Kuiper belt.\n\nAfter between three and ten million years, the young Sun's solar wind would have cleared away all the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disc, blowing it into interstellar space, thus ending the growth of the planets.\n\n## Subsequent evolution\n\nThe planets were originally thought to have formed in or near their current orbits. This has been questioned during the last 20 years. Currently, many planetary scientists think that the Solar System might have looked very different after its initial formation: several objects at least as massive as Mercury may have been present in the inner Solar System, the outer Solar System may have been much more compact than it is now, and the Kuiper belt may have been much closer to the Sun.\n\n### Terrestrial planets\n\nAt the end of the planetary formation epoch, the inner Solar System was populated by 50–100 Moon- to Mars-sized protoplanets. Further growth was possible only because these bodies collided and merged, which took less than 100 million years. These objects would have gravitationally interacted with one another, tugging at each other's orbits until they collided, growing larger until the four terrestrial planets we know today took shape. One such giant collision is thought to have formed the Moon (see Moons below), while another removed the outer envelope of the young Mercury.\n\nOne unresolved issue with this model is that it cannot explain how the initial orbits of the proto-terrestrial planets, which would have needed to be highly eccentric to collide, produced the remarkably stable and nearly circular orbits they have today. One hypothesis for this \"eccentricity dumping\" is that terrestrials formed in a disc of gas still not expelled by the Sun. The \"gravitational drag\" of this residual gas would have eventually lowered the planets' energy, smoothing out their orbits. However, such gas, if it existed, would have prevented the terrestrial planets' orbits from becoming so eccentric in the first place. Another hypothesis is that gravitational drag occurred not between the planets and residual gas but between the planets and the remaining small bodies. As the large bodies moved through the crowd of smaller objects, the smaller objects, attracted by the larger planets' gravity, formed a region of higher density, a \"gravitational wake\", in the larger objects' path. As they did so, the increased gravity of the wake slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits.\n\n### Asteroid belt\n\nThe outer edge of the terrestrial region, between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun, is called the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt initially contained more than enough matter to form 2–3 Earth-like planets, and, indeed, a large number of planetesimals formed there. As with the terrestrials, planetesimals in this region later coalesced and formed 20–30 Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos; however, the proximity of Jupiter meant that after this planet formed, 3 million years after the Sun, the region's history changed dramatically. Orbital resonances with Jupiter and Saturn are particularly strong in the asteroid belt, and gravitational interactions with more massive embryos scattered many planetesimals into those resonances. Jupiter's gravity increased the velocity of objects within these resonances, causing them to shatter upon collision with other bodies, rather than accrete.\n\nAs Jupiter migrated inward following its formation (see Planetary migration below), resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other. The cumulative action of the resonances and the embryos either scattered the planetesimals away from the asteroid belt or excited their orbital inclinations and eccentricities. Some of those massive embryos too were ejected by Jupiter, while others may have migrated to the inner Solar System and played a role in the final accretion of the terrestrial planets. During this primary depletion period, the effects of the giant planets and planetary embryos left the asteroid belt with a total mass equivalent to less than 1% that of the Earth, composed mainly of small planetesimals. This is still 10–20 times more than the current mass in the main belt, which is now about . A secondary depletion period that brought the asteroid belt down close to its present mass is thought to have followed when Jupiter and Saturn entered a temporary 2:1 orbital resonance (see below).\n\nThe inner Solar System's period of giant impacts probably played a role in Earth acquiring its current water content (\\~6×10<sup>21</sup> kg) from the early asteroid belt. Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer, colder parts of the Solar System. The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter. A population of main-belt comets discovered in 2006 has also been suggested as a possible source for Earth's water. In contrast, comets from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6% of Earth's water. The panspermia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted.\n\n### Planetary migration\n\nAccording to the nebular hypothesis, the outer two planets may be in the \"wrong place\". Uranus and Neptune (known as the \"ice giants\") exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation there highly implausible. The two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near Jupiter and Saturn (known as the \"gas giants\"), where more material was available, and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years.\n\nThe migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions. Beyond Neptune, the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the Oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU. Originally, however, the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU. Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed (most likely in the range of 15–20 AU), and in 50% of simulations ended up in opposite locations, with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune.\n\nAccording to the Nice model, after the formation of the Solar System, the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly, influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals. After 500–600 million years (about 4 billion years ago) Jupiter and Saturn fell into a 2:1 resonance: Saturn orbited the Sun once for every two Jupiter orbits. This resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets, possibly causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt. The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards, while themselves moving outwards. These planetesimals then scattered off the next planet they encountered in a similar manner, moving the planets' orbits outwards while they moved inwards. This process continued until the planetesimals interacted with Jupiter, whose immense gravity sent them into highly elliptical orbits or even ejected them outright from the Solar System. This caused Jupiter to move slightly inward. Those objects scattered by Jupiter into highly elliptical orbits formed the Oort cloud; those objects scattered to a lesser degree by the migrating Neptune formed the current Kuiper belt and scattered disc. This scenario explains the Kuiper belt's and scattered disc's present low mass. Some of the scattered objects, including Pluto, became gravitationally tied to Neptune's orbit, forcing them into mean-motion resonances. Eventually, friction within the planetesimal disc made the orbits of Uranus and Neptune near-circular again.\n\nIn contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not thought to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts.\n\nAnother question is why Mars came out so small compared with Earth. A study by Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, published June 6, 2011 (called the Grand tack hypothesis), proposes that Jupiter had migrated inward to 1.5 AU. After Saturn formed, migrated inward, and established the 2:3 mean motion resonance with Jupiter, the study assumes that both planets migrated back to their present positions. Jupiter thus would have consumed much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars. The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt, with dry asteroids and water-rich objects similar to comets. However, it is unclear whether conditions in the solar nebula would have allowed Jupiter and Saturn to move back to their current positions, and according to current estimates this possibility appears unlikely. Moreover, alternative explanations for the small mass of Mars exist.\n\n### Late Heavy Bombardment and after\n\nGravitational disruption from the outer planets' migration would have sent large numbers of asteroids into the inner Solar System, severely depleting the original belt until it reached today's extremely low mass. This event may have triggered the Late Heavy Bombardment that is hypothesised to have occurred approximately 4 billion years ago, 500–600 million years after the formation of the Solar System. However, a recent re-appraisal of the cosmo-chemical constraints indicates that there was likely no late spike (“terminal cataclysm”) in the bombardment rate.\n\nIf it occurred, this period of heavy bombardment lasted several hundred million years and is evident in the cratering still visible on geologically dead bodies of the inner Solar System such as the Moon and Mercury. The oldest known evidence for life on Earth dates to 3.8 billion years ago—almost immediately after the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment.\n\nImpacts are thought to be a regular (if currently infrequent) part of the evolution of the Solar System. That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994, the 2009 Jupiter impact event, the Tunguska event, the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact that created Meteor Crater in Arizona. The process of accretion, therefore, is not complete, and may still pose a threat to life on Earth.\n\nOver the course of the Solar System's evolution, comets were ejected out of the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets and sent thousands of AU outward to form the Oort cloud, a spherical outer swarm of cometary nuclei at the farthest extent of the Sun's gravitational pull. Eventually, after about 800 million years, the gravitational disruption caused by galactic tides, passing stars and giant molecular clouds began to deplete the cloud, sending comets into the inner Solar System. The evolution of the outer Solar System also appears to have been influenced by space weathering from the solar wind, micrometeorites, and the neutral components of the interstellar medium.\n\nThe evolution of the asteroid belt after Late Heavy Bombardment was mainly governed by collisions. Objects with large mass have enough gravity to retain any material ejected by a violent collision. In the asteroid belt this usually is not the case. As a result, many larger objects have been broken apart, and sometimes newer objects have been forged from the remnants in less violent collisions. Moons around some asteroids currently can only be explained as consolidations of material flung away from the parent object without enough energy to entirely escape its gravity.\n\n## Moons\n\nMoons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies. These natural satellites originated by one of three possible mechanisms:\n\n- Co-formation from a circumplanetary disc (only in the cases of the giant planets);\n- Formation from impact debris (given a large enough impact at a shallow angle); and\n- Capture of a passing object.\n\nJupiter and Saturn have several large moons, such as Io, Europa, Ganymede and Titan, which may have originated from discs around each giant planet in much the same way that the planets formed from the disc around the Sun. This origin is indicated by the large sizes of the moons and their proximity to the planet. These attributes are impossible to achieve via capture, while the gaseous nature of the primaries also makes formation from collision debris unlikely. The outer moons of the giant planets tend to be small and have eccentric orbits with arbitrary inclinations. These are the characteristics expected of captured bodies. Most such moons orbit in the direction opposite to the rotation of their primary. The largest irregular moon is Neptune's moon Triton, which is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object.\n\nMoons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture. Mars's two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, are thought to be captured asteroids. The Earth's Moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head-on collision. The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars, and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts. The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor's mantle, which then coalesced into the Moon. The impact was probably the last in a series of mergers that formed the Earth. It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun Lagrangian points (either or ) and drifted from its position. The moons of trans-Neptunian objects Pluto (Charon) and Orcus (Vanth) may also have formed by means of a large collision: the Pluto–Charon, Orcus–Vanth and Earth–Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite's mass is at least 1% that of the larger body.\n\n## Future\n\nAstronomers estimate that the current state of the Solar System will not change drastically until the Sun has fused almost all the hydrogen fuel in its core into helium, beginning its evolution from the main sequence of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and into its red-giant phase. The Solar System will continue to evolve until then. Eventually, the Sun will likely expand sufficiently to overwhelm the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, and possibly Earth) but not the outer planets, including Jupiter and Saturn. Afterward, the Sun would be reduced to the size of a white dwarf, and the outer planets and their moons would continue orbiting this diminutive solar remnant. This future development may be similar to the observed detection of MOA-2010-BLG-477L b, a Jupiter-sized exoplanet orbiting its host white dwarf star MOA-2010-BLG-477L.\n\n### Long-term stability\n\nThe Solar System is chaotic over million- and billion-year timescales, with the orbits of the planets open to long-term variations. One notable example of this chaos is the Neptune–Pluto system, which lies in a 3:2 orbital resonance. Although the resonance itself will remain stable, it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10–20 million years (the Lyapunov time) into the future. Another example is Earth's axial tilt, which, due to friction raised within Earth's mantle by tidal interactions with the Moon (see below), is incomputable from some point between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.\n\nThe outer planets' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, with a Lyapunov time in the range of 2–230 million years. In all cases, this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer becomes uncertain). Still, in some cases, the orbits themselves may change dramatically. Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity, with some planets' orbits becoming significantly more—or less—elliptical.\n\nUltimately, the Solar System is stable in that none of the planets are likely to collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years. Beyond this, within five billion years or so, Mars's eccentricity may grow to around 0.2, such that it lies on an Earth-crossing orbit, leading to a potential collision. In the same timescale, Mercury's eccentricity may grow even further, and a close encounter with Venus could theoretically eject it from the Solar System altogether or send it on a collision course with Venus or Earth. This could happen within a billion years, according to numerical simulations in which Mercury's orbit is perturbed.\n\n### Moon–ring systems\n\nThe evolution of moon systems is driven by tidal forces. A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits (the primary) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary. If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon, the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon. In this situation, angular momentum is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite. The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward, while the primary rotates more slowly over time.\n\nThe Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration. Today, the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth; one of its revolutions around the Earth (currently about 29 days) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis, so it always shows one face to the Earth. The Moon will continue to recede from Earth, and Earth's spin will continue to slow gradually. Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter (as well as many of Jupiter's smaller moons) and most of the larger moons of Saturn.\n\nA different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet's rotation. In these cases, the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit. In the former case, the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed, so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite's orbit shrinks. In the latter case, the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs, so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each (that cancel each other out). In both cases, tidal deceleration causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses, potentially creating a planetary ring system, or crashes into the planet's surface or atmosphere. Such a fate awaits the moons Phobos of Mars (within 30 to 50 million years), Triton of Neptune (in 3.6 billion years), and at least 16 small satellites of Uranus and Neptune. Uranus's Desdemona may even collide with one of its neighboring moons.\n\nA third possibility is where the primary and moon are tidally locked to each other. In that case, the tidal bulge stays directly under the moon, there is no angular momentum transfer, and the orbital period will not change. Pluto and Charon are an example of this type of configuration.\n\nThere is no consensus on the mechanism of the formation of the rings of Saturn. Although theoretical models indicated that the rings were likely to have formed early in the Solar System's history, data from the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft suggests they formed relatively late.\n\n### The Sun and planetary environments\n\nIn the long term, the greatest changes in the Solar System will come from changes in the Sun itself as it ages. As the Sun burns through its hydrogen fuel supply, it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1.1 billion years. In about 600 million years, the Sun's brightness will have disrupted the Earth's carbon cycle to the point where trees and forests (C3 photosynthetic plant life) will no longer be able to survive; and in around 800 million years, the Sun will have killed all complex life on the Earth's surface and in the oceans. In 1.1 billion years, the Sun's increased radiation output will cause its circumstellar habitable zone to move outwards, making the Earth's surface too hot for liquid water to exist there naturally. At this point, all life will be reduced to single-celled organisms. Evaporation of water, a potent greenhouse gas, from the oceans' surface could accelerate temperature increase, potentially ending all life on Earth even sooner. During this time, it is possible that as Mars's surface temperature gradually rises, carbon dioxide and water currently frozen under the surface regolith will release into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until it achieves conditions parallel to Earth today, providing a potential future abode for life. By 3.5 billion years from now, Earth's surface conditions will be similar to those of Venus today.\n\nAround 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant. Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU (180×10^<sup>6</sup> km; 110×10^<sup>6</sup> mi)—256 times its current size. At the tip of the red-giant branch, as a result of the vastly increased surface area, the Sun's surface will be much cooler (about 2,600 K (2,330 °C; 4,220 °F)) than now, and its luminosity much higher—up to 2,700 current solar luminosities. For part of its red-giant life, the Sun will have a strong stellar wind that will carry away around 33% of its mass. During these times, it is possible that Saturn's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life.\n\nAs the Sun expands, it will swallow the planets Mercury and Venus. Earth's fate is less clear; although the Sun will envelop Earth's current orbit, the star's loss of mass (and thus weaker gravity) will cause the planets' orbits to move farther out. If it were only for this, Venus and Earth would probably escape incineration, but a 2008 study suggests that Earth will likely be swallowed up as a result of tidal interactions with the Sun's weakly-bound outer envelope.\n\nAdditionally, the Sun's habitable zone will move into the outer Solar System and eventually beyond the Kuiper belt at the end of the red-giant phase, causing icy bodies such as Enceladus and Pluto to thaw. During this time, these worlds could support a water-based hydrologic cycle, but as they were too small to hold a dense atmosphere like Earth, they would experience extreme day–night temperature differences. When the Sun leaves the red-giant branch and enters the asymptotic giant branch, the habitable zone will abruptly shrink to roughly the space between Jupiter and Saturn's present-day orbits, but toward the end of the 200 million-year duration of the asymptotic giant phase, it will expand outward to about the same distance as before.\n\nGradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45% of the present solar mass. At this point, the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin, leading to a helium flash; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main-sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about 4,770 K (4,500 °C; 8,130 °F). The Sun will become a horizontal giant, burning helium in its core in a stable fashion, much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium-fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers. It will expand a second time, becoming what is known as an asymptotic giant. Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about 3,500 K (3,230 °C; 5,840 °F). This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a planetary nebula. The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars and planets.\n\nThis is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, in which the Sun is too small to undergo one as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% of its original mass but only the size of Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus, the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.\n\nAs the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on orbiting bodies, such as planets, comets, and asteroids, will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at 1.4 AU (210 million km; 130 million mi), 1.9 AU (280 million km; 180 million mi), and 2.8 AU (420 million km; 260 million mi), respectively. They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6,000–8,000 K (5,730–7,730 °C; 10,340–13,940 °F) range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly one quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.\n\n## Galactic interaction\n\nThe Solar System travels alone through the Milky Way in a circular orbit approximately 30,000 light years from the Galactic Center. Its speed is about 220 km/s. The period required for the Solar System to complete one revolution around the Galactic Center, the galactic year, is in the range of 220–250 million years. Since its formation, the Solar System has completed at least 20 such revolutions.\n\nVarious scientists have speculated that the Solar System's path through the galaxy is a factor in the periodicity of mass extinctions observed in the Earth's fossil record. One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane. When the Sun's orbit takes it outside the galactic disc, the influence of the galactic tide is weaker; as it re-enters the galactic disc, as it does every 20–25 million years, it comes under the influence of the far stronger \"disc tides\", which, according to mathematical models, increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the Solar System by a factor of 4, leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating impact.\n\nHowever, others argue that the Sun is currently close to the galactic plane, and yet the last great extinction event was 15 million years ago. Therefore, the Sun's vertical position cannot alone explain such periodic extinctions, and that extinctions instead occur when the Sun passes through the galaxy's spiral arms. Spiral arms are home not only to larger numbers of molecular clouds, whose gravity may distort the Oort cloud, but also to higher concentrations of bright blue giants, which live for relatively short periods and then explode violently as supernovae.\n\n### Galactic collision and planetary disruption\n\nAlthough the vast majority of galaxies in the Universe are moving away from the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, is heading toward it at about 120 km/s. In 4 billion years, Andromeda and the Milky Way will collide, causing both to deform as tidal forces distort their outer arms into vast tidal tails. If this initial disruption occurs, astronomers calculate a 12% chance that the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way's tidal tail and a 3% chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy. After a further series of glancing blows, during which the likelihood of the Solar System's ejection rises to 30%, the galaxies' supermassive black holes will merge. Eventually, in roughly 6 billion years, the Milky Way and Andromeda will complete their merger into a giant elliptical galaxy. During the merger, if there is enough gas, the increased gravity will force the gas to the centre of the forming elliptical galaxy. This may lead to a short period of intensive star formation called a starburst. In addition, the infalling gas will feed the newly formed black hole, transforming it into an active galactic nucleus. The force of these interactions will likely push the Solar System into the new galaxy's outer halo, leaving it relatively unscathed by the radiation from these collisions.\n\nIt is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed.\n\nHowever, over time, the cumulative probability of a chance encounter with a star increases, and disruption of the planets becomes all but inevitable. Assuming that the Big Crunch or Big Rip scenarios for the end of the Universe do not occur, calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion (10<sup>15</sup>) years. This point marks the end of the Solar System. Although the Sun and planets may survive, the Solar System, in any meaningful sense, will cease to exist.\n\n## Chronology\n\nThe time frame of the Solar System's formation has been determined using radiometric dating. Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion, volcanism, and plate tectonics. To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use meteorites, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the Canyon Diablo meteorite) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old.\n\nStudies of discs around other stars have also done much to establish a time frame for Solar System formation. Stars between one and three million years old have discs rich in gas, whereas discs around stars more than 10 million years old have little to no gas, suggesting that giant planets within them have ceased forming.\n\n### Timeline of Solar System evolution\n\nNote: All dates and times in this chronology are approximate and should be taken as an order of magnitude indicator only.\n\n## See also", "revid": "1173805899", "description": "Modelling its structure and composition", "categories": ["Cosmogony", "Planetary science", "Solar System", "Solar System dynamic theories", "Stellar astronomy", "Stellar evolution"]}
{"id": "351172", "url": null, "title": "BMX XXX", "text": "BMX XXX is a 2002 sports video game developed by Z-Axis and published by Acclaim Entertainment under their AKA Acclaim label for the Xbox, PlayStation 2 and GameCube. While primarily a BMX-based action sports title, the game places a distinct emphasis on off-color and sexual humor, and allows the player to create female characters that are fully topless. The game also features unlockable live-action footage of real-life strippers courtesy of Scores, a New York-based stripclub.\n\nBMX XXX began development in 2001 as a traditional entry in the Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX series, and was announced as Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX 3. The executives of Z-Axis and Acclaim — influenced by a crowded action sports game market, a dire financial situation, and the commercial success of the Grand Theft Auto series — decided to insert nudity and mature humor into the game to increase publicity and sales. Although Dave Mirra initially supported the pitched concept, his name was eventually dissociated from the title following its unveiling at E3. The development team members were displeased with the change in direction, with some attempting to distance themselves from the production.\n\nDespite an aggressive marketing campaign, the game's distribution was impeded by various circumstances; major retailers refused to stock the title, Sony Computer Entertainment refused to publish the PlayStation 2 version unless the topless female nudity was censored, and the game was initially banned in Australia. Upon release, BMX XXX received mixed reviews from critics, who felt that the game lacked innovation despite its content. Although the control scheme and voice acting were complimented, opinions on the soundtrack were mixed, and reviewers faulted the camera, level design, mission objectives, visuals, and humor. As a result of its limited distribution and loss of celebrity endorsement, BMX XXX was a commercial failure. It subsequently became a factor in a series of lawsuits against Acclaim by Mirra and the company's shareholders, and was cited as one of a number of failures that contributed to Acclaim's 2004 bankruptcy and liquidation.\n\n## Gameplay\n\nBMX XXX is a freestyle BMX sports game with an emphasis on off-color and sexual humor. The player character can be customized by name, gender, and physical attributes, or selected from a number of pre-made characters; the ability to create topless female riders is enabled when the single-player campaign is fully completed. The player's rider can perform a variety of tricks in midair with the combined input of a direction on the D-pad or left thumbstick and a button. The player can also grind on rails, ledges, or other likely surfaces, and can exit a grind by jumping into the air or falling out of balance. The player is awarded points by performing complete tricks and landing while the bike is properly oriented. The player character will be ejected from their bike if they are not oriented for a successful landing or if they crash into something with a part of the body or bike other than their feet, wheels, or grind pegs during a trick. The player character will also be ejected if they are riding off-balance and hit an obstacle too fast or at a harsh angle. In the event of a crash, the player's score is reset.\n\nThe single-player campaign is divided into eight levels, six of which are based on a series of challenges that the player must complete to advance to the next level. Challenges are often initiated by interacting with a character within the level, who will give the player an objective to fulfill. Completing ten challenges within a level will grant access to the next level. Scattered within each level are four collectible bike parts; accumulating complete sets of six parts within the campaign unlocks upgraded bikes that enhance the player's performance. Each level also features a series of 45 collectibles such as coins, as well as 20 gaps in the terrain to discover. Completing certain challenges unlocks full-motion video sequences of strippers, with videos unlocked in later levels displaying an increasing amount of nudity. Two of the levels are competitions that require the player to perform a variety of tricks and earn a medal.\n\nThe game includes three multiplayer modes in which two human players compete against each other. In \"Strip Challenge\", players aim to achieve the highest-scoring trick combination. When a player breaks the record, the opponent's character loses a piece of clothing, and the game ends when one player renders their opponent naked. In \"Skillz\", players compete to achieve the highest score over a two-minute run, and in \"Paintball\", one player must collect all the boomboxes within a level while their opponent attempts to snipe them.\n\n## Development\n\nIn 2001, Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX developer Z-Axis began production on the third installment of the series, aiming to expand the technology and include such features as a story, voice-acting, and mission-based gameplay. Lead artist Mark Girouard described the game's original narrative as centering on a BMX team on tour throughout the United States. In January 2002, series publisher Acclaim Entertainment announced Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX 3, which would have showcased freestyle BMX rider Dave Mirra alongside sixteen other professionals.\n\nAround this time, the action sports genre had become crowded, prompting executives of Z-Axis and Acclaim to ponder new angles for increasing publicity. During a meeting between the parties, someone suggested adding strippers to the game in jest. While this initially elicited laughter, the group began seriously considering the idea, with Acclaim hoping that appealing to an older audience would increase sales. Acclaim marketing coordinator Zach Smith noted that the company's decision to insert nudity in the game was influenced by their dire financial situation at the time, and Acclaim executive producer Shawn Rosen additionally cited the commercial success of the Grand Theft Auto series as the catalyst for backing an adult-oriented title. Director Glen Egan acknowledged the increasing success of M-rated games, and was encouraged to pursue the rating by his irritation at having to excise drug references and profanity from the soundtracks of the previous two Dave Mirra titles.\n\nIn March 2002, Mirra and Acclaim began discussions about attaching his name to the title, which Mirra felt would be a more tongue-in-cheek and mature game comparable to the parodic film Airplane!. Rosen claimed that while Mirra found the pitched concept humorous, sponsors warned Mirra that the game would be harmful to his image. Acclaim looked to sex comedies and Jackass as inspiration for the game's sexual humor and raunchy dialogue. Egan also cited Bam Margera's Camp Kill Yourself video series as an influence on the game's bold and irreverent humor and action. For the game, Acclaim formed a partnership with the New York-based stripclub Scores, with footage of its employees being included as unlockable content. Lead designer Tin Guerrero postulated that this decision was influenced by the popularity of Howard Stern at the time, with Scores apparently being his favorite stripclub. The footage was filmed by Acclaim without Z-Axis's involvement.\n\nThe game's change in direction required Z-Axis's development team to redesign a significant amount of content they had completed thus far, retooling what would have been Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX 3 into Dave Mirra BMX XXX. The team members were dismayed by the decision, with Girouard recalling it as \"the biggest creative shock I've ever experienced in games through all these years\". Some members tried to distance themselves from the production by leaving their full names out of the credits, opting to either abbreviate their surnames or use the names of historical figures such as Fletcher Christian. The team was unable to object due to the company management's support of the direction and their multi-game contractual obligation to Acclaim concerning the Dave Mirra series. Despite being frustrated by their circumstance, the development team would not work perfunctorily, and remained driven to create a satisfying game. The game runs on the same engine previously used by Z-Axis's Aggressive Inline. The script was written by Happy Tree Friends co-creator Warren Graff.\n\nOn August 19, 2002, Acclaim announced that Dave Mirra's name had been removed from the title, and that he and the other professional riders, as well as licensed equipment, would not be featured in the game. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot speculated that the move was made by Acclaim to preserve creative control over the game's content while preventing damage to the images of the previously involved riders and equipment manufacturers. While Egan was perplexed by Acclaim's decision considering Mirra's supposed importance to the property, Guerrero alleged a souring relationship between Acclaim and Mirra as a factor. Regardless, Acclaim's licensing deal with Mirra stood intact, with a Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX 3 title planned for release. The game would be released for the Game Boy Advance on November 25, 2002.\n\n## Marketing and release\n\nDave Mirra BMX XXX was showcased at E3 in May 2002. IGN PS2, in its \"Best of E3 2002 Awards\", named it runner-up in the \"Biggest Surprise\" category, describing it as \"a surprise in every sense of the word\" and proclaiming that \"any title that's working hard to perfect 'Boob-Jiggle Technology' deserves a questionable double take\".\n\nIn September 2002, a rumor circulated that Sony Computer Entertainment would not approve the PlayStation 2 (PS2) version of the game unless certain sexual content was removed. On November 4, Acclaim representatives Alan Lewis and Tara Blanco confirmed the rumor, stating that the PS2 version would be edited to eliminate the topless nudity. An anonymous Sony representative claimed that the topless female imagery posed a detrimental threat to Sony's console brand, and believed that it was not fundamentally crucial to the gameplay experience.\n\nAcclaim launched an aggressive \\$3-4 million advertising campaign for the game, featuring irreverent jokes and the tagline \"This is BMX?\". On October 17, 2002, Acclaim unveiled the game's soundtrack, which consists of a mixture of classic and modern rock and hip hop. On November 7, Acclaim launched a \"Ms. BMX XXX\" competition, in which female contestants submitted a digital photo of themselves or a friend, which was subject to a public vote. The winner was flown to New York City and escorted to Scores by Gary Dell'Abate and K.C. Armstrong of The Howard Stern Show.\n\nOn October 14, 2002, Reuters reported that Walmart, Toys \"R\" Us, and KB Toys had refused to stock the title. Although Guerrero regarded Walmart's motion as a \"dagger blow\", he found humor in the retailer's contemporary distribution of guns and ammunition. BMX XXX was released in North America for the Xbox on November 15, 2002, for the PlayStation 2 on November 16, and for the GameCube on November 25. In the United Kingdom, it was released for GameCube and Xbox on December 6 and for the PlayStation 2 on February 7, 2003. It would be Z-Axis's last game for Acclaim before their acquisition by Activision, which was announced at the same time as the game's unveiling at E3. Those who pre-ordered the game from EB Games or GameStop received a free t-shirt. The game was initially banned in Australia, but was released in the country after the removal of its sexual content.\n\n## Reception\n\nBMX XXX received \"mixed or average\" reviews on all platforms according to video game review aggregator Metacritic, with some reviewers concluding that the game was lacking in innovation outside of its vulgarity and sexual content. Todd Zuniga of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine further denounced the game as \"the worst example of what PS2 games are capable of\", and described it as milquetoast in all gameplay aspects. However, Steve Steinberg of GameSpy and the reviewers of Nintendo Power considered it to be a solid gaming experience despite its crude content, with Steinberg pointing out that the game's \"twisted novelty\" could not function in other genres, and worked because of the game's fundamental playability. Scott Steinberg of Playboy also opined that the title was at its strongest outside of its comedic elements, attributing the gameplay's refinements over the course of a more mundane franchise.\n\nThe control scheme was mostly found to be comfortable and intuitive, though Bryn Williams of GameSpy and Justin Nation of Planet GameCube considered the stunt system to be simplified compared to other extreme sports titles such as Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4. Although Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot was impressed by the variety of tricks, he felt that none of them seemed special or important, and pointed out that the game engine's unrealistic quirks reduced the sense of challenge. Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame, Dan Leahy of Electronic Gaming Monthly, and AM Urbanek of TechTV observed a lack of inertia in the player's bike, which contributed to a sense of inconsistency in the controls. Although Steve Steinberg commended the camera as solid and logically placed, others criticized it as jumpy and jerky, with Marriott and IGN's Matt Casamassina citing a tendency to bounce off walls and barriers, and Zuniga expressing frustration at having to stop the bike to look around. The levels were said to not be as large and creative as those in Z-Axis's previous efforts, and their design was faulted as barren, with an abundance of spaces bereft of features. Reviewers complained of the vague challenge objectives, which were exacerbated by the lack of any source of direction or orientation; Steve Steinberg and Gerstmann cited a specific instance of an early mission that tasked the player with running down a \"fruitbooter\" while giving no indication that the term is derogatory slang for an inline skater. The necessity of returning to a non-player character's position to retry a failed challenge was an additional annoyance, with Matt Helgeson of Game Informer noting that the characters do not always stay at their post. Helgeson, fellow Game Informer reviewer Justin Leeper, and Aaron Boulding of IGN were unenthused by the high amount of scavenger hunt missions, though Leeper found some objectives humorous, and Casamassina complimented their presentation. Socrates of TeamXbox enjoyed the multiplayer mode, but felt that the lack of the single-player campaign's lewdness made the mode feel indistinct from other extreme sports titles. Steve Steinberg was uneased by the Paintball mode, and wondered how it was left intact after several games were delayed or reworked after the September 11 attacks. The stripper videos were noted to be insufficiently explicit for the \"XXX\" title, and reviewers felt that they were too difficult to unlock to be worth the effort, particularly for adults who have easier means to access explicit content.\n\nAssessments of the visuals were generally unfavorable, with some reviewers finding them comparable to a PSone title. While the animation and frame rate were commended for their smoothness, the characters were criticized for their blocky models, stiff body movements, and blurry textures. Some pointed out that the rough character models worked against the game's attempt at sex appeal, with Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer remarking that \"not since Orchid in the original Killer Instinct have I seen such angular assets\". Nation further observed that a topless female biker in a third-person video game served little function beyond novelty due to the camera's position behind her back as well as her hunched position. Dan Elektro of GamePro and Casamassina cited occasional collision issues in which riders temporarily sink through the ground or a wall. While Gerstmann and Casamassina described the environments as large in scope, Nick Valentino of GameZone felt that they were not as large or impressive as those in Aggressive Inline, and he and Bramwell found some areas to be plain and uninteresting. Marriott noticed some distant pop-up, and felt that the rider customization was insufficiently extensive. Socrates commented that the environments \"look like they have been coated in a layer of Vaseline\", and he considered the stripper videos to be the game's best-looking element. Boulding and Valentino also complimented the videos' professional quality, with Boulding stating that they \"might convince you that you're watching an episode of G String Divas but without all of that talking and emoting\". Nation, however, determined the production to be low-budget, saying that it \"looks like it was copied off of a copy of an older Super 8 tape\".\n\nThe soundtrack was classified as a combination of rock, punk, hip hop and ska that was typical of the extreme sports genre, with Casamassina remarking that the selections, though well-executed, \"seem to appear on every extreme sports soundtrack in the universe\". While Marriott, Elektro, and fellow GamePro reviewer Tokyo Drifter admired the soundtrack, Bramwell and Helgeson were not taken with it, with Bramwell being thankful for the Xbox version's option to insert a custom playlist. Valentino found the background music's downplayed prominence odd, and Gerstmann was perplexed by the soundtrack's editing of racial slurs and drug references considering the marketing campaign's emphasis on obscenity. Boulding was annoyed by an audio flaw that caused custom playlists to start again from the first track any time the music was paused for a gameplay reason, such as initiating a challenge. The sound effects were regarded as unremarkable and monotonous. Reactions to the voice acting were mostly positive, with Socrates elaborating that the humorous voices and accents successfully conveyed the game's light-hearted tone, though Boulding and Urbanek noted that the game's small pool of actors was evident, and the commentary from pedestrians was derided as repetitive. Marriott and Gerstmann were more negative, describing the voice-overs as grating and detrimental to the game's attempts at humor.\n\nThe humor was generally dismissed as juvenile and off-putting, though Williams and Casamassina found some of the jokes effective. Helgeson remarked that the content was \"nothing that would raise an eyebrow on HBO\", and concluded that those who were old enough to purchase the title would be too old to be shocked by it. Urbanek also saw irony in the demographic that he believed would find the game funny being too young to purchase it. Nation elaborated that the game's jokes, on top of being tired, were lacking in context and delivery, and he concurred that the game's lack of sophistication in its humor or sexual content, combined with the unremarkable gameplay, left its audience unclear. Marriott deemed the concept of a Mature-rated sports title nonsensical, and found the game's presentation of a seedy urban tone unpleasant, proclaiming that \"being bombarded with obnoxious vendors and annoying pedestrians everywhere you turn should be considered a form of mental anguish\". Nation, Zuniga and Urbanek accused the game's content of misogyny and racism, with Nation pondering \"Why objectify women and stereotype several races and social classes so callously, taking a ton of criticism in the process, and then settle for such a poor excuse for a pay-off on all levels?\".\n\n## Legacy\n\nIn February 2003, Mirra filed a \\$20 million lawsuit against Acclaim claiming that BMX XXX damaged his image. He explained that Acclaim allegedly used his name and likeness to promote BMX XXX after both parties agreed to disassociate his name from the product. The suit comprised a total of 11 claims, including unfair competition and injury to business reputation and dilution. Acclaim's public relations director Alan Lewis denounced the lawsuit as baseless and declared that Acclaim would fight vigorously against it. In the following month, two additional lawsuits were filed by Acclaim's shareholders alleging that the company's management misled it and the public on five accounts of misinformation relevant to the company's operations, including inadequate disclosure of the company's plans to publish mature-themed games. The suits claimed that titles such as BMX XXX \"materially impeded the company's ability to access broad-based retail channels\" and damaged revenue projections. On October 27, 2003, Acclaim announced that Mirra's suit had been settled with no monetary or other damages being paid by either side, and that Mirra's licensing agreement would continue until 2011. Additionally, Acclaim confirmed the development of a new Dave Mirra BMX game for next-generation systems.\n\nThe game's limited distribution and loss of celebrity endorsement resulted in BMX XXX becoming Acclaim's lowest-selling BMX title to date. According to Egan, the game sold a little over 160,000 copies by December 2005, making slightly under \\$5 million in its lifetime. The financial failure and lack of mass market appeal of BMX XXX among other titles was cited as a factor in Acclaim's 2004 bankruptcy and liquidation. Rosen left Acclaim soon after the game's release and eventually abandoned the video game industry, having established a koi pond business by 2017.\n\nGameSpy included the game's conception and Acclaim's violation of its agreement not to use Mirra's name and likeness to promote the game in its list of \"25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming\". Mike Williams of USgamer, within his list of \"10 Games That Killed a Franchise\", deemed BMX XXX and Turok: Evolution to be the \"two nails in Acclaim's coffin\". In 2015, the game was among several titles banned from streaming by Twitch. Todd Ciolek of IGN, in a retrospective feature covering major game publisher blunders, described BMX XXX as Acclaim's \"last cry for attention\" in a series of desperate publicity stunts by the financially ailing company.", "revid": "1173038235", "description": "2002 sports video game", "categories": ["2002 video games", "Acclaim Entertainment games", "BMX mass media", "Censored video games", "Cycling video games", "Dave Mirra games", "Erotic video games", "GameCube games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Obscenity controversies in video games", "PlayStation 2 games", "Underground Development games", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games set in the Las Vegas Valley", "Xbox games"]}
{"id": "11384680", "url": null, "title": "Operation Obviate", "text": "Operation Obviate was an unsuccessful British air raid of World War II which targeted the German battleship Tirpitz. It was conducted by Royal Air Force heavy bombers on 29 October 1944, and sought to destroy the damaged battleship after she moved to a new anchorage near Tromsø in northern Norway.\n\nThe attack followed up the successful Operation Paravane on 15 September 1944, when Tirpitz was crippled by British heavy bombers. As Allied intelligence was unaware that the battleship could no longer operate at sea and warships needed elsewhere were being retained in British waters to counter her, it was decided to make another attack. After a period of planning and preparations, 38 British bombers and a film aircraft departed from bases in northern Scotland during the early hours of 29 October. The attack took place that morning, but was frustrated by clouds over the Tromsø area which made it difficult for the Allied airmen to accurately target Tirpitz. The battleship was not directly hit, but was damaged by a bomb that exploded near her hull. A British bomber made a crash landing in Sweden after being hit by German anti-aircraft fire, and several others were damaged.\n\nThe Allies remained committed to sinking Tirpitz after the failure of Operation Obviate. The plans for the attack were reused for the next raid on the battleship, Operation Catechism, which took place on 12 November 1944. Weather conditions were favourable for the attackers, and Tirpitz was sunk with heavy loss of life.\n\n## Background\n\nFrom early 1942, the German battleship Tirpitz posed a significant threat to the Allied convoys transporting supplies through the Norwegian Sea to the Soviet Union. Stationed in fjords on the Norwegian coast, the ship was capable of overwhelming the close-escort forces assigned to the Arctic convoys. Tirpitz could also potentially attempt to enter the North Atlantic to attack Allied convoys travelling to the United Kingdom, as her sister ship Bismarck had sought to do in May 1941. To counter these threats, the Allies needed to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet, and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union.\n\nTirpitz was repeatedly attacked by British forces. Royal Air Force (RAF) heavy bombers made four unsuccessful raids on the battleship between January and April 1942 while she was stationed at Fættenfjord. From March 1943, Tirpitz was based at Kaafjord in the far north of Norway. During Operation Source on 22 September 1943, she was severely damaged by explosives placed beneath her hull by Royal Navy personnel who had used midget submarines to penetrate Kaafjord. On 3 April 1944, aircraft flying from Royal Navy aircraft carriers attacked Tirpitz during Operation Tungsten and inflicted further damage. This attack had been timed for when it was believed repairs to rectify the damage caused by Operation Source were nearing completion. A series of subsequent aircraft carrier attacks, including Operation Mascot on 17 July and Operation Goodwood between 22 and 29 August, were unsuccessful.\n\nAs it was believed that further aircraft carrier raids would be fruitless due to shortcomings with the Royal Navy's aircraft and their armament, responsibility for sinking Tirpitz was transferred to the RAF's Bomber Command. On 15 September 1944, the elite Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked the battleship at Kaafjord during what was designated Operation Paravane. This operation employed Avro Lancaster heavy bombers armed with Tallboy bombs and \"Johnnie Walker\" mines, and was mounted from Yagodnik in the Soviet Union. Tirpitz was struck by a single Tallboy, which caused extensive damage to her bow and rendered her unfit for combat.\n\n## Prelude\n\nA meeting involving Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the commander of the German Navy, was held in Berlin on 23 September to discuss Tirpitz. Dönitz was informed that it would take nine months to repair the ship, and that all the work had to be done at Kaafjord as the battleship would be extremely vulnerable if she tried to sail to a major port. As Soviet forces were rapidly advancing towards northern Norway at that time, Dönitz judged that it was not feasible to either return the ship to ocean-going service or retain her at Kaafjord. Instead, he decided to use Tirpitz as a floating artillery battery to defend Tromsø against amphibious landings and bolster a defensive line which was being prepared in the Lyngenfjord area. Dönitz also expressed hope that retaining the ship in commission would \"continue to tie down enemy forces and by her presence ... confound the enemies' intentions\".\n\nThe commander of the German Navy's task force in northern Norway, Konteradmiral Rudolf Peters, was directed to position Tirpitz at a location near Tromsø where the water was shallow enough to prevent the battleship from sinking completely if she suffered further damage. An anchorage was selected just off the coast of the small island of Håkøya, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) west of Tromsø. This location lacked the natural defences Tirpitz had enjoyed at her previous Norwegian bases where she had sheltered in fjords which had steep mountains rising from the sea; this had made it difficult for attacking aircraft to spot and target the battleship. Instead, the terrain around Håkøya was fairly flat, and it was near the sea. To prepare Tirpitz for the 170-mile (270 km) voyage south-west, a repair ship was sent to Kaafjord and helped the battleship's crew to weld steel plates over the hole in her hull.\n\nThe Allies were able to confirm that Tirpitz had been badly damaged during Operation Paravane from intelligence gained by photo reconnaissance, signals intelligence and Norwegian agents, but were unsure if this had permanently put her out of service. The decision made by Dönitz on 23 September was also not known. As a result, the Royal Navy continued to assign capital ships to the Home Fleet to guard against the prospect of Tirpitz putting to sea, despite the need to redeploy these ships to the Pacific to reinforce attacks on Japanese forces.\n\nTirpitz's voyage to Tromsø took place during 15 and 16 October. The battleship departed Kaafjord at noon local time on 15 October under the escort of several warships. While Tirpitz was able to move under her own power, the flotilla included ocean-going tugboats tasked with towing the battleship if her damaged bow broke off. The German force slowly proceeded south, and Tirpitz eventually arrived at her berth off Håkøya at 3 pm on 16 October. Soon after reaching Håkøya 600 sailors, mostly members of her engine room crew, were removed from the ship. This left about 1,700 sailors on board.\n\nThe Allies rapidly responded to Tirpitz's redeployment. Norwegian Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) agents in the Kaafjord and Tromsø areas provided reports during the battleship's journey, Egil Lindberg radioing the United Kingdom on 16 October to confirm the ship's arrival at Tromsø. In response to these reports, the British aircraft carrier HMS Implacable was dispatched from the Home Fleet's main base at Scapa Flow on 16 October tasked with confirming the location of Tirpitz. The RAF was also instructed to fly photo reconnaissance sorties over the Tromsø area. As a precaution in case Tirpitz was able to conduct combat operations, the battleship HMS King George V was diverted from an impending deployment to the Indian Ocean to reinforce the Home Fleet until its sole battleship, Duke of York, completed repairs.\n\nBritish reconnaissance aircraft located Tirpitz during the afternoon of 18 October. The first aircraft to arrive over the area was a de Havilland Mosquito from No. 540 Squadron RAF operating out of RAF Dyce in Scotland. The Mosquito's crew took photographs of the battleship from a high altitude, and returned to base despite damage by anti-aircraft guns. Shortly afterwards Implacable's Fairey Firefly aircraft reconnoitred the Tromsø area, several taking low-altitude photographs of Tirpitz off Håkøya; these aircraft were also fired on by the German anti-aircraft guns but none were damaged. During the evening of 18 October, Implacable's commander sought permission to attack Tirpitz the next day, but this was refused by the commander of the Home Fleet, Admiral Bruce Fraser, on the grounds that the carrier had sailed without any of the Supermarine Seafire aircraft needed to suppress the anti-aircraft guns. Fraser was also aware from the attacks on Tirpitz at Kaafjord that the carrier's two squadrons of Fairey Barracuda dive bombers would probably not be able to inflict significant damage, and that further raids by RAF heavy bombers were required.\n\n## Preparations\n\n### British\n\nThe RAF began preparations to attack Tirpitz again immediately after she was confirmed to be at Tromsø. As the Tromsø area was within range of Lancasters flying from northern Scotland if they were fitted with extra fuel tanks and other modifications, this operation would be simpler to conduct than Operation Paravane. Nevertheless, it required a lengthy return flight of 2,252 miles (3,624 km).\n\nNos. 9 and 617 Squadrons' Lancasters were modified to extend their range. All of the aircraft selected for the operation were fitted with powerful Rolls-Royce Merlin 24 engines, which were hurriedly obtained from maintenance units and airfields across the UK. The Lancasters also carried two extra fuel tanks inside their fuselage: a tank usually fitted to Vickers Wellington bombers and a type of drop tank used by Mosquitos. The extra fuel put the aircraft greatly above their authorised maximum take-off weight. To address this, the bombers' forward and mid-upper gun turrets were removed, along with 3,000 rounds of ammunition from the rear turret, the flare chute, the armour plating around the pilot's seat and some of the oxygen and nitrogen bottles. The reduction in armament left the Lancasters very vulnerable to German fighter aircraft, and they would have to fly without escort as no British fighters had sufficient range to reach Tromsø.\n\nThe operational order for the attack on Tirpitz was issued by No. 5 Group on 24 October. It specified that the battleship was to be attacked by 36 Lancasters, Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons each contributing 18. Another Lancaster from No. 463 Squadron RAAF's film unit would also take part but not carry any bombs. As the \"Johnnie Walker\" mines had failed during Operation Paravane, only Tallboy bombs were to be used, each bomber carrying one of the weapons. These 12,000-pound (5,400 kg) bombs were the largest in service with the RAF, and were capable of penetrating heavily armoured targets. The two squadrons were to remain at their home bases until it was judged that weather conditions over Tromsø were likely to be suitable. They would then be bombed up, and fly to RAF Kinloss, RAF Lossiemouth and RAF Milltown in northern Scotland. The operational order stated that the attack was required as \"it appears likely that the Germans may attempt to get the battleship back to a base in Germany, where the necessary repairs and refit can be carried out\".\n\nAfter the decision was made to launch the attack, the bombers were to fly individually across the Norwegian Sea, and cross the Norwegian coast at a point between Mosjøen and Namos where No. 100 Group RAF had found a gap in German radar coverage. The Lancasters were to rendezvous over Torneträsk lake in northern Sweden; this flight path involved violating Sweden's neutrality, but was selected as it would allow the bombers to approach Tromsø from the south-east, which it was believed the Germans would not expect. After the rendezvous was completed and if weather conditions remained suitable, the bombers would proceed to Tromsø and attack Tirpitz if she could be visually spotted or, if obscured, her location confirmed relative to unobstructed landmarks. If these criteria were not met, the aircrew were not to bomb. Following the attack on Tirpitz, the bombers were to fly directly back to Scotland.\n\nGroup Captain Colin McMullen was selected to command the ground crew and aircrew ahead of the start of the attack, a role he had also played in Operation Paravane. The commanders of the two squadrons, Wing Commanders James Bazin (No. 9 Squadron) and \"Willie\" Tait (No. 617 Squadron), would control their units in the air. The attack was designated Operation Obviate.\n\nPreparations were also made to recover aircraft or crews if any of the bombers ran short of fuel or suffered battle damage. RAF Sumburgh in Shetland was selected as the emergency airfield for the return journey from Tromsø. If any of the bombers experienced engine problems or lacked sufficient fuel to return to the UK, they were to proceed to the Soviet airfields at Vaenga or Yagodnik. The Soviet Government was not informed of this until 29 October, the day of the attack. No. 5 Group also requested that three Royal Navy destroyers be stationed along the return route from Tromsø to rescue the crews of any bombers forced down over the Norwegian Sea.\n\nThe British were able to draw on two intelligence sources other than photo reconnaissance flights to monitor the German forces at Tromsø. Lindberg was based there, and provided updates on Tirpitz by radio. As Lindberg worked in the local meteorological office, he also regularly reported on weather conditions. The other source of intelligence was German radio traffic decrypted by Allied codebreakers.\n\n### German\n\nTirpitz was particularly vulnerable to attack in the period immediately after she arrived at Håkøya. None of the many smoke generators and anti-aircraft guns, which had protected her against air attack at Kaafjord, were initially available because they had not yet been shipped south. The only protection available was from the battleship's own armament, two flak ships anchored nearby, and several anti-aircraft batteries in the Tromsø area. British intelligence believed that there were 16 heavy and 16 light anti-aircraft guns in the area at the time of Operation Obviate. The battleship was also surrounded by torpedo nets. No fighter aircraft were stationed nearby. The depth of water below Tirpitz at her mooring was greater than anticipated, leaving the ship vulnerable to capsizing. Owing to the space needed by the torpedo nets, it was not possible to move Tirpitz closer to shore. Instead, work began on building up the seabed using earth and gravel two weeks after she reached Håkøya.\n\nThe battleship's crew expected further air attacks, and doubted that she would survive them. This, and a belief that Germany would lose the war, led to poor morale. The civilian population of Tromsø also expected air attacks after Tirpitz arrived, and were concerned about the prospect of being accidentally bombed.\n\n## Attack\n\n### Departure\n\nOn 26 October, Bomber Command advised the Admiralty that Operation Obviate would commence as soon as weather conditions permitted after the night of 27 October. No. 5 Group also informed the two squadrons that day to make final preparations for the mission. This included loading the Tallboy bombs. In the evening of 27 October, the aircrew selected for Operation Obviate were briefed on the plan and told they would proceed to the Scottish airfields the next morning.\n\nDuring the morning of 28 October, 20 Lancasters from each of the squadrons flew from their home bases to Kinloss, Lossiemouth and Milltown. A photo reconnaissance Mosquito flew over Tromsø that morning, and confirmed that Tirpitz was still moored off Håkøya and that weather conditions remained favourable for an attack. As forecasts for the next day indicated that good weather would continue, the attack was set for 29 October. Another Mosquito flew over the Tromsø area at midnight on 28 October, and reported that conditions remained clear.\n\nThe strike force departed Scotland in the early hours of 29 October. No. 9 Squadron dispatched 20 Lancasters, the aircraft taking off between 1:18 and 2:55 am BST. No. 617 Squadron contributed 19 aircraft, which departed between 1:03 and 2:10 am BST. The No. 463 Squadron Lancaster accompanied the attack aircraft.\n\n### Over Tromsø\n\nThe approach flight was uneventful. The aircraft flew individually across the Norwegian Sea at an altitude of 1,500 feet (460 m), and began climbing to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) after they crossed the Norwegian coast. One of the No. 9 Squadron aircraft experienced engine problems during the climb, and returned to the UK. The bombers met over Torneträsk lake, formed up into their attack formations and proceeded to Tromsø. During this flight the Lancasters climbed to their bombing altitudes of between 13,000 and 16,000 feet (4,000 and 4,900 m). The attack force was fired on by Swedish anti-aircraft guns when it passed near Abisko, but no hits were recorded.\n\nThe attack on Tirpitz was frustrated by cloud cover. While the weather remained fine during the approach to Tromsø, the surrounding area was mainly covered by cloud. Tirpitz was visible when the bombers first arrived over the Tromsø area, but was obscured before any of them were in position to release their bombs. Despite the orders to bring their Tallboys back if visual bombing was not possible, almost all the bombers attacked; historian Patrick Bishop has written that this was due to an unwillingness to make the long return flight carrying a 12,000-pound (5,400 kg) bomb.\n\nThe first bombs were dropped at 7:49 am GMT, No. 617 Squadron leading the attack. Sixteen aircraft from the squadron released Tallboys aimed at Tirpitz's estimated position, several making multiple bomb runs before attacking. One of the three Lancasters which did not bomb made four runs over Tromsø before Tait gave its pilot permission to break off the attack. No. 9 Squadron began its attack six minutes after its sister squadron, 17 Lancasters dropping Tallboys. Like No. 617 Squadron, several aircraft from No. 9 Squadron made multiple bomb runs over Tromsø, one conducting five approaches before attacking. At least two of the No. 9 Squadron crews were able to take visual aim at Tirpitz through gaps in the cloud; the others aimed at the battleship's estimated position. Of the two No. 9 Squadron aircraft which did not bomb, one made two passes over Tromsø. The final bomb was dropped at 8:07 am GMT.\n\nThe German defenders began firing on the British aircraft as they approached Tirpitz. Four No. 9 Squadron Lancasters, at least one from No. 617 Squadron, and the No. 463 Squadron film aircraft, were damaged by anti-aircraft fire. The No. 617 Squadron Lancaster lost so much fuel from two hits that its pilot judged that the aircraft would not be able to reach RAF Sumburgh or the USSR. Instead, he decided to put down in northern Sweden so that the crew could avoid being made prisoners of war. The aircraft made a crash landing in a bog near Porjus. All of the crew survived, and were eventually repatriated to the UK by the Swedish Government. The damage inflicted on the other Lancasters was not significant.\n\nNone of the Tallboys struck Tirpitz. Several landed in the water near her. The explosion of one of these bombs damaged the battleship's port-side propeller shaft and rudder, and caused flooding. Three of her crew were injured. The explosions from the huge bombs were felt by civilians in Tromsø.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nMost of the Lancasters' return flights were uneventful, all returning to the UK after completing flights of an average duration of 13 hours. A No. 617 Squadron aircraft made an emergency landing at RAF Sumburgh after running short of fuel; this was one of the Lancasters that had not released its Tallboy. The damaged No. 463 Squadron aircraft successfully landed on one wheel at RAF Waddington. The airmen were aware that Tirpitz had not been sunk, and were disappointed with the operation's results. No. 5 Group's commander, Air Commodore Ralph Cochrane, sent them a message stating \"Congratulations on your splendid flight and perseverance. Luck won't always favour the Tirpitz. One day you'll get her.\"\n\nAllied intelligence soon learned that Tirpitz had been only slightly damaged. A Mosquito conducted a photo reconnaissance flight over the Tromsø area at 12:10 pm GMT on 29 October. Its photos showed no visible damage to the battleship. German post-battle reports broadcast by radio which were intercepted and decoded confirmed that damage was limited to the propeller shaft and rudder. Lindberg recommended that the RAF \"give her another salvo\" in one of his reports.\n\nThe Germans believed that several Lancasters had been shot down in the attack. Tirpitz's crew attributed the failure of Operation Obviate to their ship's gunnery, leading to improved morale. They expected that further attacks would be made, and were frustrated that Luftwaffe fighters had not been available to protect the battleship. A force of 38 fighters was transferred to Bardufoss after Operation Obviate to bolster the region's air defences.\n\nThe British remained determined to sink Tirpitz as soon as possible. Shortly after the 29 October raid, it was decided to use the same plans as had been employed in Operation Obviate in the next attack, which was designated Operation Catechism. On 12 November, Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons set out from northern Scotland again. The weather over the Tromsø area was clear when they arrived, and Tirpitz was hit by two Tallboy bombs. The damage from these bombs and several near misses caused the battleship to capsize. Between 940 and 1,204 of her crew were killed.\n\nThe Lancaster which crash-landed near Porjus, \"Easy Elsie\", remains in-situ. The aircraft's engines and tyres were removed and sold locally soon after it crashed. The airframe was dismantled by a scrapper in the 1960s or 1970s, but abandoned as it proved too difficult to move from the site. The tail section of the aircraft was recovered in 1984 by the Swedish Air Force on behalf of the Swedish Air Force Museum, and the crash site was opened up to visitors in the early 1990s. Proposals to return the rest of the wreckage to the UK have not been successful.", "revid": "1121779846", "description": "Unsuccessful British air raid in World War II", "categories": ["1944 in Norway", "Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving Germany", "Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom", "Germany–United Kingdom military relations", "Military operations directly affecting Sweden during World War II", "October 1944 events", "World War II aerial operations and battles of the Western European Theatre"]}
{"id": "55359922", "url": null, "title": "Star Trek: Discovery (season 2)", "text": "The second season of the American television series Star Trek: Discovery is set a decade before Star Trek: The Original Series in the 23rd century and follows the crew of the starship Discovery. With the crew of the USS Enterprise they investigate seven signals that were sent by a time traveler to prevent a rogue artificial intelligence from destroying all sentient life. The season was produced by CBS Television Studios in association with Secret Hideout and Roddenberry Entertainment, with Alex Kurtzman serving as showrunner.\n\nSonequa Martin-Green stars as Michael Burnham, first officer of the Discovery, along with the returning Doug Jones, Anthony Rapp, Mary Wiseman, and Shazad Latif. They are joined by former recurring guest star Wilson Cruz, and by Anson Mount as Captain Christopher Pike of the Enterprise. The season was officially ordered in October 2017, and introduced the Enterprise and its crew—including recurring guest star Ethan Peck as Spock and guest star Rebecca Romijn as Number One—to help align the series to the larger Star Trek franchise, as those characters originated on The Original Series. Designs for the Enterprise and its uniforms were updated to match Discovery's more modern style. Filming took place in Toronto, Canada, from April to December 2018. Co-creator Kurtzman chose to use anamorphic lenses on the season to make it more cinematic, and he took over as showrunner from the first season's Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts after they were fired during production. The season connects to the companion shorts series Star Trek: Short Treks.\n\nThe 14-episode season was released from January 17 to April 18, 2019, on the streaming service CBS All Access. Many critics found it to be an improvement on the first season, praising its lighter tone, cast (especially Mount and guest star Tig Notaro), and high production value. The season's attempts to align with existing Star Trek continuity received mixed reviews. It won a Primetime Emmy Award for its prosthetic makeup, and received several other awards and nominations. A third season was ordered in February 2019, and after a spin-off series starring Mount, Peck, and Romijn was called for by fans and critics alike, CBS All Access ordered Star Trek: Strange New Worlds in May 2020.\n\n## Episodes\n\n## Cast and characters\n\n### Main\n\n- Sonequa Martin-Green as Michael Burnham\n- Doug Jones as Saru\n- Anthony Rapp as Paul Stamets\n- Mary Wiseman as Sylvia Tilly\n- Shazad Latif as Voq / Ash Tyler\n- Wilson Cruz as Hugh Culber\n- Anson Mount as Christopher Pike\n\n### Recurring\n\n- Mia Kirshner as Amanda Grayson\n- Tig Notaro as Jett Reno\n- Bahia Watson as May Ahearn\n- Michelle Yeoh as Philippa Georgiou\n- Alan van Sprang as Leland\n- Rachael Ancheril as Nhan\n- Jayne Brook as Katrina Cornwell\n- Ethan Peck as Spock\n- Sonja Sohn as Gabrielle Burnham / Red Angel\n\n### Notable guests\n\n- James Frain as Sarek\n- Mary Chieffo as L'Rell\n- Kenneth Mitchell as Kol-Sha and Tenavik\n- Rebecca Romijn as Number One\n- Hannah Spear as Siranna\n- Melissa George as Vina\n- Rob Brownstien as the Keeper\n- Kenric Green as Mike Burnham\n- Yadira Guevara-Prip as Me Hani Ika Hali Ka Po\n\n## Production\n\n### Background\n\nOn November 2, 2015, CBS announced a new Star Trek television series to premiere in January 2017, \"on the heels\" of Star Trek: The Original Series' 50th anniversary in 2016. In February 2016, Bryan Fuller, who began his career writing for the series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager, was announced as the new series' showrunner, and co-creator alongside Alex Kurtzman. CBS did not have a plan for what the new show would be when Fuller joined, and he proposed an anthology series with each season being a standalone, serialized show set in a different era, beginning with a prequel to the original series. CBS told Fuller to just start with a single serialized show and see how that performs first, and he began further developing the prequel concept. By the end of 2016, Fuller had left the series due to conflicts with CBS and other commitments. He had hired Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts to act as co-showrunners with him, and they took over after his departure. In June 2017, Kurtzman said that he and Fuller had discussed plans for future seasons before the latter's departure.\n\n### Development\n\nIn August 2017, before the series premiere, executive producer Akiva Goldsman stated that though the series is not an anthology as Fuller first proposed, \"it's kind of a hybridized approach. I don't think we're looking for an endless, continuing nine or 10 year story. We're looking at arcs which will have characters that we know and characters that we don't know.\" Kurtzman elaborated that the Federation-Klingon War story arc of the first season would not continue in a second. However, he was not interested in a full anthology series because \"I wouldn't necessarily want to throw [the characters] away at the end of the season for a new show\", and instead felt that the aftereffects of the first season would be felt moving forward: \"The results of the war are going to allow for a lot of new storytelling\", with \"the casualties, the things that have grown in Starfleet as a result of the war\" carrying over to the next season. By the end of the month, Berg and Harberts had developed a road map for a second season. After the series premiered, Kurtzman said a \"big idea\" had been proposed mid-way through production on the first season which became the \"spine\" of the second, with the writers' \"emotional compass\" having pointed them to using that idea. He added that the series' producers wanted to avoid announcing release dates for future seasons just to delay them as happened on the first season, but he hoped a second season would be available in early 2019 as long as the quality and scope of the series was not compromised to achieve that.\n\nOn October 23, a 13-episode second season was officially ordered by CBS All Access. CBS Interactive President Marc DeBevoise cited the increased subscriptions for All Access since the series' debut, as well as critical acclaim and fan interest, when announcing the renewal. In June 2018, during production on the season, CBS Television Studios fired Berg and Harberts. The studio and network were pleased with the scripts and early cuts of already filmed episodes, but the first episode had gone significantly over budget—to the point that the budgets for later episodes would have to be reduced—and the pair were allegedly abusive towards the writing staff, with multiple writers becoming uncomfortable working with them. Some had apparently been threatened by Harberts after stating their intention to file a formal complaint. Kurtzman was made sole showrunner in their place, and was described as the \"glue holding Discovery together\". Kurtzman took over the role because he felt Berg and Harberts had been forced to \"pick up the pieces\" following Fuller's departure and he did not want to make someone else do that again. Despite not planning to showrun Discovery, Kurtzman felt as co-creator of the series that it was his responsibility to make sure it was working.\n\nWith the change in showrunner came news that Goldsman had not returned as executive producer for the second season, after serving as Kurtzman's \"right-hand man\" on the first, because he had a \"management style and personality that clashed with the writing staff\". At the end of June, James Duff joined as an executive producer to help Kurtzman run the writers room. Olatunde Osunsanmi, who served as a director and co-executive producer during the first season, became a full executive producer and was set as producing director for the rest of the season. Additionally, Jenny Lumet, who joined as a consulting producer at the beginning of the season, was promoted to co-executive producer. In July 2018, the season was confirmed to premiere in January 2019. Star Anson Mount revealed in December that the season had been extended to 14 episodes to amortize the cost of production delays following the showrunner change.\n\n### Writing\n\nThe series' writers began work on the second season in December 2017, and were considering \"science vs. faith\" as the main theme. Harberts said the season would be \"jam packed\" with things that they were not able to do in the first. In March 2018, he clarified that the series would not just be looking at religion, but also \"patterns in our lives. It means connections you can't explain. Who enters your life and who leaves your life and these indelible impressions people make ... that is one of our biggest ideas now and it is threading through all of our characters' lives.\" Something that Kurtzman felt the best Star Trek series had was examinations of the real world at the time of their creation, and so this season would address \"building walls around ourselves, literally, to keep people out\" and how that can \"chip away at our essential understanding of Starfleet doctrine, and what it means to assume diversity\". Mount felt the season was able to \"get back to those big questions\" because it was no longer questioning the leadership of the Discovery as was done with Captain Gabriel Lorca in the first season. Kurtzman noted that religion is a controversial topic among Star Trek fans, and the series' study of faith was \"never about picking on religion as much as it was about faith in each other and in themselves\". He felt that protagonist Michael Burnham wrestles with faith because she was not raised with it, but is rewarded for finding it. He interpreted this as saying, \"If you believe in yourself, ultimately, the best outcome presents itself.\"\n\nWithout the first season's Federation–Klingon War storyline, Kurtzman said there would be less focus on the Klingons in the second season and far fewer Klingon-only scenes, but Klingon characters would still appear. He added that the Klingons would grow their hair back to show that they are no longer at war, something he said was always intended and not a response to fan criticisms of the bald Klingons in the first season. The second season has a single serialized story like the first season had, but the writers moved towards a more episodic feel by having a central character or question for each episode. The second season begins where the first season ended, with the arrival of the USS Enterprise. This ties into a larger story that is the main arc for the second season, involving seven mysterious signals and a mysterious \"red angel\" figure. Harberts wanted to explore the character Christopher Pike, captain of the Enterprise, feeling that he had not been seen much in the franchise. Burnham's adoptive brother Spock is also a crew member of the Enterprise, but Harberts was less interested in exploring him given his many appearances throughout the Star Trek franchise. Harberts was also reluctant to have an actor other than Leonard Nimoy or Zachary Quinto portray the character. However, Spock was confirmed to be included in the season in April 2018, and his relationship with Burnham became the most important part of the season for Kurtzman. The writers wanted to tell a new story with Spock that would show him become closer to the Nimoy and Quinto versions over time, visually signified by having the character shave his beard at the end of the season to look more like them. The season also reveals that it was Burnham's relationship with Spock that allowed him to \"fully actualize himself\" with James Kirk in the original Star Trek series, which was an important development for Kurtzman to explore when telling this part of Spock's life.\n\nThe season finale had to answer all the season's mysteries, complete its character arcs, feature a large battle, and set-up stories for the next season. While planning this, the writers realized that they could not do justice to it all within a single episode's length. It was around this time that CBS added an additional episode to the season's order, which allowed the writers to expand their plans to a two-part season finale. Executive producer Michelle Paradise compared the scope of the finale to a feature film. A goal of the showrunners for the season was to \"cement Discovery firmly in the timeline\" by reconciling some of the apparent continuity errors from the first season, such as why Burnham has never been mentioned by Spock in the franchise or why Discovery's advanced spore drive technology is not used on other starships in later Star Trek series. The season ends with Discovery and its crew traveling over 900 years into the future, and Spock recommending to Starfleet that the starship and its crew never be mentioned again to prevent the events of the season from being repeated. Kurtzman said this solution was chosen after months of work with the writers, which included considerations of the future of the series; he compared the decision to the film Star Trek (2009) starting a new timeline to avoid established continuity.\n\n### Casting\n\nThe season stars the returning Sonequa Martin-Green as Burnham, Doug Jones as Saru, Anthony Rapp as Paul Stamets, Mary Wiseman as Sylvia Tilly, and Shazad Latif as Voq / Ash Tyler. Wilson Cruz reprises his guest role of Hugh Culber, who died in the first season, and is promoted to the main cast for the second.\n\nIn April 2018, Anson Mount—who was considered for the role of Lorca in the first season—was cast as Pike, and a young Spock was confirmed to be appearing; Kurtzman noted that casting for Spock took into consideration a balance between Vulcan logic and revealing \"emotion in the eyes and in the small gestures\". Mount revealed in July that he would star for the full season, and that Rebecca Romijn would portray the original series character Number One. Mount and Romijn both signed one year deals for the series, with their characters included to help closer align the series to the wider Star Trek continuity. In August, Ethan Peck was announced as portraying Spock in the season. Kurtzman compared the actor to both Nimoy and Quinto and stated that he believed Peck \"would, like them, effortlessly embody Spock's greatest qualities, beyond obvious logic: empathy, intuition, compassion, confusion, and yearning\".\n\nAn alternate ending to the first season was revealed in March 2018, introducing a Section 31 agent named Leland who is portrayed by Alan van Sprang. The producers confirmed that Van Sprang would be portraying the character in the second season. Van Sprang had worked with Berg and Harberts on the series Reign, and they had been trying to find a character for him to play throughout production on the first season. The actor said his role was a \"massive part\" of the second season. The alternate ending saw Leland approach Michelle Yeoh's Philippa Georgiou about joining Section 31, and, in February 2018 ,Kurtzman said that it was possible for Yeoh to reprise the role in the second season along with Jason Isaacs as Gabriel Lorca. Yeoh was confirmed to be appearing in the season to continue the Section 31 storyline in October 2018, while in January 2019, Kurtzman said Isaacs would not be appearing but could still return in the future.\n\nTig Notaro was cast in the guest role of Denise Reno in April 2018. She later revealed that this would be a recurring role for the season, and that she had been able to rename her character to Jett Reno. That October, Martin-Green announced that her husband Kenric Green had been cast for the season, and would be making an \"indelible contribution\". He portrays Burnham's father Mike in a flashback in the episode \"Perpetual Infinity\", while Sonja Sohn portrays her mother Gabrielle. The latter is revealed to be the \"Red Angel\", a character seen throughout the season. Several other recurring guests also return from the first season, including James Frain as Sarek, Mia Kirshner as Amanda Grayson, Mary Chieffo as L'Rell, and Jayne Brook as Katrina Cornwell. Introduced in the season are Bahia Watson as May Ahearn and Rachael Ancheril as Nhan. Kenneth Mitchell, who had a recurring role in the first season as the Klingon Kol, appears in the second season as Kol's relative Kol-Sha. He also portrays the older version of Tenavik, the son of L'Rell and Tyler.\n\nHannah Cheesman took over the role of Airiam for the season, with original actress Sara Mitich recast in the role of Nilsson. Other returners include Emily Coutts as Keyla Detmer, Patrick Kwok-Choon as Gen Rhys, Oyin Oladejo as Joann Owosekun, Ronnie Rowe Jr. as R. A. Bryce, Ali Momen as Kamran Gant, and Julianne Grossman as the voice of Discovery's computer. David Benjamin Tomlinson also appears throughout the season as Linus. Hannah Spear and Yadira Guevara-Prip respectively reprise their Star Trek: Short Trek roles of Saru's sister Siranna (from the short \"The Brightest Star\") and Tilly's friend Me Hani Ika Hali Ka Po (from the short \"Runaway\"). The episode \"If Memory Serves\" begins with archival footage from the original Star Trek pilot \"The Cage\" featuring the original actors for several characters seen in the series, including Spock, Pike, and Number One, as well as Vina and the Keeper, portrayed in Discovery by Melissa George and Rob Brownstein, respectively.\n\n### Design\n\n#### Costumes\n\nCostume designer Gersha Phillips and her team created over 180 different costumes for the season. For the Enterprise costumes, Phillips applied the colors from the costumes seen in the original series to the design and style of the Discovery uniforms. She noted that the collars on the Discovery uniforms already evoked the v-shape design of the original uniform collars. The difference in uniforms between the Discovery and Enterprise crews is explained when a character remarks that the more colorful uniforms are new and being introduced to Starfleet starting with Enterprise. Phillips and her team overlooked the fact that the Discovery uniforms identify rank through pips on their Starfleet badges which are not present on the Enterprise uniforms, and so there was no identification of rank on any of the Enterprise characters. The mistake was pointed out by John Van Citters, the vice president of Star Trek brand management at CBS Studios, and the solution was to add stripes to the sleeves of the uniforms. Visual effects were used to add these stripes to footage from before the mistake was discovered.\n\nPhillips was asked to make the Section 31 costumes black, and to not give the characters a uniform. Phillips made sure these costumes were different from the cleaner style of the main Starfleet uniforms to highlight the different types of people hired by Section 31 and their different approach. She noted that this was appropriate for Georgiou, who Phillips felt \"wouldn't wear a uniform, because she's not going to conform\". Kurtzman's directions to Phillips regarding the Talosians was to look at the costumes from the original series and \"revamp\" them. After seeing her first designs for the costumes, Kurtzman asked her to take them further. Phillips used fabrics with puffy textures printed onto them for the costumes. The Talosians also wear necklaces that were designed in collaboration with jeweler Dana Schneider. The Red Angel suit was inspired by Scarlett Johansson's costume from the film Ghost in the Shell (2017), with Discovery's prop master Mario Moreira contributing to the design. It was created with companies Plassens and By Design using 3D printing. Phillips stated that all the actors who wore the suit said it was one of the most comfortable to wear, noting that this is not usually the case for actors wearing complex costumes.\n\nFor the Klingons, Phillips was excited to depict the species in a time of peace, and was able to produce several different costumes that were not warrior-based. Phillips noted that in previous appearances groups of Klingons were often depicted as wearing the same costume, but on Discovery there was a mandate to have more diverse looks within groups of aliens. L'Rell's costumes are provocative to show the character as \"just being the woman that she [is] and have her feel more of a full character\". Phillips was inspired by various Klingon costumes from Star Trek: The Next Generation for the season. One of L'Rell's dresses was created from a jumpsuit bought from Gelareh Designs, a clothing company that Phillips calls \"the Klingon store\". A cape for the dress was made from leather pieces that were lifted from the jumpsuit and painted.\n\n#### Prosthetics\n\nGlenn Hetrick and Neville Page of Alchemy Studios, who provide prosthetics and armor for the series, teased in May 2018 that the season would feature a \"truly alien\" character for which they had to figure out new ways to reduce the weight of the prosthetics and make it breathable for the actor, as well as try improve the actor's vision because the eyes of the creature did not align with where human eyes are positioned. Hetrick said there would be more interesting prosthetics for extras, while the pair were able to use a species from earlier Star Trek canon that had not been in the first season after producing a of species they would like to use for the executive producers.\n\n#### Starships\n\nSeveral new sets for the Discovery were built for the season, adding to the ones constructed for the first. These included a new \"loop corridor\" and new entrances to the mess hall and sick bay sets. The engineering set from the first season was also renovated for the second, with production designer Tamara Deverell explaining that the cinematography department had issues with the large amount of light coming from the spore chamber in contrast to the rest of the room. Additionally, some season one sets were repurposed for the second season, with Lorca's season one ready room becoming a new science lab for Burnham in the second season.\n\nJohn Eaves and Scott Schneider, designers of the starships for the series, were required to redesign the USS Enterprise for Star Trek: Discovery, making it 25 percent different from Matt Jefferies' original design due to legal concerns regarding the ownership of different Star Trek elements. CBS ultimately confirmed that they were free to reuse Jefferies' design in Star Trek: Discovery, but stood by the changes made by Eaves and Schneider as creative improvements that took advantage of modern visual effects. These changes included adding elements that could realistically be removed or replaced in the time between this series and the beginning of the original series. The visual effects department made further adjustments to the design after Eaves and Schneider completed their work. The final version of the ship seen in the series also adopts some of the characteristics of the Enterprise from the films, such as being \"a little bit fatter, a little bit bigger\", to fit into the aesthetic of the series. Elaborating on this, Kurtzman explained that the original designs for the Enterprise would look out of place in the series due to the far more advanced modern technology being used to produce the show. He added that any sets designed for the Enterprise would bridge the look of the original series and Discovery while still trying to adhere to canon.\n\nThere had been plans to show the interior of the Enterprise during the first-season finale, but this was ultimately saved for the second season. Deverell did extensive research on the original sets before trying to recreate them using Discovery's style, including searching through the CBS archives to do color tests on the original bridge sets which feature a distinctive red that sometimes appeared to be orange on the original series (Discovery includes a joke about the bridge being orange, though Deverell insisted that it is red). The Enterprise bridge set was built on a new soundstage specifically for the two-part second season finale, rather than being a repurposed set. James Cawley, owner of the Official Star Trek Set Tour, provided reproductions of the buttons from the original bridge set for Deverell to base hers on.\n\n### Filming\n\nFilming for the season began at Pinewood Toronto Studios on April 16, 2018, under the working title Green Harvest. Production was set to take place at the studio until November 8. At the time of Berg and Harberts' firing, production was underway on the fifth episode of the season, and a hiatus in filming was planned to follow that. This allowed Kurtzman to take the time to \"regroup\" the writing staff without delaying the season's production. The production was ultimately delayed enough that it needed to extend its time at Pinewood in order to complete the season, and to amortize these costs CBS added an additional episode to the season's run, which pushed the end of filming on the season to December 21. Due to the delay, episodic director Jonathan Frakes ultimately directed the ninth episode of the season instead of the originally planned tenth.\n\nKurtzman hoped that if the series was projected in a theater it would appear indistinguishable from a feature film, and chose to use anamorphic lenses for the season to \"immediately [convey] a sense of scope and scale\". He also pushed the lighting and design departments to use color in ways that are not traditionally considered for television, and challenged the episode directors to each shoot a scene where they would not use the same shot twice; this was to encourage them to use more inventive shot choices rather than just typical \"coverage\", which is when a master shot of the scene is filmed plus whatever extra angles from different sides there is time to capture. Kurtzman wanted as many options available to the editors as possible during post-production. Addressing the fact that Star Trek was originally inspired by naval tradition, Kurtzman said that the season would be leaning further into that than the first did, especially in the way that they filmed the bridge scenes and a funeral sequence. He named Crimson Tide (1995) as an influence for the filming style. Frakes reiterated the cinematic approach to the series, especially comparing the camera work to the style of the Star Trek films directed by J. J. Abrams. He added that Osunsanmi encouraged the episodic directors to \"express ourselves visually in as exciting a way as possible\".\n\nDuring filming in August 2018, Mount was involved in an \"on-set physical altercation\" with a director when he touched them while rehearsing a pointing action before beginning a scene. The incident was reported to CBS's HR department who reviewed it and decided against any disciplinary action for Mount. The actor had apologized to the director at the time. The incident had no effect on Mount's involvement with the series, as work on the season continued without interruption and the series production was believed to be interested in working with Mount further despite his contract being only for the second season.\n\n### Visual effects\n\nThe season's visual effects were provided by CBS Digital, Crafty Apes, Filmworks FX, Fx3x, Ghost VFX, Pixomondo, and Spin VFX. They include digitally created environments and set extensions to portray new planets, the starships, and space visuals, as well as digital enhancements to Saru's threat ganglia, and adding holograms and external visuals to the Discovery. Completely digital sets created for the season include Discovery's hangar and the mycelial network, with the actors performing in front of green screen for these. An on-set prop was used for Tyler and L'Rell's baby son Tenavik, with a digital head added that was animated using performance capture.\n\n### Music\n\nComposer Jeff Russo planned to begin work on the second season in May 2018, after receiving the first script for the season. He did not expect to significantly change the tone of his music for the season, feeling that so much work in the first season had gone towards creating a unique sound for the series within the Star Trek franchise which he would like to continue moving forward. Russo did feel that the score for the second season would focus more on the \"swashbuckling\" aspects he wrote at times for the first season. Russo generally works directly with the showrunners rather than any of the episodic directors but discussed his score for the season's second episode with director Frakes. A soundtrack album for the season was released digitally by Lakeshore Records on July 19, 2019. It includes three cues from Russo's Short Treks score. All music composed by Jeff Russo:\n\n## Marketing\n\nThe season was promoted at San Diego Comic-Con in July 2018, with Notaro moderating a panel that featured Kurtzman, Martin-Green, Jones, Latif, Wiseman, Rapp, Cruz, Chieffo, Mount, and executive producer Heather Kadin. The first trailer for the season debuted at the panel before being released online. Scott Collura at IGN highlighted the lighter tone of the trailer compared to the first season, as well as the Enterprise uniforms seen in the trailer. A second trailer for the season was revealed by Kurtzman and cast members for the season at a panel at New York Comic Con in October, providing a first look at the series' version of Spock.\n\nAfter the season had completed airing, an exhibition for the series was held at the Paley Center for Media in Beverly Hills, California from May 8 to July 7, 2019, titled Star Trek: Discovery – Fight for the Future. It covered the creative process for the season, including production and concept art, models, props, and costumes used during production, pieces from the set such as the USS Discovery captain's chair, and full prosthetic makeup busts. The installation covered two floors of the Paley Center building, and was free to the public.\n\n## Release\n\n### Streaming and broadcast\n\nThe season premiered on CBS All Access in the United States on January 17, 2019. Bell Media broadcast the season in Canada on CTV Sci-Fi Channel (English) and Z (French) on the same day as the U.S., before streaming episodes on Crave. Netflix released each episode for streaming in another 188 countries within 24 hours of its U.S. debut. In September 2020, ViacomCBS announced that CBS All Access would be expanded and rebranded as Paramount+ in March 2021. Existing episodes of the season remained on Paramount+ along with future seasons of the series. In November 2021, ViacomCBS announced that it had bought back the international streaming rights to Discovery from Netflix effective immediately. In July 2023, Bell Media announced that the series would be leaving Crave over the following month. It would continue to be broadcast on CTV Sci-Fi and past seasons would remain available on CTV.ca and the CTV app.\n\nThe episode \"The Sound of Thunder\" was made available to stream for free on CBS.com, StarTrek.com, and PlutoTV for a week beginning June 17, 2020, as part of a CBS All Access event titled \\#StarTrekUnited. The episode was among 15 of the \"most culturally relevant\" Star Trek episodes that were chosen to be included as part of the event, which served as a fundraiser for several organisations including Black Strategy Fund, Movement for Black Lives, and Black Lives Matter. For the fundraiser, \\$1 was donated to one of those organizations by CBS All Access for every fan that tweeted using the hashtag \\#StarTrekUnitedGives on the day of June 17.\n\n### Home media\n\nThe season was released on DVD and Blu-Ray formats in the U.S. on November 12, 2019. The release includes two hours of bonus features, including featurettes, deleted scenes, a gag reel, and cast and crew commentaries on four episodes, as well as two shorts from the Star Trek: Short Treks companion series: \"Runaway\" and \"The Brightest Star\". On November 2, 2021, a home media box set collecting the first three seasons of Discovery was released, with more than eight hours of special features including behind-the-scenes featurettes, deleted and extended scenes, audio commentaries, and gag reels.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Critical response\n\nThe review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 81% approval rating for the second season, with an average rating of 7.3/10 based on 208 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The second season of Discovery successfully—if stubbornly—cleans up the problematic storylines of Trek past while still effectively dramatizing new takes on the lore.\" The average rating for each of the season's individual episodes is 82%. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 72 out of 100 based on reviews from 10 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\n\nMany reviews of the season premiere highlighted its lighter tone and focus on adventure compared to the darker, war-focused first season. This included Rob Owen, writing for the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, who praised the episode for having \"a little fun along the way\", as Pike says. Verne Gay at Newsday called the episode \"much more fun and energetic\", scoring it three stars out of four. Gay also highlighted how expensive the season looked, comparing it to the production value of Game of Thrones, as well as the returning cast and new additions such as Notaro and Mount. Vox's Emily VanDerWerff also called the premiere fun, attributing that to Mount as well as the season's central mystery, new cast members like Notaro, and the more episodic style of storytelling. She expressed concern about the season's focus on previous Star Trek elements, but felt this would work if it used those elements to further explore the series' own characters. At Newsweek, Andrew Whelan thought the premiere was promising, highlighting its action scenes and the ensemble cast (especially Mount and Notaro). He was critical of the continued focus on Burnham's backstory rather than developing her character based on present actions.\n\nReviewing the full season, Jordan Hoffman of Polygon praised Mount and Peck, expressing disappointment that they would not be returning for the third season, and suggesting their stories be continued in some other way. Despite this, he was positive about the way the season still focused on Burnham and its other main characters rather than letting the existing Star Trek characters take over the series. Hoffman was also positive about the efforts made in the season finale to align the series with the existing Star Trek canon, and praised the decision to have the Discovery travel to the future believing that was \"where they should have been in the first place\". Vulture's Devon Maloney praised the season-long story arc and how the various mystery elements all came together in the finale. He described the changes made in the finale episode to line up with continuity as an \"annoyingly clever retcon\", and also highlighted the season's cinematic visuals and music which he compared to the Star Wars films. Scott Collura at IGN also praised the jump into the future, but felt the attempts to fix the franchise's continuity were less successful. Overall he felt the season was both \"sloppy\" and \"pretty effective, offering up nice character interplay, crazy visuals and effects, and some 'whoa' moments of Star Trek grandeur\". Collura also expressed interest in a new series following Spock on the Enterprise. Darren Franich was critical of the season at Entertainment Weekly, grading it a 'C−'. He felt the serialized story was too stretched out, said Burnham's character did not receive interesting development, and described the efforts made at the end of the season to tie-into existing continuity as \"dumb\". He did praise Mount and Notaro, and felt the next season could only be better than this one.\n\nIn addition to critics expressing interest in seeing Mount and Peck continue on in a new series after the end of the season, fans also began calling for such a series, including through online petitions. Mount and Peck both responded positively to the idea, as did Kurtzman, who said in April 2019, \"The fans have been heard. Anything is possible in the world of Trek. I would love to bring back that crew more than anything.\" CBS All Access officially ordered a spin-off series focused on the Enterprise crew, titled Star Trek: Strange New Worlds, in May 2020. Mount, Peck, and Romijn all reprise their roles in the spin-off.\n\n### Accolades\n\nThe season is one of 21 television series that received the ReFrame Stamp for the 2018 to 2019 season. The stamp is awarded by the gender equity coalition ReFrame as a \"mark of distinction\" for film and television projects that are proven to have gender-balanced hiring, with stamps being awarded to projects that hire female-identifying people, especially women of color, in four out of eight critical areas of their production.", "revid": "1170421318", "description": "Second season of Star Trek: Discovery", "categories": ["2019 American television seasons", "Star Trek: Discovery seasons"]}
{"id": "3232610", "url": null, "title": "Attack on Sydney Harbour", "text": "From 31 May to 8 June 1942, during World War II, Imperial Japanese Navy submarines made a series of attacks on the Australian cities of Sydney and Newcastle. On the night of 31 May – 1 June, three Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarines, (M-14, M-21 and M-24) each with a two-member crew, entered Sydney Harbour, avoided the partially constructed Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net, and attempted to sink Allied warships. Two of the midget submarines were detected and attacked before they could engage any Allied vessels. The crew of M-14 scuttled their submarine, whilst M-21 was successfully attacked and sunk. The crew of M-21 killed themselves. These submarines were later recovered by the Allies. The third submarine attempted to torpedo the heavy cruiser USS Chicago, but instead sank the converted ferry , killing 21 sailors. This midget submarine's fate was unknown until 2006, when amateur scuba divers discovered the wreck off Sydney's northern beaches.\n\nImmediately following the raid, the five Japanese fleet submarines that carried the midget submarines to Australia embarked on a campaign to disrupt merchant shipping in eastern Australian waters. Over the next month, the submarines attacked at least seven merchant vessels, sinking three ships and killing 50 sailors. During this period, between midnight and 02:30 on 8 June, two of the submarines bombarded the ports of Sydney and Newcastle.\n\nThe midget submarine attacks and subsequent bombardments are among the best-known examples of Axis naval activity in Australian waters during World War II, and are the only occasion in history when either city has come under attack. The physical effects were slight: the Japanese had intended to destroy several major warships, but sank only an unarmed depot ship and failed to damage any significant targets during the bombardments. The main impact was psychological; creating popular fear of an impending Japanese invasion and forcing the Australian military to upgrade defences, including the commencement of convoy operations to protect merchant shipping.\n\n## Forces\n\n### Japanese\n\nThe Imperial Japanese Navy originally intended to use six submarines in the attack on Sydney Harbour: B1-type submarines I-21, I-27, I-28, and I-29, and C1-type submarines I-22 and I-24. The six submarines made up the Eastern Attack Group of the 8th Submarine Squadron, under the command of Captain Hankyu Sasaki.\n\nOn 8 June 1942, I-21 and I-29—each carrying a Yokosuka E14Y1 \"Glen\" floatplane for aerial reconnaissance—scouted various Australasian harbours to select the ones most vulnerable to attack by midget submarines. I-21 scouted Nouméa, Suva, then Auckland, while I-29 went to Sydney.\n\nOn 11 May, I-22, I-24, I-27, and I-28 were ordered to proceed to the Japanese naval base at Truk Lagoon, in the Caroline Islands, to each receive a Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarine. I-28 failed to reach Truk; she was torpedoed on the surface by the US submarine USS Tautog on 17 May. The three remaining submarines left Truk around 20 May for a point south of the Solomon Islands. I-24 was forced to return a day later when an explosion in her midget submarine's battery compartment killed the midget's navigator and injured the commander. The midget submarine intended for I-28 replaced the damaged midget.\n\n### Allies\n\nThe naval officer-in-charge of Sydney Harbour at the time of the attack was Rear Admiral Gerard Muirhead-Gould of the Royal Navy. On the night of the attack, three major vessels were present in Sydney Harbour; the heavy cruisers USS Chicago and , and the light cruiser . Other warships in the harbour included: destroyer tender USS Dobbin, auxiliary minelayer , corvettes , , and , armed merchant cruisers HMS Kanimbla and , and Dutch submarine K-IX. A converted ferry—HMAS Kuttabul—was alongside at Garden Island where she served as a temporary barracks for sailors transferring between ships. The hospital ship Oranje had also been in the harbour, but departed an hour before the attack.\n\n## Harbour defences\n\nAt the time of the attack, the static Sydney Harbour defences consisted of eight anti-submarine indicator loops—six outside the harbour, one between North Head and South Head, and one between South Head and Middle Head, as well as the partially constructed Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net between George's Head on Middle Head and Laing Point (formerly known as Green Point) on Inner South Head. The central section of the net was complete and support piles were in place to the west, but 400 m (1,300 ft) wide gaps remained on either side. Material shortages prevented the completion of the boom net prior to the attack. On the day of the attack, the six outer indicator loops were inactive; two were not functioning and there were not enough trained personnel to man both the inner and outer loop monitoring stations. The North Head – South Head indicator loop had been giving faulty signals since early 1940, and as civilian traffic regularly passed over the loop, readings were often ignored.\n\nHarbour defence craft included the anti-submarine vessels and Bingera; the auxiliary minesweepers HMAS Goonambee and ; pleasure launches converted to channel patrol boats (and armed with depth charges), namely , Lolita, Steady Hour, , Marlean, and ; and four unarmed Naval Auxiliary Patrol boats.\n\n## Prelude\n\nThe Japanese Navy used five Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarines in an unsuccessful operation against US battleships during the attack on Pearl Harbor. The navy hoped that upgrades to the submarines, intensified crew training, and the selection of a less well defended target would lead to better results and an increased chance of the crews of the midgets to return alive from their mission. Therefore, on 16 December 1941, the navy initiated plans for a second midget submarine operation.\n\nThe plans called for two simultaneous attacks against Allied naval vessels in the Indian and South Pacific oceans. These attacks were intended as diversions ahead of the attack on Midway Island in the North Pacific, with the Japanese hoping to convince the Allies that they intended to attack to the south or west of their conquests. Eleven submarines of the 8th Submarine Squadron were to carry out the two attacks, the five submarines of the Western Attack Group in the Indian Ocean, and the six submarines of the Eastern Attack Group in the Pacific Ocean. The submarine groups were to select a suitable port of attack, based on their own reconnaissance.\n\nThe Western Attack Group selected the port of Diégo-Suarez in Madagascar. This attack—which occurred at nightfall on 30 May and resulted in the damaging of the battleship HMS Ramillies and the sinking of the tanker British Loyalty—came 22 days after the British captured the port from Vichy France at the beginning of the Battle of Madagascar.\n\nThe four potential targets for the Eastern Attack Group were Nouméa, Suva, Auckland and Sydney. Identified by reconnaissance flights conducted by Warrant Flying Officer Nobuo Fujita of the Imperial Japanese Navy flying from I-25; commencing 17 February over Sydney Harbour, and the eastern Australian harbours of Melbourne and Hobart (1 March), followed by the New Zealand harbours of Wellington (8 March) and Auckland (13 March). I-21 and I-29 were sent to select the final target, with I-29 sailing to Sydney. On the evening of 16 May, I-29 fired on the 5,135 long tons (5,217 t) Soviet merchant vessel Wellen, 30 mi (26 nmi; 48 km) from Newcastle, New South Wales. Although Wellen escaped with minimal damage, shipping between Sydney and Newcastle was halted for 24 hours while aircraft and all available anti-submarine ships from Sydney, including Dutch light cruiser HNLMS Tromp, Australian destroyer and US destroyer USS Perkins, searched unsuccessfully for the submarine. Muirhead-Gould concluded that the submarine had operated alone and had left the area immediately after the attack.\n\nI-29's floatplane made a reconnaissance flight over Sydney on 23 May. A secret radar unit set up in Iron Cove detected the flight, but authorities dismissed its report as a glitch, as there were no Allied aircraft operating over Sydney. The aircraft was damaged or destroyed on landing, although its two crew survived. They reported the presence of several capital ships, including two battleships or large cruisers, five other large warships, several minor war vessels and patrol boats, and prolific merchant shipping. The report, which the Allied FRUMEL signals intelligence network partially intercepted, resulted in the Japanese Navy selecting Sydney as the target. The three midget-carrying submarines rendezvoused with I-29 and I-21 approximately 35 mi (30 nmi; 56 km) north-east of Sydney Heads, with all five submarines in position by 29 May.\n\n## Midget submarine operation\n\n### Final reconnaissance\n\nBefore dawn on 29 May, I-21's floatplane, piloted by Ito Susumu, performed a final reconnaissance flight over Sydney Harbour, with the mission of mapping the locations of the major vessels and of the anti-submarine net. Multiple observers spotted the floatplane but assumed it was a US Navy Curtiss Seagull. No alarm was raised until 05:07, when it was realised that the only ship in the area carrying Seagulls was the U.S. cruiser Chicago, and all four of her aircraft were on board. Richmond Air Force Base launched Wirraway fighters, which failed to locate I-21 or the floatplane. Therefore, the reconnaissance flight did not result in the authorities in Sydney taking any special defence measures. The floatplane was seriously damaged on landing and had to be scuttled, but both aircrew survived.\n\n### Plan of attack\n\nThe Japanese planned to launch the midgets one after the other between 17:20 and 17:40, from points 5–7 nmi (5.8–8.1 mi; 9.3–13.0 km) outside Sydney Harbour. The first midget was to pass through the Heads just after 18:30, but heavy seas delayed her by over an hour. The other two midgets followed at twenty-minute intervals and were similarly delayed.\n\nThe choice of targets was left up to the midget commanders, with advice that they should primarily target aircraft carriers or battleships, with cruisers as secondary targets. The midgets were to operate to the east of the Harbour Bridge, although if no suitable targets were to be found in this area they were to move under the Bridge and attack a battleship and large cruiser believed to be in the inner harbour. When the second reconnaissance flyover revealed that the expected British battleship—HMS Warspite—was nowhere to be found, USS Chicago became the priority target.\n\nAfter completing their mission, the midgets were to depart Sydney Harbour and head south for 20 nmi (23 mi; 37 km) to the recovery point off Port Hacking. Four of the mother submarines would be waiting in an east–west line 16 km (8.6 nmi; 9.9 mi) long, with the fifth waiting 6 km (3.2 nmi; 3.7 mi) further south.\n\n### Attack\n\nMidget submarine M-14—launched from I-27—was the first to enter Sydney Harbour. The Middle Head – South Head loop detected it at 20:01, but dismissed the reading due to heavy civilian traffic. At 20:15, a Maritime Services Board watchman spotted the midget after it passed through the western gap, collided with the Pile Light, then reversed and trapped its stern in the net. The submarine's bow broke the surface; the watchman rowed toward it to determine what it was and then rowed to the nearby patrol boat to report his finding. Despite efforts by Yarroma to pass on this information, Sydney Naval Headquarters did not receive the report until 21:52. HMAS Yarroma and were dispatched to investigate. Upon confirming that the object in the net was a \"baby submarine\", Lolita dropped two depth charges while Yarroma's commander requested permission from Sydney Naval Headquarters to open fire. The depth charges failed to detonate, as the water was too shallow for the hydrostatic fuse setting. At 22:35, while Yarroma was waiting for permission to fire, and Lolita was setting up to deploy a third depth charge, the two crewmen on M-14 activated one of the submarine's scuttling charges, killing themselves and destroying the submarine's forward section.\n\nMuirhead-Gould gave the general alarm, along with orders for ships to take anti-submarine measures, at 22:27; the alarm was repeated at 22:36 with advice for ships to take precautions against attack, as an enemy submarine might be in the harbour. At the time of the first alarm, Sydney Harbour was closed to external traffic, but Muirhead-Gould ordered ferries and other internal traffic to continue, as he believed that having multiple ships travelling around at speed would help force any submarines to remain submerged.\n\nMidget submarine M-24 was the second to enter the harbour. HMAS Falie grazed M-24's hull and reported the contact to command. The report was not followed up. M-24 crossed the indicator loop undetected at 21:48, and at approximately 22:00 followed a Manly ferry through the anti-submarine net. At 22:52, M-24 was spotted by a Chicago searchlight operator less than 500 m (1,600 ft) to the moored cruiser's starboard, and on a course roughly parallel to the ship's facing. Chicago opened fire with a 5 in (130 mm) gun and a quadruple machinegun mount, but inflicted minimal damage as the weapons could not depress far enough. Some of the 5 in (130 mm) shells skipped off the water and hit Fort Denison's Martello tower, while fragments were later found in the suburbs of Cremorne and Mosman. The senior officer present aboard Chicago ordered the crew to begin preparing for departure, and for USS Perkins to begin an anti-submarine screening patrol around the cruiser, orders that were revoked by the sceptical Captain Howard Bode when he arrived on board at around 23:30.\n\n`and  also fired upon M-24 as it fled west toward the Sydney Harbour Bridge, before the midget was able to submerge and escape. When it returned to periscope depth, the midget found itself west of Fort Denison. It turned and sailed east for about 1 nmi (1.2 mi; 1.9 km), then took up a firing position south-west of Bradley's Head, from where its commander could see Chicago's stern silhouetted against the construction floodlights at Garden Island's new Captain Cook Graving Dock.`\n\nMidget submarine M-21—from I-22—probably entered the harbour at the same time that USS Chicago opened fire on M-24. The unarmed Naval Auxiliary Patrol boat Lauriana (later commissioned HMAS Lauriana) spotted M-21 and illuminated the submarine's conning tower, while sending an alert signal to the Port War Signal Station at South Head, and the nearby anti-submarine vessel HMAS Yandra. Yandra attempted to ram the submarine, lost contact, regained contact at 23:03, and fired a full pattern of six depth charges. At the time of the attack, it was assumed that the depth charges had destroyed or disabled the midget, but M-21 survived. Historians believe that the midget took refuge on the harbour floor and waited until the Allied vessels had moved away before it resumed the attack.\n\nAt 23:14, Muirhead-Gould ordered all ships to observe blackout conditions. Just after 23:30, he set off on a barge towards the boom net, to make a personal inspection. The Admiral reached Lolita at about midnight and indicated to her crew that he did not take the reports of enemy submarines seriously, reportedly saying: \"What are you all playing at, running up and down the harbour dropping depth charges and talking about enemy subs in the harbour? There's not one to be seen.\" The crew reiterated that a submarine had been seen, but Muirhead-Gould remained unconvinced and before he left, added sarcastically: \"If you see another sub, see if the captain has a black beard. I'd like to meet him.\"\n\nDespite the blackout order, the Garden Island floodlights remained on until 00:25. About five minutes later, M-24 fired the first of its two torpedoes; it delayed firing the second torpedo for several minutes as the midget submarines would lose longitudinal stability immediately after firing a torpedo. Historians are divided as to the exact paths of the torpedoes relative to Chicago, although all agree that the US cruiser was the intended target. Both torpedoes missed Chicago, while one torpedo may have also passed close to Perkins''' starboard bow. One of the torpedoes continued underneath the Dutch submarine K-IX and HMAS Kuttabul, then hit the breakwater Kuttabul was tied up against. The explosion broke Kuttabul in two and sank her, and damaged K-IX. The attack killed 19 Royal Australian Navy and two Royal Navy sailors, and wounded another 10. The explosion shook residences in the area and damaged Garden Island's lights and telecommunications. The other torpedo ran aground on the eastern shore of Garden Island without exploding. M-24 then dived and moved to leave the harbour.\n\nA crossing over the indicator loop that was recorded at 01:58 was initially believed to be another midget submarine entering the harbour, although later analysis showed that the reading indicated an outbound vessel and therefore most likely represented M-24's exit. M-24 did not return to its mother submarine, and its fate remained unknown until 2006.\n\nShips were ordered to make for the open ocean. Chicago left her anchorage at 02:14, leaving a sailor behind on the mooring buoy in her haste to depart. Bombay, Whyalla, Canberra, and Perkins began their preparations to depart.\n\nJust before 03:00, as Chicago was leaving the harbour, the lookouts spotted a submarine periscope passing alongside the cruiser. At 03:01, the indicator loop registered an inbound signal; M-21 was re-entering Sydney Harbour after recovering from the attack four hours previously. HMS Kanimbla fired on M-21 in Neutral Bay at 03:50, and at 05:00, three auxiliary patrol boats—HMAS Steady Hour, Sea Mist, and Yarroma—spotted the submarine's conning tower in Taylors Bay. The patrol boats had set their depth charge fuses to 15 m (49 ft), and when Sea Mist passed over where the submarine had just submerged and dropped a depth charge, she had only five seconds to clear the area. The blast damaged M-21, which inverted and rose to the surface before sinking again. Sea Mist dropped a second depth charge, which damaged one of her two engines in the process and prevented her from making further attacks. Steady Hour and Yarroma continued the attack, dropping seventeen depth charges on believed visual sightings and instrument contacts of the midget over the next three and a half hours. At some point during the night, the crew of M-21 killed themselves.\n\nAt 04:40, HMAS Canberra recorded that the Japanese may have fired torpedoes at her. This may have been one of many false alarms throughout the night. However, M-21 had attempted to fire its two torpedoes, but failed because of damage to the bow either from HMAS Yandra's ramming or depth charges, or a possible collision with USS Chicago, making it possible that M-21 attempted to attack the cruiser. The observer aboard Canberra may have seen bubbles from the compressed air released to fire the torpedoes.\n\n## Secondary missions\n\nAs per the operation plan, the five mother submarines waited off Port Hacking on the nights of 1 and 2 June for the midget submarines to return. FRUMEL picked up wireless traffic between the five submarines, leading the Royal Australian Air Force to task three Lockheed Hudsons and two Bristol Beauforts with finding the source of the communications. They were unsuccessful. On 3 June, Sasaki abandoned hope of recovering the midget submarines, and the submarines dispersed on their secondary missions.\n\n### Attacks on Allied merchant shipping\n\nFour of the submarines began operations against Allied merchant shipping. I-21 patrolled north of Sydney, while I-24 patrolled south of Sydney. I-27 began searching off Gabo Island for ships departing Melbourne, and I-29 travelled to Brisbane. I-22 left the group to conduct reconnaissance operations, first at Wellington and Auckland in New Zealand, and then at Suva in Fiji.\n\nBetween 1 and 25 June, when the four submarines arrived at Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands to re-supply before proceeding to Japanese shipyards for maintenance, the four submarines attacked at least seven Allied merchant vessels. Three of these were sunk: Iron Chieftain by I-24 on 3 June, Iron Crown by I-27 on 4 June, and Guatemala by I-21 on 12 June. The first two attacks resulted in 12 and 37 fatalities respectively, though the third attack killed no one. The attacks forced the authorities to institute changes in merchant traffic; travel north of Melbourne was restricted until a system of escorted convoys was established.\n\nI-21 was the only submarine to return to Australian waters, where she sank three ships and damaged two others during January and February 1943. During her two deployments, I-21 sank 44,000 long tons (45,000 t) of Allied shipping, which made her the most successful Japanese submarine to operate in Australian waters.\n\n### Bombardment\n\nOn the morning of 8 June, I-24 and I-21 briefly bombarded Sydney and Newcastle. Just after midnight, I-24 surfaced 9 mi (14 km) south-south-east of Macquarie Lighthouse. The submarine's commander ordered the gun crew to target the Sydney Harbour Bridge. They fired 10 shells over a four-minute period; nine landed in the Eastern Suburbs and one landed in water. I-24 then crash dived to prevent successful retaliation by coastal artillery batteries. Only one shell detonated, and the only injuries inflicted were cuts and fractures from falling bricks or broken glass when the unexploded shells hit buildings. A United States Army Air Forces pilot, 1st Lieutenant George Cantello, based at Bankstown Airport disobeyed orders and took off to try and locate the source of the shelling, but was killed when engine failure caused his Airacobra to crash in a paddock at Hammondville. In 1988, following efforts by residents and the US Consulate in Sydney, the City of Liverpool established a memorial park, the Lt. Cantello Reserve, with a monument in his honour.\n\nAt 02:15, I-21 shelled Newcastle, from 9 km (4.9 nmi; 5.6 mi) north-east of Stockton Beach. She fired 34 shells over a 16-minute period, including eight star shells. The target of the attack was the BHP steelworks in the city. However, the shells landed over a large area, causing minimal damage and no fatalities: the only shell to detonate damaged a house on Parnell Place, while an unexploded shell hit a tram terminus. Fort Scratchley returned fire, the only time an Australian land fortification has fired on an enemy warship during wartime, but the submarine escaped unscathed.\n\n## Analysis\n\nThe attack on Sydney Harbour ended in failure on both sides, and revealed flaws in both the Allied defences and the Japanese tactics. During the primary attack, the Japanese lost all three midget submarines in exchange for the sinking of a single barracks ship. The subsequent operations were no more successful as the five large Japanese submarines sank only three merchant ships and caused minimal property damage during the two bombardments. The performance of the Allied defenders was equally poor. However, one historian states that the lack of damage in Sydney Harbour was due to \"a combination of good luck and aggressive counter-attack\".\n\nThe main impact of the midget submarine attack and subsequent operations was psychological; dispelling any belief that Sydney was immune to Japanese attack and highlighting Australia's proximity to the Pacific War. There was no official inquiry into the attacks, despite demand from some sections of the media, as there was concern that an inquiry would lead to defeatism and reduce faith in John Curtin's government, particularly after the damaging inquiry into Australian defences that had followed the Japanese aerial attack on Darwin three months earlier.\n\n### Failures in Allied defences\n\nThe Allies failed to respond adequately to several warnings of Japanese activity off the east coast of Australia prior to the attack; they simply ignored the warnings or explained them away. They attributed the unsuccessful attack on the freighter Wellen on 16 May to a single submarine, and assumed it had departed Australian waters immediately after the attack. The first reconnaissance flight went unnoticed, and although FRUMEL intercepted the report and distributed it to Allied commanders on 30 May, Muirhead-Gould apparently did not react. New Zealand naval authorities detected radio chatter between the Japanese submarines on 26 and 29 May, and although they could not decrypt the transmissions, radio direction finding indicated that a submarine or submarines were approaching Sydney. The Allies considered dispatching an anti-submarine patrol in response to the 29 May fix, but were unable to do so as all anti-submarine craft were already committed to protecting a northbound troop convoy. The only response to the second reconnaissance flight on 29 May was the launching of search planes. No other defence measures were put into place. Although the midget attack on Diego Suarez in Madagascar occurred on the morning of 31 May (Sydney time), the Allies sent no alert to other command regions, as they believed that Vichy French forces had launched the attack.\n\nHistorians have questioned the competence of the senior Allied officers. Muirhead-Gould had been hosting a dinner party on the night of the attack, and one of the main guests was the senior United States Navy officer in Sydney Harbour, Captain Howard Bode of USS Chicago. Both officers were sceptical that any attack was taking place. Muirhead-Gould arrived aboard HMAS Lolita at approximately midnight, an action he described as attempting to learn about the situation. But members of Lolita's crew later recounted that when Muirhead-Gould came aboard he immediately chastised the patrol boat's skipper and crew, and quickly dismissed their report. Junior officers on Chicago provided similar descriptions of Bode's return on board, and members of both crews later claimed that Muirhead-Gould and Bode were intoxicated. It was only after the destruction of HMAS Kuttabul that both officers began to take the attack seriously.\n\nDuring the attack, there were several delays between events and responses to them. Over two hours passed between the observation of M-14 in the boom net and Muirhead-Gould's first order for ships to commence anti-submarine actions. It took another two hours to mobilise the auxiliary patrol boats, which did not leave their anchorage for a further hour. Part of these delays was due to a lack of effective communications. None of the auxiliary patrol craft in the harbour had radio communications, so all instructions and reports came from signal lights via the Port War Signal Station or Garden Island, or by physical communication via launches. In Muirhead-Gould's preliminary report on the attack, he stated that the Port War Signal Station was not designed for the volume of communications traffic the attack caused. Telephone communications with Garden Island were unreliable during the early part of the attack, and then the first torpedo explosion disabled them completely.\n\nThe need to keep information secret may also have contributed to the delays and the defenders' scepticism. As the auxiliary patrol boat crews, the indicator loop staff, and other personnel manning defensive positions would have been outside 'need to know' and would not have been informed about any of the incidents prior to the attack, they would not have been alert, contributing to the disbelief demonstrated in the early hours of the attack.\n\n### Flaws in Japanese tactics\n\nThe main flaw in the Japanese plans was the use of midget submarines for the primary attack. Midget submarines were originally intended to operate during fleet actions: they would be released from modified seaplane carriers to run amok through the enemy fleet. This concept went out of favour as changing Japanese naval thinking and experience led to recognition that naval warfare would centre around carrier-supported aerial combat. As a result, the midget program's focus changed to the infiltration of enemy harbours, where they would attack vessels at anchor. This concept failed completely during the attack on Pearl Harbor, where the midgets had no effect, and tying up 11 large submarines for six weeks in support of further midget submarine attacks on Sydney and Diego Suarez proved a waste of resources.\n\nMoreover, the failures at Sydney Harbour and Diego Suarez demonstrated that the improvements to the midget submarines made after Pearl Harbor had not increased the overall impact of the midget program. The modifications had various effects. The ability to man and deploy the midgets while the mother ships were submerged prevented the Army coastal radars from detecting the mother submarines. However, the midgets were still difficult to control, unstable, and prone to surfacing or diving uncontrollably.\n\nBeyond the use of the unreliable midgets, historians have identified areas in the plan of attack where the Japanese could have done significantly more damage. If the Japanese midget submarines had conducted a simultaneous, co-ordinated attack, they would have overwhelmed the defences. A chance for more damage came following the destruction of Kuttabul, when several naval vessels headed to sea, including USS Chicago, USS Perkins, Dutch submarine K-IX, HMAS Whyalla, and HMIS Bombay. The five mother submarines were already en route to the Port Hacking recovery position, and although Sasaki's plan at Pearl Harbor had been to leave some submarines at the harbour mouth to pick off fleeing vessels, he did not repeat this tactic.\n\n### USS Chicago's survival\n\nSeveral factors beyond the control of any of the combatants contributed to the survival of USS Chicago. At the time of M-24's attack on Chicago, the latter had spent some time preparing to depart from Sydney Harbour, and although still moored and stationary, was producing large volumes of white smoke as the boilers warmed up. This smoke, streaming aft under the influence of the wind, and contrasting against the dark, low-lying cloud, may have given the impression that Chicago was moving, causing M-24 to lead the target when firing its torpedoes, and consequently sending its torpedoes across the bow. Another factor that may have influenced Chicago's survival was the extinguishing of Garden Island's floodlights minutes before M-24 fired its first torpedo, impeding targeting.\n\n### Bombardment impact\n\nThe bombardments failed to cause significant physical damage, but had a major psychological impact on the residents of Sydney and Newcastle. Due to the inaccuracy of the submarines' range-finding equipment, coupled with the unstable firing platform of a submarine at sea, specific targeting was impossible. The intention of the submarine bombardment was to frighten the population of the target area.\n\nThe failure of the majority of the shells to detonate may have had various causes. As the submarines fired armour-piercing shells, intended for use against steel ship hulls, the relatively softer brick walls may have failed to trigger the impact fuses. Sea water may have degraded the shells, which the Japanese had stored in deck lockers for several weeks. The age of the shells may also have been a factor; some of the shells recovered from the Newcastle bombardment were found to be of English manufacture: surplus munitions from World War I.\n\nIn Sydney, fear of an impending Japanese invasion caused people to move west; housing prices in the Eastern Suburbs dropped, while those beyond the Blue Mountains rose significantly. The attack also led to a significant increase in the membership of volunteer defence organisations, and strengthening of defences in Sydney Harbour and Port Newcastle.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nThe papers did not publish news of the submarine attack until 2 June, as most of the attack occurred after the newspapers went to press on the morning of 1 June. Instead, on the morning after the attack, the front pages carried news of Operation Millennium, the Royal Air Force's first 1,000-bomber raid, although several newspapers included a small interior article mentioning the final reconnaissance flyover. The Federal Censor ordered total censorship of the events, issuing an official statement on the afternoon of 1 June which reported that the Allies had destroyed three submarines in Sydney Harbour, and described the loss of Kuttabul and the 21 deaths as the loss of \"one small harbour vessel of no military value\". Smith's Weekly finally released the real story on 6 June, and follow-up material in 13 June issue caused more political damage, prompting the Royal Australian Navy to attempt to charge the newspaper with releasing defence information.\n\nIt was several days before the 21 dead sailors aboard Kuttabul could all be recovered. On 3 June, Muirhead-Gould and over 200 Navy personnel attended a burial ceremony for these sailors. On 1 January 1943, the Navy base at Garden Island was commissioned as in commemoration of the ferry and the lives lost.\n\nThe Australians recovered the bodies of the four Japanese crew of the two midget submarines sunk in Sydney Harbour and had them cremated at Eastern Suburbs Crematorium. For the cremation, the Allies draped the Japanese flag over each coffin and rendered full naval honours. Muirhead-Gould was criticised for this, but defended his actions as respecting the courage of the four submariners, regardless of their origin. Australian politicians also hoped that the Japanese Government would notice the respect paid to the sailors and improve the conditions Australian prisoners-of-war were experiencing in Japanese internment camps. Japanese authorities noted the funeral service, but this did not lead to any major improvement in conditions for Australian POWs. Following the use of the midget submariners' funeral by the Japanese for propaganda purposes, the Australian High Command forbade similar funerals for enemy personnel in the future.\n\nAn exchange of Japanese and Allied diplomatic personnel stranded in the opposing nations occurred in August 1942, which allowed Tatsuo Kawai, the Japanese ambassador to Australia, to return home with the ashes of the four Japanese submariners. When the exchange ship Kamakura Maru arrived in Yokohama, several thousand people were present to honour the four men.\n\nThe two main targets of the attack, USS Chicago and HMAS Canberra, were both lost within the next year: Canberra sinking on 9 August 1942 during the Battle of Savo Island, and Chicago on 30 January 1943 following the Battle of Rennell Island. None of the Japanese submarines involved in the attack survived the war. USS Charrette and Fair sank I-21 on 5 February 1944 off the Marshall Islands. An American torpedo boat sank I-22 on 25 December 1942 off New Guinea. An American patrol craft sank I-24 on 10 June 1943 near the Aleutian Islands. HMS Paladin and Petard sank I-27 on 12 February 1943 off the Maldives. Lastly, USS Sawfish sank I-29 on 26 July 1944 in the Philippines.\n\n### M-14 and M-21\n\nThe Allies located and recovered M-21 on 3 June and M-14 on 8 June. Although both were damaged during the attack, it was possible to assemble a complete submarine from the two vessels. The centre section of the rebuilt submarine was mounted on a trailer and taken on a 4,000 km (2,500 mi) tour throughout southern New South Wales, Victoria, and western South Australia. The purpose of the tour was twofold; it allowed Australians to see a Japanese midget submarine up close, and was used to raise A£28,000 for the Naval Relief Fund and other charities. The submarine arrived at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra on 28 April 1943, flying the White Ensign and a paying-off pennant. The submarine was originally displayed outside the museum in three separate pieces, but was moved inside in the 1980s due to heavy vandalism; on one occasion in 1966, a group of university students painted it bright yellow in response to The Beatles' song Yellow Submarine. The composite submarine was restored and remains on display inside the Memorial as part of a permanent exhibition on the attack, next to the recovered wheelhouse of HMAS Kuttabul.' The conning tower from M-21 is on display at the Royal Australian Navy Heritage Centre on Garden Island. Leftover material from M-21 was melted down and made into souvenirs following the construction of the combined vessel.\n\n### M-24\n\nOver the 64 years following the disappearance of M-24 after the attacks, more than 50 people approached the Royal Australian Navy claiming to have found the submarine. All of these claims were found to be false. One early theory about the midget's fate was that it was damaged or destroyed, along with M-21, in or around Taylors Bay, which would account for reports from Steady Hour and Yarroma of multiple submarines during their three-hour attack against M-21. A second theory was that the midget attempted to return to the mother submarines but exhausted its battery power before reaching the Port Hacking recovery point and would therefore be outside and to the south of Sydney Heads. The third theory was that the midget's crew decided to avoid endangering the five larger submarines during the recovery process, and either ran straight out to sea or headed north.\n\nA group of seven amateur scuba divers solved the mystery in November 2006, when they found a small submarine sitting upright on the seabed, 55 metres (180 ft) below sea level and approximately 5 kilometres (2.7 nmi; 3.1 mi) from Bungan Head, off Sydney's Northern Beaches. Commander Shane Moore, the officer responsible for the Royal Australian Navy's heritage collection, confirmed that the wreck was M-24 after viewing footage from multiple dives, along with measurements the group had taken. The wreck had several bullet holes in it, most likely from Chicago's quadruple machine-gun mount. The location of the wreck was kept secret by both the divers and the navy, with Defence Minister Brendan Nelson promising to have the wreck protected as a war grave. The wreck was gazetted on 1 December 2006 as a heritage site. A 500 m (1,600 ft) exclusion zone was established around the wreck site, and any vessel entering the zone is liable to a fine under New South Wales law of up to A\\$1.1 million, with additional fines and confiscation of equipment under Commonwealth law. Shore- and buoy-mounted surveillance cameras and a sonar listening device further protect the site.\n\nOn 7 February 2007, during JMSDF Admiral Eiji Yoshikawa's visit to Australia, Yoshikawa and RAN Vice Admiral Russ Shalders presided over a ceremony held aboard to honour M-24's crew. Relatives of the midget submarines' crews, one of the survivors from Kuttabul, and dignitaries and military personnel from Australia and Japan attended another ceremony on 6 August 2007 at HMAS Kuttabul. then carried relatives of M-24's crew to the wreck site, where they poured sake into the sea before being presented with sand taken from the seabed around the submarine.\n\nIn May 2012, the NSW state government announced that, with the approval of the Japanese government and the submariners' families, divers would be allowed to observe the M-24'' wreck for a short period of time. Divers would enter a ballot for places on controlled dives run on several days. If successful, opening the site would become an annual event to commemorate the attack.\n\n## See also\n\n- Air raids on Australia, 1942–43\n- Military history of Australia during World War II\n\n## Explanatory footnotes\n\n## General and cited references", "revid": "1156564240", "description": "1942 World War II attack by Japan", "categories": ["1940s in Sydney", "1942 in Australia", "Conflicts in 1942", "Military attacks against Australia", "Military history of Sydney during World War II", "Shipwrecks of New South Wales", "South West Pacific theatre of World War II", "Submarine warfare in World War II", "Sydney Harbour"]}
{"id": "166346", "url": null, "title": "OPEC", "text": "The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, /ˈoʊpɛk/ OH-pek) is an organization enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profit. It was founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela). The 13 member countries account for an estimated 30 percent of global oil production.\n\nIn a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms (the \"Seven Sisters\"). In the 1970s, restrictions in oil production led to a dramatic rise in oil prices with long-lasting and far-reaching consequences for the global economy. Since the 1980s, OPEC has had a limited impact on world oil-supply and oil-price stability, as there is frequent cheating by members on their commitments to one another, and as member commitments reflect what they would do even in the absence of OPEC.\n\nThe formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward national sovereignty over natural resources. OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil-market and in international relations. Economists have characterized OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel (a group whose members cooperate to reduce market competition) but one whose consultations may be protected by the doctrine of state immunity under international law.\n\nCurrent OPEC members are<sup>[ref]</sup> Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. Meanwhile, Ecuador, Indonesia and Qatar are former OPEC members. A larger group called OPEC+, consisting of OPEC members plus other oil-producing countries, formed in late 2016 to exert more control on the global crude-oil market. Canada, Egypt, Norway and Oman are observer states.\n\n## Organization and structure\n\nIn a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms (the Seven Sisters). Coordination among oil-producing states within OPEC made it easier for them to nationalize oil production and structure oil prices in their favor without incurring punishment by Western governments and firms. Prior to the creation of OPEC, individual oil-producing states were punished for taking steps to alter the governing arrangements of oil production within their borders. States were coerced militarily (e.g. in 1953, the US-UK-sponsored a coup against Mohammad Mosaddegh after he nationalized Iran's oil production) or economically (e.g. the Seven Sisters slowed down oil production in one non-compliant state and ramped up oil production elsewhere) when acted contrary to the interests of the Seven Sisters and their governments.\n\nThe organisational logic that underpins OPEC is that it is in the collective interest of its members to limit the world oil supply in order to reap higher prices. However, the main problem within OPEC is that it is individually rational for members to cheat on commitments and produce as much oil as possible.\n\nPolitical scientist Jeff Colgan has argued that OPEC has since the 1980s largely failed to achieve its goals (limits on world oil supply, stabilized prices, and raising of long-term average revenues). He finds that members have cheated on 96% of their commitments. To the extent that member states comply with their commitments, it is because the commitments reflect what they would do even if OPEC did not exist. One large reason for the frequent cheating is that OPEC does not punish members for non-compliance with commitments.\n\n### Leadership and decision-making\n\nThe OPEC Conference is the supreme authority of the organisation, and consists of delegations normally headed by the oil ministers of member countries. The chief executive of the organisation is the OPEC secretary general. The conference ordinarily meets at the Vienna headquarters, at least twice a year and in additional extraordinary sessions when necessary. It generally operates on the principles of unanimity and \"one member, one vote\", with each country paying an equal membership fee into the annual budget. However, since Saudi Arabia is by far the largest and most-profitable oil exporter in the world, with enough capacity to function as the traditional swing producer to balance the global market, it serves as \"OPEC's de facto leader\".\n\n### International cartel\n\nAt various times, OPEC members have displayed apparent anti-competitive cartel behavior through the organisation's agreements about oil production and price levels. Economists often cite OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel that cooperates to reduce market competition, as in this definition from OECD's Glossary of Industrial Organisation Economics and Competition Law:\n\n> International commodity agreements covering products such as coffee, sugar, tin and more recently oil (OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) are examples of international cartels which have publicly entailed agreements between different national governments.\n\nOPEC members strongly prefer to describe their organisation as a modest force for market stabilisation, rather than a powerful anti-competitive cartel. In its defense, the organisation was founded as a counterweight against the previous \"Seven Sisters\" cartel of multinational oil companies, and non-OPEC energy suppliers have maintained enough market share for a substantial degree of worldwide competition. Moreover, because of an economic \"prisoner's dilemma\" that encourages each member nation individually to discount its price and exceed its production quota, widespread cheating within OPEC often erodes its ability to influence global oil prices through collective action. Political scientist Jeff Colgan has challenged that OPEC is a cartel, pointing to endemic cheating in the organization: \"A cartel needs to set tough goals and meet them; OPEC sets easy goals and fails to meet even those.\"\n\nOPEC has not been involved in any disputes related to the competition rules of the World Trade Organization, even though the objectives, actions, and principles of the two organisations diverge considerably. A key US District Court decision held that OPEC consultations are protected as \"governmental\" acts of state by the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, and are therefore beyond the legal reach of US competition law governing \"commercial\" acts. Despite popular sentiment against OPEC, legislative proposals to limit the organisation's sovereign immunity, such as the NOPEC Act, have so far been unsuccessful.\n\n### Conflicts\n\nOPEC often has difficulty agreeing on policy decisions because its member countries differ widely in their oil export capacities, production costs, reserves, geological features, population, economic development, budgetary situations, and political circumstances. Indeed, over the course of market cycles, oil reserves can themselves become a source of serious conflict, instability and imbalances, in what economists call the \"natural resource curse\". A further complication is that religion-linked conflicts in the Middle East are recurring features of the geopolitical landscape for this oil-rich region. Internationally important conflicts in OPEC's history have included the Six-Day War (1967), Yom Kippur War (1973), a hostage siege directed by Palestinian militants (1975), the Iranian Revolution (1979), Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Iraqi occupation of Kuwait (1990–1991), September 11 attacks (2001), American occupation of Iraq (2003–2011), Conflict in the Niger Delta (2004–present), Arab Spring (2010–2012), Libyan Crisis (2011–present), and international Embargo against Iran (2012–2016). Although events such as these can temporarily disrupt oil supplies and elevate prices, the frequent disputes and instabilities tend to limit OPEC's long-term cohesion and effectiveness.\n\n## History and impact\n\n### Post-WWII situation\n\nIn 1949, Venezuela and Iran took the earliest steps in the direction of OPEC, by inviting Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to improve communication among petroleum-exporting nations as the world recovered from World War II. At the time, some of the world's largest oil fields were just entering production in the Middle East. The United States had established the Interstate Oil Compact Commission to join the Texas Railroad Commission in limiting overproduction. The US was simultaneously the world's largest producer and consumer of oil; the world market was dominated by a group of multinational companies known as the \"Seven Sisters\", five of which were headquartered in the US following the breakup of John D. Rockefeller's original Standard Oil monopoly. Oil-exporting countries were eventually motivated to form OPEC as a counterweight to this concentration of political and economic power.\n\n### 1959–1960: anger from exporting countries\n\nIn February 1959, as new supplies were becoming available, the multinational oil companies (MOCs) unilaterally reduced their posted prices for Venezuelan and Middle Eastern crude oil by 10 percent. Weeks later, the Arab League's first Arab Petroleum Congress convened in Cairo, Egypt, where the influential journalist Wanda Jablonski introduced Saudi Arabia's Abdullah Tariki to Venezuela's observer Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo, representing the two then-largest oil-producing nations outside the United States and the Soviet Union. Both oil ministers were angered by the price cuts, and the two led their fellow delegates to establish the Maadi Pact or Gentlemen's Agreement, calling for an \"Oil Consultation Commission\" of exporting countries, to which MOCs should present price-change plans. Jablonski reported a marked hostility toward the West and a growing outcry against \"absentee landlordism\" of the MOCs, which at the time controlled all oil operations within the exporting countries and wielded enormous political influence. In August 1960, ignoring the warnings, and with the US favoring Canadian and Mexican oil for strategic reasons, the MOCs again unilaterally announced significant cuts in their posted prices for Middle Eastern crude oil.\n\n### 1960–1975: founding and expansion\n\nThe following month, during 10–14 September 1960, the Baghdad Conference was held at the initiative of Tariki, Pérez Alfonzo, and Iraqi prime minister Abd al-Karim Qasim, whose country had skipped the 1959 congress. Government representatives from Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in Baghdad to discuss ways to increase the price of crude oil produced by their countries, and ways to respond to unilateral actions by the MOCs. Despite strong US opposition: \"Together with Arab and non-Arab producers, Saudi Arabia formed the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC) to secure the best price available from the major oil corporations.\" The Middle Eastern members originally called for OPEC headquarters to be in Baghdad or Beirut, but Venezuela argued for a neutral location, and so the organization chose Geneva, Switzerland. On 1 September 1965, OPEC moved to Vienna, Austria, after Switzerland declined to extend diplomatic privileges. At the time, Switzerland was trying to reduce her foreign population and the OPEC was the first intergovernmental body to leave the country because of restrictions on foreigners. Austria was keen to attract international organizations and offered attractive terms to the OPEC.\n\nDuring the early years of OPEC, the oil-producing countries had a 50/50 profit agreement with the oil companies. OPEC bargained with the dominant oil companies (the Seven Sisters), but OPEC faced coordination problems among its members. If one OPEC member demanded too much from the oil companies, then the oil companies could slow down production in that country and ramp up production elsewhere. The 50/50 agreements were still in place until 1970 when Libya negotiated a 58/42 agreement with the oil company Occidental, which prompted other OPEC members to request better agreements with oil companies. In 1971, an accord was signed between major oil companies and members of OPEC doing business in the Mediterranean Sea region, called the Tripoli Agreement. The agreement, signed on 2 April 1971, raised oil prices and increased producing countries' profit shares.\n\nDuring 1961–1975, the five founding nations were joined by Qatar (1961), Indonesia (1962–2008, rejoined 2014–2016), Libya (1962), United Arab Emirates (originally just the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, 1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973–1992, 2007–2020), and Gabon (1975–1994, rejoined 2016). By the early 1970s, OPEC's membership accounted for more than half of worldwide oil production. Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion, Mohammed Barkindo, OPEC's acting secretary general in 2006, urged his African neighbors Angola and Sudan to join, and Angola did in 2007, followed by Equatorial Guinea in 2017. Since the 1980s, representatives from Canada, Egypt, Mexico, Norway, Oman, Russia, and other oil-exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers, as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies.\n\n### 1973–1974: oil embargo\n\nThe oil market was tight in the early 1970s, which reduced the risks for OPEC members in nationalising their oil production. One of the major fears for OPEC members was that nationalisation would cause a steep decline in the price of oil. This prompted a wave of nationalisations in countries such as Libya, Algeria, Iraq, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. With greater control over oil production decisions and amid high oil prices, OPEC members unilaterally raised oil prices in 1973, prompting the 1973 oil crisis.\n\nIn October 1973, the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC, consisting of the Arab majority of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) declared significant production cuts and an oil embargo against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. A previous embargo attempt was largely ineffective in response to the Six-Day War in 1967. However, in 1973, the result was a sharp rise in oil prices and OPEC revenues, from US\\$3/bbl to US\\$12/bbl, and an emergency period of energy rationing, intensified by panic reactions, a declining trend in US oil production, currency devaluations, and a lengthy UK coal-miners dispute. For a time, the UK imposed an emergency three-day workweek. Seven European nations banned non-essential Sunday driving. US gas stations limited the amount of petrol that could be dispensed, closed on Sundays, and restricted the days when petrol could be purchased, based on number plate numbers. Even after the embargo ended in March 1974, following intense diplomatic activity, prices continued to rise. The world experienced a global economic recession, with unemployment and inflation surging simultaneously, steep declines in stock and bond prices, major shifts in trade balances and petrodollar flows, and a dramatic end to the post-WWII economic boom.\n\nThe 1973–1974 oil embargo had lasting effects on the United States and other industrialized nations, which established the International Energy Agency in response, as well as national emergency stockpiles designed to withstand months of future supply disruptions. Oil conservation efforts included lower speed limits on highways, smaller and more energy-efficient cars and appliances, year-round daylight saving time, reduced usage of heating and air-conditioning, better building insulation, increased support of mass transit, and greater emphasis on coal, natural gas, ethanol, nuclear and other alternative energy sources. These long-term efforts became effective enough that US oil consumption rose only 11 percent during 1980–2014, while real GDP rose 150 percent. But in the 1970s, OPEC nations demonstrated convincingly that their oil could be used as both a political and economic weapon against other nations, at least in the short term.\n\nThe embargo also meant that a section of the Non-Aligned Movement saw power as a source of hope for their developing countries. The Algerian president Houari Boumédiène expressed this hope in a speech at the UN's sixth Special Session, in April 1974:\n\n> The OPEC action is really the first illustration and at the same time the most concrete and most spectacular illustration of the importance of raw material prices for our countries, the vital need for the producing countries to operate the levers of price control, and lastly, the great possibilities of a union of raw material producing countries. This action should be viewed by the developing countries as an example and a source of hope.\n\n### 1975–1980: Special Fund, now the OPEC Fund for International Development\n\nOPEC's international aid activities date from well before the 1973–1974 oil price surge. For example, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has operated since 1961.\n\nIn the years after 1973, as an example of so-called \"checkbook diplomacy\", certain Arab nations have been among the world's largest providers of foreign aid, and OPEC added to its goals the selling of oil for the socio-economic growth of poorer nations. The OPEC Special Fund was conceived in Algiers, Algeria, in March 1975, and was formally established the following January. \"A Solemn Declaration 'reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment,' and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries... [The OPEC Special Fund's] resources are additional to those already made available by OPEC states through a number of bilateral and multilateral channels.\" The Fund became an official international development agency in May 1980 and was renamed the OPEC Fund for International Development, with Permanent Observer status at the United Nations. In 2020, the institution ceased using the abbreviation OFID.\n\n### 1975: hostage siege\n\nOn 21 December 1975, Saudi Arabia's Ahmed Zaki Yamani, Iran's Jamshid Amuzegar, and the other OPEC oil ministers were taken hostage at their semi-annual conference in Vienna, Austria. The attack, which killed three non-ministers, was orchestrated by a six-person team led by Venezuelan terrorist \"Carlos the Jackal\", and which included Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann and Hans-Joachim Klein. The self-named \"Arm of the Arab Revolution\" group declared its goal to be the liberation of Palestine. Carlos planned to take over the conference by force and hold for ransom all eleven attending oil ministers, except for Yamani and Amuzegar who were to be executed.\n\nCarlos arranged bus and plane travel for his team and 42 of the original 63 hostages, with stops in Algiers and Tripoli, planning to fly eventually to Baghdad, where Yamani and Amuzegar were to be killed. All 30 non-Arab hostages were released in Algiers, excluding Amuzegar. Additional hostages were released at another stop in Tripoli before returning to Algiers. With only 10 hostages remaining, Carlos held a phone conversation with Algerian president Houari Boumédiène, who informed Carlos that the oil ministers' deaths would result in an attack on the plane. Boumédienne must also have offered Carlos asylum at this time and possibly financial compensation for failing to complete his assignment. Carlos expressed his regret at not being able to murder Yamani and Amuzegar, then he and his comrades left the plane. All the hostages and terrorists walked away from the situation, two days after it began.\n\nSometime after the attack, Carlos's accomplices revealed that the operation was commanded by Wadie Haddad, a founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. They also claimed that the idea and funding came from an Arab president, widely thought to be Muammar Gaddafi of Libya, itself an OPEC member. Fellow militants Bassam Abu Sharif and Klein claimed that Carlos received and kept a ransom between 20 million and US\\$50 million from \"an Arab president\". Carlos claimed that Saudi Arabia paid ransom on behalf of Iran, but that the money was \"diverted en route and lost by the Revolution\". He was finally captured in 1994 and is serving life sentences for at least 16 other murders.\n\n### 1979–1980: oil crisis and 1980s oil glut\n\nIn response to a wave of oil nationalizations and the high prices of the 1970s, industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil, especially after prices reached new peaks approaching US\\$40/bbl in 1979–1980 when the Iranian Revolution and Iran–Iraq War disrupted regional stability and oil supplies. Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal, natural gas, or nuclear power; national governments initiated multibillion-dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil; and commercial exploration developed major non-OPEC oilfields in Siberia, Alaska, the North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. By 1986, daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels, non-OPEC production rose by an even-larger amount, and OPEC's market share sank from approximately 50 percent in 1979 to less than 30 percent in 1985. Illustrating the volatile multi-year timeframes of typical market cycles for natural resources, the result was a six-year decline in the price of oil, which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone. As one oil analyst summarized succinctly: \"When the price of something as essential as oil spikes, humanity does two things: finds more of it and finds ways to use less of it.\"\n\nTo combat falling revenue from oil sales, in 1982 Saudi Arabia pressed OPEC for audited national production quotas in an attempt to limit output and boost prices. When other OPEC nations failed to comply, Saudi Arabia first slashed its own production from 10 million barrels daily in 1979–1981 to just one-third of that level in 1985. When even this proved ineffective, Saudi Arabia reversed course and flooded the market with cheap oil, causing prices to fall below US\\$10/bbl and higher-cost producers to become unprofitable. Faced with increasing economic hardship (which ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989), the \"free-riding\" oil exporters that had previously failed to comply with OPEC agreements finally began to limit production to shore up prices, based on painstakingly negotiated national quotas that sought to balance oil-related and economic criteria since 1986. (Within their sovereign-controlled territories, the national governments of OPEC members are able to impose production limits on both government-owned and private oil companies.) Generally when OPEC production targets are reduced, oil prices increase.\n\n### 1990–2003: ample supply and modest disruptions\n\nLeading up to his August 1990 Invasion of Kuwait, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was pushing OPEC to end overproduction and to send oil prices higher, in order to help OPEC members financially and to accelerate rebuilding from the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War. But these two Iraqi wars against fellow OPEC founders marked a low point in the cohesion of the organization, and oil prices subsided quickly after the short-term supply disruptions. The September 2001 Al Qaeda attacks on the US and the March 2003 US invasion of Iraq had even milder short-term impacts on oil prices, as Saudi Arabia and other exporters again cooperated to keep the world adequately supplied.\n\nIn the 1990s, OPEC lost its two newest members, who had joined in the mid-1970s. Ecuador withdrew in December 1992, because it was unwilling to pay the annual US\\$2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under the OPEC quota, although it rejoined in October 2007. Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995; it rejoined in July 2016. Iraq has remained a member of OPEC since the organization's founding, but Iraqi production was not a part of OPEC quota agreements from 1998 to 2016, due to the country's daunting political difficulties.\n\nLower demand triggered by the 1997–1998 Asian financial crisis saw the price of oil fall back to 1986 levels. After oil slumped to around US\\$10/bbl, joint diplomacy achieved a gradual slowing of oil production by OPEC, Mexico and Norway. After prices slumped again in Nov. 2001, OPEC, Norway, Mexico, Russia, Oman and Angola agreed to cut production on 1 January 2002 for 6 months. OPEC contributed 1.5 million barrels a day (mbpd) to the approximately 2 mbpd of cuts announced.\n\nIn June 2003, the International Energy Agency (IEA) and OPEC held their first joint workshop on energy issues. They have continued to meet regularly since then, \"to collectively better understand trends, analysis and viewpoints and advance market transparency and predictability.\"\n\n### 2003–2011: volatility\n\nWidespread insurgency and sabotage occurred during the 2003–2008 height of the American occupation of Iraq, coinciding with rapidly increasing oil demand from China and commodity-hungry investors, recurring violence against the Nigerian oil industry, and dwindling spare capacity as a cushion against potential shortages. This combination of forces prompted a sharp rise in oil prices to levels far higher than those previously targeted by OPEC. Price volatility reached an extreme in 2008, as WTI crude oil surged to a record US\\$147/bbl in July and then plunged back to US\\$32/bbl in December, during the worst global recession since World War II. OPEC's annual oil export revenue also set a new record in 2008, estimated around US\\$1 trillion, and reached similar annual rates in 2011–2014 (along with extensive petrodollar recycling activity) before plunging again. By the time of the 2011 Libyan Civil War and Arab Spring, OPEC started issuing explicit statements to counter \"excessive speculation\" in oil futures markets, blaming financial speculators for increasing volatility beyond market fundamentals.\n\nIn May 2008, Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota. A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia's withdrawal, noting that OPEC \"regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full membership in the organization, and recorded its hope that the country would be in a position to rejoin the organization in the not-too-distant future.\"\n\n### 2008: production dispute\n\nThe differing economic needs of OPEC member states often affect the internal debates behind OPEC production quotas. Poorer members have pushed for production cuts from fellow members, to increase the price of oil and thus their own revenues. These proposals conflict with Saudi Arabia's stated long-term strategy of being a partner with the world's economic powers to ensure a steady flow of oil that would support economic expansion. Part of the basis for this policy is the Saudi concern that overly expensive oil or unreliable supply will drive industrial nations to conserve energy and develop alternative fuels, curtailing the worldwide demand for oil and eventually leaving unneeded barrels in the ground. To this point, Saudi Oil Minister Yamani famously remarked in 1973: \"The Stone Age didn't end because we ran out of stones.\"\n\nOn 10 September 2008, with oil prices still near US\\$100/bbl, a production dispute occurred when the Saudis reportedly walked out of a negotiating session where rival members voted to reduce OPEC output. Although Saudi delegates officially endorsed the new quotas, they stated anonymously that they would not observe them. The New York Times quoted one such delegate as saying: \"Saudi Arabia will meet the market's demand. We will see what the market requires and we will not leave a customer without oil. The policy has not changed.\" Over the next few months, oil prices plummeted into the \\$30s, and did not return to \\$100 until the Libyan Civil War in 2011.\n\n### 2014–2017: oil glut\n\nDuring 2014–2015, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a slowdown in economic growth. At the same time, US oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels and approached the world-leading \"swing producer\" volumes of Saudi Arabia and Russia, due to the substantial long-term improvement and spread of shale \"fracking\" technology in response to the years of record oil prices. These developments led in turn to a plunge in US oil import requirements (moving closer to energy independence), a record volume of worldwide oil inventories, and a collapse in oil prices that continued into early 2016.\n\nIn spite of global oversupply, on 27 November 2014 in Vienna, Saudi oil minister Ali Al-Naimi blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices. Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself competitively at lower price levels, strategically rebuilding OPEC's long-term market share by ending the profitability of high-cost US shale oil production. As he explained in an interview:\n\n> Is it reasonable for a highly efficient producer to reduce output, while the producer of poor efficiency continues to produce? That is crooked logic. If I reduce, what happens to my market share? The price will go up and the Russians, the Brazilians, US shale oil producers will take my share... We want to tell the world that high-efficiency producing countries are the ones that deserve market share. That is the operative principle in all capitalist countries... One thing is for sure: Current prices [roughly US\\$60/bbl] do not support all producers.\n\nA year later, when OPEC met in Vienna on 4 December 2015, the organization had exceeded its production ceiling for 18 consecutive months, US oil production had declined only slightly from its peak, world markets appeared to be oversupplied by at least 2 million barrels per day despite war-torn Libya pumping 1 million barrels below capacity, oil producers were making major adjustments to withstand prices as low as \\$40, Indonesia was rejoining the export organization, Iraqi production had surged after years of disorder, Iranian output was poised to rebound with the lifting of international sanctions, hundreds of world leaders at the Paris Climate Agreement were committing to limit carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and solar technologies were becoming steadily more competitive and prevalent. In light of all these market pressures, OPEC decided to set aside its ineffective production ceiling until the next ministerial conference in June 2016. By 20 January 2016, the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US\\$22.48/bbl – less than one-fourth of its high from June 2014 (\\$110.48), less than one-sixth of its record from July 2008 (\\$140.73), and back below the April 2003 starting point (\\$23.27) of its historic run-up.\n\nAs 2016 continued, the oil glut was partially trimmed with significant production offline in the United States, Canada, Libya, Nigeria and China, and the basket price gradually rose back into the \\$40s. OPEC regained a modest percentage of market share, saw the cancellation of many competing drilling projects, maintained the status quo at its June conference, and endorsed \"prices at levels that are suitable for both producers and consumers\", although many producers were still experiencing serious economic difficulties.\n\n### 2017–2020: production cut and OPEC+\n\nAs OPEC members grew weary of a multi-year supply-contest with diminishing returns and shrinking financial reserves, the organization finally attempted its first production cut since 2008. Despite many political obstacles, a September 2016 decision to trim approximately 1 million barrels per day was codified by a new quota-agreement at the November 2016 OPEC conference. The agreement (which exempted disruption-ridden members Libya and Nigeria) covered the first half of 2017 – alongside promised reductions from Russia and ten other non-members, offset by expected increases in the US shale-sector, Libya, Nigeria, spare capacity, and surging late-2016 OPEC production before the cuts took effect. Indonesia announced another \"temporary suspension\" of its OPEC membership rather than accepting the organization's requested 5-percent production-cut. Prices fluctuated around US\\$50/bbl, and in May 2017 OPEC decided to extend the new quotas through March 2018, with the world waiting to see if and how the oil-inventory glut might be fully siphoned-off by then. Longtime oil analyst Daniel Yergin \"described the relationship between OPEC and shale as 'mutual coexistence', with both sides learning to live with prices that are lower than they would like.\" These production cut deals with non-OPEC countries are generally referred to as OPEC+.\n\nIn December 2017, Russia and OPEC agreed to extend the production cut of 1.8 mbpd until the end of 2018.\n\nQatar announced it would withdraw from OPEC effective 1 January 2019. According to the New York Times, this was a strategic response to the Qatar diplomatic crisis which Qatar was involved with Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Egypt.\n\nOn 29 June 2019, Russia again agreed with Saudi Arabia to extend by six to nine months the original production cuts of 2018.\n\nIn October 2019, Ecuador announced it would withdraw from OPEC on 1 January 2020 due to financial problems facing the country.\n\nIn December 2019, OPEC and Russia agreed one of the deepest output cuts so far to prevent oversupply in a deal that will last for the first three months of 2020.\n\n### 2020: Saudi-Russian price war\n\nIn early March 2020, OPEC officials presented an ultimatum to Russia to cut production by 1.5% of world supply. Russia, which foresaw continuing cuts as American shale oil production increased, rejected the demand, ending the three-year partnership between OPEC and major non-OPEC providers. Another factor was weakening global demand resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic. This also resulted in 'OPEC plus' failing to extend the agreement cutting 2.1 million barrels per day that was set to expire at the end of March. Saudi Arabia, which has absorbed a disproportionate amount of the cuts to convince Russia to stay in the agreement, notified its buyers on 7 March that they would raise output and discount their oil in April. This prompted a Brent crude price crash of more than 30% before a slight recovery and widespread turmoil in financial markets.\n\nSeveral pundits saw this as a Saudi-Russian price war, or game of chicken which cause the \"other side to blink first\". Saudi Arabia had in March 2020 \\$500 billion of foreign exchange reserves, while at that time Russia's reserves were \\$580 billion. The debt-to-GDP ratio of the Saudis was 25%, while the Russian ratio was 15%. Another remarked that the Saudis can produce oil at as low a price as \\$3 per barrel, whereas Russia needs \\$30 per barrel to cover production costs. Another analyst claims that \"it’s about assaulting the Western economy, especially America’s.\" In order to ward of from the oil exporters price war which can make shale oil production uneconomical, US may protect its crude oil market share by passing the NOPEC bill.\n\nIn April 2020, OPEC and a group of other oil producers, including Russia, agreed to extend production cuts until the end of July. The cartel and its allies agreed to cut oil production in May and June by 9.7 million barrels a day, equal to around 10% of global output, in an effort to prop up prices, which had previously fallen to record lows.\n\n### 2021: Saudi-Emirati dispute\n\nIn July 2021, OPEC+ member United Arab Emirates rejected a Saudi proposed eight-month extension to oil output curbs which was in place due to COVID-19 and lower oil consumption. The previous year, OPEC+ cut the equivalent of about 10% of demand at the time. The UAE asked for the maximum amount of oil the group would recognize the country of producing to be raised to 3.8 million barrels a day compared to its previous 3.2 million barrels. A compromise deal allowed UAE to increase its maximum oil output to 3.65 million barrels a day. Per the terms of the agreement, Russia would increase its production from 11 million barrels to 11.5 million by May 2022 as well. All members would increase output by 400,000 barrels per day each month starting in August to gradually offset the previous cuts made due to the COVID pandemic.\n\n### 2021–present global energy crisis\n\nThe record-high energy prices were driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID-19, particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia. In August 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden's national security adviser Jake Sullivan released a statement calling on OPEC+ to boost oil production to \"offset previous production cuts that OPEC+ imposed during the pandemic until well into 2022.\" On 28 September 2021, Sullivan met in Saudi Arabia with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman to discuss the high oil prices. The price of oil was about US\\$80 by October 2021, the highest since 2014. President Joe Biden and U.S. Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm blamed the OPEC+ for rising oil and gas prices.\n\nRussia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 has altered the global oil trade. EU leaders tried to ban the majority of Russian crude imports, but even prior to the official action imports to Northwest Europe were down. More Russian oil is now heading to nations including India and China.\n\nIn October 2022, key OPEC+ ministers agreed to oil production cuts of 2 million barrels per day, the first production cut since 2020. This led to renewed interest in the passage of NOPEC.\n\n### 2022: oil production cut\n\nIn October 2022, OPEC+ led by Saudi Arabia announced a large cut to its oil output target which will anger the USA and aid Russia. In response, US President Joe Biden vowed \"consequences\" and said the US government would \"re-evaluate\" the longstanding U.S. relationship with Saudi Arabia. Robert Menendez, the Democratic chairman of the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, called for a freeze on cooperation with and arms sales to Saudi Arabia, accusing the kingdom of helping Russia underwrite its war with Ukraine.\n\nSaudi Arabia's foreign ministry stated that the OPEC+ decision was \"purely economic\" and taken unanimously by all members of the conglomerate, pushing back on pressure to change its stance on the Russo-Ukrainian War at the UN. In response, the White House accused Saudi Arabia of pressuring other OPEC nations into agreeing with the production cut, some of which felt coerced, saying the United States had presented the Saudi government with an analysis showing there was no market basis for the cut. United States National Security Council spokesman John Kirby said the Saudi government knew the decision will \"increase Russian revenues and blunt the effectiveness of sanctions\" against Moscow, rejecting the Saudi claim that the move was \"purely economic\". According to a report in The Intercept, sources and experts said that Saudi Arabia had sought even deeper cuts than Russia, saying Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman wants to sway the 2022 United States elections in favor of the GOP and the 2024 United States presidential election in favor of Donald Trump.\n\n## Membership\n\n### Current member countries\n\nAs of January 2020, OPEC has 13 member countries: five in the Middle East (Western Asia), seven in Africa, and one in South America. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), OPEC's combined rate of oil production (including gas condensate) represented 44% of the world's total in 2016, and OPEC accounted for 81.5% of the world's \"proven\" oil reserves.\n\nApproval of a new member country requires agreement by three-quarters of OPEC's existing members, including all five of the founders. In October 2015, Sudan formally submitted an application to join, but it is not yet a member.\n\n### OPEC+\n\nA number of non-OPEC member countries also participate in the organisation's initiatives such as voluntary supply cuts in order to further bind policy objectives between OPEC and non-OPEC members. This loose grouping of countries, known as OPEC+, includes Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman, Russia, South Sudan and Sudan.\n\n### Observers\n\nSince the 1980s, representatives from Canada, Egypt, Mexico, Norway, Oman, Russia, and other oil-exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers. This arrangement serves as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies.\n\n### Lapsed members\n\nFor countries that export petroleum at relatively low volume, their limited negotiating power as OPEC members would not necessarily justify the burdens imposed by OPEC production quotas and membership costs. Ecuador withdrew from OPEC in December 1992, because it was unwilling to pay the annual US\\$2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under its OPEC quota at the time. Ecuador then rejoined in October 2007 before leaving again in January 2020. Ecuador's Ministry of Energy and Non-Renewable Natural Resources released an official statement on 2 January 2020 which confirmed that Ecuador had left OPEC. Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995; it rejoined in July 2016.\n\nIn May 2008, Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota. It rejoined the organization in January 2016, but announced another \"temporary suspension\" of its membership at year-end when OPEC requested a 5% production cut.\n\nQatar left OPEC on 1 January 2019, after joining the organization in 1961, to focus on natural gas production, of which it is the world's largest exporter in the form of liquified natural gas (LNG).\n\n## Market information\n\nAs one area in which OPEC members have been able to cooperate productively over the decades, the organisation has significantly improved the quality and quantity of information available about the international oil market. This is especially helpful for a natural-resource industry whose smooth functioning requires months and years of careful planning.\n\n### Publications and research\n\nIn April 2001, OPEC collaborated with five other international organizations (APEC, Eurostat, IEA, OLADE [es], UNSD) to improve the availability and reliability of oil data. They launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise, which in 2005 was joined by IEF and renamed the Joint Organisations Data Initiative (JODI), covering more than 90% of the global oil market. GECF joined as an eighth partner in 2014, enabling JODI also to cover nearly 90% of the global market for natural gas.\n\nSince 2007, OPEC has published the \"World Oil Outlook\" (WOO) annually, in which it presents a comprehensive analysis of the global oil industry including medium- and long-term projections for supply and demand. OPEC also produces an \"Annual Statistical Bulletin\" (ASB), and publishes more-frequent updates in its \"Monthly Oil Market Report\" (MOMR) and \"OPEC Bulletin\".\n\n### Crude oil benchmarks\n\nA \"crude oil benchmark\" is a standardized petroleum product that serves as a convenient reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil, including standardized contracts in major futures markets since 1983. Benchmarks are used because oil prices differ (usually by a few dollars per barrel) based on variety, grade, delivery date and location, and other legal requirements.\n\nThe OPEC Reference Basket of Crudes has been an important benchmark for oil prices since 2000. It is calculated as a weighted average of prices for petroleum blends from the OPEC member countries: Saharan Blend (Algeria), Girassol (Angola), Djeno (Republic of the Congo) Rabi Light (Gabon), Iran Heavy (Islamic Republic of Iran), Basra Light (Iraq), Kuwait Export (Kuwait), Es Sider (Libya), Bonny Light (Nigeria), Arab Light (Saudi Arabia), Murban (UAE), and Merey (Venezuela).\n\nNorth Sea Brent Crude Oil is the leading benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils and is used to price approximately two-thirds of the world's traded crude oil. Other well-known benchmarks are West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Dubai Crude, Oman Crude, and Urals oil.\n\n### Spare capacity\n\nThe US Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the US Department of Energy, defines spare capacity for crude oil market management \"as the volume of production that can be brought on within 30 days and sustained for at least 90 days ... OPEC spare capacity provides an indicator of the world oil market's ability to respond to potential crises that reduce oil supplies.\"\n\nIn November 2014, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that OPEC's \"effective\" spare capacity, adjusted for ongoing disruptions in countries like Libya and Nigeria, was 3.5 million barrels per day (560,000 m<sup>3</sup>/d) and that this number would increase to a peak in 2017 of 4.6 million barrels per day (730,000 m<sup>3</sup>/d). By November 2015, the IEA changed its assessment \"with OPEC's spare production buffer stretched thin, as Saudi Arabia – which holds the lion's share of excess capacity – and its [Persian] Gulf neighbours pump at near-record rates.\"\n\n## See also\n\n- Big Oil\n- Energy diplomacy\n- List of country groupings\n- List of intergovernmental organizations\n- Oligopoly\n- World oil market chronology from 2003\n- Gasoline\n- Peak oil\n- Peak gas\n- Arun-gas-field depleted year 2014", "revid": "1173903885", "description": "Intergovernmental oil organization", "categories": ["20th century in Baghdad", "Cartels", "History of the petroleum industry", "Intergovernmental commodity organizations", "International energy organizations", "OPEC", "Organisations based in Vienna", "Organizations established in 1960", "Petroleum economics", "Petroleum organizations", "Petroleum politics"]}
{"id": "22213179", "url": null, "title": "David Freese", "text": "David Richard Freese (born April 28, 1983) is an American former professional baseball third baseman. He began his Major League Baseball (MLB) career with the St. Louis Cardinals in 2009, where, two seasons later, he was a key player during the 2011 postseason, batting .545 with 12 hits in the 2011 National League Championship Series (NLCS). He also set an MLB postseason record of 21 runs batted in (RBIs), earning the NLCS MVP Award and World Series MVP Award. In addition, Freese won the Babe Ruth Award, naming him the MVP of the 2011 MLB postseason. He also played for the Los Angeles Angels, Pittsburgh Pirates, and Los Angeles Dodgers.\n\nA star high school player, Freese declined a college baseball scholarship from the University of Missouri. Needing a break from baseball, he sat out his freshman year of college before feeling a renewed urge to play the game. He transferred to St. Louis Community College–Meramec, a junior college, where he played for one season before transferring to the University of South Alabama. The San Diego Padres selected Freese in the ninth round of the 2006 MLB draft.\n\nThe Cardinals acquired Freese before the 2008 season. He made his MLB debut on Opening Day 2009 due to an injury to starting third baseman Troy Glaus. Despite suffering his own injuries in the minor leagues and in his first two MLB seasons, Freese batted .297 with 10 home runs and 55 RBIs during 2011, a season capped off by the Cardinals' 2011 World Series championship over the Texas Rangers. The next season, he batted .293 with 20 home runs and was selected to his first MLB All-Star Game. Freese authored a 20-game hitting streak in 2013, but back injuries limited his effectiveness, and the Cardinals traded him to the Angels following the season. He played for the Angels for two seasons before signing with the Pirates in March 2016. The Pirates traded Freese to the Dodgers in 2018, and he retired after the 2019 season.\n\n## Early life\n\nBorn on April 28, 1983, in Corpus Christi, Texas, Freese was raised in the Greater St. Louis area, in Wildwood, Missouri. He grew up a fan of the St. Louis Cardinals. He attended Lafayette High School in Wildwood, and played for the school's baseball team as a shortstop. Freese recorded a Lafayette-record .533 batting average and 23 home runs during his senior season. He was considered to be the best shortstop in the state. Freese graduated from Lafayette in 2001.\n\nAs a senior in high school, Freese was offered a scholarship to play college baseball for the University of Missouri's baseball team. Feeling burned out, Freese decided to quit the sport. He enrolled at Missouri and studied computer science, while joining the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity.\n\nDuring the summer after his freshman year, Freese worked for the Rockwood School District maintenance department. When he visited Lafayette High School towards the end of the summer, he realized how much he missed baseball. Freese asked Tony Dattoli, the coach at St. Louis Community College–Meramec, for a roster spot. In one season at St. Louis Community College, Freese hit .396 with 41 runs batted in (RBIs) and 10 home runs and was named to the National Junior College Athletic Association All-America second team.\n\nDattoli recommended Freese to Steve Kittrell, the head coach of the Jaguars baseball team at the University of South Alabama. At South Alabama, opposing teams respected his hitting ability; scouts told their pitchers: \"Don't let Freese beat us.\" As a junior in 2005, Freese hit .373, with a .443 on-base percentage (OBP), .525 slugging percentage (SLG), and 52 runs scored in 56 games. He was seventh in the Sun Belt Conference (SBC) in average and led the school one year after Adam Lind had done so. Freese was even better in 2006, hitting .414 with a .503 OBP and .661 SLG with 73 runs and 73 RBIs in 60 games. He won the SBC batting title and led the conference in RBIs. He tied for ninth in Division I in RBIs, was 12th in average and just missed the top 10 in runs scored. He made the All-Conference team at third base and was named SBC Player of the Year. He was named an American Baseball Coaches Association All-American as the top third baseman in NCAA Division I, ahead of Evan Longoria and Pedro Alvarez, among others. Kittrell considers Freese to be the best player he coached at South Alabama, where he also coached Lind, Luis Gonzalez, and Juan Pierre.\n\n## Professional career\n\n### Draft and minor leagues\n\nPrior to the 2006 Major League Baseball draft, the Boston Red Sox attempted to sign Freese as a free agent for a \\$90,000 signing bonus. However, South Alabama made the College World Series regional playoffs, which extended their season past the pre-draft signing deadline.\n\nThe San Diego Padres selected Freese in the ninth round (273rd overall) of the draft. Freese signed with the Padres and played for the Eugene Emeralds of the Class-A Short Season Northwest League, Fort Wayne Wizards of the Class-A Midwest League, and Lake Elsinore Storm of the Class-A Advanced California League in the San Diego farm system in 2006 and 2007. He batted .379 with a .465 OBP, .776 SLG, 19 runs and 26 RBIs in 18 games for the Emeralds and .299 with a .374 OBP, .510 SLG and 44 RBIs in 53 games for the Wizards in 2006. Freese batted .302 with a .400 OBP and .489 SLG for Lake Elsinore in 128 games during the 2007 season. He scored 104 runs and drove in 96. He ranked seventh in the California League in OBP, seventh in RBIs and tied with Tony Granadillo for third in runs. He made the California League All-Star team. However, the Padres had third basemen Chase Headley and Kevin Kouzmanoff as well, potentially blocking Freese's path to the majors. As a result, Freese began to practice as a catcher.\n\nBefore the 2008 season, Freese was traded by the Padres to the Cardinals for Jim Edmonds. He spent the season with the Memphis Redbirds of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League (PCL), where he batted .306 with a .361 OBP and .550 SLG, hit 26 home runs and recorded 91 RBIs. He led PCL third basemen in fielding percentage (.967) and double plays (26).\n\n### St. Louis Cardinals (2009–2013)\n\n#### Early MLB career: 2009–2010\n\nFreese emerged as a potential starter when an injury seemed likely to put Cardinals starting third baseman Troy Glaus on the disabled list at the beginning of the 2009 season. Freese made his MLB debut on Opening Day of the 2009 season, coming off the bench and hitting a go-ahead sacrifice fly in the Cardinals' home opener against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Freese was expected to be the team's starting third baseman, but was quickly passed over by Brian Barden and Joe Thurston. He was optioned to Triple-A Memphis on April 20, 2009, to make room for newly acquired reliever Blaine Boyer. He later had surgery to repair a left ankle injury that hampered him during spring training. He missed two months of the season. He was activated and assigned to the Springfield Cardinals of the Double-A Texas League in late July, before he was assigned to Memphis. He led the Memphis Redbirds to a PCL division championship. He was recalled in the September call-up on September 23, 2009. Freese played only 17 games for the Cardinals in 2009, in addition to 56 games for Triple-A Memphis.\n\nFreese began the 2010 season as the Cardinals' starting third baseman. For the week of April 26 – May 2, Freese batted .462 with three home runs and 11 RBIs and was named the National League's Player of the Week. However, he suffered a right ankle injury in June. This injury required him to have two ankle surgeries and ended his season after 70 games.\n\n#### 2011: Breakout season\n\nFreese was projected to start the 2011 season, and he was named the starter on Opening Day, despite suffering minor ailments during spring training. He started off the year batting over .320, but he missed 51 games after being hit by a pitch that fractured his left hand. After returning to the starting lineup, he finished the season with a .297 batting average, 10 home runs, and 55 RBIs. He recorded hits in eight of the final nine regular-season games. Freese credited his improvement in power hitting to hitting coach Mark McGwire, who helped him refine his stroke.\n\n##### 2011 postseason\n\nIn the 2011 National League Division Series, Freese drove in four runs against Philadelphia in Game 4 to force a fifth game. In the National League Championship Series (NLCS) against Milwaukee, Freese had a .545 batting average, hit 3 home runs, drove in 9 runs, and scored 7 runs. He was named the NLCS Most Valuable Player. Through Game 3 of the World Series against Texas, Freese had a 13-game postseason hitting streak, a Cardinals record and just two short of matching the all-time National League record. The hitting streak was snapped in Game 4.\n\nIn Game 6 of the 2011 World Series, with the Texas Rangers leading the game 7–5, and leading the series by 3 games to 2, Freese came to bat in the bottom of the ninth with two out and two men on base. With a count of one ball and two strikes, Freese hit a two-run triple off Neftalí Feliz just out of the reach of Nelson Cruz to tie the game and send it to extra innings. In the 11th inning, again with two strikes, Freese hit a game-winning, walk-off solo home run to deep center field (420 feet), to send the World Series to its first Game 7 since 2002. Freese joined Jim Edmonds, the man for whom he was traded, as the only players in Cardinals history to hit an extra-inning walk-off home run in the postseason. He joined Aaron Boone (2003), and Hall of Famers David Ortiz (2004), Carlton Fisk (1975) and Kirby Puckett (1991) as the only players to hit an extra-inning walk-off home run when their team was facing postseason elimination. Freese gave the fan an autographed bat and a baseball signed by the Cardinals, for returning the walk-off home run ball.\n\nIn Game 7 of the World Series, Freese hit a two-run double in the bottom of the first inning, bringing his 2011 postseason RBI total to 21, an MLB record. The Cardinals went on to win the game and the series, making Freese a World Series champion for the first time. For his efforts, Freese was named the World Series MVP. He became the sixth player to win the LCS and World Series MVP awards in the same year. Freese also won the Babe Ruth Award as the postseason MVP.\n\n#### 2012 season\n\nFreese won the All-Star Final Vote in 2012, joining the All-Star roster with teammates Lance Lynn, Carlos Beltrán, Rafael Furcal, and Yadier Molina for the National League in the 2012 MLB All-Star Game. Freese had a .294 batting average, along with 13 home runs and 50 RBIs in the first half of the season. After being injury-plagued in previous years, Freese played in a career-high 144 games in 2012, finishing the season with 79 RBIs, 20 home runs and a .293 batting average. In the 2012 NLCS against the San Francisco Giants, Freese hit a two-run home run off Madison Bumgarner in Game 1. Through this point in his postseason career, Freese had played 25 games, batting .386 with 11 doubles, six home runs, 25 RBIs and a .739 slugging percentage in 100 plate appearances. Only Carlos Beltrán (.824) and Babe Ruth (.744) had higher slugging percentages among players with 100 or more plate appearances in the postseason. However, he slumped after that game, batting just .192 for the series as the Giants won in seven games and advanced to the 2012 World Series.\n\nFreese made history on June 1, 2012, by striking out to end Johan Santana’s no-hitter, the first in the history of the New York Mets.\n\n#### 2013 season\n\nOn February 8, 2013, Freese and the Cardinals reached agreement on a one-year contract, avoiding arbitration. This was the first season he was arbitration-eligible and when filing he had requested a 2013 salary of \\$3.75 million. The Cardinals counter-offered \\$2.4 million. After suffering a back injury in spring training and starting the 2013 season on the disabled list, Freese struggled at the plate for much of the first six weeks of the season, having only four RBIs by mid-May. However, on 17 May, Freese began a twenty-game hitting streak, the longest of any MLB player to that point in the 2013 season. The streak ended on June 12.\n\nOn August 16, the Cardinals promoted Kolten Wong to play second base, intending for Matt Carpenter to play third base, reducing Freese's playing time. In the postseason, he collected just 10 hits in 56 at-bats as the Cardinals fell to the Boston Red Sox in the 2013 World Series.\n\n### Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (2014–2015)\n\nAfter the 2013 season, the Cardinals traded Freese and Fernando Salas to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim for Peter Bourjos and Randal Grichuk. Again eligible for salary arbitration for the 2014 season, Freese filed for a \\$6 million salary while the Angels countered with \\$4.1 million; they settled on a \\$5.05 million salary. Freese had a slow start, ending May with a .203 batting average, and improved from June through August, batting .292 in those months. He hit a home run against the Kansas City Royals in the first game of the 2014 American League Division Series for his 24th postseason extra-base hit and 30th RBI.\n\nIn his last year of arbitration before becoming eligible for free agency, Freese requested a \\$7.6 million salary for the 2015 season, while the Angels proposed \\$5.25 million. The two sides avoided arbitration by agreeing on a \\$6.425 million salary. Freese entered the 2015 season as the Angels everyday third baseman, and hit .240 with 11 home runs and 43 RBIs in 90 games. He broke his right index finger when it was hit by a pitch on July 22, and went on the disabled list.\n\n### Pittsburgh Pirates (2016–2018)\n\nFreese entered free agency after the 2015 season. Rather than re-sign Freese, the Angels chose to trade for Yunel Escobar. Unsigned at the beginning of spring training in 2016, Freese signed a one-year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates worth \\$3 million on March 11. Neal Huntington, the Pirates' general manager, indicated that Freese would play third base while Jung-ho Kang rehabilitated from an injury, and would join John Jaso in a platoon at first base after Kang's return. Due to his leadership skills, the Pirates signed Freese to a two-year contract extension worth \\$11 million, with a club option for the 2019 season, on August 22, 2016. He finished the 2016 season with a .270 batting average.\n\nOn April 29, 2017, Freese was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to a right hamstring strain.\n\n### Los Angeles Dodgers (2018–2019)\n\nOn August 31, 2018, the Pirates traded Freese to the Los Angeles Dodgers for minor league infielder Jesus Manuel Valdez. In the final month of the season and into the postseason, Freese saw most of his action in a righty-lefty platoon at first base with Max Muncy. He thrived in that role, hitting .385 with two home runs and nine RBIs. Freese hit a leadoff home run in Game Six of the 2018 National League Championship Series. He started at first base in Game One of the 2018 World Series. Freese hit another leadoff home run in Game Five, which turned out to be the only run of the game as the Dodgers lost the game and the series. Freese batted .417 in the 2018 World Series and had a .773 slugging percentage in the 2018 postseason.\n\nOn November 1, 2018, the Dodgers declined to exercise their \\$6 million option for 2019, paying him a \\$500,000 buyout on the option, and signed him to a new one-year contract worth \\$4.5 million. He played in 79 games for the Dodgers in 2019, hitting .315 with 11 home runs and 29 RBIs while playing primarily against left handed pitching. On October 12, Freese announced his retirement from MLB at the age of 36.\n\n## Personal life\n\nFreese's father, Guy, is a retired civil engineer. His mother, Lynn, is a retired teacher. Freese also has a sister, Pam. According to his mother, Freese—a professed lifelong Cardinals fan—had an original Ozzie Smith glove, and while pitching in his younger years always used number 45 in honor of another Cardinals legend, pitcher Bob Gibson. Freese is a Christian. He is of German descent, the Freese family originally hailing from Westerkappeln, Westphalia.\n\nFreese has suffered from depression for his entire life. It was a factor in his giving up baseball after high school and in his development of alcoholism. In November 2002, Freese was arrested for driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol near Wildwood, and received probation under a plea bargain. He was charged with public intoxication and obstructing a police officer in Lake Elsinore, California, in 2007. In December 2009, Freese was arrested for DUI in Maryland Heights, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis. Breath tests indicated a 0.232% blood alcohol content; the state's legal limit is 0.08%. The 2009 arrest was a violation of Freese's probation, due to a September 2007 arrest for resisting arrest (among other charges) in Lake Elsinore, California. Freese crashed his Range Rover SUV into a tree in Wildwood, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis, on November 22, 2012. Local investigators stated that the crash was a result of Freese's swerving to avoid hitting a wild deer. Alcohol was not a factor in the crash.\n\nIn June 2013, Freese signed a three-year deal to endorse and serve as spokesman for Imo's Pizza, a Midwestern pizza chain headquartered in the St. Louis area. No financial terms of the deal were announced other than as part of the contract Imo's would also donate \\$10,000 to a St. Louis area charity in Freese's name.\n\nFreese resides in Austin, Texas, and has begun learning to play guitar. He married Mairin (née O’Leary) in September 2016. Together, they have two sons. Freese credits the relationship with Mairin and seeing a social worker with helping him get through his depression and alcoholism.\n\nIn 2023, Freese was the top vote-getter for induction into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum, but on June 17, he declined the invite because he did not feel \"deserving\". Cardinals president Bill DeWitt III said in a statement, \"Although we are disappointed that David has declined to be inducted into our Hall of Fame, we respect his decision and look forward to celebrating his great Cardinals career in other ways going forward. He is always welcome at Busch Stadium.\"\n\n## See also\n\n- St. Louis Cardinals award winners and league leaders", "revid": "1165658243", "description": "American baseball player (born 1983)", "categories": ["1983 births", "American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela", "Baseball players from Corpus Christi, Texas", "Baseball players from St. Louis County, Missouri", "Caribes de Anzoátegui players", "Eugene Emeralds players", "Fort Wayne Wizards players", "Gulf Coast Cardinals players", "Lake Elsinore Storm players", "Living people", "Los Angeles Angels players", "Los Angeles Dodgers players", "Major League Baseball third basemen", "Memphis Redbirds players", "National League All-Stars", "National League Championship Series MVPs", "Pittsburgh Pirates players", "STLCC Archers baseball players", "Salt Lake Bees players", "Sigma Alpha Epsilon members", "South Alabama Jaguars baseball players", "Springfield Cardinals players", "St. Louis Cardinals players", "University of Missouri alumni", "World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners"]}
{"id": "636929", "url": null, "title": "Dromaeosauridae", "text": "Dromaeosauridae (/ˌdrɒmi.əˈsɔːrɪdiː/) is a family of feathered coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs. They were generally small to medium-sized feathered carnivores that flourished in the Cretaceous Period. The name Dromaeosauridae means 'running lizards', from Greek ('), meaning 'running at full speed, swift', and ('), meaning 'lizard'. In informal usage, they are often called raptors (after Velociraptor), a term popularized by the film Jurassic Park; several genera include the term \"raptor\" directly in their name, and popular culture has come to emphasize their bird-like appearance and speculated bird-like behavior.\n\nDromaeosaurid fossils have been found across the globe in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, South America and Antarctica, with some fossils giving credence to the possibility that they inhabited Australia as well. The earliest body fossils are known from the Early Cretaceous (145-140 million years ago, and they survived until the end of the Cretaceous (Maastrichtian stage, 66 ma), existing until the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The presence of dromaeosaurids as early as the Middle Jurassic has been suggested by the discovery of isolated fossil teeth, though no dromaeosaurid body fossils have been found from this period.\n\n## Description\n\n### Technical diagnosis\n\nDromaeosaurids are diagnosed by the following features; short T-shaped frontals that form the rostral boundary of the supratemporal fenestra; a caudolateral overhanging shelf of the squamosal; a lateral process of the quadrate that contacts the quadratojugal; raised, stalked, parapophyses on the dorsal vertebrae, a modified pedal digit II; chevrons and prezygapophysis of the caudal vertebrae elongate and spanning several vertebrae; the presence of a subglenoid fossa on the coracoid.\n\n### Size and general build\n\nDromaeosaurids were small to medium-sized dinosaurs, ranging from 1.5–2.07 metres (4.9–6.8 ft) in length (in the case of Velociraptor) to approaching or over 6 m (20 ft) (in Utahraptor, Dakotaraptor and Achillobator). Large size appears to have evolved at least twice among dromaeosaurids; once among the dromaeosaurines Utahraptor and Achillobator, and again among the unenlagiines (Austroraptor, which measured 5–6 m (16–20 ft) long). A possible third lineage of giant dromaeosaurids is represented by isolated teeth found on the Isle of Wight, England. The teeth belong to an animal the size of the dromaeosaurine Utahraptor, but they appear to belong to velociraptorines, judging by the shape of the teeth.\n\nThe distinctive dromaeosaurid body plan helped to rekindle theories that dinosaurs may have been active, fast, and closely related to birds. Robert Bakker's illustration for John Ostrom's 1969 monograph, showing the dromaeosaurid Deinonychus in a fast run, is among the most influential paleontological reconstructions in history. The dromaeosaurid body plan includes a relatively large skull, serrated teeth, narrow snout (an exception being the derived dromaeosaurines), and forward-facing eyes which indicate some degree of binocular vision.\n\nDromaeosaurids, like most other theropods, had a moderately long S-curved neck, and their trunk was relatively short and deep. Like other maniraptorans, they had long arms that could be folded against the body in some species, and relatively large hands with three long fingers (the middle finger being the longest and the first finger being the shortest) ending in large claws. The dromaeosaurid hip structure featured a characteristically large pubic boot projecting beneath the base of the tail. Dromaeosaurid feet bore a large, recurved claw on the second toe. Their tails were slender, with long, low, vertebrae lacking transverse process and neural spines after the 14th caudal vertebra. Ossified uncinate processes of ribs have been identified in several dromaeosaurids.\n\n### Foot\n\nLike other theropods, dromaeosaurids were bipedal; that is, they walked on their hind legs. However, whereas most theropods walked with three toes contacting the ground, fossilized footprint tracks confirm that many early paravian groups, including the dromaeosaurids, held the second toe off the ground in a hyperextended position, with only the third and fourth toes bearing the weight of the animal. This is called functional didactyly. The enlarged second toe bore an unusually large, curved, falciform (sickle-shaped, alt. drepanoid) claw (held off the ground or 'retracted' when walking), which is thought to have been used in capturing prey and climbing trees (see \"Claw function\" below). This claw was especially blade-like in the large-bodied predatory eudromaeosaurs. One possible dromaeosaurid species, Balaur bondoc, also possessed a first toe which was highly modified in parallel with the second. Both the first and second toes on each foot of B. bondoc were also held retracted and bore enlarged, sickle-shaped claws.\n\n### Tail\n\nDromaeosaurids had long tails. Most of the tail vertebrae bore bony, rod-like extensions (called prezygapophyses), as well as bony tendons in some species. In his study of Deinonychus, Ostrom proposed that these features stiffened the tail so that it could only flex at the base, and the whole tail would then move as a single, rigid, lever. However, one well-preserved specimen of Velociraptor mongoliensis (IGM 100/986) has an articulated tail skeleton that is curved horizontally in a long S-shape. This suggests that, in life, the tail could bend from side to side with a substantial degree of flexibility. It has been proposed that this tail was used as a stabilizer or counterweight while running or in the air; in Microraptor, an elongate diamond-shaped fan of feathers is preserved on the end of the tail. This may have been used as an aerodynamic stabilizer and rudder during gliding or powered flight (see \"Flight and gliding\" below).\n\n### Feathers\n\nThere is a large body of evidence showing that dromaeosaurids were covered in feathers. Some dromaeosaurid fossils preserve long, pennaceous feathers on the hands and arms (remiges) and tail (rectrices), as well as shorter, down-like feathers covering the body. Other fossils, which do not preserve actual impressions of feathers, still preserve the associated bumps on the forearm bones where long wing feathers would have attached in life. Overall, this feather pattern looks very much like Archaeopteryx.\n\nThe first known dromaeosaurid with definitive evidence of feathers was Sinornithosaurus, reported from China by Xu et al. in 1999. Many other dromaeosaurid fossils have been found with feathers covering their bodies, some with fully developed feathered wings. Microraptor even shows evidence of a second pair of wings on the hind legs. While direct feather impressions are only possible in fine-grained sediments, some fossils found in coarser rocks show evidence of feathers by the presence of quill knobs, the attachment points for wing feathers possessed by some birds. The dromaeosaurids Rahonavis and Velociraptor have both been found with quill knobs, showing that these forms had feathers despite no impressions having been found. In light of this, it is most likely that even the larger ground-dwelling dromaeosaurids bore feathers, since even flightless birds today retain most of their plumage, and relatively large dromaeosaurids, like Velociraptor, are known to have retained pennaceous feathers. Though some scientists had suggested that the larger dromaeosaurids lost some or all of their insulatory covering, the discovery of feathers in Velociraptor specimens has been cited as evidence that all members of the family retained feathers.\n\nMore recently, the discovery of Zhenyuanlong established the presence of a full feathered coat in relatively large dromaeosaurids. Additionally, the animal displays proportionally large, aerodynamic wing feathers, as well as a tail-spanning fan, both of which are unexpected traits that may offer an understanding of the integument of large dromaeosaurids. Dakotaraptor is an even larger dromaeosaurid species with evidence of feathers, albeit indirect in the form of quill knobs.\n\n## Classification\n\n### Relationship with birds\n\nDromaeosaurids share many features with early birds (clade Avialae or Aves). The precise nature of their relationship to birds has undergone a great deal of study, and hypotheses about that relationship have changed as large amounts of new evidence became available. As late as 2001, Mark Norell and colleagues analyzed a large survey of coelurosaur fossils and produced the tentative result that dromaeosaurids were most closely related to birds, with troodontids as a more distant outgroup. They even suggested that Dromaeosauridae could be paraphyletic relative to Avialae.[^1] In 2002, Hwang and colleagues utilized the work of Norell et al., including new characters and better fossil evidence, to determine that birds (avialans) were better thought of as cousins to the dromaeosaurids and troodontids. The consensus of paleontologists is that there is not yet enough evidence to determine whether any dromaeosaurids could fly or glide, or whether they evolved from ancestors that could.\n\n### Alternative theories and flightlessness\n\nDromaeosaurids are so bird-like that they have led some researchers to argue that they would be better classified as birds. First, since they had feathers, dromaeosaurids (along with many other coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs) are \"birds\" under traditional definitions of the word \"bird\", or \"Aves\", that are based on the possession of feathers. However, other scientists, such as Lawrence Witmer, have argued that calling a theropod like Caudipteryx a bird because it has feathers may stretch the word past any useful meaning.\n\nAt least two schools of researchers have proposed that dromaeosaurids may actually be descended from flying ancestors. Hypotheses involving a flying ancestor for dromaeosaurids are sometimes called \"Birds Came First\" (BCF). George Olshevsky is usually credited as the first author of BCF. In his own work, Gregory S. Paul pointed out numerous features of the dromaeosaurid skeleton that he interpreted as evidence that the entire group had evolved from flying, dinosaurian ancestors, perhaps an animal like Archaeopteryx. In that case, the larger dromaeosaurids were secondarily flightless, like the modern ostrich. In 1988, Paul suggested that dromaeosaurids may actually be more closely related to modern birds than to Archaeopteryx. By 2002, however, Paul placed dromaeosaurids and Archaeopteryx as the closest relatives to one another.\n\nIn 2002, Hwang et al. found that Microraptor was the most primitive dromaeosaurid. Xu and colleagues in 2003 cited the basal position of Microraptor, along with feather and wing features, as evidence that the ancestral dromaeosaurid could glide. In that case the larger dromaeosaurids would be secondarily terrestrial—having lost the ability to glide later in their evolutionary history.\n\nAlso in 2002, Steven Czerkas described Cryptovolans, though it is a probable junior synonym of Microraptor. He reconstructed the fossil inaccurately with only two wings and thus argued that dromaeosaurids were powered fliers, rather than passive gliders. He later issued a revised reconstruction in agreement with that of Microraptor\n\nOther researchers, like Larry Martin, have proposed that dromaeosaurids, along with all maniraptorans, were not dinosaurs at all. Martin asserted for decades that birds were unrelated to maniraptorans, but in 2004 he changed his position, agreeing that the two were close relatives. However, Martin believed that maniraptorans were secondarily flightless birds, and that birds did not evolve from dinosaurs, but rather from non-dinosaurian archosaurs.\n\nIn 2005, Mayr and Peters described the anatomy of a very well preserved specimen of Archaeopteryx, and determined that its anatomy was more like non-avian theropods than previously understood. Specifically, they found that Archaeopteryx had a primitive palatine, unreversed hallux, and hyper-extendable second toe. Their phylogenetic analysis produced the controversial result that Confuciusornis was closer to Microraptor than to Archaeopteryx, making the Avialae a paraphyletic taxon. They also suggested that the ancestral paravian was able to fly or glide, and that the dromaeosaurids and troodontids were secondarily flightless (or had lost the ability to glide). Corfe and Butler criticized this work on methodological grounds.\n\nA challenge to all of these alternative scenarios came when Turner and colleagues in 2007 described a new dromaeosaurid, Mahakala, which they found to be the most basal and most primitive member of the Dromaeosauridae, more primitive than Microraptor. Mahakala had short arms and no ability to glide. Turner et al. also inferred that flight evolved only in the Avialae, and these two points suggested that the ancestral dromaeosaurid could not glide or fly. Based on this cladistic analysis, Mahakala suggests that the ancestral condition for dromaeosaurids is non-volant. However, in 2012, an expanded and revised study incorporating the most recent dromaeosaurid finds recovered the Archaeopteryx-like Xiaotingia as the most primitive member of the clade Dromaeosauridae, which appears to suggest the earliest members of the clade may have been capable of flight.\n\n### Taxonomy\n\nThe authorship of the family Dromaeosauridae is credited to William Diller Matthew and Barnum Brown, who erected it as a subfamily (Dromaeosaurinae) of the family Deinodontidae in 1922, containing only the new genus Dromaeosaurus.\n\nThe subfamilies of Dromaeosauridae frequently shift in content based on new analysis, but typically consist of the following groups. A number of dromaeosaurids have not been assigned to any particular subfamily, often because they are too poorly preserved to be placed confidently in phylogenetic analysis (see section Phylogeny below) or are indeterminate, being assigned to different groups depending on the methodology employed in different papers. The most basal known subfamily of dromaeosaurids is Halszkaraptorinae, a group of bizarre creatures with long fingers and necks, a large number of small teeth, and possible semiaquatic habits. Another enigmatic group, Unenlagiinae, is the most poorly supported subfamily of dromaeosaurids and it is possible that some or all of its members belong outside of Dromaeosauridae. The larger, ground-dwelling members like Buitreraptor and Unenlagia show strong flight adaptations, although they were probably too large to 'take off'. One possible member of this group, Rahonavis, is very small, with well-developed wings that show evidence of quill knobs (the attachment points for flight feathers) and it is very likely that it could fly. The next most primitive clade of dromaeosaurids is the Microraptoria. This group includes many of the smallest dromaeosaurids, which show adaptations for living in trees. All known dromaeosaurid skin impressions hail from this group and all show an extensive covering of feathers and well-developed wings. Like the unenlagiines, some species may have been capable of active flight. The most advanced subgroup of dromaeosaurids, Eudromaeosauria, includes stocky and short-legged genera which were likely ambush hunters. This group includes Velociraptorinae, Dromaeosaurinae, and in some studies a third group: Saurornitholestinae. The subfamily Velociraptorinae has traditionally included Velociraptor, Deinonychus, and Saurornitholestes, and while the discovery of Tsaagan lent support to this grouping, the inclusion of Deinonychus, Saurornitholestes, and a few other genera is still uncertain. The Dromaeosaurinae is usually found to consist of medium to giant-sized species, with generally box-shaped skulls (the other subfamilies generally have narrower snouts).\n\nThe following classification of the various genera of dromaeosaurids follows the table provided in Holtz, 2011 unless otherwise noted.\n\n- Family Dromaeosauridae\n  - Nuthetes\n  - Pamparaptor\n  - Variraptor\n  - Pyroraptor\n  - Zhenyuanlong\n  - Daurlong\n  - Subfamily Halszkaraptorinae\n    - Halszkaraptor\n    - Mahakala\n    - Hulsanpes\n    - Natovenator\n  - Subfamily Unenlagiinae\n    - Ornithodesmus\n    - Austroraptor\n    - Rahonavis\n    - Unenlagia\n    - Buitreraptor\n    - Neuquenraptor\n    - Unquillosaurus\n    - Ypupiara\n  - Subfamily Microraptorinae\n    - Shanag\n    - Tianyuraptor\n    - Graciliraptor\n    - Changyuraptor\n    - Hesperonychus\n    - Microraptor\n    - Sinornithosaurus\n    - Wulong\n    - Zhongjianosaurus\n  - Node Eudromaeosauria\n    - Deinonychus\n    - Dineobellator\n    - Vectiraptor\n    - Subfamily Saurornitholestinae\n      - Bambiraptor\n      - Saurornitholestes\n      - Atrociraptor\n      - Acheroraptor?\n    - Subfamily Velociraptorinae\n      - Luanchuanraptor?\n      - Linheraptor?\n      - Velociraptor\n      - Tsaagan?\n      - Adasaurus?\n      - Shri\n      - Kansaignathus\n      - Kuru\n    - Subfamily Dromaeosaurinae\n      - Achillobator?\n      - Itemirus?\n      - Dromaeosaurus\n      - Dakotaraptor?\n      - Dromaeosauroides?\n      - Utahraptor?\n      - Yurgovuchia?\n\n### Phylogeny\n\nDromaeosauridae was first defined as a clade by Paul Sereno in 1998, as the most inclusive natural group containing Dromaeosaurus but not Troodon, Ornithomimus or Passer. The various \"subfamilies\" have also been re-defined as clades, usually defined as all species closer to the groups namesake than to Dromaeosaurus or any namesakes of other sub-clades (for example, Makovicky defined the clade Unenlagiinae as all dromaeosaurids closer to Unenlagia than to Velociraptor). The Microraptoria is the only dromaeosaurid sub-clade not converted from a subfamily. Senter and colleagues expressly coined the name without the subfamily suffix -inae to avoid perceived issues with erecting a traditional family-group taxon, should the group be found to lie outside dromaeosauridae proper. Sereno offered a revised definition of the sub-group containing Microraptor to ensure that it would fall within Dromaeosauridae, and erected the subfamily Microraptorinae, attributing it to Senter et al., though this usage has only appeared on his online TaxonSearch database and has not been formally published. The extensive cladistic analysis conducted by Turner et al. (2012) further supported the monophyly of Dromaeosauridae.\n\nThe cladogram below follows a 2015 analysis by DePalma et al. using updated data from the Theropod Working Group.\n\nAnother cladogram constructed below follows the phylogenetic analysis conducted in 2017 by Cau et al. using the updated data from the Theropod Working Group in their description of Halszkaraptor.\n\n## Paleobiology\n\n### Senses\n\nComparisons between the scleral rings of several dromaeosaurids (Microraptor, Sinornithosaurus, and Velociraptor) and modern birds and reptiles indicate that some dromaeosaurids (including Microraptor and Velociraptor) may have been nocturnal predators, while Sinornithosaurus is inferred to be cathemeral (active throughout the day at short intervals). However, the discovery of iridescent plumage in Microraptor has cast doubt on the inference of nocturnality in this genus, as no modern birds that have iridescent plumage are known to be nocturnal.\n\nStudies of the olfactory bulbs of dromaeosaurids reveal that they had similar olfactory ratios for their size to other non-avian theropods and modern birds with an acute sense of smell, such as tyrannosaurids and the turkey vulture, probably reflecting the importance of the olfactory sense in the daily activities of dromaeosaurids such as finding food.\n\n### Feeding\n\nDromaeosaurid feeding was discovered to be typical of coelurosaurian theropods, with a characteristic \"puncture and pull\" feeding method. Studies of wear patterns on the teeth of dromaeosaurids by Angelica Torices et al. indicate that dromaeosaurid teeth share similar wear patterns to those seen in the Tyrannosauridae and Troodontidae. However, microwear on the teeth indicated that dromaeosaurids likely preferred larger prey items than the troodontids they often shared their environment with. Such dietary differentiations likely allowed them to inhabit the same environment. The same study also indicated that dromaeosaurids such as Dromaeosaurus and Saurornitholestes (two dromaeosaurids analyzed in the study) likely included bone in their diet and were better adapted to handle struggling prey while troodontids, equipped with weaker jaws, preyed on softer animals and prey items such as invertebrates and carrion.\n\n### Claw function\n\nThere is currently disagreement about the function of the enlarged \"sickle claw\" on the second toe. When John Ostrom described it for Deinonychus in 1969, he interpreted the claw as a blade-like slashing weapon, much like the canines of some saber-toothed cats, used with powerful kicks to cut into prey. Adams (1987) suggested that the talon was used to disembowel large ceratopsian dinosaurs. The interpretation of the sickle claw as a killing weapon applied to all dromaeosaurids. However, Manning et al. argued that the claw instead served as a hook, reconstructing the keratinous sheath with an elliptical cross section, instead of the previously inferred inverted teardrop shape. In Manning's interpretation, the second toe claw would be used as a climbing aid when subduing bigger prey and also as a stabbing weapon.\n\nOstrom compared Deinonychus to the ostrich and cassowary. He noted that the bird species can inflict serious injury with the large claw on the second toe. The cassowary has claws up to 125 millimetres (4.9 in) long. Ostrom cited Gilliard (1958) in saying that they can sever an arm or disembowel a man. Kofron (1999 and 2003) studied 241 documented cassowary attacks and found that one human and two dogs had been killed, but no evidence that cassowaries can disembowel or dismember other animals. Cassowaries use their claws to defend themselves, to attack threatening animals, and in agonistic displays such as the Bowed Threat Display. The seriema also has an enlarged second toe claw, and uses it to tear apart small prey items for swallowing.\n\nPhillip Manning and colleagues (2009) attempted to test the function of the sickle claw and similarly shaped claws on the forelimbs. They analyzed the bio-mechanics of how stresses and strains would be distributed along the claws and into the limbs, using X-ray imaging to create a three-dimensional contour map of a forelimb claw from Velociraptor. For comparison, they analyzed the construction of a claw from a modern predatory bird, the eagle owl. They found that, based on the way that stress was conducted along the claw, they were ideal for climbing. The scientists found that the sharpened tip of the claw was a puncturing and gripping instrument, while the curved and expanded claw base helped transfer stress loads evenly. The Manning team also compared the curvature of the dromaeosaurid \"sickle claw\" on the foot with curvature in modern birds and mammals. Previous studies had shown that the amount of curvature in a claw corresponded to what lifestyle the animal has: animals with strongly curved claws of a certain shape tend to be climbers, while straighter claws indicate ground-dwelling lifestyles. The sickle claws of the dromaeosaurid Deinonychus have a curvature of 160 degrees, well within the range of climbing animals. The forelimb claws they studied also fell within the climbing range of curvature.\n\nPaleontologist Peter Mackovicky commented on the Manning team's study, stating that small, primitive dromaeosaurids (such as Microraptor) were likely to have been tree-climbers, but that climbing did not explain why later, gigantic dromaeosaurids such as Achillobator retained highly curved claws when they were too large to have climbed trees. Mackovicky speculated that giant dromaeosaurids may have adapted the claw to be used exclusively for latching on to prey.\n\nIn 2009 Phil Senter published a study on dromaeosaurid toes and showed that their range of motion was compatible with the excavation of tough insect nests. Senter suggested that small dromaeosaurids such as Rahonavis and Buitreraptor were small enough to be partial insectivores, while larger genera such as Deinonychus and Neuquenraptor could have used this ability to catch vertebrate prey residing in insect nests. However, Senter did not test whether the strong curvature of dromaeosaurid claws was also conducive to such activities.\n\nIn 2011, Denver Fowler and colleagues suggested a new method by which dromaeosaurids may have taken smaller prey. This model, known as the \"raptor prey restraint\" (RPR) model of predation, proposes that dromaeosaurids killed their prey in a manner very similar to extant accipitrid birds of prey: by leaping onto their quarry, pinning it under their body weight, and gripping it tightly with the large, sickle-shaped claws. Like accipitrids, the dromaeosaurid would then begin to feed on the animal while still alive, until it eventually died from blood loss and organ failure. This proposal is based primarily on comparisons between the morphology and proportions of the feet and legs of dromaeosaurids to several groups of extant birds of prey with known predatory behaviors. Fowler found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurids most closely resemble those of eagles and hawks, especially in terms of having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of grasping motion. The short metatarsus and foot strength, however, would have been more similar to that of owls. The RPR method of predation would be consistent with other aspects of dromaeosaurid anatomy, such as their unusual dentition and arm morphology. The arms, which could exert a lot of force but were likely covered in long feathers, may have been used as flapping stabilizers for balance while atop a struggling prey animal, along with the stiff counterbalancing tail. Dromaeosaurid jaws, thought by Fowler and colleagues to be comparatively weak, would have been useful for eating prey alive but not as useful for quick, forceful dispatch of the prey. These predatory adaptations working together may also have implications for the origin of flapping in paravians.\n\nIn 2019, Peter Bishop reconstructed the leg skeleton and musculature of Deinonychus by using three-dimensional models of muscles, tendons, and bones. With the addition of mathematical models and equations, Bishop simulated the conditions that would provide maximum force at the tip of the sickle claw and therefore the most likely function. Among the proposed modes of the sickle claw use are: kicking to cut, slash or disembowel prey; for gripping onto the flanks of prey; piercing aided by body weight; to attack vital areas of the prey; to restrain prey; intra- or interspecific competition; and digging out prey from hideouts. The results obtained by Bishop showed that a crouching posture increased the claw forces, however, these forces remained relatively weak indicating that the claws were not strong enough to be used in slashing strikes. Rather than being used for slashing, the sickle claws were more likely to be useful in flexed leg angles such as restraining prey and stabbing prey at close quarters. These results are consistent with the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen, which preserves a Velociraptor and Protoceratops locked in combat, with the former gripping onto the other with its claws in a non-extended leg posture. Despite the obtained results, Bishop considered that the capabilities of the sickle claw could have varied within taxa given that among dromaeosaurids, Adasaurus had an unusually smaller sickle claw that retained the characteristic ginglymoid—a structure divided in two parts—and hyperextensible articular surface of the penultimate phalange. He could neither confirm nor disregard that the pedal digit II could have loss or retain its functionally.\n\nA 2020 study by Gianechini et al., also indicates that velociraptorines, dromaeosaurines and other eudromaeosaurs in Laurasia differed greatly in their locomotive and killing techniques from the unenlagiine dromaeosaurids of Gondwana. The shorter second phalanx in the second digit of the foot allowed for increased force to be generated by that digit, which, combined with a shorter and wider metatarsus, and a noticeable marked hinge‐like morphology of the articular surfaces of metatarsals and phalanges, possibly allowed eudromaeosaurs to exert a greater gripping strength than unenlagiines, allowing for more efficient subduing and killing of large prey. In comparison, the unenlagiine dromaeosaurids had a longer and slender subarctometatarsus, and less well‐marked hinge joints, a trait that possibly gave them greater cursorial capacities and allowed for greater speed. Additionally, the longer second phalanx of the second digit allowed unenlagiines fast movements of their feet's second digits to hunt smaller and more elusive types of prey. These differences in locomotor and predatory specializations may have been a key feature that influenced the evolutionary pathways that shaped both groups of dromaeosaurs in the northern and southern hemispheres.\n\n### Group behavior\n\nDeinonychus fossils have been uncovered in small groups near the remains of the herbivore Tenontosaurus, a larger ornithischian dinosaur. This had been interpreted as evidence that these dromaeosaurids hunted in coordinated packs like some modern mammals. However, not all paleontologists found the evidence conclusive, and a subsequent study published in 2007 by Roach and Brinkman suggests that the Deinonychus may have actually displayed a disorganized mobbing behavior. Modern diapsids, including birds and crocodiles (the closest relatives of dromaeosaurids), display minimal long-term cooperative hunting (except the aplomado falcon and Harris's hawk); instead, they are usually solitary hunters, either joining forces time to time to increase hunting success (as crocodilians sometimes do), or are drawn to previously killed carcasses, where conflict often occurs between individuals of the same species. For example, in situations where groups of Komodo dragons are eating together, the largest individuals eat first and might attack smaller Komodo dragons that attempt to feed; if the smaller animal dies, it is usually cannibalized. When this information is applied to the sites containing putative pack-hunting behavior in dromaeosaurids, it appears somewhat consistent with a Komodo dragon-like feeding strategy. Deinonychus skeletal remains found at these sites are from subadults, with missing parts that may have been eaten by other Deinonychus, which a study by Roach et al. presented as evidence against the idea that the animals cooperated in the hunt. Different dietary preferences between juvenile and adult Deinonychus published in 2020 indicate that the animal did not exhibit complex, cooperative behavior seen in pack-hunting animals. Whether this extended to other dromaeosaurs is currently unknown. A third possible option is that dromaeosaurids did not exhibit long-term cooperative behaviour, but did show short-term cooperative behaviour as seen in crocodilians, which display both true cooperation and competition for prey.\n\nIn 2001, multiple Utahraptor specimens ranging in age from fully grown adult to tiny three-foot-long baby were found at a site considered by some to be a quicksand predator trap. Some consider this as evidence of family hunting behaviour; however, the full sandstone block is yet to be opened and researchers are unsure as to whether or not the animals died at the same time.\n\nIn 2007, scientists described the first known extensive dromaeosaurid trackway, in Shandong, China. In addition to confirming the hypothesis that the sickle claw was held retracted off the ground, the trackway (made by a large, Achillobator-sized species) showed evidence of six individuals of about equal size moving together along a shoreline. The individuals were spaced about one meter apart, traveling in the same direction and walking at a fairly slow pace. The authors of the paper describing these footprints interpreted the trackways as evidence that some species of dromaeosaurids lived in groups. While the trackways clearly do not represent hunting behavior, the idea that groups of dromaeosaurids may have hunted together, according to the authors, could not be ruled out.\n\n### Flying and gliding\n\nThe forearms of dromaeosaurids appear well adapted to resisting the torsional and bending stresses associated with flapping and gliding, and the ability to fly or glide has been suggested for at least five dromaeosaurid species. The first, Rahonavis ostromi (originally classified as avian bird, but found to be a dromaeosaurid in later studies) may have been capable of powered flight, as indicated by its long forelimbs with evidence of quill knob attachments for long sturdy flight feathers. The forelimbs of Rahonavis were more powerfully built than Archaeopteryx, and show evidence that they bore strong ligament attachments necessary for flapping flight. Luis Chiappe concluded that, given these adaptations, Rahonavis could probably fly but would have been more clumsy in the air than modern birds.\n\nAnother species of dromaeosaurid, Microraptor gui, may have been capable of gliding using its well-developed wings on both the fore and hind limbs. A 2005 study by Sankar Chatterjee suggested that the wings of Microraptor functioned like a split-level \"biplane\", and that it likely employed a phugoid style of gliding, in which it would launch from a perch and swoop downward in a U-shaped curve, then lift again to land on another tree, with the tail and hind wings helping to control its position and speed. Chatterjee also found that Microraptor had the basic requirements to sustain level powered flight in addition to gliding.\n\nChangyuraptor yangi is a close relative of Microraptor gui, also thought to be a glider or flyer based on the presence of four wings and similar limb proportions. However, it is a considerably larger animal, around the size of a wild turkey, being among the largest known flying Mesozoic paravians.\n\nAnother dromaeosaurid species, Deinonychus antirrhopus, may display partial flight capacities. The young of this species bore longer arms and more robust pectoral girdles than adults, and which were similar to those seen in other flapping theropods, implying that they may have been capable of flight when young and then lost the ability as they grew.\n\nThe possibility that Sinornithosaurus millenii was capable of gliding or even powered flight has also been brought up several times, though no further studies have occurred.\n\nZhenyuanlong preserves wing feathers that are aerodynamically shaped, with particularly bird-like coverts as opposed to the longer, wider-spanning coverts of forms like Archaeopteryx and Anchiornis, as well as fused sternal plates. Due to its size and short arms it is unlikely that Zhenyuanlong was capable of powered flight (though the importance of biomechanical modelling in this regard is stressed), but it may suggest a relatively close descendance from flying ancestors, or even some capacity for gliding or wing-assisted incline running.\n\n### Paleopathology\n\nIn 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. The researchers found lesions like those caused by stress fractures on a dromaeosaurid hand claw, one of only two such claw lesions discovered in the course of the study. Stress fractures in the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet, since stress fractures in the feet can be obtained while running or during migration. Hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey.\n\n### Swimming\n\nAt least one dromaeosaurid group, Halszkaraptorinae, whose members are halszkaraptorines, are most likely to have been specialised for aquatic or semiaquatic habits, having developed limb proportions, tooth morphology, and rib cage akin to those of diving birds.\n\nFishing habits have been proposed for unenlagiines, including comparisons to attributed semi-aquatic spinosaurids, but any aquatic propulsion mechanisms have not been discussed so far.\n\n### Reproduction\n\nIn 2006, Grellet-Tinner and Makovicky reported an egg associated with a specimen of Deinonychus. The egg shares similarities with oviraptorid eggs, and the authors interpreted the association as potentially indicative of brooding. A study published in November 2018 by Norell, Yang and Wiemann et al., indicates that Deinonychus laid blue eggs, likely to camouflage them as well as creating open nests. Other dromaeosaurids may have done the same, and it is theorized that they and other maniraptoran dinosaurs may have been an origin point for laying colored eggs and creating open nests as many birds do today.\n\n## In popular culture\n\nVelociraptor, a dromaeosaurid, gained much attention after it was featured prominently in the 1993 Steven Spielberg film Jurassic Park. However, the dimensions of the Velociraptor in the film are much larger than the largest members of that genus. Robert Bakker recalled that Spielberg had been disappointed with the dimensions of Velociraptor and so upsized it. Gregory S. Paul, in his 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World, also considered Deinonychus antirrhopus a species of Velociraptor, and so rechristened the species Velociraptor antirrhopus''. This taxonomic opinion has not been widely followed.\n\n## Timeline of dromaeosaurid genera\n\n## See also\n\n- Timeline of dromaeosaurid research\n- Avialae\n\n[^1]: Norell, M. Clark, J.M., Makovicky, P.J. (2001). \"Phylogenetic relationships among coelurosaurian theropods. \" New Perspectives on the Origin and Evolution of Birds: Proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom\", Yale Peabody Museum: 49–67", "revid": "1171574320", "description": "Family of feathered theropod dinosaurs", "categories": ["Bathonian first appearances", "Dromaeosaurs", "Maastrichtian extinctions", "Prehistoric dinosaur families"]}
{"id": "514897", "url": null, "title": "Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands", "text": "The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, fought during 25–27 October 1942, sometimes referred to as the Battle of Santa Cruz or Third Battle of Solomon Sea, in Japan as the Battle of the South Pacific (Japanese: 南太平洋海戦 Minamitaiheiyō kaisen), was the fourth aircraft carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II. It was also the fourth major naval engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the lengthy and strategically important Guadalcanal campaign. As in the battles of the Coral Sea, Midway, and the Eastern Solomons, the ships of the two adversaries were rarely in sight or gun range of each other. Instead, almost all attacks by both sides were mounted by carrier- or land-based aircraft.\n\nIn an attempt to drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal and nearby islands and end the stalemate that had existed since September 1942, the Imperial Japanese Army planned a major ground offensive on Guadalcanal for 20–25 October 1942. In support of this offensive, and with the hope of engaging Allied naval forces, Japanese carriers and other large warships moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands. From this location, the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied (primarily U.S.) naval forces, especially carrier forces, that responded to the ground offensive. Allied naval forces also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle, with the same objectives of breaking the stalemate and decisively defeating their adversary.\n\nThe Japanese ground offensive on Guadalcanal was underway with the Battle for Henderson Field while the naval warships and aircraft from the two adversaries confronted each other on the morning of 26 October 1942, just north of the Santa Cruz Islands. After an exchange of carrier air attacks, Allied surface ships retreated from the battle area with the fleet carrier Hornet sunk, and another fleet carrier, Enterprise, heavily damaged. The participating Japanese carrier forces also retired because of high aircraft and aircrew losses, plus significant damage to the fleet carrier Shōkaku and the light carrier Zuihō.\n\nSanta Cruz was a tactical victory and a short-term strategic victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged, and control of the seas around Guadalcanal. However, Japan's loss of many irreplaceable veteran aircrews proved to be a long-term strategic advantage for the Allies, whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low and quickly replaced. The Japanese had hoped for and needed a bigger, more decisive victory. The fact that the naval battle was won just after the land battle was lost meant that the opportunity to exploit their victory in the battle had already passed.\n\n## Background\n\nOn 8 August 1942, Allied forces, predominantly from the United States, landed on Japanese-occupied Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.\n\nAfter the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24–25 August, in which the fleet carrier USS Enterprise was heavily damaged and forced to sail to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, for a month of major repairs, three U.S. carrier task forces remained in the South Pacific area. The task forces were based around the fleet carriers USS Wasp, Saratoga, and Hornet plus their respective air groups and supporting surface warships, including battleships, cruisers, and destroyers, and were primarily stationed between the Solomons and New Hebrides (Vanuatu) islands. In this area of operations, the carriers were charged with guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo, supporting the Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against any Japanese counteroffensives, covering the movement of supply ships to Guadalcanal, and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships, especially carriers, that came within range. The area of ocean in which the U.S. carrier task forces operated was known as \"Torpedo Junction\" by U.S. forces because of the high concentration of Japanese submarines in the area.\n\nOn 31 August, Saratoga was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I-26 and was out of action for three months for repairs. On 15 September, Wasp was hit by three torpedoes fired by Japanese submarine I-19 while supporting a major reinforcement and resupply convoy to Guadalcanal and almost engaging the Japanese carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku, which withdrew just before the two adversaries came into range of each other's aircraft. With power knocked out from torpedo damage, Wasp's damage-control teams were unable to contain the ensuing large fires, and she was abandoned and scuttled.\n\nAlthough the U.S. now had only one operational carrier, Hornet, in the South Pacific, the Allies still maintained air superiority over the southern Solomon Islands because of their aircraft based at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal. However, at night, when aircraft were not able to operate effectively, the Japanese were able to operate their ships around Guadalcanal almost at will. Thus, a stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal developed—the Allies delivered supplies and reinforcements to Guadalcanal during the day, and the Japanese did the same by warship, referred to as the \"Tokyo Express\" by the Allies, at night—with neither side able to deliver enough troops to the island to secure a decisive advantage. By mid-October, both sides had roughly an equal number of troops on the island. The stalemate was briefly interrupted by two large-ship naval actions. On the night of 11–12 October, a U.S. naval force intercepted and defeated a Japanese naval force en route to bombard Henderson Field in the Battle of Cape Esperance. But just two nights later, a Japanese force that included the battleships Haruna and Kongō successfully bombarded Henderson Field, destroying most of the U.S. aircraft there and inflicting severe damage on the field's facilities.\n\nThe U.S. made two moves to try to break the stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal. First, repairs to Enterprise were expedited so that she could return to the South Pacific as soon as possible. On 10 October, Enterprise received her new air group (Air Group 10) and on 16 October, she left Pearl Harbor; and on 23 October, she arrived back in the South Pacific and rendezvoused with Hornet and the rest of the Allied South Pacific naval forces on 24 October, 273 nmi (506 km; 314 mi) northeast of Espiritu Santo.\n\nSecond, on 18 October, Admiral Chester Nimitz, Allied Commander-in-Chief of Pacific Forces, replaced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley with Vice Admiral William Halsey, Jr. as Commander, South Pacific Area: this position commanded Allied forces involved in the Solomon Islands campaign. Nimitz felt that Ghormley had become too myopic and pessimistic to lead Allied forces effectively in the struggle for Guadalcanal. Halsey was reportedly respected throughout the U.S. naval fleet as a \"fighter\". Upon assuming command, Halsey immediately began making plans to draw the Japanese naval forces into a battle, writing to Nimitz, \"I had to begin throwing punches almost immediately.\"\n\nThe Japanese Combined Fleet was also seeking to draw Allied naval forces into what was hoped to be a decisive battle. Two fleet carriers—Hiyō and Jun'yō, as well as the light carrier Zuihō—arrived at the main Japanese naval base at Truk Atoll from Japan in early October and joined Shōkaku and Zuikaku. With five carriers fully equipped with air groups, plus their numerous battleships, cruisers, and destroyers, the Japanese Combined Fleet, directed by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, was confident that it could make up for the defeat at the Battle of Midway. Apart from a couple of air raids on Henderson Field in October, the Japanese carriers and their supporting warships stayed in the northwestern area of the Solomon Islands, out of the battle for Guadalcanal and waiting for a chance to approach and engage the U.S. carriers. With the Japanese Army's next planned major ground attack on Allied forces on Guadalcanal set for 20 October, Yamamoto's warships began to move towards the southern Solomons to support the offensive and to be ready to engage any enemy ships, especially carriers, that approached to support the Allied defenses on Guadalcanal.\n\n## Prelude\n\nOn or around 11 October a large force consisting of aircraft carriers, battleships, and their escorts departed Truk for an extended sortie in support of an October Guadalcanal offensive. On the same day a major reinforcement convoy reached Guadalcanal, but a force of supporting heavy cruisers was prevented from bombarding Henderson Field and turned back in what became known as the Battle of Cape Esperance. What followed were three heavy bombardment missions conducted by battleships and heavy cruisers between 13 October and 16 October (this was the heaviest naval attack on the airfield in the entire campaign), the first and third of those conducted by vessels detached from Vice admiral Nobutake Kondō's Advance Force. Starting midnight on 14 October, another major convoy consisting of four transports unloaded the bulk of their cargo successfully, including tanks and heavy artillery. On 15 October, the destroyer Meredith, while escorting the tug Vireo pulling a resupply barge, was spotted and sunk by aircraft from Zuikaku and Shokaku. On 17 October, Hiyō and Jun'yō launched a strike force to attack transports off Lunga Point, but caused no damage. The large body of warships would remain in the waters around Guadalcanal until after fighting in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands had ceased and returned to Truk at the end of October. The recently commissioned carrier Hiyō was originally part of the fleet, but a fire in her engineering room on 21 October forced her to retire to Truk for repairs. On 25 October, 6 bombers and 12 fighters from Jun'yo attacked Henderson Field, but did little damage.\n\nFrom 20 to 25 October, Japanese land forces on Guadalcanal attempted to capture Henderson Field with a large-scale attack against the U.S. defenders. The attack was decisively defeated with heavy casualties for the Japanese. Incorrectly believing that the Japanese army troops had succeeded in capturing Henderson Field, the Japanese sent warships from the Shortland Islands toward Guadalcanal on the morning of 25 October to support their ground forces on the island. Aircraft from Henderson Field attacked the convoy throughout the day, sinking the light cruiser Yura (with some help from B-17s out of Espiritu Santo) and damaging the destroyer Akizuki.\n\nDespite the failure of the Japanese ground offensive and the loss of Yura, the rest of the Combined Fleet continued to maneuver near the southern Solomon Islands on 25 October in the hope of engaging Allied naval forces in a battle. The Japanese naval forces now comprised four carriers (two large, one medium, one light), Hiyō having departed, with a combined aircraft complement of approximately three Shokaku-class fleet carriers.\n\nThe Japanese naval forces were divided into three groups: the \"Advanced\" force of Jun'yō, four heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and seven destroyers commanded by Kondō in heavy cruiser Atago with a support group consisting of two battleships and two destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Takeo Kurita; the \"Main Body\" of Shōkaku, Zuikaku, and Zuihō plus one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo aboard Shōkaku; and the \"Vanguard\" force of two battleships, three heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and seven destroyers, commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe in the battleship Hiei. In addition to commanding the Advanced force, Kondo acted as the overall commander of the three forces.\n\nOn the U.S. side, the Hornet and Enterprise task groups, under the overall command of Rear Admiral Thomas Kinkaid, swept around to the north of the Santa Cruz Islands on 25 October, searching for the Japanese naval forces. The U.S. warships were deployed as two separate carrier groups, separated from each other by about 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi). A U.S. PBY Catalina reconnaissance seaplane based in the Santa Cruz Islands located the Japanese Main Body carriers at 11:03. However, the Japanese carriers were about 355 nmi (657 km; 409 mi) from the U.S. force, just beyond carrier aircraft range. Kinkaid, hoping to close the range to be able to execute an attack that day, steamed towards the Japanese carriers at top speed and, at 14:25, launched a strike force of 23 aircraft. But the Japanese, knowing that they had been spotted by U.S. aircraft and not knowing where the U.S. carriers were, turned to the north to stay out of range of the U.S. carriers' aircraft. Thus, the U.S. strike force returned to its carriers without finding or attacking the Japanese warships.\n\n## Battle\n\n### Carrier action on 26 October: first strikes\n\nAt 02:50 on 26 October, the Japanese naval forces reversed direction and the naval forces of the two adversaries closed the distance until they were only 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) away from each other by 05:00. Both sides launched search aircraft and prepared their remaining aircraft to attack as soon as the other side's ships were located. Although a radar-equipped Catalina sighted the Japanese carriers at 03:10, the report did not reach Kinkaid until 05:12. Therefore, believing that the Japanese ships had probably changed position during the intervening two hours, he decided to withhold launching a strike force until he received more current information on the location of the Japanese ships.\n\nAt 06:45, a U.S. scout aircraft sighted the carriers of Nagumo's main body. At 06:58, a Japanese scout aircraft reported the location of Hornet's task force. Both sides raced to be the first to attack the other. The Japanese were first to get their strike force launched, with 64 aircraft, including 21 Aichi D3A2 dive bombers, 20 Nakajima B5N2 torpedo bombers, 21 A6M3 Zero fighters, and 2 Nakajima B5N2 contact aircraft on the way towards Hornet by 07:40. This first strike was commanded by Lieutenant Commander Shigeharu Murata, while the fighter cover was led by Lieutenants Ayao Shirane and Saneyasu Hidaka. Also at 07:40, two U.S. SBD-3 Dauntless scout aircraft, responding to the earlier sighting of the Japanese carriers, arrived and dove on Zuihō. With the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) busy chasing other U.S. scout aircraft away, the two U.S. aircraft were able to hit Zuihō with both their 500-pound bombs, causing heavy damage and preventing the carrier's flight deck from being able to land aircraft.\n\nMeanwhile, Kondo ordered Abe's Vanguard force to race ahead to try to intercept and engage the U.S. warships. Kondo also brought his own Advanced force forward at flank speed so that Jun'yō's aircraft could join in the attacks on the U.S. ships. At 08:10, Shōkaku launched a second wave of strike aircraft, consisting of 19 dive bombers and five Zeros, and Zuikaku launched 16 torpedo bombers and 4 Zeros at 08:40. The second strike leader was Lieutenant Commander Mamoru Seki, while the fighter cover was led by Lieutenant Hideki Shingo. Thus, by 09:10 the Japanese had over 100 aircraft on the way to attack the U.S. carriers.\n\nThe U.S. strike aircraft were running about 20 minutes behind the Japanese. Believing that a speedy attack was more important than a massed attack, and because they lacked fuel to spend time assembling prior to the strike, the U.S. aircraft proceeded in small groups towards the Japanese ships, rather than forming into a single large strike force. The first group—consisting of 15 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers, 6 Grumman TBF-1 Avenger torpedo bombers, and eight Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters, led by Lieutenant Commander William J. \"Gus\" Widhelm from Hornet—was on its way by about 08:00. A second group—consisting of three SBDs, nine TBFs (including the Air Group Commander's), and eight Wildcats from Enterprise—was off by 08:10. A third group—consisting of nine SBDs, ten TBFs (including the Air Group Commander's), and seven F4Fs from Hornet—was on its way by 08:20.\n\nAt 08:40, the opposing aircraft strike formations passed within sight of each other. Lieutenant Hidaka's nine Zuihō Zeros surprised and attacked the Enterprise group, attacking the climbing aircraft from out of the sun. In the resulting engagement, four Zeros, three Wildcats, and two TBFs were shot down, with another two TBFs and a Wildcat forced to return to Enterprise with heavy damage. The remaining Zuihō Zeros, having exhausted their ammunition, withdrew from the action.\n\nAt 08:50, the lead U.S. attack formation from Hornet spotted four ships from Abe's Vanguard force. Pressing on, the U.S. aircraft sighted the Japanese carriers and prepared to attack. Three Zeros from Zuihō attacked the formation's Wildcats, drawing them away from the bombers they were assigned to protect. Thus, the dive bombers in the first group initiated their attacks without fighter escort. Twelve Zeros from the Japanese carrier CAP attacked the SBD formation, shot down two (including Widhelm's, though he survived), and forced two more to abort. The remaining 11 SBDs commenced their attack dives on Shōkaku at 09:27, hitting her with three to six bombs, wrecking her flight deck, and causing serious damage to the interior of the ship. The final SBD of the 11 lost track of Shōkaku and instead dropped its bomb near the Japanese destroyer Teruzuki, causing minor damage. The six TBFs in the first strike force, having become separated from their strike group, did not find the Japanese carriers and eventually turned back towards Hornet. On the way back, they attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Tone, missing with all their torpedoes.\n\nThe TBFs of the second U.S. attack formation from Enterprise were unable to locate the Japanese carriers and instead attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Suzuya from Abe's Vanguard force but caused no damage. At about the same time, nine SBDs from the third U.S. attack formation—from Hornet—found Abe's ships and attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Chikuma, hitting her with two 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs and causing heavy damage. The three Enterprise SBDs then arrived and also attacked Chikuma, causing more damage with one bomb hit and two near-misses. Finally, the nine TBFs from the third strike group arrived and attacked the smoking Chikuma, scoring one more hit. Chikuma, escorted by two destroyers, withdrew from the battle and headed towards Truk for repairs.\n\nThe U.S. carrier forces received word from their outbound strike aircraft at 08:30 that Japanese attack aircraft were headed their way. At 08:52, the Japanese strike force commander sighted the Hornet task force—the Enterprise task force was hidden by a rain squall—and deployed his aircraft for attack. At 08:55, the U.S. carriers detected the approaching Japanese aircraft on radar—about 35 nmi (65 km; 40 mi) away—and began to vector the 37 Wildcats of their CAP to engage the incoming Japanese aircraft. However, communication problems, mistakes by the U.S. fighter control directors, and primitive control procedures prevented all but a few of the Wildcats from engaging the Japanese aircraft before they began their attacks on Hornet. Although the U.S. CAP, including fighter pilot Swede Vejtasa, was able to shoot down or damage several dive bombers (the formation leader Lieutenant Sadamu Takahashi had to abort the dive due to the damage), most of the Japanese aircraft commenced their attacks relatively unmolested by U.S. fighters.\n\nAt 09:09, the anti-aircraft guns of Hornet and her escorting warships opened fire as the 20 untouched Japanese torpedo planes and remaining 16 dive bombers commenced their attacks on the carrier. At 09:12, a dive bomber placed its 250 kg semi-armor-piercing \"ordinary\" bomb dead center on Hornet's flight deck, across from the island, which penetrated three decks before exploding, killing 60 men. Moments later, a 242 kg high-explosive \"land\" bomb struck the flight deck, detonating on impact to create an 11 ft (3.4 m) hole and kill 30 men. A minute or so later, a third bomb hit Hornet near where the first bomb hit, penetrating three decks before exploding, causing severe damage but no loss of life. At 09:14, a dive bomber was set on fire by Hornet's anti-aircraft guns; the pilot, Warrant Officer Shigeyuki Sato, deliberately crashed into Hornet's stack, killing seven men and spreading burning aviation fuel over the signal deck.\n\nAt the same time as the dive bombers were attacking, the 20 torpedo bombers were also approaching Hornet from two different directions. Despite suffering heavy losses from anti-aircraft fire, including Murata, the torpedo planes planted two torpedoes in Hornet's side between 09:13 and 09:17, knocking out her engines. As Hornet came to a stop, a damaged Japanese dive bomber approached and purposely crashed into the carrier's side, starting a fire near the ship's main supply of aviation fuel. At 09:20, the surviving Japanese aircraft departed, leaving Hornet dead in the water and burning. Twenty-five Japanese and six American aircraft were destroyed in this attack, including 12 dive bombers, ten torpedo planes and at least one Zero.\n\nWith the assistance of fire hoses from three escorting destroyers, the fires on Hornet were under control by 10:00. Wounded personnel were evacuated from the carrier, and an attempt was made by the heavy cruiser USS Northampton under Captain Willard A. Kitts to tow Hornet away from the battle area. However, the effort to rig the towline took some time, and more attack waves of Japanese aircraft were inbound.\n\n### Carrier action on 26 October: post-first strike actions\n\nStarting at 09:30, Enterprise landed many of the damaged and fuel-depleted CAP fighters and returning scout aircraft from both carriers. However, with her flight deck full, and the second wave of incoming Japanese aircraft detected on radar at 09:30, Enterprise ceased landing operations at 10:00. Fuel-depleted aircraft then began ditching in the ocean, and the carrier's escorting destroyers rescued the aircrews. One of the ditching aircraft, a damaged TBF from Enterprise's strike force that had been attacked earlier by Zeros from Zuihō, crashed into the water near the destroyer USS Porter. As Porter rescued the TBF's aircrew, she was struck by a torpedo, possibly from the ditched aircraft, causing heavy damage and killing 15 crewmen. After the task force commander ordered the destroyer scuttled, the crew was rescued by the destroyer USS Shaw which then sank Porter with gunfire ().\n\nAs the first wave of Japanese strike aircraft began returning to their carriers from their attack on Hornet, one of them spotted the Enterprise task force, which had now emerged from the rain squall, and reported the carrier's position. The second Japanese aircraft strike wave, believing Hornet to be sinking, directed their attacks on the Enterprise task force, beginning at 10:08. Again, the U.S. CAP had trouble intercepting the Japanese aircraft before they attacked Enterprise, shooting down only 2 of the 19 dive bombers as they began their dives on the carrier. Attacking through the intense anti-aircraft fire put up by Enterprise and her escorting warships, Seki's division attacked first and scored no hits. Next attacked the division led by Lieutenant Keiichi Arima that scored hits on the carrier with two 250 kg semi-AP \"ordinary\" bombs, where the first one was released by Arima's pilot, Petty Officer Kiyoto Furuta. The 2 bombs killed 44 men and wounded 75, and caused heavy damage to the carrier, including jamming her forward elevator in the \"up\" position. In addition, Arima's division also achieved a near-miss with another bomb. However, ten of the nineteen Japanese bombers were lost in this attack, including Seki's, with two more ditching on their return.\n\nTwenty minutes later, the 16 Zuikaku torpedo planes arrived and split up to attack Enterprise. One group of torpedo bombers was attacked by two CAP Wildcats, again including Vejtasa, which shot down three of them and damaged a fourth. On fire, the fourth damaged aircraft purposely crashed into the destroyer Smith, setting the ship on fire and killing 57 of her crew. The torpedo carried by this aircraft detonated shortly after impact, causing more damage. The fires initially seemed out of control until Smith's commanding officer ordered the destroyer to steer into the large spraying wake of the battleship USS South Dakota, which helped put out the fires. Smith then resumed her station, firing her remaining anti-aircraft guns at the torpedo planes.\n\nThe remaining torpedo planes attacked Enterprise, South Dakota, and the cruiser Portland, but all of their torpedoes missed or failed, causing no damage. The engagement was over at 10:53; 9 of the 16 torpedo aircraft were lost in this attack. After suppressing most of the onboard fires, at 11:15 Enterprise reopened her flight deck to begin landing returning aircraft from the morning U.S. strikes on the Japanese warship forces. However, only a few aircraft landed before the next wave of Japanese strike aircraft arrived and began their attacks on Enterprise, forcing a suspension of landing operations.\n\nBetween 09:05 and 09:14, Jun'yō had arrived within 280 nmi (320 mi; 520 km) of the U.S. carriers and launched a strike of 17 dive bombers and 12 Zeros, under the command of Lieutenant Yoshio Shiga. As the Japanese main body and advanced force maneuvered to try to join formations, Jun'yō readied follow-up strikes. At 11:21, the Jun'yō aircraft arrived and dove on the Enterprise task force. The dive bombers scored one near miss on Enterprise, causing more damage, and one hit each on South Dakota and light cruiser San Juan, causing moderate damage to both ships. Eight of the seventeen Japanese dive bombers were destroyed in this attack, with three more ditching on their return.\n\nAt 11:35, with Hornet out of action, Enterprise heavily damaged, and the Japanese assumed to have one or two undamaged carriers in the area, Kinkaid decided to withdraw Enterprise and her screening ships from the battle. Leaving Hornet behind, Kinkaid directed the carrier and her task force to retreat as soon as they were able. Between 11:39 and 13:22, Enterprise recovered 57 of the 73 airborne U.S. aircraft as she retreated. The remaining U.S. aircraft ditched in the ocean, and their aircrews were rescued by escorting warships.\n\nBetween 11:40 and 14:00, the two undamaged Japanese carriers, Zuikaku and Jun'yō, recovered the few aircraft that returned from the morning strikes on Hornet and Enterprise and prepared follow-up strikes. It was now that the devastating losses sustained during these attacks became apparent. Lt. Cmdr. Masatake Okumiya, Jun'yō's air staff officer, described the return of the carrier's first strike groups:\n\n> We searched the sky with apprehension. There were only a few planes in the air in comparison with the numbers launched several hours before... The planes lurched and staggered onto the deck, every single fighter and bomber bullet holed ... As the pilots climbed wearily from their cramped cockpits, they told of unbelievable opposition, of skies choked with antiaircraft shell bursts and tracers.\n\nOnly one of Jun'yō's bomber leaders returned from the first strike, and upon landing he appeared \"so shaken that at times he could not speak coherently\".\n\nAt 13:00, Kondo's Advanced force and Abe's Vanguard force warships together headed directly towards the last reported position of the U.S. carrier task forces and increased speed to try to intercept them for a gun battle. The damaged carriers Zuihō and Shōkaku, with Nagumo still on board, retreated from the battle area, leaving Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta in charge of the Zuikaku and Jun'yō aircraft forces. At 13:06, Jun'yō launched her second strike of seven torpedo planes led by Lieutenant Yoshiaki Irikiin, which were escorted by eight Zeros led by Lieutenant Shirane. At the same time, Zuikaku launched her third strike of seven torpedo planes, two dive bombers, and five Zeros, under the command of Lieutenant (jg) Ichirō Tanaka. Most of the torpedo planes were armed with an 800 kg armor-piercing bomb. At 15:35, Jun'yō launched the last Japanese strike force of the day, consisting of four dive bombers and six Zeros, again under the command of Lieutenant Shiga.\n\nAfter several technical problems, Northampton finally began slowly towing Hornet out of the battle area at 14:45, at a speed of only five knots. Hornet's crew was on the verge of restoring partial power, but at 15:20, Jun'yō's second strike arrived, and the seven torpedo planes attacked the almost stationary carrier. Although six of the torpedo planes missed, at 15:23, one torpedo struck Hornet amidships, which proved to be the fatal blow. The torpedo hit destroyed the repairs to the power system and caused heavy flooding and a 14-degree list. With no power to pump out the water, Hornet was given up for lost, and the crew abandoned ship. The third strike from Zuikaku attacked Hornet during this time, where B5N level bombers hit the sinking ship with one 800 kg bomb. All of Hornet's crewmen were off by 16:27. During the last Japanese attack of the day, a dive bomber from Jun'yō's third strike dropped one more 250 kg semi-AP bomb on the sinking carrier at 17:20.\n\nAfter being informed that Japanese forces were approaching and that further towing efforts were infeasible, Halsey ordered Hornet sunk. While the rest of the U.S. warships retired towards the southeast to get out of range of Kondō's and Abe's oncoming fleet, the destroyers USS Mustin and Anderson attempted to scuttle Hornet with multiple torpedoes and over 400 shells, but she still remained afloat. With advancing Japanese naval forces only 20 minutes away, the two U.S. destroyers abandoned Hornet's burning hulk at 20:40. By 22:20, the rest of Kondō's and Abe's warships had arrived at Hornet's location. The destroyers Makigumo and Akigumo then finished Hornet with four 24 in (610 mm) torpedoes. At 01:35 on 27 October 1942, she finally sank, at approximately . Several night attacks by radar-equipped Catalinas on Jun'yō and Teruzuki, knowledge of the head start the U.S. warships had in their retreat from the area, plus a critical fuel situation apparently caused the Japanese to reconsider further pursuit of the U.S. warships. After refueling near the northern Solomon Islands, the Japanese ships returned to their main base at Truk on 30 October. During the U.S. withdrawal from the battle area towards Espiritu Santo and New Caledonia, while taking evasive action from a Japanese submarine, South Dakota collided with the destroyer Mahan, heavily damaging Mahan.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nBoth sides claimed victory. The Americans stated that two Shōkaku-class fleet carriers had been hit with bombs and eliminated. Kinkaid's summary of damage to the Japanese included hits to a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and a light cruiser, and possible hits on another heavy cruiser. In reality, Shōkaku, Zuihō, and Chikuma were the only ships hit during the battle, none of which sank. For their part, the Japanese asserted that they sank three American carriers, one battleship, one cruiser, one destroyer, and one \"unidentified large warship\". Actual American losses comprised the carrier Hornet and the destroyer Porter, and damage to Enterprise, the light cruiser San Juan, the destroyer Smith and the battleship South Dakota.\n\nThe loss of Hornet was a severe blow for Allied forces in the South Pacific, leaving Enterprise and Saratoga as the only operational Allied carriers in the entire Pacific theater. As Enterprise retreated from the battle, the crew posted a sign on the flight deck: \"Enterprise vs Japan\". Enterprise received temporary repairs at New Caledonia and, although not fully restored, returned to the southern Solomons area just two weeks later to support Allied forces during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. There she played an important role in what turned out to be the decisive naval engagement in the overall campaign for Guadalcanal when her aircraft sank several Japanese warships and troop transports during the naval skirmishes around Henderson Field. The lack of carriers pressed the Americans and Japanese to deploy battleships in night operations around Guadalcanal, one of only two actions in the entire Pacific War in which battleships fought each other, with South Dakota again being damaged while two Japanese battleships were lost.\n\nAlthough the Battle of Santa Cruz was a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, it came at a high cost for their naval forces, as Jun'yō was the only active aircraft carrier left to challenge Enterprise or Henderson Field for the remainder of the Guadalcanal campaign. Zuikaku, despite being undamaged and having recovered the aircraft from the two damaged carriers, returned to home islands via Truk for training and aircraft ferrying duties, returning to the South Pacific only in February 1943 to cover the evacuation of Japanese ground forces from Guadalcanal. Both damaged carriers were forced to return to Japan for extensive repairs and refitting. After repair, Zuihō returned to Truk in late January 1943. Shōkaku was under repair until March 1943 and did not return to the front until July 1943, when she was reunited with Zuikaku at Truk.\n\nThe most significant losses for the Japanese Navy were in aircrew. The U.S. lost 81 of the 175 aircraft that were available at the start of the battle; of these, 33 were fighters, 28 were dive-bombers, and 20 were torpedo bombers. However, only 26 pilots and aircrew members were lost. The Japanese fared much worse, especially in airmen; in addition to losing 99 aircraft of the 203 involved in the battle, they lost 148 pilots and aircrew members, including two dive bomber group leaders, three torpedo squadron leaders, and eighteen other section or flight leaders. The most notable casualties were the commanders of the first two strikes – Murata and Seki. Forty-nine percent of the Japanese torpedo bomber aircrews involved in the battle were killed, along with 39% of the dive bomber crews and 20% of the fighter pilots. The Japanese lost more aircrew at Santa Cruz than they had lost in each of the three previous carrier battles at Coral Sea (90), Midway (110), and Eastern Solomons (61). By the end of the Santa Cruz battle, at least 409 of the 765 elite Japanese carrier aviators who had participated in the attack on Pearl Harbor were dead. Having lost so many of its veteran carrier aircrew, and with no quick way to replace them—because of an institutionalized limited capacity in its naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves—the undamaged Zuikaku was also ordered to return to Japan. Jun'yo remained and provided air support during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, Zuikaku returned just in time to cover the withdrawal of the forces from Guadalcanal.\n\nAdmiral Nagumo was relieved of command shortly after the battle and reassigned to shore duty in Japan. He acknowledged that the victory was incomplete:\n\n> [T]his battle was a tactical win, but a shattering strategic loss for Japan ... Considering the great superiority of our enemy's industrial capacity, we must win every battle overwhelmingly in order to win this war. This last one, although a victory, unfortunately, was not an overwhelming victory.\n\nIn retrospect, despite being a tactical victory, the battle effectively ended any hope the Japanese Navy might have had of scoring a decisive victory before the industrial might of the United States placed that goal out of reach. Historian Eric Hammel summed up the significance of the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands as, \"Santa Cruz was a Japanese victory. That victory cost Japan her last best hope to win the war.\"\n\nMilitary historian Dr. John Prados offers a dissenting view, asserting that this was not a Pyrrhic victory for Japan, but a strategic victory:\n\n> By any reasonable measure the Battle of Santa Cruz marked a Japanese victory—and a strategic one. At its end, the Imperial Navy possessed the only operational carrier force in the Pacific. The Japanese had sunk more ships and more combat tonnage, had more aircraft remaining, and were in physical possession of the battle zone... Arguments based on aircrew losses or who owned Guadalcanal are about something else—the campaign, not the battle.\n\nIn Prados' view, the real story of the aftermath is that the Imperial Navy failed to exploit their hard-won victory.\n\n## See also\n\n- Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service\n- Imperial Japanese Navy in World War II\n- United States Navy in World War II\n- Pacific Theater aircraft carrier operations during World War II\n\n### World War II carrier-versus-carrier engagements\n\n- Battle of the Coral Sea\n- Battle of Midway\n- Battle of the Eastern Solomons\n- Battle of the Philippine Sea\n- Battle off Cape Engaño", "revid": "1166921616", "description": "Fourth carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II", "categories": ["1942 in Japan", "1942 in the Solomon Islands", "Battles and operations of World War II involving the Solomon Islands", "Battles of World War II involving Japan", "Battles of World War II involving the United States", "Conflicts in 1942", "Military history of Japan during World War II", "Naval battles of World War II involving Japan", "Naval battles of World War II involving the United States", "October 1942 events", "Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II", "World War II aerial operations and battles of the Pacific theatre", "World War II naval operations and battles of the Pacific theatre"]}
{"id": "30387889", "url": null, "title": "Comeback (Glee)", "text": "\"Comeback\" is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee, and the thirty-fifth overall. It was written by series creator Ryan Murphy, directed by Bradley Buecker, and premiered on Fox on February 15, 2011. In the episode, glee club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) allows cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) to join the McKinley High glee club in an attempt to ease her depression. Club member Sam (Chord Overstreet) creates a tribute band to teen singer Justin Bieber in order to win the heart of Quinn (Dianna Agron), and is later joined by the group's other male members, minus co-captain Finn (Cory Monteith), to recreate Bieber's \"Somebody to Love\" and woo their significant others.\n\nPrior to broadcast, Murphy dismissed rumors that \"Comeback\" would serve as a tribute to Bieber, and stated that such episodes are reserved for artists with extensive musical catalogs. \"Comeback\" was met with mixed reception from critics, who deemed it neither bad nor a standout. Critics such as Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle appreciated the episode's early Glee aesthetic. Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times felt that the episode lacked substance. Sue's storyline, which focuses on her depression and a suicide attempt with Flintstone gummies, was widely criticized for its inappropriateness. The other storylines had mixed to positive reviews, as many critics deemed the Bieber-related subplot the strongest. James Poniewozik of Time compared it favorably to the Madonna tribute episode \"The Power of Madonna\".\n\nThe episode features six musical performances, five of which were released as singles. Upon its initial airing, \"Comeback\" was watched by over 10.53 million US viewers, and acquired a 4.2/12 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. Unlike the story itself, most critics received the musical numbers with acclaim. The Glee take on Bieber's songs was praised, as were the vocals of cast members Amber Riley and Lea Michele in their duet of \"Take Me or Leave Me\" from Rent, and the confidence and performance of Ashley Fink in \"I Know What Boys Like\".\n\n## Plot\n\nAfter her cheerleading squad loses a competition for the first time in seven years, coach Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) becomes depressed, and stages an apparent suicide by \"overdosing\" on gummy vitamins. Her colleague, school guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury (Jayma Mays), suggests that she temporarily join the school glee club, New Directions, to lift her spirits. Hoping to create discord within the group, Sue pits members Mercedes (Amber Riley) and Rachel (Lea Michele) against one another. Her plan backfires when a duet between the two results in a deepening of their respect for one another vocally. In an attempt to bring out the good in Sue, club director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) takes her to a pediatric cancer ward, where they sing \"This Little Light of Mine\" with the patients.\n\nClub member Sam Evans (Chord Overstreet) establishes a one-man tribute band to teen singer Justin Bieber, which he calls \"The Justin Bieber Experience\", in the hope of winning over his girlfriend Quinn (Dianna Agron), whom he suspects still has feelings for her ex-boyfriend Finn (Cory Monteith). Sam performs Bieber's \"Baby\" for the glee club, and dedicates it to Quinn; the performance also excites the other girls in the club. Several of the male members—Puck (Mark Salling), Artie (Kevin McHale) and Mike (Harry Shum Jr.)—are impressed by the effect he has on the girls, and convince him to let them join his tribute band. The foursome then perform \"Somebody to Love\", and recreate the music video for the song in the auditorium, which makes the girls go crazy. Quinn chooses Sam over Finn, but when Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera) convinces Sam that Quinn cheated on him, he breaks up with her and begins dating Santana.\n\nMeanwhile, Lauren Zizes (Ashley Fink) enlists Puck to help her with her first glee club solo. With Puck's assistance, she performs \"I Know What Boys Like\" by The Waitresses, and using a trick he taught her, imagines the club members in their underwear for confidence. Later, Sue suggests that the club perform the anthem \"Sing\" by My Chemical Romance, as they must present an anthem at the forthcoming Regionals competition. They rehearse the song, and it is well received by most of the members, who disregard Rachel's suggestion that they should instead compose an original anthem. Her week with New Directions over, Sue reveals that she has become the vocal coach for one of the glee club's Regionals competitors, Aural Intensity.\n\n## Production\n\nIn January 2011, rumors began to circulate that Glee was planning a Justin Bieber tribute episode, similar to \"The Power of Madonna\" for Madonna, and \"Britney/Brittany\" for Britney Spears. Series creator Ryan Murphy refuted the claims, and stated that such episodes are reserved for artists with extensive musical catalogs. He confirmed, however, that Bieber's music would be used in an episode in season two as a \"small plot point\", and Overstreet's Sam would perform a song by the artist for Quinn's approval. On the red carpet at the 68th Golden Globe Awards, cast member Riley confirmed to MTV News that Bieber's songs \"Baby\" and \"Somebody to Love\" would be featured in the upcoming episode, and the singer would receive a tribute similar to Lady Gaga in \"Theatricality\"—a tribute, but without a full episode devoted to his catalog. Via his official Facebook page, Bieber stated that he was \"truly honoured\" to have his music covered on Glee. Prior to broadcast, Overstreet and Bieber interacted via the social networking website Twitter, where Bieber told him \"we just gotta work on those moves\", and to \"kill it!\"\n\nIn addition to \"Baby\" and \"Somebody to Love\", the episode featured cover versions of \"I Know What Boys Like\" by The Waitresses performed by Fink, \"Take Me or Leave Me\" from Rent performed by Michele and Riley, \"Sing\" by My Chemical Romance, and an acoustic performance of the gospel children's song \"This Little Light of Mine\". The pediatric oncology scenes were filmed at the Children's Hospital Los Angeles' Center for Cancer and Blood Diseases, where eleven real patients performed alongside Morrison and Lynch. Bailey, the pediatric ward nurse, was played by guest-star Charlene Amoia, who had worked for the series' sound department during the first season. In June 2011, she deemed her \"Comeback\" appearance her favorite guest role in any series, due to working alongside the children, whom she was \"so touched by\". Amoia expanded: \"They were the most vibrant, energetic kids. It was a really awesome storyline to be a part of. I was really moved by everything.\" Though she was not initially aware that the role would involve singing, Amoia was part of the \"This Little Light of Mine\" group number. The episode's recurring guest cast members were Overstreet as Sam, Iqbal Theba as Principal Figgins, Shum Jr. as Mike and Fink as Lauren.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Ratings\n\n\"Comeback\" was watched by 10.53 million US viewers. It attained a 4.2/12 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, which made it the highest rated show of the night. It was the third most-watched scripted show of the week amongst adults aged 18–49, and placed 21st amongst all viewers. The episode declined by 9 percent and 1.12 million viewers on the previous episode, \"Silly Love Songs\".\n\nWith its Canadian broadcast, also on February 15, 2011, \"Comeback\" attained 1.75 million viewers and placed 18th in the weekly program rankings. It was again down on \"Silly Love Songs\", which ranked tenth and was watched by 2.08 million viewers. In Australia, where the episode aired on February 28, 2011, it was watched by 909,000 viewers and was the 11th most-viewed show of the night. Viewership was marginally down on the previous episode, which attracted 921,000 viewers and also placed 11th. In the UK, the episode was broadcast on April 4, 2011. It attained 2.57 million viewers—2.14 million on E4, and 427,000 on E4+1—and was the most-watched show on cable for the week. Viewership again declined slightly from the previous episode, which drew 2.63 million viewers.\n\n### Critical response\n\nThe episode received mixed reviews from critics. Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle and E! Online's Jenna Mullins were pleased by how \"Comeback\" reminded them of early episodes of Glee—Mullins hailed the return of familiar characterization, and Hankinson commented: \"It felt like old times, and it felt good.\" Though he observed that the episode was light on plot, Hankinson praised the writing and comedy. CNN's Lisa Respers France found the episode's title apt, as Glee was \"firing on all cylinders\" with little room for improvement. Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone was \"pleasantly surprised\", as she had anticipated a decline in quality from the previous episode, and Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic commented that apart from the Bieber jokes, \"the rest of the episode was sharply written and loaded with self-referential jokes\". Other critics found \"Comeback\" mediocre. Entertainment Weekly's Sandra Gonzalez wrote that it was \"a bit off\", The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff felt that \"something was missing, making the whole thing stultifying, lifeless, and boring\", and Robert Canning of IGN deemed it \"fine and inoffensive\", but ultimately forgettable. Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times was \"a little disappointed\" in the episode for a lack of substance, creativity and emotional maturity. James Poniewozik of Time deemed it amongst his least favorite episodes, for \"not even [being] bad in a memorable way\". He noted that \"Comeback\" was \"essentially a collection of subplots\", and questioned its purpose.\n\nThe Sue storyline garnered many unfavorable reviews. Reiter criticized her inconsistent characterization, which made her actions seem \"like fragments pasted together to form a disjointed collage\". While VanDerWerff was more favorable, he wrote that Sue's jokes about committing \"Sue-icide\" were \"neither dark enough to provoke a startled burst or laughter nor funny enough to overcome their central tastelessness\", and called the scene in the pediatric oncology ward \"woefully misjudged and inappropriately hilarious\". The Atlantic's Meghan Brown found the use of seriously ill children \"borderline offensive\", and called Sue's suicide attempt \"in totally bad taste\". Miriam Krule of NPR felt that Glee treated suicide too lightly, and in doing so sent a mixed message to its youth audience. Poniewozik wrote that Sue has become \"a burden on the show\", and described her as \"a breakout character who's broken out of the constraints of recognizable character\". He questioned the point of her arc, and suggested that the attempt at humanizing her was redundant, as viewers already know Sue to be capable of compassion.\n\nOther storylines received a more mixed response. Canning disliked the focus placed on Sam and his thin, \"loveable dope\" characterization. He found that the love-triangle plot made little sense, and as such was hard to invest in. In contrast, Poniewozik called Sam's Bieber subplot the episode's strongest element, and deemed it fun if inessential. He praised Glee for capturing the \"disposable fun\" of Bieber's music, \"without either sneering at it or making it more than it is\", and called it better in this respect than \"The Power of Madonna\". Lauren received several positive reviews. While VanDerWerff found her relationship with Puck \"a lot less assured\" than in \"Silly Love Songs\", Mullins and Gonzalez praised their \"endearing\" dynamic. Reiter felt that in \"Comeback\", while new characters like Sam and Lauren \"managed to shine\", established favorites fared less well: \"Finn continues to be dismayingly drained of all that once made him so adorable, and Rachel, too, has been deprived of the depth and sex appeal she so carefully developed over time.\" Several critics raised similar criticism of Rachel—Gonzalez found her need for Brittany's help \"too much of a regression\", and disliked her return to \"old, desperate habits\" after several episodes of personal growth. Canning felt that the storyline was forced, and Poniewozik observed that the episode \"seemed to be trying less to advance her character [than] simply to give her something to do.\" VanDerWerff wrote that Rachel appeared to have five different subplots, none of which came together cohesively, and that it reflected the awkward construction of the episode.\n\n### Music and performances\n\nThe episode's musical covers and performances were mostly well received by critics. Hankinson wrote that the songs \"blended all of the show's best charms\", which he listed as \"kitschy suprise [sic]\", \"slick production\" and \"raw vocal ability\". Futterman also praised all of the music.\n\nThe Bieber numbers received a mostly positive reception. Mullins complimented them both, particularly Overstreet's performance of \"Baby\". Futterman said this performance was impressive, \"a total pop star package that recalled the Biebs' swag\". She found this element \"smooth[ed] over\" in \"Somebody to Love\", but called the recreation admirable nonetheless. Gonzalez highlighted the Bieber songs as the best of the episode; she gave \"Baby\" and \"Somebody to Love\" grades of \"A\" and \"B+\", respectively. On the former song, Gonzalez enjoyed Sam's performance, particularly his \"übercorny dance moves that made [her] ache for the boy-band era.\" Although she complimented the male vocalists and their \"almost perfect re-creation\" of the video, Gonzalez was disappointed the show chose to repeat, rather than reinterpret, the choreography. Fallon praised the two songs: he called Sam \"quite charming while channeling Bieber\" and said \"the acoustic opening to 'Baby' was actually very sweet, just as it was when Biebs stripped down the tune to open his Grammy performance\". He added that the dancing \"stood out\" in \"Somebody to Love\". Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal expressed disappointment in the Bieber performances \"displayed so awkwardly and so undynamically\" by Sam. On \"Baby\", he opined that Overstreet lacked \"swagger\", coordination and charm. He was more impressed by the rendition of \"Somebody to Love\", but noted that Sam was vocally overshadowed by Artie.\n\nThe performance of the duet \"Take Me or Leave Me\" elicited praise from Brown and Fallon, who both deemed it the highlight of the episode. Brown noted that \"it had that addictive Glee quality of actually feeling like high school, and watching Mercedes and Rachel have a blast blasting each other was a treat.\" Gonzalez gave the duet a \"B\", as, while there was \"so much to swoon for\", she is more partial to ballads because they \"discourage oversinging throughout the entire song\". Futterman wrote that while Mercedes had more sass than Rachel, \"both ladies sang\". VanDerWerff did not see how the song was relevant, and felt that Michele's voice was ill-suited to it.\n\nFlandez called Lauren's \"I Know What Boys Like\" the highlight of the episode, and VanDerWerff praised it as the best musical number. He complimented her confidence, but said the underwear joke was \"unnecessary and overstated\". In contrast, Gonzalez cited the underwear shots as a factor in raising her grade to a \"C−\" for a song without \"basic musicality\". Patrick Burns of The Atlantic was also unimpressed, and questioned Lauren's spot in glee club, as \"her brazen character never ceases to please, but it's just not believable that she would join the glee club if she cannot sing.\" In December 2012, TV Guide named the cover one of Glee's worst performances.\n\nOn the New Directions collaboration with Sue on \"Sing\", Futterman wrote, \"By turning down the rock and bringing in a choral element, the song actually came off as a great anthem for the bunch of misfits that is the New Directions. We kind of wish they had put on their choir robes instead and fully embraced the arrangement.\" Although Gonzalez gave the performance a \"B\", she called it \"lacking\" and not \"regionals material\": \"We need to be blown away.\" TV Guide also listed this rendition as one of Glee's worst performances.\n\n### Chart history\n\nOf the five cover versions released as singles—the cover of \"This Little Light of Mine\" was not released—four debuted on the Billboard Hot 100, and appeared on other musical charts. These same four songs were also featured on the sixth soundtrack album of the series, Glee: The Music, Volume 5. On the Hot 100, the show's rendition of \"Baby\" debuted at number forty-seven; it was at number fifty-two on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100. The Glee cover version of \"Sing\" debuted on the Hot 100 at number forty-nine, placing higher than the original by My Chemical Romance, which climbed from number ninety-two to number fifty-eight, its best showing to that point; in Canada, both versions debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 in the same week, with the Glee version at number thirty-seven, the highest of the four Glee singles there, while the original charted twenty slots below it at number fifty-seven. The other two songs on the Hot 100 were \"Take Me or Leave Me\" at number fifty-one, which also made number sixty on the Canadian Hot 100, and \"Somebody to Love\" at number sixty-two, which also made number fifty-three on the Canadian Hot 100. \"I Know What Boys Like\" did not chart.", "revid": "1171423363", "description": null, "categories": ["2011 American television episodes", "Glee (season 2) episodes", "Television episodes written by Ryan Murphy (filmmaker)"]}
{"id": "674453", "url": null, "title": "Hugh Walpole", "text": "Sir Hugh Seymour Walpole, CBE (13 March 1884 – 1 June 1941) was an English novelist. He was the son of an Anglican clergyman, intended for a career in the church but drawn instead to writing. Among those who encouraged him were the authors Henry James and Arnold Bennett. His skill at scene-setting and vivid plots, as well as his high profile as a lecturer, brought him a large readership in the United Kingdom and North America. He was a best-selling author in the 1920s and 1930s but has been largely neglected since his death.\n\nAfter his first novel, The Wooden Horse, in 1909, Walpole wrote prolifically, producing at least one book every year. He was a spontaneous story-teller, writing quickly to get all his ideas on paper, seldom revising. His first novel to achieve major success was his third, Mr Perrin and Mr Traill, a tragicomic story of a fatal clash between two schoolmasters. During the First World War he served in the Red Cross on the Russian-Austrian front, and worked in British propaganda in Petrograd and London. In the 1920s and 1930s Walpole was much in demand not only as a novelist but also as a lecturer on literature, making four exceptionally well-paid tours of North America.\n\nAs a gay man at a time when homosexual practices were illegal for men in Britain, Walpole conducted a succession of intense but discreet relationships with other men, and was for much of his life in search of what he saw as \"the perfect friend\". He eventually found one, a married policeman, with whom he settled in the English Lake District. Having as a young man eagerly sought the support of established authors, he was in his later years a generous sponsor of many younger writers. He was a patron of the visual arts and bequeathed a substantial legacy of paintings to the Tate Gallery and other British institutions.\n\nWalpole's output was large and varied. Between 1909 and 1941 he wrote thirty-six novels, five volumes of short stories, two original plays and three volumes of memoirs. His range included disturbing studies of the macabre, children's stories and historical fiction, most notably his Herries Chronicle series, set in the Lake District. He worked in Hollywood writing scenarios for two Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films in the 1930s, and played a cameo in the 1935 version of David Copperfield.\n\n## Biography\n\n### Early years\n\nWalpole was born in Auckland, New Zealand, the eldest of three children of the Rev Somerset Walpole and his wife, Mildred Helen, née Barham (1854–1925). Somerset Walpole had been an assistant to the Bishop of Truro, Edward White Benson, from 1877 until 1882, when he was offered the incumbency of St Mary's Cathedral, Auckland; on Benson's advice he accepted.\n\nMildred Walpole found it hard to settle in New Zealand, and something of her restlessness and insecurity affected the character of her eldest child. In 1889, two years after the birth of the couple's daughter, Dorothea (\"Dorothy\"), Somerset Walpole accepted a prominent and well-paid academic post at the General Theological Seminary, New York. Robert (\"Robin\"), the third of the couple's children, was born in New York in 1892. Hugh and Dorothy were taught by a governess until the middle of 1893, when the parents decided that he needed an English education.\n\nWalpole was sent to England, where according to his biographer Rupert Hart-Davis the next ten years were the unhappiest time of Walpole's life. He first attended a preparatory school in Truro. Though he missed his family and felt lonely he was reasonably happy, but he moved to Sir William Borlase's Grammar School in Marlow in 1895, where he was bullied, frightened and miserable. He later said, \"The food was inadequate, the morality was 'twisted', and Terror – sheer, stark unblinking Terror – stared down every one of its passages ... The excessive desire to be loved that has always played so enormous a part in my life was bred largely, I think, from the neglect I suffered there\".\n\nIn 1896 Somerset Walpole discovered his son's horror of the Marlow school and he moved him to the King's School, Canterbury. For two years he was a fairly content, though undistinguished, pupil there. In 1897 Walpole senior was appointed principal of Bede College, Durham, and Hugh was moved again, to be a day boy for four years at Durham School. He found that day boys were looked down on by boarders, and that Bede College was the subject of snobbery within the university. His sense of isolation increased. He continually took refuge in the local library, where he read all the novels of Jane Austen, Henry Fielding, Scott and Dickens and many of the works of Trollope, Wilkie Collins and Henry Kingsley. Walpole wrote in 1924:\n\n> I grew up ... discontented, ugly, abnormally sensitive, and excessively conceited. No one liked me – not masters, boys, friends of the family, nor relations who came to stay; and I do not in the least wonder at it. I was untidy, uncleanly, excessively gauche. I believed that I was profoundly misunderstood, that people took my pale and pimpled countenance for the mirror of my soul, that I had marvellous things of interest in me that would one day be discovered.\n\nThough Walpole was no admirer of the schools he had attended there, the cathedral cities of Truro, Canterbury and Durham made a strong impression on him. He drew on aspects of them for his fictional cathedral city of Polchester in Glebeshire, the setting of many of his later books. Walpole's memories of his time at Canterbury grew mellower over the years; it was the only school he mentioned in his Who's Who entry.\n\n### Cambridge, Liverpool and teaching\n\nFrom 1903 to 1906 Walpole studied history at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. While there he had his first work published, the critical essay \"Two Meredithian Heroes\", which was printed in the college magazine in autumn 1905. As an undergraduate he met and fell under the spell of A. C. Benson, formerly a greatly loved master at Eton, and by this time a don at Magdalene College. Walpole's religious beliefs, hitherto an unquestioned part of his life, were fading, and Benson helped him through that personal crisis. Walpole was also attempting to cope with his homosexual feelings, which for a while focused on Benson, who recorded in his diary in 1906 an unexpected outburst by his young admirer: \"[H]e broke out rather eagerly into protestations – He cared for me more than anyone in the world. I could not believe it ... It is extraordinarily touching. ... It is quite right that he should believe all this passionately; it is quite right that I should know that it will not last ... I tried to say this as tenderly as I could ...\"\n\nBenson gently declined Walpole's advances. They remained friends, but Walpole, rebuffed in his \"excessive desire to be loved\", turned the full force of his enthusiasms elsewhere, and the relationship with Benson became less important to him. Less than two years later Benson's diary entry on Walpole's subsequent social career reveals his thoughts on his protégé's progress:\n\n> He seems to have conquered Gosse completely. He spends his Sundays in long walks with H G Wells. He dines every week with Max Beerbohm and R Ross ... and this has befallen a not very clever young man of 23. Am I a little jealous? – no, I don't think so. But I am a little bewildered ... I do not see any sign of intellectual power or perception or grasp or subtlety in his work or himself. ... I should call him curiously unperceptive. He does not, for instance, see what may vex or hurt or annoy people. I think he is rather tactless – though he is himself very sensitive. The strong points about him are his curiosity, his vitality, his eagerness, and the emotional fervour of his affections. But he seems to me in no way likely to be great as an artist.\n\nWith Benson's help, Walpole had come to terms with the loss of his faith. Somerset Walpole, himself the son of an Anglican priest, hoped that his eldest son would follow him into the ministry. Walpole was too concerned for his father's feelings to tell him he was no longer a believer, and on graduation from Cambridge in 1906 he took a post as a lay missioner at the Mersey Mission to Seamen in Liverpool. He described that as one of the \"greatest failures of my life ... The Mission to Seamen was, and is, a splendid institution ... but it needs men of a certain type to carry it through and I was not of that type.\" The head of the mission reprimanded him for lack of commitment to his work, and Walpole resigned after six months.\n\nFrom April to July 1907 Walpole was in Germany, tutoring the children of the popular author Elizabeth von Arnim. In 1908 he taught French at Epsom College. His brief experience of teaching is reflected in his third novel, Mr Perrin and Mr Traill. As well as the clerical forebears, Walpole had notable authors in his family tree: on his father's side, the novelist and letter writer Horace Walpole, and on his mother's Richard Harris Barham, author of The Ingoldsby Legends. It was as an author that Walpole felt impelled to make his career. He moved to London and found work as a book reviewer for The Standard, writing fiction in his spare time. He had by this time recognised unreservedly that he was homosexual. His encounters were necessarily discreet, as such activities were illegal in Britain, and remained so throughout his lifetime. He was constantly searching for \"the perfect friend\"; an early candidate was the stage designer Percy Anderson, to whom he was intimately attached for some time from 1910 onwards.\n\n### Early literary career\n\nA. C. Benson was a friend of Henry James, to whom Walpole wrote a fan letter late in 1908, with Benson's encouragement. A correspondence ensued and in February 1909 James invited Walpole to lunch at the Reform Club in London. They developed a close friendship, described by James's biographer Leon Edel as resembling a father and son relationship in some, but not all, respects. James was greatly taken with the young Walpole, though clear-eyed about the deficiencies in the artistry and craftsmanship of his protégé's early efforts. According to Somerset Maugham, Walpole made a sexual proposition to James, who was too inhibited to respond. Nevertheless, in their correspondence the older man's devotion was couched in extravagant terms.\n\nWalpole published his first novel, The Wooden Horse, in 1909. It told of a staid and snobbish English family shaken up by the return of one of its members from a less hidebound life in New Zealand. The book received good reviews but barely repaid the cost of having it typed. His first commercial success was Mr Perrin and Mr Traill, published in 1911. The novelist and biographer Michael Sadleir writes that though some of the six novels Walpole wrote between 1909 and 1914 are of interest as examples of the author's developing style, it is Mr Perrin and Mr Traill that deserves to be remembered for its own sake. The book, subtitled \"a tragi-comedy\", is a psychological study of a deadly clash between two schoolmasters, one an ageing failure and the other a young, attractive idealist. In the view of Hart-Davis, Walpole only once recaptured \"the fresh, clear cut realism\" of this book, and Walpole himself, looking back on his work in the 1930s, felt that of all his books to date, it was the truest. The Observer gave the book a favourable review: \"The slow growth of the poison within [Perrin] is traced with wonderful skill and sympathy ... one feels throughout these pages a sense of intolerable tension, of impending disaster\"; The Manchester Guardian was less enthusiastic, praising the scene-setting but calling the story \"an unconscientious melodrama\". The San Francisco Chronicle praised its \"technical excellence, imagination and beauty – Walpole at his best.\" Arnold Bennett, a well-established novelist seventeen years Walpole's senior, admired the book, and befriended the young author, regularly chiding, encouraging, sometimes mocking him into improving his prose, characters and narratives.\n\nThe Guardian reviewer observed that the setting of Mr Perrin and Mr Traill – a second-rate public school – was clearly drawn from life, as indeed it was. The boys of Epsom College were delighted with the thinly disguised version of their school, but the college authorities were not, and Walpole was persona non grata at Epsom for many years. This was of no practical consequence, as he had no intention of returning to the teaching profession, but it was an early illustration of his capacity, noted by Benson, for unthinkingly giving offence, though being hypersensitive to criticism himself.\n\nIn early 1914 James wrote an article for The Times Literary Supplement surveying the younger generation of British novelists and comparing them with their eminent elder contemporaries. In the latter category James put Bennett, Joseph Conrad, John Galsworthy, Maurice Hewlett and H G Wells. The four new authors on whom he focused were Walpole, Gilbert Cannan, Compton Mackenzie and D H Lawrence. It was a very lengthy article, to the extent that it had to be spread across two issues of the Supplement in March and April 1914. James said that agreeing to write it had been \"an insensate step\", but from Walpole's point of view it was highly satisfactory: one of the greatest living authors had publicly ranked him among the finest young British novelists.\n\n### First World War\n\nAs war approached, Walpole realised that his poor eyesight would disqualify him from serving in the armed forces. He volunteered to join the police, but was turned down; he then accepted a journalistic appointment based in Moscow, reporting for The Saturday Review and The Daily Mail. He was allowed to visit the front in Poland, but his dispatches from Moscow (and later from Petrograd, which he preferred) were not enough to stop hostile comments at home that he was not doing his bit for the war effort. Henry James was so incensed at one such remark by a prominent London hostess that he stormed out of her house and wrote to Walpole suggesting that he should return to England. Walpole replied in great excitement that he had just been appointed as a Russian officer, in the Sanitar:\n\n> The \"Sanitar\" is the part of the Red Cross that does the rough work at the front, carrying men out of the trenches, helping at the base hospitals in every sort of way, doing every kind of rough job. They are an absolutely official body and I shall be one of the few (half-dozen) Englishmen in the world wearing Russian uniform.\n\nWhile in training for the Sanitar, Walpole devoted his leisure hours to gaining a reasonable fluency in the Russian language, and to his first full-length work of non-fiction, a literary biography of Joseph Conrad. In the summer of 1915 he worked on the Austrian-Russian front, assisting at operations in field hospitals and retrieving the dead and wounded from the battlefield. Occasionally he found time to write brief letters home; he told Bennett, \"A battle is an amazing mixture of hell and a family picnic – not as frightening as the dentist, but absorbing, sometimes thrilling like football, sometimes dull like church, and sometimes simply physically sickening like bad fish. Burying dead afterwards is worst of all.\" When disheartened he comforted himself with the thought, \"This is not so bad as it was at Marlow\".\n\nDuring an engagement early in June 1915 Walpole single-handedly rescued a wounded soldier; his Russian comrades refused to help and Walpole carried one end of a stretcher and dragged the man to safety. For this he was awarded the Cross of Saint George; General Lechitsky presented him with the medal in August. After his tour of duty he returned to Petrograd. Among the city's attractions for him was the presence of Konstantin Somov, a painter with whom he had formed an intimate relationship. Throughout his time in Petrograd and Moscow he kept a diary of the books he read and the plays and operas he attended, a habit that continued throughout his life. He met Maxim Gorky, Mikhail Lykiardopoulos, Nikita Baliev and immersed himself in the Moscow art scene which influenced the Symbolism in his work. He remained in Russia until October 1915, when he returned to England. He visited his family, stayed with Percy Anderson in London, telephoned Henry James in Rye, and retreated to a cottage he had bought in Cornwall. In January 1916 he was asked by the Foreign Office to return to Petrograd. Russians were being subjected to highly effective German propaganda. The writer Arthur Ransome, Petrograd correspondent of The Daily News, had successfully lobbied for the establishment of a bureau to counter the German efforts, and the British ambassador, Sir George Buchanan, wanted Walpole to take charge.\n\nBefore he left for Petrograd, Walpole's novel The Dark Forest was published. It drew on his experiences in Russia, and was more sombre than much of his earlier fiction. Reviews were highly favourable; The Daily Telegraph commented on \"a high level of imaginative vision ... reveals capacity and powers in the author which we had hardly suspected before.\"\n\nWalpole returned to Petrograd in February 1916. He moved into Somov's flat, and his Anglo-Russian Propaganda Bureau began work. The following month he suffered a personal blow: he recorded in his diary for 13 March 1916, \"Thirty two to-day! Should have been a happy day but was completely clouded for me by reading in the papers of Henry James' death. This was a terrible shock to me.\" Walpole remained at the bureau for the rest of 1916 and most of 1917, witnessing the February Revolution. He wrote an official report on events for the Foreign Office, and also absorbed ideas for his fiction. In addition to the first of his popular \"Jeremy\" novels, written in his spare time from the bureau, he began work on the second of his Russian-themed books, The Secret City. Sadleir writes that this novel and The Dark Forest \"take a high place among his works, on account of their intuitive understanding of an alien mentality and the vigour of their narrative power.\" The book won the inaugural James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction.\n\nBy late 1917 it was clear to Walpole and to the British authorities that there was little advantage in keeping him in Russia. On 7 November he left, missing the Bolshevik Revolution, which began on that day. He was appointed to a post at the Foreign Office in its Department of Information, headed by John Buchan. Soon after returning he volunteered for the British army, but, as expected, failed the necessary medical examination because of his poor sight. He continued to work in British propaganda when the department was reconstituted under Lord Beaverbrook in April 1918, and remained there for the rest of the war and beyond, resigning in February 1919. Little is known about what he wrote for the department, as most of its records were destroyed after the war, but he noted in his diary that he had written the department's official report to the War Cabinet: \"a beastly job – the worst I've ever attempted\". For his wartime work he was awarded the CBE in 1918.\n\n### Post-war and 1920s\n\nWalpole remained prolific in the post-war years, and began a parallel and highly remunerative career as a lecturer in literature. At the instigation of his American publisher, George Doran, he made his first lecture tour of the US in 1919, receiving an enthusiastic welcome wherever he went. What Sadleir describes as Walpole's \"genial and attractive appearance, his complete lack of aloofness, his exciting fluency as a speaker [and] his obvious and genuine liking for his hosts\" combined to win him a large American following. The success of his talks led to increases in his lecturing fees, greatly enhanced sales of his books, and large sums from American publishers anxious to print his latest fiction. He was a prodigiously quick writer who seldom revised, but pressed on, keen to get his ideas down on paper. His main British publishers, Macmillan, found it expedient to appoint a senior member of staff to edit his manuscripts, correcting spelling, punctuation, inconsistencies and errors of historical fact. His fluency enabled him to fulfil between tours a contract from The Pictorial Review for ten short stories at the remarkable sum of \\$1,350 apiece.\n\nOne of Walpole's major novels of the early post-war period was The Cathedral, which unlike much of his fiction was not dashed off but worked on across four years, beginning in 1918. The story of an arrogant 19th-century archdeacon in conflict with other clergy and laity was certain to bring comparisons with Trollope's Barchester Towers (The Manchester Guardian's review was headed \"Polchester Towers\"), but unlike the earlier work, The Cathedral is wholly uncomic. The hubristic Archdeacon Brandon is driven to domestic despair, professional defeat and sudden death. The reviewer Ivor Brown commented that Walpole had earlier charmed many with his cheerful tales of Mayfair, but that in this novel he showed a greater side to his art: \"This is a book with little happiness about it, but its stark strength is undeniable. The Cathedral is realism, profound in its philosophy and delicate in its thread.\" The Illustrated London News said, \"No former novelist has seized quite so powerfully upon the cathedral fabric and made it a living character in the drama, an obsessing individuality at once benign and forbidding. ...The Cathedral is a great book.\"\n\nWalpole was a keen music lover and when in 1920 he heard a new tenor at the Proms he was much impressed and sought him out. Lauritz Melchior became one of the most important friendships of his life, and Walpole did much to foster the singer's budding career. Wagner's son Siegfried engaged Melchior for the Bayreuth Festival in 1924 and succeeding years. Walpole attended, and met Adolf Hitler, then recently released from prison after an attempted putsch. Hitler was a protégé of Siegfried's wife Winifred, and was known in Bayreuth as \"one of Winnie's lame ducks.\" Walpole later admitted that he had both despised and liked him – \"both emotions that time has proved I was wrong to indulge\". This and future visits to Bayreuth were complicated by the fact that Winifred Wagner fell in love with Walpole, and attached herself so firmly to him that rumours began to spread.\n\nIn 1924 Walpole moved into a house near Keswick in the Lake District. His large income enabled him to maintain his London flat in Piccadilly, but Brackenburn, on the slopes of Catbells overlooking Derwentwater, was his main home for the rest of his life. He was quickly made welcome by local residents, and the scenery and atmosphere of the Lake District often found their way into his fiction. The critic James Agate commented that one might think from some of Walpole's stories that their author had created the English Lakes, but that he was probably only consulted about them. At the end of 1924 Walpole met Harold Cheevers, who soon became his friend and companion and remained so for the rest of Walpole's life. In Hart-Davis's words, he came nearer than any other human being to Walpole's long-sought conception of a perfect friend. Cheevers, a policeman, with a wife and two children, left the police force and entered Walpole's service as his chauffeur. Walpole trusted him completely, and gave him extensive control over his affairs. Whether Walpole was at Brackenburn or Piccadilly, Cheevers was almost always with him, and often accompanied him on overseas trips. Walpole provided a house in Hampstead for Cheevers and his family.\n\nDuring the mid-twenties Walpole produced two of his best-known novels in the macabre vein that he drew on from time to time, exploring the fascination of fear and cruelty. The Old Ladies (1924) is a study of a timid elderly spinster exploited and eventually frightened to death by a predatory widow. Portrait of a Man with Red Hair (1925) depicts the malign influence of a manipulative, insane father on his family and others. Walpole described it to his fellow author Frank Swinnerton as \"a simple shocker which it has amused me like anything to write, and won't bore you to read.\" In contrast he continued a series of stories for children, begun in 1919 with Jeremy, taking the young hero's story forward with Jeremy and Hamlet (the latter being the boy's dog) in 1923, and Jeremy at Crale in 1927. Sadleir, writing in the 1950s, suggests that \"the most real Walpole of all – because the most unselfconscious, kindly, and understanding friend – is the Walpole of the Jeremy trilogy.\" Of his other novels of the 1920s Wintersmoon (1928), his first attempt at a full-length love story, portrays a clash between traditionalism and modernism: his own sympathies, though not spelled out, were clearly with the traditionalists.\n\n### 1930–1941\n\nBy the 1930s, though his public success remained considerable, many literary critics saw Walpole as outdated. His reputation in literary circles took a blow from a malicious caricature in Somerset Maugham's 1930 novel Cakes and Ale: the character Alroy Kear, a superficial novelist of more pushy ambition than literary talent, was widely taken to be based on Walpole. In the same year Walpole wrote possibly his best-known work, Rogue Herries, a historical novel set in the Lake District. It was well-received: The Daily Mail considered it \"not only a profound study of human character, but a subtle and intimate biography of a place.\" He followed it with three sequels; all four novels were published in a single volume as The Herries Chronicle.\n\nIn 1934 Walpole accepted an invitation from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios to go to Hollywood to write the scenario for a film adaptation of David Copperfield. He enjoyed many aspects of life in Hollywood, but as one who rarely revised any of his own work he found it tedious to produce sixth and seventh drafts at the behest of the studio. He enjoyed his brief change of role from writer to bit-part player: in the film he played the Vicar of Blunderstone delivering a boring sermon that sends David to sleep. Agate was doubtful of the wisdom of this: \"Does not Hugh see that to bring a well-known character from real life into an imaginary sequence of events is to destroy the reality of that imaginary sequence?\" Nevertheless, Walpole's performance was a success. He improvised the sermon; the producer, David O Selznick, mischievously called for retake after retake to try to make him dry up, but Walpole fluently delivered a different extempore address each time.\n\nThe critical and commercial success of the film of David Copperfield led to an invitation to return to Hollywood in 1936. When he got there he found that the studio executives had no idea which films they wanted him to work on, and he had eight weeks of highly paid leisure, during which he wrote a short story and worked on a novel. He was eventually asked to write the scenario for Little Lord Fauntleroy, which he enjoyed doing. He spent most of his fees on paintings, forgetting to keep enough money to pay US tax on his earnings. He replenished his American funds with a lecture tour – his last – in late 1936.\n\nIn 1937 Walpole was offered a knighthood. He accepted, though confiding to his diary that he could not think of a good novelist since Walter Scott who had done so. \"Kipling, Hardy, Galsworthy all refused. But I'm not of their class, and range with Doyle, Anthony Hope and such. ... Besides I shall like being a knight.\"\n\nWalpole's taste for adventure did not diminish in his last years. In 1939 he was commissioned to report for William Randolph Hearst's newspapers on the funeral in Rome of Pope Pius XI, the conclave to elect his successor, and the subsequent coronation. A fellow correspondent was Tom Driberg, whose memoirs tell of a lunch à deux at which Walpole arrived flushed with excitement from a sexual encounter that morning with an attendant in the Borghese Palace. In the weeks between the funeral and Pius XII's election Walpole, with his customary fluency, wrote much of his book Roman Fountain, a mixture of fact and fiction about the city. This was his last overseas visit.\n\nAfter the outbreak of the Second World War Walpole remained in England, dividing his time between London and Keswick, and continuing to write with his usual rapidity. He completed a fifth novel in the Herries series and began work on a sixth. His health was undermined by diabetes. He overexerted himself at the opening of Keswick's fund-raising \"War Weapons Week\" in May 1941, making a speech after taking part in a lengthy march, and died of a heart attack at Brackenburn, aged 57. He is buried in St John's churchyard in Keswick.\n\n### Legacy\n\nWalpole was a keen and discerning collector of art. Sir Kenneth Clark called him \"one of the three or four real patrons of art in this country, and of that small body he was perhaps the most generous and the most discriminating.\" He left fourteen works to the Tate Gallery and Fitzwilliam Museum, including paintings by Cézanne, Manet, Augustus John, Tissot and Renoir.\n\n`Other artists represented in Walpole's collection were Epstein, Picasso, Gauguin, Sickert and Utrillo. After his death the finest works in his collection, other than those bequeathed, were exhibited in London during April and May 1945; the exhibition also included works by Constable, Turner and Rodin.`\n\nSadleir notes how Walpole's considerable income enabled him to indulge not only his love of art and of old books and manuscripts, but also philanthropy, particularly towards younger writers. Although Walpole enjoyed the limelight, he was secretive about his many acts of generosity to younger writers, with both encouragement and financial help. After his death some idea of the scale of his generosity was discovered. Osbert Sitwell commented, \"I don't think there was any younger writer of any worth who has not at one time or another received kindness of an active kind, and at a crucial moment, from Hugh\". Hart-Davis lists thirty-eight authors from whom letters of gratitude were found among Walpole's correspondence; Sadleir writes of Walpole's \"generous kindness to literary aspirants and to writers fallen on evil days ... by immediate financial assistance, by prefaces freely supplied or by collaboration volunteered, by introductions and recommendations to likely publishers, Walpole relieved the distresses of authorship to a degree which will never be fully known.\" Agate, though himself the recipient of Walpole's generosity on occasion, thought it sometimes went too far: \"Mr Walpole's large-heartedness gets him into all kinds of trouble. He is an inveterate patter. He pats on the back young men whom sterner critics would knock down, because even in fantastic incompetence he perceives the good intention. No art or artist is safe from Mr Walpole's benevolence\".\n\nIn his adopted home of Keswick a section of the town museum was dedicated to Walpole's memory in 1949, with manuscripts, correspondence, paintings and sculpture from Brackenburn, donated by his sister and brother.\n\n## Works\n\nWalpole's books cover a wide range. His fiction includes short stories, bildungsromane (Mr Perrin and Mr Traill, 1911, and the Jeremy trilogy) that delve into the psychology of boyhood; gothic horror novels (Portrait of a Man with Red Hair, 1925, and The Killer and the Slain, 1942); ghost stories (All Souls' Night, 1933); a period family saga (the Herries chronicle) and even detective fiction (Behind the Screen). He wrote literary biographies (Conrad, 1916; James Branch Cabell, 1920; and Trollope, 1928); plays; and screenplays including David Copperfield, 1935.\n\n### Influences\n\nWalpole's debt to Henry James is discernible in The Duchess of Wrexe (1914) and The Green Mirror (1917), but in the view of J B Priestley the two most potent influences on Walpole were the highly contrasting ones of Trollope and Dostoyevsky. Other critics noted the Trollopian influence; in 1923 Arthur St John Adcock commented:\n\n> The Trenchards [in The Green Mirror] are a kind of family Trollope might have created had he been living now; The Cathedral is a kind of story he might have told, with its realistic melodrama and its clerical atmosphere, but Walpole tells it with a subtler art in the writing and the construction, with a conciseness and charm of style that are outside the range of the earlier novelist.\n\nWalpole, though he was devoted to the works of Trollope, and published a study of him, thought that there was no real comparison between the two of them: \"I am far too twisted and fantastic a novelist ever to succeed in catching Trollope's marvellous normality.\" Priestley was less impressed by the supposed Trollopian side of Walpole's work, finding some of it formulaic. He was more taken with a darker, Dostoyevskian, side that he found in the writing: \"suddenly it will transform the pleasant easy scene he is giving us into transparency behind which are bright stars and red hellfire ... No matter how jolly and zestful he may appear to be, the fact remains that he possesses an unusually sharp sense of evil.\"\n\nPossibly the most pervasive influence on Walpole was Walter Scott, whose romanticism is reflected in much of the later writer's fiction. Such was Walpole's love of Scott that he liked to think of himself as the latter's reincarnation. He amassed the largest collection in Britain of Scott manuscripts and early editions, and constantly reread the novels. With the Herries stories Walpole restored the popularity of the historical novel, a form for which Scott was famous but which had been out of fashion for decades. The Herries series begins in the 18th century and follows a Lakeland family through the generations up to modern times.\n\n### Reputation\n\nWalpole sought critical as well as financial success, and longed to write works that equalled those of Trollope, Thomas Hardy and Henry James. In his early days, he received frequent and generally approving scrutiny from major literary figures. He was a good friend of Virginia Woolf, and rated her as an influence; she praised his gift for seizing on telling detail: \"it is no disparagement to a writer to say that his gift is for the small things rather than for the large ... If you are faithful with the details the large effects will grow inevitably out of those very details\". Joseph Conrad said of him, \"We see Mr. Walpole grappling with the truth of things spiritual and material with his characteristic earnestness, and we can discern the characteristics of this acute and sympathetic explorer of human nature.\" In 1928 Priestley observed,\n\n> When I first remember seeing Hugh Walpole's name he had no public at all, but the ferocious young reviewers – the \"highbrows\" as we have since learned to call them – delighted in him. Now he has an enormous public, both in England and America, and the young \"highbrows\" – who are saddened by the thought of a large public – are not particularly fond of him.\n\nPriestley contended that Walpole had fulfilled his early potential, unlike Compton Mackenzie, Gilbert Cannan and other promising young novelists of his generation. This view was not universal among critics: Walpole sometimes divided opinion. Writing of Walpole's Russian novels the contemporary critic and novelist Douglas Goldring commented, \"Russia has been the grave of many reputations; and our Napoleon of the drawing-room novel has fared no better than other would-be conquerors of that disconcerting land.\" Goldring's complaint was that Walpole's Russian (and English) characters were clichéd stereotypes. The reviewer in Punch, by contrast, wrote, \"I consulted a Russian, who is very much alive, and received the opinion that, if Mr. Walpole has not succeeded in drawing the real average Russian, he has given us a type whose faults and virtues sound the keynote of the situation as it is to-day.\" The Observer rated The Dark Forest as \"one of the finest novels of our generation\".\n\nIn 1924 Ernest Hemingway wrote into a short story a comparison of G. K. Chesterton and Walpole, concluding that the former was the better man, the latter a better writer and both were classics. Walpole could be sensitive about his literary reputation and often took adverse criticism badly. When Hilaire Belloc praised P. G. Wodehouse as the best English writer of their day, Walpole took it amiss, to the amusement of Wodehouse who regarded Belloc's plaudit as \"a gag, to get a rise out of serious-minded authors whom he disliked\". Wodehouse was not a great admirer of Walpole; his own scrupulous craftsmanship, with drafts polished over and over again, was the opposite of Walpole's hastily written and seldom-revised prose. He also viewed Walpole's sensitivity to criticism as absurd. Walpole was not always as oversensitive as Wodehouse supposed. The critic James Agate was a friend despite his regular rude remarks about Walpole's prose, and when Walpole discovered that Agate had written a spoof of the Herries \"Lakeland\" style, he made him promise to print it in the next published volume of his diaries.\n\nDuring his career contemporaries saw both negative and positive sides to Walpole's outgoing nature and desire to be in the public eye. Wodehouse commented, \"I always think Hugh Walpole's reputation was two thirds publicity. He was always endorsing books and speaking at lunches and so on.\" On the other hand, Walpole stood out as one of the few literary figures willing to go into court and give evidence for the defence at the obscenity trial after the 1928 lesbian novel by Radclyffe Hall, The Well of Loneliness, was published.\n\nBy the time of his death The Times's estimation of Walpole was no higher than, \"he had a versatile imagination; he could tell a workmanlike story in good workmanlike English; and he was a man of immense industry, conscientious and painstaking\". The belittling tone of the obituary brought forth strong rebuttals from T S Eliot, Kenneth Clark and Priestley, among others. Within a few years of his death, Walpole was seen as old-fashioned, and his works were largely neglected. In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Elizabeth Steele summed up: \"His psychology was not deep enough for the polemicist, his diction not free enough for those returning from war, and his zest disastrous to a public wary of personal commitment\".\n\nWalpole's works have not been completely neglected in recent years. The Herries stories have seldom been out of print, and in 2014 WorldCat listed a dozen recent reissues of Walpole's works, including The Wooden Horse, The Dark Forest, The Secret City, Jeremy, and The Cathedral. In 2011 the BBC broadcast a reappraisal of Walpole, The Walpole Chronicle, presented by Eric Robson. In 2013 a new stage version of Rogue Herries was presented by the Theatre by the Lake company in Walpole's adopted home of Keswick. The BBC speculated that this could mark a revival in interest in his works.\n\n### Biographies\n\nTwo full-length studies of Walpole were published after his death. The first, in 1952, was written by Rupert Hart-Davis, who had known Walpole personally. It was regarded at the time as \"among the half dozen best biographies of the century\" and has been reissued several times since its first publication. Writing when homosexual acts between men were still outlawed in England, Hart-Davis avoided direct mention of his subject's sexuality, so respecting Walpole's habitual discretion and the wishes of his brother and sister. He left readers to read between the lines if they wished, in, for example, references to Turkish baths \"providing informal opportunities of meeting interesting strangers\". Hart-Davis dedicated the book to \"Dorothy, Robin and Harold\", Walpole's sister, brother, and long-term companion.\n\nIn 1972 Elizabeth Steele's study of Walpole was published. Much shorter than Hart-Davis's biography, at 178 pages to his 503, it dealt mainly with the novels, and aimed \"to show the sources of Hugh Walpole's success as a writer during the thirty-five years and fifty books of his busy career\". Steele concentrated on half a dozen of Walpole's best books, each illustrating aspects of his writing, under the headings \"Acolyte\", \"Artist\", \"Witness\", \"Evangelist\", \"Critic\" and \"Romanticist\". Steele also wrote a study of Walpole's North American lecture tours (2006) and the article on Walpole in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), which treats his private life briefly but candidly.", "revid": "1161480081", "description": "English writer", "categories": ["1884 births", "1941 deaths", "20th-century English male writers", "20th-century English novelists", "20th-century New Zealand novelists", "20th-century screenwriters", "Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge", "British LGBT dramatists and playwrights", "British LGBT screenwriters", "Burials in Cumbria", "English LGBT novelists", "English gay writers", "English horror writers", "English male novelists", "English mystery writers", "Ghost story writers", "James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients", "Knights Bachelor", "Members of the Detection Club", "New Zealand LGBT dramatists and playwrights", "New Zealand LGBT novelists", "New Zealand LGBT screenwriters", "New Zealand emigrants to the United Kingdom", "People educated at Durham School", "People educated at Sir William Borlase's Grammar School", "People educated at The King's School, Canterbury", "People educated at Truro School", "Walpole family", "Weird fiction writers"]}
{"id": "1091224", "url": null, "title": "Al-Mu'tadid", "text": "Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Ṭalḥa al-Muwaffaq (Arabic: أبو العباس أحمد بن طلحة الموفق), 853/4 or 860/1 – 5 April 902, better known by his regnal name al-Muʿtaḍid bi-llāh (Arabic: المعتضد بالله, \"Seeking Support in God\"), was the caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from 892 until his death in 902.\n\nAl-Mu'tadid was the son of al-Muwaffaq, who was the regent and effective ruler of the Abbasid state during the reign of his brother, Caliph al-Mu'tamid. As a prince, the future al-Mu'tadid served under his father during various military campaigns, most notably in the suppression of the Zanj Rebellion, in which he played a major role. When al-Muwaffaq died in June 891 al-Mu'tadid succeeded him as regent. He quickly sidelined his cousin and heir-apparent al-Mufawwid; when al-Mu'tamid died in October 892, he succeeded to the throne. Like his father, al-Mu'tadid's power depended on his close relations with the army. These were first forged during the campaigns against the Zanj and were reinforced in later expeditions which the Caliph led in person: al-Mu'tadid would prove to be the most militarily active of all Abbasid caliphs. Through his energy and ability, he succeeded in restoring to the Abbasid state some of the power and provinces it had lost during the turmoil of the previous decades.\n\nIn a series of campaigns he recovered the provinces of Jazira, Thughur, and Jibal, and effected a rapprochement with the Saffarids in the east and the Tulunids in the west that secured their—albeit largely nominal—recognition of caliphal suzerainty. These successes came at the cost of gearing the economy almost exclusively towards the maintenance of the army, which resulted in the expansion and rise to power of the central fiscal bureaucracy and contributed to the Caliph's lasting reputation for avarice. Al-Mu'tadid was renowned for his cruelty when punishing criminals, and subsequent chroniclers recorded his extensive and ingenious use of torture. His reign saw the permanent move of the capital back to Baghdad, where he engaged in major building activities. A firm supporter of Sunni traditionalist orthodoxy, he nevertheless maintained good relations with the Alids, and was interested in natural sciences, renewing caliphal sponsorship of scholars and scientists.\n\nDespite his successes, al-Mu'tadid's reign was ultimately too short to effect a lasting reversal of the Caliphate's fortunes, and the revival that he spearheaded was too dependent on the presence of capable personalities at the helm of the state. The brief reign of his less able son and heir, al-Muktafi, still saw some major gains, notably the annexation of the Tulunid domains, but his later successors lacked his energy, and new enemies appeared in the form of the Qarmatians. In addition, factionalism within the bureaucracy, which had become apparent during the later years of al-Mu'tadid's reign, would debilitate the Abbasid government for decades to come, eventually leading to the subjugation of the Caliphate by a series of military strongmen, culminating in the conquest of Baghdad by the Buyids in 946.\n\n## Early life\n\nAl-Mu'tadid was born Ahmad, the son of Talha, one of the sons of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861), and a Greek slave named Dirar. The exact date of his birth is unknown; as he is variously recorded as being thirty-eight or thirty-one years old at the time of his accession, he was born around either 854 or 861. In 861, al-Mutawakkil was murdered by his Turkish guards in collusion with his oldest son al-Muntasir (r. 861–862). This began a period of internal turmoil, known as the \"Anarchy at Samarra\" from the site of the Caliphate's capital, which ended in 870 with the rise to the throne of Ahmad's uncle, al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892). Real power however, had come to lie with the elite Turkish slave-soldiers (ghilmān) and with Ahmad's own father, Talha, who, as the Caliphate's main military commander, served as the chief intermediary between the caliphal government and the Turks. Assuming the honorific name al-Muwaffaq in the style of the caliphs, Talha soon became the effective ruler of the Caliphate, a position consolidated in 882 after a failed attempt by al-Mu'tamid to flee to Egypt led to his confinement in house arrest.\n\nCaliphal authority in the provinces collapsed during the \"Anarchy at Samarra\", with the result that by the 870s the central government had lost effective control over most of the Caliphate outside the metropolitan region of Iraq. In the west, Egypt had fallen under the control of the Turkish slave-soldier Ahmad ibn Tulun, who also disputed control of Syria with al-Muwaffaq, while Khurasan and most of the Islamic East had been taken over by the Saffarids, a Persianate dynasty who replaced the Abbasids' loyal clients, the Tahirids. Most of the Arabian peninsula was likewise lost to local potentates, while in Tabaristan a radical Zaydi Shi'a dynasty took power. Even in Iraq, the rebellion of the Zanj, African slaves brought to work in the plantations of Lower Iraq, threatened Baghdad itself, and further south the Qarmatians were a nascent threat. Al-Muwaffaq's regency was thus a continuous struggle to save the tottering Caliphate from collapse. His attempts to recover control of Egypt and Syria from Ibn Tulun failed, with the latter even able to expand his territory and obtain recognition as a hereditary ruler, but he succeeded in preserving the core of the Caliphate in Iraq by repelling a Saffarid invasion aimed at capturing Baghdad, and by subduing the Zanj after a long struggle.\n\n### Campaigns against the Zanj and the Tulunids\n\nIt was against the Zanj that the future al-Mu'tadid—at this time usually referred to by his kunya of Abu'l-Abbas—would acquire his first military experience and establish the close army ties that would characterize his reign. Al-Muwaffaq gave his son a military upbringing from an early age, and the young prince became an excellent rider and a solicitous commander, who showed personal attention to the state of his men and their horses.\n\nWithin a decade of the outbreak of the revolt in 869, the Zanj had seized most of lower Iraq, including the cities of Basra and Wasit, and expanded into Khuzistan. In 879 the death of the founder of the Saffarid state, Ya'qub al-Saffar, allowed the Abbasid government to fully concentrate its attention against the Zanj rebellion, and Abu'l-Abbas' appointment to command in December 879 at the head of 10,000 troops marks the turning point of the war. In the long and hard struggle that followed, which involved amphibious operations in the Mesopotamian Marshes, Abu'l-Abbas and his own ghilmān—of which the long-serving Zirak al-Turki was the most eminent—played the major role. Although the Abbasid armies eventually swelled with reinforcements, volunteers, and Zanj defectors, it was the few but elite ghilmān who formed the army's backbone, filling its leadership positions and bearing the brunt of the battle, often under the personal command of Abu'l-Abbas. After years of gradually tightening the noose around the Zanj, in August 883 the Abbasid troops stormed their capital of al-Mukhtara, putting an end to the rebellion. A detailed account of the war by a former Zanj rebel, preserved in the history written by al-Tabari, stresses the role of al-Muwaffaq and Abu'l-Abbas as the heroes who, in defence of the embattled Muslim state, suppressed the rebellion; the successful campaign would become a major tool in their propaganda effort to legitimize their de facto usurpation of the caliph's power.\n\nFollowing the death of Ibn Tulun in May 884, the two caliphal generals Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu'l-Saj sought to take advantage of the situation and attacked the Tulunid domains in Syria, but their initial gains were rapidly reversed. In the spring of 885, Abu'l-Abbas was sent to take charge of the invasion. He soon succeeded in defeating the Tulunids and forcing them to retreat to Palestine, but after a quarrel with Ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu'l-Saj, the latter two abandoned the campaign and withdrew their forces. In the Battle of Tawahin on 6 April, Abu'l-Abbas confronted Ibn Tulun's son and heir, Khumarawayh, in person. The Abbasid prince was initially victorious, forcing Khumarawayh to flee, but was in turn defeated and fled the battlefield, while much of his army was taken prisoner. After this victory the Tulunids expanded their control over the Jazira and the borderlands (the Thughur) with the Byzantine Empire. A peace agreement followed in 886, whereby al-Muwaffaq was forced to recognize Khumarawayh as hereditary governor over Egypt and Syria for 30 years, in exchange for an annual tribute. Over the next couple of years, Abu'l-Abbas was involved in his father's ultimately unsuccessful attempts to wrest Fars from Saffarid control.\n\n### Imprisonment and rise to the throne\n\nDuring this period, relations between Abu'l-Abbas and his father deteriorated, although the reason is unclear. Already in 884, Abu'l-Abbas' ghilmān rioted in Baghdad against al-Muwaffaq's vizier, Sa'id ibn Makhlad, possibly over unpaid wages. Eventually, in 889, Abu'l-Abbas was arrested and put in prison on his father's orders, where he remained despite the demonstrations of the ghilmān loyal to him. He apparently remained under arrest until May 891, when al-Muwaffaq returned to Baghdad after two years spent in Jibal.\n\nAl-Muwaffaq, suffering from gout, was clearly close to death; the vizier Isma'il ibn Bulbul and the city commander of Baghdad, Abu'l-Saqr, called al-Mu'tamid and his sons, including the heir-apparent al-Mufawwad, into the city, hoping to exploit the situation for their own purposes. This attempt to sideline Abu'l-Abbas failed due to his popularity with the soldiers and the common people. He was set free to visit his father's deathbed, and was able to immediately assume power when al-Muwaffaq died on 2 June. The Baghdad mob ransacked his opponents' houses, and Ibn Bulbul was dismissed and thrown in prison, where he died from maltreatment after a few months. Similar fates awaited any of Ibn Bulbul's supporters who were caught by Abu'l-Abbas's agents.\n\nNow \"all-powerful\", Abu'l-Abbas succeeded his father in all his offices, with the title of al-Mu'tadid bi-llah and a position in the line of succession after the Caliph and al-Mufawwad. Within a few months, on 30 April 892, al-Mu'tadid had his cousin removed from the succession altogether. Thus, when al-Mu'tamid died on 14 October 892, al-Mu'tadid took power as caliph.\n\n## Reign\n\nThe Orientalist Harold Bowen described al-Mu'tadid at his accession as follows:\n\n> in appearance upright and thin; and on his head was a white mole, which, since white moles were not admired, he used to dye black. His expression was haughty. In character he was brave—a story was told of his killing a lion with only a dagger. [...] he had inherited all his father's energy, and cultivated a reputation of prompt action.\n\nLike his father's, al-Mu'tadid's power rested on his close relations with the military. As the historian Hugh N. Kennedy writes, he \"came to the throne, essentially, as a usurper [...] not by any legal right, but because of the support of his ghilmān, who ensured not only that he became caliph, but also that their rivals in the military were humiliated and disbanded\". Thus, not surprisingly, military activities consumed his interest, especially as he usually led his army in person on campaign. This secured his reputation as a warrior-caliph and champion of the Islamic faith ghazī); as the historian Michael Bonner comments, \"[t]he role of 'ghazī caliph', invented by Harun al-Rashid and enhanced by al-Mu'tasim, now had its greatest performance, in al-Mu'tadid's tireless campaigning\".\n\nFrom the start of his reign, the new Caliph set out to reverse the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate, a goal towards which he worked with a mixture of force and diplomacy. Although an active and enthusiastic campaigner, al-Mu'tadid was also \"a skilful diplomat, always prepared to make compromises with those who were too powerful to defeat\", according to Kennedy.\n\n### Relations with the Tulunids\n\nThis policy became immediately evident in the conciliatory attitude the new Caliph adopted towards his most powerful vassal, the Tulunid regime. In spring 893, al-Mu'tadid recognized and reconfirmed Khumarawayh in his office as autonomous emir over Egypt and Syria, in exchange for an annual tribute of 300,000 dinars and a further 200,000 dinars in arrears, as well as the return to caliphal control of the two Jaziran provinces of Diyar Rabi'a and Diyar Mudar. To seal the pact, Khumarawayh offered his daughter, Qatr al-Nada (\"Dew Drop\") as bride to one of the Caliph's sons, but al-Mu'tadid chose to marry her himself. The Tulunid princess brought with her a million dinars as her dowry, a \"wedding gift that was considered the most sumptuous in medieval Arab history\" (Thierry Bianquis). Her arrival in Baghdad was marked by the luxury and extravagance of her retinue, which contrasted starkly with the impoverished caliphal court. According to a story, after a thorough search, al-Mu'tadid's chief eunuch could find only five ornate silver-and-gold candlesticks to decorate the palace, while the princess was accompanied by 150 servants each carrying such a candlestick. Thereupon al-Mu'tadid is said to have remarked \"come let us go and hide ourselves, lest we be seen in our poverty\".\n\nOn the other hand, the whole affair may have been deliberately plotted by al-Mu'tadid as a \"financial trap\", as the enormous dowry almost bankrupted the Tulunid treasury. Apart from the honour of being linked to the caliphal dynasty, the Tulunids received little in return: Qatr al-Nada died soon after the wedding, and the murder of Khumarawayh in 896 left the Tulunid state in the unsteady hands of Khumarawayh's under-age sons. Al-Mu'tadid swiftly took advantage of this and in 897 extended his control over the border emirates of the Thughur, where, in the words of Michael Bonner, \"[he] assumed, after a long hiatus, the old caliphal prerogative of commanding the annual summer expedition and arranging the defence against the Byzantine Empire\". In addition, to secure caliphal recognition of his position, the new Tulunid ruler Harun ibn Khumarawayh (r. 896–904) was forced into further concessions, handing back all of Syria north of Homs, and increasing the annual tribute to 450,000 dinars. Over the next few years, increasing domestic turmoil in the remaining Tulunid domains, and the escalation of Qarmatian attacks, encouraged many Tulunid followers to defect to the resurgent Caliphate.\n\n### Jazira, Transcaucasia, and the Byzantine front\n\nIn the Jazira the new Caliph struggled against a variety of opponents: alongside an almost thirty-year-old Kharijite rebellion, there were various autonomous local magnates, chiefly the Shaybani ruler of Amid and Diyar Bakr, Ahmad ibn Isa al-Shaybani, and the Taghlibi chief Hamdan ibn Hamdun. In 893, while the Kharijites were distracted by internal quarrels, al-Mu'tadid captured Mosul from the Shayban. In 895 Hamdan ibn Hamdun was evicted from his strongholds, hunted down and captured. Finally, the Kharijite leader Harun ibn Abdallah himself was defeated and captured by Hamdan's son Husayn in 896, before being sent to Baghdad, where he was crucified. This exploit marked the beginning of an illustrious career for Husayn ibn Hamdan in the caliphal armies, and the gradual rise of the Hamdanid family to power in the Jazira. Ahmad al-Shaybani retained Amid until his death in 898, being succeeded by his son Muhammad. In the next year, al-Mu'tadid returned to the Jazira, ousted Muhammad from Amid, and reunified the entire province under central government control by installing his oldest son and heir, Ali al-Muktafi, as governor.\n\nAl-Mu'tadid was unable, however, to restore effective caliphal control north of the Jazira in Transcaucasia, where Armenia and Adharbayjan remained in the hands of virtually independent local dynasties. Ibn Abu'l-Saj, who was now the caliphal governor of Adharbayjan, proclaimed himself independent around 898, although he soon re-recognized the Caliph's suzerainty during his conflicts with the Christian Armenian princes. When he died in 901, he was succeeded by his son Devdad, marking the consolidation of the semi-independent Sajid dynasty in the region. In 900, Ibn Abu'l-Saj was even suspected of plotting to seize Diyar Mudar province with the co-operation of the notables of Tarsus, after which the vengeful Caliph ordered the latter arrested and the city's fleet burned. This decision was a self-inflicted handicap in the centuries-long war against Byzantium; in recent decades the Tarsians and their fleet had played a major role in the raids against the Byzantine frontier provinces. While a Syrian fleet under the Byzantine convert to Islam Damian of Tarsus sacked the port of Demetrias around 900, and Arab fleets would go on to wreak havoc in the Aegean Sea over the next two decades, the Byzantines were strengthened on land by an influx of Armenian refugees, such as Melias. The Byzantines began to expand their control over the border regions, scoring victories and founding new provinces (themes) in the former no-man's land between the two empires.\n\n### The East and the Saffarids\n\nIn the Islamic East, the Caliph was forced to acknowledge the reality of the Saffarids' domination and established a modus vivendi with them, perhaps hoping, according to Kennedy, to harness them in a partnership analogous to that which the Tahirids had enjoyed in previous decades. Consequently, the Saffarid ruler Amr ibn al-Layth was recognized in his possession of Khurasan and eastern Persia as well as Fars, while the Abbasids were to exercise direct control over western Persia, namely Jibal, Rayy and Isfahan. This policy gave the Caliph a free hand to recover the territories of the Dulafids, another semi-independent local dynasty, that were centred on Isfahan and Nihavand. When the Dulafid Ahmad ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Abi Dulaf died in 893, al-Mu'tadid moved swiftly to install his son al-Muktafi as governor in Rayy, Qazvin, Qum and Hamadan. The Dulafids were confined to their core region around Karaj and Isfahan, before being deposed outright in 896. Nevertheless, the Abbasid hold over these territories remained precarious, especially due to the proximity of the Zaydi emirate in Tabaristan, and in 897 Rayy was handed over to Saffarid control.\n\nThe Abbasid–Saffarid partnership in Iran was most clearly expressed in their joint effort against the general Rafi ibn Harthama, who had made his base in Rayy and posed a threat to both caliphal and Saffarid interests in the region. Al-Mu'tadid sent Ahmad ibn Abd al-Aziz to seize Rayy from Rafi, who fled and made common cause with the Zaydis of Tabaristan in an effort to seize Khurasan from the Saffarids. However, with Amr mobilizing the anti-Alid sentiments of the populace against him and the expected assistance from the Zaydis failing to materialize, Rafi was defeated and killed in Khwarazm in 896. Amr, now at the pinnacle of his power, sent the defeated rebel's head to Baghdad, and in 897 the Caliph transferred control of Rayy to him. The partnership finally collapsed after Mu'tadid appointed Amr as governor of Transoxiana in 898, which was ruled by his rivals, the Samanids. Al-Mu'tamid deliberately encouraged Amr to confront the Samanids, only for Amr to be crushingly defeated and taken prisoner by them in 900. The Samanid ruler, Isma'il ibn Ahmad, sent him in chains to Baghdad, where he was executed in 902, after al-Mu'tadid's death. Al-Mu'tadid in turn conferred Amr's titles and governorships on Isma'il ibn Ahmad. The Caliph also moved to regain Fars and Kirman, but the Saffarid remnant under Amr's grandson Tahir proved sufficiently resilient to thwart the Abbasid attempts to capture these provinces for several years. It was not until 910 that the Abbasids managed to regain the coveted Fars province.\n\n### Rise of sectarianism and fragmentation in the periphery\n\nIn the course of the 9th century, a range of new movements emerged, based on Shi'ite doctrines, which replaced Kharijism as the main focus for opposition to the established regimes. They gained their first successes in the periphery of the Abbasid empire: the Zaydi takeover in Tabaristan was repeated in 897 in Yemen. Under al-Mu'tadid, a new danger appeared closer to the Caliphate's metropolitan areas: the Qarmatians. A radical Isma'ili sect founded in Kufa around 874, the Qarmatians were originally a sporadic and minor nuisance in the Sawad (Lower Iraq), but their power grew swiftly to alarming proportions after 897. Under the leadership of Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, they seized Bahrayn in 899 and in the next year defeated a caliphal army under al-Abbas ibn Amr al-Ghanawi. In the years following al-Mu'tadid's death, the Qarmatians \"were to prove the most dangerous enemies the Abbasids had faced since the time of the Zanj\" (Kennedy). At the same time, a Kufan Isma'ili missionary, Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i, made contact with the Kutama Berbers during a pilgrimage to Mecca. His proselytization efforts made rapid headway among them, and in 902, he began attacks on the Aghlabid emirate of Ifriqiya, clients of the Abbasids. Its conquest was completed in 909, laying the foundations of the Fatimid Caliphate.\n\n### Domestic government\n\n#### Fiscal policies\n\nThe Abbasid army, following the reforms of al-Mu'tasim, was a smaller and more professional fighting force than the caliphal armies of the past. Although it proved effective militarily, it also posed a potential danger to the stability of the Abbasid regime: drawn from Turks and other peoples from the Caliphate's periphery and the lands beyond, it was alienated from the society of the Caliphate's heartlands, with the result that the soldiers were \"entirely reliant on the state not just for cash but for their very survival\" (Kennedy). As a result, any failure by the central government to provide their pay resulted in a military uprising and a political crisis; this had been repeatedly demonstrated during the Anarchy at Samarra. Consequently, ensuring the regular payment of the army became the prime task of the state. According to Kennedy, based on a treasury document from the time of al-Mu'tadid's accession:\n\n> out of the total expenditure of 7915 dinars per day, some 5121 are entirely military, 1943 in areas (like riding animals and stables) which served both military and non-military and only 851 in areas like the bureaucracy and the harem which can be described as truly civilian (though even in this case, the bureaucrats’ main purpose seems to have been to arrange the payment of the army). It seems reasonable to conclude that something over 80 per cent of recorded government expenditure was devoted to maintaining the army.\n\nAt the same time, the Caliphate's fiscal basis had shrunk dramatically after so many tax-paying provinces were lost from the central government's control. The caliphal government was now increasingly reliant on the revenue of the Sawad and the other areas of lower Iraq, which were witnessing a rapid decline in agricultural productivity due to the disruption of the civil wars and neglect of the irrigation network. In the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809) the Sawad had provided an annual revenue of 102,500,000 dirhams, more than double the revenue of Egypt and three times that of Syria; by the early 10th century it was providing less than a third of that figure. The situation was further exacerbated by the fact that in the remaining provinces, semi-autonomous governors, grandees and members of the dynasty were able to establish virtual latifundia, aided by the system of muqāṭa'a, a form of tax farming in exchange for a fixed tribute, which they often failed to pay. To maximize their revenue from the territory remaining to them, the Abbasids increased the breadth and complexity of the central bureaucracy, dividing the provinces into smaller tax districts as well as increasing the number of the fiscal departments (dīwāns), which allowed for close oversight of both revenue collection and the activities of the officials themselves.\n\nTo combat this fiscal crisis, the Caliph would often personally devote himself to the supervision of revenue, acquiring a reputation, according to F. Malti-Douglas, for \"a spirit of economy, verging on avarice\"; he was said to \"examine petty accounts that a commoner would scorn to consider\" (Harold Bowen). Fines and confiscations multiplied under his rule, with the resulting revenue, along with the income from the crown domain and even a portion of the provincial taxation, flowing to the caliphal privy purse (bayt al-māl al-khāṣṣa). The latter now acquired a leading role among the fiscal departments, and it frequently held more money than the public treasury (bayt al-māl al-ʿāmma). By the end of al-Mu'tadid's reign, the once empty privy purse would contain ten million dinars. On the other hand, in a measure aimed to ease the tax burden of the farmers, in 895 the Caliph changed the start of the tax year from the Persian New Year in March to 11 June—which became known as Nayrūz al-Muʿtaḍid, 'al-Mu'tadid's New Year'—so the land tax ('kharāj) was now collected after the harvest instead of the usually unreliable estimates before.\n\n#### Rise of the bureaucracy\n\nDuring the 9th century, the Abbasid administrative system became increasingly professionalized. The provincial administration became a subject of careful study, with geographical works such as Ibn Khordadbeh providing details on the Caliphate's provinces and their road networks, while men like Ibn Qutayba developed the art of chancery writing into a highly elaborate system. Al-Mu'tadid's fiscal policies further strengthened the position of the civil bureaucracy, which now reached the apogee of its influence, and especially that of the vizier, whom even the army came to respect as the spokesman of the caliph. Al-Mu'tadid also introduced Tuesday and Friday as days of rest for government employees.\n\nIn terms of personnel, al-Mu'tadid's reign was marked by continuity among the senior leadership of the state. Ubayd Allah ibn Sulayman ibn Wahb remained vizier from the start of the reign until his death in 901, and was succeeded by his son, al-Qasim, who had from the start been deputizing for his father during the latter's absences from the capital. The freedman Badr, a veteran who had served under al-Muwaffaq and whose daughter married the Caliph's son, remained commander of the army. The fiscal departments, especially of the Sawad, were managed first by the Banu'l-Furat brothers Ahmad and Ali, and after 899 by the Banu'l-Jarrah under Muhammad ibn Dawud and his nephew, Ali ibn Isa. The original administrative team was so effective and harmonious, according to the 11th-century historian Hilal as-Sabi, it was said by subsequent generations that \"there had never been such a quartet, Caliph, Vizier, Commander, and chief of the diwāns, as al-Mu'tadid, Ubayd Allah, Badr and Ahmad ibn al-Furat\".\n\nOn the other hand, as Michel Bonner points out, the later reign of al-Mu'tadid \"saw a growth of factionalism within this bureaucracy, observable also in the army and in urban civilian life\". The intense rivalry between the two bureaucratic dynasties of the Banu'l-Furat and the Banu'l-Jarrah, with their extensive networks of clients, began at this time. Although a strong caliph and vizier could restrain this antagonism, it would dominate the Abbasid government during the following decades, with the factions alternating in office and often fining and torturing their predecessors to extract money according to the well-established practice known as muṣādara. In addition, al-Qasim ibn Ubayd Allah was of an altogether different character than his father: soon after his appointment to the vizierate, al-Qasim plotted to have al-Mu'tadid assassinated, and tried to involve Badr in his scheming. The general rejected his proposals with indignation, but al-Qasim was saved from discovery and execution by the Caliph's sudden death. The Vizier then tried to dominate al-Muktafi, moved swiftly to have Badr denounced and executed, and was involved in yet more intrigues against the Banu'l-Furat.\n\n#### Return of the capital to Baghdad\n\nAl-Mu'tadid also completed the return of the capital from Samarra to Baghdad, which had already served as his father's main base of operations. The city's centre, however, was relocated on the eastern bank of the Tigris and further downstream from the original Round City founded by al-Mansur (r. 754–775) a century earlier; it has there remained to this day. As the 10th-century historian al-Mas'udi wrote, the Caliph's two main passions were \"women and building\" (\"al-nisāʿ waʿl-banāʿ\"), and accordingly he engaged in major building activities in the capital: he restored and expanded the Great Mosque of al-Mansur which had fallen into disuse; enlarged the Hasani Palace; built the new palaces of Thurayya ('Pleiades') and Firdus ('Paradise'); and began work on the Taj ('Crown') Palace, which was completed under al-Muktafi. This marked the creation of a sprawling new caliphal palace complex, the Dar al-Khilafa, which would remain the residence of the Abbasid caliphs until 1258. Al-Mu'tadid also took care to restore the city's irrigation network by clearing the silted-up Dujayl Canal, paying for this with money from those landowners who stood to profit from it.\n\n#### Theological doctrines and promotion of science\n\nIn terms of doctrine, al-Mu'tadid sided firmly with Sunni traditionalist orthodoxy from the outset of his reign, forbidding theological works and abolishing the fiscal department responsible for property in escheat, which Hanbali legal opinion regarded as illegal. At the same time he also tried to maintain good relations with the Alids, to the point of seriously considering ordering the official cursing of Mu'awiya, the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate and main opponent of Ali; he was dissuaded only at the last moment by his advisers, who feared any unforeseen consequences such an act might have. Al-Mu'tadid also maintained good relations with the breakaway Zaydi imams of Tabaristan, but his pro-Alid stance failed to prevent the establishment of a second Zaydi state in Yemen in 901.\n\nAl-Mu'tadid also actively promoted the traditions of learning and science that had flourished under his early 9th-century predecessors al-Ma'mun (r. 813–832), al-Mu'tasim, and al-Wathiq (r. 842–847). Court patronage for scientific endeavours had declined under al-Mutawakkil, whose reign had marked a return to Sunni orthodoxy and an aversion to scientific inquiry, while his successors had lacked the luxury to engage in intellectual pursuits. Himself \"keenly interested in natural sciences\" and able to speak Greek, al-Mu'tadid promoted the career of one of the great translators of Greek texts and mathematicians of the era, Thabit ibn Qurra, and of the grammarians Ibn Durayd and al-Zajjaj, the latter of whom became tutor of the Caliph's children. Other notable figures associated with, and supported by, the Abbasid court at the time were the religious scholar Ibn Abi al-Dunya, who served as the Caliph's advisor and was appointed as tutor for al-Muktafi; the translator Ishaq ibn Hunayn; the physician Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes), who was named director of the newly established al-Mu'tadidi hospital in Baghdad; and the mathematician and astronomer al-Battani.\n\nOne of the leading intellectual figures of the period was al-Mu'tadid's own tutor, Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsi, a pupil of the great philosopher al-Kindi. Al-Sarakhsi became a close companion of the Caliph, who appointed him to the lucrative post of market supervisor of Baghdad, but was executed in 896, after angering the Caliph. According to one account, al-Qasim ibn Ubayd Allah—who is frequently featured as the villain in anecdotes of al-Mu'tadid's court—inserted al-Sarakhsi's name in a list of rebels to be executed; the Caliph signed the list, and learned of his mistake only after his old master had been executed.\n\n#### Justice and punishment under al-Mu'tadid\n\nIn the dispensation of justice, he was characterized by what Malti-Douglas describes as \"severity bordering on sadism\". While tolerant of error and not above displays of sentimentality and tenderness, when his wrath was aroused he resorted to torture in the most ingenious ways, and had special torture chambers constructed underneath his palace. Chroniclers such as al-Mas'udi and the Mamluk historian al-Safadi describe in great detail the tortures inflicted by the Caliph on prisoners, as well as his practice of making an example of them by having them publicly displayed in Baghdad. Thus the Caliph is reported to have used bellows to inflate his prisoners, or buried them upside down in pits. At the same time they justify his severity as legitimate, being in the interests of the state. Malti-Douglas remarks that when al-Safadi compared al-Mu'tadid with the founder of the Abbasid state, calling him \"al-Saffah the Second\", this was not only to emphasize his restoration of the Caliphate's fortunes, but also a direct allusion to the meaning of al-Saffah's name, \"the Blood-Shedder\".\n\n### Death and legacy\n\nAl-Mu'tadid died at the Hasani Palace on 5 April 902, at the age of either 40 or 47. There were rumours he had been poisoned, but it is more likely that the rigours of his campaigns, coupled with his dissolute life, severely weakened his health. During his final illness, he refused to follow the advice of his physicians, and even kicked one of them to death. He left behind him four sons and several daughters. Of his sons, three—al-Muktafi, al-Muqtadir, and al-Qahir—would rule as caliphs in turn and only one, Harun, did not become caliph. Al-Mu'tadid was the first Abbasid caliph to be buried within the city of Baghdad. Like his sons after him, he was buried in the former Tahirid Palace in the western part of the city, which was now used by the caliphs as a secondary residence.\n\nAccording to the Orientalist Karl Vilhelm Zetterstéen, al-Mu'tadid \"had inherited his father's gifts as a ruler and was distinguished alike for his economy and his military ability\", becoming \"one of the greatest of the Abbasids in spite of his strictness and cruelty\". Al-Mu'tadid's capable reign is credited with having arrested the Abbasid Caliphate's decline for a while, but his successes were too dependent on the presence of an energetic ruler at the helm, and ultimately his reign \"was too short to reverse long-term trends and re-establish Abbasid power on a long-term basis\" (Kennedy).\n\nAl-Mu'tadid had taken care to prepare his son and successor, al-Muktafi, for his role by appointing him as governor in Rayy and the Jazira. Although al-Muktafi tried to follow his father's policies, he lacked his energy. The heavily militarized system of al-Muwaffaq and al-Mu'tadid required the Caliph to actively participate in campaigns, setting a personal example and forming ties of loyalty, reinforced by patronage, between the ruler and the soldiers. Al-Muktafi, on the other hand, did not \"in his character and comportment [...], being a sedentary figure, instil much loyalty, let alone inspiration, in the soldiers\" (Michael Bonner). The Caliphate was still able to secure major successes over the next few years, including the reincorporation of the Tulunid domains in 904 and victories over the Qarmatians, but with al-Muktafi's death in 908, the so-called \"Abbasid restoration\" passed its high-water mark, and a new period of crisis began.\n\nPower was now wielded by the senior bureaucrats, who installed the weak and pliable al-Muqtadir on the throne. Over the next decades, the expenditure of both the court and the army increased, while maladministration increased and strife between military and bureaucratic factions intensified. By 932, when al-Muqtadir was assassinated, the Caliphate was effectively bankrupt, and authority soon devolved on a series of military strongmen who competed for control of the caliph and the title of amīr al-umarāʾ. This process culminated in the capture of Baghdad in 946 by the Buyids, who put an end to caliphal independence even in name. Thereafter the caliphs remained as symbolic figureheads, but were divested of any military or political authority or independent financial resources.", "revid": "1151398543", "description": "16th Abbasid Caliph (r. 892–902)", "categories": ["10th-century Abbasid caliphs", "902 deaths", "9th-century Abbasid caliphs", "9th-century births", "Arab Muslims", "Arab people of Greek descent", "Generals of the Abbasid Caliphate", "One Thousand and One Nights characters", "Year of birth uncertain"]}
{"id": "1057147", "url": null, "title": "Myrmecia (ant)", "text": "Myrmecia is a genus of ants first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804. The genus is a member of the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae. Myrmecia is a large genus of ants, comprising at least 93 species that are found throughout Australia and its coastal islands, while a single species is only known from New Caledonia. One species has been introduced out of its natural distribution and was found in New Zealand in 1940, but the ant was last seen in 1981. These ants are commonly known as bull ants, bulldog ants or jack jumper ants, and are also associated with many other common names. They are characterized by their extreme aggressiveness, ferocity, and painful stings. Some species are known for the jumping behavior they exhibit when agitated.\n\nSpecies of this genus are also characterized by their elongated mandibles and large compound eyes that provide excellent vision. They vary in colour and size, ranging from 8 to 40 millimetres (0.31 to 1.57 in). Although workers and queens are hard to distinguish from each other due to their similar appearance, males are identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles. Almost all Myrmecia species are monomorphic, with little variation among workers of a given species. Some queens are ergatoid and have no wings, while others have either stubby or completely developed wings. Nests are mostly found in soil, but they can be found in rotten wood and under rocks. One species does not nest in the ground at all; its colonies can only be found in trees.\n\nA queen will mate with one or more males, and during colony foundation she will hunt for food until the brood have fully developed. The life cycle of the ant from egg to adult takes several months. Myrmecia workers exhibit greater longevity in comparison to other ants, and workers are also able to reproduce with male ants. Myrmecia is one of the most primitive group of ants on earth, exhibiting differentiated behaviors from other ants. Workers are solitary hunters and do not lead other workers to food. Adults are omnivores that feed on sweet substances, but the larvae are carnivores that feed on captured prey. Very few predators eat these ants due to their sting, but their larvae are often consumed by blindsnakes and echidnas, and a number of parasites infect both adults and brood. Some species are also effective pollinators.\n\nMyrmecia stings are very potent, and the venom from these ants is among the most toxic in the insect world. In Tasmania, 3% of the human population are allergic to the venom of M. pilosula and can suffer life-threatening anaphylactic reactions if stung. People prone to severe allergic reactions can be treated with allergen immunotherapy (desensitisation).\n\n## Etymology and common names\n\nThe generic name Myrmecia derives from Greek word Myrmec- (+ -ia), meaning \"ant\". In Western Australia, the Indigenous Australians called these ants kallili or killal.\n\nAnts of this genus are popularly known as bulldog ants, bull ants, or jack jumper ants due to their ferocity and the way they hang off their victims using their mandibles, and also due to the jumping behaviour displayed by some species. Other common names include \"inch ants\", \"sergeant ants\", and \"soldier ants\". The jack jumper ant and other members of the Myrmecia pilosula species group are commonly known as \"black jumpers\", \"hopper ants\", \"jumper ants\", \"jumping ants\", \"jumping jacks\", and \"skipper ants\".\n\n## Taxonomy and evolution\n\nGenetic evidence suggests that Myrmecia diverged from related groups about 100 million years ago (Mya). The subfamily Myrmeciinae, to which Myrmecia belongs, is believed to have been found in the fossil record of 110 Mya ago. However, one study suggests that the age of the most recent common ancestor for Myrmecia and Nothomyrmecia is 74 Mya, and the subfamily is possibly younger than previously thought. Ants of the extinct genus Archimyrmex may possibly be the ancestor of Myrmecia. In the Evans' vespoid scala, Myrmecia and other primitive ant genera such as Amblyopone and Nothomyrmecia exhibit behavior which is similar to a clade of soil-dwelling families of vespoid wasps. Four species groups form a paraphyletic assemblage while five species groups form a monophyletic assemblage. The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships within Myrmecia:\n\n### Classification\n\nMyrmecia was first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in his 1804 publication Systema Piezatorum, in which seven species from the genus Formica were placed into the genus along with the description of four new species. Myrmecia has been classified into numerous families and subfamilies; in 1858, British entomologist Frederick Smith placed it in the family Poneridae, subfamily Myrmicidae. It was placed in the subfamily Ponerinae by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862. This classification was short-lived as Mayr reclassified the genus into the subfamily Myrmicinae three years later. In 1877, Italian entomologist Carlo Emery classified the genus into the newly established subfamily Myrmeciidae, family Myrmicidae. Smith, who had originally established the Myrmicidae as a family in 1851, reclassified them as a subfamily in 1858. He again treated them as a family in 1871. Swiss myrmecologist Auguste Forel initially treated the Poneridae as a subfamily and classified Myrmecia as one of its constituent genera but later placed it in the Ponerinae. William H. Ashemad placed the genus in the subfamily Myrmeciinae in 1905, but it was later placed back in the Ponerinae in 1910 by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler. In 1954, Myrmecia was placed into the Myrmeciinae; this was the last time the genus was placed into a different ant subfamily.\n\nIn 1911, Emery classified the subgenera Myrmecia, Pristomyrmecia, and Promyrmecia, based on the shape of their mandibles. Wheeler established the subgenus Halmamyrmecia, and the ants placed in it were characterized by their jumping behavior. The taxon Wheeler described was not referred to in his later publications, and the genera Halmamyrmecia and Pristomyrmecia were synonymised by John Clark. At the same time, Clark reclassified the subgenus Promyrmecia as a full genus. He revised the whole subfamily Myrmeciinae in 1951, recognizing 118 species and subspecies in Myrmecia and Promyrmecia; five species groups were assigned to Myrmecia and eight species groups to Promyrmecia. This revision was rejected by entomologist William Brown due to the lack of morphological evidence that would make the two genera distinct from each other. Due to this, Brown classified Promyrmecia as a synonym of Myrmecia in 1953. Clark's revision was the last major taxonomic study on the genus before 1991, and only a single species was described in the intervening years. In 2015, four new Myrmecia ants were described by Robert Taylor, all exclusive to Australia. Currently, 94 species are described in the genus, but as many as 130 species may exist.\n\nUnder the present classification, Myrmecia is the only extant genus in the tribe Myrmeciini, subfamily Myrmeciinae. It is a member of the family Formicidae in the order Hymenoptera. The type species for the genus is M. gulosa, discovered by Joseph Banks in 1770 during his expedition with James Cook on HMS Endeavour. M. gulosa is among the earliest Australian insects to be described, and the specimen Banks collected is housed in the Joseph Banks Collection in the Natural History Museum, London. M. gulosa was described by Fabricius in 1775 under the name Formica gulosa and later designated as the type species of Myrmecia in 1840.\n\n### Genetics\n\nThe number of chromosomes per individual varies from one to over 70 among the species in the genus. The genome of M. pilosula is contained on a single pair of chromosomes (males have just one chromosome, as they are haploid). This is the lowest number possible for any animal, and workers of this species are homologous. Like M. pilosula, M. croslandi also contains a single chromosome. While these ants only have a single chromosome, M. pyriformis contains 41 chromosomes, while M. brevinoda contains 42. The chromosome count for M. piliventris and M. fulvipes is two and 12, respectively. The genus Myrmecia retains many traits that are considered basal for all ants (i.e. workers foraging alone and relying on visual cues).\n\n### Species groups\n\nMyrmecia contains a total of nine species groups. Originally, seven species groups were established in 1911, but this was raised to 13 in 1951; Promyrmecia had a total of eight, while Myrmecia only had five. M. maxima does not appear to be in a species group, as no type specimen is available.\n\n## Description\n\nMyrmecia ants are easily noticeable due to their large mandibles, large compound eyes that provide excellent vision and a powerful sting that they use to kill prey. Each of their eyes contains 3,000 facets, making them the second largest in the ant world. Size varies widely, ranging from 8 to 40 mm (0.31 to 1.57 in) in length. The largest Myrmecia species is M. brevinoda, with workers measuring 37 mm (1.5 in); M. brevinoda workers are also the largest in the world. Almost all species are monomorphic, but M. brevinoda is the only known species where polymorphism exists. It is well known that two worker subcastes exist, but this does not distinguish them as two different polymorphic forms. This may be due to the lack of food during winter and they could be incipient colonies. The division of labour is based on the size of ant, rather than its age, with the larger workers foraging for food or keeping guard outside the nest, while the smaller workers tend to the brood.\n\nTheir coloration is variable; black combined with red and yellow is a common pattern, and many species have golden-colored pubescence (hair). Many other species are brightly colored which warns predators to avoid them. The formicine ant Camponotus bendigensis is similar in appearance to M. fulvipes, and data suggest C. bengdigensis is a batesian mimic of M. fulvipes. The number of malpighian tubules differs between castes; in M. dispar, males have 16 tubules, queens range from 23 to 26, and workers have 21 to 29.\n\nWorker ants are usually the same size as each other, although this is not true for some species; worker ants of M. brevinoda, for example, vary in length from 13 to 37 mm (0.51 to 1.46 in). The mandibles of the workers are long with a number of teeth, and the clypeus is short. The antennae consist of 12 segments and the eyes are large and convex. Based on a study on the antennal sensory of M. pyriformis, the antennal sensilla are known to have eight types. Large ocelli are always present.\n\nQueens are usually larger than the workers, but are similar in colour and body shape. The head, node, and postpetiole are broader in the queen, and the mandibles are shorter and also broad. Myrmecia queens are unique in that particular species either have fully winged queens, queens with poorly developed wings, or queens without any wings. For example, M. aberrans and M. esuriens queens are ergatoid, meaning that they are wingless. Completely excavated nests showed no evidence of any winged queen residing within them. Some species have queens which are subapterous, meaning they are either wingless or only have rudiments of wings; the queens can be well developed with or without these wing buds. M. nigrocincta and M. tarsata are \"brachypterous\", where queens have small and rudimentary wings which render the queen flightless. Dealated queens with developed wings and thoraces are considered rare. In some species, such as M. brevinoda and M. pilosula, three forms of queens exist, with the dealated queens being the most recognisable.\n\nMales are easy to identify due to their perceptibly broad and smaller mandibles. Their antennae consist of 13 segments, and are almost the same length as the ants' bodies. Ergatandromorph (an ant that exhibits both male and worker characteristics) males are known; in 1985, a male M. gulosa was collected before it hatched from its cocoon, and it had a long but excessively curved left mandible while the other mandible was small. On the right side of its body, it was structurally male, but the left side appeared female. The head was also longer on the female side, its colour was darker, and the legs and prothorax were smaller on the male side. Male genitalia are retracted into a genital cavity that is located in the posterior end of the gaster. The sperm is structurally the same to other animal sperm, forming an oval head with a long tail.\n\nAmong the largest larvae examined were those of M. simillima, reaching lengths of 35 mm (1.4 in). The pupae are enclosed in dark cocoons.\n\n## Distribution and habitat\n\nAlmost all species in the genus Myrmecia are found in Australia and its coastal islands. M. apicalis is the only species not native to Australia and is only found in the Isle of Pines, New Caledonia. Only one ant has ever established nests outside its native range; M. brevinoda was first discovered in New Zealand in 1940 and the ant was recorded in Devonport in Auckland in 1948, 1965 and 1981 where a single nest was destroyed. Sources suggest the ant was introduced to New Zealand through human activity; they were found inside a wooden crate brought from Australia. While no eradication attempt was made by the New Zealand government, the ant has not been found in the country since 1981 and is presumed to have been eradicated.\n\nAnts of this genus prefer to inhabit grasslands, forests, heath, urban areas and woodland. Nests are found in Callitris forest, dry marri forest, Eucalyptus woodland and forests, mallee scrub, in paddocks, riparian woodland, and wet and dry sclerophyll forests. They also live in dry sandplains, and coastal plain. When a queen establishes a new colony, the nest is at first quite simple structurally. The nest gradually expands as the colony grows larger. Nests can be found in debris, decaying tree stumps, rotten logs, rocks, sand, and soil, and under stones. While most species nest underground, M. mjobergi is an arboreal nesting species found on epiphytic ferns of the genus Platycerium. Two types of nests have been described for this genus: a simple nest with a noticeable shaft inside, and a complex structure surrounded by a mound. Some species construct dome-shaped mounds containing a single entrance, but some nests have numerous holes that are constantly used and can extend several metres underground. Sometimes, these mounds can be 0.5 m (20 in) high. Workers decorate these nests with a variety of items, including charcoal, leaves, plant fragments, pebbles, and twigs. Some ants use the warmth by decorating their nests with dry materials that heat quickly, providing the nest with solar energy traps.\n\n## Behaviour and ecology\n\n### Foraging\n\nThe genus Myrmecia is among the most primitive of all known living ants, and ants of the genus are considered specialist predators. Unlike most ants, workers are solitary hunters, and do not lay pheromone trails; nor do they recruit others to food. Tandem running does not occur, and workers carrying other workers as a method of transportation is rare or awkwardly executed. Although Myrmecia is not known to lay pheromone trails to food, M. gulosa is capable of inducing territorial alarm using pheromones while M. pilosula can attack en masse, suggesting these ants can also induce alarm pheromones. M. gulosa induces territorial alarm behaviour using pheromones from three sources; an alerting substance from the rectal sac, a pheromone found in the Dufour's gland, and an attack pheromone from the mandibular gland. Despite Myrmecia ants being among the most primitive ants, they exhibit some behaviours considered \"advanced\"; adults will sometimes groom each other and the brood, and distinct nest odors exist for each colony.\n\nMost species are diurnal, and forage on the ground or onto low vegetation in search of food, but a few are nocturnal and only forage at night. Most Myrmecia ants are active during the warmer months, and are dormant during winter. However, M. pyriformis is a nocturnal species that is active throughout the whole year. M. pyriformis also has a unique foraging schedule; 65% of individuals who went out to forage left the nest in 40–60 minutes, while 60% of workers would return to the nest in the same duration of time at dusk. Foraging workers rely on landmarks for navigation back home. If displaced a short distance, they will scan their surroundings, and then rapidly move in the direction of the nest. M. vindex ants carry dead nest-mates out of their nests and place them on refuse piles, a behaviour known as necrophoresis.\n\n### Pollination\n\nWhile pollination by ants is somewhat rare, several Myrmecia species have been observed pollinating flowers. For example, the orchid Leporella fimbriata is a myrmecophyte which can only be pollinated by the winged male ant M. urens. Pollination of this orchid usually occurs between April and June during warm afternoons, and may take several days until the short-lived males all die. The flower mimics M. urens queens, so the males move from flower to flower in an attempt to copulate with it. M. nigrocincta workers have been recorded visiting flowers of Eucalyptus regnans and Senna acclinis, and are considered a potential pollination vector for E. regnans trees. Although Senna acclinis is self-compatible, the inability of M. nigrocincta to appropriately release pollen would restrict its capacity to effect pollination. Foraging M. pilosula workers are regularly observed on the inflorescences of Prasophyllum alpinum (mostly pollinated by wasps of the family Ichneumonidae). Although pollinia are often seen in the ants' jaw, they have a habit of cleaning their mandibles on the leaves and stems of nectar-rich plants before moving on, preventing pollen exchange. Whether M. pilosula contributes to pollination is unknown.\n\n### Diet\n\nDespite their ferocity, adults are nectarivores, consuming honeydew (a sweet, sticky liquid found on leaves, deposited from various insects), nectar, and other sweet substances. The larvae, however, are carnivorous. After they reach a certain size, they are fed insects that foragers capture and kill. The workers also regurgitate food for other ants to consume. Young ants are rarely fed food regurgitated by adults. Adult workers prey on a variety of insects and arthropods, such as beetles, caterpillars, earwigs, Ithone fusca moths, Perga saw flies, and spiders. Other prey include invertebrates such as bees, cockroaches, crickets, wasps and other ants; in particular, workers prey on Orthocrema ants (a subgenus of Crematogaster) and Camponotus, although this is risky since these ants are able to call for help through chemical signals. Slaters, earthworms, scale insects, frogs, lizards, grass seeds, possum feces and kangaroo feces are also collected as food. Flies such as the housefly and blowfly are consumed. Some species, such as M. pilosula, will only attack small fly species and ignore larger ones. Nests of the social spider Delena cancerides are often invaded by M. pyriformis ants, and nests once housing these spiders are filled with debris such as twigs and leaves by the workers, rendering them useless. These \"scorched earth\" tactics prevent the spiders competing with the ants. M. gulosa attacks Christmas beetles, but workers later bury them.\n\nMyrmecia is one of the very few genera where the workers lay trophic eggs, or infertile eggs laid as food for viable offspring. Workers laying trophic eggs have only been reported in two species; these species are M. forceps and M. gulosa. Depending on the species, colonies specialise in trophallaxis; queens and larvae eat eggs that are laid by worker individuals, but the workers do not feed on eggs. Neither adults nor larvae consume food during winter, but cannibalism among larvae is known to occur throughout the year. The larvae only cannibalise each other; this is most likely to happen when no dead insects are available.\n\n### Predators, parasites and associations\n\nMyrmecia ants deter many potential predators due to their sting. The blindsnake Ramphotyphlops nigrescens consumes the larvae and pupae of Myrmecia, while avoiding the potent sting of the adults, which it is vulnerable to. The short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) also eats the eggs and larvae. Nymphs of the assassin bug species Ptilocnemus lemur lure these ants to themselves by trying to make the ant sting them, by waving its hind legs around to attract a potential prey item. Body remains of Myrmecia have been found in the stomach contents of the eastern yellow robin (Eopsaltria australis). The Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen), the black currawong (Strepera versicolor), and the white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) prey on these ants, but few are successfully taken.\n\nThe host association between Myrmecia and eucharitid wasps began several million years ago; M. forficata larvae are the host to Austeucharis myrmeciae, being the first recorded eucharitid parasitoid of an ant, and Austeucharis fasciiventris is a parasitoid to M. gulosa pupae. M. pilosula is affected by a gregarines parasite that changes an ant's colour from their typical black appearance to brown. This was discovered when brown workers were dissected and found to have gregarinasina spores, while black workers showed no spores. Another unidentified gregarine parasite is known to infect the larvae of M. pilosula and other Myrmecia species. This gregarine parasite also softens the ant's cuticle. Other parasites include Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Chalcura affinis, Tricoryna wasps, and various mermithid nematodes.\n\nM. hirsuta and M. inquilina are the only known species in this genus that are inquilines and live in other Myrmecia colonies. An M. inquilina queen has been found in an M. vindex colony. Myrmecia is a larval attendant to the butterfly Theclinesthes serpentata (saltbush blue), while some species, particularly M. nigrocincta, enslave other ant species, notably those in the genus Leptomyrmex. M. nigriceps ants are able to enter another colony of the same species without being attacked, as they may be unable to recognize alien conspecifics, nor do they try to distinguish nestmates from ants of another colony. Formicoxenus provancheri and M. brevinoda share a form of symbiotic relationship known as xenobiosis, where one species of ant will live with another and raise their young separately, with M. brevinoda being the host. Solenopsis may sometimes nest in Myrmecia colonies, as a single colony was found to have three or four Solenopsis nests inside. Lagria beetles and rove beetles in the genus Heterothops dwell inside colonies and skinks and frogs have also been found living unmolested within Myrmecia nests. Metacrinia nichollsi, for example, has been reported living inside M. regularis colonies.\n\n### Life cycle\n\nLike other ants, Myrmecia ants begin as an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the ant becomes a diploid female; if not, it becomes a haploid male. They develop through complete metamorphosis, meaning that they pass through larval and pupal stages before emerging as adults.\n\nDuring the process of founding a colony, as many as four queens cooperate with each other to find a suitable nesting ground, but after the first generation of workers is born, they fight each other until one queen is left alive. However, occasional colonies are known to have as many as six queens coexisting peacefully in the presence of workers. A queen searches for a suitable nest site to establish her colony, and excavates a small chamber in the soil or under logs and rocks, where she takes care of her young. A queen also hunts for prey instead of staying in her nest, a behaviour known as claustral colony founding. Although queens do provide sufficient amounts of food to feed their larvae, the first workers are \"nanitics\" (or minims), smaller than the smallest workers encountered in older developed colonies. Several species do not have any worker caste, and solitary queens will raid a colony, kill the residing queen, and take over the colony. The first generation of workers may take a while to fully develop into adults; for example, M. forficata eggs take around 100 days to fully develop, while other species may take up to eight months.\n\nQueens lay around eight eggs, but less than half of these eggs develop. Some species, such as M. simillima and M. gulosa, lay their eggs singly on the colony floor, while M. pilosula ants may lay eggs in a clump. These clumps have two to 30 eggs each with no larvae present. Certain Myrmecia species do not lay their eggs singly and form clumps of eggs, instead. The larvae are capable of crawling short distances without the assistance of adult workers, and workers will cover the larvae in dirt to help them spin into a cocoon. If cocoons are isolated from a colony, they are capable of shedding their skins before hatching, allowing themselves to advance to full pigmentation. Sometimes, a newborn can emerge from its pupa without the assistance of other ants. Once these ants are born, they are able to identify distinct tasks, a well known primitive trait. Myrmecia lifespans vary in each species, but their longevity is greater than many ant genera: M. nigrocincta and M. pilosula have a lifespan of one year, while M. nigriceps workers can live up to 2.2 years. The oldest recorded worker was a M. vindex, living up to 2.6 years. If a colony is deprived of workers, queens are able to revert to colony-founding behaviours until a sustainable workforce emerges. A colony may also emigrate to a new nesting spot altogether.\n\n### Reproduction\n\nWinged, virgin queens and males, known as alates, appear in colonies during January, before their nuptial flight. Twenty females or fewer are found in a single colony, while males are much more common. The nuptial flight begins at different times for each species; they have been recorded in mid-summer to autumn (January to early April), but there is one case of a nuptial flight occurring from May to July. Ideal conditions for nuptial flight are hot stormy days with windspeeds of 30 km/h (18 mi/h) and temperatures reaching 30 °C (86 °F), and elevations of 91 metres (300 ft). Nuptial flights are rarely recorded due to queens leaving their nest singly, although as many as four queens may leave the nest at the same time. Species are both polygynous and polyandrous, with queens mating with one to ten males. Polygynous and polyandrous societies can occur in a single nest, but particular species are either primarily polygynous or primarily polyandrous. For example, nearly 80% of tested M. pilosula colonies are polygynous while M. pyriformis colonies are mostly polyandrous. Nuptial flight takes place during the morning and can last until late afternoon. When the alates leave the nest, most species launch themselves into the air from trees and shrubs, although others launch themselves off the ground. Queens discharge a glandular secretion from the tergal gland, which males are strongly attracted to. As many as 1,000 alates will gather to mate. A queen was once found to have five or six males attempting to copulate with her. The queen is unable to bear the weight of the large number of males trying to mate with her, and will drop to the ground, with the ants dispersing later on. M. pulchra queens are ergatoid and cannot fly; the males meet the queen out in an open area away from the nest and mate, and these queens do not return to their nest after mating.\n\nBoth independent and dependent colony foundation can occur after mating. Isolation by distance (IBD) patterns have been recorded with M. pilosula queens, where nests that tend to be closer together were more genetically related to each other in comparison to other nests further away. Independent colony foundation is closely associated with queens which engage in nuptial flight in areas far from their home colony, showing that dependent colony foundation mostly occurs if they mate near their nest. In some cases, queens could seek adoption into alien colonies if there are no suitable areas to find a nest or independent colony foundation cannot be carried out. Other queens could try to return to their home nest after nuptial flight, but they may end up in another nest near the nest they originally came from. In multiple-queen societies, the egg-laying queens are generally unrelated to one another, but one study showed that it is possible for multiple queens in the same colony to be genetically related to each other. Depending on the species, the number of individuals present in a colony can range from 50 to over 2,200 individuals. A colony with less than 100 workers is not considered a mature colony. M. dispar colonies have around 15 to 329 ants, M. nigrocincta have over 1,000, M. pyriformis have from 200 to over 1,400 and M. gulosa have nearly 1,600. A colony can last for a number of years. Foraging behaviour among smaller workers which never usually leave the nest can be a sign of a colony's impending demise.\n\nWorkers are known to produce their own eggs, but these eggs are unfertilised and hatch into male ants. There is a chance of workers attacking a particular individual who has successfully produced male offspring due to a change in a workers cuticular hydrocarbon; cuticular hydrocarbons are believed to play a vital role in the regulation of reproduction. However, this is not always the case. Myrmecia is one of several ant genera which possess gamergate workers, where a female worker is able to reproduce with mature males when the colony is lacking a queen. Myrmecia workers are highly fertile and can successfully mate with males. A colony of M. pyriformis without a queen was collected in 1998 and kept in captivity, during which time the gamergates produced viable workers for three years. Ovarian dissections showed that three workers of this colony mated with males and produced female workers. Queens have bigger ovaries than the workers, with 44 ovarioles while workers have 8 to 14. Spermatheca is present in M. gulosa workers, based on eight dissected individuals showing a spermatheca structurally similar to those found in queens. These spermathecas did not have any sperm. Why the queen was not replaced is still unknown.\n\n### Vision\n\nWhile most ants have poor eyesight, Myrmecia ants have excellent vision. This trait is important to them, since Myrmecia primarily relies on visual cues for navigation. These ants are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away. Winged alates are only active during the day, as they can see better. Members of a colony have different eye structures due to each individual fulfilling different tasks, and nocturnal species have larger ommatidia in comparison to those that are active during the day. Facet lenses also vary in size; for example, the diurnal species M. croslandi has a smaller lens in comparison to M. nigriceps and M. pyriformis which have larger lenses. Myrmecia ants have three photoreceptors that can see UV light, meaning they are capable of seeing colours that humans cannot. Their vision is said to be better than some mammals, such as cats, dogs or wallabies. Despite their excellent vision, worker ants of this genus find it difficult to find their nests at night, due to the difficulty of finding the landmarks they use to navigate. They are thus more likely to return to their nests the following morning, walking slowly with long pauses.\n\n### Sting\n\nMyrmecia workers and queens possess a sting described as \"sharp in pain with no burning.\" The pain may last for several minutes. In the Starr sting pain scale, a scale which compares the overall pain of hymenopteran stings on a four-point scale, Myrmecia stings were ranked from 2–3 in pain, described as \"painful\" or \"sharply and seriously painful\". Unlike in honeybees, the sting lacks barbs, and so the stinger is not left in the area the ant has stung, allowing the ants to sting repeatedly without any harm to themselves. The retractable sting is located in their abdomen, attached to a single venom gland connected by the venom sac, which is where the venom is accumulated. Exocrine glands are known in some species, which produce the venom compounds later used to inject into their victims. Examined workers of larger species have long and very potent stingers, with some stings measuring 6 millimetres (0.24 in).\n\n## Interaction with humans\n\nMyrmecia is one of the best-known genera of ants. Myrmecia ants usually display defensive behaviour only around their nests, and are more timid while foraging. However, most species are extremely aggressive towards intruders; a few, such as M. tarsata, are timid, and the workers retreat into their nest instead of pursuing the intruder. If a nest is disturbed, a large force of workers rapidly swarms out of their nest to attack and kill the intruder. Some species, particularly those of the M. nigrocincta and M. pilosula species groups, are capable of jumping several inches when they are agitated after their nest has been disturbed; jumper ants propel their jumps by a sudden extension of their middle and hind legs. M. pyriformis is considered the most dangerous ant in the world by the Guinness World Records. M. inquilina is the only species of this genus that is considered vulnerable by the IUCN, although the conservation status needs updating.\n\nFatalities associated with Myrmecia stings are well known, and have been attested to by multiple sources. In 1931 two adults and an infant girl from New South Wales died from ant stings, possibly from M. pilosula or M. pyriformis. Another fatality was reported in 1963 in Tasmania. Between 1980 and 2000, there were six recorded deaths, five in Tasmania and one in New South Wales. Four of these deaths were due to M. pilosula, while the remaining two died from a M. pyriformis sting. Half of the victims had known ant-sting allergies, but only one of the victims was carrying adrenaline before being stung. Most victims died within 20 minutes of being stung, but one of the victims died in just five minutes from a M. pyriformis sting. No death has been officially recorded since 2003, but M. pilosula may have been responsible for the death of a man from Bunbury in 2011. Prior to the establishment of a desensitisation program, Myrmecia stings caused one fatality every four years.\n\n### Venom\n\nEach Myrmecia species has different venom components, so people who are allergic to ants are advised to stay away from Myrmecia, especially from species they have never encountered before. Based on five species, the median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) is 0.18–0.35 mg/kg, making it among the most toxic venoms in the insect world. The toxicity of the venom may have evolved due to the intense predation by animals and birds during the day, since Myrmecia is primarily diurnal. In Tasmania, 2–3% of the human population is allergic to M. pilosula venom. In comparison, only 1.6% people are allergic to the venom of the western honeybee (Apis mellifera), and 0.6% to the venom of the European wasp (Vespula germanica). In a 2011 Australian ant-venom allergy study, the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, 265 of the 376 participants in the study reacted to the sting of several Myrmecia species. Of these, the majority of patients (176) reacted to M. pilosula venom and to those of several other species. In Perth, M. gratiosa was responsible for most cases of anaphylaxis due to ant stings, while M nigriscapa and M. ludlowi were responsible for two cases. The green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica) was the only ant other than Myrmecia species to cause anaphylaxis in patients. Dogs are also at risk of death from Myrmecia ants; renal failure has been recorded in dogs experiencing mass envenomation, and one dog was euthanised due to its deteriorating health despite treatment. Sensitivity is persistent for many years. Pilosulin 3 has been identified as a major allergen in M. pilosula venom, while pilosulin 1 and pilosulin 4 are minor allergens.\n\n### Sting treatment\n\nThe nature of treatment for a Myrmecia sting depends on the severity of stingose, and the use of antihistamine tablets are other methods to reduce the pain. Indigenous Australians use bush remedies to treat Myrmecia stings, such as rubbing the tips of bracken ferns onto the stung area. Carpobrotus glaucescens is also used to treat stung areas, using juices that are squeezed and rubbed onto the area, which quickly relieves the pain from the sting.\n\nEmergency treatment is only needed if a person is showing signs of a severe allergic reaction. Prior to calling for help, stung persons should be laid down, and their legs elevated. An EpiPen or an Anapen is given to people at risk of anaphylaxis, to use in case they are stung. If someone experiences anaphylactic shock, adrenaline and intravenous infusions are required, and those who suffer cardiac arrest require resuscitation. Desensitisation (also called allergy immunotherapy) is offered to those who are susceptible to M. pilosula stings, and the program has shown effectiveness in preventing anaphylaxis. However, the standardisation of M. pilosula venom is not validated, and the program is poorly funded. The Royal Hobart Hospital and the Royal Adelaide Hospital are the only known hospitals to run desensitisation programs. During immunotherapy, patients are given an injection of venom under the skin. The first dose is small, but dosage gradually increases. This sort of immunotherapy is designed to change how the immune system reacts to increased doses of venom entering the body.\n\nBefore venom immunotherapy, whole-body extract immunotherapy was widely used due to its apparent effectiveness, and it was the only immunotherapy used for ant stings. However, fatal failures were reported, and this led to scientists to research for alternative methods of desensitisation. Before 1986 allergic reactions were not recorded and there was no study on Myrmecia sting venom; whole body extracts were later used on patients during the 1990s, but this was found to be ineffective and was subsequently withdrawn. In 2003, ant venom immunotherapy was shown to be safe and effective against Myrmecia venom.\n\n### Prevention\n\nMyrmecia ants are frequently encountered by humans, and avoiding them is difficult. Wearing closed footwear such as boots and shoes can reduce the risk of getting stung; these ants are capable of stinging through fabric, however. A risk of being stung while gardening also exists; most stings occur when someone is gardening and is unaware of the ants' presence. Eliminating nearby nests or moving to areas with low Myrmecia populations significantly decreases the chances of getting stung.\n\nDue to their large mandibles, Myrmecia ants have been used as surgical sutures to close wounds. The ant is featured on a postage stamp and on an uncirculated coin which are part of the Things That Sting issue by Australia Post, and M. gulosa is the emblem for the Australian Entomological Society. Myrmecia famously appears in the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer's major work, The World as Will and Representation, as a paradigmatic example of strife and constant destruction endemic to the \"will to live\".\n\n> But the bulldog-ant of Australia affords us the most extraordinary example of this kind; for if it is cut in two, a battle begins between the head and the tail. The head seizes the tail in its teeth, and the tail defends itself bravely by stinging the head: the battle may last for half an hour, until they die or are dragged away by other ants. This contest takes place every time the experiment is tried.\"\n\nNotable Australian poet Diane Fahey wrote a poem about Myrmecia, which is based on Schopenhauer's description, and a music piece written by German composer Karola Obermüller was named after the ant.\n\n## See also\n\n- Ant\n- Bullet ant\n- Fire ant\n- List of ants of Australia", "revid": "1170206730", "description": "Genus of ants", "categories": ["Ant genera", "Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances", "Hymenoptera of Australia", "Hymenoptera of Oceania", "Insects of New Caledonia", "Myrmeciinae", "Parasitic Hymenoptera", "Slave-making ants", "Taxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius"]}
{"id": "39603723", "url": null, "title": "Natasha Falle", "text": "Natasha Falle (born 1973) is a Canadian professor at Humber College in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, who was forcibly prostituted from the ages of 15 to 27 and now opposes prostitution in Canada. Falle grew up in a middle-class home and, when her parents divorced, her new single-parent home became unsafe, and Falle ran away from home. At the age of 15, Falle became involved in the sex industry in Calgary, Alberta.\n\nFalle's pimp kept her falsely imprisoned and trafficked her across the country. He married her and tortured her, breaking several of her bones and burning her body. In order to cope with the trauma of prostitution and violence, Falle became dependent on cocaine and almost died. Eventually, she got out of prostitution and, with her mother's support, went through drug rehabilitation, finished high school, and eventually received a diploma in Wife Assault and Child Advocacy from George Brown College.\n\nIn 2001, Falle began counselling women in prostitution at Streetlight Support Services, and counselled more than 800 women in the subsequent decade, 97% of whom wrote on their intake surveys that they wanted to exit the sex industry. In order to make this statistic more widely known, Falle founded Sex Trade 101. She began offering training for police and partners with the Toronto Police Service's sex crimes unit. Falle was one of the main proponents of Member of Parliament (MP) Joy Smith's private member's bill, Bill C-268, which was passed in June 2010 as An Act to amend the Criminal Code (minimum sentence for offences involving trafficking of persons under the age of eighteen years), and she helped the Canadian government formulate their appeal of the decision of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice in Bedford v. Canada to strike down various prostitution laws. Falle advocates adopting a law in Canada analogous to Sweden's Sex Purchase Act, which would decriminalize the selling of sex and criminalize the purchasing of sex.\n\n## Early life\n\nNatasha Falle grew up in a middle-class home in Nova Scotia, a suburb of Toronto, Ontario, and a suburb of Calgary, Alberta. Her mother managed stores in the wedding industry and her father was a police officer with a vice squad, arresting drug dealers and pimps. While she was growing up, Falle had multiple family members with addictions. When she was a young teenager, Falle's parents divorced, and she subsequently lived in a single-parent home with her mother. They moved into an apartment in downtown Toronto. Falle's father did not pay her mother alimony and there was often no money for food, so Falle began stealing food to survive.\n\nFalle had no role models. She began writing poetry about suicide and wearing black clothing. She acted out by stealing cars and using drugs recreationally. She started out with soft drugs and then moved on to using psychedelic mushrooms and LSD. Her associates in these criminal activities, who came from similarly dysfunctional backgrounds, provided her with a sense of belonging that she no longer found at home. Falle's mother had a series of boyfriends who abused her and made the house unsafe, so Falle ran away from home. She slept at friends' houses, on their couches and in tents in their backyards, concealing her presence from her friends' parents.\n\n## Prostitution\n\n### Initiation\n\nAfter she turned 15, Falle had her first experience in the sex industry at a party in a bar in Chinatown, Calgary. A 25-year-old man at the party who had forged identity documents convinced her to sell sex for money and give him half of her earnings. Falle found this man well-dressed and attractive and did not think that he fit the stereotypical image of a pimp. She had nowhere to sleep that night and had no money for food, so she accepted his offer. The man to whom she sold sex that night had teeth that were rotten. They had sex on a soiled mattress in a poorly-ventilated restaurant attic, and she received \\$100.\n\nFalle convinced five of her friends who came from dysfunctional homes to join her in prostitution. Falle said that she and the other girls she knew her age who had gone into prostitution had felt as though that was their only remaining option. She said they all tried to stay free of pimps, organized crime, and drugs, but eventually succumbed. Falle later said, \"We were prey for every paedophile, pervert, pimp and drug dealer that was out there.\" The man who had recruited Falle in Chinatown became her pimp. Adults began advertising Falle's sexual services in newspapers. Falle engaged in both indoor and outdoor prostitution, working as an escort, in strip clubs, and at massage parlours. At the legal establishments where she engaged in prostitution, escort drivers engaged in organized crime, selling guns, alcohol, cocaine, and stolen goods and pimping children in massage parlours.\n\n### Abuse\n\nFalle's pimp kept her imprisoned for the years that he prostituted her, and trafficked her across Canada to Edmonton, Vancouver, and Kelowna. Falle later said of herself and the other women in prostitution she knew, \"I couldn't admit that I was not there by choice. We couldn't live in our own skin if we admitted that. We needed to believe that it was our choice.\" Falle's pimp told her he would marry her if she made enough money for him through prostitution. When she had made the amount of money her pimp required, she was 17 years old. The two got married that year.\n\nFalle's pimp regularly beat her and she began to suffer from battered person syndrome. The worst beating she received was in a brothel where she and four other teenagers engaged in prostitution. Over the years that she was married to her pimp, she hoped he would change. She later said that she \"wanted to love him, believe he'd never do it again.\" She tried to make him enough money through prostitution to convince him not to find another girl. He threatened her family, and conditioned her not to call the police. Fear of being labelled a \"snitch\" or \"rat\" prevented her from going to the police. None of the other women she knew in the sex industry were in healthy relationships. At her peak, Falle owned a Ford Mustang, bought her pimp a Mercedes-Benz, and lived in a four-bedroom penthouse apartment, but she continued to experience violence. She used her material possessions to elevate herself above the women around her who were dependent on cocaine; she dismissed them as \"crackheads\" and \"crackhoes\".\n\nSome of the men who purchased sex with Falle were police officers, and she knew girls who used drugs with their drug counselors. Falle was brainwashed to believe that her only worth lay in prostitution, which she later said was why it took her so long to exit prostitution. While engaging in prostitution, Falle was frequently threatened by other women in the sex industry, she was verbally abused by her clients, she was stalked, and she was threatened with guns on multiple occasions, including by her pimp. She was also drugged several times, and was once sexually assaulted by an escort driver after having been drugged by him. At one point, she was kidnapped. She had to resort to pulling a knife on people at times when she was threatened with violence. Because of various instances of violence during her time in prostitution, Falle was injured in a variety of ways. Her pimp broke several of her bones and burned her body.\n\n### Effects and aftermath\n\nIn order to cope with the psychological trauma of prostitution and violence, Falle became dependent on cocaine. Within two years, she was spending \\$500 per night on cocaine. Her drug use resulted in delusions and caused her to become schizophrenic, and subsequently distrustful of those around her, fearing that people were coming to take away her drugs.\n\nEventually, the personal horror stories Falle heard from other women in her situation convinced her that she needed to get out of prostitution. Her substance dependence became so severe that she almost died. Her best friend was killed by her pimp. By this point, many of her friends in the sex industry had died, and she thought that she would be next. One night, Falle was hiding alone in a hotel room when she found a Bible placed there by Gideons International. She began reading the Psalms and later said, \"For the first time I understood what God was saying to me. That night my life began to move in a new direction.\" On her 27th birthday, Falle left her husband and returned to her mother. Because of the delusions, Falle did not recognize her mother, thinking she had been replaced with a clone. Falle told her mother about being dependent on cocaine, entering prostitution, and marrying her pimp. Her mother accepted her back. It took several more years before Falle gave up hope that her husband would change.\n\nFalle participated in a diversion program that allowed her to return to school. She said that she required a lot of support in order to fully exit prostitution, and found that support in her mother, her school, and Streetlight Support Services. Falle underwent a month of drug rehabilitation, which convinced her to become a counsellor. She then spent 90 days at the Toronto West Detention Centre and took seven months to finish high school. She went on to graduate from a college and a university. She received a diploma in Wife Assault and Child Advocacy from George Brown College and graduated with honours. To remove the burns her pimp had inflicted on her, she had laser surgery that cost thousands of dollars.\n\nFalle uses the term \"sex trade survivor\" to describe herself. In 2012, Falle sought to bring a lawsuit against her former pimp to demonstrate to other women who are or have been forcibly prostituted that it is possible to oppose one's pimp. In 2013, she said that, while she has left much aggression and profanity behind since leaving the sex industry, some of the issues that she developed will stick with her until the end of her life. Jonathan Migneault of the Sudbury Star wrote that \"Falle's story about her descent in and escape from prostitution is so horrific you almost don't believe the details.\" Sam Pazzano of the Toronto Sun wrote that, after 12 years of prostitution, Falle still has \"attractive looks and [a] sharp mind.\"\n\n## Activism\n\n### Streetlight Support Services\n\nIn 2001, Falle began counselling women in prostitution at Streetlight Support Services. Once she received her diploma from George Brown College, she redeveloped the organization's Choices program, a four-week program that helps women leave prostitution. Between 1997 and 2005, Choices helped 325 women out of the sex trade. Women entered into the program through the criminal justice system after being arrested for offences related to prostitution. By 2011, Falle had conselled more than 800 women. Of these women, 97% wrote on their intake surveys that they wanted to exit the sex industry, and 95% wrote that they had been physically abused by either a pimp, a client, or another woman in the sex industry. Falle believed these statistics to be representative of women in prostitution in Canada because the women she counselled did not come to her by choice; they were required to undergo the counselling by court order. In 2010, Falle said that hundreds of the women she had met were controlled by pimps, either as sexual partners or as traffickers. She also said that women in prostitution tend to be moved around a lot because they tend to fetch higher prices when they are new to a region. One of the women she counselled through Streetlight Support Services had been kept in a closet when she was not providing sexual services to men.\n\n### Sex Trade 101\n\nBecause Streetlight Support Services is administered by the office of the Attorney General of Ontario, Falle could not be politically active in her capacity as a counsellor with them. Falle said, \"I couldn't be silent anymore, because the strong voices that we were hearing were the minority few saying [prostitution] is liberating, it's a job choice ... I couldn't stand that lie anymore.\" She said that this minority only want to continue in prostitution because \"they've never had a healthy comparison.\" Falle founded and became the director of Sex Trade 101, a Toronto-based nonprofit organization dedicated to protecting the rights of women who have been in prostitution. She founded Sex Trade 101 because she saw women in the sex industry as victims rather than as criminals, and she believed that the Criminal Code depicted them as criminals. She founded the organization in order to make it more widely known that the vast majority of women in the sex industry want to leave. She met many women who had no family to support them in exiting the sex industry, and she decided to found an organization to provide that support. The organization helps prostitution victims exit the sex industry and improve their lives.\n\nSex Trade 101 calls itself \"Toronto's only sex trade survivors and abolitionist organization\" and is composed of 12 women who had escaped forced prostitution and who offer training for police in order to change perceptions about people involved in the sex trade. The organization is also involved in prevention work in high schools. The organization offers mentorship and peer support groups for women who are currently or were formerly in prostitution. It also partners with other organizations including the Servants Anonymous Society of Calgary and Sheatre, an Owen Sound-based interactive theatre company. In 2012, Falle and Bridget Perrier represented Sex Trade 101 in Owen Sound where they launched ReStart, a mentorship program to aid women and youth who are at risk of sexual victimization, to help people exit the sex trade, and to provide support once they have exited. At the workshop that launched this program, Falle said that some people in the sex industry engage in survival sex—trading sex for food, a place to sleep, alcohol, drugs, or the feeling that they are loved. She said that rural communities are common places for women and children to be groomed into prostitution. She identified Bruce—Grey—Owen Sound as particularly vulnerable because of the substance abuse in the area. By 2013, Sex Trade 101 had served more than 1,000 women. In May 2012, Falle spoke about human trafficking at high schools in Vancouver primarily because of the influence of a parent concerned about human trafficking in the area and its dangers to children.\n\n### Police\n\nFalle is a professor at Humber College in Toronto, where she teaches in the police foundations program, educating on the subject of social justice. One of her students, Brittany Swartzentruber, said that Falle's lectures would have a significant impact on Swartzentruber's career as a police officer, saying, \"She was one of the best speakers I have ever heard.\" Falle partners with the Toronto Police Service's sex crimes unit, which developed the statistic that the average age for a girl to become involved in prostitution in Canada is 14. According to Falle's research, the average age is between 13 and 16. York Regional Police drugs and vice unit Detective Thai Truong said that all law enforcement personnel should hear stories like Falle's because \"they remind us that they are not just prostitutes or escorts, but they are somebody's daughter, somebody's sister, somebody's wife.\"\n\n### Bill C-268\n\nIn June 2010, Kildonan—St. Paul Member of Parliament (MP) Joy Smith's private member's bill, Bill C-268, was passed as An Act to amend the Criminal Code (minimum sentence for offences involving trafficking of persons under the age of eighteen years). Falle was one of the bill's five main proponents, the others being Timea Nagy, a woman who was trafficked from Hungary to Canada at the age of 20 and kept as a sex slave in a strip club; Tamara Cherry, a Toronto Sun journalist who writes about human trafficking in Canada; Brian McConaghy, a former RCMP officer who works with Ratanak International—another anti-human-trafficking organization; and Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs Ron Evans, who raised awareness about victims of the sex industry in Manitoba. Later that year, Falle said that the best way to fight human trafficking is to influence public opinion.\n\nLater in 2010 in Winnipeg, Falle received an award at the first annual Honouring Heroes ceremony, which was organized by Joy Smith, who is also an anti-human-trafficking activist. Falle called Smith an angel, saying, \"It's only been in the last few years since all those missing and murdered aboriginal women turned up dead did anybody care about us. So to have her speak out the way she is against [prostitution] is so empowering.\" Falle was one of five award recipients at the ceremony, the other four being the other primary proponents of Bill C-268.\n\n### Bedford v. Canada\n\nFalle took a sustained interest in Bedford v. Canada, a case that began in the fall of 2010 when laws against keeping a brothel, communicating in order to facilitate prostitution, and living off the avails of prostitution were struck down by the Ontario Superior Court of Justice as unconstitutional. When Falle first heard about this decision, she cried, and expressed surprise and disappointment. She said that she did not believe that the average Canadian realized the implications of striking down these laws, which she said were that \"your next door neighbours can run a brothel right beside you. Your children could be exposed to condoms left on their driveway, johns propositioning them.\" She also expressed her concern that striking down anti-prostitution laws normalizes prostitution as a career option for children to consider. She also said that, without the laws, \"pimps will be legitimate businesspeople [and] billboards advertising brothels could start appearing on roadsides.\" Ron Marzel, a lawyer attempting to have the anti-prostitution laws declared unconstitutional, said, \"the reality is there are consenting adults who want to go into\" prostitution. Falle was angered by this statement, and replied that 97% of women in the sex industry are not engaging in prostitution by choice, and that \"the voices of the overwhelming majority of women who want to get out of prostitution are being drowned out by a vocal few.\"\n\nThe Government of Canada disagreed with Ontario's ruling and announced that the decision would be appealed. Falle helped the Crown formulate their case. That November, Falle was a panelist at a debate about the case. At the debate, which was hosted by the Queen's Law and Public Policy Club at Queen's University, Falle said that, whatever the outcome of the appeal, she was glad that the case was removing the taboos surrounding talking about prostitution. The following June, Falle and more than twelve others intervened in the case, arguing that the laws should be reinstated to protect women from pimps. As part of this anti-prostitution coalition, Falle said that all areas of the sex industry are unsafe, including escort agencies and strip clubs. Falle testified in the lower courts, saying that \"the more they say the women are there by choice, the harder it is for us to convince police, social workers and everyone else that these people are vulnerable.\" She also said that striking down anti-prostitution laws sends a message to men that it is acceptable to harass women. Falle said that all the applicants in Bedford v. Canada—including Terri-Jean Bedford, the dominatrix seeking to have the anti-brothel law struck down—entered the sex industry as children. For this reason, Falle argued that neither of these women chose a life of prostitution as a consenting adult; that life had already been chosen for them by the time that they had reached the age of consent. Falle encouraged Canadians to take an interest in Bedford v. Canada because any Canadian girl can become a victim of prostitution.\n\nEventually, the laws against pimping and communicating provisions were determined to be constitutional and were retained. As of 2013, the constitutionality of the law against brothels was still under review. Falle said that brothels should not be legalized, saying, \"I know firsthand and... from the disclosures of the many women that I've been able to counsel over the years that most violence happens behind closed doors.\" Falle said that if brothels were legalized, the police would have less legal ability to find women and children victimized by human trafficking. Bedford said that legalizing brothels would make prostitution safer for women because it would allow prostitution to take place indoors. Falle responded that most prostitution has already moved indoors, as the internet has made most street solicitation unnecessary, and argues that the move indoors has not made the women safer. She said that when she was in prostitution, she was even a little safer outdoors because of the added visibility to the public. In discussion of the case, Falle said, \"I don't know anyone in the prostitution business who hasn’t ended up dead, in jail, or on drugs.\" She intended to bring a pimp stick to the Supreme Court of Canada in June 2013 as a visual aid in explaining how pimps often abuse the women they prostitute.\n\n### Advocacy events\n\nIn October 2010, Falle picketed a courthouse in downtown Toronto in recognition of International Day of No Prostitution. She was joined by Trisha Baptie, Bridget Perrier, Katarina MacLeod, and Christine Barkhouse; all were former human trafficking victims and sex workers. At the protest, Falle said that \"only 1% of prostitutes say they enjoy sex with johns and 97% say they want to get out.\"\n\nIn January 2011, Falle appeared at the Party for Freedom at York University in Toronto, which launched the Alliance Against Modern Slavery, a nonprofit organization seeking to combat human trafficking through partnerships, education, and research. Falle was joined by Glendene Grant, human trafficking victim Jessie Foster's mother; Kevin Bales, co-founder and president of Free the Slaves; Kate Todd, a singer-songwriter and actor; Janelle Belgrave of Samba Elégua Drummers and Peace Concept; Roger Cram of Hiram College; and Jeff Gunn, a guitarist. That September, Falle attended Toronto's second annual Freedom Walk, which was hosted by Stop Child Trafficking Now, Freedom Relay Canada, and Oakville's Free-Them. At this event aimed at raising awareness about human trafficking nationally and internationally, Falle was joined by other abolitionists including Tara Teng, who was Miss Canada at the time; Trisha Baptie, co-founder of EVE; Shae Invidiata, founder of Free-Them; Timea Nagy; Constable Lepa Jankovic; MP Joy Smith; MP Olivia Chow; and MP Terence Young.\n\nIn October 2012, Falle was the keynote speaker at a symposium on street prostitution and human trafficking, which took place at Croatian Hall in Greater Sudbury and was attended by approximately 100 people. Sergeant Corinne Fewster of the Greater Sudbury Police Service said that the manner in which Falle was aided in her transition out of prostitution is a good example for local social and health services to follow in helping other women exit the sex industry. The following month, Falle told her story at a lunch hosted by The Salvation Army in Vancouver. That year, Falle said, \"Where there's high-track prostitutes, escorts, strippers and masseuses; there's pimp violence.\"\n\nIn March 2013, Falle spoke at the 57th Session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, where she sat on a panel called \"Survivors Speak: Prostitution and Sex Trafficking\" that was sponsored by Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. That May, Falle spoke at a fundraiser for the Servants Anonymous Society of Calgary, an organization that supports sex workers in the city. It was her first time in Calgary since she had been part of the sex industry there. The fundraiser was called \"Cry of the Streets: An Evening for Freedom\" and raised money for Servants Anonymous Facilitates Exit, a women's shelter for those seeking to leave the sex industry. At the fundraiser, Falle advocated adopting a law in Canada analogous to Sweden's Sex Purchase Act, which decriminalized the selling of sex and criminalized pimping and the purchasing of sex. Falle argued in support of modelling prostitution law in Canada after Sweden's laws because she believes that prostitution cannot be regulated. At another time, she had said that \"it's not Canada's laws that make prostitution unsafe, it's the johns who are raping and abusing the women and their pimps.\" Also in 2013, Falle said that the average age at which girls get involved in prostitution in Canada is 14, and that their emotional intelligence does not develop while in prostitution, preventing many of them from leaving. She also said that prostitution has grown significantly in Canada since she left the sex industry, and that most human trafficking victims in Canada were born and raised in Canada.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of kidnappings", "revid": "1151555337", "description": "Canadian academic", "categories": ["1973 births", "Academic staff of Humber College", "Anti-pedophile activism", "Anti-prostitution feminists", "Canadian academics of women's studies", "Canadian female prostitutes", "Canadian victims of crime", "Canadian women academics", "Canadian women's rights activists", "Child prostitution", "Feminist studies scholars", "Forced prostitution", "George Brown College alumni", "Human trafficking in Canada", "Kidnapped Canadian people", "Living people", "People from Calgary Region", "People from Nova Scotia", "People from the Greater Toronto Area", "Sex industry researchers", "Sexual abuse victim advocates", "Sexual harassment in Canada", "Victims of underage prostitution", "Women social scientists"]}
{"id": "62609355", "url": null, "title": "History of the Jews in Dęblin and Irena during World War II", "text": "Thousands of Jews lived in the towns of Dęblin and Irena [pl] in central Poland before World War II; Irena was the site of the Polish Air Force Academy from 1927. In September 1939, the town was captured during the German invasion of Poland and the persecution of Jews began with drafts into forced labor and the establishment of a Judenrat (\"Jewish Council\"). A ghetto was established in Irena in November 1940. It initially consisted of six streets and was an open ghetto (the Jews were not allowed to leave without permission, but non-Jews could enter). Many ghetto inhabitants worked on labor projects for Dęblin Fortress (a German Army base), the railway, and the Luftwaffe. Beginning in May 1941, Jews were sent to labor camps around Dęblin from the Opole and Warsaw ghettos. Conditions in the ghetto worsened in late 1941 due to increased German restrictions on ghetto inhabitants and epidemics of typhus and dysentery.\n\nThe first deportation was on 6 May 1942 and took around 2,500 Jews to Sobibór extermination camp. A week later, two thousand Jews arrived from Slovakia and hundreds more from nearby ghettos that had been liquidated. In October that same year, the Irena ghetto was liquidated; about 2,500 Jews were deported to Treblinka extermination camp while some 1,400 Jews were retained as inmates of forced-labor camps in the town. Unusually, the labor camp operated by the Luftwaffe—employing, at its peak, about a thousand Jews—was allowed to exist until 22 July 1944, less than a week before the area was captured by the Red Army. One of the last Jewish labor camps in the Lublin District, it enabled hundreds of Jews to survive the Holocaust. Some survivors who returned home were met with hostility, and several were murdered; all left by 1947.\n\n## Background\n\nDęblin and Irena [pl] (Yiddish: מאדזשיץ, Modzhitz) are located 70 kilometers (40 mi) northwest of Lublin in Poland, at the confluence of the Vistula and Wieprz rivers and at an important junction on the Lublin–Warsaw rail line. Local Jews supported the January Uprising in 1863. By the end of the nineteenth century, the area was a center of Hasidic Judaism; most Jews followed the Modzitz dynasty, named after the town of Irena, and there were also Gur Hasidim. Modzitz Rebbe Yisrael Taub settled in the town in 1889. Other Jews were Bundists or Zionists. Many Jews made their living as peddlers, shopkeepers, or artisans (especially in leatherwork and metalwork) and later participated in the development of the town as a summer resort. In 1927, the civilian population of Dęblin and Irena was 4,860, including 3,060 Jews. Beginning in 1927, Dęblin housed the Polish Air Force Academy, whose airfield was one of the largest in Poland. In 1936 and 1937, there were some incidents in which non-Jewish merchants vandalized their Jewish competitors' shops.\n\n## German invasion\n\nDuring the German invasion of Poland which started World War II in Europe, the Luftwaffe bombed Dęblin between 2 and 7 September 1939, targeting the military airfield, Polish Army ammunition stores, and a nearby bridge over the Vistula. Most Polish soldiers left the town on 7 September; on 11 September the remaining Polish forces detonated the ammunition and withdrew. The German Army arrived on 12 or 20 September. Many residents, both Jews and other residents of the area, had fled to escape the aerial bombardment. In the following weeks, most returned at the urging of the Germans. The Jews found that their properties had been ransacked and plundered. They were conscripted into forced-labor units that cleared up the bomb damage and repaired some of the buildings, and the Jewish community was forced to pay a fine of 20,000 zlotys. During the German occupation, Dęblin and Irena became part of the Lublin District of the General Governorate occupation region. In late 1939, Jews were required to wear armbands with the Star of David, and some were conscripted for forced labor in Janiszów, Bełżec, and Pawłowice.\n\nAt the end of the year, the German occupiers forced Jews to form a Judenrat (\"Jewish Council\"), as an interface between the Jewish community and Nazi demands. The Judenrat was formed later than others in the region and had its offices on Bankowa Street. The first Judenrat officials worked to reduce the impact of German demands and warned residents of searches. According to the Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, the first chair of the Judenrat, Leizer Teichman, was dismissed in early 1941; survivors reported that he and his secretary were deported to Wąwolnica with their families after trying to bribe policemen. The Judenrat was run temporarily by Kalman Fris, who resigned after a few months and was replaced by Vevel Shulman in August and then a Konin native named Drayfish in September 1941. According to Israeli historian David Silberklang, \"Szymon Drabfisz\" was the first chair and Teichman the second.\n\n## Ghetto\n\nA Nazi ghetto was established in Irena in November 1940 or early 1941, probably on the orders of Kurt Lenk, the region's new land commissioner. Some Jews were forced to move from their homes to the ghetto. The motive was probably to keep Jews away from the two nearby military installations, a Luftwaffe airfield and a German Army base, which were filled with troops in preparation for the 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union. The decree establishing the ghetto was not formally issued until 1942. Until 1942, Irena was an open ghetto (there was no physical fence, although the penalty for unauthorized departure was death) consisting of six streets. Its boundaries were initially Okólna Street, the Irenka River, Bankowa, and Staromiejska Streets. Staromiejska Street was removed from the ghetto in September 1942; its residents moved to Bankowa. Initially, non-Jews were allowed to enter and perhaps live in the ghetto, so many of the Jews were able to survive by trading material goods for food with them. A Polish-language secular school, run by Aida Milgroijm-Citronbojm, instructed 70 to 100 pupils. The Jewish Ghetto Police maintained order in the ghetto, and on the outside it was guarded by a Sonderdienst (\"Special Services\") unit consisting of local Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) and Ukrainian Auxiliary Police. The Sonderdienst unit was known for beating, humiliating, and killing ghetto inmates.\n\nIn late 1941, non-Jewish Poles were banned from entering the ghetto, resulting in waste piling up and typhus and dysentery epidemics. The sick were treated at a thirty-bed hospital run by Isaar Kawa, a doctor from Konin; with the help of non-Jewish doctors, medicines were imported from Warsaw. Simultaneously, new restrictions were imposed by the Germans: the use of stoves was banned, winter clothing confiscated, and fuel imports forbidden. More Jews began to leave the ghetto to obtain essentials, resulting in twenty young women being discovered outside the ghetto and killed. Because conditions were better in Lublin District than in Warsaw, some Jews fled to towns there including Irena; twenty Jews were executed for being unregistered refugees. The Judenrat's leadership was altered again as Drayfish was executed, accused of filing complaints with the Puławy County administration; he was replaced by the businessman Yisrael Weinberg.\n\nIn March 1941, 3,750 Jews lived in the ghetto, including 565 who were not from the area. These consisted mainly of Jews expelled from Puławy and the German-annexed Reichsgau Wartheland, as well as some Jews who had come to live with relatives to avoid being trapped in the Warsaw Ghetto. Overcrowding was severe; there were 7–15 people per room. More Jews arrived in May 1941: 1,000 from the ghettos at Warsaw, Częstochowa, and Opole, although they were not housed in the ghetto but at work sites in the area. On 13 and 14 May 1942, two transports totalling 2,042 Slovak Jews arrived from Prešov. Although they brought food with them, they were unused to the harsh conditions and many died of typhus due to the poor sanitation. More than 2,000 Jews were brought to Irena from nearby towns, having survived the liquidation of their communities because they had been selected to work. These included 300 people from Ryki, 300 from Gniewoszów and Zwoleń, and a group from Stężyca. Other Jews had entered the ghetto after escaping roundups in Baranów, Ryki, Gniewoszów, and Adamów (from early October). In August, 5,800 Jews were reported to be living in the ghetto, of whom only 1,800 were from Dęblin.\n\n## Forced labor\n\nUntil late 1942, Jews earned wages as forced laborers, except those who were conscripted by the municipality for tasks such as street cleaning or snow clearing. Some Jews worked for German companies such as Schwartz and Hochtief, contracted by the Wehrmacht to do construction on the military bases in the town. The Ostbahn contracted Schultz to improve the railway between Lublin and Warsaw, a project which employed 300 Jews beginning in June 1941. Working conditions at this site were very harsh with Jews forced to work twelve hours each day. However, most Jews worked for the German Army or the Luftwaffe; women and children grew food for the military. Dęblin Fortress, which had been taken over by the German Army and where around 200 Jews from the ghetto worked, was the site of Stalag 307, a camp for Soviet prisoners of war, from 10 July 1941. An estimated 80,000 Soviet prisoners were imprisoned there; all died within a few months of starvation and disease. The Jews who worked there saw prisoners held in worse conditions than their own. The Jews from Dęblin and Irena tried to take the best jobs; 200 of the Slovak deportees ended up working for the municipality. An additional 200 of the Slovaks worked for the Schultz firm following an expansion. Survivors recalled that although German soldiers supervising the forced laborers tended to treat them relatively well, some ethnic Polish supervisors beat Jews, and the Ukrainian guards at the railway project were especially harsh, threatening prisoners with death.\n\nIn May 1941, in preparation for the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Luftwaffe commissioned the firm Autheried to improve the airfield. They recruited 200 Jewish workers in Opole, many of whom were Austrian Jews who had been deported from Vienna in February 1941 and wanted to escape the harsh conditions in Opole. These Jews, as well as another four hundred recruited in Irena and the Lipowa 7 camp in Lublin, and 500 ethnic Polish workers, worked twelve hours a day levelling the runway and building roads, walls, air-raid shelters, and earth fortifications. They also built a barbed-wire-enclosed complex adjacent to the runway for craftsmen to work in. Following the completion of the project in October, the workers were dispersed to various projects around the town, an action which may have been related to the typhus epidemic. Some of the Jews from Vienna stayed at the airfield, having obtained permits to work on gravel transportation and building fuel tanks; they were the nucleus for the later labor camp. After the first deportation from the Irena ghetto on 6 May 1942, additional Jews tried to secure permits, often obtained through bribery, to avoid deportation. By October 1942, the camp had 543 legal residents. At this point there were five forced-labor camps around Dęblin: the Luftwaffe camp, the fortress, the train station (300 Jews), Lipova Street (200 Jews and ethnic Poles), and another near the municipal boundary (300 Jews).\n\n## Deportation, murder, and liquidation\n\n### First deportation\n\nThe first deportation was on 6 May 1942, to clear space for the Slovak deportees who arrived a week later. A force composed of German and Ukrainian police and a few German SS and Ukrainian SS auxiliaries ordered Jews to assemble in the main square at 09:00. According to Yad Vashem, the Blue Police also participated. Probably because the Luftwaffe was seeking permission to recruit more laborers, the Jews had to wait for five hours. At 14:00, 1,000 Jews who already had work assignments were separated, and local employers began recruiting an additional 200–500 Jews. Forty or fifty people were killed trying to cross over to the working group. Around 2,300 to 2,500 Jews from Dęblin—mainly the elderly and families with small children—were marched to the Dęblin train station (some 2.5 km (1.6 mi) away) at 18:00 and sent to Sobibór extermination camp. The victims were beaten, and those who could not keep up were shot. Only late in the night were the Jews selected for labor allowed to return home. Every family was affected. After the deportation, the bodies of the dead were collected at the synagogue and removed from the ghetto in carts.\n\nDuring the next two days, more than four thousand Jews from north Puławy County—200 from Bobrowniki (6 May), 1,800 from Ryki (7 May), 125 from Stężyca (7 May), 1,500 from Baranów (8 May) and 500 from Łysobyki (8 May)—were also marched to Dęblin and deported to Sobibór. This was half of a countywide extermination action in Puławy County—the first in a series of systematic, countywide deportations in the Lublin District as part of Operation Reinhard. The county's administrator, Alfred Brandt [de] ordered it shortly after Sobibór became operational; he was present in Dęblin during the deportation.\n\n### Second deportation\n\nThe next deportation, which coincided with the liquidation of the two remaining ghettos in Puławy (Opole and Końskowola), took place on 15 October 1942; the previous day, all workers had been ordered to remain at their workplaces. Under the command of SS-Obersturmführer Grossman, gendarmes, Luftwaffe soldiers, and police auxiliaries rounded up the remaining Jewish population. Many Jews tried to avoid the roundup and enter the Luftwaffe camp, which at that time had 543 official residents. Some were turned away by the Jewish police there. Israeli historian Talia Farkash estimates that about 500, including 60–90 young children, managed to get in, mostly by paying bribes. Silberklang's estimate is that 1,000 Jews entered the camp, including 280 women and 100 children. The Jewish elder, Hermann Wenkert, later claimed that if he had allowed non-registered Jews entry, and they were discovered, everyone in the camp would have been killed. Instead, he bribed the Germans to obtain legal permits for an additional 400 Jews, which were mostly given to the wives and children of current residents.\n\nMany of the Slovak Jews, not knowing what to expect, had lingered in the ghetto while packing their bags. About 215 to 500 Jews were shot and killed by the Ukrainians and Germans while the houses were being cleared. Between 2,000 and 2,500 people were deported to Treblinka extermination camp; mostly the Slovaks. Members of the Judenrat, Jewish police, and their families, about 100 in total, were retained to clean up the ghetto. Perhaps another 100 Jews were hiding without permission in the ghetto. On 28 October, the remaining Jews were sent to the Schultz labor camp, and the ghetto was officially liquidated. Either on that day or within the next few weeks, 1,000 people were removed from the labor camps, including the 200 workers at Dęblin Fortress and 200 to 500 of the Luftwaffe's workers. They were deported to Końskowola or Treblinka.\n\nAfter this, Farkash estimates that there were about 1,400 Jews were still alive in the labor camps around Irena. Estimates of the number at the Luftwaffe camp range from 1,000 to 2,000, with another 300 at a railway camp near the passenger station, and 120 at another camp near the railway loading station. During May or July 1943, most of the remaining prisoners in the railway camps were deported to Poniatowa concentration camp via the transit ghetto in Końskowola; the rest were deported in late 1943. Hundreds of Jews were still alive in the remaining labor camps in Puławy County, but they were murdered during Operation Harvest Festival (2–3 November 1943). This operation also killed the prisoners of Poniatowa but did not affect the Jews at the Luftwaffe camp in Irena, who were unaware of it. Following Operation Harvest Festival, there were ten labor camps for Jews in the Lublin District with more than 10,000 Jews still alive.\n\n## Luftwaffe camp\n\n### Camp leader\n\nThe camp leader (German: Lagerälteste) at the Luftwaffe camp was Hermann Wenkert, a Jewish lawyer from Vienna who had been deported to Opole in 1941 and came to Irena with the volunteers. According to Wenkert's account, soon after his arrival he happened upon Eduard Bromofsky, an Austrian Luftwaffe officer with whom Wenkert had served during World War I. Bromofsky convinced the commander of the camp to promote Wenkert to his position. Even after Bromofsky was reassigned, the relationships that Wenkert had cultivated with the German authorities enabled him to retain his position. Wenkert populated the administration with other Viennese Jews, insisted on extra rations for himself and his family, and had his family transferred from Opole to Irena. Because of his close association with the German authorities and use of his position for personal benefit, some survivors considered him to be a collaborator. When it was possible, Wenkert negotiated with the authorities and paid bribes to avoid punishment; he also consulted respected prisoners in cases where the matter had not come to German attention. However, when he thought there was no other option and the survival of the camp was in the balance, Wenkert turned Jews accused of wrongdoing over to the Germans even though he knew that this would result in their deaths. In general, German-speaking Jews had a more positive impression of him than the local Jews, who spoke Yiddish. According to Silberklang, both views of Wenkert may be true: that he tried to secure benefits for himself personally while also working to keep the other Jewish prisoners alive.\n\n### Conditions\n\nConditions were relatively good compared to other camps. Residents received food rations of about 1,700 kilocalories daily (enough to live), weekly baths, and medical care, and were allowed to practice their religion. The presence of 100 young children—whose existence was justified as increasing the productivity of their parents—was particularly unusual and not matched elsewhere in the Lublin District after Operation Harvest Festival. Aida Milgroijm-Citronbojm continued the Polish-language school that she had run in the ghetto. The SS, who did not know about the children's existence, periodically conducted surprise inspections of the camp, during which the children had to hide. According to Farkash, Wenkert's positive relationship with the camp command was partially responsible for the good conditions. Wenkert managed to get religious Jews exempted from working on Shabbat and allowed a chevra kadisha society to operate, burying the dead according to Jewish law. In 1943, about 80 Jews (including Wenkert) received kosher food for the week of Passover.\n\nThe camp had three German commanders, all at the rank of sergeant major: Kattengel (through March 1943), Dusy, and Rademacher (during the last two months). Although Kattengel was distrusted because he roamed the camp with a dog and whip, both Dusy and Rademacher were described positively by survivors. Dusy even arranged for one woman to receive treatment at a German hospital after she was badly injured. Wiszniewski, a local Volksdeutscher, was the lead foreman of the Jewish laborers and did not mistreat them. Autheried engineer Kozak brought food to the Jews he worked with. The Slovak Jews at the camp were the last major group to survive of the almost 40,000 Slovak Jews deported to the Lublin District in 1942. The Jews remaining in Prešov hired couriers (non-Jews from the Polish–Slovak border) to travel to the camp regularly until it was dissolved, carrying letters and bringing valuables and money. A committee was formed in the camp to distribute these among the Slovak Jews. Cases of theft by Polish Jews led to friction between the two communities.\n\nDespite the relatively good conditions, some Jews tried to escape because they feared that the camp would be liquidated. The Luftwaffe camp command imposed collective punishment to deter escapees. Both theft and possessing foreign currency were punishable by hanging. Punishment could be excessive and arbitrary—nine Jews were executed by firing squad for causing an accidental fire—but less so than other Nazi camps. Reports of the Home Army from that time often described the local ethnic Polish population as hostile to \"Jewish bands\" which stole food and resources from Polish peasants; said reports, according to Zimmerman, therefore can be seen as reflecting \"the eerie distance of mere observers\". According to Farkash, in 1943, Wenkert allowed a group of Jewish partisans seeking refuge from a hostile unit of the Polish Home Army resistance group into the camp. Most Jews who tried to escape were captured, and others returned to the camp. Several members of the Kowalczyk peasant family were honored as Righteous Among the Nations for sheltering nine Jews who had escaped from the Łuków ghetto and the Dęblin camp on their farm in Rozłąki [pl], from late 1943 to mid-1944. Árpád Szabó, a Hungarian military doctor, was similarly recognized for smuggling a Slovak Jewish couple from the camp to Hungary.\n\n### Liquidation\n\nThe camp was liquidated on 22 July 1944, the same day that the Red Army reached Lublin. At the time of the deportation, some 800 to 900 Jews were still alive, of whom 400 to 600 were from Dęblin or Irena, 40 from Vienna, and 70 to 80 from Slovakia. Two or three transports departed from Irena on 17 and 22 July. (Silberklang reports a third on 20 July). Since no one was willing to volunteer, the first transport carried about 200 people who had few connections in the camp, including single adults and fifteen children between three and six years of age. On the orders of camp security officer Georg Bartenschlager, the fifteen children were shot and killed upon their arrival in Częstochowa. The rest of the prisoners, including Wenkert and 33 young children, departed on the second transport with Rademacher, the German camp commander, who carried a letter of protection from the airfield commander. About fifty Jews escaped from the camp during the evacuation, but most were killed. The second transport arrived in Częstochowa on 25 July; the young children were kept separated for two and a half days but were not killed. The reason for this is not clear, but likely involved negotiations with Bartenschlager. In Częstochowa, the Jews worked at the four Hugo Schneider AG plants. Some were deported to Buchenwald and Bergen-Belsen in January 1945 while others were liberated by the Red Army. About half survived.\n\nAccording to Farkash, the airfield camp in Irena is a \"singular case\" in the Lublin district and possibly in the entirety of occupied Poland. One unusual aspect of the camp was that it was run from start to finish by the Luftwaffe rather than the SS, although during 1943 and 1944, the SS tried to expand its role. According to Silberklang, being run by the Wehrmacht helped to ensure the camp's survival. However, other camps (such as three in Zamość county) were run by the Luftwaffe and were still liquidated before the end of 1943. Another reason was the importance of Jewish workers at Dęblin to the German war effort, which was continually emphasized by Wenkert in his dealings with the Germans. Overall, luck played a major role in the fortuitous combination of Jewish leadership, relatively friendly Germans, and the evacuation of the camp to Częstochowa rather than Auschwitz-Birkenau. Ninety-nine percent of the Jews from Lublin District were killed in the Holocaust, but hundreds from Dęblin and Irena survived the war.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nDęblin was liberated by the 1st Polish Army by 27 July 1944. In 1945, Alfred Brandt was convicted and sentenced to death for his crimes by a Soviet military tribunal near Słupsk and executed by firing squad. Some of the Jewish survivors, who attempted to return home in January 1945, were told by the local Milicja Obywatelska police chief that it was illegal for them to settle in the town. In March 1945, survivors Łaja, Gitla and Fryda Luksemburg were murdered with the involvement of local police. Other Jews received threatening letters. Following the 1946 Kielce pogrom, a meeting in Dęblin was held to commemorate the victims. Locals interrupted the meeting with anti-semitic slogans. By 1947, no Jews remained in the town, which is still the case in the twenty-first century. As of 2011, the Dęblin Synagogue [pl] was in poor condition and being considered for demolition. A memorial plaque about the Irena ghetto was unveiled in Dęblin in 2015.\n\nIgnaz Bubis, a former prisoner of the ghetto, was the chairman of the Central Council of Jews in Germany from 1992 to 1999.", "revid": "1152255785", "description": "Ghetto in Poland", "categories": ["1941 establishments in Poland", "1942 disestablishments in Poland", "Ghettos in Lublin District", "Luftwaffe bases", "Ryki County", "War crimes of the Wehrmacht"]}
{"id": "352567", "url": null, "title": "Made in Canada (TV series)", "text": "Made in Canada is a Canadian television comedy which aired on CBC Television from 1998 to 2003. Rick Mercer starred as Richard Strong, an ambitious and amoral television producer working for a company which makes bad (but profitable) television shows. A dark satire about the Canadian television industry, the programme shifted into an episodic situation comedy format after its first season.\n\nIt was created by Mercer, Gerald Lunz and Michael Donovan, produced by Salter Street Films and Island Edge, and filmed in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The programme was broadcast with Salter Street's satirical newsmagazine, This Hour Has 22 Minutes, and drew its creators, writing staff, and much of its production staff from that programme; Made in Canada was filmed during the summer, and 22 Minutes during the fall. Mercer starred on both until he left 22 Minutes in 2001.\n\nThe programme received critical and popular recognition. It was particularly well-received by the industry it lampooned, attracting many guest stars. The programme received 23 national awards during its five-season run, including multiple Gemini, Writers Guild of Canada, and Canadian Comedy Awards. In the United States, Australia and Latin America, the show was syndicated as The Industry. In France, it was syndicated as La loi du Show-Biz.\n\n## Plot\n\nA satire of film and television production, the series revolves around fictional Pyramid Productions – a company where greed and backstabbing thrive. Pyramid produces lucrative (but terrible) television and films for the domestic and international markets, with creative decisions made by non-creative people.\n\nCompany head Alan Roy is obsessed with appearances and staying ahead of trends, whether this means owning his own cable channel or having the largest yacht at Cannes. His often-idiotic decisions lead to extra work for his employees, who must fulfill his wishes or deal with the consequences. The employees – Richard, Victor, Veronica and Wanda – manipulate each other and sabotage each other's projects to earn more money, gain promotions or work on better projects. None of them appear to have issues with breaking the law, and they seem to have no sense of morality. They generally only cooperate when they have an opportunity to destroy another company or a mutual enemy. Each episode deals with one major problem (or event), which normally does not carry over to the next episode.\n\nPyramid projects also provide storylines for the series, as the company's staff try to manage the inevitable complications created by the casts and crews of their film and television productions. Its cash cows are two series: The Sword of Damacles  [sic], a parody of mythological adventure series such as Xena: Warrior Princess and Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, and Beaver Creek, a parody of Canadian period dramas such as Anne of Green Gables and Road to Avonlea. The staff also face complications with their low-budget, poorly-made films, such as Vigilante's Vengeance. Many of their movies fail; they are not produced, or go direct-to-video in foreign countries.\n\n## Characters\n\n- Richard Strong (Rick Mercer), the central character, is an ambitious, machiavellian employee trying to navigate, scheme and backstab his way to the CEO's chair; in the first episode, he makes his way from junior script reader to television producer by having his boss (and brother-in-law) Ray Drodge fired. Ruthless and amoral, he is better at his job than most of his colleagues. Richard has had relationships with Veronica Miller, Lisa Sutton and Siobhan Roy, but generally as an opportunity to manipulate rather than out of love. The character was partially inspired by Ian McKellen's performance in the 1995 film adaptation of Shakespeare's Richard III. He personifies human vice, unfettered by ethics.\n- Alan Roy (Peter Keleghan), the firm's CEO, is a charismatic but intellectually-questionable womanizer who often succeeds more by accident than skill and, much more often, fails miserably. He is frequently mystified that his management style – a combination of bad production ideas, offbeat health fads and half-understood slogans from management books – does not rouse office morale. Alan's career was launched with his first film, Prom Night at Horny High, which was a commercial success despite being lowbrow and indecent. (Keleghan had an early starring role in the 1983 sex comedy, Screwballs.) Keleghan described the character as a cross between Alliance Communications head Robert Lantos and The Simpsons' Mr. Burns. Producer Michael Donovan joked that Alan reflected the showrunners' impression of him.\n- Veronica Miller (Leah Pinsent) is the firm's chief operating officer. Although she is generally overworked, doing the jobs of several other employees, she is still forced to do idiotic and degrading tasks for Alan. Veronica occasionally becomes fed up with her poor treatment and sabotages a project or event, which usually spurs Alan to improve her working conditions and meet her demands. The office problem-solver, she is generally an ally of Richard's in making the best of Alan's decisions but will double-cross him if necessary.\n- Victor Sela (Dan Lett) is head of Pyramid's film division and a general office sycophant, willing to do almost anything Alan asks of him (no matter how demeaning). He is usually very positive about Alan's schemes. In a test, however, Victor is the least loyal.\n- Wanda Mattice (Jackie Torrens), Alan's assistant, uses her influence in the day-to-day workings of the office to obtain power beyond her role in the corporate hierarchy and knows when it is to her advantage to act less intelligent. Although she frequently dresses strangely and appears frumpy, Alan is attracted to her and they frequently have sex in the office.\n- Lisa Sutton (Janet Kidder) is a producer and Victor's girlfriend. Richard considers her a threat to his power, and Alan dislikes her for ignoring (or spurning) his attempts to seduce her.\n- Raymond Drodge (Ron James) is a producer. Formerly the head of television development, he is fired in the pilot after Richard and Siobhan frame him for sexually harassing Siobhan. He is later rehired in a much lower position after Richard gets his old job. Due to Richard's manipulation, Raymond's marriage falls apart and he begins to believe that he is an alcoholic.\n- Michael Rushton (Alex Carter) is the dimwitted, egotistical star of The Sword of Damacles.\n- Siobhan Roy (Emily Hampshire), Alan's daughter, is one of the stars of Beaver Creek. Fully aware that being the boss's daughter gives her job security, she freely schemes and manipulates to get whatever she wants.\n- Brian Switzer (Chas Lawther), nicknamed \"Network Brian\", is an executive with the television network which airs Beaver Creek and its main liaison with Pyramid.\n\n### Notable guest stars\n\nMost people employed in Canadian television enjoyed the programme, which created a stir in the industry and attracted a number of guest stars:\n\n- Gordon Pinsent as Walter Franklyn, star of Beaver Creek and \"Canada's most beloved actor\". Pinsent returns in the last episode as a dairy mogul who buys the company. Mercer considered Pinsent's work to be a major influence on his career, and was extremely pleased to have him in the cast; during the series' production, Mercer narrated a biography of Pinsent.\n- Peter Blais as Geoff, an actor who comes out and subsequently wants Parson Hubbard (his character on Beaver Creek) to be gay\n- Andrew Bush as a young method actor who plays Blind Jimmy on Beaver Creek\n- Mary-Colin Chisholm as an actor who plays Nurse Melissa on Beaver Creek\n- Maury Chaykin as Captain McGee, a kiddie entertainer who is caught in a sex scandal\n- Andy Jones as Fritz Hoffman, a German TV executive who believes that Beaver Creek is a sexier version of Dawson's Creek\n- Sarah Polley as the head of the Church of Spirentology [sic] cult\n- Shirley Douglas and Margot Kidder appeared as fading Hollywood actresses making guest appearances on Beaver Creek.\n- Megan Follows (the real-life star of Anne of Green Gables) as Mandy Forward, the former \"Adele of Beaver Creek\", who returned for a reunion movie and discovered that after her previous Beaver Creek movie, Alan kept the sets up to produce a pornographic knockoff.\n- Mark McKinney as Dean Sutherland, a released convict who wants to sell his story\n- Don McKellar as Adam Kalilieh, an independent art film director\n- Joe Flaherty as a mayoral candidate who hires Pyramid to smear his opponent\n- Cynthia Dale and C. David Johnson as a husband-and-wife motivational team\n- Colin Mochrie as Frank Roy: Alan's mentally-handicapped brother who, as part of an elaborate tax dodge orchestrated by Alan, is revealed as the actual Pyramid CEO.\n\nSeveral Canadian media personalities made cameos as fictionalized versions of themselves, including Nicholas Campbell, Ann-Marie MacDonald, Moses Znaimer, Keifer Sutherland, Evan Solomon, Peter Gzowski, Ann Medina and Gino Empry.\n\n## Development and writing\n\nThe series was conceived by Mercer, executive producer Gerald Lunz and Salter Street Films co-chair Michael Donovan in 1994. Lunz had launched Mercer's career, producing his one-man shows and This Hour Has 22 Minutes (the latter of which was made by Salter Street). Mercer and Lunz formed Island Edge to co-produce Made in Canada and develop other projects for Mercer.\n\nDonovon, Lunz and Mercer wanted to satirize office politics, starring Mercer as an ambitious man manipulating his way to the top in a parody of Shakespeare's Richard III. Instead of killing his rivals, the programme's Richard would kill their careers by ruining their reputations and seizing their power. Richard would address the audience directly, breaking the fourth wall to share his plans and ambitions. Although they realized this was a risk, they felt that Mercer could connect with the audience as he had in his monologues. Mercer had established himself as the first mainstream Canadian satirist to make scathing criticisms directly, without a comedic mask.\n\nThey had considered setting the satire in the federal bureaucracy in line with Mercer's political criticism (known as the country's \"unofficial opposition party\"), but Mercer was not sufficiently knowledgeable about the government's inner workings. Believing that satire required a firm understanding of its targets, they set the programme in a television and film production office; this would be understood by the audience and provide many egos to lampoon. Mercer described the programme in a later interview as having a \"Dilbert reality\" of an office, in which some have a \"suck-up kick-down philosophy\". In April 1998, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) approved a six-part series without seeing a script.\n\nThe first season was cowritten by Mercer and Mark Farrell over a two-month period. They had both written for 22 Minutes and had written sketches for several years, but neither had written episodic television before. Lunz, a self-described \"Shakespeare nut\", guided the theme and style. Farrell, Lunz and Mercer remained the show's creative force throughout its five seasons. Other writers for the series included Paul Bellini, Alex Ganetakos and Edward Riche.\n\nThe programme shifted from a dark satire to an episodic sitcom after its first season, and addressed the audience less frequently. This was often limited to the closing line – \"I think that went well\" or \"This is not good\" – which might be given to a character other than Richard, depending on who was behind that episode's schemes. The series' working title was The Industry, which was changed to The Casting Couch and then Made in Canada.\n\n## Production\n\nCBC executive George Anthony, who had convinced Lunz and Mercer to come to the network years previously, recognized their talent and was firmly supportive of the production. The programme went from network approval to broadcast in a record six months. Executives ordered a thirteen-episode second season after viewing the first episode, which was unprecedented for the public broadcaster. Casting was done while scripts were still being written, and episodes were filmed out of sequence to accommodate the actors' schedules.\n\nFilmed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the programme was produced by (and a parody of) Salter Street Films. It used Salter Street's real offices as its main office set during the first season, shooting primarily on evenings and weekends from 17 July to 24 August 1998. The first season was directed by Henry Sarwer-Foner (also of 22 Minutes), who had his hand in the programme's editing, scripting, and overall design. He shot with a long lens to achieve a film-like quality, and sought to give it a distinctive look. Sarwer-Foner directed 22 of the series' 65 episodes. Other directors included Michael Kennedy and Stephen Reynolds.\n\nThe programme used The Tragically Hip's \"Blow at High Dough\", one of Mercer's favourite songs, as its theme. The iconic Canadian band's first hit single, its title was taken from a Scottish phrase about being overambitious and taking on more than one could handle. The lyrics refer to a movie production (Speedway, starring Elvis Presley) which sweeps up a small town. Other Tragically Hip songs were featured including \"Poets\", \"Courage\", \"New Orleans Is Sinking\", \"My Music at Work\", and \"Tiger the Lion\".\n\nAlthough Mercer took time off from 22 Minutes in January 1999 to concentrate on the second season of Made in Canada, he continued to appear in most episodes until he retired from 22 Minutes in 2001. The programme continued to film during the summer, with 22 Minutes filming in the fall. The second season began filming in June 1999 at Electropolis Studios in Halifax. CHUM Limited vice-president Moses Znaimer allowed scenes for the second-season finale to be filmed at the CHUM-City Building in Toronto for authenticity. Season four began filming on 18 June 2001.\n\nWhile the first season of the series was in production, two Canadian film and television studios (Alliance Communications and Atlantis Communications) merged to create Alliance Atlantis. This merger was parodied in Made in Canada's second-season premiere, when Pyramid merges with a company called Prodigy and becomes Pyramid Prodigy. Two years later, Alliance Atlantis purchased Salter Street Films.\n\n## Broadcast and home video\n\nMade in Canada premiered on CBC Television on 5 October 1998, amidst Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) hearings on the country's broadcasting policy and Canadian content. The series aired on Monday nights at 8:30 pm, after This Hour Has 22 Minutes. Both programmes were moved to Friday in fall 2001, leading into Royal Canadian Air Farce and The Red Green Show in a CBC move to create a comedy-programming block and boost already-strong ratings.\n\nThe first two seasons were sold to PBS in 1999 for distribution in the United States as The Industry. The series was also syndicated in France, Australia and Latin America; the French name was La loi du Show-Biz.\n\nIn 2000, DVD and home-video rights to seasons one and two were acquired by Koch International. Entertainment One released the first season on DVD in Region 1 in 2002; it is currently out of print. The series was telecast on the Canadian cable channel BiteTV from 2010 to 2015.\n\nThe first and second seasons began streaming on the CBC Gem platform on 12 March 2020. In October 2022, it was announced that additional seasons would become available, with all five seasons streaming on Gem as of 2023.\n\n## Reception\n\nThe series was popular and critically praised in Canada and the United States. The programme's 5 October 1998 premiere had 1,002,000 viewers, holding 75 percent of the audience from the lead-in This Hour Has 22 Minutes.\n\n### Critical response\n\nShannon Hawkins of the Ottawa Sun wrote during its first season that Made in Canada had \"all the makings of a hit\", with clever dialogue, plausible characters and a storyline for anyone who fantasized about ruining their boss. Antonia Zerbisias of the Toronto Star described the programme as \"scary, cynical and biting\", and felt that the production took huge risks in satirizing its producers and industry moguls and its choice of title in a country which looked down on domestic productions. According to Stephen Cole of The National Post, the first season was well-scripted, funny and clever with solid performances but never found a target worthy of its \"savage and cutting\" satire. Cole was disappointed that the series remained a sitcom instead of taking on more compelling issues specific to the Canadian industry. Rating the first episode 9 out of 10, a TV Guide reviewer said that the programme centred on Mercer's fresh and deeply-biting \"satire with a smirk\" complemented with an able cast; although the audience might miss some inside jokes, it was felt that the show should hold the 22 Minutes audience. For Saturday Night, comedy critic Andrew Clark wrote that the programme created an eerily-believable universe with its casting, filming location and fictitious shows, and appreciated Mercer's ability to find a satirical line and hone it to a cutting edge.\n\nAt the beginning of its fourth season, John Doyle of The Globe and Mail called the show \"addictive\", switching from absurdity to brutal satire accessible to every viewer. At the end of the series, Doyle wrote that most in the industry had enjoyed its \"twisted, vague versions\" of real stories and scandals.\n\nMade in Canada has been compared to Ken Finkleman's satire, The Newsroom, in which Farrell, Keleghan, and Pinsent had roles. Although they share a documentary feel and were shot in real offices, Clark noted that their lead characters are distinctly different; Richard's ambition is all-consuming, and he wages \"intergenerational warfare\" against the likes of Finkleman's ineffective George Findlay.\n\n### Awards\n\nThe series was nominated for more than three dozen Gemini Awards during its five-season run, winning ten. Made in Canada was nominated for fourteen awards at the 2002 Geminis, the first time a sitcom led dramatic programmes and miniseries in nominations. Its wins included two for Best Comedy Series and three for Best Ensemble Performance in a Comedy.\n\nThe show won nine Canadian Comedy Awards out of twenty-six nominations, leading the nominations in 2000, 2002 and 2003. It received four Writers Guild of Canada Awards and a Directors Guild of Canada Award. After the series ended, Mercer won the 2003 Sir Peter Ustinov Comedy Award at the Banff Television Festival, and a 2004 National Arts Centre Award for outstanding work of the previous year.\n\n### Reunion\n\nA 15th-anniversary Made in Canada reunion, attended by Mercer, Keleghan, Pinsent, Lett, Torrens, Lunz, Sarwer-Foner, Riche and Farrell, was held at the Canadian International Television Festival (CITF) on 16 November 2013. The reunion included a screening, followed by a question-and-answer session.", "revid": "1159809068", "description": "Television series", "categories": ["1990s Canadian satirical television series", "1990s Canadian sitcoms", "1990s Canadian workplace comedy television series", "1998 Canadian television series debuts", "2000s Canadian satirical television series", "2000s Canadian sitcoms", "2000s Canadian workplace comedy television series", "2003 Canadian television series endings", "CBC Television original programming", "Gemini and Canadian Screen Award for Best Comedy Series winners", "Television series about television", "Television shows filmed in Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Television shows set in Toronto"]}
{"id": "1249574", "url": null, "title": "Hart Island", "text": "Hart Island, sometimes referred to as Hart's Island, is located at the western end of Long Island Sound, in the northeastern Bronx in New York City. Measuring approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) long by 0.33 miles (0.53 km) wide, Hart Island is part of the Pelham Islands archipelago, to the east of City Island.\n\nThe island's first public use was as a training ground for the United States Colored Troops in 1864. Since then, Hart Island has been the location of a Union Civil War prison camp, a psychiatric institution, a tuberculosis sanatorium, a potter's field with mass burials, a homeless shelter, a boys' reformatory, a jail, and a drug rehabilitation center. Several other structures, such as an amusement park, were planned for Hart Island but not built. During the Cold War, Nike defense missiles were stationed on Hart Island. The island was intermittently used as a prison and a homeless shelter until 1967; the last inhabited structures were abandoned in 1977. The potter's field on Hart Island was run by the New York City Department of Correction until 2019, when the New York City Council voted to transfer jurisdiction to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation.\n\nThe remains of more than one million people are buried on Hart Island, though since the first decade of the 21st century, there are fewer than 1,500 burials a year. Burials on Hart Island include individuals who were not claimed by their families or did not have private funerals; the homeless and the indigent; and mass burials of disease victims.\n\nAccess to the island was restricted by the Department of Correction, which operated an infrequent ferryboat service and imposed strict visitation quotas. Burials were conducted by inmates from the nearby Rikers Island jail. The Hart Island Project, a public charity founded by visual artist Melinda Hunt, worked to improve access to the island and make burial records more easily available. Transfer to the Parks Department in 2019 had been sought for over twenty years and was hoped to ease public access to the Island. Burials in the island's Potters' Field continued after the transfer.\n\n## Toponymy\n\nThere are numerous theories about the origins of the island's place name. One theory posits that British cartographers named it \"Heart Island\" in 1775 due to its organ-like shape but the 'e' was dropped shortly after. A map drawn in 1777 and subsequent maps refer to the island as \"Hart Island\". Other names given to the island during the late 18th century were \"Little Minneford Island\" and \"Spectacle Island\", the latter because the island's shape was thought to resemble spectacles.\n\nAnother theory, based on the meaning of the English word \"hart\", which means \"stag\", is that the island was named when it was used as a game reserve. Another version holds that it was named in reference to deer that migrated from the mainland during periods when ice covered that part of Long Island Sound.\n\n## Geography\n\nHart Island is approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) long by 0.33 miles (0.53 km) wide at its widest point. It lies about 0.33 miles (0.53 km) off the eastern shore of City Island. The island's area is disputed; according to some sources, it is 101 acres (41 ha), while others state that it is 131 acres (53 ha). Hart Island is isolated from the rest of the city: there is no electricity and the only means of access is via ferryboat.\n\n## History\n\n### Early history\n\nBefore European colonization, Hart Island was occupied by the Siwanoy tribe of Native Americans, who were indigenous to the area. In 1654, English physician Thomas Pell purchased the island from the Siwanoy as part of a 9,166-acre (37.09 km<sup>2</sup>) property. Pell died in 1669 and ownership passed to his nephew Sir John Pell, the son of British mathematician John Pell. The island remained in the Pell family until 1774, when it was sold to Oliver De Lancey. It was later sold to the Rodman, Haight, and Hunter families, in that order. According to Elliott Gorn, Hart Island had become \"a favorite pugilistic hideaway\" by the early 19th century. Bouts of bare-knuckle boxing held on the island could draw thousands of spectators.\n\nThe first public use of Hart Island was training the 31st Infantry Regiment of the United States Colored Troops beginning in 1864. A steamboat called John Romer shuttled recruits to the island from the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan. A commander's house and a recruits' barracks were built; the barracks included a library and a concert room; it could house 2,000 to 3,000 recruits at a time, and over 50,000 men were ultimately trained there.\n\nIn November 1864, construction of a prisoner-of-war camp on Hart Island with room for 5,000 prisoners started. The camp was used for four months in 1865 during the American Civil War. The island housed 3,413 captured Confederate Army soldiers. Of these, 235 died in the camp and were buried in Cypress Hills Cemetery. Following the Civil War, indigent veterans were buried on the island in soldier's plots, which were separate from the potter's field and at the same location. Some of these soldiers were moved to West Farms Soldiers Cemetery in 1916 and others were removed to Cypress Hills Cemetery in 1941.\n\n### Addition of cemetery\n\nThe first burials on Hart Island were those of 20 Union Army soldiers during the American Civil War. On May 27, 1868, New York City purchased the island from Edward Hunter, who also owned nearby Hunter Island, for \\$75,000. City burials started shortly afterward. In 1869, a 24-year-old woman named Louisa Van Slyke, who died in Charity Hospital, was the first person to be buried in the island's 45-acre (180,000 m<sup>2</sup>) public graveyard. The cemetery then became known as \"City Cemetery\" and \"Potter's Field\".\n\nBy 1880, The New York Times described the island as \"the Green-Wood of Five Points\", comparing an expansive cemetery in Brooklyn with a historically poor neighborhood in Manhattan. The newspaper also said of Hart Island, \"This is where the rough pine boxes go that come from Blackwell's Island\", in reference to the influx of corpses being transported from the hospitals on modern-day Roosevelt Island. The potter's field on Hart Island replaced two previous potter's fields on the current sites of Washington Square Park and New York Public Library Main Branch in Manhattan. The number of burials on Hart Island exceeded 500,000 by 1958.\n\n### Juxtaposition of uses\n\nHart Island was used as a quarantine station during the 1870 yellow fever epidemic. In that period, the island contained a women's psychiatric hospital called The Pavilion, which was built 1885, as well as a tubercularium. There was also an industrial school with 300 students on the island. After an 1892 investigation found the city's asylums were overcrowded, it was proposed to expand those on Hart Island from 1,100 to 1,500 beds.\n\nIn the late 19th century, Hart Island became the location of a boys' workhouse, which was an extension of the prison and almshouse on Blackwell Island. A workhouse for men was established in 1895, and was followed by a workhouse for young boys ten years later. By the early 20th century, Hart Island housed about 2,000 delinquent boys as well as elderly male prisoners from Blackwell's penitentiary. The prison on Hart Island grew; it had its own band and a Catholic prison chapel. The cornerstone for the \\$60,000 chapel was laid in 1931 and it was opened the following year.\n\nIn 1924, John Hunter sold his 4-acre (1.6 ha) tract of land on Hart Island's west side to Solomon Riley, a millionaire real estate speculator from Barbados. Riley subsequently proposed to build an amusement park on Hart Island, which would have served the primarily black community of Harlem in Manhattan. It was referred to as the \"Negro Coney Island\" because at the time, African Americans were banned from the Rye Playland and Dobbs Ferry amusement parks in the New York City area. Riley had started building a dance hall, boardinghouses, and a boardwalk, and purchased sixty steamboats for the operation. The state government raised concerns about the proposed park's proximity to a jail and hospital, and the city condemned the land in 1925. Riley was later paid \\$144,000 for the seizure.\n\n### After World War II\n\nThe prison population of Hart Island was moved to Rikers Island during World War II, and Hart Island's former workhouse was used as a disciplinary barracks by the United States Armed Forces. Rikers Island soon became overcrowded with prisoners. The New York City Department of Correction reopened Hart Island as a prison following the war, but the facilities were considered inadequate. The New York City Board of Estimate approved the construction of a homeless shelter on the island in 1950; it was intended to serve 2,000 people. The homeless shelter operated from 1951 to 1954; it was also used to house alcoholics. Residents of nearby City Island opposed the inclusion of the homeless shelter. The New York City Welfare Department closed the homeless shelter and the Department of Correction regained control of the island. The Department of Correction opened an alcoholism treatment center on Hart Island in 1955. A courthouse, which ruled on cases involving the homeless, was opened on Hart Island. The island housed between 1,200 and 1,800 prisoners serving short sentences of between 10 days and two years.\n\nIn 1956, the island was retrofitted with Nike Ajax missile silos. Battery NY-15, as the silos were known, were part of the United States Army base Fort Slocum from 1956 to 1961 and were operated by the army's 66th Antiaircraft Artillery Missile Battalion. The silos were underground and were powered by large generators. Some silos were also built on Davids Island. The integrated fire control system that tracked the targets and directed missiles was at Fort Slocum. The last components of the missile system were closed in 1974.\n\nConstruction of a new \\$7 million workhouse on Hart Island to replace the existing facility was announced in 1959. A baseball field was dedicated at the Hart Island prison the following year. It was named Kratter Field, after Marvin Kratter, a businessman who had donated 2,200 seats saved from the demolished Ebbets Field stadium. The seats deteriorated after being outdoors for several years, and by 2000, had been donated to various people and organizations.\n\nThe island continued to be used as a prison until 1966, when the prison was closed due to changes in the penal code. After it closed, a drug rehabilitation center was proposed for Hart Island. The center became Phoenix House, which opened in 1967; it quickly grew into a settlement with 350 residents and a vegetable garden. Phoenix House hosted festivals that sometimes attracted crowds of more than 10,000 people. Phoenix House published a newsletter known as The Hart Beat and organized baseball games against other organizations such as City Island's and NBC's teams. In 1977, after regular ferry service to Hart Island ended, Phoenix House moved from the island to a building in Manhattan.\n\nSince then, proposals to re-inhabit the island have failed. In 1972, the city considered converting it into a residential resort but the plan was abandoned. New York City mayor Ed Koch created a workhouse on the island for persons charged with misdemeanors in 1982 but not enough prisoners were sent there. Six years later, another proposal called for a homeless shelter and a workhouse to be built on Hart Island, but this plan was abandoned because of opposition from residents of City Island.\n\n### Abandonment of structures and use as cemetery\n\nOriginally, City Cemetery occupied 45 acres (18 ha) on the northern and southern tips of Hart Island, while the center two-thirds of the island was habitable. In 1985, sixteen bodies of people who died from AIDS were buried in deep graves on a remote section of the southern tip of the island because at the time it was feared that their remains may be contagious. The first child to die of AIDS in New York City is buried in the only single grave on Hart Island with a concrete marker that reads SC (special child) B1 (Baby 1) 1985. Since then, thousands of people who have died of AIDS have been buried on Hart Island, but the precise number is unknown.\n\nFrom 1991 to 1993, New York artist Melinda Hunt and photographer Joel Sternfeld photographed Hart Island for their book of the same name, which was published in 1998. Hunt subsequently founded the Hart Island Project organization in 1994 to help the families and friends of those buried on Hart Island. Another media work, the 2018 documentary One Million American Dreams, documents the history of Hart Island and delves briefly into the lives of various individuals buried there.\n\nThere is a section of old wooden houses and masonry institutional structures dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries that have fallen into disrepair. Military barracks from the Civil War period were used prior to the construction of workhouse and hospital facilities. In the late 2010s, the Hart Island Project and City Island Historical Society started petitioning for Hart Island to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation labeled the island a \"site of historical significance\" in 2016, given that Hart Island met three of the four criteria for being listed on the NRHP. The island was significantly affected by Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and some of the shoreline was eroded, which exposed many of the skeletons buried on the island. Following this, the city announced a restoration of the shoreline. The federal government gave \\$13.2 million toward the shoreline project in 2015, but the work was delayed for several years. The start of restoration was initially slated for 2020, but in August 2019, the city announced that shoreline work would begin the following month.\n\nControl of the island passed to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in December 2019. Burials in the Potters' Field continued after transfer, but they were conducted by city contract workers. In June 2021, the New York City Department of Buildings issued an emergency order authorizing the demolition of eighteen buildings on the island, which the city deemed to be severely deteriorated. Sixteen of these buildings had been identified for demolition in a March 2020 report but, even then, some of these structures were also identified as being easy to repair. The New York City Department of Social Services awarded a \\$3.3 million contract to JPL Industries in October 2021 for the demolition of the deteriorated structures.\n\n## Cemetery\n\nHart Island contains New York City's 131-acre (0.53 km<sup>2</sup>) potter's field, or public cemetery. The potter's field is variously described as the largest tax-funded cemetery in the United States, the largest-such in the world, and one of the largest mass graves in the United States. At least 850,000 have been buried on the island, though since the 2000s, the burial rate has declined to fewer than 1,500 a year. According to a 2006 New York Times article, there had been 1,419 burials at the potter's field during the previous year: of these, 826 were adults, 546 were infants and stillborn babies, and 47 were dismembered body parts.\n\nOne-third of annual burials are infants and stillborn babies, which has been reduced from a proportion of one-half since the Children's Health Insurance Program began to cover all pregnant women in New York State in 1997. By the 2020s, those buried on the island came from a wider range of economic and social classes. In 2022, The Washington Post wrote that the island's recent interments included \"a professional ballet dancer, a nurse, a software engineer, a scuba instructor and an acclaimed musical composer.\"\n\n### Burials\n\nThe dead are buried in trenches. Babies are placed in coffins, which are stacked in groups of 100, measuring five coffins deep and usually in twenty rows. Adults are placed in larger pine boxes placed according to size, and are stacked in sections of 150, measuring three coffins deep in two rows and laid out in a grid system. There are seven sizes of coffins, which range from 1 to 7 feet (0.30 to 2.13 m) long. Each box is labeled with an identification number, the person's age, ethnicity, and the place where the body was found, if applicable. Prior to civilian contractors doing the actual burials which began in 2020, inmates from the nearby Rikers Island jail were paid fifty cents an hour to bury bodies on Hart Island.\n\nThe bodies of adults are frequently disinterred when families are able to locate their relatives through DNA, photographs and fingerprints kept on file at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner of the City of New York. There were an average of 72 disinterments per year from 2007 to 2009. As a result, the adults' coffins are staggered to expedite removal. Children, mostly infants, are rarely disinterred. Regulations stipulate that the coffins generally must remain untouched for 25 years, except in cases of disinterment.\n\nApproximately half of the burials are of children under five who are identified and died in New York City's hospitals, where the mothers signed papers authorizing a \"City Burial.\" The mothers were generally unaware of what the phrase meant. Many other interred have families who live abroad or out of state and whose relatives search extensively; these searches are made more difficult because burial records are currently kept within the prison system. An investigation into the handling of the infant burials was opened in response to a criminal complaint made to the New York State Attorney General's Office in 2009.\n\nBurial records on microfilm at the Municipal Archives indicate that until 1913, burials of unknowns were in single plots, and identified adults and children were buried in mass graves. In 1913, the trenches became separate to facilitate the more frequent disinterment of adults. The potter's field is also used to dispose of amputated body parts, which are placed in boxes labeled \"limbs\". Ceremonies have not been conducted at the burial site since the 1950s. In the past, burial trenches were re-used after 25–50 years, allowing for sufficient decomposition of the remains. Since then, however, historic buildings have been demolished to make room for new burials. Because of the number of weekly interments made at the potter's field at the expense of taxpayers, these mass burials are straightforward and are conducted by Rikers Island inmates, who stack the coffins in two rows, three high and 25 across, and each plot is marked with a concrete marker. A tall, white peace monument was erected by New York City prison inmates at the top of a hill that was known as \"Cemetery Hill\" following World War II and was dedicated in October 1948.\n\n#### Disease victims' burials\n\nHart Island has also been used for burials of disease victims during epidemics and pandemics. During the 1980s AIDS epidemic, those who had died from AIDS were the only people to be buried in separate graves. At first, bodies were delivered in body bags and buried by inmate workers wearing protective jumpsuits. When it was later discovered that the corpses could not spread HIV, the city started burying people who had died of AIDS in the mass graves. In 2008, the island was selected as a site for mass burials during a particularly extreme flu pandemic, available for up to 20,000 bodies.\n\nDuring the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, Hart Island was designated as the temporary burial site for people who had died from COVID-19 if deaths overwhelmed the capacity of mortuaries. At the time, deaths at home within the city had increased significantly, though the corpses were not tested for COVID-19. Preparations for mass graves began at the end of March 2020, and private contractors were hired to replace inmate labor for mass grave burials. Although several media sources reported in April 2020 that burials had begun, New York City mayor Bill de Blasio clarified that Hart Island was only being used to bury unclaimed corpses, as well as the bodies of those who chose it as a burial place. In 2021, the website The City published an analysis that found there was a sharp increase in the number of interments between 2019, when 846 corpses were buried on the island, and 2020, when 2,334 corpses were buried.\n\n### Records\n\nMany burial records were destroyed by arson in late July 1977. Remaining records of burials before 1977 were transferred to the Municipal Archives in Manhattan; while records after that date are still kept in handwritten ledgers, these are now transcribed into a digital database that is partially available online. A Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request for 50,000 burial records was granted to the Hart Island Project in 2008. A lawsuit, concerning \"place of death\" information redacted from the Hart Island burial records, was filed against New York City's government in July 2008 and was settled out of court in January 2009.\n\n### Notable people buried\n\nThose interred on Hart Island are not necessarily homeless or indigent. Many of the dead either had families who could not afford the expenses of private funerals or were not claimed by relatives within a month of death. Notable burials include the playwright, film screenwriter, and director Leo Birinski, who was buried there in 1951 after dying alone and in poverty, and painter Mihri Müşfik Hanım, who was buried in 1954 after dying penniless. The American novelist Dawn Powell was buried on Hart Island in 1970, five years after her death, after her remains had been used for medical studies and the executor of her estate refused to reclaim them. Academy Award winner Bobby Driscoll, who was found dead in 1968 in an East Village tenement, was buried on Hart Island because his remains could not be identified in a timely fashion. T-Bone Slim, the labor activist, songwriter, and Wobbly, was buried on Hart Island after his body was found floating in the Hudson River.\n\n## Public engagement\n\n### Hart Island Project\n\nFounded by New York artist Melinda Hunt in 1994, the Hart Island Project is a nonprofit organization devoted to improving access to the island and its burial data. The organization helps families obtain copies of public burial records; arranges visits to grave sites; and operates a website to help people find relatives interred on the island. Historian Thomas Laqueur writes:\n\n> Woody Guthrie's song about the unnamed Mexican migrant dead has had a long resonant history. Hunt, in an emotionally related gesture, has researched, for years, in order to publish the names of as many as 850,000 paupers who lie in 101 acres of Hart Island where the city buries its anonymous dead.\n\nSince 2009, the city has given burial records for the island to the Hart Island Project. In turn, the organization maintains an online database of burial records from 1980 onward. The project has led to reforms of access to Hart Island such as opening the island monthly to everyone and legislation that requires the Department of Correction to publish burial records online.\n\nThe Hart Island Project has digitally mapped grave trenches using Global Positioning System (GPS) data. In 2014, an interactive map with GPS burial data and storytelling software \"clocks of anonymity\" was released as the \"Traveling Cloud Museum\", which collects publicly submitted stories of those who are listed in the burial records. Traveling Cloud Museum was updated in 2018 to include a map created with GeoTIFF images collected by a drone. The map displays nearly 69,000 intact burials and allows people who knew the deceased to add stories, photographs, epitaphs, songs and videos linked to a personal profile, as well as identify those who died of AIDS related illnesses.\n\nIn 2012, Westchester Community College hosted an art exhibition of people whose graves were located through the Hart Island Project with Hunt's help. The Hart Island Project also collaborated with British landscape architects Ann Sharrock and Ian Fisher to present a landscape strategy to the New York City Council and the Parks Department. Sharrock introduced the concept that Hart Island is a natural burial facility and outlined a growing interest in green burials in urban settings.\n\n### Legislation\n\nOn October 28, 2011, the New York City Council Committee on Fire and Criminal Justice held a hearing titled \"Oversight: Examining the Operation of Potter's Field by the N.Y.C., Department of Correction on Hart Island\". Legislation passed in 2013 requires the Department of Correction to make two sets of documents available on the Internet: a database of burials and a visitation policy. In April 2013, the Department of Correction published an online database of burials on the island. The database contains data about all persons buried on the island since 1977 and is composed of 66,000 entries.\n\n#### Transfer to Parks Department\n\nA bill to transfer jurisdiction to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation was introduced on April 30, 2012. The Hart Island Project testified in favor of this bill on September 27, 2012, but the bill was not passed.\n\nThe bill was reintroduced in March 2014, and Bill 0134 had a public hearing on January 20, 2016. The bill ultimately failed because neither the Parks Department nor the Department of Correction supported the move. The Parks Department stated that the operation of an active cemetery was outside its purview while the Department of Correction preferred that another city agency take control of Hart Island.\n\nIn 2018, City Council member Ydanis Rodríguez and three colleagues re-introduced the bill a second time. In supporting the bill, Rodriguez stated that he wanted relatives of Hart Island's deceased to be able to access their loved ones' graves. The bill was passed in the New York City Council in November 2019, with most council members voting in favor of transferring jurisdiction to the Parks Department. The following month, mayor Bill de Blasio signed the legislation, as well as three other bills, including one that would allow the ferry service to be operated by the New York City Department of Transportation. NYC Parks finally assumed full control of the island in July 2021.\n\n## Access\n\nThe only access to Hart Island is by ferryboat. Hart Island and the pier on Fordham Street on City Island are restricted areas under the jurisdiction of the New York City Department of Correction. Family members who wish to visit the island must request a visit ahead of time with the Department of Correction. The city government allows family members to visit the island and leave mementos at grave sites, and maintains an online and telephone system for family members to schedule grave site visits. Other members of the public are permitted to visit by prior appointment only.\n\n### Ferry service\n\nThe city formerly operated a 24/7 ferry service between City and Hart islands, which ran every forty-five minutes during the day and less frequently at night. The ferries also transported corpses. By the 1960s, two ferryboats were used for the Hart Island ferry service; the Michael Cosgrove (built 1961) and the Fordham (in service 1922–1982). The service was extremely expensive to operate; in 1967, about 1,500 people per month used the service and the city spent \\$300,000 per year to keep it running. By 1977, the city had discontinued frequent ferry service and provided seven trips a day. The Department of Correction offered one guided tour of the island in 2000. Under legislation enacted in 2019, the New York City Department of Transportation was to operate the ferry at a higher frequency.\n\n### Loosening of restrictions\n\nThe process of visiting the island has been improved due to efforts by the Hart Island Project and the New York Civil Liberties Union. An ecumenical group named the Interfaith Friends of Potter's Field and another organization called Picture the Homeless has also advocated for making the island more accessible. The Department of Correction opposed further loosening of restrictions on accessing Hart Island; a 2016 The New York Times article quoted a Corrections official as saying: \"As long as D.O.C. runs the facility, we are going to run it with the D.O.C. mentality\".\n\nIn July 2015, the Department of Correction instituted a new policy, wherein up to five family members and their guests were allowed to visit grave sites on one weekend per month. The first visit took place on July 19, 2015. Visits to individual graves, which take place twice a month, are restricted to individuals who had a close relationship with the deceased. Visits to Hart Island's gazebo, which occur once a month, are available to the general public. The ferry leaves from a restricted dock on City Island. In 2017, the city government increased the maximum number of visitors per month from 50 to 70. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the public was not allowed to visit Hart Island; though visits resumed in May 2021, the number of visitors allowed on each ferry trip was decreased to ten.\n\nEven after NYC Parks took over the island, Bloomberg reported in October 2021 that there had been little change in the conditions for visitors. As part of the Hart Island Transportation Study, which sought to improve access to the island, NYC Parks conducted public meetings in early 2022. Four alternatives were presented: a shuttle bus service from Orchard Beach to the Fordham Street ferry pier; a shuttle bus service from the New York City Subway's Pelham Bay Park station, stopping at Orchard Beach and Fordham Street; a new ferry service from Ferry Point Park to the island; and an extension of NYC Ferry's Soundview route from Ferry Point Park to the island.\n\n## See also\n\n- Davids Island (New York)\n- Geography and environment of New York City\n- Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States#Prisoner of war prisons and camps", "revid": "1166802880", "description": "Island, part of the Pelham Islands, in the Bronx, New York", "categories": ["American Civil War prison camps", "Buildings and structures in the Bronx", "Cemeteries in the Bronx", "Defunct prisons in New York City", "Islands of New York City", "Islands of the Bronx", "Long Island Sound", "Mass graves", "Military facilities in the Bronx", "Prison islands"]}
{"id": "30225408", "url": null, "title": "Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez", "text": "Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez, 531 U.S. 533 (2001), is a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States concerning the constitutionality of funding restrictions imposed by the United States Congress. At issue were restrictions on the Legal Services Corporation (LSC), a private, nonprofit corporation established by Congress. The restrictions prohibited LSC attorneys from representing clients attempting to amend (or challenge) existing welfare law. The case was brought by Carmen Velazquez, whose LSC-funded attorneys sought to challenge existing welfare provisions since they believed that it was the only way to get Velazquez financial relief.\n\nThe Court ruled that the restrictions violated the free speech guarantees of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Because LSC facilitated \"private\" speech, that of its grantees, the restrictions did not simply regulate government speech.\n\nBecause the restrictions blocked attempts to change only a specific area of law, the Court held, they could not be considered viewpoint-neutral, and the government is prohibited from making such viewpoint-based restrictions of private speech.\n\nReactions to the decision were mixed within Congress, with Republicans and Democrats disagreeing on the propriety of the decision. Several law review articles argued that the use of a \"distortion principle\" to decide violations of free speech was an unreasonable and unconstitutional rule whose conditions on funding might \"distort\" speech advocacy. Others contended that the Court mishandled the interpretation of the statute at issue.\n\n## Background\n\n### History of funding restriction jurisprudence\n\nThe first major test of the federal government's power over funding restrictions based on speech was the 1991 case Rust v. Sullivan. In Rust, the Supreme Court had upheld a restriction on the use of Department of Health and Human Services funds for counseling, referring patients to, or advocating the use of abortion services. The Court reasoned that the restriction \"merely [chose] to fund one activity to the exclusion of the other.\" Here, the government was using private speakers to transmit information about the government's own program.\n\nSix years later, the Court reviewed another restriction, this time about funding restrictions imposed by a public university. In the 1997 case Rosenberger v. University of Virginia, a government supported university sought to withhold funds from religious student publications although it funded similar secular publications. The Court said that the government could seek to shape funding to support a government message, such restrictive steps could not be imposed to the exclusion of a particular viewpoint.\n\n### Legal Services Corporation\n\nIn 1974 the United States Congress passed the Legal Services Corporation Act, which established the Legal Services Corporation. The purpose of the Act was to provide government-funded legal aid to indigent clients that would be funded through grants to regional entities throughout the country. In 1996, Congress amended the act with that year's appropriations bill, which imposed restrictions on the LSC. The restrictions included prohibitions against filing class action lawsuits, providing legal assistance to immigrants in particular types of cases, collecting attorney's fees, soliciting clients, providing advocacy training programs, and attempting to reform welfare laws. The restrictions affected only a small portion of the caseload. The restrictions prohibited funding cases:\n\n> ... initiating legal representation or participating in any other way, in litigation, lobbying, or rulemaking, involving an effort to reform a Federal or State welfare system, except that this paragraph shall not be construed to preclude a recipient from representing an individual eligible client who is seeking specific relief from a welfare agency if such relief does not involve an effort to amend or otherwise challenge existing welfare law in effect on the date of the initiation of the representation.\n\n### Lower-court proceedings\n\nIn 1997, Carmen Velazquez lost welfare benefits from the government under the provisions of the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Act (TANF). An attorney from an LSC grantee, Bronx Legal Services, litigated her claim. Bronx Legal Services, on behalf of Velazquez, filed suit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York to seek a declaration that the provision of the Act prohibiting challenges to existing welfare law was unconstitutional under the First Amendment. It argued that there was no way to help Velazquez without challenging the welfare system itself, and it sought to challenge the provisions under which Velazquez lost her benefits, a challenge that they could not make because of the 1996 restrictions. The district court denied an injunction.\n\nThe court's decision was affirmed in part and reversed in part by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which unanimously held that the welfare-advocacy restriction was unconstitutional, but upheld other restrictions that Bronx Legal Services had challenged (such as the lobbying restriction) by a 2–1 vote. The Second Circuit also rejected the claim that any funding conditions would be illegitimate by instead preferring a case-by-case analysis. LSC asked the Supreme Court for a review and argued that the Second Circuit had been wrong in striking only down the welfare-advocacy restriction.\n\n## Supreme Court decision\n\nThe Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the case on October 4, 2000 and issued its decision four months later.\n\nThe Court affirmed the decision of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals by holding 5-4 that the restriction on pursuing welfare advocacy was unconstitutional because of the First Amendment.\n\nJustice Kennedy delivered the majority opinion. It distinguished a 1991 Supreme Court case, Rust v. Sullivan, which upheld a prohibition on federally funded family planning services from discussing abortion with their patients. The majority reasoned that in Rust, the government was attempting to use its funds to express its own message, but the purpose of the Act was to promote a diversity of private views with its funding, not an attempt to restrict any views. The Court said that the government can only issue \"content-neutral\" conditions on such speech and that the specific prohibition on welfare-reform litigation was viewpoint-based by restricting only support for welfare reform advocacy. \"If the restriction on speech and legal advice were to stand, the result would be two tiers of cases... there would be lingering doubt whether the truncated representation had resulted in complete analysis of the case, full advice to the client, and proper presentation to the court.\"\n\nThe Court also criticized the fact that the restriction functionally barred attorneys from participating in the courts. Any attorney receiving LSC funding would not be able to litigate welfare claims that challenged welfare rules, thereby preventing certain cases from being filed. \"The restriction imposed by the statute here threatens severe impairment of the judicial function.... We must be vigilant when Congress imposes rules and conditions which, in effect, insulate its own laws from legitimate judicial challenge.\"\n\n### Dissent\n\nJustice Scalia wrote a dissenting opinion from the decision of the Court and believed that Rust mandated a ruling upholding the restriction. Scalia was joined by Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist and Associate Justices Sandra Day O'Connor and Clarence Thomas and wrote, \"The [act] is a federal subsidy program, not a federal regulatory program... regulations directly restrict speech; subsidies do not.\" He disagreed with the majority's contention that there was viewpoint discrimination and argued that no specific viewpoint was restricted. Scalia was also concerned with dicta in the majority opinion that seemed to him to indicate a \"fondness\" for the concept of reform by using the courts.\n\nHe argued that the majority's holding was \"unprecedented\" because it was the first time the government would be limited in advocating its own message.\n\n## Reactions\n\nThe immediate reaction was mixed among members of Congress. Democratic supporters of the decision were optimistic of future victories against funding restrictions and stated that they were glad the restriction had fallen but that the decision \"opens the LSC up to even more attacks.\" Republicans in Congress condemned the decision and agreeing to work against it. US Representative Steve Largent (R-OK) said, \"It'll be on the radar screen for sure.... Why are we giving taxpayer money to sue taxpayers?\" The New York Times described the decision as the end of the \"latest chapter, although almost certainly not the last, in a long political struggle over the federally financed program of civil legal services for the poor.\"\n\nParties involved in the case also had mixed reactions. LSC, which had sought to protect the restrictions, said that it would \"immediately review [their] regulations and then modify them to adhere to the Court's ruling,\" which it did quickly after the decision. Burt Neuborne, the lawyer who argued against the restriction before the Supreme Court, said that the ruling \"really reads like a First Amendment textbook.\"\n\n## Subsequent developments\n\nIn the weeks following the Velazquez decision, the Supreme Court rejected appeals related to other LSC restrictions. LSC has engaged in welfare-reform litigation since the original injunction was lifted.\n\nThe case provided the basis for other challenges to restrictions imposed on LSC, such as bans against lobbying or class actions. The challenges were rejected by the Ninth Circuit and the Second Circuit in separate suits. The challenges failed because the relevant provisions do not regulate a specific type of advocacy; for example, the restriction on LSC grantees from collecting attorney's fees would not raise a speech issue because there is no speech involved in such a process. The argument raised in those challenges was that the Court articulated a new \"conditions\" principle in Velazquez, a distortion-of-speech test, which they argued would require the restrictions to be struck down. Both courts of appeal reviewing that claim have rejected thar reading of Velazquez. Instead of a distortion-of-speech test, the decision was based on the application of limited public forum principles. When the government provides funds to an entity, and the funding's purpose was to encourage diversity of private views, it must act in a viewpoint-neutral way. Programs funded in this manner are treated as a public forum in which the ability of the government to restrict speech is highly limited.\n\nThe implications of those subsequent rulings mandated two new rules, one narrow and one broad. Firstly, restrictions may be imposed on LSC as long as they do not discriminate on the basis of \"viewpoint\" or \"opinion.\" Because the other restrictions were not based on viewpoint, they were upheld. Secondly, on a broader scale the government may not discriminate against viewpoints in any instance that it is funding a private entity to that a diversity of views. For this reason, the decision in Velazquez set an important binding precedent for how the government may act as subsidizer and speaker.\n\n## Analysis and commentary\n\nA Journal of Law and Politics article by Jay Johnson was critical of the decision and the Court's claimed distinction between the speech restriction in Rust and the one on LSC and contended that there was no functional difference between the two. The article highlighted a problem with the Court's interpretation of the statute's purpose at hand: \"Even assuming the propriety of invoking legislative purpose in statutory interpretation, the text of the [Act] does not support the Court's understanding of the Act's purpose.\" The article noted that although the Court looked at a section of the Act discussing attorneys \"protecting the best interest of their clients,\" the same section noted that the program must be free of \"political pressures.\" Because a factor in the Court's reasoning was its understanding of the Act's purpose, that alleged error purportedly misguided the rest of the Court's analysis.\n\nFurther criticism from the article was that the Court unduly rested its decision on a separation of powers determination. The Court held in Velazquez that the restriction on welfare advocacy cases disrupted the \"vital relationship between the bar and the judiciary.\" That finding, the article argued, was baseless because there is no connection between preventing some government lawyers from arguing a single point and the deprivation of due process rights. It concluded that the fundamental problems of statutory interpretation and a lack of a credible distinction with Rust in Justice Kennedy's analysis renders the opinion \"unconvincing.\"\n\nAn article in the Maryland Law Review by Christopher Gozdor, a lawyer in the Maryland Attorney General's office, was also critical of the decision, but he was concerned with an alleged lack of clarity in the majority opinion. It discussed the case law relating to government speech and examined what it described as the \"conditions doctrine\" by which certain conditions on receiving federal funds were upheld or struck down.\n\nThe article then turned to the Rust distinction. Gozdor explained: \"The Court distinguished Velazquez from Rust because Rust involved a subsidy to facilitate private expression of the government's message, while Velazquez involved LSC funding that was designed [for] private speech.\" The critical question for the court was the characterization of the speech that the law promoted. Because advocacy by LSC grantees to change welfare laws was not in advance of the government's own message, the restriction placed on it essentially prohibited a form of private speech. The relationship that the Court set forth, Gozdor asserted, was that the restriction \"distorted\" private speech. That \"distortion principle\" was the main criticism of the article, as was Scalia's dissenting opinion.\n\nGozdor, agreeing with Scalia's dissent, wrote that the restriction did not create such a distortion of private speech because Congress had still permitted LSC to form affiliate organizations, which would be considered \"legally separate.\" Notwithstanding the difficulty of an organization to classify itself as an \"affiliate entity\" of LSC, Gozdor argued that there was no real prevention of speech when there were ample alternative means of relaying the message.\n\nFurther, in attacking the distortion principle's application, Gozdor also argued against the principle as a legal concept in the first place: \"Regardless of the Court's rationale for its distortion principle, determining a First Amendment violation by measuring whether the government used a subsidy 'in ways which distorted the medium's usual functioning' suggests that forum functions become unchangeable once created.\" He claimed the unworkability of the distortion principle in a hypothetical example, which would moot the very existence of the LSC: \"Taking the Velazquez rationale to its logical ends, the LSC subsidy itself could become an unconstitutional speech restriction. If Congress substantially increased LSC appropriations in order to allow LSC to take all of its cases... the functioning of the legal system would be distorted because such a subsidy likely would result in a dramatic increase in the federal courts' caseloads.\" With that in mind, he concluded with a process by which the Court should have decided the case: a process leading to the upholding of the restriction by finding that LSC's purpose was in promoting the government's message in contrast to a diversity of private views.\n\nAn article by Jessica Sharpe in the North Carolina Law Review argued that Kennedy's majority opinion wrongly set forth the understanding of the role of an attorney. Sharpe criticized the Court's thesis that the role of the attorney is that of an advocate such that a restriction on the attorney served as a direct restriction of advocacy. That rationale, Sharpe argued, could undermine the balance of abortion restrictions because state regulations on abortion access also could be seen as an intrusion into doctor–patient speech. Because Velazquez \"blurred\" this distinction, the privileged nature of doctor–patient conversations could be subjected to future regulations and limitations.\n\n## See also\n\n- Legal meaning of 'Forum'\n- List of United States Supreme Court cases involving the First Amendment", "revid": "1068976948", "description": null, "categories": ["2001 in United States case law", "History of the Bronx", "Legal Services Corporation", "United States Free Speech Clause case law", "United States Supreme Court cases", "United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court", "Welfare in the United States"]}
{"id": "23440", "url": null, "title": "Philippines", "text": "The Philippines (/ˈfɪlɪpiːnz/ ; Filipino: Pilipinas), officially the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas), is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. In the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of 7,641 islands which are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. It is the world's twelfth-most-populous country, with diverse ethnicities and cultures. Manila is the country's capital, and its most populated city is Quezon City; both are within Metro Manila.\n\nNegritos, the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples. The adoption of Animism, Hinduism, and Islam established island-kingdoms ruled by datus, rajas, and sultans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Spain, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. Spanish settlement through Mexico, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. Catholic Christianity became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, which became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States controlling the territory until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. After liberation, the Philippines became independent in 1946. The country has had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship in a nonviolent revolution.\n\nThe Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country, whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, ASEAN, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit; it is a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Its location as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity.\n\n## Etymology\n\nDuring his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar \"Felipinas\" after Philip II of Spain (then Prince of Asturias). Eventually, the name \"Las Islas Filipinas\" would be used for the archipelago's Spanish possessions. Other names, such as \"Islas del Poniente\" (Western Islands), \"Islas del Oriente\" (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan's name, and \"San Lázaro\" (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.\n\nDuring the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the República Filipina (the Philippine Republic). American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name). The United States began changing its nomenclature from \"the Philippine Islands\" to \"the Philippines\" in the Philippine Autonomy Act and the Jones Law. The official title \"Republic of the Philippines\" was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state, and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.\n\n## History\n\n### Prehistory (pre–900)\n\nThere is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago. A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago. The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago. Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.\n\nThe first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs) and northern Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC, with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.\n\n### Early states (900–1565)\n\nThe earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the early-10th-century AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics. By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes. Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia. Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, and expanded during the Song dynasty; by the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the tributary system of China. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, probably via the Hindu Majapahit Empire. By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.\n\nPolities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila, Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i. The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen. Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan). When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically-looser alliance, their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a \"paramount datu\", rajah or sultan, and would rule the community. Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu's men in the Battle of Mactan.\n\n### Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1946)\n\nColonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565. Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew. Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571, Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific. The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer, bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration. Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence. Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.\n\nDuring its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts and defending against external military attacks, including Moro piracy, 17th century war against the Dutch, 18th century British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.\n\nAdministration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain, and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region. The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown averaging 250,000 pesos, usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas. British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista. The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century, and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.\n\nPhilippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change. Social identity changed, with the term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines.\n\nRevolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds. This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain. Attempts at reform met with resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.\n\nThe Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution. The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish–American War.\n\nThe First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899.\n\nThe United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, beginning the Philippine–American War. The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease. Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to concentration camps, where thousands died. After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established with the Philippine Organic Act. American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic, securing the Sultanate of Sulu, establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest, and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.Cultural developments strengthened a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the Taft Commission; the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act began the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio Osmeña vice president. Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character. Filipino (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language, women's suffrage was introduced, and land reform was considered.\n\nThe Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines during World War II, and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet state governed by Jose P. Laurel. Beginning in 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity. Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre. Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945, and over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war. On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations. On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of Manila.\n\n### Independence (1946–present)\n\nEfforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency, but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward. Under Magsaysay's successor, Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses. Succeeding Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration— and pursued a claim on eastern North Borneo.\n\nIn 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969. Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972 using the specter of communism and began to rule by decree; the period was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations. Monopolies controlled by Marcos' cronies were established in key industries, including logging and broadcasting; a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros. With his wife, Imelda, Marcos was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds. Marcos' heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes, exacerbated by an early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985.\n\nOn August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos' chief rival) was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986 which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent. The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution, which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii. Aquino's widow, Corazon, was installed as president.\n\nThe return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts. A communist insurgency and military conflict with Moro separatists persisted; the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991. Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, who liberalized the national economy with privatization and deregulation. Ramos' economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. His successor, Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housing but faced corruption allegations which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001. Arroyo's nine-year administration was marked by economic growth, but was tainted by corruption and political scandals. On November 23, 2009, 34 journalists and several civilians were killed in Maguindanao. Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III's administration, which advocated good governance and transparency. Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but a shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law.\n\nRodrigo Duterte, elected president in 2016, launched an infrastructure program and an anti-drug campaign which reduced drug proliferation but has also led to extrajudicial killings. The Bangsamoro Organic Law was enacted in 2018. In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines; its gross domestic product shrank by 9.5 percent, the country's worst annual economic performance since 1947. Marcos' son, Bongbong Marcos, won the 2022 presidential election; Duterte's daughter, Sara, became vice president.\n\n## Geography\n\nThe Philippines is an archipelago of about 7,641 islands, covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi). Stretching 1,850 kilometres (1,150 mi) north to south, from the South China Sea to the Celebes Sea, the Philippines is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Sulu Sea to the southwest. The country's 11 largest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol and Masbate, about 95 percent of its total land area. The Philippines' coastline measures 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi), the world's fifth-longest, and the country's exclusive economic zone covers 2,263,816 km<sup>2</sup> (874,064 sq mi).\n\nIts highest mountain is Mount Apo on Mindanao, with an altitude of 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level. The Philippines' longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about 520 kilometers (320 mi). Manila Bay, on which is the capital city of Manila, is connected to Laguna de Bay (the country's largest lake) by the Pasig River.\n\nOn the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity. The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions. About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in the Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon. The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes; of them, Mayon, Taal, Canlaon, and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions.\n\nThe country has valuable mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity. It is thought to have the world's second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits, and the world's largest deposits of palladium. Other minerals include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, platinum, and zinc. However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped.\n\n### Biodiversity\n\nThe Philippines is a megadiverse country, with some of the world's highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent). With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,500 of which are endemic), Philippine rain forests have an array of flora: about 3,500 species of trees, 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns, and 998 orchid species have been identified. The Philippines has 167 terrestrial mammals (102 endemic species), 235 reptiles (160 endemic species), 99 amphibians (74 endemic species), 686 birds (224 endemic species), and over 20,000 insect species.\n\nAs an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion, Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life and the world's greatest diversity of shore-fish species. The country has over 3,200 fish species (121 endemic). Philippine waters sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.\n\nEight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: dipterocarp, beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane (or mossy forest), mangroves, and ultrabasic forest. According to official estimates, the Philippines had 7,000,000 hectares (27,000 sq mi) of forest cover in 2023. Logging had been systemized during the American colonial period and deforestation continued after independence, accelerating during the Marcos presidency due to unregulated logging concessions. Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines' total land area in 1900 to about 18.3 percent in 1999. Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success.\n\nThe Philippines is a priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation; it has more than 200 protected areas, which was expanded to 7,790,000 hectares (30,100 sq mi) as of 2023. Three sites in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, and the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary.\n\n### Climate\n\nThe Philippines has a tropical maritime climate which is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season from March to May, a rainy season from June to November, and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (known as the habagat) lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon (amihan) lasts from November to April. The coolest month is January, and the warmest is May. Temperatures at sea level across the Philippines tend to be in the same range, regardless of latitude; average annual temperature is around 26.6 °C (79.9 °F) but is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) in Baguio, 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) above sea level. The country's average humidity is 82 percent. Annual rainfall is as high as 5,000 millimeters (200 in) on the mountainous east coast, but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some sheltered valleys.\n\nThe Philippine Area of Responsibility has 19 typhoons in a typical year, usually from July to October; eight or nine of them make landfall. The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2,210 millimeters (87 in) in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911. The country is among the world's ten most vulnerable to climate change.\n\n## Government and politics\n\nThe Philippines has a democratic government, a constitutional republic with a presidential system. The president is head of state and head of government, and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is elected by direct election for a six-year term. The president appoints and presides over the cabinet. The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate (the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term) and the House of Representatives, the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term. Philippine politics tends to be dominated by well-known families, such as political dynasties or celebrities.\n\nSenators are elected at-large, and representatives are elected from legislative districts and party lists. Judicial authority is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and fourteen associate justices, who are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.\n\nAttempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral, or parliamentary government have been made since the Ramos administration. Corruption is significant, attributed by some historians to the Spanish colonial period's padrino system. The Roman Catholic church exerts considerable but waning influence in political affairs, although a constitutional provision for the separation of Church and State exists.\n\n### Foreign relations\n\nA founding and active member of the United Nations, the Philippines has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council. The country participates in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor. The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and a member of the East Asia Summit, the Group of 24, and the Non-Aligned Movement. The country has sought to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation since 2003, and was a member of SEATO. Over 10 million Filipinos live and work in 200 countries, giving the Philippines soft power.\n\nDuring the 1990s, the Philippines began to seek economic liberalization and free trade to help spur foreign direct investment. It is a member of the World Trade Organization and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The Philippines entered into the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement in 2010 and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership free trade agreement (FTA) in 2023. Through ASEAN, the Philippines has signed FTAs with China, India, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. The country has bilateral FTAs with Japan and four European states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.\n\nThe Philippines has a long relationship with the United States, involving economics, security, and interpersonal relations. The Philippines' location serves an important role in the United States' island chain strategy in the West Pacific; a Mutual Defense Treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951, and was supplemented with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement. The country supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars. In 2003, the Philippines was designated a major non-NATO ally. Under President Duterte, ties with the United States weakened in favor of improved relations with China and Russia. The U.S. promised in 2021 to defend the Philippines, including the South China Sea.\n\nThe Philippines has valued its relations with China since 1975, and cooperates significantly with the country. Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the Philippines; although some tension exists because of World War II, much animosity has faded. Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain. Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in those countries, and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines; concerns have been raised about domestic abuse and war affecting the approximately 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region.\n\nThe Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The largest of its controlled islands is Thitu Island, which contains the Philippines' smallest town. The 2012 Scarborough Shoal standoff, after China seized the shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration case which the Philippines eventually won; China rejected the result, and made the shoal a prominent symbol of the broader dispute.\n\n### Military\n\nThe volunteer Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Army, and the Philippine Navy. Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government. The AFP had a total manpower of around 280,000 as of 2022, of which 130,000 were active military personnel, 100,000 were reserves, and 50,000 were paramilitaries.\n\nIn 2021, \\$4,090,500,000 (1.04 percent of GDP) was spent on the Philippine military. Most of the country's defense spending is on the Philippine Army, which leads operations against internal threats such as communist and Muslim separatist insurgencies; its preoccupation with internal security contributed to the decline of Philippine naval capability which began during the 1970s. A military modernization program began in 1995 and expanded in 2012 to build a more capable defense system.\n\nThe Philippines has long struggled against local insurgencies, separatism, and terrorism. Bangsamoro's largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, signed final peace agreements with the government in 1996 and 2014 respectively. Other, more-militant groups such as Abu Sayyaf and Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago and Maguindanao, but their presence has been reduced. The Communist Party of the Philippines and its military wing, the New People's Army, have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s and, although shrinking militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986, have engaged in ambushes, bombings, and assassinations of government officials and security forces.\n\n### Administrative divisions\n\nThe Philippines is divided into 17 regions, 82 provinces, 146 cities, 1,488 municipalities, and 42,036 barangays. Regions other than Bangsamoro are divided for administrative convenience. Calabarzon was the region with the greatest population as of 2020, and the National Capital Region (NCR) was the most densely populated.\n\nThe Philippines is a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM), although there have been steps towards decentralization; a 1991 law devolved some powers to local governments.\n\n## Demographics\n\nAs of May 1, 2020, the Philippines had a population of 109,035,343. In 2020, 54 percent of the country's population lived in urban areas. Manila, its capital, and Quezon City (the country's most populous city) are in Metro Manila. About 13.48 million people (12 percent of the Philippines' population) live in Metro Manila, the country's most populous metropolitan area and the world's fifth most populous. Between 1948 and 2010, the population of the Philippines increased almost fivefold from 19 million to 92 million.\n\nThe country's median age is 25.3, and 63.9 percent of its population is between 15 and 64 years old. The Philippines' average annual population growth rate is decreasing, although government attempts to further reduce population growth have been contentious. The country has reduced its poverty rate from 49.2 percent in 1985 to 18.1 percent in 2021, and its income inequality began to decline in 2012.\n\n### Ethnicity\n\nThe country has substantial ethnic diversity, due to foreign influence and the archipelago's division by water and topography. According to the 2010 census, the Philippines' largest ethnic groups were Tagalog (24.4 percent), Visayans [excluding the Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray] (11.4 percent), Cebuano (9.9 percent), Ilocano (8.8 percent), Hiligaynon (8.4 percent), Bikol (6.8 percent), and Waray (four percent). The country's indigenous peoples consisted of 110 enthnolinguistic groups, with a combined population of 14 to 17 million, in 2010; they include the Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan, and the indigenous peoples of Palawan.\n\nNegritos are thought to be among the islands' earliest inhabitants. These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group, a remnant of the first human migration from Africa to Australia who were probably displaced by later waves of migration. Some Philippine Negritos have a Denisovan admixture in their genome. Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups, classified linguistically as Austronesians speaking Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Austronesian population's origin is uncertain, but relatives of Taiwanese aborigines probably brought their language and mixed with the region's existing population. The Lumad and Sama-Bajau ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic- and Mlabri-speaking Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. Westward expansion from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao has been detected in the Blaan people and the Sangir language.\n\nImmigrants arrived in the Philippines from elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, especially from the Spanish Americas. The 2016 National Geographic project concluded that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages: 53 percent Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36 percent Eastern Asia, five percent Southern Europe, three percent Southern Asia, and two percent Native American (from Latin America).\n\nDescendants of mixed-race couples are known as Mestizos or tisoy, which during the Spanish colonial times, were mostly composed of Chinese mestizos (Mestizos de Sangley), Spanish mestizos (Mestizos de Español) and the mix thereof (tornatrás). The modern Chinese Filipinos are well-integrated into Filipino society. Primarily the descendants of immigrants from Fujian, the pure ethnic Chinese Filipinos during the American colonial era (early 1900s) purportedly numbered about 1.35 million; while an estimated 22.8 million (around 20 percent) of Filipinos have half or partial Chinese ancestry from precolonial, colonial, and 20th century Chinese migrants. Almost 300,000 American citizens live in the country as of 2023, and up to 250,000 Amerasians are scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, and Olongapo. Other significant non-indigenous minorities include Indians and Arabs. Japanese Filipinos include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled persecutions by Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu.\n\n### Languages\n\nEthnologue lists 186 languages for the Philippines, 182 of which are living languages; the other four no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is a branch of the Austronesian language family. Spanish-based creole varieties, collectively known as Chavacano, are also spoken. Many Philippine Negrito languages have unique vocabularies which survived Austronesian acculturation.\n\nFilipino and English are the country's official languages. Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, is spoken primarily in Metro Manila. Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, often with a third local language; code-switching between English and other local languages, notably Tagalog, is common. The Philippine constitution provides for Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary, optional basis. Spanish, a widely-used lingua franca during the late nineteenth century, has declined greatly in use, although Spanish loanwords are still present in Philippine languages. Arabic is primarily taught in Mindanao Islamic schools.\n\nNineteen regional languages are auxiliary official languages as media of instruction:\n\n- Aklanon\n- Bikol\n- Cebuano\n- Chavacano\n- Hiligaynon\n- Ibanag\n- Ilocano\n- Ivatan\n- Kapampangan\n- Kinaray-a\n- Maguindanao\n- Maranao\n- Pangasinan\n- Sambal\n- Surigaonon\n- Tagalog\n- Tausug\n- Waray\n- Yakan\n\nOther indigenous languages, including Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankanaey, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Manobo, and several Visayan languages, are used in their respective provinces. Filipino Sign Language is the national sign language, and the language of deaf education.\n\n### Religion\n\nAlthough the Philippines is a secular state with freedom of religion, an overwhelming majority of Filipinos consider religion very important and irreligion is very low. Christianity is the dominant religion, followed by about 89 percent of the population. The country had the world's third-largest Roman Catholic population as of 2013, and was Asia's largest Christian nation. Census data from 2020 found that 78.8 percent of the population professed Roman Catholicism; other Christian denominations include Iglesia ni Cristo, the Philippine Independent Church, and Seventh-day Adventistism. Protestants made up about 5% to 7% of the population in 2010. The Philippines sends many Christian missionaries around the world, and is a training center for foreign priests and nuns.\n\nIslam is the country's second-largest religion, with 6.4 percent of the population in the 2020 census. Most Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands, and most adhere to the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam.\n\nAbout 0.2 percent of the population follow indigenous religions, whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Buddhism is practiced by about 0.04% of the population, primarily by Filipinos of Chinese descent.\n\n### Health\n\nHealth care in the Philippines is provided by the national and local governments, although private payments account for most healthcare spending. Per-capita health expenditure in 2022 was and health expenditures were 5.5 percent of the country's GDP. The 2023 budget allocation for healthcare was . The 2019 enactment of the Universal Health Care Act by President Duterte facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the national health insurance program. Since 2018, Malasakit Centers (one-stop shops) have been set up in several government-operated hospitals to provide medical and financial assistance to indigent patients.\n\nAverage life expectancy in the Philippines as of 2023 is 70.48 years (66.97 years for males, and 74.15 years for females). Access to medicine has improved due to increasing Filipino acceptance of generic drugs. The country's leading causes of death in 2021 were ischaemic heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, COVID-19, neoplasms, and diabetes. Communicable diseases are correlated with natural disasters, primarily floods.\n\nThe Philippines has 1,387 hospitals, 33 percent of which are government-run; 23,281 barangay health stations, 2,592 rural health units, 2,411 birthing homes, and 659 infirmaries provide primary care throughout the country. Since 1967, the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses; seventy percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work, causing problems in retaining skilled practitioners.\n\n### Education\n\nPrimary and secondary schooling in the Philippines consists of six years of elementary period, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school. Public education, provided by the government, is free at the elementary and secondary levels and at most public higher-education institutions. Science high schools for talented students were established in 1963. The government provides technical-vocational training and development through the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority. In 2004, the government began offering alternative education to out-of-school children, youth, and adults to improve literacy; madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions that year, primarily in Mindanao Muslim areas under the Department of Education.\n\nThe Philippines has 1,975 higher education institutions as of 2019, of which 246 are public and 1,729 are private. Public universities are non-sectarian, and are primarily classified as state-administered or local government-funded. The national university is the eight-school University of the Philippines (UP) system. The country's top-ranked universities are the UP, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, and University of Santo Tomas.\n\nIn 2019, the Philippines had a basic literacy rate of 93.8 percent of those five years old or older, and a functional literacy rate of 91.6 percent of those aged 10 to 64. Education, a significant proportion of the national budget, was allocated from the 2023 budget. As of 2023, the country has 1,640 public libraries affiliated with the National Library of the Philippines.\n\n## Economy\n\nThe Philippine economy is the world's 40th largest, with an estimated 2022 nominal gross domestic product of . As a newly industrialized country, the Philippine economy has been transitioning from an agricultural base to one with more emphasis on services and manufacturing. The country's labor force was around 49 million as of 2022, and its unemployment rate was 4.3 percent. Gross international reserves totaled as of April 2023. Debt-to-GDP ratio decreased to 60.9 percent at the end of 2022 from a 17-year high 63.7 percent at the end of the third quarter of that year, and indicated resiliency during the COVID-19 pandemic. The country's unit of currency is the Philippine peso (₱ or PHP).\n\nThe Philippines is a net importer, and a debtor nation. As of 2020, the country's main export markets were China, the United States, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore; primary exports included integrated circuits, office machinery and parts, electrical transformers, insulated wiring, and semiconductors. Its primary import markets that year were China, Japan, South Korea, the United States, and Indonesia. Major export crops include coconuts, bananas, and pineapples; it is the world's largest producer of abaca, and was the world's second biggest exporter of nickel ore in 2022, as well as the biggest exporter of gold-clad metals and the biggest importer of copra in 2020.\n\nWith an average annual growth rate of six to seven percent since around 2010, the Philippines has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, driven primarily by its increasing reliance on the service sector. Regional development is uneven, however, with Manila (in particular) gaining most of the new economic growth. Remittances from overseas Filipinos contribute significantly to the country's economy; they reached a record in 2022, accounting for 8.9 percent of GDP. The Philippines is the world's primary business process outsourcing (BPO) center. About 1.3 million Filipinos work in the BPO sector, primarily in customer service.\n\n### Science and technology\n\nThe Philippines has one of the largest agricultural-research systems in Asia, despite relatively low spending on agricultural research and development. The country has developed new varieties of crops, including rice, coconuts, and bananas. Research organizations include the Philippine Rice Research Institute and the International Rice Research Institute.\n\nThe Philippine Space Agency maintains the country's space program, and the country bought its first satellite in 1996. Diwata-1, its first micro-satellite, was launched on the United States' Cygnus spacecraft in 2016.\n\nThe Philippines has a high concentration of cellular-phone users, and a high level of mobile commerce. Text messaging is a popular form of communication, and the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day in 2007. The Philippine telecommunications industry had been dominated by the PLDT-Globe Telecom duopoly for more than two decades, and the 2021 entry of Dito Telecommunity improved the country's telecommunications service.\n\n### Tourism\n\nThe Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living; the country is also a top destination for diving enthusiasts. Tourist spots include Boracay, called the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012; El Nido in Palawan; Cebu; Siargao, and Bohol.\n\nTourism contributed 5.2 percent to the Philippine GDP in 2021 (lower than 12.7 percent in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic), and provided 5.7 million jobs in 2019. The Philippines attracted 8.2 million international visitors in 2019, 15.24 percent higher than the previous year; most tourists came from East Asia (59 percent), North America (15.8 percent), and ASEAN countries (6.4 percent).\n\n## Infrastructure\n\n### Transportation\n\nTransportation in the Philippines is by road, air, rail and water. Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98 percent of people and 58 percent of cargo. In December 2018, there were 210,528 kilometers (130,816 mi) of roads in the country. The backbone of land-based transportation in the country is the Pan-Philippine Highway, which connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. Inter-island transport is by the 919-kilometer (571 mi) Strong Republic Nautical Highway, an integrated set of highways and ferry routes linking 17 cities. Jeepneys are a popular, iconic public utility vehicle; other public land transport includes buses, UV Express, TNVS, Filcab, taxis, and tricycles. Traffic is a significant issue in Manila and on arterial roads to the capital.\n\nDespite wider historical use, rail transportation in the Philippines is limited to transporting passengers within Metro Manila and the provinces of Laguna and Quezon, with a short track in the Bicol Region. The country had a railway footprint of only 79 kilometres (49 mi) as of 2019, which it planned to expand to 244 kilometres (152 mi). A revival of freight rail is planned to reduce road congestion.\n\nThe Philippines had 90 national government-owned airports as of 2022, of which eight are international. Ninoy Aquino International Airport, formerly known as Manila International Airport, has the greatest number of passengers. The 2017 air domestic market was dominated by Philippine Airlines, the country's flag carrier and Asia's oldest commercial airline, and Cebu Pacific (the country's leading low-cost carrier).\n\nA variety of boats are used throughout the Philippines; most are double-outrigger vessels known as banca or bangka. Modern ships use plywood instead of logs, and motor engines instead of sails; they are used for fishing and inter-island travel. The Philippines has over 1,800 seaports; of these, the principal seaports of Manila (the country's chief, and busiest, port), Batangas, Subic Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, and Zamboanga are part of the ASEAN Transport Network.\n\n### Energy\n\nThe Philippines had a total installed power capacity of 26,882 MW in 2021; 43 percent was generated from coal, 14 percent from oil, 14 percent hydropower, 12 percent from natural gas, and seven percent from geothermal sources. It is the world's third-biggest geothermal-energy producer, behind the United States and Indonesia. The country's largest dam is the 1.2-kilometre-long (0.75 mi) San Roque Dam on the Agno River in Pangasinan. The Malampaya gas field, discovered in the early 1990s off the coast of Palawan, reduced the Philippines' reliance on imported oil; it provides about 40 percent of Luzon's energy requirements, and 30 percent of the country's energy needs.\n\nThe Philippines has three electrical grids, one each for Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The National Grid Corporation of the Philippines manages the country's power grid since 2009 and provides overhead transmission lines across the country's islands. Electric distribution to consumers is provided by privately-owned distribution utilities and government-owned electric cooperatives. As of end-2021, the Philippines' household electrification level was about 95.41%.\n\nPlans to harness nuclear energy began during the early 1970s during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos in response to the 1973 oil crisis. The Philippines completed Southeast Asia's first nuclear power plant in Bataan in 1984. Political issues following Marcos' ouster and safety concerns after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster prevented the plant from being commissioned, and plans to operate it remain controversial.\n\n### Water supply and sanitation\n\nWater supply and sanitation outside Metro Manila is provided by the government through local water districts in cities or towns. Metro Manila is served by Manila Water and Maynilad Water Services. Except for shallow wells for domestic use, groundwater users are required to obtain a permit from the National Water Resources Board.\n\nMost sewage in the Philippines flows into septic tanks. In 2015, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation noted that 74 percent of the Philippine population had access to improved sanitation and \"good progress\" had been made between 1990 and 2015. Ninety-six percent of Filipino households had an improved source of drinking water and 92 percent of households had sanitary toilet facilities as of 2016; connections of toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient, however, especially in rural and urban poor communities.\n\n## Culture\n\nThe Philippines has significant cultural diversity, reinforced by the country's fragmented geography. Spanish and American cultures profoundly influenced Filipino culture as a result of long colonization. The cultures of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed distinctly, since they had limited Spanish influence and more influence from nearby Islamic regions. Indigenous groups such as the Igorots have preserved their precolonial customs and traditions by resisting the Spanish. A national identity emerged during the 19th century, however, with shared national symbols and cultural and historical touchstones.\n\nHispanic legacies include the dominance of Catholicism and the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames, which resulted from an 1849 edict ordering the systematic distribution of family names and the implementation of Spanish naming customs; the names of many locations also have Spanish origins. American influence on modern Filipino culture is evident in the use of English and Filipino consumption of fast food and American films and music.\n\nPublic holidays in the Philippines are classified as regular or special. Festivals are primarily religious, and most towns and villages have such a festival (usually to honor a patron saint). Better-known festivals include Ati-Atihan, Dinagyang, Moriones, Sinulog, and Flores de Mayo—a month-long devotion to the Virgin Mary held in May. The country's Christmas season begins as early as September 1, and Holy Week is a solemn religious observance for its Christian population.\n\n### Values\n\nFilipino values are rooted primarily in personal alliances based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commerce. They center around social harmony through pakikisama, motivated primarily by the desire for acceptance by a group. Reciprocity through utang na loob (a debt of gratitude) is a significant Filipino cultural trait, and an internalized debt can never be fully repaid. The main sanction for divergence from these values are the concepts of hiya (shame) and loss of amor propio (self-esteem).\n\nThe family is central to Philippine society; norms such as loyalty, maintaining close relationships, care for elderly parents, and remittances from family members working abroad are ingrained in Philippine society. Respect for authority and the elderly is valued, and is shown with gestures such as mano and the honorifics po and opo and kuya (older brother) or ate (older sister). Other Filipino values are optimism about the future, pessimism about the present, concern about other people, friendship and friendliness, hospitality, religiosity, respect for oneself and others (particularly women), and integrity.\n\n### Art and architecture\n\nPhilippine art combines indigenous folk art and foreign influences, primarily Spain and the United States. During the Spanish colonial period, art was used to spread Catholicism and support the concept of racially-superior groups. Classical paintings were mainly religious; prominent artists during Spanish colonial rule included Juan Luna and Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, whose works drew attention to the Philippines. Modernism was introduced to the Philippines during the 1920s and 1930s by Victorio Edades and popular pastoral scenes by Fernando Amorsolo.\n\nTraditional Philippine architecture has two main models: the indigenous bahay kubo and the bahay na bato, which developed under Spanish rule. Some regions, such as Batanes, differ slightly due to climate; limestone was used as a building material, and houses were built to withstand typhoons.\n\nSpanish architecture left an imprint in town designs around a central square or plaza mayor, but many of its buildings were demolished during World War II. Several Philippine churches adapted baroque architecture to withstand earthquakes, leading to the development of Earthquake Baroque; four baroque churches have been listed as a collective UNESCO World Heritage Site. Spanish colonial fortifications (fuerzas) in several parts of the Philippines were primarily designed by missionary architects and built by Filipino stone masons. Vigan, in Ilocos Sur, is known for its Hispanic-style houses and buildings.\n\nAmerican rule introduced new architectural styles in the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters. During the American period, some city planning using architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done in portions of Manila and Baguio. Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings reminiscent of Greek or Neoclassical architecture. Buildings from the Spanish and American periods can be seen in Iloilo, especially in Calle Real.\n\n### Music and dance\n\nThere are two types of Philippine folk dance, stemming from traditional indigenous influences and Spanish influence. Although native dances had become less popular, folk dancing began to revive during the 1920s. The Cariñosa, a Hispanic Filipino dance, is unofficially considered the country's national dance. Popular indigenous dances include the Tinikling and Singkil, which include the rhythmic clapping of bamboo poles. Present-day dances vary from delicate ballet to street-oriented breakdancing.\n\nRondalya music, with traditional mandolin-type instruments, was popular during the Spanish era. Spanish-influenced musicians are primarily bandurria-based bands with 14-string guitars. Kundiman developed during the 1920s and 1930s. The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to U.S. culture and popular music. Rock music was introduced to Filipinos during the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock (or Pinoy rock), a term encompassing pop rock, alternative rock, heavy metal, punk, new wave, ska, and reggae. Martial law in the 1970s produced Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations. The decade also saw the birth of the Manila sound and Original Pilipino Music (OPM). Filipino hip-hop, which originated in 1979, entered the mainstream in 1990. Karaoke is also popular. From 2010 to 2020, Pinoy pop (P-pop) was influenced by K-pop and J-pop.\n\nLocally-produced theatrical drama became established during the late 1870s. Spanish influence around that time introduced zarzuela plays (with music) and comedias, with dance. The plays became popular throughout the country, and were written in a number of local languages. American influence introduced vaudeville and ballet. Realistic theatre became dominant during the 20th century, with plays focusing on contemporary political and social issues.\n\n### Literature\n\nPhilippine literature consists of works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the earliest well-known works were created from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They include Ibong Adarna, an epic about an eponymous magical bird, and Florante at Laura by Tagalog author Francisco Balagtas. José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere (Social Cancer) and El filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed), both of which depict the injustices of Spanish colonial rule.\n\nFolk literature was relatively unaffected by colonial influence until the 19th century due to Spanish indifference. Most printed literary works during Spanish colonial rule were religious in nature, although Filipino elites who later learned Spanish wrote nationalistic literature. The American arrival began Filipino literary use of English. In the late 1960s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, Philippine literature was influenced by political activism; many poets began using Tagalog, in keeping with the country's oral traditions.\n\nPhilippine mythology has been handed down primarily through oral tradition; popular figures are Maria Makiling, Lam-ang, and the Sarimanok. The country has a number of folk epics. Wealthy families could preserve transcriptions of the epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao; the Maranao-language Darangen is an example.\n\n### Media\n\nPhilippine media primarily uses Filipino and English, although broadcasting has shifted to Filipino. Television shows, commercials, and films are regulated by the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board. Most Filipinos obtain news and information from television, the Internet, and social media. The country's flagship state-owned broadcast-television network is the People's Television Network (PTV). ABS-CBN and GMA, both free-to-air, were the dominant TV networks; before the May 2020 expiration of ABS-CBN's franchise, it was the country's largest network. Philippine television dramas, known as teleseryes and mainly produced by ABS-CBN and GMA, are also seen in several other countries.\n\nLocal film-making began in 1919 with the release of the first Filipino-produced feature film: Dalagang Bukid (A Girl from the Country), directed by Jose Nepomuceno. Production companies remained small during the silent film era, but sound films and larger productions emerged in 1933. The postwar 1940s to the early 1960s are considered a high point for Philippine cinema. The 1962–1971 decade saw a decline in quality films, although the commercial film industry expanded until the 1980s. Critically-acclaimed Philippine films include Himala (Miracle) and Oro, Plata, Mata (Gold, Silver, Death), both released in 1982. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country's film industry has struggled to compete with larger-budget foreign films (particularly Hollywood films). Art films have thrived, however, and several indie films have been successful domestically and abroad.\n\nThe Philippines has a large number of radio stations and newspapers. English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students. Less-expensive Tagalog tabloids, which grew during the 1990s, are popular (particularly in Manila); however, overall newspaper readership is declining. The top three newspapers, by nationwide readership and credibility, are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star. Although freedom of the press is protected by the constitution, the country was listed as the seventh-most-dangerous country for journalists in 2022 by the Committee to Protect Journalists due to 13 unsolved murders of journalists.\n\nThe Philippine population are the world's top Internet users. In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91 million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used smartphones. The Philippines ranked 59th on the Global Innovation Index in 2022, up from its 2014 ranking of 100th.\n\n### Cuisine\n\nFrom its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, Chinese, and American cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate. Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors, centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations. Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple starch but cassava is more common in parts of Mindanao. Adobo is the unofficial national dish. Other popular dishes include lechón, kare-kare, sinigang, pancit, lumpia, and arroz caldo. Traditional desserts are kakanin (rice cakes), which include puto, suman, and bibingka. Ingredients such as calamansi, ube, and pili are used in Filipino desserts. The generous use of condiments such as patis, bagoong, and toyo impart a distinctive Philippine flavor.\n\nUnlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use spoons and forks. Traditional eating with the fingers (known as kamayan) had been used in less urbanized areas, but has been popularized with the introduction of Filipino food to foreigners and city residents.\n\n### Sports and recreation\n\nBasketball, played at the amateur and professional levels, is considered the country's most popular sport. Other popular sports include boxing and billiards, boosted by the achievements of Manny Pacquiao and Efren Reyes. The national martial art is Arnis. Sabong (cockfighting) is popular entertainment, especially among Filipino men, and was documented by the Magellan expedition. Video gaming and esports are emerging pastimes, with the popularity of indigenous games such as patintero, tumbang preso, luksong tinik, and piko declining among young people; several bills have been filed to preserve and promote traditional games.\n\nThe men's national football team has participated in one Asian Cup. The women's national football team qualified for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, their first World Cup, in January 2022. The Philippines has participated in every Summer Olympic Games since 1924, except when they supported the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics. It was the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games, debuting in 1972. In 2021, the Philippines received its first-ever Olympic gold medal with weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz's victory in Tokyo.\n\n## See also\n\n- Outline of the Philippines", "revid": "1173267397", "description": "Archipelagic country in Southeast Asia", "categories": ["Articles with accessibility problems", "Countries and territories where English is an official language", "Countries in Asia", "Former Japanese colonies", "Former Spanish colonies", "Former colonies in Asia", "Island countries", "Maritime Southeast Asia", "Member states of ASEAN", "Member states of the United Nations", "Newly industrializing countries", "Philippines", "Republics", "Southeast Asian countries", "Spanish East Indies", "States and territories established in 1565", "States and territories established in 1898", "States and territories established in 1946", "Volcanic arc islands"]}
{"id": "504049", "url": null, "title": "Archaeoraptor", "text": "\"Archaeoraptor\" is the informal generic name for a fossil chimera from China in an article published in National Geographic magazine in 1999. The magazine claimed that the fossil was a \"missing link\" between birds and terrestrial theropod dinosaurs. Even before this publication, there had been severe doubts about the fossil's authenticity. A further scientific study showed it to be a forgery constructed from rearranged pieces of real fossils from different species. Zhou et al. found that the head and upper body belong to a specimen of the primitive fossil bird Yanornis. A 2002 study found that the tail belongs to a small winged dromaeosaur, Microraptor, named in 2000. The legs and feet belong to an as-yet-unknown-animal.\n\nThe scandal brought attention to illegal fossil deals conducted in China. Although \"Archaeoraptor\" was a forgery, many true examples of feathered dinosaurs have been found and demonstrate the evolutionary connection between birds and other theropods.\n\n## Scandal\n\n\"Archaeoraptor\" was unveiled at a press conference held by National Geographic magazine in October 1999. At the same press conference, plans were announced to return the fossil to Chinese authorities, as it was illegally exported. In November 1999 National Geographic featured the fossil in an article written by art editor Christopher Sloan. The article in general discussed feathered dinosaurs and the origin of birds. It claimed the fossil was \"a missing link between terrestrial dinosaurs and birds that could fly\" and informally referred to it as \"Archaeoraptor liaoningensis\", announcing it would later be formally named as such. This name means \"ancient robber of Liaoning\". This drew immediate criticism from Storrs L. Olson, Curator of Birds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. Writing in Backbone, the newsletter of his museum, he denounced the publication of a scientific name in a popular journal, without peer review, as a \"nightmare\".\n\nOn February 3, 2000, National Geographic issued a press release stating that the fossil could be a composite and that an internal investigation had begun. In that same month Bill Allen, National Geographic editor, told Nature that he was \"furious\" to learn that the fossil might have been faked. In the March issue, in the forum section, a letter from Dr. Xu Xing pointed out that the tail section probably did not match the upper body. In October 2000 National Geographic published the results of their investigation, in an article written by Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist Lewis M. Simons. Simons concluded that the fossil was a composite and that virtually everyone involved in the project had made some mistakes.\n\n### Chronology\n\nAccording to National Geographic'''s report, the story of \"Archaeoraptor\" begins in July 1997 in Xiasanjiazi, China, where farmers routinely dug in the shale pits with picks and sold fossils to dealers for a few dollars. This was an illegal practice, but it was common then. In this case, one farmer found a rare fossil of a toothed bird, complete with feather impressions. The fossil broke into pieces during collection. Nearby, in the same pit, he found pieces including a feathered tail and legs. He cemented several of these pieces together in a manner that he believed was correct. He knew that it would make a more complete-looking and, thus, more expensive fossil. It was sold in June 1998 to an anonymous dealer and smuggled to the United States. According to authorities in Beijing, no fossils may leave China legally.\n\nBy the fall 1998 annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, held in Utah, United States, rumors were circulating about a striking fossil of a primitive bird that was in private hands. This fossil was presented by an anonymous dealer at a gem show in Tucson, Arizona. The Dinosaur Museum in Blanding, Utah, purchased it in February 1999. The museum was run by the late Stephen A. Czerkas (d. 2015) and his wife, Sylvia Czerkas. Mr. Czerkas did not hold a university degree, but he was a dinosaur enthusiast and artist. He arranged for patrons of his museum, including trustee Dale Slade, to provide \\$80,000 for the purchase of the fossil, to study it scientifically, and prevent it from disappearing into an anonymous private collection.\n\nThe Czerkases contacted paleontologist Phil Currie, who contacted the National Geographic Society. Currie agreed to study the fossil on condition that it was eventually returned to China. The National Geographic Society intended to get the fossil formally published in the peer-reviewed science journal Nature, and then follow up immediately with a press conference and an issue of National Geographic. Editor Bill Allen asked that all members of the project keep the fossil secret so that the magazine would have a scoop on the story.\n\nSlade and the Czerkases intended the fossil to be the \"crown jewel\" of the Dinosaur Museum and planned to keep it on display there for five years. Sloan says that he flew to Utah in the spring of 1999 to convince Stephen Czerkas to return the fossil to China immediately after publication, or he would not write about it for National Geographic and Currie would not work on it. Czerkas then agreed. Currie then contacted the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing, and National Geographic flew the IVPP's Xu Xing to Utah to be part of the \"Archaeoraptor\" team.\n\nDuring the initial examination of the fossil on March 6, 1999, it had already become clear to Currie that the left and right feet mirrored each other perfectly and that the fossil had been completed by using both slab and counter slab. He also noticed no connection could be seen between the tail and the body. In July 1999, Currie and the Czerkases brought the fossil to the High-Resolution X-ray CT Facility of the University of Texas (Austin) founded and operated by Dr. Timothy Rowe to make CT scans. Rowe, having made the scans on July 29, determined that they indicated that the bottom fragments, showing the tail and the lower legs, were not part of the larger fossil. He informed the Czerkases on August 2 that there was a chance of the whole being a fraud. During a subsequent discussion, Rowe and Currie were pressured by the Czerkases to keep their reservations private.\n\nCurrie in the first week of September sent his preparator, Kevin Aulenback, to the Dinosaur Museum in Blanding to prepare the fossil for better study. Aulenback concluded that the fossil was \"a composite specimen of at least 3 specimens...with a maximum...of five...separate specimens\", but the Czerkases angrily denied this and Aulenbeck only reported this to Currie. Currie did not inform National Geographic of these problems.\n\nOn August 13, 1999, the team submitted a manuscript titled \"A New Toothed Bird With a Dromaeosaur-like Tail\" under the names of Stephen Czerkas, Currie, Rowe, and Xu, to the journal Nature in London. The paper mentions two places and includes a figure illustrating the point that one of the legs and the tail are counterparts that were composited into the main slab.\n\nOn August 20 Nature rejected the paper, indicating to the Czerkases that National Geographic had refused to delay publication, leaving too little time for peer review. The authors then submitted the paper to Science, which sent it out for peer review. Two reviewers informed Science that \"the specimen was smuggled out of China and illegally purchased\" and that the fossil had been \"doctored\" in China \"to enhance its value.\" Science then rejected the paper. According to Sloan, the Czerkases did not inform National Geographic about the details of the two rejections.\n\nBy that time the November issue of National Geographic was already in preparation for printing, but \"Archaeoraptor\" was never formally published in any peer-reviewed journal.\n\nNational Geographic went ahead and published without peer review. The fossil was unveiled in a press conference on October 15, 1999, and in November 1999 National Geographic contained an article by Christopher P. Sloan—a National Geographic art editor. Sloan described it as a missing link that helped elucidate the connection between dinosaurs and birds. The original fossil was put on display at the National Geographic Society in Washington, D.C., pending return to China. In the article Sloan used the name \"Archaeoraptor liaoningensis\" but with a disclaimer (so that it would not count as a nomenclatural act for scientific classification) in anticipation of Czerkas being able to publish a peer-reviewed description at some point in the future.\n\nAfter the November National Geographic came out, Storrs L. Olson, curator of birds in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution published an open letter on 1 November 1999, pointing out that \"the specimen in question is known to have been illegally exported\" and protesting the \"prevailing dogma that birds evolved from dinosaurs.\" Olson complained that Sloan, a journalist, had usurped the process of scientific nomenclature by publishing a name first in the popular press: \"This is the worst nightmare of many zoologists—that their chance to name a new organism will be inadvertently scooped by some witless journalist.\"\n\nIn October 1999, after having been informed by Currie of the problems and seeing the specimen for the first time, Xu noticed that the tail of \"Archaeoraptor\" strongly resembled an unnamed maniraptoran dinosaur that he was studying—later to be named Microraptor zhaoianus. He returned to China and traveled to Liaoning Province where he inspected the fossil site and contacted several fossil dealers. He eventually found a fairly complete fossil of a tiny dromaeosaur, and the tail of this new fossil corresponded so exactly to the tail on the \"Archaeoraptor\" fossil that it had to be the counter slab— it even had two matching yellow oxide stains. On December 20, 1999, Xu Xing sent e-mails to the authors and Sloan, announcing that the fossil was a fake.\n\nOn February 3, 2000, The National Geographic News issued a press release stating that the \"Archaeoraptor\" fossil might be a composite and that an internal investigation had begun. In the March issue of National Geographic Xu's letter ran in the Forum section of the magazine, and Bill Allen had Xu change the word \"fake\" to \"composite\".\n\nOn April 4, 2000, Stephen Czerkas told a group of paleontologists in Washington that he and Sylvia had made \"an idiot, bone-stupid mistake\". Currie, Allen, and Sloan all expressed regret. Rowe felt vindicated, claiming the affair as evidence that his scans were correct. Rowe published a Brief Communication in Nature in 2001 describing his findings. He concluded that, apart from the top part, several specimens had been used to complete the fossil: a first for the left femur, a second for the tibiae, a third for both feet, and at least one more for the tail, which alone consisted of five separate parts.\n\nIn June 2000 the fossil was returned to China. In the October 2000 issue, National Geographic published the results of their investigation.\n\n## Ongoing confusion\n\nThe fossils involved in the \"Archaeoraptor\" scandal have led to ongoing confusion over taxon names. In December 2000, Microraptor was described in Nature. Zhou et al. (2002) examined the upper body of the \"Archaeoraptor\" fossil and reported that it belonged to the previously-named genus Yanornis.\n\n### Dinosaur Museum Journal\n\nIn 2002 the Czerkases published a volume through their Dinosaur Museum titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight. In this journal, they described and named several species. Of the six species named in the book, five are disputed.\n\nDespite the work of Zhou et al. (2002), Czerkas and co-author Xu Xing described the upper portion of the \"Archaeoraptor\" fossil as a new bird genus, Archaeovolans, in the Dinosaur Museum Journal. The article does include the caveat that it might be a specimen of Yanornis. Thus, this same fossil specimen has been named \"Archaeoraptor\", Archeovolans, and Yanornis, in different places.\n\nAcross the monographs in the Dinosaur Museum Journal, Stephen Czerkas built a case for his controversial view that maniraptoran dinosaurs are secondarily flightless birds. In so doing, he criticized prominent paleontologists. In the text on Cryptovolans, Czerkas accused Dr. Mark Norell of misinterpreting the fossil BPM 1 3-13 as having long leg feathers due to the \"blinding influences of preconceived ideas.\" Though Norell's interpretation was correct, Czerkas added leg feathers to his reconstruction of the fossil in the art that promotes the traveling exhibit.\n\nTwo other taxa that Czerkas and his co-authors named were later treated as junior synonyms by other authors. Czerkas' Cryptovolans was treated as Microraptor, and his Scansoriopteryx was treated as Epidendrosaurus. Czerkas described Omnivoropteryx, noting that it was similar to Sapeornis. Later specimens of Sapeornis with skulls demonstrated that the two were probably synonymous.\n\nAnother taxon that Czerkas assigned to the Pterosauria and named Utahdactylus was reviewed by Dr. Chris Bennett. Bennett found multiple misidentifications of bones and inconsistencies between Czerkas' diagrams and the actual fossils. Bennett found the specimen to be an indeterminate diapsid and criticized the previous authors for publishing a species name when no diagnostic characters below the class level could be verified. He made Utahdactylus a nomen dubium.\n\n### Traveling exhibit\n\nIn 2001 Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas compiled a traveling exhibit containing 34 other Chinese fossils. The show is titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight. The San Diego Natural History Museum paid a set fee to the Dinosaur Museum to display this show in 2004. When the show opened, Dr. Ji Qiang told reporters from Nature that about a dozen of the fossils had left China illegally. Ji arranged with the Czerkases to assign accession numbers to three of the most valuable specimens, thus formally adding them to the collection of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in Beijing, although they remain in the possession of the Czerkases. Stephen Czerkas denied Ji's assertion that the fossils were illegal. Sylvia Czerkas told the journal Nature that she had worked out an agreement with officials of Liaoning Province in 2001 to borrow the fossils and that they were to be repatriated in 2007. Through March 2009, however, the show was scheduled for the Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science in California. According to Nature, the Czerkases refused requests to make the officials from Liaoning available for an interview.\n\nMany scientists consider it unethical to work on fossils if there is any chance that they have been smuggled, and many disregard privately owned fossils altogether. Some professionals feel that private collectors put fossils in private hands where science may not be able to access or study them. Some believe that private collectors may damage important fossils, subject them to forgery, and obscure their origins or evidence about their ages. Illegal dealers have also participated in and may encourage, governmental corruption. Another philosophy argues that if scientists could bend their ethics and agree to publish on important private fossils, this would encourage private holders to make them available for study.\n\nThe fossil most recently appeared in an exhibition in Wollaton Hall, near Nottingham, titled Dinosaurs of China: Ground Shakers to Feathered Flyers, where it was exhibited along with fossils of Yanoris and Microraptor, its main components.\n\n### Taxonomic history\n\nIn April 2000 Olson published an article in Backbone, the newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History. In this article, he justified his views on the evolution of birds, but also revised and redescribed the species \"Archaeoraptor liaoningensis\" by designating just the tail of the original fraudulent specimen as the type specimen. To prevent the tainted name \"Archaeoraptor\" from entering paleornithological literature, this redescription assigned the name to that part of the chimeric specimen least likely to be classified under Aves, rather than to the portion which was later shown to represent a true bird species. Olson presumed that the National Geographic article had already validly named the fossil, and he, therefore, failed to explicitly indicate the name was new, as demanded by article 16 of the ICZN as a condition for a name to be valid. Several months afterward Xu, Zhou, and Wang published their description of Microraptor zhaoianus in Nature.\n\n### Creationism\n\nThe scandal is sometimes used by creationists like Kent Hovind, Kirk Cameron, and Ray Comfort to cast doubt on the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs. Many creationists insist that no missing links between birds and dinosaurs have been found, and commonly point to \"Archaeoraptor\" as evidence of misconduct performed to support the evolutionary theory. They see \"Archaeoraptor\" as a \"Piltdown Bird\". However, contrary to the Piltdown Man, \"Archaeoraptor\" was not deliberately fabricated to support some evolutionary claim. Furthermore, the authenticity of \"Archaeoraptor\" would not have been essential proof for the hypothesis that birds are theropods, as this is sufficiently corroborated by other data; paleontologist Christopher Brochu concluded in November 2001: \"That birds are derived from theropod dinosaurs is no longer the subject of scholarly dispute.\" Though playing the role of \"terrestrial dinosaur\" in the \"Archaeoraptor\" affair, the Microraptor'', showing wings and clear traces of rectrices, is generally assumed to have had at least a gliding capacity and is itself an excellent example of a transitional fossil.", "revid": "1128351584", "description": "Faked dinosaur discovery in China", "categories": ["1999 hoaxes", "1999 in China", "Feathered dinosaurs", "Hoaxes in China", "Hoaxes in science", "Invalid dinosaurs", "Nomina nuda", "Paleontological chimeras"]}
{"id": "8185946", "url": null, "title": "SMS Westfalen", "text": "SMS Westfalen was one of the Nassau-class battleships, the first four dreadnoughts built for the German Imperial Navy. Westfalen was laid down at AG Weser in Bremen on 12 August 1907, launched nearly a year later on 1 July 1908, and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 16 November 1909. The ship was equipped with a main battery of twelve 28 cm (11 in) guns in six twin turrets in an unusual hexagonal arrangement.\n\nThe ship served with her sister ships for the majority of World War I, seeing extensive service in the North Sea, where she took part in several fleet sorties. These culminated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916, where Westfalen was heavily engaged in night-fighting against British light forces. Westfalen led the German line for much of the evening and into the following day, until the fleet reached Wilhelmshaven. On another fleet advance in August 1916, the ship was damaged by a torpedo from a British submarine.\n\nWestfalen also conducted several deployments to the Baltic Sea against the Russian Navy. The first of these was during the Battle of the Gulf of Riga, where Westfalen supported a German naval assault on the gulf. Westfalen was sent back to the Baltic in 1918 to support the White Finns in the Finnish Civil War. The ship remained in Germany while the majority of the fleet was interned in Scapa Flow after the end of the war. In 1919, following the scuttling of the German fleet in Scapa Flow, Westfalen was ceded to the Allies as a replacement for the ships that had been sunk. She was then sent to ship-breakers in England, who broke the ship up for scrap by 1924.\n\n## Description\n\nDesign work on the Nassau class began in late 1903 in the context of the Anglo-German naval arms race; at the time, battleships of foreign navies had begun to carry increasingly heavy secondary batteries, including Italian and American ships with 20.3 cm (8 in) guns and British ships with 23.4 cm (9.2 in) guns, outclassing the previous German battleships of the Deutschland class with their 17 cm (6.7 in) secondaries. German designers initially considered ships equipped with 21 cm (8.3 in) secondary guns, but erroneous reports in early 1904 that the British Lord Nelson-class battleships would be equipped with a secondary battery of 25.4 cm (10 in) guns prompted them to consider an even more powerful ship armed with an all-big-gun armament consisting of eight 28 cm (11 in) guns. Over the next two years, the design was refined into a larger vessel with twelve of the guns, by which time Britain had launched the all-big-gun battleship HMS Dreadnought.\n\nWestfalen was 146.1 m (479 ft 4 in) long, 26.9 m (88 ft 3 in) wide, and had a draft of 8.9 m (29 ft 2 in). She displaced 18,873 t (18,575 long tons) with a standard load, and 20,535 t (20,210 long tons) fully laden. The ship design retained 3-shaft triple expansion engines instead of the more advanced turbine engines. Steam was provided to the engines by twelve coal-fired water-tube boilers, with the addition in 1915 of supplementary oil firing. This machinery was chosen at the request of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz and the Navy's construction department. The department stated in 1905 that the \"use of turbines in heavy warships does not recommend itself.\" This decision was based solely on cost: at the time, Parsons held a monopoly on steam turbines and required a 1 million gold mark royalty fee for every turbine engine. German firms were not ready to begin production of turbines on a large scale until 1910.\n\nWestfalen carried a main battery of twelve 28 cm (11 in) SK L/45 guns in an unusual hexagonal configuration. Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns and sixteen 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 guns, all of which were mounted in casemates. The ship was also armed with six 45 cm (17.7 in) submerged torpedo tubes. One tube was mounted in the bow, another in the stern, and two on each broadside, on either end of the torpedo bulkhead. The ship's belt armor was 300 mm (11.8 in) thick in the central citadel, and the armored deck was 80 mm (3.1 in) thick. The main battery turrets had 280 mm (11 in) thick sides, and the conning tower was protected with 400 mm (15.7 in) of armor plating.\n\n## Service history\n\nThe German Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine) ordered Westfalen under the provisional name Ersatz Sachsen as a replacement for SMS Sachsen, the lead ship of the elderly Sachsen-class ironclads. The Reichstag secretly approved and provided funds for Nassau and Westfalen at the end of March 1906, but construction on Westfalen was delayed while arms and armor were procured. She was laid down on 12 August 1907 at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen. As with her sister Nassau, construction proceeded swiftly and secretly; detachments of soldiers guarded both the shipyard and the major contractors who supplied building materials, such as Krupp. The ship was launched on 1 July 1908, underwent an initial fitting-out, and then in mid-September 1909 was transferred to Kiel by a crew composed of dockyard workers for a final fitting-out. However, the water level in the Weser River was low at this time of year, so six pontoons had to be attached to the ship to reduce her draft. Even so, it took two attempts before the ship cleared the river.\n\nOn 16 October 1909, before Westfalen was commissioned into the fleet, the ship took part in a ceremony for the opening of the third set of locks in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal in Kiel. Exactly one month later, Westfalen was commissioned for sea trials, which were interrupted only by fleet training exercises in February 1910. At the completion of the trials on 3 May, Westfalen was added to I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet; two days later, she became the squadron flagship, replacing the pre-dreadnought battleship SMS Hannover. The navy had intended to transfer the ship to II Battle Squadron, but this plan was discarded after the outbreak of World War I in July 1914.\n\n### World War I\n\nWestfalen participated in most of the fleet advances into the North Sea throughout the war. The first operation was conducted primarily by Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper's battlecruisers; the ships bombarded the English coastal towns of Scarborough, Hartlepool, and Whitby on 15–16 December 1914. A German battlefleet of 12 dreadnoughts, including Westfalen, her three sisters and eight pre-dreadnoughts sailed in support of the battlecruisers. On the evening of 15 December, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships. However, skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced the German fleet commander, Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl, that the entire Grand Fleet was deployed before him. Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II, von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back towards Germany. In late March 1915 the ship went into drydock for periodic maintenance.\n\n#### Battle of the Gulf of Riga\n\nIn August 1915, the German fleet attempted to clear the Russian-held Gulf of Riga in order to assist the German army, which was planning an assault on Riga itself. To do so, the German planners intended to drive off or destroy the Russian naval forces in the Gulf, which included the pre-dreadnought battleship Slava and a number of smaller gunboats and destroyers. The German battle fleet was accompanied by several mine-warfare vessels, tasked first with clearing Russian minefields and then laying a series of their own minefields in the northern entrance to the Gulf to prevent Russian naval reinforcements from reaching the area. The assembled German fleet included Westfalen and her three sister ships, the four Helgoland-class battleships, the battlecruisers Von der Tann, Moltke, and Seydlitz, and several pre-dreadnoughts. The force operated under the command of Franz von Hipper, who had by now been promoted to vice admiral. The eight battleships were to provide cover for the forces engaging the Russian flotilla. The first attempt on 8 August was broken off, as it took too long to clear the Russian minefields.\n\nOn 16 August 1915, a second attempt was made to enter the Gulf: Nassau and Posen, four light cruisers, and 31 torpedo boats managed to breach the Russian defenses. On the first day of the assault, two German light craft—the minesweeper T46 and the destroyer V99—were sunk. The following day, Nassau and Posen battled Slava, scoring three hits on the Russian ship that forced her to retreat. By 19 August, the Russian minefields had been cleared and the flotilla entered the Gulf. However, reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted the Germans to call off the operation the following day. Admiral Hipper later remarked that \"to keep valuable ships for a considerable time in a limited area in which enemy submarines were increasingly active, with the corresponding risk of damage and loss, was to indulge in a gamble out of all proportion to the advantage to be derived from the occupation of the Gulf before the capture of Riga from the land side.\" In fact, the battlecruiser Moltke had been torpedoed that morning.\n\n#### Return to the North Sea\n\nBy the end of August Westfalen and the rest of the High Seas Fleet had returned to their anchorages in the North Sea. The next operation conducted was a sweep into the North Sea on 11–12 September, though it ended without any action. Another sortie followed on 23–24 October during which the German fleet did not encounter any British forces. Another uneventful advance into the North Sea took place on 21–22 April 1916. A bombardment mission followed two days later; Westfalen joined the battleship support for Hipper's battlecruisers while they attacked Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24–25 April. During this operation, the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a British mine and had to return to port prematurely. Due to poor visibility, the operation was soon called off, leaving the British fleet no time to intercept the raiders.\n\n#### Battle of Jutland\n\nAdmiral Reinhard Scheer, who had succeeded Admirals von Ingenohl and Hugo von Pohl as the fleet commander, immediately planned another attack on the British coast. However, the damage to Seydlitz and condenser trouble on several of the III Battle Squadron dreadnoughts delayed the plan until the end of May 1916. The German battlefleet departed the Jade at 03:30 on 31 May. Westfalen was assigned to II Division of I Battle Squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral W. Engelhardt. Westfalen was the last ship in the division, astern of her three sisters. II Division was the last unit of dreadnoughts in the fleet; they were followed by only the elderly pre-dreadnoughts of II Battle Squadron.\n\nBetween 17:48 and 17:52, eleven German dreadnoughts, including Westfalen, engaged and opened fire on the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron, though the range and poor visibility prevented effective fire, which was soon checked. At 18:05, Westfalen began firing again; her target was a British light cruiser, most probably the Southampton. Despite the short distance, around 18,000 metres (19,690 yd), Westfalen scored no hits. Scheer had by this time called for maximum speed in order to pursue the British ships; Westfalen made 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). By 19:30 when Scheer signaled \"Go west\", the German fleet had faced the deployed Grand Fleet for a second time and was forced to turn away. In doing so, the order of the German line was reversed; this would have put II Squadron in the lead, but Captain Redlich of Westfalen noted that II Squadron was out of position and began his turn immediately, assuming the lead position.\n\nAround 21:20, Westfalen and her sister ships began to be engaged by the battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron; several large shells straddled (fell to either side of) the ship and rained splinters on her deck. Shortly thereafter, two torpedo tracks were spotted that turned out to be imaginary. The ships were then forced to slow down in order to allow the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group to pass ahead. Around 22:00, Westfalen and Rheinland observed unidentified light forces in the gathering darkness. After flashing a challenge via searchlight that was ignored, the two ships turned away to starboard in order to evade any torpedoes that might have been fired. The rest of I Battle Squadron followed them. During the brief encounter, Westfalen fired seven of her 28 cm shells in the span of about two and a half minutes. Westfalen again assumed a position guiding the fleet, this time because Scheer wanted lead ships with greater protection against torpedoes than the pre-dreadnoughts had.\n\nAt about 00:30, the leading units of the German line encountered British destroyers and cruisers. A violent firefight at close range ensued; Westfalen opened fire on the destroyer HMS Tipperary with her 15 cm and 8.8 cm guns at a distance of about 1,800 m (2,000 yd). Her first salvo destroyed Tipperary's bridge and forward deck gun. In the span of five minutes, Westfalen fired ninety-two 15 cm and forty-five 8.8 cm rounds at Tipperary before turning 90 degrees to starboard to evade any torpedoes that might have been fired. Nassau and several cruisers and destroyers joined in the attack on Tipperary; the ship was quickly turned into a burning wreck. The destroyer nevertheless continued to fire with her stern guns and launched her two starboard torpedoes. One of the British destroyers scored a hit on Westfalen's bridge with its 4-inch (10 cm) guns, killing two men and wounding eight; Captain Redlich was slightly wounded. At 00:50, Westfalen spotted HMS Broke and briefly engaged her with her secondary guns; in about 45 seconds she fired thirteen 15 cm and thirteen 8.8 cm shells before turning away. Broke was engaged by other German warships, including the cruiser Rostock; she was hit at least seven times and suffered 42 dead, six missing, and 34 wounded crew members. An officer aboard the light cruiser Southampton described Broke as \"an absolute shambles.\" Despite the serious damage inflicted, Broke managed to withdraw from the battle and reach port. Just after 01:00, Westfalen's searchlights fell on the destroyer Fortune, which was wrecked and set ablaze in a matter of seconds by Westfalen and Rheinland. She also managed to sink the British destroyer Turbulent.\n\nDespite the ferocity of the night fighting, the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 4:00 on 1 June. With Westfalen in the lead, the German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later, where the battleship and two of her sisters took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead. Over the course of the battle, the ship had fired fifty-one 28 cm shells, one-hundred and seventy-six 15 cm rounds, and one hundred and six 8.8 cm shells. Repair work followed immediately in Wilhelmshaven and was completed by 17 June.\n\n#### Raid of 18–19 August\n\nAnother fleet advance followed on 18–22 August, during which the I Scouting Group battlecruisers were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty's battlecruisers. As only two of the four German battlecruisers were still in fighting condition, three dreadnoughts were assigned to the Scouting Group for the operation: Markgraf, Grosser Kurfürst, and the newly commissioned Bayern. The High Seas Fleet, including Westfalen at the rear of the line, would trail behind and provide cover. However, at 06:00 on 19 August, Westfalen was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E23, some 55 nautical miles (102 km; 63 mi) north of Terschelling. The ship took in approximately 800 metric tons (790 long tons; 880 short tons) of water, but the torpedo bulkhead held. Three torpedo-boats were detached from the fleet to escort the damaged ship back to port; Westfalen made 14 kn (26 km/h; 16 mph) on the return trip. The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them. By 14:35, Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet's approach and, unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the close call at Jutland, turned his forces around and retreated to German ports. Repairs to Westfalen lasted until 26 September.\n\nFollowing the repair work, Westfalen briefly went into the Baltic Sea for training, before returning to the North Sea on 4 October. The fleet then advanced as far as the Dogger Bank on 19–20 October. The ship remained in port for the majority of 1917. The ship did not actively take part in Operation Albion in the Baltic, though she was stationed off Apenrade to prevent a possible British incursion into the area.\n\n#### Expedition to Finland\n\nOn 22 February 1918, Westfalen and Rheinland were tasked with a mission to Finland to support German army units to be deployed there. The Finns were engaged in a Civil War between the Whites and the Reds. On 23 February, the two ships took on the 14th Jäger Battalion, and early on 24 February they departed for Åland. Åland was to be a forward operating base, from which the port of Hanko would be secured, following an assault on the capital of Helsinki. The task force reached the Åland Islands on 5 March, where they encountered the Swedish coastal defense ships , , and . Negotiations ensued, which resulted in the landing of the German troops on Åland on 7 March; Westfalen then returned to Danzig.\n\nWestfalen remained in Danzig until 31 March, when she departed for Finland with Posen; the ships arrived at Russarö, which was the outer defense for Hanko, by 3 April. The German army quickly took the port. The task force then proceeded to Helsingfors; on 9 April Westfalen stood off Reval, organizing the invasion force. Two days later the ship passed into the harbor at Helsingfors and landed the soldiers; she supported their advance with her main guns. The Red Guards were defeated within three days. The ship remained in Helsingfors until 30 April, by which time the White government had been installed firmly in power.\n\nFollowing the operation, Westfalen returned to the North Sea where she rejoined I Battle Squadron. On 11 August, Westfalen, Posen, Kaiser, and Kaiserin steamed out towards Terschelling to support German patrols in the area. While en route, Westfalen suffered serious damage to her boilers that reduced her speed to 16 kn (30 km/h; 18 mph). After returning to port, she was decommissioned and employed as an artillery training ship.\n\n### Fate\n\nFollowing the German collapse in November 1918, a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet was interned in Scapa Flow under the terms of the Armistice. Westfalen and her three sisters—the oldest dreadnoughts in the German navy-were not among the ships listed for internment, so they remained in German ports. During the internment, a copy of The Times informed the German commander, Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919, the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty. Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired. To prevent this, he decided to scuttle his ships at the first opportunity. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers; at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships.\n\nAs a result of the scuttling at Scapa Flow, the Allies demanded replacements for the ships that had been sunk. Westfalen was struck from the German naval list on 5 November 1919 and subsequently handed over to the Allies under the contract name \"D\" on 5 August 1920. The ship was then sold to ship-breakers in Birkenhead, where she was broken up for scrap by 1924.", "revid": "1159032058", "description": "Nassau-class battleship of the German Imperial Navy", "categories": ["1908 ships", "Nassau-class battleships", "Ships built in Bremen (state)", "World War I battleships of Germany"]}
{"id": "30474074", "url": null, "title": "On the Floor", "text": "\"On the Floor\" is a song recorded by American singer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album, Love? (2011). Featuring American rapper Pitbull, it was released by Island Records on February 8, 2011, as the lead single from the album. \"On the Floor\" was written by Kinnda \"Kee\" Hamid, AJ Junior, Teddy Sky, Bilal \"The Chef\" Hajji, Pitbull, Gonzalo Hermosa, Ulises Hermosa, along with the song's producer RedOne. It is a pop song combining techno, Latin, dance-pop and house music and with a common time tempo of 130 beats per minute. Lopez recorded a Spanish-language version of the song titled \"Ven a Bailar\" (English: \"Come to Dance\"), which includes additional lyrical contributions from Julio Reyes Copello and Jimena Romero.\n\nThe song's development was motivated by Lopez's Latin heritage and pays homage to her career-beginnings as a dancer. Interpolated within the song are recurrent elements of the 1982 Bolivian composition \"Llorando se fue\" written by Gonzalo and Ulises Hermosa of Los Kjarkas, a composition that gained notoriety when it was covered by Kaoma in their 1989 single \"Lambada\". Lopez described \"On the Floor\" as an evolution of her classic sound and as something which sounded very current. The debut and release of \"On the Floor\" coincided with Lopez's appointment as a judge on the tenth season of US reality TV show American Idol, as well as several other product endorsement deals. American Idol also provided a platform to debut the single's music video, as well as the stage for Lopez's first live performance of the song.\n\nEditors from BBC Music and Los Angeles Times drew comparisons to Lopez's debut single, \"If You Had My Love\" (1999) and follow-up single \"Waiting for Tonight\" (1999). In the United States, it was Lopez's first single in four years to garner airplay, and has sold 3.8 million copies, earning a triple platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was ranked by Billboard as the eleventh-biggest hit of 2011 on the year-end Billboard Hot 100 chart. \"On the Floor\" finished in first in Austria, Finland, Germany, Spain, Switzerland, and other countries.\n\nA music video was directed by TAJ Stansberry and choreographed by Frank Gatson Jr, with fans being given the chance to vote for their preferred ending for the video. The completed clip premiered simultaneously on Vevo and during the March 3, 2011 episode of American Idol. It depicts a Los Angeles underground club culture where Lopez portrays a \"queen of the nightclub\", among other characters. The video received critical acclaim for its lavish production, styling, and choreography, all of which critics felt highlighted Lopez's skills as a dancer. \"On the Floor\" sold over eight million copies worldwide in 2011, making it the best-selling single of that year by a female artist.\n\n## Background\n\nLopez's seventh studio album Love? (2011) was conceived in late 2007 and early 2008. During that time frame, under contract to Epic Records, Lopez released \"Louboutins\", a song written and produced by The-Dream and Tricky Stewart, as the project's lead single. However upon release, the song failed to garner enough airplay to chart, despite topping the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. Lopez subsequently left Epic Records, citing that she had fulfilled her contractual obligations and now wished to release Love? under a new label. Upon signing with The Island Def Jam Music Group, Lopez continued working with The-Dream and Tricky Stewart, in addition to collaborating with new producers such as RedOne. It was not until January 2011 that Lopez teased the media about the new lead single for Love?. In a tweet on her Twitter account, Lopez posted: \"I see u @RedOne_Official! We're making BIG things happen 'On the Floor' this new year!!!\". Subsequently, on January 16, 2011, an unfinished snippet of \"On the Floor\" leaked online, labelled as a RedOne production and featuring rap vocals from Pitbull. It is the second time that Lopez and Pitbull have collaborated on a song, the first being \"Fresh Out the Oven\", the 2009 buzz single which reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart.\n\nAccording to the Los Angeles Times's Gerrick D. Kennedy, a full-length unfinished version of \"On the Floor\" leaked online over the same weekend in time for Lopez's new L'Oreal commercial, which premiered during the telecast of the 68th Golden Globe Awards ceremony in Los Angeles. The timing of the leak also coincided with Lopez's debut on judges panel for season ten of American Idol. Lopez confirmed the single's title as \"On the Floor\" during the red carpet ceremony at The Golden Globes, before appearing the following day on the radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest for the song's US premiere. The final version of the song was uploaded to Ryanseacrest.com, where the site's editor, Sadao Turner, revealed that the final master of the song was different from the previously leaked and unfinished version. \"On the Floor\" made its debut in the United Kingdom, on January 28, 2011 when it was played by DJ Scott Mills on his radio show, Ready for the Weekend. Benji Eisen from AOL Music stated that Lopez had used \"genius marketing and branding\" by synchronizing the digital release of \"On the Floor\" with the premiere of its music video on American Idol. It was added to the B-playlist on the UK's biggest mainstream radio station, BBC Radio 1, on March 16, 2011.\n\nWhen talking about \"On the Floor\", during an interview with MTV, Lopez said that she wanted a song that would evolve her sound, \"it feels like me today, which I like. It's not something that you hear and you're like, 'That's not her,' but you also go, 'Is that her? I like that. It's new,' and that's what I wanted. I wanted it to be very me, but I wanted it to be me not from my first album or my second album, but for today.\" Additionally, Lopez felt a strong connection to \"On the Floor\" because it captured both sides of her career, singing, and dancing, \"The minute RedOne played it for me, I made him play it 20 times in a row, and I just sat there at the board and I kept listening to it and listening to it ... Because I really feel like, emotionally, I connected to it, but also because of how much I love to dance and how much that's always been such a big part of who I am since I started. Since I was a little girl, I just totally connected with the idea of getting out there.\"\n\n## Composition\n\n\"On the Floor\" is an up-tempo pop and dance-pop song combining elements of Latin, house and techno music. Featured artist Pitbull starts the song with a rap introduction while the melody interpolates elements of the Los Kjarkas composition, \"Llorando se fue\", popularized by Kaoma's 1989 hit single \"Lambada\". \"On the Floor\" was written in the time signature of common time, set at a tempo of 130 beats per minute and in the key of E minor by Bilal \"The Chef\" Hajji, Kinnda Hamid, Gonzalo Hermosa, Ulises Hermosa, Achraf \"AJ Junior\" Janussi, Nadir \"RedOne\" Khayat\", Pitbull and Teddy Sky. Lopez's vocal range spans from A3 to B4 while the melody uses a simple chord progression of E minor–C major–G major–B minor. The song was adapted in Spanish as \"Ven a Bailar\" which featured additional lyrics by Julio Reyes Copello and Jimena Romero.\n\n\"On the Floor\" was produced by RedOne with additional vocal production by Kuk Harrell. Josh Gudwin joined Harrell to record the vocals whilst the whole composition was recorded and engineered by RedOne, Christopher \"TEK\" O'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy at Cove Studios in New York and Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles. O'Ryan, RedOne and Harrell also edited Lopez's vocals while the latter two also arranged vocals for the final track, with Harrell also providing background vocals. All instruments and programming were carried out by RedOne with the exception of the accordion which was tasked to Alessandro Giulini. Pitbull appears courtesy of Mr. 305, Polo Grounds Music and RCA Records. His vocals were recorded by Al Burna at Al Burna Studios in Davie, Florida and At El Studios Indamix in Dominican Republic. Final mixing was carried out by Muzzy.\n\nAccording to Idolator and Gerrick Kennedy from the Los Angeles Times, \"On the Floor\" is reminiscent of Lopez's single, \"Waiting for Tonight\" (1999). Kennedy elaborated on the comparisons, stating that \"listeners haven't heard this dance-electro-pop side of Lopez since 1999... much of her back catalog flirts with more gritty urban-pop sounds.\" Editors for the New York Daily News made some comparisons between \"On the Floor\" and another RedOne production, Kat DeLuna's 2010 single, \"Party O'Clock\". DeLuna's song contains the lyrics \"Party in Ibiza, Party in New York/All the way to Africa/Love in the Caribbean/On my way to Vegas\" whereas Lopez sings the nearly identical line, \"Brazil, Morocco/London to Ibiza/Straight to L.A. New York/Vegas to Africa.\"\n\n## Critical reception\n\n\"On the Floor\" garnered universal acclaim from music critics. Rolling Stone called the song \"music worth getting lost in\". Mikael Wood from the Los Angeles Times agreed, calling \"On the Floor\" the standout track from Love? Wood said, \"On the Floor\" \"returned Lopez to the upper reaches of the Billboard Hot 100\" but added that the rest of the album was unlikely to match its success. The Houston Chronicle's Joey Guerra concurred with his following critics, nothing that \"On the Floor\" was one of the four standout moments on the album, typyifying the \"aggressively sexual anthems that are likely to soundtrack the summer.\" Comments echoed by The Observer's Hermione Hoby read, \"the song ['On the Floor'] was a particular triumph.\"\n\nIn his article for the Los Angeles Times, Gerrick Kennedy said the song is a \"sweat-inducing, sticky dance floor track\" which was \"vintage J.Lo\" and catchier than either of her previous releases, \"Louboutins\" or \"Fresh Out the Oven\". Although Kennedy praised the song's overall appeal, he commented that RedOne had produced more inventive \"pop gems\" with the likes of Lady Gaga and that Pitbull's appearance was a \"throwaway verse.\" In her review for AOL Music's Radio Blog, Nadine Cheung commented that Lopez \"reinforces her renaissance woman status.\" Nick Levine from Digital Spy called \"On the Floor\" a song that The Black Eyed Peas would have been \"proud to have released\". Levine's review agreed with others that the song was a \"welcome comeback for Lopez,\" and praised the use of a \"not so-subtle\" sample with the \"Latin-tinged electro-housy\" production. Overall, he said that the production was \"the antithesis of classy\", and although not original \"there's no denying that this gets the job done.\"\n\nNot all of the reviews were positive, with some critics citing a lack of originality. In his review of Love?, BBC Music's Alex Macpherson said that \"On the Floor\" was a predictable recording from Lopez as it was \"not too dissimilar to the supreme millennial house of 'Waiting for Tonight' (1999)\". He went on to describe \"On the Floor,\" and album track \"Papi,\" as \"apparent distillations of the trashy Miami house aesthetic that dominates pop these days.\" Ken Capobianco from The Boston Globe described \"On the Floor\" as quite generic.\n\nThe single also drew comparisons to \"Party O'Clock,\" a 2010 single by American singer Kat DeLuna, also produced by RedOne. In a statement issued to the New York Daily News, DeLuna said \"It's cool that artists like J.Lo are inspired by my musical sound and style. ... Jennifer helped pave the way for Latinas like myself. I love her\", and insisted that there wasn't an issue. DeLuna also noted Lopez as someone who inspired her, and paved the way for someone like her to perform. Following previews of the music video for \"On the Floor,\" DeLuna changed her mind about how she felt with the claims of copying. In another interview with the New York Daily News, several days after the first, she said \"I've seen this before, where the more established artist tries to take the vision and artistic ideas away from an emerging artist and assumes no one will notice because of their bigger shadow,... Luckily, my loyal fans and the power of the Internet have let the 'Kat' out of the bag.\" Lopez was interviewed about the issue on Hispanic-American entertainment program ¡Despierta America!. Lopez replied \"What? Really? I'm not aware of that...\", and when pressed by the presenter a second time, insisted she had not heard rumors of the comparisons.\n\n### Accolades\n\n\"On the Floor\" received two International Dance Music nominations for Best Latin/Reggaeton Track and Best Commercial/Pop Track. The song was nominated at the 2012 Swiss Music Awards for Best International Hit. The Spanish version \"Ven a Bailar\" received two nominations at the 2012 Billboard Latin Music Awards for Vocal Duet Song of the Year and Latin Pop Song of the Year. \"On the Floor\" was recognized by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) in their Most Performed Songs list for the year. \"Ven a Bailar\" was also recognized at the 20th ASCAP Latin Music Awards at the Pop Category. It received a Broadcast Music Award at the Pop Awards and the London Awards. At the 2011 Premios Juventud ceremony, the duo received a nomination for La Combinación Perfecta (The Perfect Combination) for the song.\n\nShe got nominated for the MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song (\"On the Floor\"), the MTV Europe Music Award for Best Female (\"On the Floor\"), MuchMusic Video Award for International Video of the Year – Artist (\"On the Floor\") with Pitbull.\n\n### Impact\n\nIn 2022, \"On The Floor\" was sampled by British drill rappers A1 x J1 and Tion Wayne for their single \"Night Away (Dance)\". The song was released on March 3, 2022, and debuted at number eleven on the UK Singles Chart two weeks later.\n\n## Chart performance\n\n### North America\n\n\"On the Floor\" made its chart debut in Canada, during the week beginning February 12, 2011. It debuted at number eighty-six on the Canadian Hot 100, despite not being released until February 22, 2011, thus becoming the first release from Love? to receive airplay recognition. Neither the album's Epic Records buzz single (\"Fresh Out the Oven\", which also features Pitbull), nor the previous lead single \"Louboutins\" charted on US Billboard Charts. In the chart week dated April 16, 2011, \"On the Floor\" became Lopez's fourth Canadian chart-topper, and highest-charting single in nine years following \"If You Had My Love\" (1999), \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" (2001) and \"Jenny from the Block\" (2002). In the United States, \"On the Floor\" made its chart debut on the Hot Dance Club Songs, at number twenty-six. Additionally it debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number forty, marking Lopez's first appearance on pop airplay charts since 2007. The single went on to make its Billboard Hot 100 debut at number nine, becoming the highest debuting Hot 100 single of Lopez's career. \"On the Floor\" became Lopez's tenth top-ten hit on the Hot 100, of which, six have featured other artists. Billboard's Gary Trust reported that it was Lopez's highest peaking chart position since her 2006 feature on LL Cool J's \"Control Myself,\" although it was actually in 2003 when Lopez last released a top-ten peaking single as a lead artist (\"All I Have\" with LL Cool J). The full single was not released until February 22, almost one month after it was uploaded to YouTube and serviced to radio, despite a remix EP being available before hand. Keith Caulfield from Billboard noted that Island Def Jam Music's strategy of delaying the release was unusual as fellow pop contemporaries, such as Lady Gaga and Britney Spears, \"released their singles to digital retailers at about the same time they were serviced to radio and streaming sites.\" The single's release was synchronized with the debut of the music video on season ten of American Idol, resulting in first week sales of 170,000 copies and a Hot Digital Songs chart position of number three. The Spanish version of the song also became a success on Latin radio stations where it peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart.\n\nAs a direct result, Kaoma's 1989 single \"Lambada\" re-entered the charts after more than two decades, making its digital chart debut at number three on the Billboard World Digital Chart. In the week following the music video's debut, \"On the Floor\" experienced a 31% increase in sales, which totaled 232,000 copies, and landed the song at number two on the Hot Digital Songs chart, as well as number five on the Hot 100. \"On the Floor\" thus became Lopez's seventh top-five hit in the United States. It is the first single since \"So What\" (2008) by Pink to debut in the top-ten of the Hot 100, and then climb up the chart in its second week. Just over a month after release \"On the Floor\" had sold over 600,000 copies in the United States, according to USA Today's Bill Keveney. Keveney, attributed Lopez's commercial comeback to product endorsement deals with L'Oreal and Gillette, also noting her appointment as a judge on American Idol a contributing factor in the growth of her popularity. During the week ending May 8, 2011, \"On the Floor\" rose from number seven to a new peak of number three on the Hot 100. By March 28, 2011, \"On the Floor\" reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart, becoming her fifth consecutive US dance chart topper, with three coming from her album Love?, including \"Fresh Out the Oven\" (with Pitbull) and \"Louboutins\" (2009). \"On the Floor\" brings Lopez's US dance number ones total to nine singles since she launched her career in 1999. Since then, it has been certified 3× Multi-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of three million copies. As a result of Lopez's first televised performance of the song on May 5, 2011, \"On the Floor\" logged 175,000 digital sales that week (up 25% on the previous week), earning Lopez the \"Digital Gainer\" title that week. Consequently, \"On the Floor\" reached a new peak of number three on the Hot 100 and number five on the US Pop Songs chart, becoming her highest-charting single commercial single as a lead artist, as well as her most successful airplay hit on contemporary hit radio, since 2002's \"Jenny from the Block\". By April 2012, the song has sold 3.49 million downloads in the US alone. A year later in April 2013, it was reported that \"On the Floor\" had sold 3.8 million downloads in the United States.\n\n### Europe and Oceania\n\nGlobally, \"On the Floor\" topped 37 national single charts and has sold 11 million copies as of June 2017. On the Slovakia Airplay chart, the single debuted at number sixteen, before peaking at number one where it remained for two weeks beginning on March 7, 2011. It returned to the top of the chart in the first week of April 2011, after dipping to number two at the end of March, and made a third return to number one in the third week of April. In total, \"On the Floor\" spent a total of seven weeks at number one. It also topped both the Flemish and Wallonian single charts in Belgium. On the Flanders Ultratop 50, \"On the Floor\" peaked at number one, remaining there for four weeks. Meanwhile, on the Wallonia Ultratop 50, the single remained at number one for four weeks, before dropping to number four and then returning to number one for a fifth week. In both territories, it is Lopez's first number one single in Belgium. The Belgian Entertainment Association (BEA) certified the single gold, for selling 15,000 copies. In Finland, \"On the Floor\" debuted at number one, giving Lopez her third number one in the country, behind \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" (2001) and her debut single \"If You Had My Love\" (1999). Selling platinum with over 12,000 copies, \"On the Floor\" was the second-best-selling single of 2011 in Finland and in total it spent nine weeks at number one, making it Lopez's longest-serving number-one, as well as her longest-charting single in the country.\n\n\"On the Floor\" also reached number one in Spain (fifteen weeks), Germany (six weeks) and France (one week). In Spain, \"On the Floor\" reached number one on March 13, 2011, where it remained for fifteen weeks. Consequently, the single was certified Triple Platinum, by the Productores de Música de España (PROMUSICAE), for shipments of 120,000 copies. It was also certified 2× Platinum by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI), in Germany, for shipping 600,000 copies. In Italy, \"On the Floor\" entered the Italian Singles Chart at number four before ascending to the summit, where it would remain for four weeks. It is Lopez's fourth Italian number-one, and first English-language single to reach number one since \"Get Right\" (2005), though Spanish single \"Qué Hiciste\" reached number one in 2007. The Federation of the Italian Music Industry (FIMI) certified \"On the Floor\" Multi-Platinum for shipping 60,000 copies. The single experienced similar success in Sweden and Switzerland, where it respectively spent three and five weeks at the top of the countries' singles charts. In Sweden it is Lopez's first number one single, whereas in Switzerland it is her second, following 2007's \"Qué Hiciste\". In both countries the single was certified Double Platinum, shipping 40,000 copies in Sweden and 60,000 copies in Switzerland. As of July 26, 2011 \"On the Floor\" had official sales of 1.41 million copies.\n\nIn Australia, \"On the Floor\" debuted at number ten, becoming Lopez's first top-ten single in the country since 2005's \"Get Right\". It has since reached number one, becoming her second Australian chart topper, and first in nearly twelve years since 1999's \"If You Had My Love\". It was certified 4× platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 280,000 copies. It reached number two in New Zealand, and was certified double-Platinum for sales of 30,000 copies. In Ireland, \"On the Floor\" debuted at number twelve on the Irish Singles Chart on March 10, 2011. It continued a steady climb to the top spot, spending two weeks at number two before finally reaching number one on April 14, 2011. In the United Kingdom, \"On the Floor\" was added to playlists on mainstream radio in March 2011. On April 3, 2011, \"On the Floor\" made its UK Singles Chart debut at number one, becoming Lopez's third chart-topper in that country. Overall it is Lopez's twelfth UK top-five hit, and topped the UK Digital Songs chart after logging first week sales of 130,000 copies – the highest first week sales for Lopez in the UK. \"On the Floor\" also debuted at the top of the R&B Singles Chart. It remained at number one for two weeks, becoming the only single by Lopez to do so. The song was the biggest selling R&B / hip hop single of 2011 in the UK. As of May 2012, \"On the Floor\" had sold 822,056 copies, becoming Lopez' biggest-selling single in the UK.\n\n### Globally\n\nBy the end of 2011, International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) noted that \"On the Floor\" had sold over 8.4 million copies worldwide, making it the best selling single by a female artist.\n\n## Music video\n\n### Background and development\n\nThe music video for \"On the Floor\" was filmed on January 22–23, 2011, with TAJ Stansberry serving as the director and Frank Gatson as the choreographer. Lopez told MTV News that for the video she was holding an open casting call to find club kids, \"[We want] those kids who go to the club and they dance all night and that's all they care about? It's just about having a good time, getting all sweaty, and it's all about the music and leaving it on the dance floor. I don't want to say what the video is, but that's the type of dancers. We're doing a big casting call...\" Meanwhile, Gatson said that Lopez wanted a post-2AM Los Angeles club vibe for the video. He said,\n\n> \"[We're trying to create a vibe] that's so amazing. [It's like] everybody had some watermelon and the watermelon made them high, it gave them a little buzz — but a good buzz, a real magical buzz, a dance buzz, a buzz that makes you feel like fried chicken, so she just wants everybody to have a good old time... The club must have this vibe, where you get on the floor and everybody's bringing it\", he added. \"We've seen so many club videos, but we want to see a club video with a vibe unique to Jennifer Lopez.\"\n\nJust prior of the casting call and video shoot, Stansberry expressed his views to MTV News on the concept for the video – originality. \"Originality, being you. This song is about being who you want. It's about letting loose. There's no explanation. This is this underground video, this underground party.\" During the video shoot, MTV interviewed Lopez about the concepts for the video. Lopez described some of the characters she played, telling MTV that in one scene \"I play one character where she kind of runs this party, acts like she's kind of over it, but at the same time loves it and loves this kind of underground kind of party dance culture,... So I got to be wild and crazy, and at the same time I got to be sexy and sweet too.\" The video makes use of product placement, including BMW, Swarovski and Crown Royal, according to Tanner Stransky from Entertainment Weekly. Stransky also noted the \"unintentional placement\" of fake eyelashes and wigs, weaves, and other hair-extending products.\n\nLopez later confirmed in an interview On Air with Ryan Seacrest, that the completed music video would premiere jointly on season ten of American Idol and on Vevo on March 3, 2011. Fans could vote between three alternative endings through Idol's official website. Lopez said the idea behind giving fans the choice was to give them a chance to see what she experienced. \"You get to do what I do,... Like, I go in there with my videos and I start editing and picking all the shots I like and the things that I like and what I feel the best kind of feeling for the record is. You guys get to do that. We picked two different ones and we weren't sure.\" The alternative endings included three varying scenes: in the first, the video ends with a close-up of Lopez's face in the silver lace catsuit; the second ends with a shot of dancers defying gravity on the walls and ceiling, while the final ending ends with a shot of Lopez on the dance floor in her harem pants. The first ending was the one used in the final video.\n\n### Synopsis\n\nThe clip begins with Lopez's arrival at a club in a black BMW, one example of the product placement used throughout the video. As the music begins, she puts on a pair Swarovski crystal earrings before the camera switches to inside the club. where it descends from the ceiling amongst the Las Vegas-style crystal chandeliers. Choreographer Frank Gatson Jr. called the club, \"the best dance party in town,\" where Lopez played several different characters. Both the scenery and artist were styled to pay homage to her background as a professional dancer, she said she wanted the video to \"introduce people to a new J.Lo-ration of party people\". In one scene, she plays a dominant queen of the party who watches from above, on a balcony surrounded by servants. When portraying this character, Lopez was styled with \"a big beehive bun, gold gladiator heels and a glittery gold gown with Gaga-esque detailing in its high collar and leaves.\" The 'queen' character \"dangles lazily on a couch\" and \"regally oversees a crowd of people getting down on the dancefloor.\" In another scene, Lopez wears a silver crystal and lace skin-tight catsuit, designed by Lebanese fashion designer Zuhair Murad, as she dances against a \"gold cardio barre\" before proceeding to shake her \"money maker,\" according to the Los Angeles Times. Spliced in between these scenes, she is seen dressed in black harem pants and a bikini top, as she walks through the crowd to mount a circular stage on the Las Vegas-style dancefloor. MTV's Kelly Carter and AOL's Khawlhring Sawmteii described the final scenes as Lopez \"tearing up the floor,\" and \"breaking it down 'fly-girl' style.\"\n\n### Reception\n\nThe music video was welcomed with critical acclaim from music critics, praising the expensive finish, arrangement, Lopez's sense of fashion and the overall execution. Based on a preview of the video, Entertainment Weekly's Tanner Stransky said the clip brought together a flawless realness with an expensive set-up, things that are \"very important elements in the pop music world and to the old Lopez that everyone knew and loved.\" Following its full premiere, Stransky added that the video was \"sexy and sultry.\" Kyle Anderson from MTV's Newsroom agreed, noting the \"gorgeous and exquisite execution,\" particularly praising Lopez's \"incredible hairstyles\" and the \"gorgeous club interiors [set design].\" Anderson ended his review by stating that the premiere of the song's music video almost overshadowed the episode of American Idol in which it was shown.\n\nAOL's Benji Eisen called \"On the Floor\" a \"comeback of sorts\" for Lopez, particularly noting its clever cross-promotion with Idol and Lopez's multiple product endorsement deals. He applauded Lopez for moving on from her previous lack of commercial success in recent years. The sex appeal in the video for \"On the Floor\" was likened to that last displayed by Lopez in the video for 2002's \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\". A reviewer from the Daily Express said \"Jennifer Lopez once told us in a song that 'I'm Gonna Be Alright' and now she's proved it... The curves she displayed when she recorded the hit video nine years ago have been replaced by a leaner, fitter look [in 'On the Floor'].\" Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone agreed with comparisons to Lopez's earlier work: \"Basically, this is classic Lopez tweaked for 2011... visuals that update late-Nineties bling with a high fashion wardrobe nearly as eccentric as that of Rihanna and Lady Gaga.\" As a result of the video's premiere, the online traffic at Lopez's official Vevo account increased by 1000%, and as of October 9, 2022, has received over 2 billion views on YouTube. In the space of two weeks, the video was viewed over thirty million times on Lopez's official Vevo page, according to USA Today.\n\n## Live performances\n\nOn May 5, 2011, Lopez and Pitbull took the stage of American Idol to perform \"On the Floor\" for the first time. The performance consisted of her breaking two dancers out of glass boxes, an elaborate dance routine and two appearances from Pitbull. Initially he appeared from the crowd, but for his second appearance, he arrived at the back of the stage via a moving staircase. Lopez was dressed in a \"glimmering ensemble\" while the set included lasers and pyrotechnics. According to Adam Graham from MTV, the performance was taped prior to the episode of Idol, made apparent by what Graham called \"sloppy editing.\" According to The Hollywood Reporter, Lopez pretaped the performance due to a perceived danger of flying shards of glass from the earlier part of the routine. The performance was praised by Caryn Ganz from Yahoo! Music, who complimented all of the element of the performance. Ganz said \"[everything from the] lush production values to her own high energy dancing and live vocals ... This performance maxed out what an artist can do in such a medium – awesome lighting, high-impact video footage, a strong feature from Pitbull, excellent staging, solid choreography, a bit of pyro, and a ton of warmth and personality.\" An editor from Rap-Up magazine agreed, saying that \"Lopez showed the contestants how its done, commanding the stage during her smashing performance.\"\n\nThe duo reprised their performance at KIIS-FM's Wango Tango music festival in Los Angeles, on May 14, 2011. Lopez wore a shiny gold catsuit for the performance, which did not go as planned when halfway through the performance her microphone failed. She continued performing for 20 seconds, before realising that she had lost sound. According to lifestyle website Female First, Lopez proceeded to dance, and urged the audience to sing along. At the end of the performance, Lopez addressed the crowd straight after the performance, saying \"We ain't gonna let that get us down, right? Nobody keeps mama down.\" After Pitbull informed her of the malfunction, she turned to the band asking them to start from the beginning so that she could perform the song again.\n\nOn June 11, 2011, Lopez flew to the United Kingdom to promote \"On the Floor,\" first appearing at Capital FM's Summertime Ball. Later that day, she appeared at the finale of the second series of So You Think You Can Dance to reprise the performance. Wearing a skin-tight catsuit, Lopez descended from the ceiling in an illuminated heart before proceeding to perform the song, which included her dropping to her knees during the chorus. Lopez reprise the performance on X Factor (France) on June 14, 2011, and German game-show Wetten, dass..? on June 18.\n\nLopez later performed the song as part of her medley during the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards on August 20, 2018, at Radio City Music Hall in New York City.\n\nThe song was featured in Lopez's setlist during the Super Bowl LIV halftime show.\n\n## Formats and track listings\n\n- CD single\n\n1. \"On the Floor\"  – 3:51\n2. \"On the Floor\" (Low Sunday Club Remix)  – 6:22\n\n- Digital download\n\n1. \"On the Floor\"  – 3:51\n\n- Digital download (Spanish Version)\n\n1. \"Ven a Bailar (On the Floor)\"  – 4:52\n\n- Digital download (EP)\n\n1. \"On the Floor\" (Radio Edit)  – 3:51\n2. \"On the Floor\" (CCW Club Mix)  – 6:26\n3. \"On the Floor\" (Ralphi's Jurty Club Vox)  – 8:43\n4. \"On the Floor\" (music video)  – 4:27\n\n- Digital download (Remixes)\n\n1. \"On the Floor\" (CCW Radio Mix)  – 3:44\n2. \"On the Floor\" (Low Sunday \"On the Floor\" Radio Edit)  – 3:51\n3. \"On the Floor\" (Ralphi's Jurty Radio Edit)  – 3:57\n4. \"On the Floor\" (Mixin Marc & Tony Svejda LA to Ibiza Radio Edit)  – 3:16\n5. \"On the Floor\" (CCW Club Mix)  – 6:26\n6. \"On the Floor\" (Low Sunday \"On the Floor\" Club)  – 6:22\n7. \"On the Floor\" (Ralphi's Jurty Club Vox)  – 8:43\n8. \"On the Floor\" (Mixin Marc & Tony Svejda LA to Ibiza Mix)  – 6:40\n9. \"On the Floor\" (CCW Dub Mix)  – 6:07\n10. \"On the Floor\" (Low Sunday \"On the Floor\" Dub)  – 6:37\n11. \"On the Floor\" (Ralphi's Jurty Dub)  – 8:43\n12. \"On the Floor\" (Mixin Marc & Tony Svejda LA to Ibiza Dub)  – 5:36\n\n## Credits and personnel\n\nCredits taken from CD single, \"On the Floor\" contains interpolations of the Los Kjarkas composition: \"Llorando Se Fue\", written by Gonzalo Hermosa and Ulises Hermosa.\n\nRecording\n\n- Cove Studio (New York)\n- Henson Recording (Los Angeles)\n\n- Al Burna Studios (Davie, Florida)\n- Et Al Indamix (Dominican Republic)\n\nPersonnel\n\n- Alessandro Giulini – accordion\n- Josh Gudwin – vocal recording\n- Bilal Hajji – songwriter\n- Kinda Hamid – songwriter\n- Kuk Harrell – vocal arranger, vocal editor, vocal producer, vocal recording\n- Gonzalo Hermosa – songwriter\n- Ulises Hermosa – songwriter\n- Achraf \"AJ Junior\" Janussi – songwriter\n\n- Trevor Muzzy – audio mixer, recording engineer\n- Nadir \"RedOne\" Khayat – producer, songwriter, vocal arranger, vocal editor, vocal producer, instruments and programming, recording engineer\n- Jennifer Lopez – lead vocalist, backing vocalist\n- Chris \"TEK\" O'Ryan – vocal editor, recording engineer\n- Armando \"Pitbull\" Perez – rap vocalist, songwriter\n- Geraldo \"Teddy Sky\" Sandell – songwriter\n- Low Sunday (Bart Schoudel & Ron Haney) – additional production for remix\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## Release history\n\n## See also\n\n- Billboard Top Latin Songs Year-End Chart\n- List of Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles in 2011\n- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2011 (Canada)\n- List of number-one dance airplay hits of 2011 (U.S.)\n- List of number-one dance singles of 2011 (U.S.)\n- List of number-one hits of 2011 (France)\n- List of number-one hits of 2011 (Italy)\n- List of number-one pop hits of 2011 (Brazil)\n- List of number-one R&B hits of 2011 (UK)\n- List of number-one singles from the 2010s (UK)\n- List of number-one singles of 2011 (Australia)\n- List of number-one singles of 2011 (Finland)\n- List of number-one singles of 2011 (Spain)\n- List of number-one singles of 2011 (Sweden)\n- List of Polish Dance Chart number-one singles of 2011\n- List of Romanian Top 100 number ones of the 2010s\n- List of Ultratop 50 number-one singles of 2011", "revid": "1173884572", "description": "2011 single by Jennifer Lopez", "categories": ["2010 songs", "2011 singles", "Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles", "Eurodance songs", "Irish Singles Chart number-one singles", "Island Records singles", "Jennifer Lopez songs", "Number-one singles in Australia", "Number-one singles in Austria", "Number-one singles in Finland", "Number-one singles in Germany", "Number-one singles in Greece", "Number-one singles in Israel", "Number-one singles in Italy", "Number-one singles in Norway", "Number-one singles in Romania", "Number-one singles in Scotland", "Number-one singles in Spain", "Number-one singles in Sweden", "Number-one singles in Switzerland", "Pitbull (rapper) songs", "SNEP Top Singles number-one singles", "Song recordings produced by Kuk Harrell", "Song recordings produced by RedOne", "Songs about dancing", "Songs involved in plagiarism controversies", "Songs written by Bilal Hajji", "Songs written by Geraldo Sandell", "Songs written by Kinnda", "Songs written by Pitbull (rapper)", "Songs written by RedOne", "UK Singles Chart number-one singles", "Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles", "Ultratop 50 Singles (Wallonia) number-one singles"]}
{"id": "24002325", "url": null, "title": "Battle of the Samichon River", "text": "The Battle of the Samichon River (24–26 July 1953) was fought during the final days of the Korean War between United Nations (UN) forces—primarily Australian and American—and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA). The fighting took place on a key position on the Jamestown Line known as \"the Hook\", and resulted in the defending UN troops, including the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR) from the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade and the US 7th Marine Regiment, repulsing numerous assaults by the PVA 137th Division during two concerted night attacks, inflicting numerous casualties on the PVA with heavy artillery and small-arms fire. The action was part of a larger, division-sized PVA attack against the US 1st Marine Division, with diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians. With the peace talks in Panmunjom reaching a conclusion, the Chinese had been eager to gain a last-minute victory over the UN forces, and the battle was the last of the war before the official signing of the Korean armistice.\n\nDuring the action, the PVA had attempted to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary between the US 1st Marine Division and the 1st Commonwealth Division to turn the Marine division's flank. Yet with well-coordinated indirect fire from the divisional artillery, including the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery, and support from British Centurion tanks of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, 2 RAR successfully thwarted both assaults, holding the Hook. U.N sources estimated PVA casualties at 2,000 to 3,000 killed, with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners. Meanwhile, on the left flank, US Marines had endured the brunt of the attack, repelling the PVA onslaught with infantry and artillery. Only a few hours later, the armistice agreement was signed, ultimately ending the war. Both sides subsequently withdrew 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) within 72 hours to create the 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) Korean Demilitarised Zone.\n\n## Background\n\n### Military situation\n\nFollowing the Battle of Maryang San in early October 1951 the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade maintained a defensive posture for the rest of the month. Amid heavy fighting on the afternoon of 4 November the PVA recaptured Hill 317, which was by then held by the 1st Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers, in an action for which Private Bill Speakman was later awarded the Victoria Cross. The hill remained in PVA hands until the end of the war. The Battle of Maryang San subsequently proved to be one of the last UN actions in the war of manoeuvre, and with peace talks going on, the fighting was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences, trench lines, bunkers, patrols, wiring parties, and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915–17. Construction of defensive localities sited in all-round defence with interlocking arcs of fire began almost immediately, although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire, which made such operations hazardous. Patrolling and ambushing by both sides also began to prevent the other from gaining control of no man's land. The 1st Commonwealth Division, which included British, Australian, Canadian, New Zealand, and Indian troops, subsequently occupied part of the Jamestown Line—a UN defensive position that extended 250 kilometres (160 mi) across central Korea—in the US I Corps sector on the US Eighth Army's left flank. The war was no less bloody, though, and the division remained in the line for all but two of the remaining 19 months of the war.\n\nFrom 19 January 1952, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) was in defence on the Jamestown Line as part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade before going into reserve on 18 April, where they remained until the end of June. Meanwhile, in early 1952 the Australian government had agreed to an American request to increase its forces in Korea, dispatching a second infantry battalion to join 3 RAR which had been fighting since September 1950. The 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) arrived in Korea on 6 April 1952, with both battalions forming part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade under the command of an Australian brigadier. The brigade re-entered the line on 30 June and 1 RAR spent the following fourteen weeks patrolling, ambushing and raiding, before the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade again went into reserve on 5 October. The brigade returned to the Jamestown Line in early November, with 1 RAR taking over the defences on Hill 355 from the Canadians. The Australians were subsequently forced to clean up large quantities of rubbish left by the Canadians as well as repairing and camouflaging the defences which had recently been attacked by the PVA. 1 RAR implemented an aggressive patrol program in an effort to regain control of no-man's land from the PVA, which had been allowed to establish hides close to the perimeter. Several PVA outposts were subsequently destroyed during raids of up to company-size.\n\nOn 28 December 1952, 3 RAR took over the defences on Hill 355 and remained there until the 1st Commonwealth Division went into reserve at the end January 1953. On 21 March, 1 RAR was replaced in Korea by 2 RAR, after nearly 12 months operational service. Heavy fighting occurred in March, with the PVA moving back over to a limited offensive in the US I Corps sector, in an attempt to regain the initiative following the winter. Heavy fighting occurred around the Hook, which was by then held by the US 2nd Infantry Division following the relief of the 1st Commonwealth Division, the Old Baldy and Pork Chop Hill features held by the US 7th Division, and in the western sector held by the US 1st Marine Division around the Vegas and Nevada Complex. Peace talks finally resumed at Panmunjom on 6 April and an agreement was soon made to exchange sick and wounded prisoners. Consequently, 648 UN and 6,670 PVA and North Korean prisoners were subsequently repatriated as part of Operation Little Switch on 20 April, including five Australians. For a while, the tempo of operations slackened, returning to the small-scale raids and probes of the winter months. Yet during the final three months of the war, the PVA launched a series of offensives prior to the signing of a ceasefire agreement.\n\nIn early April 1953, the 1st Commonwealth Division returned to the Jamestown Line. By this time, the division was commanded by Major General Michael West, a British officer who had taken over command in September the previous year. The 28th British Commonwealth Brigade subsequently occupied the north-eastern sector. Hill 159 was occupied by 2 RAR during 5 May to 16 June, while 3 RAR held Hill 355 during the period 7–27 May; 3 RAR then relieved 2 RAR on 16 June and remained on Hill 159 until 10 July. Meanwhile, the Hook was a key position on the left flank of the line held by the 1st Commonwealth Division and was the division's most threatened sector on the Jamestown Line. Held by the 29th British Infantry Brigade, the position consisted of a group of hills west of the Samichon River which dominated the Imjin River, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to the south, and provided observation and fields of fire over a bend in the river as it turned towards Seoul. Loss of The Hook would force the UN troops to withdraw nearly 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) to the next tenable defensive line on the high ground south of the Imjin River. As a result, the PVA had made repeated attacks against it, with the 1st Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry repulsing the first PVA attempt in late-March 1952. the 1st Marine Division defended the area in the First Battle of the Hook in October 1952. The 1st Battalion, the Black Watch, did so again in November 1952, while the 1st Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment, had fought the heaviest battle there in May 1953 during the Third Battle of the Hook.\n\nIn the western sector, American outposts such as Detroit, Berlin, East Berlin, Reno, Carson, Elko, and Vegas had been bitterly contested over the previous months by the US 1st Marine Division and the Turkish Brigade, but by June, the Reno, Elko, and Vegas positions were held by the PVA. The front subsequently returned to its usual defensive routine, but following a temporary break-down in negotiations after the unilateral release of 25,000 anti-communist Chinese and North Korean prisoners of war by President of South Korea Syngman Rhee, the PVA had renewed large-scale attacks on 24 June. Concentrating on the Republic of Korea Army (ROK) divisions in the eastern and central sectors, the PVA launched another offensive in June in an attempt to convince the South Korean leader to come to terms. The fighting continued until the end of the month, as the PVA successively drove back elements of ROK 9th Division in the US IX Corps sector and the ROK 1st Division in the US I Corps sector.\n\nBy early July, the PVA launched a major offensive in the ROK II Corps and US X Corps sectors. The Americans and ROK subsequently responded with a series of counter-attacks to regain the ground lost, yet these met with only limited success. On 6 July, the PVA attacked elements of the US 7th Division on Pork Chop Hill on the US I Corps' right flank, and succeeded in gaining the crest. The Americans were reinforced and counter-attacked over the following days, although again without success. Following another PVA assault on 9 July, the Americans again counter-attacked, yet neither side gained a clear advantage. The following day, the PVA launched a series of company- and battalion-sized assaults, but were repulsed. With the Americans unprepared to accept further casualties for limited tactical gain, though, they evacuated Pork Chop Hill on 11 July.\n\n## Prelude\n\nThe peace talks resumed in early July as Rhee's position apparently softened, yet this proved to be the impetus for a final PVA offensive, as they sought to further influence the talks and improve their defensive positions at the same time. On 14 July, elements of five PVA armies struck six South Korean divisions around the Kumsong salient. By 20 July, the ROK Capital Division and much of the ROK 3rd Division had been practically destroyed, exposing serious weaknesses despite two years of American training. The ROK fell back and the UN line was penetrated to a depth of 9.7 kilometres (6.0 mi). Only American intervention restored the situation, and ultimately, nine ROK and US divisions were required to stem the PVA offensive and regain some of the lost ground. Following a counter-attack by ROK II Corps, a new defensive line was established south of the Kumsong River. Meanwhile, in conjunction with the main offensive at Kumsong, the PVA 19th Army Group had conducted a series of limited offensives against US I Corps, with the 46th Army conducting assaulting 1st Marine Division outposts from 7 to 27 July. PVA losses were heavy nonetheless, and they sustained more than 28,000 casualties for only temporary gain.\n\nDuring the second week of July, West had reshuffled his brigades to allow the 29th British Infantry Brigade to recuperate in the 1st Commonwealth Division's central sector. The 28th British Commonwealth Brigade, under the command of an Australian officer, Brigadier John Wilton, subsequently took over the battered defences on the Hook on 9–10 July 1953, on the division's left. The brigade was the strongest in the division, consisting of the two Australian battalions—2 RAR and 3 RAR—and two British battalions—the 1st Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1 DLI) and 1st Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (1 RF)—as well as supporting artillery and armour in direct support. Among the latter was the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery (16 RNZA) and C Squadron of the British 1st Royal Tank Regiment equipped with Centurion tanks. The 25th Canadian Brigade was subsequently handed the responsibility for the equally exposed positions on Hills 355 and 159 on the right. The ROK 1st Division held the line on the 1st Commonwealth Division's right flank, while the 1st Marine Division, under the overall command of Major General Randolph Pate, held the Nevada Complex on the left flank, having taken over the line on 7–8 July. On the American right, the 7th Marine Regiment under Colonel Glenn C. Funk occupied a linear defensive position, with two battalions forward and one back. The 5th Marine Regiment occupied the central sector, while the 1st Marine Regiment held the rear in divisional reserve. Indirect fire support was provided by the 11th Marine Regiment. Meanwhile, by May 1953 the PVA 1st, 46th, 63rd, 64th and 65th Armies of the 19th Army Group were operating against the US I Corps under the overall command of Huang Yongsheng.\n\nWilton deployed the stronger Australian battalions forward, with 2 RAR occupying the left forward position on the Hook, while 3 RAR was deployed on the right, overlooking the Samichon River. The opposite side of the Samichon was occupied by 1 DLI, while 1 RF was held in reserve as a brigade counter-penetration force. 2 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Larkin, while 3 RAR was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur MacDonald. Larkin deployed 2 RAR with three companies forward, and one back in reserve as a counter-attack force. In the centre, the Hook was held by B Company, while C Company held the left and A Company the right, with D Company in reserve. MacDonald deployed 3 RAR with two companies forward and two in depth. A Company occupied Hill 146, on the boundary with 2 RAR, B Company held the south-eastern tip of the ridge, and C and D Companies were held in reserve. British Centurion tanks were also deployed forward to support the Australians. Directly confronting the Australians on The Hook was the PVA 137th Division, 46th Army which had been in the line since February 1953, under the command of Cheng Dengzhi.\n\nThe positions occupied by the Australians had been badly damaged by the PVA assaults and bombardments in May and June, and recent rain had also collapsed some trenches and weakened many of the wire obstacles, yet the extensive tunnel system, dug by the Canadians the previous winter, remained intact and afforded some protection. Efforts to repair the defences and assert control in no-man's land began immediately, with an aggressive patrolling program by the Australians leading to numerous clashes with PVA patrols, while they also endured heavy shelling during this time. By day it was hot and humid making conditions in the bunkers uncomfortable, while by night the defenders worked hard digging, wiring, and laying minefields. The PVA focused most of their attention on the 7th Marine Regiment, which was occupying positions south-west of 2 RAR after having relieved the Turkish Brigade there, and thereby allowed the Australians some time to prepare. Light mortaring hit 2 RAR on 11 July, while one 3 RAR soldier was killed instantly by a 76-millimetre (3.0 in) shell when he was observed walking along the crest-line by a PVA position less than 200 metres (220 yd) from the Australian perimeter. The gun crew was subsequently silenced by Australian sniper fire.\n\nPatrolling by the Australians continued to prevent the PVA from harassing their forward positions. Small clashes occurred on the nights of 15/16, 21/22, 22/23, and 23/24 July, suggesting that the PVA were preparing for a major attack. Aerial reconnaissance subsequently detected a build-up of PVA forces and supplies west of the Samichon River. In response, the Australians and Marines stepped up their defensive preparations, while at the same time, rumours from the peace talks started to spread of a ceasefire. Regardless, PVA harassing artillery and mortar fire intensified, causing a constant stream of casualties among the Australians. Intense PVA shelling struck Hill 121 and the Hook on the night of 19/20 July, with more than 300 rounds wounding four members of C Company, 2 RAR, and further damaging the defences. That night, the Marines were driven off the Berlin and East Berlin features on the left flank, further exposing the Hook, which became a salient. Yet on 21 July an expected PVA assault in the 5th Marine Regiment sector failed to occur, while sightings of PVA troops across the 1st Marine Division front declined as the fighting entered a lull.\n\nOn 22 July B Company, 2 RAR was relieved on the Hook by D Company, and subsequently moved into reserve. The following day, with the ceasefire believed to be imminent, Wilton limited patrols to only those considered essential for the security of his forward positions. Rumours spread quickly among the troops that the truce was expected to be signed on 26 July. By 24 July, however, the PVA shelling had once again grown in intensity, while large bodies of PVA infantry were increasingly seen on the forward slopes by the Australians. Meanwhile, similar concentrations of PVA were also reported by the Marines. With the PVA eager to gain a last-minute victory over the UN forces and the tactical advantage offered to the side that held the Hook after the truce, simultaneous attacks were soon launched against 2 RAR and the 7th Marine Regiment on the left flank, in two major actions on the nights of 24/25 and 25/26 July.\n\n## Battle\n\n### First night, 24/25 July 1953\n\nOn the evening of 24 July, a 50-strong PVA force probed 2 RAR's forward outposts after dark, attacking C Company on Hill 121 and surrounding a bunker on the left flank, while the Marines had a similar contact on the left flank. A forward Australian standing patrol from D Company subsequently clashed heavily with the PVA probe, losing five wounded before directing tank and artillery fire, which dispersed their attackers. These attacks had been preceded by heavy artillery and mortar fire, with the PVA subjecting C and D Companies, 2 RAR and the 2 RAR Mortar Platoon to a heavy bombardment. Waves of PVA attacked the Australians at 20:50, penetrating between C Company on Hill 121 and the nearest Marines on Hill 111, before being turned back amidst the driving rain. A further attack followed another barrage at 23:25, but was again repelled and faltered before reaching the wire during fierce fighting with grenades and small arms, with the assault failing largely due to the weight of defensive artillery fire. More than 2,000 PVA mortar and artillery rounds fell on the Australian positions during the night. Two Australians were killed and 14 were wounded during the night attack, which was later estimated to have been made by a PVA regiment of up to 4,000 men. The defenders were soaking wet and exhausted, but had held their positions. Despite the weight of the PVA attack against the Australians, their main objective had been Hill 119, another strong point in the American sector 500 metres (550 yd) to the south-west of Hill 111, known as Boulder City, held by the 7th Marine Regiment.\n\nThe PVA engaged the Marines on Boulder City with preparatory fire from mortars and artillery at 19:30. Ten minutes later, PVA troops were observed massing for an assault north-west of the Berlin feature, and were subsequently shelled by the Americans. At 20:30, the PVA probed the right flank held by the 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines, first striking Hill 111 and then at Boulder City. After infiltrating forward, the PVA had hid in the paddy fields immediately in front of the American positions during the barrage, and had then rapidly assaulted as soon as the artillery had lifted. The attack coincided with the ongoing relief in place of the defenders by the 1st Marine Regiment under the command of Colonel Wallace M. Nelson, and it subsequently succeeded in temporarily penetrating the American positions on Hill 111. The PVA main effort fell on Boulder City, though, and two battalions subsequently succeeded in occupying a portion of the American trench line. From these positions, the PVA threatened to cut off Company G, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, on Hill 119, repeatedly assaulting the Berlin Gate feature on the company's left flank and the East Berlin Gate on its right in an effort to exploit their gains. Throughout the fighting, the Marines were strongly supported by heavy mortar, artillery, and tank fire; however, due to the prevailing weather conditions, no spotter aircraft were able to fly during the night, which limited the effectiveness of the indirect fire available to them.\n\nIn support of the Marines on Hill 111, at 21:10, Wilton had ordered one company of 1 DLI to occupy a reserve position on the left of 2 RAR, in the rear of the 1st Marine Division, where they ultimately remained for the rest of the evening. A reserve company from 3 RAR was also readied to respond to any emergency. The Americans eventually drove off the PVA probes after their artillery broke up the attack, but not before they were forced to abandon some of their forward positions. With the attack likely only a diversionary effort, by 21:20 the bulk of the PVA had begun to withdraw from Hill 111. Meanwhile, the fighting on Hill 119 continued. A heavy bombardment fell on the American positions at 21:00, followed by a second assault on Hill 119 by two PVA companies which succeeded in penetrating the Marine perimeter. Hand-to-hand combat developed across the forward trenches, and in the ensuing fighting, Company G was reduced to half-strength, while their ammunition began to run low. Under pressure, by midnight the Americans were forced back another 1,500 metres (1,600 yd) to the reverse slope. 3 RAR was subsequently left exposed, with the forward PVA elements moving to within 1,200 metres (1,300 yd) of the battalion's A Echelon area. Almost surrounded, the position was at risk of becoming untenable. At 00:15, Company I, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, was ordered to reinforce Boulder City; they lost heavily after the PVA intercepted a coded message and adjusted mortar and artillery fire onto the Marines as they approached the rear of Hill 119. In response, the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment launched an intense counter-battery barrage.\n\nThe PVA also launched several assaults in the central sector against the 5th Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Harvey C. Tschirgi. Successively striking outposts on the regimental right flank from 21:15, a reinforced PVA company from the 408th Regiment then concentrated against outpost Esther, held by Marines from Company H. Amid heavy fighting, both sides were reinforced. By early morning, the PVA had seized parts of the forward trench line and moved to isolate the position with indirect fire and patrols, which penetrated between the outpost and the main defensive position to the rear; the Marines still controlled the rear trenches, and upon reorganising their defence, succeeded in checking the PVA assault. Defending strongly, the Marines used flamethrowers, machine guns, and mortars, supported by M46 Patton tanks and artillery fire, and following several hours of fighting, the PVA attack was finally broken up by indirect fire. An entire PVA battalion had been committed piecemeal to the attack, yet by 06:40 the following day, the Marines reported Esther secure. More than 4,000 artillery and mortar rounds had fallen on the outpost during the night; Marine casualties included 12 killed and 35 wounded, while PVA loses included 85 dead, which were counted around the position, 110 more believed killed, and an estimated 250 wounded.\n\nIn the 7th Marine Regiment's sector, heavy shelling, small-arms fire, and hand-to-hand fighting continued around Boulder City into the early morning on 25 July. PVA infantry had succeeded in breaking through and occupying a large part of the trench line on the forward slopes, and for a while, even temporarily occupied the crest. At 01:30, Companies G and I, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, launched a rapid counter-attack, and by 03:30, the American perimeter had been re-established, and was subsequently reinforced. By 05:30, Hill 119 was secured by the Marines, although scattered groups of PVA remained on the forward slopes, while others attempted to reinforce the left flank. Sporadic fighting and heavy shelling also continued on Hill 111 in the early morning hours, and at 04:00, another fight developed; by 05:30, the position was also controlled by the Americans. Four M46 Patton tanks on Boulder City dispersed the PVA concentrations with high-explosive and machine-gun fire, while Marine infantry assault teams with flamethrowers and 3.5-inch rocket launchers subsequently cleared the remaining PVA from their former bunkers. In total, more than 3,000 PVA troops had assaulted the front held by the 1st Marine Division during the night of 24/25 July.\n\nThroughout the night, the 11th Marine Regiment had been heavily engaged, with the regiment and the 10 battalions under its operational control in the 1st Marine Division sector firing a total of 23,725 rounds, including those from batteries of the US 25th Infantry Division Artillery, the US I Corps Artillery and the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery. The weight of indirect fire available to the defenders had been significant, and the whole of the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery (80 guns) had also been engaged during the fighting, firing in support of both the Australians on Hill 121 and the Marines on their left flank, defending Hill 111 and Boulder City. Unhindered by the restrictions on ammunition usage which had applied to the Marines during this period, the supporting fires of the British-Commonwealth 3.45-inch (88 mm) 25-pounder field guns proved of considerable assistance. A liaison officer from 16 RNZA was sent subsequently over to the Marine artillery regiment during the night to establish communication. More than 13,000 rounds were fired by the British and New Zealand gunners that night, with the close defensive fire having a devastating effect on the assaulting PVA infantry. The artillery had also effectively halted the PVA assault against Hill 121, resulting in a fair degree of frustration among the Australian infantry, some of whom later expressed disappointment at being prevented from getting to grips with the PVA by the accurate New Zealand artillery fire.\n\nBefore the battle, a section from the 2 RAR Medium Machine Gun Platoon had been stationed within the American perimeter near Hill 111 to provide covering fire across the area between the positions occupied by the Marines and the Australians. Commanded by Sergeant Brian Cooper, they soon found themselves in the thick of the fighting, firing their Vickers machine guns in support of the Australian positions and to defend themselves from the weight of the PVA main attack, which fell on the Marines. Three men were wounded during the night, but the machine gunners continued to fire in support, while the remainder of the section repelled PVA assaults from the left. Ultimately, the PVA were unable to dislodge them, with the Australians calling in artillery on to their own positions during repeated PVA attempts to overrun them as the Marines withdrew past their position, leaving them isolated. When dawn came, dozens of Chinese bodies were found strewn in front of the Australian machine gunners. As the Marines worked to clear the PVA stragglers from their position, the Australians had endeavoured to coax a PVA soldier from a bunker, yet when he resisted, they were forced to kill him with a grenade. Cooper was later awarded the Military Medal for his leadership, with the stubborn defence of the Australians contributing to the break-up of the PVA attack, which at one stage had threatened to overrun the Marine position. Large groups of PVA remained, though, occupying a number bunkers and trenches, and they were not finally dislodged by the Marines until the following afternoon.\n\n### Second night, 25/26 July 1953\n\nAt 08:20 on the morning of 25 July, the PVA again assaulted the Marines on Hill 119 in company strength, but were soon halted by American artillery and mortar fire, which inflicted heavy losses; skirmishing continued for the remainder of the day. While no major assaults against Hill 111 occurred, a heavy PVA barrage targeted the position at 11:00. F9F Panthers provided air support to the Marines throughout the day, while American tanks continued to engage PVA targets in support of the defenders on Hill 111 and Boulder City. Finally, at 13:35, the last of the PVA infantry were forced off the forward slopes of Boulder City by the Marines. PVA casualties were estimated by the Americans to have included another 75 killed and 425 wounded. The PVA continued to heavily shell the American positions, and by late afternoon, 13,500 mortar and artillery rounds had fallen on the sector held by 7th Marine Regiment. The Americans fired many counter-battery missions in response, firing 36,794 rounds. The ongoing relief of the 7th Marine Regiment continued throughout the day. Meanwhile, the Australian positions on the Hook were also heavily shelled throughout the day, forcing many of the defenders underground into the network of tunnels then being extended by a team of New Zealand sappers.\n\nRealising that they had only faced a series of probes the previous night, rather than a major attack, and as these actions may have been in preparation for a heavier attack, a vigorous defence was subsequently prepared by the Australians with the reserve companies moved into blocking positions to strengthen the forward defences. The defenders endured steady shelling and harassing fire, while after dark, the Hook was probed again, this time by a group of about 20 PVA. The force was subsequently engaged by an Australian standing patrol from D Company at 21:00, and forced to withdraw, leaving behind one dead at a cost of one Australian killed and one wounded. At 21:20, the PVA fire became more intense, and a heavy blow was launched by the PVA against the Marines on Hill 119 shortly after. Beginning at 21:30, elements of the 1st and 7th Marines were attacked by two PVA companies. A heavy concentration by the entire US I Corps artillery was fired in response, and the PVA were forced to withdraw. At 23:00, the PVA shelling intensified to 30 rounds per minute, and was followed 15 minutes later by another determined charge by PVA infantry against the Marines on the left flank on Hill 111 and Boulder City during a furious attack. The Australian positions were not directly attacked during the night, although C Company engaged the PVA in no-man's land sporadically at long range in support of the Americans. As on the previous night, 3 RAR was not attacked. In total, more than 4,200 mortar and artillery rounds were fired by the PVA at 2 RAR during the night, and three Australians were killed and nine wounded.\n\nIn contrast, the Marines were more heavily engaged, with the fighting occurring at close quarters for more than an hour before they repelled their attackers and counter-attacked. An Australian bunker between the Marines on Hill 111 and C Company, 2 RAR on Hill 121 was also the scene of heavy fighting, after the PVA penetrated the undefended space between the two positions. Manned by just six Australians under the command of Lance Corporal Kenneth Crockford, the position was attacked by the PVA simultaneously from several sides following a determined charge at 23:40. During bitter hand-to-hand fighting in the trenches around the bunker, the under-strength Australian section ejected the PVA and prevented them from advancing any further. They then directed artillery fire onto their position to break up subsequent attacks. Further PVA probes were launched against Hills 111 and 119 in the early hours of 26 July, and they succeeded in temporarily seizing parts of the American trench line. Between 01:30 and 03:00, heavy fighting continued before the PVA were driven from the position by the Marines. Meanwhile, Wilton ordered D Company, 3 RAR to move across to occupy the position behind B Company, 2 RAR to support the Marines if required, while at 02:18, he placed A Company, 1 DLI on five-minutes notice to move to another blocking position. American casualties were 19 killed and 125 wounded, while PVA losses included 30 men counted dead, and another 84 estimated to have been killed and 310 wounded.\n\nThe 2 RAR Machine Gun Platoon on Hill 111 again found itself heavily engaged, suffering five badly wounded. The PVA had managed to establish an artillery forward observer on Hill 111 and Marine casualties were particularly heavy as a result. Eight critically injured Americans were subsequently evacuated through 2 RAR for urgent medical treatment. Small-arms fire continued to be exchanged between the Marines and the PVA for the next two hours, only subsiding by 03:00, with the Marines finally driving out the PVA. D Company, 3 RAR was subsequently released, and it returned to battalion's main defensive position. The Australian outpost section also succeeded in holding through the night, and the following morning, they found 35 PVA dead around their positions. During the fighting, Crockford had repeatedly exposed himself to PVA fire, and had even run across no-man's land to provide situation reports to the Marine command post on Hill 111. He was later awarded the Military Medal for his actions. By dawn, the only activity in front of the Hook was PVA stretcher bearers collecting their wounded, who were subsequently allowed to do so unmolested by the Australians. In the 1st Marine Division's sector, the fighting had also ceased, while small groups of PVA moved to reinforce their positions and were engaged with rifle and machine-gun fire.\n\nAs with the first night, indirect fire had again played a crucial role in the defence, with the New Zealand gunners firing another 5,700 rounds (out of a divisional total of 9,500 rounds) in support of the Australians and the Marines. Dug-in to the east, 16 RNZA had been forced to fire with minimum crest clearance over the Australian lines to bring effective fire to bear on the assaulting PVA from their 25-pounders. Using both variable-time proximity and time-set fuses, the New Zealand gunners used air bursts to break up the PVA assaults, causing heavy casualties. Despite the risk of causing casualties among their own soldiers, no serious casualties were incurred by the Australians, although one suffered a broken shoulder after a brass nose cone from a faulty time-of-flight fused shell exploded over his position. High explosive was also provided by C Company's 60 mm mortar, which operated against the PVA in no-man's land despite being exposed and unprotected from fire, while the mortars also provided battlefield illumination, which had allowed the Australian riflemen and machine gunners to bring accurate fire to bear on the PVA crossing 2 RAR's front to attack Hills 111 and 121. The PVA had suffered heavily during the fighting, with over 300 dead counted in front of Hill 111 alone. Throughout the following day, the Australians observed a steady stream of PVA casualties evacuating Hill 111 and crossing the paddy fields on the left flank. Later, a group of 20 PVA had also attempted to withdraw, but were engaged by the 2 RAR Anti-Tank Platoon, resulting in at least six casualties. In the area held by the 1st Marine Division, PVA shelling continued sporadically, while at 13:30, the 1st Marine Regiment assumed operational control of the right sector.\n\n## Aftermath\n\n### Casualties\n\nThe battle illustrated the power of concentrated artillery fire and the wastefulness of massed attacks by infantry against modern firepower. Hundreds of PVA dead lay in front of the UN positions, with the valley floor \"almost covered with dead Chinese\". Wilton later recounted that on \"the approaches to 2 RAR, the bodies literally carpeted the ground sometimes two deep\". Later, PVA casualties numbered an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 killed according to UN sources, with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners. However, according to a Chinese source, the total casualties of PVA 46th Army were only at 886 men for all battles occurred from 24 June to 27 July. At least nine PVA battalions were believed to have been involved in the attacks. The fighting between 24 and 26 July had cost the Australians five killed and 24 wounded, while during the previous two weeks on the Hook, 2 RAR had lost 17 men killed and 31 wounded. It had been a bitter struggle to the very end, and as a testimony to the ferocity of the fighting, the Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honour \"The Samichon\". Many Australians were later awarded bravery decorations for their actions. The New Zealand gunners had played a crucial role in stemming the PVA assault, and during these final actions, the commander of 163 Battery, 16 RNZA—Major James Spence—had positioned himself well-forward to effectively co-ordinate the indirect fires of his guns. Spence was subsequently awarded the Military Cross, while a member of his tactical party, Gunner Arthur Bolton, was later Mentioned in Despatches. In total, over the three nights, more than 23,000 rounds were fired by the Commonwealth Divisional Artillery.\n\nDuring the final month of the war, heavy fighting had occurred across the central and eastern fronts, yet in the Commonwealth sector itself, the only PVA attacks had been made against 2 RAR holding the Hook on the nights of 24–25 and 25–26 July. The action was part of a larger attack against the 1st Marine Division, with only diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians. 1st Commonwealth Division intelligence staff believed that the PVA had been attempting to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary to turn the 1st Marine Division's flank, yet with well-coordinated indirect fire from the divisional artillery and support from the British tanks, 2 RAR had been able to successfully thwart both assaults. Meanwhile, the Marines had endured the brunt of a division-sized attack, repelling the PVA onslaught for the loss of 43 killed and 316 wounded over the two nights; total Marine casualties for July included 181 killed and 1,430 wounded. Indeed, with the Chinese determined to gain local territorial advantage prior to signing the ceasefire, the UN Command had suffered 65,000 casualties during the final three months of the war, while the PVA lost at least 135,000.\n\n### Subsequent operations\n\nOn 26 July, Wilton had ordered Lieutenant Colonel Peter Jeffreys to prepare a counter-attack by 1 DLI to recover some of the ground lost to the PVA the night before, but after preparatory fire failed to clear the PVA from the objective, the assault was cancelled. The PVA subsequently made another attempt against the Marines on Hill 119 on the night of 26/27 July, but it lacked the weight of those of the previous nights, and was easily repelled. In a final attempt to capture Boulder City, at 21:30, a PVA platoon had advanced on the wire at Hill 119, defended by Company E, 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines. Just after midnight, another platoon-sized PVA assault was also halted by the Marines. At 00:45 a PVA platoon probed the Marines on Hill 111, yet after an hour and twenty minutes it was also checked. Meanwhile, despite the clashes nearby on Hill 111 the Australians suffered no more casualties. The Armistice Agreement was subsequently signed at 10:00 on 27 July with a ceasefire coming into effect at 22:00. Sporadic fighting continued, and the New Zealand gunners fired several counter-battery tasks, engaging several PVA guns. The Commonwealth Divisional Artillery fired 1,300 rounds during the day; by evening, the front was largely silent. In the last four hours of the war, the PVA fired 44,000 artillery rounds into the US Eighth Army positions, although none against the 1st Commonwealth Division. No further attacks occurred, and the ceasefire came into effect at 22:00. The following day, some soldiers from both sides moved forward into no-man's land to exchange greetings, although relatively few Australians did so, and the Marines were under orders not to fraternise or communicate with the Chinese.\n\nWith the war over, both sides were required to withdraw 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) within 72 hours to create the 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) Korean Demilitarised Zone, and preparations began to hastily evacuate the forward positions. During August and September, sappers from the 1st Commonwealth Division were subsequently engaged clearing minefields and demolishing many of their former defended localities and field defences, while new battle positions were established to the rear. A similar process occurred across the entire front. Meanwhile, under the terms of the agreement, all prisoners who wished to be repatriated were to be returned, and 12,773 UN and 75,000 Chinese and North Korean prisoners were subsequently exchanged during this period, including 21 Australians and one New Zealander. The period that followed proved uneventful, yet the UN forces were required to maintain combat readiness and the ability to react quickly in case the North Koreans violated the ceasefire. In April 1954, 2 RAR returned to Australia and were replaced by 1 RAR, which remained in South Korea until March 1956. In September 1954, 3 RAR finally returned to Australia after four years of continuous service in Korea and five years before that in Japan. British Commonwealth forces remained in Korea until they were finally withdrawn in August 1957. Meanwhile, the last PVA elements did not leave Korea until 1958.", "revid": "1169770257", "description": "Korean War battle", "categories": ["Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1953", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving Australia", "Battles of the Korean War involving China", "Battles of the Korean War involving New Zealand", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "History of Gyeonggi Province", "July 1953 events in Asia", "United States Marine Corps in the Korean War"]}
{"id": "27941103", "url": null, "title": "Third Battle of Seoul", "text": "The Third Battle of Seoul was a battle of the Korean War, which took place from December 31, 1950, to January 7, 1951, around the South Korean capital of Seoul. It is also known as the Chinese New Year's Offensive, the January–Fourth Retreat (Korean: 1•4 후퇴) or the Third Phase Campaign Western Sector (Chinese: 第三次战役西线; pinyin: Dì Sān Cì Zhàn Yì Xī Xiàn).\n\nIn the aftermath of the major Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) victory at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, the United Nations Command (UN) started to contemplate the possibility of evacuation from the Korean Peninsula. Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong ordered the Chinese People's Volunteer Army to cross the 38th Parallel in an effort to pressure the UN forces to withdraw from South Korea.\n\nOn December 31, 1950, the Chinese 13th Army attacked the Republic of Korea Army (ROK)'s 1st, 2nd, 5th and 6th Infantry Divisions along the 38th Parallel, breaching UN defenses at the Imjin River, Hantan River, Gapyeong and Chuncheon in the process. To prevent the PVA forces from overwhelming the defenders, the US Eighth Army now under the command of Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway evacuated Seoul on January 3, 1951.\n\nAlthough PVA forces captured Seoul by the end of the battle, the Chinese invasion of South Korea galvanized the UN support for South Korea, while the idea of evacuation was soon abandoned by the UN Command. At the same time, the PVA were exhausted after months of nonstop fighting since the start of the Chinese intervention, thereby allowing the UN forces to regain the initiative in Korea.\n\n## Background\n\nWith China entering the Korean War in late 1950, the conflict had entered a new phase. To prevent North Korea from falling under UN control after the UN offensive into North Korea, the PVA entered North Korea and launched their Second Phase Offensive against the UN forces near the Sino-Korean border on 25 November. The resulting battles at the Ch'ongch'on River Valley and the Chosin Reservoir forced the UN forces to retreat from North Korea during December 1950, with PVA and North Korean Korean People's Army (KPA) forces recapturing much of North Korea. On the Korean western front, after the US Eighth Army suffered a disastrous defeat at the Ch'ongch'on River, it retreated back to the Imjin River while setting up defensive positions around the South Korean capital of Seoul. Although the Eighth Army was ordered to hold Seoul for as long as possible, UN commander General Douglas MacArthur planned a series of withdrawals to the Pusan Perimeter if UN forces were about to be overwhelmed. General Walton Walker, commander of the Eighth Army, was killed in a traffic accident on December 23, and Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway assumed command of the Eighth Army on December 26, 1950. At the UN, a ceasefire along the 38th Parallel was proposed to China on December 11, 1950, in order to avoid any further escalation of hostility between the US and China.\n\nAlthough the PVA had been weakened from their earlier battles, with nearly 40 percent of its forces rendered combat ineffective, its unexpected victories over the UN forces had convinced the Chinese leadership of the invincibility of the PVA. Immediately after the PVA 13th Army's victory over the Eighth Army at the Ch'ongch'on River, Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong started to contemplate another offensive against the UN forces on the urging of North Korean Premier Kim Il Sung. After learning of MacArthur's plans and the UN ceasefire, Mao also believed that the UN evacuation of the Korean Peninsula was imminent. Although the over-stretched Chinese logistics prevented the PVA from launching a full-scale invasion against South Korea, Mao still ordered the PVA 13th Army to launch an intrusion, dubbed the \"Third Phase Campaign\", to hasten the UN withdrawal and to demonstrate China's desire for a total victory in Korea. On December 23, 1950, China's Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai formally rejected the UN ceasefire while demanding all UN forces to be withdrawn from the Korean Peninsula.\n\n## Prelude\n\n### Locations, terrain, and weather\n\nSeoul is the capital city of South Korea. Korea as a whole is roughly bisected into northern and southern halves by the Han River. Seoul is located 35 mi (56 km) south of the 38th Parallel. The battle was fought over the UN defenses at the 38th Parallel, which stretches horizontally from the Imjin River mouth on the Korean west coast to the town of Chuncheon in central Korea. Route 33 runs south across the 38th Parallel at the Hantan River, passes through Uijeongbu and eventually arrives at Seoul, and it is an ancient invasion route towards Seoul. Another road ran across the Imjin River, and it connects Seoul and Kaesong through the towns of Munsan and Koyang. Finally, a road runs through Chuncheon and it connects to Seoul from the northeast. The harsh Korean winter, with temperatures as low as −20 °C (−4 °F), had frozen the Imjin and the Hantan River over most of the river crossings, eliminating a major obstacle for the attacking Chinese forces.\n\n### Forces and strategies\n\nBy December 22, 1950, the US Eighth Army's front had stabilized along the 38th Parallel. Just days before his death, Walker placed US I Corps, US IX Corps, and ROK III Corps of the Eighth Army along the 38th Parallel to defend Seoul. US I and IX Corps were to defend the Imjin and Hantan River respectively, while ROK III Corps were to guard the areas around Chuncheon. The boundary between US I and IX Corps was marked by Route 33, and was defended by the ROK 1st Infantry Division on the west side and the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the east side.\n\nBecause the ROK forces had suffered nearly 45,000 casualties at the end of 1950, most of their units were composed of raw recruits with little combat training. After inspecting the front just days before the battle, General J. Lawton Collins, the US Army Chief of Staff, concluded that most of the ROK formations were only fit for outpost duties. At the same time, the Eighth Army was also suffering from low morale due to its earlier defeats, and most of its soldiers were anticipating an evacuation from Korea. The Eighth Army's lack of will to fight and to maintain contact with Chinese forces resulted in a lack of information on PVA troop movements and intentions. After inspecting the front on December 27, Ridgway ordered US I and IX Corps to organize a new defensive line around Koyang to Uijeongbu, called the Bridgehead Line, to cover the Han River crossings in case the UN forces were forced to evacuate Seoul.\n\nThe PVA, however, were also suffering from logistics problems and exhaustion after their earlier victories. Arguing against the Third Phase Campaign on December 7, PVA Commander Peng Dehuai telegraphed to Mao that the PVA would need at least three months to replace its casualties, while most of its troops were in critical need of resupply, rest and reorganization. The Chinese logistics system, which was based on the concept of People's War with the native population supplying the army, also ran into difficulties due to the indifferent and sometimes hostile, Korean population near the 38th Parallel. The PVA were now suffering from hunger and the lack of winter clothing.\n\nResponding to Peng's concern over the troops' conditions, Mao limited the scope of the Third Phase Campaign to pin down the ROK forces along the 38th Parallel while inflicting as much damage as possible. Upon noticing that the US units were not interspersed between the ROK formations, therefore unable to support them, Mao ordered the PVA 13th Army to destroy the ROK 1st Infantry Division, the ROK 6th Infantry Division and ROK III Corps. Following Mao's instruction, Peng placed the PVA 38th, 39th, 40th and 50th Corps of the 13th Army in front of the ROK 1st and 6th Infantry Divisions, while the 42nd and the 66th Corps of the 13th Army were moved into ROK III Corps' sector. The start date of the offensive was set to 31 December in order to take advantage of the night assault under a full moon and the anticipated low alertness of the UN soldiers during the holiday. For the same reasons Ridgway had predicted that 31 December would be the likely time for the new Chinese offensive. Believing that the destruction of the ROK forces at the 38th Parallel would render the UN forces incapable of counterattacks in the future, Mao promised to pull all Chinese troops off the front line for rest and refit by the end of the campaign.\n\n## Battle\n\nOn the evening of December 31, 1950, the PVA 13th Army launched a massive attack against the ROK forces along the 38th Parallel. Along the Imjin River and the Hantan River, the PVA 38th, 39th, 40th and 50th Corps decimated the ROK 1st Division while routing the ROK 6th Division. At the Chuncheon sector, the PVA 42nd and the 66th Corps forced ROK III Corps into full retreat. With the defenses at the 38th Parallel completely collapsed by January 1, 1951, Ridgway ordered the evacuation of Seoul on January 3.\n\n### Actions at the Imjin River and the Hantan River\n\nBy December 15, 1950, the ROK 1st Infantry Division had retreated back to the town of Choksong on the southern bank of the Imjin River, its original defensive position at the start of the Korean War. On the right flank of the ROK 1st Infantry Division, the ROK 6th Infantry Division was located at the north of Dongducheon along the southern bank of the Hantan River. The ROK 1st Infantry Division planned to defend the Imjin River by placing its 11th and 12th Regiments at the west and the east side of Choksong respectively, while the ROK 6th Infantry Division defended the Route 33 at the Hantan River by placing its 7th and 19th Regiments on each side of the road. Both the ROK 15th Regiment, 1st Infantry Division and the ROK 2nd Regiment, 6th Infantry Division were placed in the rear as reserves. The South Koreans had also constructed numerous bunkers, barbed wire obstacles and minefields on both banks of the river in order to strengthen defenses and to maintain troop morale.\n\nFaced with the South Korean defense, the Chinese had prepared for well over a month for the offensive. In the weeks before the operational orders for the Third Phase Campaign were issued by PVA High Command, the advance elements of the PVA 39th Corps had been conducting detailed reconnaissance on the ROK defenses. The ROK positions were then thoroughly analyzed by PVA commanders, engineers and artillery officers. PVA \"thrust\" companies, which were composed of specially trained assault and engineer teams, were also organized to lead the attack across the Imjin and Hantan River. During the preparation, the PVA artillery units had suffered heavy losses under UN air attacks, but PVA Deputy Commander Han Xianchu still managed to bring up 100 artillery pieces against the ROK fortifications. On December 22, the PVA High Command issued the operational orders that signaled the start of the Third Phase Campaign. The PVA 39th and 50th Corps were tasked with the destruction of the ROK 1st Infantry Division, while the 38th and the 40th Corps were tasked with the destruction of the ROK 6th Infantry Division.\n\nActing on Ridgway's prediction, the ROK Army Headquarters ordered all units to full alert at dusk on December 31, but many of its soldiers were either drunk from the New Year celebration or had abandoned their posts in order to escape the cold. The PVA artillery units began to shell the ROK defenses at 16:30 on December 31. The first blow fell on the ROK 12th Regiment, 1st Infantry Division, due to the unit's positioning as both the boundary between the ROK 1st and 6th Infantry Divisions and the boundary between US I and IX Corps. Because the river banks on ROK 12th Regiment's flanks were composed of high cliffs difficult for the attackers to scale, most of the regiment's strength were used to defend its center. Upon noticing this development, the PVA 39th Corps decided to use ROK 12th Regiment's flanks as the main points of attack in order to achieve maximum surprise. Following a feint attack on the ROK 12th Regiment's center, the PVA 116th and 117th Divisions of the 38th Corps struck both flanks of the ROK 12th Regiment. The ROK 12th Regiment was caught off guard and offered little resistance, and within hours the regiment was cut to pieces with a battery of the US 9th Field Artillery Battalion seized by the Chinese. Under the cover of the fleeing ROK soldiers, the attacking PVA forces then penetrated the ROK 15th Regiment's defense without firing a shot. Desperate to contain the PVA breakthrough, Brigadier General Paik Sun Yup of the ROK 1st Infantry Division used the division's rear service personnel to form an assault battalion, but they were unable to stop the PVA advance. With only the ROK 11th Regiment remaining intact by the morning of January 1, the ROK 1st Infantry Division was forced to withdraw on January 2.\n\nThe PVA attacks against the ROK 6th Infantry Division, however, did not go as commanders had planned. The original plan called for the PVA 38th and the 40th Corps to attack the ROK 19th Regiment, 6th Infantry Division's right flank, but the bulk of the PVA forces mistakenly attacked the US 19th Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division, which was stationed to the east of the ROK 19th Regiment. The poor intelligence had also made the PVA charge through several minefields, resulting in heavy casualties. In spite of the losses, the PVA pushed the US 19th Infantry Regiment back, exposing the right flank of the ROK 6th Infantry Division in the process. With the ROK 1st Infantry Division out of action and the US 24th Infantry Division's defenses penetrated, the PVA forces on both flanks of the ROK 6th Infantry Division then advanced southward in an attempt to encircle the division. By midnight of the New Year's Eve, the ROK 6th Infantry Division was forced into full retreat. Although the PVA managed to intercept some elements of the ROK 6th Infantry Division, most of the ROK escaped the trap by infiltrating the PVA lines using the mountain trails. As Ridgway tried to inspect the front on the morning of January 1, he was greeted by the fleeing and weaponless remnants of the ROK 6th Infantry Division a few miles north of Seoul. Despite Ridgway's efforts to stop the retreat, the division continued to flee south. It was not until the personal intervention of South Korean President Syngman Rhee that the division finally stopped its retreat. By the night of January 1, the UN defenses at the Imjin River and the Hantan River had completely collapsed with the PVA advancing 9 mi (14 km) into UN territory. The Chinese stopped their advance on January 2.\n\n### Actions at Gapyeong and Chuncheon\n\nAt the beginning of the battle ROK III Corps was located to the east of the US 24th Infantry Division of US IX Corps, defending the 38th Parallel to the north of Gapyeong (Kapyong) and Chuncheon. Composed of four divisions, ROK III Corps placed its 2nd Infantry Division on the Corps' left flank at the hills north of Gapyeong, while the 5th Infantry Division defended the Corps' center at Chuncheon. The cold winter created great difficulties for the ROK defenders, with the heavy snow hindering construction and icy roads limiting food and ammunition supplies. North Korean guerrillas were also active in the region, and had caused serious disruption in the rear of ROK III Corps.\n\nThe Chinese operational order for the Third Phase Campaign called for the 42nd and the 66th Corps to protect the PVA left flank by eliminating the ROK 2nd and 5th Infantry Divisions, while cutting the road between Chuncheon and Seoul. Following instructions, the two PVA Corps quickly struck after midnight on New Year's Eve. The PVA 124th Division first penetrated the flanks of the ROK 2nd Infantry Division, then blocked the division's retreat route. The trapped ROK 17th and 32nd Regiments, 2nd Infantry Division were forced to retreat in disarray. With the PVA 66th Corps pressuring the ROK 5th Infantry Division's front, the PVA 124th Division then advanced eastward in the rear and blocked the ROK 5th Infantry Division's retreat route as well. The maneuver soon left the ROK 36th Regiment, 5th Infantry Division surrounded by PVA and they had to escape by infiltrating the PVA lines using mountain trails. By January 1, ROK III Corps had lost contact with the 2nd and 5th Infantry Divisions, while the rest of the III Corps were retreating to the town of Wonju. On January 5, the PVA 42nd and 66th Corps were relieved by the KPA II and V Corps, and the KPA launched a separate offensive towards Wonju.\n\n### Evacuation of Seoul\n\nIn the aftermath of the PVA attacks on along the 38th Parallel, Ridgway worried that the Chinese would exploit the breakthrough at Chuncheon to circle the entire Eighth Army. He also lacked confidence in the UN troops' ability to hold against the Chinese offensive. On the morning of January 3, after conferring with Major General Frank W. Milburn and Major General John B. Coulter, commanders of the US I and IX Corps, respectively, Ridgway ordered the evacuation of Seoul. With the collapse of the UN defenses at the 38th Parallel, the retreat had already started on January 1. At 09:00 on January 1, Milburn ordered US I Corps to retreat to the Bridgehead Line. Following his orders, the US 25th Infantry Division of I Corps took up position to the west of Koyang, while the British 29th Independent Infantry Brigade of I Corps had dug in to the east. To the east of I Corps, Coulter also ordered the withdrawal of US IX Corps at 14:00 with the Anglo-Australian 27th British Commonwealth Brigade covering the rear. Some PVA forces managed to trap the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade at Uijeongbu during their attacks against the ROK 6th Infantry Division, but the battalion escaped the trap with four wounded. By midnight on January 1, the US 24th Infantry Division of the IX Corps reached the Bridgehead Line south of Uijeongbu, and the 27th Commonwealth Brigade was moved into the IX Corps rear as reserves.\n\nThe PVA forces lacked the ability to lay siege to Seoul, so the evacuation order caught Peng by surprise. On the morning of January 3, Peng ordered the PVA 13th Army to pursue the retreating UN forces by attacking towards Seoul. The US 24th, 25th Infantry Division and the British 29th Infantry Brigade soon bore the brunt of the PVA attacks. In US IX Corps' sector, PVA 38th Corps attacked the US 24th Infantry Division as the American were trying to withdraw. In the fierce fighting that followed, the US 19th Infantry Regiment on the division's left flank was involved in numerous hand-to-hand struggles with the PVA around Uijeongbu. The PVA overran Companies E and G of US 19th Infantry Regiment during their attacks, but US artillery and air strikes soon inflicted 700 casualties in return. Faced with the heavy PVA pressure, the 27th Commonwealth Brigade was again called in to cover the retreat of US IX Corps. After the US 24th Division evacuated Seoul on the night of January 3, the 27th Commonwealth Brigade started to cross the Han River on the morning of January 4, and by 07:40 the entire US IX Corps had left Seoul.\n\nOn the left flank of the US 24th Infantry Division, the British 29th Infantry Brigade of US I Corps was involved in the hardest fighting of the entire battle. In the 29th Infantry Brigade's first action of the Korean War, the brigade was ordered to defend the areas east of Koyang on the Bridgehead Line. The 1st Battalion, Royal Ulster Rifles (1RUR) covered the brigade's left flank, while the 1st Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers (1RNF) was stationed on the brigade's right flank. The 1st Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment and the 1st Battalion, 21st Royal Thai Regiment covered the brigade's rear with artillery support. At 04:00 on January 3, 1RUR first made contact with the 149th Division of the PVA 50th Corps. The PVA surprised and overran the Companies B and D of 1RUR, but a counterattack by Major C. A. H. B. Blake of 1RUR restored the battalion's position by the morning. While 1RUR was under attack, the PVA forces also infiltrated 1RNF's positions by exploiting the unguarded valleys between hilltops occupied by the British. The entire 1RNF soon came under sniper fire and the PVA made repeated attempts to capture Y Company of 1RNF. To restore 1RNF's position, Brigadier Thomas Brodie of the 29th Infantry Brigade sent W Company of 1RNF with four Churchill tanks as reinforcement. The reinforcement was met with machine gun and mortar fire, but the PVA resistance immediately crumbled under the Churchill tanks' devastating assaults. The surviving PVA troops fled under the bombardment from 4.2-inch mortars and 25 pounder field guns. In the aftermath of fighting, the 29th Infantry Brigade suffered at least 16 dead, 45 wounded and 3 missing, while 200 PVA dead were found within 1RNF's position.\n\nWhile the British 29th Infantry Brigade and the PVA 149th Division fought at the east of Koyang, the US 25th Infantry Division of US I Corps started to withdraw on the left flank of 29th Infantry Brigade. The evacuation plan called for a coordinated withdrawal between the US 25th Infantry Division and the British 29th Infantry Brigade in order to prevent the PVA from infiltrating the UN rear areas, but the heavy fighting soon made the coordination between American and British units impossible. After the US 27th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division formed the rearguard of US I Corps, the 25th Infantry Division and the 29th Infantry Brigade were ordered to evacuate at 15:00 on January 3. The 25th Infantry Division retreated with little difficulties, but the withdrawal of the 29th Infantry Brigade did not start until after dark at 21:30. With the road completely open between the US rearguards and the British units, the PVA 446th Regiment, 149th Division infiltrated UN rear areas and set up an ambush against 1RUR and the Cooper Force of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars. 1RUR and the Cooper Force were then quickly overrun by Chinese soldiers, most of whom were completely unarmed. The PVA had also attacked the Cromwell tanks of the Cooper Force with bundle grenades and Bangalore torpedoes, setting several on fire. In the desperate hand on hand fighting that followed, although 100 soldiers from 1RUR managed to escape the trap under the command of Major J.K.H. Shaw, Major Blake of 1RUR and Captain D. Astley-Cooper of the Cooper Force were killed in action, while another 208 British soldiers were missing in action, most of whom were captured by the PVA. The US 27th Infantry Regiment tried to rescue the trapped British troops, but Brodie stopped the rescue in order to prevent more unnecessary losses.\n\nWhen the British 29th Infantry Brigade left Seoul at 08:00 on January 4, the US 27th Infantry Regiment became the last UN tactical unit that remained in the city. After fighting several more holding engagements at the outskirts of Seoul, the 27th Infantry Regiment crossed the Han River at 14:00 on January 4.\n\nRidgway warned his forces around noon on the 4th to expect orders to withdraw to Line D, all Corps abreast. I and IX Corps in the meantime were to pull back at 20:00 to intermediate positions 6–8 miles (9.7–12.9 km) south of the Han and hold until Air Force and Army supplies stocked at Suwon, 10 miles (16 km) farther south, had been removed. Ridgway expected the supplies to be cleared within 24 to 36 hours. Ridgway intended that the starting hour of the intermediate move provide time for the 3rd Logistical Command to finish evacuating Inchon, ASCOM City and Kimpo airfield. On 3 January Ridgway had notified Col. John G. Hill, commander of the 3rd Logistical Command, to cease port operations at Inchon at noon the next day. The deadline seemed reasonable since the gradual reductions of stocks at the port and airfield areas since early December already had brought items on hand to modest quantities. But unforeseen delays in getting some reserve stocks released from Eighth Army staff officers, too few tankers, too little suitable shipping for such items as long lengths of railroad track, and an overestimate of the ammunition that would be issued to line troops had prevented Colonel Hill from removing all stocks by the designated hour. After receiving Ridgway's noontime orders, General Milburn, in whose sector the port and airfield lay, instructed Hill to execute his demolition plans as soon as he had removed all troops other than demolition crews. While back shipment at Inchon did continue through the favorable afternoon tide on the 4th, Hill's main attention was diverted to rendering the airfield and port facilities useless to PVA/KPA forces. All port units scheduled to travel south by road had gone by the time Hill received Milburn's instructions, and the last Fifth Air Force unit except for Army aviation engineers had flown from Kimpo to a new base in Japan. Through the afternoon these engineers burned the airfield buildings and the drums of aviation gasoline and napalm remaining at Kimpo while Eighth Army engineers from the 82nd Engineer Petroleum Distribution Company destroyed the four- and six-inch pipelines between Inchon and Kimpo and the booster pumps and storage tanks at the airfield. Members of the 50th Engineer Port Construction Company began demolishing the Inchon port at 18:00. All main facilities except one pier and a causeway to the island of Wolmi-do, were destroyed. Prime targets were the lock gates of the tidal basin, which by compensating the Yellow Sea's wide tidal range had largely given Inchon the capacity of a principal port. The demolitions at Wolmi-do as well as the city itself were completed by 03:00 on the 5th. Colonel Hill and his remaining troops left by water for Pusan within the hour. Supplies destroyed at Kimpo, ASCOM City and Inchon included some 1.6 million gallons of petroleum products, 9,300 tons of engineer materiel, and 12 rail cars loaded with ammunition. While time and tide may have made the destruction of this materiel unavoidable, the extensive damage to port facilities could not be fully justified. Denying the enemy the use of a port was theoretically sound; on the other hand, the UN Command's absolute control of Korean waters made Inchon's destruction purposeless.\n\nOn the afternoon of January 4, the KPA I Corps, the PVA 38th Corps and the PVA 50th Corps entered Seoul, but they were only greeted by an empty city in flames. Most of the civilians had either fled south through the frozen Han River or evacuated to the nearby countryside. The South Korean government in Seoul, which was reduced to essential personnel before the battle, also left the city with little difficulties. A KPA platoon reached the Seoul City Hall at about 13:00 and raised the North Korean flag. On January 5, Peng ordered the PVA 50th Corps and the KPA I Corps to seize Gimpo and Incheon while instructing all other units to rest on the northern bank of the Han River. By January 7, Peng halted the Third Phase Campaign due to troop exhaustion and to prevent a repeat of the Incheon landing.\n\n### Eighth Army withdrawal to Line D\n\nI and IX Corps left the lower bank of the Han while Hill's engineers were still blowing Inchon, so Hill had been obliged to put out his own security above the port. These outposts were not engaged. Neither were Milburn's forces as they moved to positions centered on Route 1 at the town of Anyang, nor were Coulter's as they extended the intermediate line northeastward to the junction of the Han and Pukhan rivers. Late on the 4th, while I and IX Corps were withdrawing to positions above Suwon, Ridgway ordered the withdrawal to Line D to begin at noon on the 5th, by which time he now expected the supplies at Suwon to have been removed. All five Corps were to withdraw abreast, meeting in the process Ridgway's basic requirement of maximum delay and maximum punishment of the enemy. Ridgway specifically instructed Milburn and Coulter to include tanks in their covering forces and to counterattack the PVA who followed the withdrawal. Ridgway learned during the morning of the 5th that the supplies at Suwon and at the airfield south of town could not be cleared by noon. Creating the delay was not only the sheer bulk of the materiel but also about 100,000 desperate refugees from the Seoul area who crowded the Suwon railroad yards and blocked the trains. At mid-morning Ridgway radioed Milburn to stand fast until the remaining Suwon stocks had been shipped out and he notified Coulter to leave forces to protect the east flank of I Corps' forward position. Milburn received Ridgway's instructions in time to hold the bulk of the 25th Division and the ROK 1st Division at the Anyang position and Coulter ordered the ROK 6th Division to protect Milburn's east flank. But Coulter did not dispatch his instructions until an hour after the ROK 6th had started for Line D, and General Chang did not receive them until midafternoon. It took Chang another half-hour to get his division stopped. By that time his forces were almost due east of Suwon, where, with Coulter's agreement, Chang deployed them along Route 17.\n\nDuring the night of the 5th a PVA regiment crossed the Han and assembled east of Yongdungp'o. Patrols from the regiment moved south through the hills east of Route 1 and reconnoitered the ROK 1st Division front before midnight but somehow missed finding the vulnerable east flank earlier left open by IX Corps. By daylight on the 6th the patrol contact in the center of General Paik's front developed into a general engagement between a PVA battalion and the ROK 3rd Battalion, 11th Regiment, but the PVA attempt to dislodge the ROK eased by noon and ended altogether at 14:00. By then supplies had been cleared from Suwon and Milburn and Coulter could continue south toward Line D. The two Corps completed their withdrawals on the 7th. Since the 15th Infantry and 3rd Battalion, 65th Infantry, of the 3rd Division in the meantime had arrived from Kyongju and been attached to I Corps, Milburn was able to keep a substantial reserve and still organize a fairly solid 20 miles (32 km) Line D front from the west coast eastward through Pyongtaek and Ansong. The British 29th Brigade and the Thai battalion stood at the far left astride Route 1 just below P’yongt’aek. The 3rd Division held a sector across the hills between Routes 1 and 17, which General Soule manned with the 15th Infantry. Lending depth to this central position, the 3rd Battalion, 65th Infantry, and the 35th Infantry of the 25th Division were assembled not far behind it. Above Ansong, the ROK 1st Division lay across Route 17. The remainder of the 25th Division and the Turkish Brigade went into Corps' reserve at Cheonan, 13 miles (21 km) south of Pyongtaek. Along a slightly longer front tipping to the northeast and reaching beyond Changhowon-ni to the Han River, Coulter deployed the ROK 6th Division, British 27th Brigade, and 24th Division, west to east. Hard against the right Corps' boundary 20 miles (32 km) behind the front, the bulk of the 1st Cavalry Division was in Corps' reserve at Ch’ungju on Route 13, now IX Corps’ main supply route. To protect the route from attacks by guerrillas known to be located in the Tanyang area 20 miles (32 km) further east, the 5th Cavalry Regiment had begun to patrol the road from Ch’ungju south through a mountain pass at Mun’gyong.\n\nThe way Milburn and Coulter had moved to Line D exasperated General Ridgway. \"Reports so far reaching me,\" he told the two Corps commanders on the 7th, \"indicate your forces withdrew to ‘D’ line without evidence of having inflicted any substantial losses on enemy and without material delay. In fact, some major units are reported as having broken contact. I desire prompt confirming reports and if substantially correct, the reasons for non-compliance with my basic directives.\" The reports reaching Ridgway were true. Except for the clashes between the PVA and the ROK 1st Division east of Anyang on the 6th, I Corps had withdrawn from the south bank of the Han without contact and IX Corps had not engaged enemy forces since leaving the Bridgehead Line. Attempting once more to get the quality of leadership he considered essential, Ridgway pointed out to Milburn and Coulter that their opponents had only two alternatives: to make a time-consuming, coordinated follow-up, or to conduct a rapid, uncoordinated pursuit. If the PVA chose the first, Eighth Army could at least achieve maximum delay even though there might be few opportunities for strong counterattacks. If they elected the second, Eighth Army would have unlimited opportunities not only to delay but to inflict severe losses on them. In either case, Ridgway again made clear, Milburn and Coulter were to exploit every opportunity to carry out the basic concept of operations that he had repeatedly explained to them. The immediate response was a flurry of patrolling to regain contact. According to the I Corps intelligence officer, the 39th and 50th Armies were now advancing south of Seoul, and their vanguards had reached the Suwon area. An ROK 1st Division patrol moving north over Route 17 during the afternoon of the 7th supported this assessment when it briefly engaged a small PVA group in Kumnyangjang-ni, 11 miles (18 km) east of Suwon. Further west, patrols from the 15th Infantry and the British 29th Brigade moved north as far as Osan, 8 miles (13 km) short of Suwon, without making contact. In the IX Corps' sector, the 24th Division at the far right sent patrols into Icheon and Yeoju, both on an east–west line with Suwon. Both towns were empty. Shallower searches to the north by the British 27th Brigade in the center of the Corps' sector also failed to reestablish contact. General Ridgway considered the attempts by patrols to regain contact at least to be moves in the right direction. What he wanted and planned to see next in the west was more vigorous patrolling by gradually enlarged forces. This patrolling would be the main mission of the larger efforts to acquire better combat intelligence, which in his judgment had been sadly neglected and which was a prime requisite for the still larger offensive action that he intended would follow. His attention meanwhile was drawn to the east, where the withdrawal to Line D was still in progress and where KPA forces, as expected, had opened an attack to seize Wonju.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nAlthough UN casualties were moderate, the Third Battle of Seoul was a significant success for the Chinese military, and the UN forces' morale sunk to its lowest point during the war. Ridgway was also extremely displeased with the performance of Eighth Army and took immediate steps to restore the morale and fighting spirit of the UN forces. With Ridgway leading the Eighth Army, MacArthur started to regain confidence in UN forces' ability to hold Korea, and the UN evacuation plan was abandoned on January 17.\n\nMeanwhile, at the UN, although the US and other UN members were initially divided on how to respond to Chinese intervention, the Chinese rejection of the UN ceasefire soon rallied the UN members towards the US, and a UN resolution that condemned China as an aggressor was passed on February 1. In the opinion of historian Bevin Alexander, the Chinese rejection of a UN ceasefire had damaged the international prestige it had obtained from its earlier military successes, and this later made it difficult for China to either join the UN or to oppose US support for Taiwan. The Korean War, which ultimately ended at the 38th Parallel, would drag on for another two bloody years due to the determination of Communist China and the North Korean leadership to establish communism on the entire Korean Peninsula.\n\nDespite its victory, the PVA had become exhausted after nonstop fighting. PVA Deputy Commander Han Xianchu later reported to Peng that, although combat casualties had been light with only 8,500 battle casualties, poor logistics and the exhaustion had cost the \"backbone\" of the Chinese forces during the Third Phase Campaign. US Far East Air Forces' \"Interdiction Campaign No.4 \", which was launched on December 15, 1950, against PVA/KPA supply lines, also made the PVA unable to sustain any further offensives southward. Believing that the UN forces were thoroughly demoralized and unable to counterattack, Mao finally permitted the PVA to rest for at least two to three months, while Peng and other Chinese commanders were planning for a decisive battle in the spring of 1951. To the surprise of Chinese commanders, Ridgway and the Eighth Army soon counterattacked the PVA with Operation Thunderbolt on January 25, 1951.\n\n## See also\n\n- First Battle of Seoul\n- Second Battle of Seoul\n- Second Phase Offensive\n- UN retreat from North Korea\n- Operation Ripper", "revid": "1166263697", "description": "1950–1951 Battle in the Korean War", "categories": ["1950s in Seoul", "Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950", "Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1951", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving Australia", "Battles of the Korean War involving China", "Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving South Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving Thailand", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "December 1950 events in Asia", "January 1951 events in Asia"]}
{"id": "60089033", "url": null, "title": "Filial piety in Buddhism", "text": "Filial piety has been an important aspect of Buddhist ethics since early Buddhism, and was essential in the apologetics and texts of Chinese Buddhism. In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order. In Buddhist scriptures, narratives are given of the Buddha and his disciples practicing filial piety toward their parents, based on the qualities of gratitude and reciprocity. Initially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later scholarship, led by people such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen, has come to believe that filial piety was part of Buddhist doctrine since early times. Strong and Schopen have provided epigraphical and textual evidence to show that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their parents, concluding that filial piety was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists.\n\nWhen Buddhism was introduced in China, it had no organized celibacy. Confucianism emphasized filial piety to parents and loyalty to the emperor, and Buddhist monastic life was seen to go against its tenets. In the 3rd–5th century, as criticism of Buddhism increased, Buddhist monastics and lay authors responded by writing about and translating Buddhist doctrines and narratives that supported filiality, comparing them to Confucianism and thereby defending Buddhism and its value in society. The Mouzi Lihuolun referred to Confucian and Daoist classics, as well as historical precedents to respond to critics of Buddhism. The Mouzi stated that while on the surface the Buddhist monk seems to reject and abandon his parents, he is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on the path towards enlightenment. Sun Chuo (c.300–380) further argued that monks were working to ensure the salvation of all people and making their family proud by doing so, and Liu Xie stated that Buddhists practiced filial piety by sharing merit with their departed relatives. Buddhist monks were also criticized for not expressing their respect to the Chinese emperor by prostrating and other devotion, which in Confucianism was associated with the virtue of filial piety. Huiyuan (334–416) responded that although monks did not express such piety, they did pay homage in heart and mind; moreover, their teaching of morality and virtue to the public helped support imperial rule.\n\nFrom the 6th century onward, Chinese Buddhists began to realize that they had to stress Buddhism's own particular ideas about filial piety in order to for Buddhism to survive. Śyāma, Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread a belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body. The Ullambana Sūtra introduced the idea of transfer of merit through the story of Mulian Saves His Mother and led to the establishment of the Ghost Festival. By this Buddhists attempted to show that filial piety also meant taking care of one's parents in the next life, not just this life. Furthermore, authors in China—and to some extent Japan—wrote that in Buddhism, all living beings have once been one's parents, and that practicing compassion to all living beings as though they were one's parents is the more superior form of filial piety. Another aspect emphasized was the great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. Chinese Buddhists described how difficult it is to repay the goodness of one's mother, and how many sins mothers often committed in raising her children. The mother became the primary source of well-being and indebtedness for the son, which was in contrast with pre-Buddhist perspectives emphasizing the father. Nevertheless, although some critics of Buddhism did not have much impact during this time, this changed in the period leading up to the Neo-Confucianist revival, when Emperor Wu Zong (841–845) started the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, citing lack of filial piety as one of his reasons for attacking Buddhist institutions.\n\nFilial piety is still an important value in a number of Asian cultures. In China, Buddhism continued to uphold a role in state rituals and mourning rites for ancestors, up until late imperial times (13th–20th century). Also, sūtras and narratives about filial piety are still widely used. The Ghost Festival is still popular in many Asian countries, especially those countries which are influenced by both Buddhism and Confucianism. Furthermore, in Theravādin countries in South and Southeast Asia, generosity, devotion and transfer of merit to parents are still widely practiced among the population.\n\n## In Buddhist texts\n\nIn the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order.\n\n### Repaying the debt of gratitude\n\nIn the Nikāyas, two qualities are often named in pair: kataññuta and katavedita. Whereas the first word refers to acknowledgement of the indebtedness towards others, the second quality is interpreted as repaying such debt. Buddhist texts often encourage children from the age of discretion to take care of their parents, remember their gratitude to them, honor them and do everything they can to repay their gratitude to them. The care and attention the parents have given the child is seen to deserve full acknowledgment from the child. In a discourse called the Sigalaka Sutta, several ways are mentioned in which a child can repay its parents: \"I will perform duties incumbent on them, I will keep up the lineage and tradition (Pali: kula vaṃsa) of my family, I will make myself worthy of my heritage.\" The deity Sakka is reported to have had seven rules of conduct according to which he lived his life, the first of which being \"As long as I live, may I maintain my parents\". This rule is also cited in the commentary to the Dhammapada, indicating the impact of filiality during that period.\n\nHowever, in the early discourse called Kataññu Sutta, the Buddha describes through several metaphors the difficulty in repaying the gratitude of one's parents through material means only. The discourses say that even if children were to carry their parents on their backs their entire lives, or let them be kings and queens of the country, they would still not have repaid the large debt to their parents. Eventually, he concludes that it is only possible to repay one's gratitude by teaching them Buddhism through spiritual qualities, such as faith in Buddhism, morality, generosity and wisdom. Though this discourse was translated and cited in many Buddhist traditions and schools, it came to be more emphasized with the arising of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India in the 1st century CE.\n\nIn a third early discourse called Sabrahmā Sutta, parents are described as worthy of respect and gifts, because they have created their children, and were the ones who educated their children in their formative years. Furthermore, parents have provided the basic requirements for the child to survive. Children who attempt to pay back their debt to their parents by providing for them, are considered \"superior people\" [th] (Pali: sappurisa) expected to go to a heavenly rebirth in their afterlife, whereas people who are negligent in this, are called \"outcasts\" (Pali: vasala). Buddhist studies scholar Guang Xing believes a comparison is drawn here between the devotion to Brahma, and the devotion toward one's parents, of which the latter is considered better, because they are considered the real creators. Parents are also compared to \"Worthy Ones\" and Buddhas, which is similar to the filial devotion expressed in the Hindu Taittirı̄ya Upaniśad.\n\nIn a fourth discourse Mahāyañña ('great sacrifice') in the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha compares reverence toward one's parents, family and religious leaders to fire worship, and concludes that those people are much more useful and meaningful to tend to than the fire. The parents are mentioned here as first and foremost.\n\nBuddhist studies scholar Reiko Ohnuma does point out, however, that Buddhist texts describe the ideal monk as a person who detaches himself from his parents, which is seen as a hindrance to his spiritual progress. He is to develop even-mindedness, feeling the same for his loved ones and foes. On a similar note, the texts say a monk should see all women as his mother, not only his biological mother. This is considered a helpful method to practice the celibate life.\n\n### Other early discourses\n\nSome early Buddhist texts describe the children's devotion toward their parents as a good deed that will reap religious merit, lead to praise by the wise, and finally, a rebirth in heaven. It is described as a fundamental good deed, and is in some Āgama texts compared to making offerings to a Buddha-to-be (Sanskrit: bodhisattva). By contrast, killing one's parents is considered one of the most gravest deeds to do, leading to an immediate destiny to hell. According to Buddhist texts, people who had done so were not allowed to become members of the monastic community, and if they already were but were found out later to have killed a parent, they were expelled. This sentiment is echoed in the later Milindapañhā, which states that a person who committed matricide or patricide cannot attain to insight in Buddhist teachings.\n\nApart from merit, in many Āgama texts, filial piety is said to lead to an orderly and harmonious society. In Pāli texts, the belief that children are indebted to their parents is a form of right view, part of the Buddhist Noble Eightfold Path.\n\n### In canonical and post-canonical narratives\n\nA well-known story that expresses filial piety is the Buddha's journey to the second Buddhist heaven to teach his mother, who died when giving birth to him. It is found in both the Pāli commentaries Aṭṭhasālinī and the commentary to the Dhammapada, as well as the Ekottara and Saṃyukta Āgamas. On a similar note, the Pāli tradition relates how the Buddha teaches his father Suddhodana on several occasions, eventually helping his father to attain enlightenment. Further, the Mahāyāna tradition has it that the Buddha organizes a funeral ceremony for his father out of piety. The Buddha is not only depicted as showing filial piety to his natural parents, but also his foster mother Mahāpajāpatī. Ohnuma has argued that a major reason for the Buddha to allow his foster mother to become a full-fledged Buddhist nun, and thereby starting the order of nuns, was gratitude toward her.\n\nIn stories of the previous lives of the Buddha, there are several examples that illustrate filial piety. In one life found in several Buddhist collections, the Buddha-to-be is Śyāma, a filial son who takes care of his blind parents in their old age. This story was very popular in Buddhist India, as derived from epigraphical evidence from the first centuries CE, and can be found in both the Pāli and Chinese Buddhist scriptures. In the Pāli version of the story, it is prefaced by the life of a man who is ordained as a monk. After having been a monk for 17 years, he discovers his parents are abused by their servants and are starving. He then feels he needs to choose between the monastic vocation and taking care of his destitute parents as a lay person, since he assumes he cannot do so as a monk. The Buddha is able to prevent him from disrobing, however, and teaches him he can take care of his parents while still in monk's robes. The monk then decides to share gifts of food and cloth with them regularly, for which he is criticized by his fellow monks. His fellow monks consider this inappropriate for a Buddhist monk and report this to the Buddha. The Buddha, however, speaks high praise of the monk's filial piety, and he relates a discourse called the Mātuposaka Sutta, as well his own previous life as Śyāma. In this previous life, the Buddha-to-be was taking care of his blind parents, but was accidentally shot by a king hunting. Whilst his last thoughts went out to his parents who would no longer have any one to take care of them, a deity intervened and Śyāma came back to life. In some versions of the story, it is the mother who makes an \"act of truth\" referring to the virtue of her son, and by doing so magically revives him.\n\nThere is also a story of the elder Maudgalyayāna, one of the main disciples of the Buddha, who is described saving his mother from hell by sharing his religious merits. In this story, Maudgalyayāna sees through meditative vision that his mother who has just died is reborn in hell. Shocked by this, he tries to use his meditative psychic powers to help his mother, but to no avail. Then the Buddha advises him to do meritorious acts toward the monastic community on behalf of his mother, which does help.\n\n### In Mahāyāna texts\n\nEarly Buddhist texts, such as the Māta Sutta of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, mention that every living being has once been one's relative in a previous life in the cycle of birth and rebirth. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, therefore, helping to liberate other living beings from suffering came to be seen as a form of filial piety, since it was believed that all beings could have once been one's parents. This doctrine has affected Buddhist practice as well. For example, in some forms of Tibetan meditation, practitioners are instructed to develop loving-kindness to all living beings by remembering that all could have been their mother in previous lifetimes. Just as in Pāli texts, Mahāyāna texts compare particularistic love negatively to universal love, which is seen as superior.\n\n## History\n\n### Early Buddhist history\n\nIn the early days of Western Buddhist scholarship, a number of scholars, among which Indologist I.B. Horner (1896–1981) and linguist Jean Przyluski (1885–1944), emphasized the role of filial piety in Indian Buddhism. However, in later years, scholars such as Hajime Nakamura, Michihata Ryōshū, Miyakawa Hasayuki and Kenneth Ch'en developed the perspective that filial piety was unique for the period in which Buddhism was introduced in China, and had not been part of Indian Buddhism before that. But in a more recent development, starting with Buddhist studies scholars such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen, it has been shown that filial piety was part of Buddhist teaching since early times, though Strong did regard it as a compromise to Brahmanical ethics. In early Buddhism, filial piety was an important part of Buddhist ethics, though not as fundamental to ethics as it was in Confucianism.\n\nAt the time when Buddhism developed in India, there was criticism that Buddhist otherworldly ideals did not fit in with expectations of filial piety. Devotion to the mother was seen as a fundamental virtue, and early Buddhists had to reconcile Buddhist doctrine and practice with Indian social institutions. Schopen found much epigraphic evidence and some textual evidence showing that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their deceased parents, concluding filial piety was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists. Contrary to the general scholarly view, devotional practices like dedicating the merit of a building to one's parents were common among Buddhist monastics, even more so than among laypeople. There is also textual evidence to suggest that the ties monastics had with their parents were not absolutely severed as ideally prescribed. For example, in some texts of monastic discipline there are anecdotes that suggest monastics regularly kept contact with their parents, expressed concern for them, and even borrowed money to support them. Also, in many Jātaka stories monks are mentioned that take care of their parents, sometimes financially. Lastly, John Strong and Kenneth Ch'en have argued that the doctrine of the transfer of merit, so much emphasized in the filial story of Mulian Saves His Mother, originated in Indian Buddhism, within the context of ancestor worship and offerings to hungry ghosts. Scholar of religion Stephen F. Teiser has stated, however, that there is no evidence of an Indian predecessor to the Chinese Ghost Festival with its emphasis on salvation of ancestors.\n\nAlthough many similarities can be found between the contexts in which Indian and Chinese Buddhism arose, it was only in China that Buddhism would, in Strong's words, \"systematically and self-consciously\" develop its response to the question of filial piety.\n\n### Introduction of Buddhism in China\n\nBuddhism stressed individual salvation, which went against the Confucian tenets, that mostly focused on family life and society. Buddhism advocated monasticism and celibacy, and emphasized the suffering inherent in family life, which was unacceptable in the Confucian world view. Confucianism considered it a child's duty to continue the parental line. Moreover, celibacy did not exist in China before the arrival of Buddhism. Therefore, in early medieval China (c. 100–600), Buddhism was heavily criticized for what Confucianists perceived as a disregard for Confucian virtues and role ethics among family members. In addition, Buddhist monks were without descendants, and therefore did not create the offspring necessary to continue the ancestor worship in next generations. Furthermore, Buddhist monks shaved their heads, which was perceived as a lack of filial piety, because Confucianism saw the human body as a \"living monument of filial piety\" and considered tonsure a form of mutilation.\n\nAnother problem was that early Chinese Buddhist monks did not formally pay homage to the emperor, which was seen as going against social propriety and was connected with the idea that Buddhism did not adhere to filial piety. This already became a problem in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (266–420). Furthermore, during the Wei (386–550) and Jin Dynasties, many Chinese women became ordained as nuns and left their families behind, which was very disturbing for Buddhism's critics.\n\nNevertheless, many Chinese Buddhists still adhered strongly to Confucian values, and attempted to reconcile the two value systems. In the process of introducing and integrating Buddhism in China, historian Kenneth Ch'en distinguished three stages. In the first stage, Buddhism actively advocated filial piety as a Confucian virtue. In the second stage, Buddhists referred to their own tradition to make an argument that filial piety had always been part of it. In the last stage, they argued that Buddhist ethics were more universal and therefore more superior than Confucian kinship-oriented filial piety. Over time, the debate between critics and Buddhists became more refined as more Buddhist texts were translated and Buddhism became better known in China.\n\n#### Apologetics and adaptation (3rd–5th century)\n\nWhen Buddhism was introduced to China, it was redefined to support filial piety. Many elements of Buddhist teaching were once secondary in Indian Buddhism, but now gained new importance and a new function in a process of apologetics.\n\nFor example, the Mouzi Lihuolun (牟子理惑論) presented arguments why Buddhist practices did not go against Confucius, but were actually praised by him. The Mouzi does this by referring to the Confucian and Daoist classics, as well as historical precedents. In one passage, the text compares the life of a Buddhist monk with a pious son who saves his father from drowning:\n\n> \"A long time ago, the Ch'i people crossed a large river in a boat and it happened that their father fell into the water. His sons rolled up their sleeves, seized his head, and turned him upside down, forcing the water out of his mouth, thus bringing their father back to life. Now, to seize one's father's head and turn him upside down is certainly not very filial. Yet they could have done nothing better to save their father's life. If they had folded their hands and practiced the norm of filial sons, their father's life would have been lost in the waters.\"\n\nThe behavior of a Buddhist monk is similar. While on the surface the Buddhist seems to reject and abandon his parents, the pious Buddhist is actually aiding his parents as well as himself on the path towards enlightenment. In this regard, the Mouzi cites Confucius saying that judgments should be made appropriately, weighing circumstances. In a way, Buddhists claimed therefore that a Buddhist monk benefited his parents, and in superior ways than Confucianism, because their renunciation was the \"height of self-giving\".\n\nThe Mouzi Lihuolun also attempted to counter charges that not having children was a violation of good ethics. It was pointed out that Confucius himself had praised a number of ascetic sages who had not had children or family, but because of their wisdom and sacrifice were still perceived as ethical by Confucius. The argument that Buddhist filial piety concerns itself with the parent's soul is the most important one. Later, Sun Chuo (c.300–380), made an even stronger argument, by stating that Buddhists monks (far from working solely for their own benefit) were working to ensure the salvation of all people and making their family proud by doing so. Any change in the son's status would reflect on the parent, therefore the spiritual achievements of the monk were at the same time a form of filial piety toward his parents. In that sense, Sun Chuo claimed that Buddhism teaches what amounts to a perfect form of filial piety, which he further amplified by referring to the Buddha's conversion of his father. Sun Chuo also responded to criticism with regard to the story of Sudāna (Sanskrit: Viśvantara), a previous life of the Buddha, in which a prince becomes an ascetic and gives away his father's possessions, his own wife and children as a practice of generosity. Sun Chuo's opponent critic described Sudāna as an \"inhuman creature\", but Sun Chuo argued that Sudāna had realized the highest form of filial piety, because in his final lifetime as Gautama Buddha he would eventually help his family to attain enlightenment. Sun Chuo concluded: \"If this is not filial piety and humanity, then what is piety and humanity?\"\n\nResponding to criticism from emperor Huan Xuan (369–404), Huiyuan (334–416) argued that Buddhist monks did not have to pay homage to the emperor in \"a manifested way\", but just in heart and mind. Buddhist monks did in fact support imperial rule, he continued, but do so by teaching virtue to the people and in that way \"all the six relationships, father and son, older and younger brother, husband and wife, will be benefited\". He further stated that in order to become a monk, a devotee had to ask permission from his parents and emperor first—ordination as a monk was therefore not against filial piety, he argued. This argument was supported by certain rules in the Indian Buddhist monastic discipline, but the intention behind these rules was redefined to show that Buddhism was congruent with traditions of piety and loyalty. In his arguments Huiyuan was supported by some government officials and prominent lay people. His writings effectively stopped the debate with regard to monks not prostrating for the emperor, but the more general issue of the Buddhist monastic order being exempt from certain duties and obligations still remained.\n\nDuring the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–577), Buddhism developed much in China, and conflicts arose with Daoists and Confucianists. A Daoist wrote a polemic called the Sanpo Lun attacking Buddhism for destroying the nation and the family. He argued that monks did not do anything productive, and resources were wasted on building Buddhist monasteries. He also criticized the shaving of hair as \"destructive to the person\". Again, Buddhist writers responded in defense. Sengshun replied that Buddhist supported imperial rule by promoting virtuous behavior, referring to the Shanshengzi Jing (Chinese: 善生子經, i.e. the Chinese translation of the Sigalaka Sutta) to show that Buddhists observed social norms. In addition, Liu Xie argued that Buddhist monks and lay people did practice filial piety, but monks did so by sharing merit with their departed relatives. Responding to the criticism that monks shave their hair, Liu Xie stated they abandoned minor filial acts in order to perform greater ones.\n\nThe adaptation of Buddhism to fit in with Confucian expectations of filial piety did not only take place on an academic level. Even on the grassroots level, in folk religion, Buddhism was adapted to fit in with Confucian values, as evidenced in the 5th-century text Tiwei Boli Jing.\n\n#### Reinvention (6th–13th century)\n\nIn the process of integrating Buddhism in Chinese culture, Buddhists soon realized that refutation of criticism by Confucianists was not sufficient to hold their own. Chinese Buddhism had to stress its own ideas about filial piety. To more directly point out the Buddhist's filial nature, passages and parables about filial piety in Northwest Indian and Central Asian Buddhism became very prominent in Chinese Buddhism. The story of Śyāma (Chinese: 晱子; pinyin: Shanzi or Yamuku) was an example of this. The story was often mentioned in the Chinese canon of Buddhist texts, was included in a number of different anthologies such as the Liudu Jijing and even the Confucian tradition of twenty-four stories of filial piety (1260–1368). A similar story of Sujāti (Chinese: 須闍提; pinyin: Xusheti) relates that she cut off her own flesh to feed her parents, to keep them alive. During the T'ang dynasty (618–907), the story gained much popularity and it was eventually transformed into a Confucian classic tale as well. Furthermore, it was a way for Chinese Buddhists to make a statement that Buddhist filial piety was superior to Confucian filial piety. Sujāti and other Buddhist stories of self-sacrifice spread a belief that a filial child should even be willing to sacrifice its own body.\n\nAs for the story of Maudgalyayāna, this was incorporated in the Ullambana Sūtra, and led to the establishment of the Ghost Festival in China in the 6th century. The festival was held in the seventh moon of the Chinese calendar, and commemorated Maudgalyayāna (pinyin: Mulian) saving his mother. The festival became very popular throughout Chinese society, even to the point of imperial families and government officers becoming involved. The story also became very popular: though already part of the Indian Buddhist tradition, East Asian Buddhism raised it from a peripheral role to a central one. Buddhists attempted to show that filial children could still take care of their parents in the afterlife, a concept which they believed Confucianists overlooked. Some Buddhist authors like Ch'i-sung proclaimed that Buddhists not only practiced filial piety, but also did so at a more deeper level than Confucianists, because they took care of their parents in both this life and the next. The Sutra on a Filial Son stated in this regard that the best way to repay one's parents' kindness was by helping them to develop faith in Buddhism, not just by taking care of them materially. On a similar note, the monk Zongmi (780-841) argued that the main motivation for Prince Siddhārtha leaving his parents and becoming a monk was so he could teach them later on and thereby repay his debt of gratitude to them. Zongmi described the Ghost Festival as the highest expression of filial piety, in which Buddhist and Confucian doctrine could meet.\n\nApart from religious texts, the first generations of Buddhists in China responded to criticism from Confucianists by emphasizing the lay life more and the monastic life less in their teachings, and for those who did become ordained as monastics, they decided to erect monasteries in populated areas, instead of retreating to the remote wilderness. This also helped to contribute to the social expectations of Chinese Confucian culture. By the end of the 6th century, Buddhist monks were paying homage to the Chinese emperor through rituals and services, which also helped to stop the argument whether monks should prostrate themselves. Nevertheless, in 662 emperor Gaozong issued decrees obliging monks to prostrate before their parents and the emperor. Dao Xuan and Fa Lin, standing in the tradition of Huiyuan, argued that monks paid respects internally, and that such internal respect was more important than outward expression. There was so much opposition that Gaozong had to adjust the decree and eventually fully rescind it.\n\nLater, in the middle of the T'ang Dynasty, Han Yu attempted to criticize Buddhism for lack of filial piety in a memorandum, but his protests were suppressed by emperor Xian Zong and not much responded to. Han Yu was nearly executed and banished. His popularity later rose, however. During the 10th-century neo-Confucianist revival, Han Yu's writings were rediscovered and he became a saintly figure. Already in the 9th century, Emperor Wu Zong took Han Yu's arguments to heart and began a campaign to extinguish Buddhism (841–845), citing as one of the justifications that Buddhists would \"abandon their rulers and parents for the company of teachers\". Monastics were defrocked and monasteries were destroyed at a large scale. Although Wu Zong's successor Emperor Xuan Zong (810–859) attempted to recover the damage done, since that time Chinese Buddhism has never completely recovered to its former status. It did continue to uphold a role in state rituals and mourning rites for ancestors, up until late imperial times (13th–20th century). Monasteries were given names like \"Monastery for Honoring Loyalty [to the State]\" and \"Monastery for the Glorification of Filial Piety\".\n\nNeo-Confucianism upheld the principle of \"gradational love\" (pinyin: ren-yi), which argued that good people should develop filial piety for their parents and neighbors first, and only in a later stage develop love for humankind. Although this idea was influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrine, the principle was eventually used as a criticism against Buddhism, which was seen to disregard filial piety in favor of universal kindness.\n\n##### New elements\n\nDuring this period, in response to attacks from Confucianists and Daoists, works written in defense of filial piety in Buddhism reflected a higher level of maturity. For example, in response to Daoist criticism that Buddhism teaches abandonment of one's parents, Fa Lin responded by referring to the Buddhist idea that all living beings might have been our parents, but also our enemies. A wise man therefore practices impartiality and seeks enlightenment. This is the Buddhist way to benefit one's parents and all living beings. The Zen master Qisong (1007 – 1072) criticized Han Yu's writings for not conforming to Confucian doctrine. Also, during this time some Buddhist writers started to argue that the five moral precepts in Buddhism were an expression of filial piety. Although the promotion of the five precepts by Buddhist monks had previously been referred to as a way to support imperial rule and therefore a form of filial piety, Buddhist writers now took this further. In particular, Qisong in his work the Xiaolun equated each of the precepts with a Confucian virtue (known as \"five constants\"), but argued that Buddhist ethics were superior to Confucian ethics, because of the virtue of compassion for all living beings. This is a higher form of filial piety, he argued, because one presumes that all living beings have once been our parents and tries to repay the debt of gratitude to them. Qisong summarized his argument by stating that \"[f]ilial piety is venerated in all religious teachings, but it is especially true in Buddhism\". On a similar note, the Fanwang Jing (Chinese: 梵網經) contained a phrase stating that \"filial piety is called precepts\", which inspired writings by Buddhist scholars on the subject and made the Fanwang Jing very popular.\n\nFurthermore, in order for Confucianists to accept Buddhism more easily, new elements were introduced in the Buddhist doctrine. During the Han dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE), Chinese Buddhist leaders introduced the teaching of the four debts that a person should repay: the moral debt to one's parents, to all living beings, to one's ruler and to the Triple Gem (the Buddha, his teaching and the monastic community). Perhaps inspired by Brahmanical teachings, Chinese Buddhists hoped that edifying people about the four debts would help for Buddhism to become more accepted in China. However, the teaching of the four debts only gained much popularity during the 8th century, when the Mahāyāna Discourse on the Concentration of Mind Ground was translated in Chinese (pinyin: Dacheng Ben Shengxin Di Guan Jing) by Prajñā.\n\nIn the 2nd century CE, another text was composed based on the Kataññnu Sutta (Sanskrit: Katajña Sūtra), called the Fumuen Nanbao Jing, the Discourse on the Difficulties in Repaying Parents' Debts. The text emphasized the compassion parents have towards their children. It later became highly popular in East Asian countries, as it was cited in at least ten Chinese translations of Indian texts. Based on this text, the more popular Fumu Enzhong Jing was composed (Chinese: 父母恩重經, title has similar meaning). In the T'ang Dynasty, the Fumu was depicted in illustrations found in the Dunhuang caves dating back to the T'ang (618–907) and Song dynasties (960–1279). Popular preaching and lectures, mural and cave paintings and stone carvings indicate that it once was very popular among the common people.\n\n#### The role of women\n\nWhen Buddhism developed in China, not only filial piety itself was redefined, but also the role of women in Chinese culture: in texts such as the Yuyenü Jing women, especially daughters-in-law, were described as pious children, a description that had hardly been used for women. This changed all genres of writing from the early medieval period onward. Buddhist doctrine helped fulfill the need for changing post-Han society to deal with daughters-in-law perceived as unruly, by providing a role for her as a filial daughter where indigenous tradition was silent or ambiguous. In edifying stories about virtuous daughters-in-law, women were given a pivotal role in creating harmony in the family, which was unprecedented. However, although daughters' expression of filial piety was basically the same as that of sons, daughters expressed it in more extreme forms, including infanticide or suicide. Often their role only became important in the absence of any sons.\n\nOn a similar note, in 517, the monk Shi Baochang wrote a number of hagiographies of virtuous nuns. In these stories, a new ideal Chinese woman was constructed, who was both filial yet also practiced Buddhist virtues. In Baochang's stories, he depicted women that excelled at both Confucian and Buddhist virtue and practices, by either combining such practices, practicing them at different periods in life (e.g. being a filial daughter and later choosing the nun's life), or by transforming Confucian practices in Buddhist practices. Though the ideal of self-sacrifice agreed with Confucian values, such sacrifice was redefined fitting with Buddhist values. Through these writings, Chinese Buddhists attempted to connect the family with the monastery in a mutually supportive relationship. Inscriptions show that female donors of Buddhist monasteries often dedicated their generosity to their parents, effectively helping to establish a new ideal of female filial piety. Also, the legend of Miaoshan became quite popular, which related how the bodhisattva Guanyin is born as a princess and refuses to marry following her father's wishes. She eventually manages to find salvation for herself and her father, when she heals her father from his illness by sacrificing some of her body parts to be used for medicine. This story is still used by Buddhist women in Singapore to justify their resistance to marriage. Another story that connects filial piety with the bodhisattva figure is that of Dizang's previous lives, both as filial daughters.\n\nBuddhist writings on filial piety influenced Confucianism and Chinese culture at large. In India, where Buddhism originated, women had different social roles than in China, and devotion of the child to the mother was an important virtue. The debt of a child to its mother was seen as more important than the debt to its father, and hurting one's mother was considered more severe than hurting one's father. Although a child was seen to be indebted to both parents, \"[t]he obligation to the father is a call of duty, whereas the obligation to the mother is a pull of love\". In T'ang dynasty China, a number of apocryphal texts were written that spoke of the Buddha's respect for his parents, and the parent–child relationship. The most important of these, the Sūtra of Filial Piety, was written early in the T'ang dynasty. This discourse has the Buddha make the argument that parents bestow kindness to their children in many ways, and put great efforts into ensuring the well-being of their child. The discourse continues by describing how difficult it is to repay one's parents' kindness, but concludes that this can be done, in a Buddhist way. The Fumu Enzhong Jing contained a similar message.\n\nThe Sūtra of Filial Piety was not only a way for Chinese Buddhists to adapt to Confucian ideals, it added its own Buddhist contribution to the concept of filial piety. It added the role of women and poor people in practicing filial piety, and regarded filial piety as a quality to be practiced toward all living beings in this and the next life. Therefore, the sūtra served not only as an adaptation to Confucian values, but also served Buddhist ideals of edification. In their teachings about filial piety, Chinese Buddhists emphasized the great suffering a mother goes through when giving birth and raising a child. They described how difficult it is to repay one's parents, and how many sins the mother often would commit in raising her children. They even went so far that she might even go to hell as a result of the sins she committed. The mother became the primary source of well-being and indebtedness for the son, which was in contrast with pre-Buddhist perspectives. This emphasis on the son's obligation to the mother was a new addition to the Chinese concept of filial piety, as the bond between mother and son became the primary relationship. According to scholar Nomura Shin'ichi, the ideal of the son repaying the gratitude to his mother played an important part in uniting two contrasting ideas in East Asian culture at the time, that is, the concept of feminine impurity on the one hand and the ideal of pure motherhood on the other hand. The son was taught to deal with this indebtedness to his mother by making donations to the local monastery. The monastery would then perform recitation of texts and dedicate the merit to the mother, which would help her. In other words, to be a good son, one also had to be a good Buddhist. Religious studies scholar Alan Cole has attempted to describe the role of women in Chinese Buddhism using a Freudian framework. Cole states that Chinese Buddhist texts depicted women as examples of virtue and sacrifice, but also as lustful and greedy people. However, Cole's monograph about the family in Chinese Buddhism has received mixed reviews and his conclusions are disputed.\n\nChinese Buddhists urged people to stop killing animals for ancestor worship, because this would create only bad karma; rather, people were encouraged to practice devotion and make merit, especially making donations to the Buddhist clergy and in that way to help their mothers from a bad rebirth in hell. The traditional ancestral sacrifices were therefore discouraged by Chinese Buddhists.\n\n### Development in other parts of Asia\n\nThe Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents was introduced and translated in Korea in the Koryo period, in the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Confucian value of filial piety toward parents and emperor became strongly associated with Buddhism. Important in this process was the spread of edifying vernacular songs, in which filial children were encouraged to chant invocations of the Buddha Amitabha for their parents' rebirth in a Pure Land. Further, the songs, meant for Buddhists, urged people to respectfully serve social relationships including parents, in agreement with Confucian social ethics. In an 18th-century shaman song informed by Buddhist principles, a princess called Pari kongju is abandoned by her parents because they want a male heir. She is later saved by the Buddha and raised by others. Despite being abandoned, she later finds medicine for her ill royal parents and cures them out of filial piety.\n\nDuring the Edo period in Japan (1603–1868), large quantities of biographies of filial people were written, as Japanese authors were inspired by Ming dynasty Chinese texts and started writing extensively about filial piety. Some of these works were written by Japanese Buddhist monks, writing about filial Buddhist lay people or monks. Others were written by Chinese Buddhist monks that had moved to Japan as part of initiatives to revitalize Buddhism for Chinese residents in Japan. Bankei Yōtaku (1622–1693) emphasized filial piety in his teachings, considering it part of Buddhahood. In the 18th-century, filial piety was reinterpreted by Japanese writers such as Fórì and Tōrei Enji. Just like in Song Dynasty China, filial piety was not seen as just a virtue to be practiced towards parents, relatives and ancestors, but to all living beings. Since all living beings were seen to have been one's parents from previous lives, the filial role of the individual was more broadly construed, and blood lines were interpreted in a more spiritual sense rather than only blood relations. With this, Tōrei meant to emphasize the role of religion and its lineage. Therefore, in Japan, Buddhists regarded the position of Buddhism on filial piety as either the same as in Confucianism, or as broader and deeper than in Confucianism.\n\nIn South and Southeast Asia, the example of the Buddha maintaining a loving relationship with his family, as depicted in a wide range of narratives, had a profound effect in countries where Theravāda Buddhism took hold. In devotional texts, parents were mentioned in the same list with the Triple Gem as object of devotion. Vernacular narratives warned of the dangers of treating one's parents with disrespect and encouraged the listeners a life-long respect for mothers and mother-like figures. Buddhist rituals marking the period of adulthood of a young male emphasized gratitude and honor to the mother. A common metaphor found in popular Sinhalese verse and religious prose dating from medieval times is that of the Buddha as a caring, loving mother. In another example, vernacular post-canonical Pāli texts in several Theravādin countries mention a previous life of the Buddha in which he first conceived the idea of becoming a Buddha (Sanskrit: manopraṇidhānaya). The story depicts the Buddha-to-be as a filial and grateful son, which the text says is a habit of Buddhas-to-be in general. The mother is part of the reason the Buddha-to-be aspires to become a Buddha in a future life.\n\n## Practice in the present day\n\nThe Discourse on the Difficulty in Paying the Debt to Parents is still popular in East Asia and is often referred to in preaching by monks. The story of the monk Mulian saving his beloved mother is still depicted in Chinese opera to this day, which is especially popular in the countryside. Throughout Asia, the Ghost Festival is still celebrated, though its importance is most felt in countries which have been influenced by both Buddhism and Confucianism.\n\nFilial piety is still an important part of moral education in Buddhist countries. It is an important value in a number of Asian cultures, some of which are based on Buddhism, such as Thailand. In the context of care-giving in Thailand, the parents of a child are compared to an enlightened Buddhist monk from the perspective of the family. The children of a parent are seen to have a relationship of bunkhun with the parents, which is a value that informs their filial piety, and gives it a sense of \"respect, honor, fidelity, devotion, dutifulness, and sacrifice\". Furthermore, there is a custom among Theravādin Buddhists in Asia for male children to temporarily become ordained as a Buddhist monks in order to dedicate the religious merit to their parents. Having passed this rite is regarded by the Thai as a sign of maturity and as an expression of filial piety. in Thailand, women cannot receive full ordination, however, and therefore practice their filial role mostly economically. Even Thai women who emigrate abroad tend to still send money to their aging parents. The custom of sending money to one's parents is common among rural Thai, who often work in big cities to earn money. During the Thai New Year festival, gratitude is widely and publicly expressed as elderly parents are honored by gifts. Among Sri Lankans, commemoration of one's deceased parents is an important part of daily routine of many people. This may be done by a simple daily act of lighting incense. There still is a common expression among Sri Lankans that \"the mother is the Buddha of the home\".\n\nAmong some Buddhists, there is a custom of prostrating to parents. In a 2015 study among British teens who self-identify as Buddhist, 78% of heritage (ethnic) Buddhists indicated they prostrated to their parents, and 13% of convert Buddhist teens.", "revid": "1148435818", "description": "Aspect of Buddhist ethics, story-telling traditions, apologetics and history", "categories": ["Buddhism and society", "Buddhism in East Asia", "Buddhist belief and doctrine", "Buddhist ethics", "Filial piety"]}
{"id": "1114601", "url": null, "title": "Lordship of Argos and Nauplia", "text": "During the late Middle Ages, the two cities of Argos (Greek: Άργος, French: Argues) and Nauplia (modern Nafplio, Ναύπλιο; in the Middle Ages Ἀνάπλι, in French Naples de Romanie) formed a lordship within the Frankish-ruled Morea in southern Greece.\n\nFollowing their conquest in 1211–1212, the cities were granted as a fief to Otto de la Roche, duke of Athens, by Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, prince of Achaea. The lordship remained in the possession of the de la Roche and the Brienne dukes of Athens even after the conquest of the Duchy of Athens by the Catalan Company in 1311, and the Brienne line continued to be recognized as dukes of Athens there. Walter VI of Brienne was largely an absentee lord, spending most of his life in his European domains, except for a failed attempt in 1331 to recover Athens from the Catalans. After his death in 1356 the lordship was inherited by his sixth son, Guy of Enghien. Guy took up residence in Greece, and in 1370–1371 Guy and his brothers launched another, also failed, invasion of the Catalan domains. When Guy died in 1376, the lordship then passed to his daughter Maria of Enghien and her Venetian husband Pietro Cornaro, who would also reside there until his death in 1388. The lordship became a de facto Venetian dependency during this period, and shortly after his death, Maria sold the two cities to Venice, where she retired. Before Venice could take possession, Argos was seized by the Despot Theodore I Palaiologos, while his ally, Nerio I Acciaioli seized Nauplia. The latter city was soon captured by Venice, but Argos remained in Byzantine hands until 1394, when it too was handed over to Venice.\n\n## History\n\nIn the first years of the 13th century, already before the arrival of the Fourth Crusade in the Byzantine Empire, Argos and Nauplia became the centre of an independent domain under the Greek lord Leo Sgouros. Sgouros had exploited the feebleness of imperial authority, and like many other provincial magnates, proceeded to carve out his own principality. From his hometown Nauplia, he seized Argos and Corinth, and attacked Athens, although he failed to take the Acropolis of Athens. By early 1205, Sgouros had advanced into Boeotia and Thessaly, but was forced to abandon his conquests in the face of the Crusaders under Boniface of Montferrat, who advanced south from Thessalonica. Boniface overran Thessaly, Boeotia and Attica, where he installed his followers as barons, and his men invaded the Morea. Sgouros and his men held out in the citadels of Argos, Nauplia and Corinth, however, even after both Boniface and Sgouros died, in 1207 and 1208 respectively. The three fortresses were kept under siege by the Crusaders until the fall of Acrocorinth in 1210, followed by Nauplia and finally by Argos in 1212. The Lord of Athens, Otto de la Roche (r. 1204–1225/34), played a major role in their capture, and as a reward the Prince of Achaea Geoffrey I of Villehardouin (r. 1209 – c. 1229) gave him Argos and Nauplia as a fief, along with an income of 400 hyperpyra from Corinth. The area of Damala (Troezen) in the Argolid was also given to the de la Roche, but soon passed to a cadet branch of the family, which assumed the Barony of Veligosti. Despite the establishment of a Frankish lordship in the southern Argolid, however, the Franks were never numerous in the district. Much as happened elsewhere in the Morea, the local Greek magnates simply submitted to their new Frankish lords, but kept their possessions and Orthodox faith, as well as a typically Byzantine culture, as evidenced by the continued construction of Byzantine-style churches during the period.\n\n### Under the de la Roche family\n\nAfter the death of Otto I, some time between 1225 and 1234, Argos and Nauplia were inherited by his son , while Athens went to Guy I de la Roche (r. 1225/34–1263). In April 1251, Otto II sold his Greek possessions to his brother Guy I in exchange of 15,000 gold hyperpyra and the latter's lands and claims in France.\n\nFollowing the fall of Boniface's Kingdom of Thessalonica to the Greek Despotate of Epirus in 1224, the Principality of Achaea emerged as the most powerful and pre-eminent among the Latin states of southern Greece. Inevitably, the other Latin lordships began to be drawn into the orbit of Achaea, which during the early reign of William II of Villehardouin (r. 1247–1278) reached the height of its power and prosperity. Guy I de la Roche was one of William's feudatories, both for Argos and Nauplia, as well as for his possession of one half of Thebes As a result, he participated in the siege and conquest of the last Greek stronghold in the Morea, the fortress city of Monemvasia (1246–1248), alongside William. At about the same time, William received from the Latin Emperor the suzerainty over the Duchy of Naxos, Negroponte (Euboea), and possibly over the Marquisate of Bodonitsa as well, while the County of Cephalonia also recognized his overlordship. William's hegemonic ambitions worried many of the other Latin rulers and barons, however, resulting in the War of the Euboeote Succession (1256–1258). Guy de la Roche fought against William in the conflict, but it ended in a complete victory for William and Guy's submission to the Prince of Achaea.\n\nFollowing the capture of William II by the Byzantines in the Battle of Pelagonia (1259), in 1261 the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) received a number of fortresses in the southeastern Morea (Monemvasia, Mystras and Grand Magne, possibly also Geraki) as a ransom for the Prince's release. According to George Pachymeres, Argos and Nauplia were also demanded by Palaiologos, but in the event they remained in Latin hands. In the 1270s, with the rise of the Latin renegade Licario, who became a Byzantine admiral, the Argolid suffered repeated raids at the hands of Licario's corsairs.\n\n### Under the Brienne family\n\nIn 1309, Walter I of Brienne succeeded to the Duchy of Athens, but he and many of the most important lords of Frankish Greece fell in the Battle of Halmyros in March 1311 against the Catalan Company. In its aftermath, the Catalans took over the Duchy of Athens and, with the military capacity of the remaining Latin states of Greece crippled, threatened to invade the Morea and take over Argos and Nauplia as well. After briefly holding Athens against the Catalans, Walter's widow, Joanna of Châtillon, went to France to solicit aid from her father, the Constable of France Gaucher V de Châtillon, whom she appointed bailli in her name on 22 November 1312.\n\nOver the next few years, with support from the Angevin Kingdom of Naples and the Papacy, Joanna dispatched men and provisions to the Argolid, which was administered in her name by the local Frankish brothers Walter and Francis of Foucherolles. The steadfast loyalty of the Foucherolles to the Briennist claimants was instrumental in keeping the lordship under their control over the next decade, when the Argolid was ravaged by Catalan raids. The lordship's maintenance necessitated continuous expense, however, which forced Joanna to undertake large debts. When Joanna's son Walter II of Brienne came of age in January 1321, he initially refused to take over his mother's debts. King Philip V of France adjudicated between them and decided that Walter had to pay off the sum of 7,000 livres tournois and his mother the rest.\n\nThe Briennist claims were upheld by Pope Clement V and Pope John XXII, who took a firm stance against the Catalan Company: the Catalans were excommunicated, their attacks on fellow Christians excoriated, and attacks on them by the other Latin powers of Greece encouraged. Clement sought the intercession of King James II of Aragon to get the Catalans to abandon Athens, but the King's appeal to that effect was ignored. Clement further ordered the Knights Hospitaller to provide three or four galleys and men to defend the Brienne lands, and in 1314 commanded all Templar properties in the Duchy of Athens to be placed under the control of Gaucher V de Châtillon and to be used against the Catalans. The Briennist cause was undermined, however, by the persistent refusal of the Republic of Venice to support anti-Catalan ventures. Although the Venetians were often at odds with the Catalans over their claims to various fiefs in Euboea, in 1319 an accord was reached that established generally peaceful relations between the two over the next few decades.\n\nAfter 1321, Walter II repeatedly announced his intention to campaign in Greece and recover the Duchy of Athens, but financial constraints and his obligations to the King of Naples kept him occupied in Italy. In 1328, he even briefly concluded a truce with the Catalans. Thus it was not until 1330 that a serious effort got under way. In June 1330, Pope John XXII issued a crusading bull for Walter, and ordered prelates in Italy and Greece to preach for a crusade against the Catalans; shortly after, King Robert of Naples also gave the crusade his support, and allowed his feudatories to join it. The Venetians, on the other hand, renewed their treaty with the Catalans in April 1331. Sailing from Brindisi in August, Walter attacked first the Latin County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos, and the Greek Despotate of Epirus, forcing them to recognize the overlordship of King Robert. From there he proceeded to invade the Duchy of Athens through northern Boeotia, but his campaign was a failure as the Catalans avoided battle and withdrew behind the walls of Thebes and Athens. Walter had neither the troops to overwhelm the Catalans nor the money to sustain a prolonged war of sieges and attrition, and found no support among the native Greek population. By summer 1332, it was clear that the expedition had failed, and Walter returned to Brindisi. He had captured the island of Leucas and Vonitsa for himself and briefly restored Angevin suzerainty over western Greece, but the main objective had eluded him, and he had ended up with even more crippling debts. The effect of his expedition on Argos and Nauplia is unclear; he may not even have visited the territory during his stay in Greece.\n\nWalter did not abandon his plans for regaining his inheritance in Greece, and retained papal support, which materialized in repeated excommunications of the Catalans. With the Venetians firmly opposed to rendering any help, however, Walter's plans could not be fulfilled. After further ventures and adventures in Italy and France, Walter was killed at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. During this time, the Argolid suffered a raid by the Aydinid Turks under Umur Bey in 1332, which coincided with a prolonged famine that required food to be imported from Italy. At the same time, Argos and Nauplia also came within reach of the expanding Byzantine province in the Morea, which by c. 1320 had expanded from the southeast to include most of Arcadia and Cynuria. The increased threat to the lordship prompted Walter II to construct two new castles, which first appear in his will of 1347: at Kiveri (Chamires in French) across the Argolic Gulf from Nauplia and Thermisi (Trémis) further east along the coast, across Hydra Island. Despite the depredations from raids, the Brienne fief was relatively prosperous: the area was fertile and supported agriculture, pastures for livestock, and vineyards, while the Argolic Gulf provided fisheries and salt flats near Thermisi. According to documents from later in the 14th century, carobs, raisins, resin and acorn dyes, as well as cotton and linen cloth, were exported.\n\n### Under the Enghien family\n\nWalter II died without direct heirs, as his only son had died as a child during his 1331 campaign. He was succeeded in his titles and claims by his sister Isabella of Brienne and her husband Walter of Enghien, but these were immediately devolved on their numerous children. While the couple's second (and eldest surviving) son, Sohier of Enghien, received the County of Brienne and the rights to Athens, it was a younger son, Engelbert, who received Argos and Nauplia, as well as Walter's lands in Cyprus. Unwilling to undertake the considerable burden of defending the Greek fiefs, Engelbert exchanged them with his brother Guy, who had originally received the fief of Ramerupt in France. Guy thus became the new \"Lord of Argos, Nauplia and Kiveri\".\n\nGuy replaced Nicholas of Foucherolles, who had served as bailli during the last decade of Walter's reign, with two members of a branch of the Medici family who had settled in Greece: Piere Tantenes (\"of Athens\"), also known as \"Yatro\" (Greek for \"physician\", a hellenization of \"Medici\") in 1357–1360 and Arardo or Averardo de Medici in 1360–1363/4. Their rule proved unpopular, however, and in 1360 the local populace rebelled—according to historian Thanos Kondylis, perhaps with the encouragement of the Foucherolles—when Averardo de Medici increased taxation on figs and raisins, and blockaded Guy's soldiers in their castles. The situation was resolved when Guy in person came and settled in the lordship—he is attested at Nauplia in December 1364, where he issued an act in favour of Jacomo, Lord of Tzoya and a son-in-law of Nicholas of Foucherolles. Guy strengthened his ties to the lordship by marrying into the local aristocracy. The identity of his wife is unclear: the early 15th-century Chronographia regum francorum records that she was the daughter of the Baron of Arcadia, probably Erard III le Maure, while the 17th-century Flemish historian Vredius records that she was a Greek named Bonne or Maria. The 19th-century historian of Frankish Greece, Karl Hopf, hypothesized that Bonne was a daughter of Nicholas of Foucherolles, but without any evidence; nevertheless, his version is commonly accepted in modern literature.\n\nGuy's reign was troubled by the threat of the Ottoman Turks, against whom, according to the Chronographia regum francorum, he proved a courageous leader. To strengthen the security of his domains, on 22 July 1362, Guy became a Venetian citizen, a development that heralded active Venetian involvement in the affairs of the area. Two years later, soon after his arrival in the Morea, he was involved in the civil war over possession of the Principality of Achaea between Philip II of Taranto and Maria of Bourbon, widow of Philip's older brother Robert, who died in September 1364 without a direct heir. Guy, along with the Despot of the Morea Manuel Kantakouzenos (r. 1349–1380), supported Maria and her son Hugh of Lusignan until 1370, when the latter sold their claims to Philip.\n\nNow the undisputed Prince of Achaea, Philip sent to the Morea as his bailli Guy's brother Louis, Count of Conversano. By this time, the Catalans of Athens had entered a period of decline and civil war, which only somewhat subsided with the appointment of Matthew of Peralta as vicar-general in 1370. The Enghiens saw a perfect opportunity to reclaim their ancestral inheritance: on 28 March 1370 a third brother, John of Enghien, Count of Lecce, received permission from Queen Joanna I of Naples to gather 1,000 foot and 500 horse for service in Greece, and began arranging for ships to ferry them along the southeastern coasts of Italy. Guy also arranged a truce with the Despot of the Morea so as to concentrate his forces against the Catalans. As Venetian citizens, the Enghiens also approached Venice for aid, which was politely but firmly declined, first in April 1370, and again in February 1371. Undeterred, the Enghiens launched an invasion of Attica in spring 1371, but the campaign failed as the Acropolis resisted and Louis fell ill. The Enghiens retreated, and Guy concluded a truce with the Catalans in August; a marriage between his daughter and heir Maria and Joan de Llúria (probably the son of the former Catalan vicar-general Roger de Llúria) was initially stipulated in the agreement, but never actually took place. This was to be the last effort by the claimants, for troubles in Italy occupied Guy's brothers, and the looming Ottoman threat forced the Papacy to shift to a policy of supporting the Catalans. Any prospects to regain the Athenian duchy were further impeded by the capture of Megara by the ambitious Nerio I Acciaioli in 1374/75, which barred the land route into Attica to the Enghiens. Guy of Engien died shortly after October 1376. As his daughter Maria was underage and unmarried, the Lordship was governed by his brother Louis as her guardian. Louis arranged Maria's marriage to the Venetian Pietro Cornaro in May 1377. Louis seems to have launched some raids against the Catalans in 1377, but this was overshadowed by the fall of the Duchy of Athens to the Navarrese Company in 1379.\n\n### Takeover by Venice\n\nThe Cornaro family had been established in Latin Greece for some time, acting both as the Republic of Venice's officials and on their own account, and Pietro's father Federico was accounted the richest man in Venice in 1379. The marriage of Maria of Enghien and Pietro Cornaro coincided with an increasing Venetian interest in the region, as the Republic faced new challenges and opportunities in the Aegean with the rise of the Ottomans. Possession of Nauplia would complete Venice's control of the shores of the Morea, which in turn controlled the routes from the Adriatic to the eastern Mediterranean; while Nauplia itself was valuable as an intermediate stop for the Black Sea commercial routes as well. Maria of Enghien and Pietro Cornaro were both still young when they became lords of Argos and Nauplia. In the first years of their reign, they resided in Venice, and Pietro's father Federico acted on their behalf, securing permissions from the Venetian government to send supplies or arm a galley to defend the lordship. Following his father's death in 1382, Pietro secured permission by the Venetian government to go to Nauplia himself; by this time, in Anthony Luttrell's words, \"the [Venetian] senate considered these places more or less as Venetian possessions\".\n\nWhen Pietro Cornaro died in 1388, Maria, unable to defend her possessions, sold them to Venice on 12 December in exchange for an annual subsidy of 700 ducats. Before the Venetians could arrive to take over the two towns, however, the Byzantine Despot of the Morea Theodore I Palaiologos (r. 1383–1407), and his ally and father-in-law Nerio I Acciaioli seized them with the aid of an Ottoman army under Evrenos. Although the Venetians were quickly able to oust Nerio from Nauplia, Argos, Kiveri and Thermisi remained in Theodore's hands until 11 June 1394, when he ceded them to Venice. After Maria's death in 1393, her uncle Engelbert—who had originally received the lordship in 1356—claimed her inheritance, but when the Venetians provided the document of sale, and suggested that they would be willing to cede the castles if he could pay for their defence and reimburse Venice for the costs of their purchase and the ongoing siege of Argos, he dropped his claim. Argos remained in Venetian hands until conquered by the Ottomans at the outbreak of the First Ottoman–Venetian War in 1463, while of all Venetian territories in the Morea, Nauplia persisted longest, and was surrendered to the Ottomans in 1540 after the conclusion of the Third Ottoman–Venetian War.\n\n## Lords of Argos and Nauplia\n\n- Otto I de la Roche (1212 – before 1234) as Lord of Athens\n- Otto II de la Roche (before 1234 – 1251)\n- Guy I de la Roche (1251–1263) as Duke of Athens\n- John I de la Roche (1263–1280) as Duke of Athens\n- William de la Roche (1280–1287) as Duke of Athens\n- Guy II de la Roche (1287–1308) as Duke of Athens\n- Walter I of Brienne (1308–1311) as Duke of Athens\n- Walter II of Brienne (1311–1356) as titular Duke of Athens\n- Guy III of Enghien (1356–1376)\n- Louis of Enghien (1376–1377) as steward for:\n- Maria of Enghien (1377–1388) with her husband Pietro Cornaro (1377–1388)\n- Sold to Venice in 1388, Argos seized and held by the Despotate of the Morea until 1394", "revid": "1145361034", "description": "Southern Greek fiefdom (1212–1388)", "categories": ["History of Argos, Peloponnese", "History of Nafplion", "Medieval Argolis", "Principality of Achaea", "States and territories disestablished in 1388", "States and territories established in 1212", "States of Frankish and Latin Greece"]}
{"id": "32613525", "url": null, "title": "SMS Geier", "text": "SMS Geier (\"His Majesty's Ship Vulture\") was an unprotected cruiser of the Bussard class built for the German Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine). She was laid down in 1893 at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven, launched in October 1894, and commissioned into the fleet a year later in October 1895. Designed for service in Germany's overseas colonies, the ship required the comparatively heavy armament of eight 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/35 guns and a long cruising radius. She had a top speed of 15.5 kn (28.7 km/h; 17.8 mph).\n\nGeier spent the majority of her career on foreign stations, including tours in the Americas, East Asia, and Africa. In 1897, she was deployed to the Caribbean, and during the Spanish–American War the following year, she ferried Europeans out of the war zone to Mexico by crossing the blockade lines around Cuban ports. After being transferred to the western coast of the Americas in 1899, Geier was reassigned to China to help suppress the Boxer Uprising in 1900. She remained in East Asian waters through 1905 before being recalled to Germany for major repairs. In 1911, the ship was assigned to the colony in German East Africa, though she served little time in the area, as the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 required German warships in the Mediterranean to safeguard German interests. Geier returned to East Africa in early 1914, but in June that month, the new light cruiser Königsberg arrived, and Geier headed to China for second deployment there.\n\nGeier was still en route to the German base in Qingdao when war broke out in Europe in August 1914. Slipping out of still-neutral British Singapore days before Britain declared war on Germany, she crossed the central Pacific in an attempt to link up with Maximilian von Spee's East Asia Squadron. While at sea, she captured one British freighter, but did not sink her. In need of engine repairs and coal, Geier put into the neutral United States port at Honolulu, Hawaii, in October 1914, where she was eventually interned. After the American entrance into the war in April 1917, the US Navy seized Geier, commissioned her as USS Schurz, and placed her on convoy duty. She was ultimately sunk following a collision with a freighter off the coast of North Carolina, with one man killed and twelve injured. She rests at a depth of 115 feet (35 m) and is a popular scuba diving site.\n\n## Design\n\nThrough the 1870s and early 1880s, Germany built two types of cruising vessels: small, fast avisos suitable for service as fleet scouts and larger, long-ranged screw corvettes capable of patrolling the German colonial empire. A pair of new cruisers was authorized under the 1886–1887 fiscal year, intended for the latter purpose. General Leo von Caprivi, the Chief of the Imperial Admiralty, sought to modernize Germany's cruiser force. The first step in the program, the two Schwalbe-classs unprotected cruisers, provided the basis for the larger Bussard class.\n\nGeier was 83.9 meters (275 ft 3 in) long overall and had a beam of 10.6 m (34 ft 9 in) and a draft of 4.74 m (15 ft 7 in) forward. She displaced 1,608 t (1,583 long tons) normally and up to 1,918 t (1,888 long tons; 2,114 short tons) at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines that drove a pair of screw propellers. Steam was provided by four coal-fired cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were ducted into a single funnel. These provided a top speed of 15.5 knots (28.7 km/h; 17.8 mph) from 2,800 metric horsepower (2,800 ihp), and a range of approximately 3,610 nautical miles (6,690 km; 4,150 mi) at 9 kn (17 km/h; 10 mph). She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men.\n\nThe ship was armed with a main battery of eight 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/35 quick-firing (QF) guns in single pedestal mounts, supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total. They had a range of 10,800 m (35,400 ft). Two guns were placed side by side forward, two on each broadside, and two side by side aft. The gun armament was rounded out by five 3.7 cm (1.5 in) Hotchkiss revolver cannon for defense against torpedo boats. She was also equipped with two 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes, both of which were mounted on the deck.\n\n## Service history\n\nGeier was ordered under the contract name \"F\" and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1893. She was launched on 18 October 1894, after which fitting-out work commenced. During her launching ceremony, Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral) Victor Valois christened the ship. She was commissioned into the German Navy on 24 October 1895 for sea trials. Her trials were completed on 21 January 1896, and she was decommissioned temporarily in Kiel. During construction, her design was slightly modified based on experience from her sister ships that had already completed their sea trials. Geier's displacement was increased slightly by around 50 t (49 long tons; 55 short tons) compared to the other ships of the class and her stern was modified.\n\n### First deployment abroad\n\nGeier was recommissioned on 1 December 1897 for her first deployment abroad, to the West Indies. Until then, Germany had relied on school ships to protect German nationals in the region. Rising tensions in Haiti prompted the Admiralstab (Admiralty Staff) to send Geier to the Caribbean, replacing the old ironclad Oldenburg that had been scheduled to deploy there. The ironclad König Wilhelm, which had recently been rebuilt into an armored cruiser, was sent to strengthen the German naval contingent. Geier departed Kiel on 9 December and arrived in Charlotte Amalie in the Danish West Indies on 3 January 1898, where she rendezvoused with the school ships Charlotte and Stein. Charlotte and Stein had already taken care of the situation in Haiti, so Geier went to Santiago de Cuba, where she stayed from 24 March to 6 April. She then received an order to visit Brazilian and Argentinian ports; stops included Pernambuco in Brazil (16–20 April) and Bahía Blanca in Argentina (23 April). While she was in the latter port, her tour of South America was cut short due to the outbreak of the Spanish–American War.\n\nOn 6 May she arrived in Saint Thomas. She thereafter made trips to Santiago de Cuba and San Juan. While in San Juan on 13–14 May, Geier witnessed an American squadron under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson bombard the city. The US government permitted Geier to cross the blockade line outside Havana to evacuate twenty civilians of various nationalities and take them to Veracruz in Mexico, arriving on the 29th. There, the governor of the city and the artillery officer from the training ship Zaragoza visited Geier for some practice torpedo launches. While Geier was in Mexico, the German ambassador invited her commander and 27 men to visit Mexico City, where they were received by President Porfirio Díaz. Geier thereafter returned to Cuba. On 16 June, the ship called on the port of Cienfuegos in Cuba. She passed through the American blockade of Santiago de Cuba twice, on 22–29 June and 1–4 August.\n\nAfter the war ended, Geier visited New Orleans on 14 October, departing eleven days later for the Caribbean. She then resumed her tour of South America that had been interrupted by the war. She typically stopped in ports where significant numbers of Germans had emigrated. While in Buenos Aires, she received an order to proceed to the west coast of the continent. She transited the Straits of Magellan on 20–23 February 1899 and made stops in Valparaiso, Chile, Callao, Peru, and Panama. From 11 to 17 May, she stopped in Puerto San José, Guatemala, where she met a British cruiser; the two ships were sent there to settle financial disputes with the Guatemalan government. Geier's tour continued, with stops in Corinto, Nicaragua, Guayaquil, Ecuador, and Puntarenas, Costa Rica. While in Corinto, she received orders to proceed further north, to the western coast of the United States and Canada. She stopped in Acapulco before arriving in San Francisco on 14 August, where she underwent a boiler overhaul. On 18 September, she departed San Francisco bound for Vancouver, stopping in Esquimalt en route. On 18 October, she left Vancouver and began her return voyage south. She visited Chilean harbors in January and February 1900, including Puerto Montt on 14 February, before turning back north, as she had been assigned to the newly created West American station.\n\nWhile in Acapulco on 9 July, Geier was ordered to cross the Pacific to join the forces of the Eight Nation Alliance fighting the Boxer Uprising in Qing China. She left port on 11 July for Yokohama, Japan, by way of Honolulu, Hawaii. She arrived in Chefoo on 29 August, where she joined the ships of the East Asia Squadron. Geier first patrolled the Bohai Sea before docking in Qingdao at the German-held Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory in October. On 28 October, she steamed to Shanghai, where she remained until February 1901. Geier then steamed up the Yangtze to Chungking, where she replaced her sister ship Bussard. On 5 April, Geier returned to Qingdao; on the 29th, she was transferred to the coast of central China, where she replaced another sister, Seeadler. Geier returned to Qingdao on 18 July, and began a tour of Korean and Japanese ports four days later with the flagship of the East Asia Squadron, Fürst Bismarck. The next twelve months were filled with cruises in the region.\n\nOn 15 October 1902, Geier began a long cruise south to the Dutch East Indies, which also included a stop in Singapore. The ship entered the dry dock in Nagasaki, Japan, for a major overhaul on 2 March 1903, which lasted until 26 April. At this time, Geier was formally assigned to the East Asia Squadron. The ship resumed its normal routine of cruises in East Asian waters with stops in various ports. In February 1904, the Russo-Japanese War broke out; from April to August, Geier was in Chemulpo, which had been captured by the Japanese. By 1905, the ship was suffering wear, having spent over seven years on foreign stations. The repair facilities in Qingdao were insufficient for the amount of work that needed to be done, and so Geier was ordered to return to Germany. She left Qingdao on 14 January and arrived in Kiel on 16 March, where she was decommissioned for a significant period of repair work. Her three-masted schooner barque rig was reduced to a two-masted topsail schooner rig.\n\n### Second overseas deployment\n\nIn early 1911, Geier was recommissioned to replace the unprotected cruiser Sperber on the East African Station, based in German East Africa. On 2 May she left Danzig, arriving in Kiel the following day. There, she was equipped for the deployment abroad. The ship left Kiel on 8 May and arrived in Dar es Salaam on 9 July, where she joined Seeadler. She cruised the colony's coast, but at the end of September she was ordered to the Mediterranean Sea, as the Italo-Turkish War had broken out on the 29th. At the time, the only German warship in the Mediterranean was the old gunboat Loreley, the station ship in Constantinople; this was a result of the heightened tensions in Europe following the Agadir Crisis in July, as most German warships in European waters had been recalled to Germany.\n\nGeier's departure for the Mediterranean was delayed by a coal fire in Dar es Salaam, which required her crew to put out. She left East Africa on 2 October and arrived in Piraeus, Greece, on 16 October, where she remained until January 1912. She was then formally assigned to the Mediterranean Division, along with the recently arrived battlecruiser Goeben. From mid-April to mid-July, she made trips to provide humanitarian assistance in Libya, Palestine, and the Red Sea. These were interrupted by the arrival of Kaiser Wilhelm II's yacht Hohenzollern; the two ships cruised to the island of Corfu in early May. On 17 July, Geier went to Trieste in Austria-Hungary for an overhaul that lasted until 30 September. She thereafter went on a cruise of the eastern Mediterranean and visited several ports.\n\nShe was loading coal in Haifa on 31 January 1913 when a coal dust explosion killed two crew members. While cruising Turkish waters in August, she was ordered to replace the light cruiser Breslau in the international naval blockade of Montenegro during the Second Balkan War. She arrived off the mouth of the Bojana River in Montenegro on 11 August and patrolled it until 14 October, when she was released for a major overhaul in Triest. After repairs were completed on 4 January 1914, she was ordered to return to the East Africa Station. She arrived there on 22 February and conducted a survey of the harbor at Tanga. On 6 May, the ship was formally reclassified as a gunboat. The light cruiser Königsberg arrived on 5 June to replace Geier, which was then reassigned to the South Seas Station, where she would in turn replace her sister Condor.\n\n### World War I\n\nGeier's captain learned of the rising tensions in Europe following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria while en route to the Pacific. The ship coaled in Singapore on 25–29 July, departing the day after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Geier thereafter proceeded southeast through the Gaspar Strait, rather than north to Qingdao, where he would be expected to go. While off Batavia on 1 August, Geier received the order from Maximilian von Spee, the commander of the East Asia Squadron, to join him at Yap. On 3. August, she received word of the German mobilization and the order to begin cruiser warfare. She coaled at Jampea from the steamer Elmshorn of the Deutsch-Australische Dampfschiffs-Gesellschaft (DADG) on 6 August before steaming north through the Buton Strait. Off Celebes she rendezvoused with the DADG steamer Bochum, which acted as her collier.\n\nGeier's crew made temporary repairs to the ship's engines and boilers before proceeding north to the Palau Islands. Bochum took Geier under tow to conserve coal. On 20 August, she managed to contact the cruiser Emden, which was detached from the East Asia Squadron and operating as a commerce raider. Emden instructed Geier to rendezvous at the island of Anguar, but she was unable to reach the island before Emden departed. Nevertheless, the two ships met at sea the following day; one of Geier's cutters took her commander, Lieutenant Commander Curt Graßhoff, aboard Emden to meet with her captain. Emden then departed for the Molucca Strait, while Geier proceeded to Anguar. After arriving, Geier coaled from the HAPAG steamer Tsingtau. Graßhoff intended to rendezvous with the East Asia Squadron in the central Pacific, and proceeded through the Bismarck Archipelago before turning north to Kusaie. There, on 4 September, Geier captured the British freighter Southport and disabled the ship's engines before departing. The freighter's crew repaired the damage, however, and Southport made for Australia where she reported the German gunboat's presence.\n\nOn 11 September, Geier arrived in Majuro, though the East Asia Squadron had already departed the island on 30 August. By this time, the ship's engines were in such bad shape that she would have been unable to reach Qingdao, though the point was moot, as Japanese forces had already besieged the port. In addition, opportunities for commerce raiding in the area were slim, and there were no suitably fast steamers available to arm as auxiliary cruisers. Graßhoff therefore decided to follow the East Asia Squadron to South America, despite the slow speed of his ship, which was reduced to 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). The Norddeutscher Lloyd (NDL) steamer Locksun towed Geier to the Marshall Islands, where further repairs were made from 17 to 20 September. By this time, the ship's coal and water supplies were so low that the ship would not be able to continue past Hawaii. She arrived in Honolulu on 15 October, where the then-neutral Americans requested that Geier be interned. Two Japanese ships—the battleship Hizen and the armored cruiser Asama—had been patrolling in the area. Upon learning of the arrival of Geier, the two ships remained just outside the three mile limit to await Geier's departure. Graßhoff was able to delay the internment request until 7 November owing to damage to the ship and poor weather. The following day, the US Navy interned Geier.\n\n### Service as USS Schurz\n\nThe United States entered the war on the side of the Allies on 6 April 1917. The US Navy seized Geier and refitted her for service in the Navy as a gunboat. The ship was renamed USS Schurz on 9 June, and commissioned on 15 September 1917, under the command of Commander Arthur Crenshaw. Schurz departed Pearl Harbor on 31 October and escorted Submarine Division 3 to San Diego. Arriving on 12 November, she continued on with the submarines K-3, K-4, K-7, and K-8, in early December. At the end of the month, the convoy transited the Panama Canal and proceeded to Honduras. On 4 January 1918, Schurz was relieved of escort duty. She carried the American consul from Puerto Cortes to Omao and back, after which she sailed for Key West. From Florida, she was transferred to New Orleans and then sailed for Charleston, South Carolina on 1 February where she entered dry dock for periodic maintenance.\n\nAssigned to the American Patrol Detachment, Schurz departed Charleston toward the end of April and, for the next two months, conducted patrols and performed escort duty and towing missions along the east coast and in the Caribbean. On 19 June, she departed New York for Key West. At 04:44 on the 21st, southwest of Cape Lookout lightship, she was rammed by the merchant ship Florida. The ship hit Schurz on the starboard side, crumpling that wing of the bridge, penetrating the well and berth deck about 12 feet, and cutting through bunker no. 3 to the forward fire room. One of Schurz's crewmen was killed instantly; twelve others were injured. Schurz was abandoned and sank three hours later. The ship was struck from the Navy list on 26 August 1918.\n\n## Wreck\n\nThe wreckage rests at a depth of 115 feet (35 m) with the top of the wreck situated at 95 feet (29 m). In 2000, the ship was the subject of a Phase II archaeological investigation headed by East Carolina University. The wreck is protected by sovereign immunity and it is therefore illegal to recover artifacts from the site without permission. In 2013, Scuba Diving magazine named USS Schurz as one of the top ten wreck dives in North Carolina.", "revid": "1161236982", "description": "Unprotected cruiser of the German Imperial Navy", "categories": ["1894 ships", "Bussard-class cruisers", "Gunboats of the United States Navy", "Maritime incidents in 1918", "Ships built in Wilhelmshaven", "Ships sunk in collisions", "Shipwrecks of the Carolina coast", "Top 10 dive sites", "World War I cruisers of Germany", "World War I patrol vessels of the United States"]}
{"id": "75829", "url": null, "title": "Johnson County War", "text": "The Johnson County War, also known as the War on Powder River and the Wyoming Range War, was a range conflict that took place in Johnson County, Wyoming from 1889 to 1893. The conflict began when cattle companies started ruthlessly persecuting alleged rustlers in the area, many of whom were settlers who competed with them for livestock, land and water rights. As violence swelled between the large established ranchers and the smaller settlers in the state, it culminated in the Powder River Country when the former hired gunmen to invade the county. The gunmen's initial incursion in the territory alerted the small farmers and ranchers, as well as the state lawmen, and they formed a posse of 200 men that led to a grueling stand-off. The siege ended when the United States Cavalry on the orders of President Benjamin Harrison relieved the two forces, although further fighting persisted in the following months.\n\nThe events have since become a highly mythologized and symbolic story of the Wild West and over the years variations of the story have come to include some of its most famous historical figures. In addition to being one of the best-known range wars of the American frontier, its themes, especially class warfare, served as a basis for numerous popular novels, films and television shows in the Western genre.\n\n## Background\n\nConflict over land was a common occurrence in the development of the American West, but was particularly prevalent during the late 19th century, when large portions of the West were being settled by new immigrants for the first time through the Homestead Acts. It is a period that one historian, Richard Maxwell Brown, has called the \"Western Civil War of Incorporation\", of which the Johnson County War was a part.\n\nIn the early days of Wyoming most of the land was in public domain, which was open to stock raising as an open range and farmlands for homesteading. Large numbers of cattle were turned loose on the open range by large ranches. Each spring, round-ups were held to separate the cattle belonging to different ranches. Before a round-up, an orphan or stray calf was sometimes surreptitiously branded, which was the common way to identify the cow's owners. Lands and water rights were usually distributed to whoever settled the property first, and farmers and ranchers had to respect these boundaries (the doctrine was known as Prior Appropriation). However, as more and more homesteaders called \"grangers\" moved into Wyoming, competition for land and water soon enveloped the state, and the cattle companies reacted by monopolizing large areas of the open range to prevent homesteaders from using it.\n\nThe often uneasy relationship between the larger, wealthier ranches and smaller ranch settlers became steadily worse after the harsh winter of 1886–1887, when a series of blizzards and temperatures of –50 to –40 °F (–45 to –40 °C) followed by an extremely hot and dry summer, ravaged the frontier. Thousands of cattle were lost in the calamity. To protect what remained, the cattle companies reacted with a catch-all allegation of rustling against their competition. Hostilities worsened when the Wyoming legislature passed the Maverick Act, which stated that all unbranded cattle in the open range automatically belonged to the cattlemen's association. The cattlemen also held a firm grip on Wyoming's stock interests by limiting the number of small ranchers that could participate, including the annual round-ups. They also forbade their employees from owning cattle for fear of additional competition, and threatened anyone they suspected to be rustlers.\n\n### Wyoming Stock Growers Association\n\nMany of the large ranching outfits in Wyoming were organized as the Wyoming Stock Growers Association (the WSGA) and gathered socially at the Cheyenne Club in Cheyenne, Wyoming. Comprising some of the state's wealthiest and most influential residents, the organization held a great deal of political sway in the state and region. The WSGA organized the cattle industry by scheduling roundups and cattle shipments. The WSGA also employed an agency of detectives to investigate cases of cattle theft from its members' holdings. Grangers and rustlers often intermixed with one another in the community, making it more difficult for the detectives to differentiate the criminals and the innocent homesteaders.\n\nRustling in the local area was likely increasing due to the harsh grazing conditions, and the illegal exploits of organized groups of rustlers were becoming well publicized in the late 1880s. Well-armed outfits of horse and cattle rustlers roamed across various portions of Wyoming and Montana, with Montana vigilantes such as the infamous Stuart's Stranglers declaring \"War on the Rustlers\" in 1884. Bandits taking refuge in the infamous hideout known as the Hole-in-the-Wall were also preying upon the herds. Frank M. Canton, Sheriff of Johnson County in the early 1880s and better known as a detective for the WSGA, was a prominent figure in eliminating these supposed criminals from Wyoming. Before the events in Johnson County, Canton had already developed a reputation as a lethal gunman. At a young age he had worked as a cowboy in Texas, and in 1871 started a career in robbery and cattle rustling, as well as killing a Buffalo Soldier on October 10, 1874. Historian Harry Sinclair Drago described Canton as a \"merciless, congenital, emotionless killer. For pay, he murdered eight—very likely ten—men.\"\n\n## War\n\n### Early killings\n\nOn July 20, 1889, a range detective from the Association named George Henderson accused Ella Watson, a local rancher, of stealing cattle from a fellow rancher by the name of Albert John Bothwell. The cattlemen sent riders to seize Ella before capturing her husband Jim Averell as well. Both of them were subsequently hanged from a tree. This gruesome act was one of the rare cases in the Old West in which a woman was lynched, an event that appalled many of the local residents and paved the way for future events in the war. County Sheriff Frank Hadsell arrested six men for the lynching and a trial date was set. However, before the trial, threats were sent to the witnesses who would testify against the aggressors. One of those witnesses was young Gene Crowder, who mysteriously disappeared under unknown circumstances before the trial. Another, Jim's nephew and foreman Frank Buchanan, disappeared from the county as well after a shoot-out with unknown suspects, and was presumed to be hiding or murdered. Ralph Cole, another nephew of Averell's, died on the day of the trial from poisoning.\n\nEnemies of the Association soon fought back. George Henderson, the range detective who had accused Ella Watson, was murdered near Sweetwater Creek in October 1890. The cattle barons soon tightened their control and hunted down those who tried to oppose them. The double lynching of the Averells was followed by the lynching of Tom Waggoner, a horse trader from Newcastle, in June 1891. A friend of Waggoner named Jimmy the Butcher, who was once arrested for rustling from the Standard Cattle Company, was also murdered. Range detective Tom Smith killed a suspected rustler, and when he was indicted for murder, political connections of the Association secured his release. These killings would precipitate more hostilities and violence in the years to come.\n\nAfter the lynchings of their prominent competitors, the WSGA's control over the range was undisputed, until a group of smaller ranchers formed the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers' Association (NWFSGA) to compete with the WSGA, led by a local cowboy named Nate Champion. Upon hearing this, the WSGA immediately viewed the new association as a threat to their hold on the stock interests. The WSGA then blacklisted members of the NWFSGA from the round-ups in order to stop their operations. However, the latter refused the orders to disband and instead publicly announced their plans to hold their own round-up in the spring of 1892.\n\nSoon, the prominent cattlemen sent out an assassination squad to kill Nate Champion on the morning of November 1, 1891. Champion and another man named Ross Gilbertson were sleeping in a cabin in Middle Fork of Powder River when a group of armed men went inside. Two of them went in while another stood by outside. Champion was immediately awakened by the intrusion, and as the gunmen pointed their weapons at him, Champion reached for his own pistol hidden under a pillow and a shootout commenced. Champion successfully shot two of the gunmen, mortally wounding and killing asassin Billy Lykins. The rest of the assassination squad subsequently fled. Champion was left uninjured except for some facial powder burns from the gunfight. In a subsequent investigation of the attack, the names of those involved were leaked to two ranchers: John A. Tisdale and Orley \"Ranger\" Jones. However, both men were ambushed while they were riding, which outraged many of the small ranchers and farmers in the county.\n\n### Invaders\n\nThe WSGA, led by Frank Wolcott (WSGA Member and large North Platte rancher), hired gunmen with the intention of eliminating alleged rustlers in Johnson County and breaking up the NWFSGA. By that time, prominent names in Wyoming started taking sides. Acting Governor Amos W. Barber supported the cattlemen, who blamed the small ranchers and homesteaders for the criminal activity in the state. Former cowboy, Indian War veteran, and sheriff of Buffalo (the county seat of Johnson County), William \"Red\" Angus, supported the homesteaders, who believed that the cattle barons were abusing the homesteaders.\n\nIn March 1892, the cattlemen sent agents to Texas from Cheyenne and Idaho to recruit gunmen and finally carry out their plans for exterminating the homesteaders. The cattle barons had always used hired guns from Texas to take out suspected rustlers and scare away the nesters in Wyoming. One particular act of violence perpetrated by the Texans was recounted by cowboy John J. Baker, where the Texans ambushed and killed nine trappers whom they mistook for rustlers in Big Dry Creek, Wyoming. They received a \\$450 bonus for the slaughter.\n\nSoon, 23 gunmen from Paris, Texas and 4 cattle detectives from the WSGA were hired, as well as Wyoming dignitaries who also joined the expedition. State Senator Bob Tisdale, state water commissioner W. J. Clarke, as well as William C. Irvine and Hubert Teshemacher, who had both been instrumental in organizing Wyoming's statehood four years earlier, also joined the band. They were accompanied by surgeon Charles Bingham Penrose as well as Ed Towse, a reporter for the Cheyenne Sun, and a newspaper reporter for the Chicago Herald, Sam T. Clover, whose lurid first-hand accounts later appeared in eastern newspapers. A total expedition of 50 men was organized which consisted of cattlemen and range detectives, as well as the 23 hired guns from Texas. To lead the expedition, the WSGA hired Frank M. Canton. Canton's gripsack was later found to contain a list of 70 county residents to be either shot or hanged, and a contract to pay the Texans \\$5 a day plus a bonus of \\$50 for every rustler, real or alleged, they killed. The group became known as \"The Invaders\", or alternately, \"Wolcott's Regulators\".\n\nJohn Clay, a prominent Wyoming businessman, was suspected of playing a major role in planning the Johnson County invasion. Clay denied this, saying that in 1891 he advised Wolcott against the scheme and was out of the country when it was undertaken. He later helped the \"Invaders\" avoid punishment after their surrender. The group organized in Cheyenne and proceeded by train to Casper, Wyoming and then toward Johnson County on horseback, cutting the telegraph lines north of Douglas, Wyoming in order to prevent an alarm. While on horseback, Canton and the gunmen traveled ahead while the party of WSGA officials led by Wolcott followed a safe distance behind.\n\n### Shootout at the KC Ranch\n\nThe first target of the WSGA was Nate Champion, who was at the KC Ranch (also known as Kaycee) at that time. They were tasked to perform the assassination that others had failed to carry out five months before. The group traveled to the ranch late Friday, April 8, 1892, quietly surrounded the buildings, and waited for daybreak. Three men besides Champion were at the KC. Two men who were evidently going to spend the night on their way through were captured as they emerged from the cabin early that morning to collect water at the nearby Powder River, while the third, Nick Ray, was shot while standing inside the doorway of the cabin. As the gunmen opened fire on the cabin, Champion dragged the mortally wounded Nick Ray back to the cabin. The latter died hours later, and Champion was left besieged inside the log cabin alone.\n\nChampion held out for several hours, wounding three of the vigilantes, and was said to have killed four others. Another settler by the name of Jack Flagg passed by Champion's ranch on his wagon together with his stepson and witnessed the siege. The Invaders recognized Jack Flagg as one of the men on the list and they started shooting at him. Flagg then rode away and, as the Invaders gave chase, he grabbed his rifle and beat them back. During the siege, Champion kept a poignant journal which contained a number of notes he wrote to friends while taking cover inside the cabin. \"Boys, I feel pretty lonesome just now. I wish there was someone here with me so we could watch all sides at once,\" he wrote. The last journal entry read: \"Well, they have just got through shelling the house like hail. I heard them splitting wood. I guess they are going to fire the house tonight. I think I will make a break when night comes, if alive. Shooting again. It's not night yet. The house is all fired. Goodbye, boys, if I never see you again.\"\n\nThe Invaders continued to shoot at the cabin while others set it on fire using a wagon they managed to steal from Flagg. Nate Champion signed his journal entry and put it in his pocket before running from the back door with a six-shooter in one hand and either a knife or a rifle in the other. As he emerged, the Invaders shot him dead. The killers pinned a note on Champion's bullet-riddled chest that read, \"Cattle Thieves Beware\". Jack Flagg, after escaping his pursuers, rode to Buffalo where he reported Champion's dilemma to the townsfolk. Sheriff Angus then raised a posse of 200 men (many of whom were Civil War veterans) over the next 24 hours and set out for the KC on Sunday night, April 10.\n\n### Siege of the TA Ranch\n\nThe WSGA group then headed north on Sunday toward Buffalo to continue its show of force. By early morning of the 11th however, news quickly came of a large hostile force heading towards them. They quickly rode and took refuge in the TA Ranch in Crazy Woman Creek. During their flight, one of the Texans by the name of Jim Dudley accidentally shot himself when his horse bucked and his rifle fell to the ground, discharging and hitting his knee. He was later escorted by two others to Fort McKinney to seek treatment, but died in the fort one or two days later from gangrene.\n\nThe sheriff's posse finally reached the remaining Invaders holed up in a log barn at the TA Ranch, but the latter managed to hold them back, resulting in a siege that would last for three days. The posse surrounded the whole ranch, building pits on the ground for cover and killing the Invaders' horses to prevent them from escaping. The New York Times reported that twenty men tried to escape behind a fusillade, but the posse beat them back and killed three to five. Another Texas gunman named Alex Lowther accidentally shot himself mortally in the groin during the fight. As the siege dragged on, a settler rode off to Fort McKinney requesting to borrow a cannon but was turned down. A blacksmith named Rap Brown tried to build his own cannon, but it exploded when he first tested it. He then built a siege engine he called the \"Ark of Safety\"—a large, bullet-resistant wagon that would help the settlers get close to the ranch so they could throw dynamite at the Invaders.\n\nFortunately for the Invaders, one of their members, Mike Shonsey, managed to slip from the barn and was able to contact Governor Barber the next day. Frantic efforts to save the WSGA group ensued, and two days into the siege, late on the night of April 12, 1892, Governor Barber telegraphed President Benjamin Harrison a plea for help.\n\nThe telegram read:\n\n> About sixty-one owners of live stock are reported to have made an armed expedition into Johnson County for the purpose of protecting their live stock and preventing unlawful roundups by rustlers. They are at 'T.A.' Ranch, thirteen miles from Fort McKinney, and are besieged by Sheriff and posse and by rustlers from that section of the country, said to be two or three hundred in number. The wagons of stockmen were captured and taken away from them and it is reported a battle took place yesterday, during which a number of men were killed. Great excitement prevails. Both parties are very determined and it is feared that if successful will show no mercy to the persons captured. The civil authorities are unable to prevent violence. The situation is serious and immediate assistance will probably prevent great loss of life.\n\nHarrison immediately ordered the U.S. Secretary of War Stephen B. Elkins to address the situation under Article IV, Section 4, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution, which allows for the use of U.S. forces under the President's orders for \"protection from invasion and domestic violence\". The Sixth Cavalry from Fort McKinney near Buffalo was ordered to proceed to the TA ranch at once and take the WSGA expedition into custody. The 6th Cavalry left Fort McKinney a few hours later at 2 am on April 13 and reached the TA ranch at 6:45 a.m. as the settlers were about to use the Ark of Safety. Colonel J.J. Van Horn, the officer in charge of the unit, negotiated with Sheriff Angus to lift the siege, and in return the Invaders were to be handed to civilian authorities. The Sixth Cavalry took possession of Wolcott and 45 other men with 45 rifles, 41 revolvers and some 5,000 rounds of ammunition, before escorting them first to Fort McKinney and then to Cheyenne.\n\nThe text of Barber's telegram to the President was printed on the front page of The New York Times on April 14, and a first-hand account of the siege at the T.A. appeared in The Times and the Chicago Herald and other papers.\n\n## Arrest and legal action\n\nThe WSGA group was taken to Cheyenne to be held at the barracks of Fort D.A. Russell since the Laramie County Jail was unable to hold that many prisoners. They received preferential treatment and were allowed to roam the base by day as long as they agreed to return to the jail to sleep at night. Johnson County officials were upset that the group was not kept locally at Ft. McKinney. The general in charge of the 6th Cavalry felt that tensions were too high for the prisoners to remain in the area. Hundreds of armed locals sympathetic to both sides of the conflict were said to have gone to Ft. McKinney over the next few days under the mistaken impression the Invaders were being held there.\n\nThe Johnson County attorney began to gather evidence for the case and the details of the WSGA's plan emerged. Canton's gripsack was found to contain a list of seventy alleged rustlers who were to be shot or hanged, a list of ranch houses the Invaders had burned, and a contract to pay each Texan five dollars a day plus a bonus of \\$50 for each person killed. The Invader's plans reportedly included eventually murdering people as far away as Casper and Douglas. The Times reported on April 23 that \"the evidence is said to implicate more than twenty prominent stockmen of Cheyenne whose names have not been mentioned heretofore, also several wealthy stockmen of Omaha, as well as to compromise men high in authority in the State of Wyoming. They will all be charged with aiding and abetting the invasion, and warrants will be issued for the arrest of all of them.\"\n\nThe Invaders, however, were protected by a friendly judicial system, and they took advantage of the cattle barons' corruption. Charges against the men \"high in authority\" in Wyoming were never filed. Eventually they were released on bail and were told to return to Wyoming for the trial. Many fled to Texas and were never seen again. In the end, the WSGA group went free after the charges were dropped on the excuse that Johnson County refused to pay for the costs of the long prosecution. The costs of housing the men at Fort D.A. Russell were said to exceed \\$18,000 and the sparsely populated Johnson County was unable to pay for them\n\n## Final killings\n\nTensions in Johnson County remained high. On May 10, U.S. Marshall George Wellman, was ambushed and killed by locals en route to the small community of Buffalo. The incident received national attention, with Wellman being the only marshal to die in the war. Wellman was one of the hired guns who joined the Invaders, and his death was grieved by a large crowd. The 6th Cavalry, sent to relieve the county of its violence, was said to be influenced by intense local political and social pressure, and they were unable to keep the peace. One infamous event occurred when a group of men set fire to the post exchange and planted a homemade bomb in the cavalry's barracks. Noted officer Charles B. Gatewood was seriously injured by the bomb blast in the barracks, shattering his left arm and ending his cavalry career.\n\nThe 9th Cavalry of \"Buffalo Soldiers\" was ordered to Fort McKinney to replace the 6th. In a fortnight the Buffalo Soldiers moved from Nebraska to the rail town of Suggs, Wyoming, where they created \"Camp Bettens\" to quell the local population. Reception from the settlers were negative and in one violent incident, a gunfight erupted between them and some Buffalo soldiers who entered the town. After being initially driven off, 20 more soldiers slipped from the camp to exact revenge, but the locals fought back, resulting in the death of one Buffalo Soldier named Pvt. Willis Johnson, and the wounding of two other soldiers. Another two detachments were sent and this time the locals allowed the soldiers to investigate but no one was convicted. The event forced the Army to retire the regiment from the place on November, 1892.[^1]\n\nIn the fall of 1892, as the aftershock of the stand-off was still being felt throughout the county, two alleged horse rustlers were gunned down by range detectives east of the Big Horn River. The killers escaped the law with assistance from Otto Franc, a rancher who had sided with the large cattle company faction. On May 24, 1893, Nate Champion's brother, Dudley Champion, came to Wyoming looking for work and was shot and killed in cold blood. Fifteen miles from town, Dudley had come across the ranch of Mike Shonsey who, after seeing him, immediately grabbed a gun and fired at him. A coroner's inquiry ruled Shonsey's actions were self-defense and he was acquitted of murder. Afterwards, Shonsey left the country before the officials could continue with the investigation. A year before Nate Champion's death, Shonsey actually met him near the Beaver Creek Canyon, where a fight almost commenced between the two as Nate suspected that Shonsey was one of the five men who had attacked him in his cabin. He further threatened Shonsey and demanded he give up the names of the rest of the assassins. This event made Shonsey harbor hatred toward Nate and probably toward his brother Dudley as well. Dudley Champion was the last person killed in association with the Johnson County War.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nEmotions ran high for many years afterward. Some considered the large and wealthy ranchers as heroes who had sought what they regarded as justice by using violence to defend what they regarded as their rights to rangeland and water rights, while others saw the WSGA as heavy-handed outlaw vigilantes running roughshod over the law. A number of tall tales were spun by both sides afterwards to make their actions appear morally justified. Parties sympathetic to the invaders painted Ella Watson as a prostitute and cattle rustler, Jim Averell as her murderous partner in crime and pimp and Nate Champion as the leader of a vast cattle rustling empire, claiming that he was a leading member of the fabled \"Red Sash Gang\" of outlaws that supposedly included the likes of the Jesse James gang. These claims have since been discredited. While men frequently visited Watson's cabin, this was because she mended clothing for cowboys to earn extra money. While some accounts do note that Champion wore a red sash at the time of his death, such sashes were common. While the Hole in the Wall Gang was known to hide out in Johnson County, there is no evidence that Champion had any relationship to them. Parties sympathetic to the smaller ranchers spun tales that included some of the West's most notorious gunslingers under the employ of the Invaders, including such legends as Tom Horn and Big Nose George Parrot. Horn did briefly work as a detective for the WSGA in the 1890s but there is little evidence he was involved in the war.\n\n### Political effects\n\nAlthough many of the leaders of the WSGA's hired force, such as William C. Irvine, were Democrats, the ranchers who had hired the group were tied to the Republican party and their opponents were mostly Democrats. Many viewed the rescue of the WSGA group at the order of President Harrison (a Republican) and the failure of the courts to prosecute them a serious political scandal with overtones of class war. As a result of the scandal, the Democratic Party became popular in Wyoming for a time, winning the governorship in 1892 and taking control of both houses of the state legislature in that election. Wyoming voted for the Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 U.S. Presidential Election, and Johnson County was one of the two counties in the state with the largest Bryan majorities.\n\n### Economic analysis\n\nHistorian Daniel Belgrad argues that in the 1880s centralized range management was emerging as the solution to the overgrazing that had depleted open ranges. Moreover, cattle prices at the time were low. Larger ranchers also were hurt by mavericking (taking lost, unbranded calves from other ranchers' herds), and responded by organizing cooperative roundups, blacklisting, and lobbying for stricter anti-maverick laws. These ranchers formed the WSGA and hired gunmen to hunt down rustlers, but local farmers resented the ranchers' collective political power. The farmers moved toward decentralization and the use of private winter pastures. Randy McFerrin and Douglas Wills argue that the confrontation represented opposing property rights systems. The result was the end of the open-range system and the dominance of large-scale stock ranching and farming. The popular image of the war, however, remains that of vigilantism by aggressive landed interests against small individual settlers defending their rights.\n\nBy 1893, the WSGA was opened to the other small ranchers and farmers, finally ending their monopoly and control over Wyoming business interests. Previous practices of the WSGA, such as vigilantism and confiscation of cattle, were finally stopped. Many prominent leaders of the Association such as Frank Wolcott, Frank M. Canton and Tom Smith later left the area.\n\n## Legacy\n\nThe Johnson County War, with its overtones of class warfare coupled with the intervention ordered by the President of the United States to save the lives of a gang of hired killers and set them free, is not a flattering reflection on the American myth of the west. The Johnson County War has been one of the best-known range wars of the frontier. It has been a popular feature of the Western genre of fiction, which includes literature, films and television shows. The Banditti of the Plains, written in 1894 by witness Asa Mercer, is the earliest record of the Johnson County War. The book was suppressed for many years by the WSGA, who seized and destroyed all but a few of the first edition copies from the 1894 printing; they were rumored to have hijacked and destroyed the second printing as it was being shipped from a printer north of Denver, Colorado. The book was reprinted several times in the 20th century and most recently in 2015. Frances McElrath's 1902 novel The Rustler, took inspiration from the Johnson County War, and was sympathetic to the perspective of the small ranchers.\n\nThe Virginian, a seminal 1902 western novel by Owen Wister, took the side of the wealthy ranchers, creating a myth of the Johnson County War, but bore little resemblance to a factual account of the actual characters and events. Jack Schaefer's popular 1949 novel Shane treated themes associated with the Johnson County War and took the side of the settlers. The 1953 film The Redhead from Wyoming, starring Maureen O'Hara, dealt with similar themes; in one scene Maureen O'Hara's character is told, \"It won't be long before they're calling you Cattle Kate.\" In the 1968 novel True Grit by Charles Portis, the main character, Rooster Cogburn, was involved in the Johnson County War. In the early 1890s Rooster had gone north to Wyoming where he was \"hired by stock owners to terrorize thieves and people called nesters and grangers... . I fear that Rooster did himself no credit in what they called the Johnson County War.\"\n\nFilms such as Heaven's Gate (1980) and The Johnson County War (TV-movie, 2002) painted the wealthy ranchers as the \"bad guys\". Heaven's Gate was a dramatic romance loosely based on historical events, while The Johnson County War was based on the 1957 novel Riders of Judgment by Frederick Manfred. The range war was also portrayed in an episode of Jim Davis's syndicated western television series Stories of the Century, with Henry Brandon as Nate Champion and Jean Parker as Ella Watson. American Heroes Channel presented the Johnson County War in the sixth episode of their Blood Feuds series documentary.\n\nThe story of the Johnson County War from the point of view of the small ranchers was chronicled by Kaycee resident Chris LeDoux in his song \"Johnson County War\" on the 1989 album Powder River. The song included references to the burning of the KC Ranch, the capture of the WSGA men, the intervention of the U.S. Cavalry and the release of the cattlemen and hired guns. The Jim Gatchell Memorial Museum in Buffalo featured dioramas and exhibits about the Johnson County War, as well as a 7-foot (2.1 m) bronze statue of Nate Champion. Kaycee, Wyoming, the old site of the KC Ranch, also erected the Hoofprints in the Past'' Museum to commemorate the war.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of feuds in the United States\n\n[^1]: Linse, Tamara. Range and Race. Star Tribune. February 24, 2005", "revid": "1170555895", "description": "1888-1893 range conflict in Johnson County, Wyoming", "categories": ["1892 in the United States", "American cattlemen", "Conflicts in 1892", "Feuds in the United States", "Internal wars of the United States", "Johnson County, Wyoming", "Range wars and feuds of the American Old West", "Wyoming Territory"]}
{"id": "17726", "url": null, "title": "Library of Alexandria", "text": "The Great Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world. The library was part of a larger research institution called the Mouseion, which was dedicated to the Muses, the nine goddesses of the arts. The idea of a universal library in Alexandria may have been proposed by Demetrius of Phalerum, an exiled Athenian statesman living in Alexandria, to Ptolemy I Soter, who may have established plans for the Library, but the Library itself was probably not built until the reign of his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The Library quickly acquired many papyrus scrolls, owing largely to the Ptolemaic kings' aggressive and well-funded policies for procuring texts. It is unknown precisely how many scrolls were housed at any given time, but estimates range from 40,000 to 400,000 at its height.\n\nAlexandria came to be regarded as the capital of knowledge and learning, in part because of the Great Library. Many important and influential scholars worked at the Library during the third and second centuries BC, including: Zenodotus of Ephesus, who worked towards standardizing the texts of the Homeric poems; Callimachus, who wrote the Pinakes, sometimes considered the world's first library catalogue; Apollonius of Rhodes, who composed the epic poem the Argonautica; Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who calculated the circumference of the earth within a few hundred kilometers of accuracy; Hero of Alexandria, who invented the first recorded steam engine; Aristophanes of Byzantium, who invented the system of Greek diacritics and was the first to divide poetic texts into lines; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, who produced the definitive texts of the Homeric poems as well as extensive commentaries on them. During the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes, a daughter library was established in the Serapeum, a temple to the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis.\n\nDespite the modern belief that the Library was burned once and cataclysmically destroyed, the Library actually declined gradually over the course of several centuries. This decline began with the purging of intellectuals from Alexandria in 145 BC during the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, which resulted in Aristarchus of Samothrace, the head librarian, resigning and exiling himself to Cyprus. Many other scholars, including Dionysius Thrax and Apollodorus of Athens, fled to other cities, where they continued teaching and conducting scholarship. The Library, or part of its collection, was accidentally burned by Julius Caesar during his civil war in 48 BC, but it is unclear how much was actually destroyed and it seems to have either survived or been rebuilt shortly thereafter. The geographer Strabo mentions having visited the Mouseion in around 20 BC, and the prodigious scholarly output of Didymus Chalcenterus in Alexandria from this period indicates that he had access to at least some of the Library's resources.\n\nThe Library dwindled during the Roman period, from a lack of funding and support. Its membership appears to have ceased by the 260s AD. Between 270-275 AD, Alexandria saw a Palmyrene invasion and an imperial counterattack that probably destroyed whatever remained of the Library, if it still existed. The daughter library in the Serapeum may have survived after the main Library's destruction. The Serapeum was vandalized and demolished in 391 AD under a decree issued by bishop Theophilus of Alexandria, but it does not seem to have housed books at the time, and was mainly used as a gathering place for Neoplatonist philosophers following the teachings of Iamblichus.\n\n## Historical background\n\nThe Library of Alexandria was not the first library of its kind. A long tradition of libraries existed in both Greece and in the ancient Near East. The earliest recorded archive of written materials comes from the ancient Sumerian city-state of Uruk in around 3400 BC, when writing had only just begun to develop. Scholarly curation of literary texts began in around 2500 BC. The later kingdoms and empires of the ancient Near East had long traditions of book collecting. The ancient Hittites and Assyrians had massive archives containing records written in many different languages. The most famous library of the ancient Near East was the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, founded in the seventh century BC by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (ruled 668–c. 627 BC). A large library also existed in Babylon during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605–c. 562 BC). In Greece, the Athenian tyrant Peisistratos was said to have founded the first major public library in the sixth century BC. It was out of this mixed heritage of both Greek and Near Eastern book collections that the idea for the Library of Alexandria was born.\n\nFollowing the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, there was a power grab for his empire among his top-ranking officers. The empire was divided into three: the Antigonid dynasty controlled Greece; the Seleucid dynasty, who had their capitals at Antioch and Seleucia, controlled large areas of Asia Minor, Syria, and Mesopotamia; and the Ptolemaic dynasty controlled Egypt with Alexandria as its capital. The Macedonian kings who succeeded Alexander the Great as rulers of the Near East wanted to promote Hellenistic culture and learning throughout the known world. These rulers, therefore, had a vested interest in collecting and compiling information from both the Greeks and the far more ancient kingdoms of the Near East. Libraries enhanced a city's prestige, attracted scholars, and provided practical assistance in ruling and governing the kingdom. Eventually, for these reasons, every major Hellenistic urban center would have a royal library. The Library of Alexandria, however, was unprecedented because of the scope and scale of the Ptolemies' ambitions; unlike their predecessors and contemporaries, the Ptolemies wanted to produce a repository of all knowledge. To support this endeavor, they were well positioned as Egypt was the ideal habitat for the papyrus plant, which provided a monopoly on materials needed to amass their knowledge repository.\n\n## Under Ptolemaic patronage\n\n### Founding\n\nThe Library was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world, but details about it are a mixture of history and legend. The earliest known surviving source of information on the founding of the Library of Alexandria is the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas, which was composed between c. 180 and c. 145 BC. It claims the Library was founded during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (c. 323–c. 283 BC) and that it was initially organized by Demetrius of Phalerum, a student of Aristotle who had been exiled from Athens and taken refuge in Alexandria within the Ptolemaic court. Nonetheless, the Letter of Aristeas is very late and contains information that is now known to be inaccurate. According to Diogenes Laertius, Demetrius was a student of Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle. Other sources claim that the Library was instead created under the reign of Ptolemy I's son Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BC).\n\nModern scholars agree that, while it is possible that Ptolemy I, who was a historian and author of an account of Alexander's campaign, may have laid the groundwork for the Library, it probably did not come into being as a physical institution until the reign of Ptolemy II. By that time, Demetrius of Phalerum had fallen out of favor with the Ptolemaic court. He could not, therefore, have had any role in establishing the Library as an institution. Stephen V. Tracy, however, argues that it is highly probable that Demetrius played an important role in collecting at least some of the earliest texts that would later become part of the Library's collection. In around 295 BC, Demetrius may have acquired early texts of the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which he would have been uniquely positioned to do since he was a distinguished member of the Peripatetic school.\n\nThe Library was built in the Brucheion (Royal Quarter) as part of the Mouseion. Its main purpose was to show off the wealth of Egypt, with research as a lesser goal, but its contents were used to aid the ruler of Egypt. The exact layout of the library is not known, but ancient sources describe the Library of Alexandria as comprising a collection of scrolls, Greek columns, a walk, a room for shared dining, a reading room, meeting rooms, gardens, and lecture halls, creating a model for the modern university campus. A hall contained shelves for the collections of papyrus scrolls known as bibliothekai (βιβλιοθῆκαι). According to popular description, an inscription above the shelves read: \"The place of the cure of the soul.\"\n\n### Early expansion and organization\n\nThe Ptolemaic rulers intended the Library to be a collection of all knowledge and they worked to expand the Library's collections through an aggressive and well-funded policy of book purchasing. They dispatched royal agents with large amounts of money and ordered them to purchase and collect as many texts as they possibly could, about any subject and by any author. Older copies of texts were favored over newer ones, since it was assumed that older copies had undergone less copying and that they were therefore more likely to more closely resemble what the original author had written. This program involved trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens. According to the Greek medical writer Galen, under the decree of Ptolemy II, any books found on ships that came into port were taken to the library, where they were copied by official scribes. The original texts were kept in the library, and the copies delivered to the owners. The Library particularly focused on acquiring manuscripts of the Homeric poems, which were the foundation of Greek education and revered above all other poems. The Library therefore acquired many different manuscripts of these poems, tagging each copy with a label to indicate where it had come from.\n\nIn addition to collecting works from the past, the Mouseion which housed the Library also served as home to a host of international scholars, poets, philosophers, and researchers, who, according to the first-century BC Greek geographer Strabo, were provided with a large salary, free food and lodging, and exemption from taxes. They had a large, circular dining hall with a high domed ceiling in which they ate meals communally. There were also numerous classrooms, where the scholars were expected to at least occasionally teach students. Ptolemy II Philadelphus is said to have had a keen interest in zoology, so it has been speculated that the Mouseion may have even had a zoo for exotic animals. According to classical scholar Lionel Casson, the idea was that if the scholars were completely freed from all the burdens of everyday life they would be able to devote more time to research and intellectual pursuits. Strabo called the group of scholars who lived at the Mouseion a σύνοδος (synodos, \"community\"). As early as 283 BC, they may have numbered between thirty and fifty learned men.\n\n### Early scholarship\n\nThe Library of Alexandria was not affiliated with any particular philosophical school; consequently, scholars who studied there had considerable academic freedom. They were, however, subject to the authority of the king. One likely apocryphal story is told of a poet named Sotades who wrote an obscene epigram making fun of Ptolemy II for marrying his sister Arsinoe II. Ptolemy II is said to have jailed him and, after he escaped, sealed him in a lead jar and dropped him into the sea. As a religious center, the Mouseion was directed by a priest of the Muses known as an epistates, who was appointed by the king in the same manner as the priests who managed the various Egyptian temples. The Library itself was directed by a scholar who served as head librarian, as well as tutor to the king's son.\n\nThe first recorded head librarian was Zenodotus of Ephesus (lived c. 325–c. 270 BC). Zenodotus' main work was devoted to the establishment of canonical texts for the Homeric poems and the early Greek lyric poets. Most of what is known about him comes from later commentaries that mention his preferred readings of particular passages. Zenodotus is known to have written a glossary of rare and unusual words, which was organized in alphabetical order, making him the first person known to have employed alphabetical order as a method of organization. Since the collection at the Library of Alexandria seems to have been organized in alphabetical order by the first letter of the author's name from very early, Casson concludes that it is highly probable that Zenodotus was the one who organized it in this way. Zenodotus' system of alphabetization, however, only used the first letter of the word and it was not until the second century AD that anyone is known to have applied the same method of alphabetization to the remaining letters of the word.\n\nMeanwhile, the scholar and poet Callimachus compiled the Pinakes, a 120-book catalogue of various authors and all their known works. The Pinakes has not survived, but enough references to it and fragments of it have survived to allow scholars to reconstruct its basic structure. The Pinakes was divided into multiple sections, each containing entries for writers of a particular genre of literature. The most basic division was between writers of poetry and prose, with each section divided into smaller subsections. Each section listed authors in alphabetical order. Each entry included the author's name, father's name, place of birth, and other brief biographical information, sometimes including nicknames by which that author was known, followed by a complete list of all that author's known works. The entries for prolific authors such as Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and Theophrastus must have been extremely long, spanning multiple columns of text. Although Callimachus did his most famous work at the Library of Alexandria, he never held the position of head librarian there. Callimachus' pupil Hermippus of Smyrna wrote biographies, Philostephanus of Cyrene studied geography, and Istros (who may have also been from Cyrene) studied Attic antiquities. In addition to the Great Library, many other smaller libraries also began to spring up all around the city of Alexandria.\n\nAfter Zenodotus either died or retired, Ptolemy II Philadelphus appointed Apollonius of Rhodes (lived c. 295–c. 215 BC), a native of Alexandria and a student of Callimachus, as the second head librarian of the Library of Alexandria. Philadelphus also appointed Apollonius of Rhodes as the tutor to his son, the future Ptolemy III Euergetes. Apollonius of Rhodes is best known as the author of the Argonautica, an epic poem about the voyages of Jason and the Argonauts, which has survived to the present in its complete form. The Argonautica displays Apollonius' vast knowledge of history and literature and makes allusions to a vast array of events and texts while simultaneously imitating the style of the Homeric poems. Some fragments of his scholarly writings have also survived, but he is generally more famous today as a poet than as a scholar.\n\nAccording to legend, during the librarianship of Apollonius, the mathematician and inventor Archimedes (lived c. 287 –c. 212 BC) came to visit the Library of Alexandria. During his time in Egypt, Archimedes is said to have observed the rise and fall of the Nile, leading him to invent the Archimedes' screw, which can be used to transport water from low-lying bodies into irrigation ditches. Archimedes later returned to Syracuse, where he continued making new inventions.\n\nAccording to two late and largely unreliable biographies, Apollonius was forced to resign from his position as head librarian and moved to the island of Rhodes (after which he takes his name) on account of the hostile reception he received in Alexandria to the first draft of his Argonautica. It is more likely that Apollonius' resignation was on account of Ptolemy III Euergetes' ascension to the throne in 246 BC.\n\n### Later scholarship and expansion\n\nThe third head librarian, Eratosthenes of Cyrene (lived c. 280–c. 194 BC), is best known today for his scientific works, but he was also a literary scholar. Eratosthenes' most important work was his treatise Geographika, which was originally in three volumes. The work itself has not survived, but many fragments of it are preserved through quotation in the writings of the later geographer Strabo. Eratosthenes was the first scholar to apply mathematics to geography and map-making and, in his treatise Concerning the Measurement of the Earth, he calculated the circumference of the earth and was only off by less than a few hundred kilometers. Eratosthenes also produced a map of the entire known world, which incorporated information taken from sources held in the Library, including accounts of Alexander the Great's campaigns in India and reports written by members of Ptolemaic elephant-hunting expeditions along the coast of East Africa.\n\nEratosthenes was the first person to advance geography towards becoming a scientific discipline. Eratosthenes believed that the setting of the Homeric poems was purely imaginary and argued that the purpose of poetry was \"to capture the soul\", rather than to give a historically accurate account of actual events. Strabo quotes him as having sarcastically commented, \"a man might find the places of Odysseus' wanderings if the day were to come when he would find the leatherworker who stitched the goatskin of the winds.\" Meanwhile, other scholars at the Library of Alexandria also displayed interest in scientific subjects. Bacchius of Tanagra, a contemporary of Eratosthenes, edited and commented on the medical writings of the Hippocratic Corpus. The doctors Herophilus (lived c. 335–c. 280 BC) and Erasistratus (c. 304–c. 250 BC) studied human anatomy, but their studies were hindered by protests against the dissection of human corpses, which was seen as immoral.\n\nAccording to Galen, around this time, Ptolemy III requested permission from the Athenians to borrow the original manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, for which the Athenians demanded the enormous amount of fifteen talents (1,000 lb; 450 kg) of a precious metal as guarantee that he would return them. Ptolemy III had expensive copies of the plays made on the highest quality papyrus and sent the Athenians the copies, keeping the original manuscripts for the library and telling the Athenians they could keep the talents. This story may also be construed erroneously to show the power of Alexandria over Athens during the Ptolemaic dynasty. This detail arises from the fact that Alexandria was a man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcoming trade from the East and West, and soon found itself to be an international hub for trade, the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books. As the Library expanded, it ran out of space to house the scrolls in its collection, so, during the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes, it opened a satellite collection in the Serapeum of Alexandria, a temple to the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis located near the royal palace.\n\n### Peak of literary criticism\n\nAristophanes of Byzantium (lived c. 257–c. 180 BC) became the fourth head librarian sometime around 200 BC. According to a legend recorded by the Roman writer Vitruvius, Aristophanes was one of seven judges appointed for a poetry competition hosted by Ptolemy III Euergetes. All six of the other judges favored one competitor, but Aristophanes favored the one whom the audience had liked the least. Aristophanes declared that all of the poets except for the one he had chosen had committed plagiarism and were therefore disqualified. The king demanded that he prove this, so he retrieved the texts that the authors had plagiarized from the Library, locating them by memory. On account of his impressive memory and diligence, Ptolemy III appointed him as head librarian.\n\nThe librarianship of Aristophanes of Byzantium is widely considered to have opened a more mature phase of the Library of Alexandria's history. During this phase of the Library's history, literary criticism reached its peak and came to dominate the Library's scholarly output. Aristophanes of Byzantium edited poetic texts and introduced the division of poems into separate lines on the page, since they had previously been written out just like prose. He also invented the system of Greek diacritics, wrote important works on lexicography, and introduced a series of signs for textual criticism. He wrote introductions to many plays, some of which have survived in partially rewritten forms.\n\nThe fifth head librarian was an obscure individual named Apollonius, who is known by the epithet Greek: ὁ εἰδογράφος (\"the classifier of forms\"). One late lexicographical source explains this epithet as referring to the classification of poetry on the basis of musical forms.\n\nDuring the early second century BC, several scholars at the Library of Alexandria studied works on medicine. Zeuxis the Empiricist is credited with having written commentaries on the Hippocratic Corpus and he actively worked to procure medical writings for the Library's collection. A scholar named Ptolemy Epithetes wrote a treatise on wounds in the Homeric poems, a subject straddling the line between traditional philology and medicine. However, it was also during the early second century BC that the political power of Ptolemaic Egypt began to decline. After the Battle of Raphia in 217 BC, Ptolemaic power became increasingly unstable. There were uprisings among segments of the Egyptian population and, in the first half of the second century BC, connection with Upper Egypt became largely disrupted. Ptolemaic rulers also began to emphasize the Egyptian aspect of their nation over the Greek aspect. Consequently, many Greek scholars began to leave Alexandria for safer countries with more generous patronages.\n\nAristarchus of Samothrace (lived c. 216–c. 145 BC) was the sixth head librarian. He earned a reputation as the greatest of all ancient scholars and produced not only texts of classic poems and works of prose, but full hypomnemata, or long, free-standing commentaries, on them. These commentaries would typically cite a passage of a classical text, explain its meaning, define any unusual words used in it, and comment on whether the words in the passage were really those used by the original author or if they were later interpolations added by scribes. He made many contributions to a variety of studies, but particularly the study of the Homeric poems, and his editorial opinions are widely quoted by ancient authors as authoritative. A portion of one of Aristarchus' commentaries on the Histories of Herodotus has survived in a papyrus fragment. In 145 BC, however, Aristarchus became caught up in a dynastic struggle in which he supported Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator as the ruler of Egypt. Ptolemy VII was murdered and succeeded by Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who immediately set about punishing all those who had supported his predecessor, forcing Aristarchus to flee Egypt and take refuge on the island of Cyprus, where he died shortly thereafter. Ptolemy VIII expelled all foreign scholars from Alexandria, forcing them to disperse across the Eastern Mediterranean.\n\n## Decline\n\n### After Ptolemy VIII's expulsions\n\nPtolemy VIII Physcon's expulsion of the scholars from Alexandria brought about a shift in the history of Hellenistic scholarship. The scholars who had studied at the Library of Alexandria and their students continued to conduct research and write treatises, but most of them no longer did so in association with the Library. A diaspora of Alexandrian scholarship occurred, in which scholars dispersed first throughout the eastern Mediterranean and later throughout the western Mediterranean as well. Aristarchus' student Dionysius Thrax (c. 170–c. 90 BC) established a school on the Greek island of Rhodes. Dionysius Thrax wrote the first book on Greek grammar, a succinct guide to speaking and writing clearly and effectively. This book remained the primary grammar textbook for Greek schoolboys until as late as the twelfth century AD. The Romans based their grammatical writings on it, and its basic format remains the basis for grammar guides in many languages even today. Another one of Aristarchus' pupils, Apollodorus of Athens (c. 180–c. 110 BC), went to Alexandria's greatest rival, Pergamum, where he taught and conducted research. This diaspora prompted the historian Menecles of Barce to sarcastically comment that Alexandria had become the teacher of all Greeks and barbarians alike.\n\nMeanwhile, in Alexandria, from the middle of the second century BC onwards, Ptolemaic rule in Egypt grew less stable than it had been previously. Confronted with growing social unrest and other major political and economic problems, the later Ptolemies did not devote as much attention towards the Library and the Mouseion as their predecessors had. The status of both the Library and the head librarian diminished. Several of the later Ptolemies used the position of head librarian as a mere political plum to reward their most devoted supporters. Ptolemy VIII appointed a man named Cydas, one of his palace guards, as head librarian and Ptolemy IX Soter II (ruled 88–81 BC) is said to have given the position to a political supporter. Eventually, the position of head librarian lost so much of its former prestige that even contemporary authors ceased to take interest in recording the terms of office for individual head librarians.\n\nA shift in Greek scholarship at large occurred around the beginning of the first century BC. By this time, all major classical poetic texts had finally been standardized and extensive commentaries had already been produced on the writings of all the major literary authors of the Greek Classical Era. Consequently, there was little original work left for scholars to do with these texts. Many scholars began producing syntheses and reworkings of the commentaries of the Alexandrian scholars of previous centuries, at the expense of their own originalities. Other scholars branched out and began writing commentaries on the poetic works of postclassical authors, including Alexandrian poets such as Callimachus and Apollonius of Rhodes. Meanwhile, Alexandrian scholarship was probably introduced to Rome in the first century BC by Tyrannion of Amisus (c. 100–c. 25 BC), a student of Dionysius Thrax.\n\n### Burning by Julius Caesar\n\nIn 48 BC, during Caesar's Civil War, Julius Caesar was besieged at Alexandria. His soldiers set fire to some of the Egyptian ships docked in the Alexandrian port while trying to clear the wharves to block the fleet belonging to Cleopatra's brother Ptolemy XIV. This fire purportedly spread to the parts of the city nearest to the docks, causing considerable devastation. The first-century AD Roman playwright and Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger quotes Livy's Ab Urbe Condita Libri, which was written between 63 and 14 BC, as saying that the fire started by Caesar destroyed 40,000 scrolls from the Library of Alexandria. The Greek Middle Platonist Plutarch (c. 46–120 AD) writes in his Life of Caesar that, \"[W]hen the enemy endeavored to cut off his communication by sea, he was forced to divert that danger by setting fire to his ships, which, after burning the docks, thence spread on and destroyed the great library.\" The Roman historian Cassius Dio (c. 155 –c. 235 AD), however, writes: \"Many places were set on fire, with the result that, along with other buildings, the dockyards and storehouses of grain and books, said to be great in number and of the finest, were burned.\" However, Florus and Lucan only mention that the flames burned the fleet itself and some \"houses near the sea\".\n\nScholars have interpreted Cassius Dio's wording to indicate that the fire did not actually destroy the entire Library itself, but rather only a warehouse located near the docks being used by the Library to house scrolls. Whatever devastation Caesar's fire may have caused, the Library was evidently not completely destroyed. The geographer Strabo (c. 63 BC–c. 24 AD) mentions visiting the Mouseion, the larger research institution to which the Library was attached, in around 20 BC, several decades after Caesar's fire, indicating that it either survived the fire or was rebuilt soon afterwards. Nonetheless, Strabo's manner of talking about the Mouseion shows that it was nowhere near as prestigious as it had been a few centuries prior. Despite mentioning the Mouseion, Strabo does not mention the Library separately, perhaps indicating that it had been so drastically reduced in stature and significance that Strabo felt it did not warrant separate mention. It is unclear what happened to the Mouseion after Strabo's mention of it.\n\nFurthermore, Plutarch records in his Life of Marc Antony that, in the years leading up to the Battle of Actium in 33 BC, Mark Antony was rumored to have given Cleopatra all 200,000 scrolls in the Library of Pergamum. Plutarch himself notes that his source for this anecdote was sometimes unreliable and it is possible that the story may be nothing more than propaganda intended to show that Mark Antony was loyal to Cleopatra and Egypt rather than to Rome. Casson, however, argues that, even if the story was made up, it would not have been believable unless the Library still existed. Edward J. Watts argues that Mark Antony's gift may have been intended to replenish the Library's collection after the damage to it caused by Caesar's fire roughly a decade and a half prior.\n\nFurther evidence for the Library's survival after 48 BC comes from the fact that the most notable producer of composite commentaries during the late first century BC and early first century AD was a scholar who worked in Alexandria named Didymus Chalcenterus, whose epithet Χαλκέντερος (Chalkénteros) means \"bronze guts\". Didymus is said to have produced somewhere between 3,500 and 4,000 books, making him the most prolific known writer in all of antiquity. He was also given the nickname βιβλιολάθης (Biblioláthēs), meaning \"book-forgetter\" because it was said that even he could not remember all the books he had written. Parts of some of Didymus' commentaries have been preserved in the forms of later extracts and these remains are modern scholars' most important sources of information about the critical works of the earlier scholars at the Library of Alexandria. Lionel Casson states that Didymus' prodigious output \"would have been impossible without at least a good part of the resources of the library at his disposal.\"\n\n### Roman Period and destruction\n\nVery little is known about the Library of Alexandria during the time of the Roman Principate (27 BC – 284 AD). The emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54 AD) is recorded to have built an addition onto the Library, but it seems that the Library of Alexandria's general fortunes followed those of the city of Alexandria itself. After Alexandria came under Roman rule, the city's status and, consequently that of its famous Library, gradually diminished. While the Mouseion still existed, membership was granted not on the basis of scholarly achievement, but rather on the basis of distinction in government, the military, or even in athletics.\n\nThe same was evidently the case even for the position of head librarian; the only known head librarian from the Roman Period was a man named Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, who lived in the middle of the first century AD and was a politician, administrator, and military officer with no record of substantial scholarly achievements. Members of the Mouseion were no longer required to teach, conduct research, or even live in Alexandria. The Greek writer Philostratus records that the emperor Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD) appointed the ethnographer Dionysius of Miletus and the sophist Polemon of Laodicea as members of the Mouseion, even though neither of these men is known to have ever spent any significant amount of time in Alexandria.\n\nMeanwhile, as the reputation of Alexandrian scholarship declined, the reputations of other libraries across the Mediterranean world improved, diminishing the Library of Alexandria's former status as the most prominent. Other libraries also sprang up within the city of Alexandria itself and the scrolls from the Great Library may have been used to stock some of these smaller libraries. The Caesareum and the Claudianum in Alexandria are both known to have had major libraries by the end of the first century AD. The Serapeum, originally the \"daughter library\" of the Great Library, probably expanded during this period as well, according to classical historian Edward J. Watts.\n\nBy the second century AD, the Roman Empire grew less dependent on grain from Alexandria and the city's prominence declined further. The Romans during this period also had less interest in Alexandrian scholarship, causing the Library's reputation to continue to decline as well. The scholars who worked and studied at the Library of Alexandria during the time of the Roman Empire were less well known than the ones who had studied there during the Ptolemaic Period. Eventually, the word \"Alexandrian\" itself came to be synonymous with the editing of texts, correction of textual errors, and writing of commentaries synthesized from those of earlier scholars—in other words, taking on connotations of pedantry, monotony, and lack of originality. Mention of both the Great Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion that housed it disappear after the middle of the third century AD. The last known references to scholars being members of the Mouseion date to the 260s.\n\nIn 272 AD, the emperor Aurelian fought to recapture the city of Alexandria from the forces of the Palmyrene queen Zenobia. During the course of the fighting, Aurelian's forces destroyed the Broucheion quarter of the city in which the main library was located. If the Mouseion and Library still existed at this time, they were almost certainly destroyed during the attack as well. If they did survive the attack, then whatever was left of them would have been destroyed during the emperor Diocletian's siege of Alexandria in 297.\n\n### Arabic sources on Muslim invasion\n\nIn 642 AD, Alexandria was captured by the Muslim army of Amr ibn al-As. Several later Arabic sources describe the library's destruction by the order of Caliph Omar. Bar-Hebraeus, writing in the thirteenth century, quotes Omar as saying to Yaḥyā al-Naḥwī: \"If those books are in agreement with the Quran, we have no need of them; and if these are opposed to the Quran, destroy them.\" Later scholars—beginning with Father Eusèbe Renaudot's remark in 1713 in his translation of the History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria that the tale \"had something untrustworthy about it\"—are skeptical of these stories, given the range of time that had passed before they were written down and the political motivations of the various writers. According to Diana Delia, \"Omar's rejection of pagan and Christian wisdom may have been devised and exploited by conservative authorities as a moral exemplum for Muslims to follow in later, uncertain times, when the devotion of the faithful was once again tested by proximity to nonbelievers\".\n\n## Successors to the Mouseion\n\n### Serapeum\n\nThe Serapeum is often called the \"daughter library\" of Alexandria. For much of the late fourth century AD it was probably the largest collection of books in the city of Alexandria. In the 370s and 380s, the Serapeum was still a major pilgrimage site for pagans. It remained a fully functioning temple, and had classrooms for philosophers to teach in. It naturally tended to attract followers of Iamblichean Neoplatonism. Most of these philosophers were primarily interested in theurgy, the study of cultic rituals and esoteric religious practices. The Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius (lived c. 458–after 538) records that a man named Olympus came from Cilicia to teach at the Serapeum, where he enthusiastically taught his students the rules of traditional divine worship and ancient religious practices. He enjoined his students to worship the old gods in traditional ways, and he may have even taught them theurgy.\n\nScattered references indicate that, sometime in the fourth century, an institution known as the \"Mouseion\" may have been reestablished at a different location somewhere in Alexandria. Nothing, however, is known about the characteristics of this organization. It may have possessed some bibliographic resources, but whatever they may have been, they were clearly not comparable to those of its predecessor.\n\nUnder the Christian rule of Roman emperor Theodosius I, pagan rituals were outlawed, and pagan temples were destroyed. In 391 AD, the bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, supervised the destruction of an old Mithraeum. They gave some of the cult objects to Theophilus, who had them paraded through the streets so that they could be mocked and ridiculed. The pagans of Alexandria were incensed by this act of desecration, especially the teachers of Neoplatonic philosophy and theurgy at the Serapeum. The teachers at the Serapeum took up arms and led their students and other followers in a guerrilla attack on the Christian population of Alexandria, killing many of them before being forced to retreat. In retaliation, the Christians vandalized and demolished the Serapeum, although some parts of the colonnade were still standing as late as the twelfth century. However, none of the accounts of the Serapeum's destruction mention anything about it containing a library, and sources written before its destruction speak of its collection of books in the past tense, indicating that it probably did not have any significant collection of scrolls in it at the time of its destruction.\n\n### School of Theon and Hypatia\n\nThe Suda, a tenth-century Byzantine encyclopedia, calls the mathematician Theon of Alexandria (c. AD 335–c. 405) a \"man of the Mouseion\". According to classical historian Edward J. Watts, however, Theon was probably the head of a school called the \"Mouseion\", which was named in emulation of the Hellenistic Mouseion that had once included the Library of Alexandria, but which had little other connection to it. Theon's school was exclusive, highly prestigious, and doctrinally conservative. Theon does not seem to have had any connections to the militant Iamblichean Neoplatonists who taught in the Serapeum. Instead, he seems to have rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and may have taken pride in teaching a pure, Plotinian Neoplatonism. In around 400 AD, Theon's daughter Hypatia (born c. 350–370; died 415 AD) succeeded him as the head of his school. Like her father, she rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and instead embraced the original Neoplatonism formulated by Plotinus.\n\nTheophilus, the bishop involved in the destruction of the Serapeum, tolerated Hypatia's school and even encouraged two of her students to become bishops in territory under his authority. Hypatia was extremely popular with the people of Alexandria and exerted profound political influence. Theophilus respected Alexandria's political structures and raised no objection to the close ties Hypatia established with Roman prefects. Hypatia was later implicated in a political feud between Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and Cyril of Alexandria, Theophilus' successor as bishop. Rumors spread accusing her of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril and, in March of 415 AD, she was murdered by a mob of Christians, led by a lector named Peter. She had no successor and her school collapsed after her death.\n\n### Later schools and libraries in Alexandria\n\nNonetheless, Hypatia was not the last pagan in Alexandria, nor was she the last Neoplatonist philosopher. Neoplatonism and paganism both survived in Alexandria and throughout the eastern Mediterranean for centuries after her death. British Egyptologist Charlotte Booth notes that many new academic lecture halls were built in Alexandria at Kom el-Dikka shortly after Hypatia's death, indicating that philosophy was clearly still taught in Alexandrian schools. The late fifth-century writers Zacharias Scholasticus and Aeneas of Gaza both speak of the \"Mouseion\" as occupying some kind of a physical space. Archaeologists have identified lecture halls dating to around this time period, located near, but not on, the site of the Ptolemaic Mouseion, which may be the \"Mouseion\" to which these writers refer.\n\n## Collection\n\nIt is not possible to determine the collection's size in any era with certainty. Papyrus scrolls constituted the collection, and although codices were used after 300 BC, the Alexandrian Library is never documented as having switched to parchment, perhaps because of its strong links to the papyrus trade. The Library of Alexandria in fact was indirectly causal in the creation of writing on parchment, as the Egyptians refused to export papyrus to their competitor in the Library of Pergamum. Consequently, the Library of Pergamum developed parchment as its own writing material.\n\nA single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls, and this division into self-contained \"books\" was a major aspect of editorial work. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an objective for the library. The library's index, Callimachus' Pinakes, has only survived in the form of a few fragments, and it is not possible to know with certainty how large and how diverse the collection may have been. At its height, the library was said to possess nearly half a million scrolls, and, although historians debate the precise number, the highest estimates claim 400,000 scrolls while the most conservative estimates are as low as 40,000, which is still an enormous collection that required vast storage space.\n\nAs a research institution, the library filled its stacks with new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences, and other subjects. Its empirical standards were applied in one of the first and certainly strongest homes for serious textual criticism. As the same text often existed in several different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their veracity. Once ascertained, canonical copies would then be made for scholars, royalty, and wealthy bibliophiles all over the world, this commerce bringing income to the library.\n\n## Legacy\n\n### In antiquity\n\nThe Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most prestigious libraries of the ancient world, but it was far from the only one. By the end of the Hellenistic Period, almost every city in the Eastern Mediterranean had a public library and so did many medium-sized towns. During the Roman Period, the number of libraries only proliferated. By the fourth century AD, there were at least two dozen public libraries in the city of Rome itself alone. As the Library of Alexandria declined, centers of academic excellence arose in various other capital cities. It is possible most of the material from the Library of Alexandria survived, by way of the Imperial Library of Constantinople, the Academy of Gondishapur, and the House of Wisdom. This material may then have been preserved by the Reconquista, which led to the formation of European Universities and the recompilation of ancient texts from formerly scattered fragments.\n\nIn late antiquity, as the Roman Empire became Christianized, Christian libraries modeled directly on the Library of Alexandria and other great libraries of earlier pagan times began to be founded all across the Greek-speaking eastern part of the empire. Among the largest and most prominent of these libraries were the Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima, the Library of Jerusalem, and a Christian library in Alexandria. These libraries held both pagan and Christian writings side-by-side and Christian scholars applied to the Christian scriptures the same philological techniques that the scholars of the Library of Alexandria had used for analyzing the Greek classics. Nonetheless, the study of pagan authors remained secondary to the study of the Christian scriptures until the Renaissance.\n\nIronically, the survival of ancient texts owes nothing to the great libraries of antiquity and instead owes everything to the fact that they were exhaustingly copied and recopied, at first by professional scribes during the Roman Period onto papyrus and later by monks during the Middle Ages onto parchment. Shibli Nomani published a research work in 1892 about this library named Kutubkhana-i-lskandriyya.\n\n### Modern library: Bibliotheca Alexandrina\n\nThe idea of reviving the ancient Library of Alexandria in the modern era was first proposed in 1974, when Lotfy Dowidar was president of the University of Alexandria. In May 1986, Egypt requested the executive board of UNESCO to allow the international organization to conduct a feasibility study for the project. This marked the beginning of UNESCO and the international community's involvement in trying to bring the project to fruition. Starting in 1988, UNESCO and the UNDP worked to support the international architectural competition to design the Library. Egypt devoted four hectares of land for the building of the Library and established the National High Commission for the Library of Alexandria. Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak took a personal interest in the project, which greatly contributed to its advancement. An international architectural competition took place in 1989 with Norwegian architectural firm Snohetta winning the competition. Completed in 2002, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina now functions as a modern library and cultural center, commemorating the original Library of Alexandria. In line with the mission of the Great Library of Alexandria, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina also houses the International School of Information Science, a school for students preparing for highly specialized post-graduate degrees, whose goal is to train professional staff for libraries in Egypt and across the Middle East.\n\n## See also\n\n- Book burning\n- Imperial Library of Constantinople\n- List of destroyed libraries\n\n## Explanatory notes", "revid": "1171904671", "description": "Library in ancient Alexandria, Egypt", "categories": ["3rd-century BC establishments in Egypt", "Ancient libraries", "Archaeological sites in Egypt", "Buildings and structures completed in the 3rd century BC", "Demolished buildings and structures in Egypt", "Education in Alexandria", "Former buildings and structures in Egypt", "Hellenistic architecture", "History of museums", "Libraries in Egypt", "Ptolemaic Alexandria"]}
{"id": "440139", "url": null, "title": "Scott Niedermayer", "text": "Scott Niedermayer (born August 31, 1973) is a Canadian former ice hockey defenceman and current special assignment coach of the Anaheim Ducks. He played 18 seasons and over 1,000 games in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New Jersey Devils and Anaheim Ducks. Niedermayer is a four-time Stanley Cup champion and played in five NHL All-Star Games. He won the James Norris Memorial Trophy in 2003–04 as the NHL's top defenceman and the Conn Smythe Trophy in 2007 as the most valuable player of the playoffs. In 2017, Niedermayer was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in history.\n\nAs a junior, Niedermayer was a member of a Kamloops Blazers team that won two Western Hockey League championships and was voted the most valuable player of the 1992 Memorial Cup, leading the Blazers to the Canadian Hockey League championship. The third overall selection at the 1991 NHL Entry Draft by New Jersey, Niedermayer played the majority of his professional career with the Devils before moving to Anaheim in 2005.\n\nInternationally, Niedermayer played with Team Canada on several occasions. He is a member of the Triple Gold Club, having won the Stanley Cup as well as a World Championship (2004) and Olympic gold medals (2002, 2010). Niedermayer also played for the Memorial Cup champions, and championship teams at the 1991 World Junior Championships and the 2004 World Cup of Hockey, making him and Corey Perry the only players in history to have ever won each of the six major North American and international competitions available to players. He was introduced in to the IIHF All-Time Canada Team in 2020.\n\nRegarded as one of the greatest defencemen in NHL history, Niedermayer has earned numerous accolades throughout his career. He was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 2012, into the Hockey Hall of Fame in November 2013, and into the IIHF Hall of Fame in 2015. The New Jersey Devils, Anaheim Ducks, and Kamloops Blazers have all retired his uniform number.\n\n## Early life\n\nNiedermayer was born in Edmonton, Alberta, but spent the first three years of his life in Cassiar, British Columbia before his family settled in Cranbrook, British Columbia. His father, Bob, was a doctor in Cassiar and then Cranbrook, and his mother Carol was a teacher. He has a younger brother, Rob.\n\nScott and his brother were inseparable when they were younger and often played hockey together. While their father was often their team doctor, their mother taught them to skate. She enrolled them in figure skating to aid their skills development and taught power skating classes in Cranbrook in exchange for ice time for her sons. An offensive defenceman, Scott led his Cranbrook midget team in scoring with 55 goals and 92 points in 1988–89.\n\n## Playing career\n\n### Junior\n\nNiedermayer played three seasons of junior hockey with the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League (WHL) between 1989 and 1992. He recorded 69 points in 64 games in his first season, 1989–90, and helped the Blazers win the President's Cup as WHL champions. The Blazers advanced to the 1990 Memorial Cup as the top ranked team in Canada, but disappointed in the tournament by losing all three games. Niedermayer earned several accolades in 1990–91. He scored 26 goals and 82 points in 57 games to earn a place on the Western Conference All-Star team. Additionally, he was named the recipient of the Daryl K. (Doc) Seaman Trophy as the WHL's scholastic player of the year and won the Canadian Hockey League Scholastic Player of the Year award.\n\nA top prospect for the 1991 NHL Entry Draft, Niedermayer was selected in the first round, third overall, by the New Jersey Devils. He began the 1991–92 season with New Jersey as the team wanted him to experience the NHL before being returned to Kamloops. After sitting out the Devils first five games, Niedermayer made his NHL debut on October 16, 1991, against the New York Rangers. He appeared in four games with the Devils, recording one assist, before he was sent back to junior. Though he appeared in only 35 games in the 1991–92 WHL season, Niedermayer's 39 points were enough to earn him a second berth on the West All-Star team. After losing in the Western Conference Final the previous season, the Blazers rebounded to win their second WHL championship in three years in 1992. Niedermayer tied for third place in playoff scoring with 23 points. At the 1992 Memorial Cup, he scored seven points in five games to lead the Blazers to the national championship. He was voted the recipient of the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player of the Memorial Cup.\n\n### New Jersey Devils\n\nNiedermayer joined the Devils full-time in 1992–93. He scored his first NHL goal on November 8, 1992, against goaltender Brian Hayward in a 6–1 victory over the San Jose Sharks. Overall, Niedermayer appeared in 80 games, scoring 11 goals and 40 points and was named to the NHL All-Rookie Team on defence. Niedermayer improved to 48 points in 1993–94, and added 4 points in 20 playoff games as the Devils reached the Eastern Conference Final against the New York Rangers, a series they lost in seven games. The Devils made another long playoff run in the lockout-shortened 1994–95 season, reaching the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in franchise history. Niedermayer scored 11 points in 20 playoff games, including a key goal in game two of the Final as the Devils won the Stanley Cup with a four-game sweep of the Detroit Red Wings.\n\nA 33-point season followed for Niedermayer in 1995–96, but the Devils became the first defending champion in 26 years to miss the playoffs. After a 35-point season in 1996–97, Niedermayer's best statistical season in New Jersey came in 1997–98 with a 14-goal, 57-point campaign. He played in his first NHL All-Star Game, scoring a goal, and was named to the NHL's Second All-Star team at the season's end. After finishing second in league scoring amongst defencemen, despite playing in New Jersey's stifling defensive system that suppresses offence, Niedermayer demanded a significant raise. He rejected an offer that would have paid him a base salary of \\$3.25 million and, unable to come to terms before the start of the 1998–99 season, began the year as a holdout. As the dispute dragged into the season, he joined the Utah Grizzlies of the International Hockey League (IHL). After missing the first month of the NHL season, Niedermayer and the Devils finally agreed to a multi-year contract, the terms of which were not released. He appeared in 71 games with the Devils that season, recording 46 points.\n\nLate in the 1999–2000 season, Niedermayer was involved in a violent incident with Peter Worell of the Florida Panthers. After being elbowed by Worell, Niedermayer responded by swinging his stick at his opponent's head. Worell suffered a concussion and missed six games, while Niedermayer was suspended for ten games – nine in the regular season, and New Jersey's first playoff game. After returning from his ban, Niedermayer's steady defensive contributions in the playoffs helped the Devils win their second Stanley Cup by defeating the Dallas Stars in six games in the 2000 Stanley Cup Finals. While celebrating his day with the Cup, Niedermayer took the trophy to Fisher Peak, overlooking his hometown of Cranbrook and was famously pictured hoisting it over his head.\n\nThe expiration of his contract following the season resulted in another lengthy dispute with the Devils. While he wanted a contract similar to the \\$5.3 million per season average the top ten paid defencemen in the league made, the Devils offered a deal with a base salary of \\$3.5 million. He was again a holdout at the start of the 2000–01 season, and missed nearly two months of play before finally agreeing to a four-year, \\$16 million contract. Niedermayer recorded 35 points in 57 games and played in his second All-Star Game. Late in game four of New Jersey's first round playoff series against the Toronto Maple Leafs, Niedermayer was knocked unconscious by a vicious elbow from Toronto's Tie Domi. Niedermayer later claimed that Domi had threatened to retaliate against him over a previous hit earlier in the series. Domi apologized for the incident, calling it a \"stupid reaction\", but was suspended for the remainder of the 2001 Stanley Cup playoffs. New Jersey reached the 2001 Stanley Cup Finals, but lost the series to the Colorado Avalanche in seven games.\n\nNiedermayer missed several games early in the 2001–02 season due to back pain, and his 33 points on the season was his lowest in six seasons. Niedermayer and the Devils reached their fourth Stanley Cup Finals in 2002–03. The series was a family affair, as Scott's brother Rob was a member of the opposing Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. When asked, their mother admitted she was hoping Rob's Mighty Ducks would win as Scott already had two championships to his name. Scott dashed his brother and mother's hopes, recording two assists in the deciding seventh game to lead the Devils to a 3–0 victory, and win his third Stanley Cup.\n\nNiedermayer cemented his reputation as an elite NHL defenceman in 2003–04, earning praise from both teammates and opponents for his play throughout the season. Injuries to fellow defencemen Scott Stevens and Brian Rafalski resulted in Niedermayer averaging over 25 minutes of ice time per game, sometimes topping 30, and he temporarily inherited the Devils' captaincy from Stevens. Offensively, Niedermayer posted his second career 50-point season, finishing with 14 goals and 40 assists. He played in his third All-Star Game and was named a First Team All-Star for the first time. After finishing second in league scoring amongst defencemen, recording a plus-minus rating of +20 and leading the Devils to a modern NHL record low 164 goals against, Niedermayer was voted the winner of the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league's top defenceman.\n\nUpon the expiration of his previous contract, Niedermayer was again a restricted free agent, and he again endured a difficult negotiation with the Devils, even after he changed agents. Initially demanding a five-year, \\$45 million contract, Niedermayer chose to go to arbitration. He was awarded a one-year contract for the 2004–05 season, and the \\$7 million salary he was given tied John LeClair's award in 2000 as the highest ever given in arbitration. However, the contract was wiped out when the entire season was cancelled as a result of the 2004–05 NHL lockout.\n\n### Anaheim Ducks\n\nAs an unrestricted free agent in the summer of 2005, Niedermayer was in considerable demand; 14 teams contacted his agent on the first day they were allowed to talk to him. The Devils offered him a five-year contract that would have paid him \\$7.8 million per season, the maximum allowed under the new salary cap, but Niedermayer chose instead to sign a four-year contract worth \\$6.75 million per season with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. He chose to take the shorter term and lower salary to play and try to win a Stanley Cup with his brother. The Ducks immediately named Scott the team's captain. In his first season in Anaheim, 2005–06, Niedermayer scored 63 points and was named a First Team All-Star for the second time. In the playoffs, the Ducks reached the Western Conference Final, but were eliminated by the Edmonton Oilers.\n\nJoined on Anaheim's blueline by Chris Pronger, Niedermayer helped the Ducks set franchise records in 2006–07 for most wins (48) and points (110). Both were named finalists for the Norris Trophy, but lost to Detroit's Nicklas Lidström. Individually, Niedermayer played his 1,000th career game, against the Edmonton Oilers on November 28, 2006. He set career highs of 15 goals, 54 assists and 69 points during the regular season and was named a First Team All-Star. He added 11 points in the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs, and was named recipient of the Conn Smythe Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player of the post-season after leading Anaheim to the franchise's first championship in a five-game series victory over the Ottawa Senators in the final. As team captain, Niedermayer was the first player given the chance to hoist the Stanley Cup. He passed the trophy to his brother; it was Rob's first championship victory. Of the moment, Scott stated: \"You don't really dream of passing it to your brother. I never have. To be able to do that is definitely a highlight of my career.\"\n\nComing off his fourth championship, the 34-year-old Niedermayer contemplated retirement. Remaining undecided on his future as the 2007–08 season began, he failed to report to the team and was suspended by the Ducks as a formality. Pronger replaced him as captain, and Niedermayer remained undecided until early December when he finally chose to return. He appeared in only 48 games that season, scoring 25 points, but played in his fourth All-Star Game.\n\nAfter the Ducks were eliminated in the first round of the 2008 playoffs, he again contemplated retirement, but quickly made the decision to return for the 2008–09 season. He regained captaincy of the Ducks, and played in his fifth All-Star Game during the season in which he scored 59 points in 82 games. In what proved to be his final season, 2009–10, Niedermayer scored 48 points in 80 games. He announced his retirement as a player on June 22, 2010, but remained with the Ducks organization as a consultant to general manager Bob Murray. He turned to coaching in 2012–13 season, serving as a special assignment coach with the Ducks.\n\n## International play\n\nNiedermayer enjoyed a long and successful international career, winning championships at all levels. He made his international debut as a 17-year-old with the Canadian junior team at the 1991 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He appeared in three games as Team Canada used a late goal by John Slaney in the final game of the tournament, against the Soviet Union, to win the gold medal. He returned for the 1992 tournament, one which The Sports Network described as one of the most disappointing in Canadian history, as the team finished sixth in the eight team event.\n\nFour years later, in 1996, Niedermayer first joined the senior team at the inaugural World Cup of Hockey. He had a goal and three assists in eight games, but Canada lost the championship final to the United States. Niedermayer next made his Olympic debut in 2002. He appeared in six games, and helped Canada defeat the United States, 5–2 in the final as the country won its first Olympic gold medal in hockey in 50 years.\n\nGold medal victories followed in 2004 as Niedermayer scored five points in nine games at the World Championship then added two points in six games at the World Cup of Hockey. In the latter event, Niedermayer scored a goal in the championship game, a 3–2 victory over Finland. He was set to make his second Olympic appearance in 2006, however a knee injury suffered during NHL play that required surgery forced him to withdraw from the tournament.\n\nNiedermayer's final international competition came at the 2010 Olympics, four months before his retirement as a player. He was named captain of the team for the tournament that was held in his home province, in Vancouver. He led Canada to the gold medal, culminating in a 3–2 overtime win over the United States.\n\n## Playing style\n\nAn offensively-minded defenceman, Niedermayer was best known for his skating ability and drew comparison's to the game's offensive greats from the time he broke into the NHL. He was compared to Paul Coffey for his ability to take the puck from his own goal line and convert a defensive situation into an offensive rush. He often chafed at playing within the Devils' defence-oriented system, feeling it restricted his offensive creativity, but also admitted that he learned to place greater emphasis on his defence and develop his overall game. Niedermayer earned a reputation for inconsistency early in his career. He often played his best games against top opposition, but his failure to consistently apply his skills against all opposition occasionally frustrated his teammates and left his coaches lamenting that he was a player capable of being dominant but often was not. By the end of his career however, and following his Norris Trophy win in 2004, Niedermayer was regarded as one of the top offensive defencemen of his generation and as one of the game's greatest winners. Niedermayer and former Ducks teammate Corey Perry are the only players in hockey history to win every major contemporary North American and International Competitive titles: the Memorial Cup, World Junior championship, Stanley Cup, World Championship, World Cup and Olympic Games.\n\nNiedermayer has been honoured on several occasions. The New Jersey Devils retired his jersey number 27 in 2011, and the Kamloops Blazers retired the number 28 he wore in junior in 2013. He has been inducted into the BC Hockey Hall of Fame and Canada's Sports Hall of Fame. Niedermayer was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as part of its 2013 class, and was inducted on November 11, 2013.\n\n## Personal life\n\nNiedermayer and his wife Lisa have four sons. The family resides in Penticton, British Columbia, but often returns to Cranbrook, where they spent the off-seasons while he was playing. Scott and Lisa are active in the community. They serve as honorary co-chairs of the Walk for Kids, a charity event that supports the Ronald McDonald House of Orange County, while Scott and his brother Rob operate a hockey school in Cranbrook and established a fund that offers grants to community associations. An active environmentalist, Scott has also joined with WWF-Canada to speak out in favour of efforts to maintain British Columbia's natural wilderness.\n\n## Career statistics\n\n### Regular season and playoffs\n\n### International\n\n## Awards and honours\n\n## See also\n\n- List of family relations in the NHL", "revid": "1170330536", "description": "Canadian ice hockey player (born 1973)", "categories": ["1973 births", "Anaheim Ducks captains", "Anaheim Ducks coaches", "Canadian ice hockey coaches", "Canadian ice hockey defencemen", "Conn Smythe Trophy winners", "Hockey Hall of Fame inductees", "IIHF Hall of Fame inductees", "Ice hockey people from British Columbia", "Ice hockey people from Edmonton", "Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "James Norris Memorial Trophy winners", "Kamloops Blazers players", "Living people", "Medalists at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Mighty Ducks of Anaheim players", "National Hockey League All-Stars", "National Hockey League first-round draft picks", "National Hockey League players with retired numbers", "New Jersey Devils draft picks", "New Jersey Devils players", "Olympic gold medalists for Canada", "Olympic ice hockey players for Canada", "Olympic medalists in ice hockey", "Sportspeople from Cranbrook, British Columbia", "Stanley Cup champions", "Triple Gold Club", "Utah Grizzlies (IHL) players", "World Wide Fund for Nature"]}
{"id": "35233688", "url": null, "title": "Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact", "text": "The cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact is the corpus of changes to terrestrial science, technology, religion, politics, and ecosystems resulting from contact with an extraterrestrial civilization. This concept is closely related to the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), which attempts to locate intelligent life as opposed to analyzing the implications of contact with that life.\n\nThe potential changes from extraterrestrial contact could vary greatly in magnitude and type, based on the extraterrestrial civilization's level of technological advancement, degree of benevolence or malevolence, and level of mutual comprehension between itself and humanity. The medium through which humanity is contacted, be it electromagnetic radiation, direct physical interaction, extraterrestrial artifact, or otherwise, may also influence the results of contact. Incorporating these factors, various systems have been created to assess the implications of extraterrestrial contact.\n\nThe implications of extraterrestrial contact, particularly with a technologically superior civilization, have often been likened to the meeting of two vastly different human cultures on Earth, a historical precedent being the Columbian Exchange. Such meetings have generally led to the destruction of the civilization receiving contact (as opposed to the \"contactor\", which initiates contact), and therefore destruction of human civilization is a possible outcome. Extraterrestrial contact is also analogous to the numerous encounters between non-human native and invasive species occupying the same ecological niche. However, the absence of verified public contact to date means tragic consequences are still largely speculative.\n\n## Background\n\n### Search for extraterrestrial intelligence\n\nTo detect extraterrestrial civilizations with radio telescopes, one must identify an artificial, coherent signal against a background of various natural phenomena that also produce radio waves. Telescopes capable of this include the Allen Telescope Array in Hat Creek, California and the new Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope in China and formerly the now demolished Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. Various programs to detect extraterrestrial intelligence have had government funding in the past. Project Cyclops was commissioned by NASA in the 1970s to investigate the most effective way to search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial sources, but the report's recommendations were set aside in favor of the much more modest approach of Messaging to Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (METI), the sending of messages that intelligent extraterrestrial beings might intercept. NASA then drastically reduced funding for SETI programs, which have since turned to private donations to continue their search.\n\nWith the discovery in the late 20th and early 21st centuries of numerous extrasolar planets, some of which may be habitable, governments have once more become interested in funding new programs. In 2006 the European Space Agency launched COROT, the first spacecraft dedicated to the search for exoplanets, and in 2009 NASA launched the Kepler space observatory for the same purpose. By February 2013 Kepler had detected 105 of the confirmed exoplanets, and one of them, Kepler-22b, is potentially habitable. After it was discovered, the SETI Institute resumed the search for an intelligent extraterrestrial civilization, focusing on Kepler's candidate planets, with funding from the United States Air Force.\n\nNewly discovered planets, particularly ones that are potentially habitable, have enabled SETI and METI programs to refocus projects for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence. In 2009 A Message From Earth (AMFE) was sent toward the Gliese 581 planetary system, which contains two potentially habitable planets, the confirmed Gliese 581d and the more habitable but unconfirmed Gliese 581g. In the SETILive project, which began in 2012, human volunteers analyze data from the Allen Telescope Array to search for possible alien signals that computers might miss because of terrestrial radio interference. The data for the study is obtained by observing Kepler target stars with the radio telescope.\n\nIn addition to radio-based methods, some projects, such as SEVENDIP (Search for Extraterrestrial Visible Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent Populations) at the University of California, Berkeley, are using other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum to search for extraterrestrial signals. Various other projects are not searching for coherent signals, but want to rather use electromagnetic radiation to find other evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence, such as megascale astroengineering projects.\n\nSeveral signals, such as the Wow! signal, have been detected in the history of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, but none have yet been confirmed as being of intelligent origin.\n\n### Impact assessment\n\nThe implications of extraterrestrial contact depend on the method of discovery, the nature of the extraterrestrial beings, and their location relative to the Earth. Considering these factors, the Rio scale has been devised in order to provide a more quantitative picture of the results of extraterrestrial contact. More specifically, the scale gauges whether communication was conducted through radio, the information content of any messages, and whether discovery arose from a deliberately beamed message (and if so, whether the detection was the result of a specialized SETI effort or through general astronomical observations) or by the detection of occurrences such as radiation leakage from astroengineering installations. The question of whether or not a purported extraterrestrial signal has been confirmed as authentic, and with what degree of confidence, will also influence the impact of the contact. The Rio scale was modified in 2011 to include a consideration of whether contact was achieved through an interstellar message or through a physical extraterrestrial artifact, with a suggestion that the definition of artifact be expanded to include \"technosignatures\", including all indications of intelligent extraterrestrial life other than the interstellar radio messages sought by traditional SETI programs.\n\nA study by astronomer Steven J. Dick at the United States Naval Observatory considered the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact by analyzing events of similar significance in the history of science. The study argues that the impact would be most strongly influenced by the information content of the message received, if any. It distinguishes short-term and long-term impact. Seeing radio-based contact as a more plausible scenario than a visit from extraterrestrial spacecraft, the study rejects the commonly stated analogy of European colonization of the Americas as an accurate model for information-only contact, preferring events of profound scientific significance, such as the Copernican and Darwinian revolutions, as more predictive of how humanity might be impacted by extraterrestrial contact.\n\nThe physical distance between the two civilizations has also been used to assess the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact. Historical examples show that the greater the distance, the less the contacted civilization perceives a threat to itself and its culture. Therefore, contact occurring within the Solar System, and especially in the immediate vicinity of Earth, is likely to be the most disruptive and negative for humanity. On a smaller scale, people close to the epicenter of contact would experience a greater effect than would those living farther away, and a contact having multiple epicenters would cause a greater shock than one with a single epicenter. Space scientists Martin Dominik and John Zarnecki state that in the absence of any data on the nature of extraterrestrial intelligence, one must predict the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact on the basis of generalizations encompassing all life and of analogies with history.\n\nThe beliefs of the general public about the effect of extraterrestrial contact have also been studied. A poll of United States and Chinese university students in 2000 provides factor analysis of responses to questions about, inter alia, the participants' belief that extraterrestrial life exists in the Universe, that such life may be intelligent, and that humans will eventually make contact with it. The study shows significant weighted correlations between participants' belief that extraterrestrial contact may either conflict with or enrich their personal religious beliefs and how conservative such religious beliefs are. The more conservative the respondents, the more harmful they considered extraterrestrial contact to be. Other significant correlation patterns indicate that students took the view that the search for extraterrestrial intelligence may be futile or even harmful.\n\nPsychologists Douglas Vakoch and Yuh-shiow Lee conducted a survey to assess people's reactions to receiving a message from extraterrestrials, including their judgments about likelihood that extraterrestrials would be malevolent. \"People who view the world as a hostile place are more likely to think extraterrestrials will be hostile,\" Vakoch told USA Today.\n\n### Post-detection protocols\n\nVarious protocols have been drawn up detailing a course of action for scientists and governments after extraterrestrial contact. Post-detection protocols must address three issues: what to do in the first weeks after receiving a message from an extraterrestrial source; whether or not to send a reply; and analyzing the long-term consequences of the message received. No post-detection protocol, however, is binding under national or international law, and Dominik and Zarnecki consider the protocols likely to be ignored if contact occurs.\n\nOne of the first post-detection protocols, the \"Declaration of Principles for Activities Following the Detection of Extraterrestrial Intelligence\", was created by the SETI Permanent Committee of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). It was later approved by the Board of Trustees of the IAA and by the International Institute of Space Law, and still later by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the Committee on Space Research, the International Union of Radio Science, and others. It was subsequently endorsed by most researchers involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, including the SETI Institute.\n\nThe Declaration of Principles contains the following broad provisions:\n\n1. Any person or organization detecting a signal should try to verify that it is likely to be of intelligent origin before announcing it.\n2. The discoverer of a signal should, for the purposes of independent verification, communicate with other signatories of the Declaration before making a public announcement, and should also inform their national authorities.\n3. Once a given astronomical observation has been determined to be a credible extraterrestrial signal, the astronomical community should be informed through the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams of the IAU. The Secretary-General of the United Nations and various other global scientific unions should also be informed.\n4. Following confirmation of an observation's extraterrestrial origin, news of the discovery should be made public. The discoverer has the right to make the first public announcement.\n5. All data confirming the discovery should be published to the international scientific community and stored in an accessible form as permanently as possible.\n6. Should evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence take the form of electromagnetic signals, the Secretary-General of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) should be contacted, and may request in the next ITU Weekly Circular to minimize terrestrial use of the electromagnetic frequency bands in which the signal was detected.\n7. Neither the discoverer nor anyone else should respond to an observed extraterrestrial intelligence; doing so requires international agreement under separate procedures.\n8. The SETI Permanent Committee of the IAA and Commission 51 of the IAU should continually review procedures regarding detection of extraterrestrial intelligence and management of data related to such discoveries. A committee comprising members from various international scientific unions, and other bodies designated by the committee, should regulate continued SETI research.\n\nA separate \"Proposed Agreement on the Sending of Communications to Extraterrestrial Intelligence\" was subsequently created. It proposes an international commission, membership of which would be open to all interested nations, to be constituted on detection of extraterrestrial intelligence. This commission would decide whether to send a message to the extraterrestrial intelligence, and if so, would determine the contents of the message on the basis of principles such as justice, respect for cultural diversity, honesty, and respect for property and territory. The draft proposes to forbid the sending of any message by an individual nation or organization without the permission of the commission, and suggests that, if the detected intelligence poses a danger to human civilization, the United Nations Security Council should authorize any message to extraterrestrial intelligence. However, this proposal, like all others, has not been incorporated into national or international law.\n\nPaul Davies, a member of the SETI Post-Detection Taskgroup, has stated that post-detection protocols, calling for international consultation before taking any major steps regarding the detection, are unlikely to be followed by astronomers, who would put the advancement of their careers over the word of a protocol that is not part of national or international law.\n\n## Contact scenarios and considerations\n\nScientific literature and science fiction have put forward various models of the ways in which extraterrestrial and human civilizations might interact. Their predictions range widely, from sophisticated civilizations that could advance human civilization in many areas to imperial powers that might draw upon the forces necessary to subjugate humanity. Some theories suggest that an extraterrestrial civilization could be advanced enough to dispense with biology, living instead inside of advanced computers.\n\nThe implications of discovery depend very much on the level of aggressiveness of the civilization interacting with humanity, its ethics, and how much human and extraterrestrial biologies have in common. These factors may govern the quantity and type of dialogue that can take place.\n\nThe question of whether contact is via signals from distant places or via probes or extraterrestrials in Earth's vicinity (or both) will also govern the magnitude of the long-term implications of contact.\n\nIn the case of communication using electromagnetic signals, the long silence between the reception of one message and another would mean that the content of any message would particularly affect the consequences of contact , as would the extent of mutual comprehension.\n\nConcerning probes, a study suggested the first interstellar probe to is not likely to be the civilization's earliest (e.g. the ones sent first) but a more advanced one as (at least) the departure speed is thought to (likely) improve for at least some duration per each civilization, which e.g. may have implications for the type of probes to expect and the impacts of any probes sent earlier.\n\n### Friendly civilizations\n\nMany writers have speculated on the ways in which a friendly civilization might interact with humankind. Albert Harrison, a professor emeritus of psychology at the University of California, Davis, thought that a highly advanced civilization might teach humanity such things as a physical theory of everything, how to use zero-point energy, or how to travel faster than light. They suggest that collaboration with such a civilization could initially be in the arts and humanities before moving to the hard sciences, and even that artists may spearhead collaboration. Seth D. Baum, of the Global Catastrophic Risk Institute, and others consider that the greater longevity of cooperative civilizations in comparison to uncooperative and aggressive ones might render extraterrestrial civilizations in general more likely to aid humanity. In contrast to these views, Paolo Musso, a member of the SETI Permanent Study Group of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, took the view that extraterrestrial civilizations possess, like humans, a morality driven not entirely by altruism but for individual benefit as well, thus leaving open the possibility that at least some extraterrestrial civilizations are hostile.\n\nFuturist Allen Tough suggests that an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization, recalling its own past of war and plunder and knowing that it possesses superweapons that could destroy it, would be likely to try to help humans rather than to destroy them. He identifies three approaches that a friendly civilization might take to help humanity:\n\n- Intervention only to avert catastrophe: this would involve occasional limited intervention to stop events that could destroy human civilization completely, such as nuclear war or asteroid impact.\n- Advice and action with consent: under this approach, the extraterrestrials would be more closely involved in terrestrial affairs, advising world leaders and acting with their consent to protect against danger.\n- Forcible corrective action: the extraterrestrials could require humanity to reduce major risks against its will, intending to help humans advance to the next stage of civilization.\n\nTough considers advising and acting only with consent to be a more likely choice than the forceful option. While coercive aid may be possible, and advanced extraterrestrials would recognize their own practices as superior to those of humanity, it may be unlikely that this method would be used in cultural cooperation. Lemarchand suggests that instruction of a civilization in its \"technological adolescence\", such as humanity, would probably focus on morality and ethics rather than on science and technology, to ensure that the civilization did not destroy itself with technology it was not yet ready to use.\n\nAccording to Tough, it is unlikely that the avoidance of immediate dangers and prevention of future catastrophes would be conducted through radio, as these tasks would demand constant surveillance and quick action. However, cultural cooperation might take place through radio or a space probe in the Solar System, as radio waves could be used to communicate information about advanced technologies and cultures to humanity.\n\nEven if an ancient and advanced extraterrestrial civilization wished to help humanity, humans could suffer from a loss of identity and confidence due to the technological and cultural prowess of the extraterrestrial civilization. However, a friendly civilization may calibrate its contact with humanity in such a way as to minimize unintended consequences. Michael A. G. Michaud suggests that a friendly and advanced extraterrestrial civilization may even avoid all contact with an emerging intelligent species like humanity, to ensure that the less advanced civilization can develop naturally at its own pace; this is known as the zoo hypothesis.\n\n### Hostile civilizations\n\nScience fiction films often depict humans successfully repelling alien invasions, but scientists more often take the view that an extraterrestrial civilization with sufficient power to reach the Earth would be able to destroy human civilization with minimal effort. Operations that are enormous on a human scale, such as destroying all major population centers on a planet, bombarding a planet with deadly neutron radiation, or even traveling to another planetary system in order to lay waste to it, may be important tools for a hostile civilization.\n\nDeardorff speculates that a small proportion of the intelligent life forms in the galaxy may be aggressive, but the actual aggressiveness or benevolence of the civilizations would cover a wide spectrum, with some civilizations \"policing\" others. According to Harrison and Dick, hostile extraterrestrial life may indeed be rare in the Universe, just as belligerent and autocratic nations on Earth have been the ones that lasted for the shortest periods of time, and humanity is seeing a shift away from these characteristics in its own sociopolitical systems. In addition, the causes of war may be diminished greatly for a civilization with access to the galaxy, as there are prodigious quantities of natural resources in space accessible without resort to violence.\n\nSETI researcher Carl Sagan believed that a civilization with the technological prowess needed to reach the stars and come to Earth must have transcended war to be able to avoid self-destruction. Representatives of such a civilization would treat humanity with dignity and respect, and humanity, with its relatively backward technology, would have no choice but to reciprocate. Seth Shostak, an astronomer at the SETI Institute, disagrees, stating that the finite quantity of resources in the galaxy would cultivate aggression in any intelligent species, and that an explorer civilization that would want to contact humanity would be aggressive. Similarly, Ragbir Bhathal claimed that since the laws of evolution would be the same on another habitable planet as they are on Earth, an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization may have the motivation to colonize humanity in a similar manner to the European colonization of Australia.\n\nDisputing these analyses, David Brin states that while an extraterrestrial civilization may have an imperative to act for no benefit to itself, it would be naïve to suggest that such a trait would be prevalent throughout the galaxy. Brin points to the fact that in many moral systems on Earth, such as the Aztec or Carthaginian one, non-military killing has been accepted and even \"exalted\" by society, and further mentions that such acts are not confined to humans but can be found throughout the animal kingdom.\n\nBaum et al. speculate that highly advanced civilizations are unlikely to come to Earth to enslave humans, as the achievement of their level of advancement would have required them to solve the problems of labor and resources by other means, such as creating a sustainable environment and using mechanized labor. Moreover, humans may be an unsuitable food source for extraterrestrials because of marked differences in biochemistry. For example, the chirality of molecules used by terrestrial biota may differ from those used by extraterrestrial beings. Douglas Vakoch argues that transmitting intentional signals does not increase the risk of an alien invasion, contrary to concerns raised by British cosmologist Stephen Hawking, because \"any civilization that has the ability to travel between the stars can already pick up our accidental radio and TV leakage\".\n\nPoliticians have also commented on the likely human reaction to contact with hostile species. In his 1987 speech to the United Nations General Assembly, Ronald Reagan said, \"I occasionally think how quickly our differences worldwide would vanish if we were facing an alien threat from outside this world.\"\n\n### Equally advanced and more advanced civilizations\n\n`Robert Freitas speculated in 1978 that the technological advancement and energy usage of a civilization, measured either relative to another civilization or in absolute terms by its rating on the Kardashev scale, may play an important role in the result of extraterrestrial contact. Given the infeasibility of interstellar space flight for civilizations at a technological level similar to that of humanity, interactions between such civilizations would have to take place by radio. Because of the long transit times of radio waves between stars, such interactions would not lead to the establishment of diplomatic relations, nor any significant future interaction at all, between the two civilizations.`\n\nAccording to Freitas, direct contact with civilizations significantly more advanced than humanity would have to take place within the Solar System, as only the more advanced society would have the resources and technology to cross interstellar space. Consequently, such contact could only be with civilizations rated as Type II or higher on the Kardashev scale, as Type I civilizations would be incapable of regular interstellar travel. Freitas expected that such interactions would be carefully planned by the more advanced civilization to avoid mass societal shock for humanity.\n\nHowever much planning an extraterrestrial civilization may do before contacting humanity, the humans may experience great shock and terror on their arrival, especially as they would lack any understanding of the contacting civilization. Ben Finney compares the situation to that of the tribespeople of New Guinea, an island that was settled fifty thousand years ago during the last glacial period but saw little contact with the outside world until the arrival of European colonial powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The huge difference between the indigenous stone-age society and the Europeans' technical civilization caused unexpected behaviors among the native populations known as cargo cults: to coax the gods into bringing them the technology that the Europeans possessed, the natives created wooden \"radio stations\" and \"airstrips\" as a form of sympathetic magic. Finney argues that humanity may misunderstand the true meaning of an extraterrestrial transmission to Earth, much as the people of New Guinea could not understand the source of modern goods and technologies. He concludes that the results of extraterrestrial contact will become known over the long term with rigorous study, rather than as fast, sharp events briefly making newspaper headlines.\n\nBillingham has suggested that a civilization which is far more technologically advanced than humanity is also likely to be culturally and ethically advanced, and would therefore be unlikely to conduct astroengineering projects that would harm human civilization. Such projects could include Dyson spheres, which completely enclose stars and capture all energy coming from them. Even if well within the capability of an advanced civilization and providing an enormous amount of energy, such a project would not be undertaken. For similar reasons, such civilizations would not readily give humanity the knowledge required to build such devices. Nevertheless, the existence of such capabilities would at least show that civilizations have survived \"technological adolescence\". Despite the caution that such an advanced civilization would exercise in dealing with the less mature human civilization, Sagan imagined that an advanced civilization might send those on Earth an Encyclopædia Galactica describing the sciences and cultures of many extraterrestrial societies.\n\nWhether an advanced extraterrestrial civilization would send humanity a decipherable message is a matter of debate in itself. Sagan argued that a highly advanced extraterrestrial civilization would bear in mind that they were communicating with a relatively primitive one and therefore would try to ensure that the receiving civilization would be able to understand the message. Marvin Minsky believed that aliens might think similarly to humans because of shared constraints, permitting communication. Arguing against this view, astronomer Guillermo Lemarchand stated that an advanced civilization would probably encrypt a message with high information content, such as an Encyclopædia Galactica, in order to ensure that only other ethically advanced civilizations would be able to understand it. Douglas Vakoch assumes it may take some time to decode any message, telling ABC News that \"I don't think we're going to understand immediately what they have to say.\" \"There’s going to be a lot of guesswork in trying to interpret another civilization,\" he told Science Friday, adding that \"in some ways, any message we get from an extraterrestrial will be like a cosmic Rorschach ink blot test.\"\n\n### Interstellar groups of civilizations\n\nGiven the age of the galaxy, Harrison surmises that \"galactic clubs\" might exist, groupings of civilizations from across the galaxy. Such clubs could begin as loose confederations or alliances, eventually developing into powerful unions of many civilizations. If humanity could enter into a dialogue with one extraterrestrial civilization, it might be able to join such a galactic club. As more extraterrestrial civilizations, or unions thereof, are found, these could also become assimilated into such a club. Sebastian von Hoerner has suggested that entry into a galactic club may be a way for humanity to handle the culture shock arising from contact with an advanced extraterrestrial civilization.\n\nWhether a broad spectrum of civilizations from many places in the galaxy would even be able to cooperate is disputed by Michaud, who states that civilizations with huge differences in the technologies and resources at their command \"may not consider themselves even remotely equal\". It is unlikely that humanity would meet the basic requirements for membership at its current low level of technological advancement. A galactic club may, William Hamilton speculates, set extremely high entrance requirements that are unlikely to be met by less advanced civilizations.\n\nWhen two Canadian astronomers argued that they potentially discovered 234 extraterrestrial civilizations through analysis of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey database, Douglas Vakoch doubted their explanation for their findings, noting that it would be unusual for all of these stars to pulse at exactly the same frequency unless they were part of a coordinated network: \"If you take a step back,\" he said, \"that would mean you have 234 independent stars that all decided to transmit the exact same way.\"\n\nMichaud suggests that an interstellar grouping of civilizations might take the form of an empire, which need not necessarily be a force for evil, but may provide for peace and security throughout its jurisdiction. Owing to the distances between the stars, such an empire would not necessarily maintain control solely by military force, but may rather tolerate local cultures and institutions to the extent that these would not pose a threat to the central imperial authority. Such tolerance may, as has happened historically on Earth, extend to allowing nominal self-rule of specific regions by existing institutions, while maintaining that area as a puppet or client state to accomplish the aims of the imperial power. However, particularly advanced powers may use methods, including faster-than-light travel, to make centralized administration more effective.\n\nIn contrast to the belief that an extraterrestrial civilization would want to establish an empire, Ćirković proposes that an extraterrestrial civilization would maintain equilibrium rather than expand outward. In such an equilibrium, a civilization would only colonize a small number of stars, aiming to maximize efficiency rather than to expand massive and unsustainable imperial structures. This contrasts with the classic Kardashev Type III civilization, which has access to the energy output of an entire galaxy and is not subject to any limits on its future expansion. According to this view, advanced civilizations may not resemble the classic examples in science fiction, but might more closely reflect the small, independent Greek city-states, with an emphasis on cultural rather than territorial growth.\n\n### Extraterrestrial artifacts\n\nAn extraterrestrial civilization may choose to communicate with humanity by means of artifacts or probes rather than by radio, for various reasons. While probes may take a long time to reach the Solar System, once there they would be able to hold a sustained dialogue that would be impossible using radio from hundreds or thousands of light-years away. Radio would be completely unsuitable for surveillance and continued monitoring of a civilization, and should an extraterrestrial civilization wish to perform these activities on humanity, artifacts may be the only option other than to send large, crewed spacecraft to the Solar System.\n\nAlthough faster-than-light travel has been seriously considered by physicists such as Miguel Alcubierre, Tough speculates that the enormous amount of energy required to achieve such speeds under currently proposed mechanisms means that robotic probes traveling at conventional speeds will still have an advantage for various applications. 2013 research at NASA's Johnson Space Center, however, shows that faster-than-light travel with the Alcubierre drive requires dramatically less energy than previously thought, needing only about 1 tonne of exotic mass-energy to move a spacecraft at 10 times the speed of light, in contrast to previous estimates that stated that only a Jupiter-mass object would contain sufficient energy to power a faster-than-light spacecraft.\n\nAccording to Tough, an extraterrestrial civilization might want to send various types of information to humanity by means of artifacts, such as an Encyclopædia Galactica, containing the wisdom of countless extraterrestrial cultures, or perhaps an invitation to engage in diplomacy with them. A civilization that sees itself on the brink of decline might use the abilities it still possesses to send probes throughout the galaxy, with its cultures, values, religions, sciences, technologies, and laws, so that these may not die along with the civilization itself.\n\nFreitas finds numerous reasons why interstellar probes may be a preferred method of communication among extraterrestrial civilizations wishing to make contact with Earth. A civilization aiming to learn more about the distribution of life within the galaxy might, he speculates, send probes to a large number of star systems, rather than using radio, as one cannot ensure a response by radio but can (he says) ensure that probes will return to their sender with data on the star systems they survey. Furthermore, probes would enable the surveying of non-intelligent populations, or those not yet capable of space navigation (like humans before the 20th century), as well as intelligent populations that might not wish to provide information about themselves and their planets to extraterrestrial civilizations. In addition, the greater energy required to send living beings rather than a robotic probe would, according to Michaud, be only used for purposes such as a one-way migration.\n\nFreitas points out that probes, unlike the interstellar radio waves commonly targeted by SETI searches, could store information for long, perhaps geological, timescales, and could emit strong radio signals unambiguously recognizable as being of intelligent origin, rather than being dismissed as a UFO or a natural phenomenon. Probes could also modify any signal they send to suit the system they were in, which would be impossible for a radio transmission originating from outside the target star system. Moreover, the use of small robotic probes with widely distributed beacons in individual systems, rather than a small number of powerful, centralized beacons, would provide a security advantage to the civilization using them. Rather than revealing the location of a radio beacon powerful enough to signal the whole galaxy and risk such a powerful device being compromised, decentralized beacons installed on robotic probes need not reveal any information that an extraterrestrial civilization prefers others not to have.\n\nGiven the age of the Milky Way galaxy, an ancient extraterrestrial civilization may have existed and sent probes to the Solar System millions or even billions of years before the evolution of Homo sapiens. Thus, a probe sent may have been nonfunctional for millions of years before humans learn of its existence. Such a \"dead\" probe would not pose an imminent threat to humanity, but would prove that interstellar flight is possible. However, if an active probe were to be discovered, humans would react much more strongly than they would to the discovery of a probe that has long since ceased to function.\n\n## Further implications of contact\n\n### Theological\n\nThe confirmation of extraterrestrial intelligence could have a profound impact on religious doctrines, potentially causing theologians to reinterpret scriptures to accommodate the new discoveries. However, a survey of people with many different religious beliefs indicated that their faith would not be affected by the discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence, and another study, conducted by Ted Peters of the Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary, shows that most people would not consider their religious beliefs superseded by it. Surveys of religious leaders indicate that only a small percentage are concerned that the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence might fundamentally contradict the views of the adherents of their religion. Gabriel Funes, the chief astronomer of the Vatican Observatory and a papal adviser on science, has stated that the Catholic Church would be likely to welcome extraterrestrial visitors warmly.\n\nContact with extraterrestrial intelligence would not be completely inconsequential for religion. The Peters study showed that most non-religious people, and a significant minority of religious people, believe that the world could face a religious crisis, even if their own beliefs were unaffected. Contact with extraterrestrial intelligence would be most likely to cause a problem for western religions, in particular traditionalist Christianity, because of the geocentric nature of western faiths. The discovery of extraterrestrial life would not contradict basic conceptions of God, however, and seeing that science has challenged established dogma in the past, for example with the theory of evolution, it is likely that existing religions will adapt similarly to the new circumstances. Douglas Vakoch argues that it is not likely that the discovery of extraterrestrial life will impact religious beliefs. In the view of Musso, a global religious crisis would be unlikely even for Abrahamic faiths, as the studies of himself and others on Christianity, the most \"anthropocentric\" religion, see no conflict between that religion and the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence. In addition, the cultural and religious values of extraterrestrial species would likely be shared over centuries if contact is to occur by radio, meaning that rather than causing a huge shock to humanity, such information would be viewed much as archaeologists and historians view ancient artifacts and texts.\n\nFunes speculates that a decipherable message from extraterrestrial intelligence could initiate an interstellar exchange of knowledge in various disciplines, including whatever religions an extraterrestrial civilization may host. Billingham further suggests that an extremely advanced and friendly extraterrestrial civilization might put an end to present-day religious conflicts and lead to greater religious toleration worldwide. On the other hand, Jill Tarter puts forward the view that contact with extraterrestrial intelligence might eliminate religion as we know it and introduce humanity to an all-encompassing faith. Vakoch doubts that humans would be inclined to adopt extraterrestrial religions, telling ABC News \"I think religion meets very human needs, and unless extraterrestrials can provide a replacement for it, I don't think religion is going to go away,\" and adding, \"if there are incredibly advanced civilizations with a belief in God, I don't think Richard Dawkins will start believing.\"\n\n### Political\n\nAccording to experts such as Niklas Hedman, executive director of UN Office for Outer Space Affairs, there are \"no international agreements or mechanisms in place for how humanity would handle an encounter with extraterrestrial intelligence\".\n\nTim Folger speculates that news of radio contact with an extraterrestrial civilization would prove impossible to suppress and would travel rapidly, though Cold War scientific literature on the subject contradicts this. Media coverage of the discovery would probably die down quickly, though, as scientists began to decipher the message and learn its true impact. Different branches of government (for example legislative, executive, and judiciary) may pursue their own policies, potentially giving rise to power struggles. Even in the event of a single contact with no follow-up, radio contact may prompt fierce disagreements as to which bodies have the authority to represent humanity as a whole. Michaud hypothesizes that the fear arising from direct contact may cause nation-states to put aside their conflicts and work together for the common defense of humanity.\n\nApart from the question of who would represent the Earth as a whole, contact could create other international problems, such as the degree of involvement of governments foreign to the one whose radio astronomers received the signal. The United Nations discussed various issues of foreign relations immediately before the launch of the Voyager probes, which in 2012 left the Solar System carrying a golden record in case they are found by extraterrestrial intelligence. Among the issues discussed were what messages would best represent humanity, what format they should take, how to convey the cultural history of the Earth, and what international groups should be formed to study extraterrestrial intelligence in greater detail.\n\nAccording to Luca Codignola of the University of Genoa, contact with a powerful extraterrestrial civilization is comparable to occasions where one powerful civilization destroyed another, such as the arrival of Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés into the Americas and the subsequent destruction of the indigenous civilizations and their ways of life. However, the applicability of such a model to contact with extraterrestrial civilizations, and that specific interpretation of the arrival of the European colonists to the Americas, have been disputed. Even so, any large difference between the power of an extraterrestrial civilization and our own could be demoralizing and potentially cause or accelerate the collapse of human society. Being discovered by a \"superior\" extraterrestrial civilization, and continued contact with it, might have psychological effects that could destroy a civilization, as is claimed to have happened in the past on Earth.\n\nEven in the absence of close contact between humanity and extraterrestrials, high-information messages from an extraterrestrial civilization to humanity have the potential to cause a great cultural shock. Sociologist Donald Tarter has conjectured that knowledge of extraterrestrial culture and theology has the potential to compromise human allegiance to existing organizational structures and institutions. The cultural shock of meeting an extraterrestrial civilization may be spread over decades or even centuries if an extraterrestrial message to humanity is extremely difficult to decipher.\n\nA study suggests there may be a threat from the perception by state actors (or their subsequent actions based on this perception) that other state-level actors could seek to gain and achieve an information monopoly on communications with an extraterrestrial intelligence. It recommends transparency and data sharing, further development of postdetection protocols , and better education of policymakers in this space.\n\n### Legal\n\nContact with extraterrestrial civilizations would raise legal questions, such as the rights of the extraterrestrial beings. An extraterrestrial arriving on Earth might only have the protection of animal cruelty statutes. Much as various classes of human being, such as women, children, and indigenous people, were initially denied human rights, so might extraterrestrial beings, who could therefore be legally owned and killed. If such a species were not to be treated as a legal animal, there would arise the challenge of defining the boundary between a legal person and a legal animal, considering the numerous factors that constitute intelligence. Some ethicists are considering \"how the rights of a completely unfamiliar alien species would fit into our legal and ethical frameworks\" and there is a case for \"human rights\" to evolve into \"sentient rights\".\n\nFreitas considers that even if an extraterrestrial being were to be afforded legal personhood, problems of nationality and immigration would arise. An extraterrestrial being would not have a legally recognized earthly citizenship, and drastic legal measures might be required in order to account for the technically illegal immigration of extraterrestrial individuals.\n\nIf contact were to take place through electromagnetic signals, these issues would not arise. Rather, issues relating to patent and copyright law regarding who, if anyone, has rights to the information from the extraterrestrial civilization would be the primary legal problem.\n\n### Scientific and technological\n\nThe scientific and technological impact of extraterrestrial contact through electromagnetic waves would probably be quite small, especially at first. However, if the message contains a large amount of information, deciphering it could give humans access to a galactic heritage perhaps predating the formation of the Solar System, which may greatly advance our technology and science. A possible negative effect could be to demoralize research scientists as they come to know that what they are researching may already be known to another civilization.\n\nOn the other hand, extraterrestrial civilizations with malicious intent could send (unfiltered) information that could enable or facilitate human civilization to destroy itself, such as powerful computer viruses, knowledge to build an advanced artificial intelligence or information on how to make extremely potent weapons that humans would not yet be able to use responsibly. While the motives for such an action are unknown, it may require minimal energy use on the part of the extraterrestrials. It may also be possible that such is sent without malicious intent. According to Musso, however, computer viruses in particular will be nearly impossible unless extraterrestrials possess detailed knowledge of human computer architectures, which would only happen if a human message sent to the stars were protected with little thought to security. Even a virtual machine on which extraterrestrials could run computer programs could be designed specifically for the purpose, bearing little relation to computer systems commonly used on Earth. In addition, humans could send messages to extraterrestrials detailing that they do not want access to the Encyclopædia Galactica until they have reached a suitable level of advancement, thus possibly raising chances that harmful impacts of technology from recipient extraterrestrials are mitigated.\n\nExtraterrestrial technology could have profound impacts on the nature of human culture and civilization. Just as television provided a new outlet for a wide variety of political, religious, and social groups, and as the printing press made the Bible available to the common people of Europe, allowing them to interpret it for themselves, so an extraterrestrial technology might change humanity in ways not immediately apparent. Harrison speculates that a knowledge of extraterrestrial technologies could increase the gap between scientific and cultural progress, leading to societal shock and an inability to compensate for negative effects of technology. He gives the example of improvements in agricultural technology during the Industrial Revolution, which displaced thousands of farm laborers until society could retrain them for jobs suited to the new social order. Contact with an extraterrestrial civilization far more advanced than humanity could cause a much greater shock than the Industrial Revolution, or anything previously experienced by humanity.\n\nMichaud suggests that humanity could be impacted by an influx of extraterrestrial science and technology in the same way that medieval European scholars were impacted by the knowledge of Arab scientists. Humanity might at first revere the knowledge as having the potential to advance the human species, and might even feel inferior to the extraterrestrial species, but would gradually grow in arrogance as it gained more and more intimate knowledge of the science, technology, and other cultural developments of an advanced extraterrestrial civilization.\n\nThe discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence would have various impacts on biology and astrobiology. The discovery of extraterrestrial life in any form, intelligent or non-intelligent, would give humanity greater insight into the nature of life on Earth and would improve the conception of how the tree of life is organized. Human biologists could possibly learn about extraterrestrial biochemistry and observe how it differs from that found on Earth. This knowledge could help human civilization to learn which aspects of life are common throughout the universe and which are possibly specific to Earth.\n\n### Worldviews\n\nSome have argued that confirmed reliable detection of extraterrestrial intelligence or contact may be one of the biggest moments in human history and would have major implications for humanity including its contemporary prevalent worldviews, not just from implications within the fields of theology and science , similar to the paradigm shift away from geocentrism as a dominant element of human worldviews.\n\nHarvard astronomer and lead scientist of The Galileo Project, Avi Loeb, has argued that humanity is not ready to adopt a sense of what he calls \"cosmic modesty\" and that this could change if the project detects \"relics\" of more advanced civilizations. Loeb postulates that if we find that we \"are not the smartest kid on the cosmic block, it will give us a different perspective\" – such as the way we think about our place in the universe, for example with relevance to prevalent religious worldviews, in which humans may often be considered unique or exceptional.\n\nAccording to Major John R. King, potential sociological consequences of alien contact may include (1) Initial shock and consternation (2) Loss or reduction of ego (3) Modification of human values (4) Decrease in status of [certain] scientists and (5) Reevaluation of religions. The \"mediocrity principle\" which claims that \"there is nothing special about Earth's status or position in the Universe\" could present a great challenge to Abrahamic religions, which \"teach that human beings are purposefully created by God and occupy a privileged position in relation to other creatures\", albeit some have argued that \"discovery of life elsewhere in the Universe would not compromise God's love for Earth life\" despite there being no \"positive affirmation of alien life\" in popular religious texts such as the bible and that other civilisations may be \"completely unaware of Jesus' story\" and may have no such popular story from their own past. There is widespread belief that religions would adapt to contact.\n\n### Ethics\n\nAstroethics refers to the contemplation and development of ethical standards for a variety of outer space issues, including questions of how to interact remotely or in close encounters and concerns not only humans' ethics but also ethics of non-human intelligences, including whether they all afford us rights (and which each or overall).\n\n### Ecological and biological-warfare impacts\n\nAn extraterrestrial civilization might bring to Earth pathogens or invasive life forms that do not harm its own biosphere. Alien pathogens could decimate the human population, which would have no immunity to them, or they might use terrestrial livestock or plants as hosts, causing indirect harm to humans. Invasive organisms brought by extraterrestrial civilizations could cause great ecological harm because of the terrestrial biosphere's lack of defenses against them.\n\nOn the other hand, pathogens and invasive species of extraterrestrial origin might differ enough from terrestrial organisms in their biology to have no adverse effects. Furthermore, pathogens and parasites on Earth are generally suited to only a small and exclusive set of environments, to which extraterrestrial pathogens would have had no opportunity to adapt.\n\nIf an extraterrestrial civilization bearing malice towards humanity gained sufficient knowledge of terrestrial biology and weaknesses in the immune systems of terrestrial biota, it might be able to create extremely potent biological weapons. Even a civilization without malicious intent could inadvertently cause harm to humanity by not taking account of all the risks of their actions.\n\nAccording to Baum, even if an extraterrestrial civilization were to communicate using electromagnetic signals alone, it could send humanity information with which humans themselves could create lethal biological weapons.\n\n## See also\n\n- Archaeology, Anthropology, and Interstellar Communication\n- Relative species abundance", "revid": "1172322524", "description": "Topic in futurism", "categories": ["Cultural anthropology", "Cultural impact", "Extraterrestrial life", "Global culture", "Religion and science", "Search for extraterrestrial intelligence"]}
{"id": "54769", "url": null, "title": "Star Trek: Phase II", "text": "Star Trek: Phase II was the initial working title for what officially became titled Star Trek II, an unproduced American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry as a sequel to (and continuation of) the original Star Trek, which had run from 1966 to 1969. The plans for the series were first developed after several failed attempts to create a feature film based on the property, coupled with plans for a Paramount Television Service (PTS) as a fourth broadcast television network in the United States.\n\nBoth PTS and the Star Trek revival were announced in early June 1977, with PTS to debut as one evening of programming each Saturday night and to gradually expand to other nights; a strategy successfully employed by the Fox Broadcasting Company a decade later. Star Trek: Phase II was to be the flagship show, and be broadcast at 8pm EST, followed by a movie of the week starting at 9pm. The initial order was for a two-hour pilot, followed by 13 hour-long episodes.\n\nWith the exception of Leonard Nimoy as Mr. Spock, who had ongoing disputes with Roddenberry and Paramount, the entire regular and recurring cast of The Original Series were contracted to return, notably William Shatner as Captain Kirk. Three new and younger regular characters were created, science officer Lt. Xon, navigator Lt. Ilia, and ship's executive officer Willard Decker. Xon, Decker and Ilia were later influential in the development of characters on Star Trek: The Next Generation, and two of the scripts written for Phase II would be re-developed for use in that series.\n\nBehind the cameras, Roddenberry recruited Trek-novices Harold Livingston and Robert Goodwin as producers. Veterans of The Original Series were few, and included costume designer William Ware Theiss and illustrator Mike Minor. Art director Matt Jefferies was otherwise employed and brought in as a \"technical advisor\" and to update the design of the starship USS Enterprise. Special effects (on set) were to be by Jim Rugg. Science fiction novelist Alan Dean Foster received the assignment to write the story outline for the two-hour pilot, but, with a looming production deadline and unable to find a suitable writer to develop this story into a teleplay, Harold Livingston took on the writing job himself. Of the remaining 12 script assignments handed out, about half were to veterans of The Original Series.\n\nPre-production began in earnest, with the emphasis on what would be the standing sets of the Enterprise, which differed radically in layout, design and detailing from those for The Original Series. Many costumes and props, too, were designed. Ultimately, Paramount's plans for its network and Star Trek's TV return faltered, as the low anticipated advertising revenues for the Paramount Television Service indicated that it was not viable, and the Paramount Pictures parent company Gulf and Western's chairman, Charles Bluhdorn, refused to back the plan, resulting in eventual exit of Paramount chief executive officer Barry Diller. In August 1977 Paramount president Michael Eisner announced—internally—that the two-hour pilot script was to be the long sought-after feature film story. However, In order to prevent negative publicity, the \"cancellation\" of the series and network was not immediately disclosed and development of the series and its scripts continued for a further five months, during which time tests were filmed on the incomplete Enterprise sets in widescreen format, a clear indication that whatever Star Trek was going to be was not a TV movie.\n\nOn March 28, 1978, any illusions that Star Trek would be returning to television were ended when Paramount announced that instead of a series it would be producing what became the big budget film titled Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), which was itself a massive reworking of the \"In Thy Image\" two-hour movie script.\n\nPreproduction work on the series did not entirely go to waste. The standing Enterprise sets would be extensively reworked for the film (and its eventual sequels), and an unfinished admiral's office set's walls became part of the Enterprise cargo deck. However, the visual effects people hired for the feature film decided that the miniatures under construction were not up to the standards of a post-Star Wars feature, and all were scrapped. Director Robert Collins, who had been hired to direct the pilot, and promised he was to direct the feature, was replaced by Robert Wise.\n\nThe concept of a \"Paramount Network\" led by a flagship Star Trek series finally came to fruition in January 1995 when Paramount launched the United Paramount Network (UPN) and the Star Trek: Voyager series.\n\n## Background\n\nStar Trek: The Original Series was cancelled in 1969, following three seasons on NBC. Afterward, it saw success in broadcast syndication, resulting in science fiction conventions being held for the fans of the show. Influenced by this success, Paramount Pictures soon sought to create a new film from the series. Series creator Gene Roddenberry told the Associated Press in March 1972 that NBC wanted a Star Trek television film as pilot for a new series. Barry Diller, the chief executive officer of Paramount Pictures between 1974 and 1984, later explained that Arthur Barron, the chief financial officer at the time, was pushing for renewing Star Trek as a low-budget film, and that any suggestions that Paramount's owner Charles Bluhdorn had some involvement were untrue.\n\nIn May 1975, Roddenberry signed a contract with Paramount for Star Trek: The God Thing, with a budget of \\$5 million. However, his contract was terminated in August of the same year after inviting several writers to pitch story ideas for the film. Paramount instead placed Jerry Isenberg in charge of the project as executive producer in July 1976. Chris Bryant and Allan Scott were hired to write a script, which they entitled Star Trek: Planet of the Titans. Bryant and Scott turned in their script on March 1, 1977, which was rejected by Paramount. The duo left the project, citing conflicts in the film's scope between Roddenberry and director Philip Kaufman. Shortly before the scheduled release of Star Wars on May 25, the Star Trek film was cancelled on May 9. Kaufman claimed that Paramount attributed this to the idea that science fiction fans would not go see two films released so close together.\n\n## Production\n\n### Conception\n\nThe Paramount Television Service was announced on June 10, 1977. Seven days later, Roddenberry announced that Star Trek would be returning to television on the new service, saying that \"Hopefully it will be even superior\" to The Original Series and that casting would include \"as many of the old faces as possible, as well as an infusion of new ones\". At the time, The Original Series was being broadcast on 137 stations in the United States in syndication, and it was expected that the new television service would provide a single evening package that could be broadcast by these independent stations as well as Paramount's recently acquired Hughes Television Network. It was hoped that this station could become the fourth national network in the United States; Diller and his assistant Michael Eisner had hired Jeffrey Katzenberg to manage Star Trek into production, with a television film due to launch the new series at a cost of \\$3.2 million – which some claimed would have made it the most expensive television movie ever made to date.\n\nRoddenberry said that the show would continue to cover modern themes in a science fiction way as had the first series, saying that these could include hijacking, nationalism, and radicalization of both individuals and groups. He also wanted to show 23rd-century Earth for the first time, and said that this had been the answer to Paramount executives asking him if there had been anything he wanted to do on The Original Series but could not. A further change was to be the number of female cast members, as NBC had a requirement of a maximum of one-third, and Roddenberry wanted to have them appear in authority positions.\n\n### Crew and production design\n\nThe expectation was that the two-hour pilot film would be broadcast in February 1978, with weekly episodes following, broadcast in an 8 pm EST timeslot on Saturday nights. Gary Nardino, who was placed in charge of the new network, said that \"Star Trek was absolutely the lead horse of the new network. Because the advertisers recognized the strength of Star Trek in the syndicated market.\" Prior to commencing production on the new series, Roddenberry took a two-week vacation in order to rid himself of negative feelings about the way that production on the feature film had gone. He described his concerns saying that he did not want to \"drag a corpse of anger, defeats and double-crossing behind me\" onto the new show. Robert Goodwin was placed in charge of developing the feature films that would follow each week's episode of Star Trek, and the movie-length pilot as well. Roddenberry wanted to meet him, and despite Goodwin's lack of Star Trek background, he was convinced to be a producer on the series instead. Roddenberry described him as the \"producer producer\", in that Goodwin would deal with all the technical aspects of the production. For the screenwriting aspect of the production, Harold Livingston was recruited, who recalled that the technical/screenwriting split of the executive producer role was innovative for the time. Like Goodwin, Livingston had not previously worked on Star Trek, but had worked on Mission: Impossible, a different Desilu Productions television series.\n\nRoddenberry was given complete creative control over the new television project by Paramount, which had promised him that it would be able to make the project a \"first-class effort\" with the budget to suit. Matt Jefferies, who had worked on The Original Series, was recruited as a technical advisor. He had designed the original USS Enterprise alongside Pato Guzman, but was unwilling to give up a position on the television series Little House on the Prairie for a 13-episode order on a new Star Trek series. Roddenberry was adamant that Jefferies was the right person to update the Enterprise, and agreed a position that the designer could advise the new show, but would have to choose between it and his main duties on Little House on the Prairie if the Star Trek work started to interfere. This occurred quite quickly, after Jefferies conducted design work on the new version of the Enterprise at a hotel in Tucson, Arizona, while on a location shoot for Little House on the Prairie, and could not attend meetings with Roddenberry and the producers in Los Angeles. He recommended Joseph R. Jennings as the main art director on the series; Jennings had worked for Jefferies during the second and third seasons of The Original Series. Jefferies' re-design of the Enterprise was based on the principle that the technology was updated over time, but the general silhouette remained the same. He highlighted that the engines would specifically be designed to be replaced, so the external design of them was completely changed. Brick Price Movie Miniatures was hired to produce the physical models of the vessel in two sizes, an 18-inch (46 cm) version for long shots, and a larger 5-foot (1.5 m) model built by Don Loos cast in moulds of fiberglass. Other models were built specifically for the pilot film included an open frame orbital drydock, tetrahedron shaped models for a space office complex and space taxi, and the golden head and neck of the impossibly long \"Vejur\" space entity.\n\nOnly a few former Star Trek crew members were recruited. Costume designer William Ware Theiss began working on new designs for the Starfleet uniforms, some based on his creations for The Original Series, others being a radical departure. Michael Minor—who had created set decorations and props for The Original Series' third season—was brought in as a production illustrator, working with Lee Cole in the Art Department under Jennings.\n\nOther creations that were updated included the phaser, which were built to the same design as in the previous series, but were built out of aluminium instead of the fiberglass resin props used before. The battery packs were detachable, and contained actual batteries that activated strobe lighting on the main body of the prop. Technical advisers were recruited, such as Marvin Minsky, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and his wife Gloria Rudisch.\n\nSet production was underway by the start of August, with stage 8 on the Paramount lot designated as the \"planet set\", while stage 9 was where the Enterprise sets were located. By August 9, the foundations of the bridge set was built, with a plaster mould used to produce fiberglass \"skins\" for the various prop consoles and walls.\n\nBy August 16, Livingston had held pitch meetings with more than 30 writers who were interested in scripting episodes of Phase II. Some of these, such as Theodore Sturgeon, David Gerrold and Norman Spinrad, had previously written episodes of The Original Series. Also pitching to write an episode was Star Trek actor Walter Koenig. In order to have the scripts delivered in an efficient manner, Roddenberry decided that he wanted all the scripts for the first batch of episodes completed prior to filming began on the pilot. He was confident that because of The Original Series, that the writers would not have difficulty in writing new scenes with already established characters. However, Livingston and the writers did not know how the new characters would relate to the original ones. Despite this, Roddenberry claimed at the time that the relationships between the characters would take time to be built over the course of several episodes, and that fan reaction to certain characters and events would define how frequently they would appear.\n\nBy September, it had become apparent that they needed to hire a story editor. Roddenberry's assistant, Jon Povill, had already been conducting these duties on a script entitled \"The Child\", and so Livingston suggested that Povill should be recruited in that role permanently. Roddenberry disagreed, but Livingston threatened to quit unless Povill was hired. Povill was subsequently recruited as story editor, but Livingston said that this action was the one that caused a breakdown in the relationship between Roddenberry and himself.\n\nThe two-hour pilot film was to be based on a story outline Roddenberry had written for the aborted series follow-up to his 1973 Genesis II TV movie. That story, titled \"Robot's Return\" featured a gigantic alien craft coming to Earth searching for its origin. Alan Dean Foster, who had previously adapted episodes of Star Trek: The Animated Series in a series of short stories published in the Star Trek Logs series of books, was hired to adapt this story idea for Star Trek and in the process introduce the newly redesigned and refitted USS Enterprise and its crew, both old and new, as they confront a gigantic, aggressive, seemingly omnipotent alien intruder bound for Earth. With a looming production deadline and unable to find a suitable experienced TV writer to develop this story into a teleplay, Harold Livingston took on the writing job himself.\n\n### Cast\n\nBy August 1977, discussions had been held with the main cast from The Original Series, as well as some of the actors who had played recurring characters. While none had been signed at the time, Roddenberry expressed confidence that they could do so with the exception of Leonard Nimoy, who had stated that he would not return to television. However, Nimoy said separately that the first offer he received from Roddenberry for Phase II was only for the pilot and then guaranteed appearances in two out of every 11 episodes that followed, which he rejected. Nimoy and Roddenberry were not on good terms, following a legal suit launched by the actor against Paramount over merchandising rights featuring his likeness; Roddenberry had refused to support Nimoy in the case. There was also a problem with the return of William Shatner: owing to the pay he was to receive for the pilot and the first thirteen episodes, the studio wanted a contingency plan to replace him afterwards. Shatner was aware at the time that the plan was either to reduce his appearances after the initial episodes and reduce his ongoing fees, or—he believed—to kill off the character permanently if he refused the pay cut. Negotiations began with Shatner on June 10, but it was not until September 12 that his return was announced.\n\nEach of the returning former cast members was signed to contracts stipulating that they would be paid for the pilot and the 13 episodes regardless of whether the series went into production. They were also given substantial pay increases over what they had received on The Original Series. For example, DeForest Kelley was paid \\$17,500 for the first four weeks, then \\$7,500 per episode for the rest of the first season. Regulars actors including James Doohan, Nichelle Nichols, George Takei, Walter Koenig, Majel Barrett had on The Original Series only had contracts for a certain number of appearances or been freelance players paid a daily rate, but here all were under contract for the initial series order.\n\nThe problems with Nimoy and Shatner necessitated the creation of two new characters. In Goodwin's first draft show bible, he included descriptions for a new \"Ship's commander\" character, and a \"Young Vulcan\". The latter character was specifically attributed as being a second-cousin of Spock, and also a half-human/half-Vulcan. He also added a new Yeoman character, but Roddenberry was concerned at the time about the character, writing to Livingston \"Simply adding a 'flunky' female to the bridge may not satisfy our needs for gender equality.\" This discussion began the process that resulted in the creation of Ilia, a new female character who was not intended to replace one of the previous cast members. In charge of casting these new members of the crew was Robert Collins, who had been hired to direct the pilot. Xon would later be changed to a full-blooded Vulcan.\n\nDavid Gautreaux was cast as Xon on September 26, after approaching the casting director himself, having no agent. He had heard about the part, as he was dating the employee of an agent at the time. The final audition for the role had eight actors, including Gautreaux, of various ages and sizes. Gautreaux later said that the one thing they all had in common was a slightly alien appearance. He was hired to a \\$15,000 fee for the pilot, a guaranteed payment for the 13 episodes whether or not they were filmed, and a six-year option on his contract. Despite this, he was required to return for a further audition within a couple of weeks. Majel Barrett was due to return as Christine Chapel, this time as a doctor, and the actress was concerned that the romantic chemistry she shared with Nimoy might not work with a younger actor. She instead wanted an older British actor to play the role. Gautreaux, now with an agent, secured a further \\$2,500 fee to return and audition again, since it would cause him to miss out on a guest appearance for the same fee on the television series Fantasy Island. He retained the part, saying that the other actor was \"absolutely abominable\". It was only after this further audition that he was told what few others knew at the time: that Phase II had already been cancelled, and they were instead going to make a feature film.\n\nFollowing announcements of Gautreaux's Xon replacing Nimoy's Spock, Gautreaux began to receive threatening fan-mail suggesting that he was going to be poisoned or dosed with LSD. He began to prepare for the role by purchasing a television set and watching old episodes of Star Trek, in order to portray the most accurate Vulcan he could. He fasted over the course of ten days and grew his hair long. Gautreaux sought out potential coaches who had worked on The Original Series, and later highlighted the help provided by Jeff Corey who had appeared in \"The Cloud Minders\". Despite not being a Star Trek fan previously, he said he had begun looking forward to portraying Xon by that point.\n\nOn October 28, Persis Khambatta was hired to portray Ilia. She had been required to wear a bald cap for her screen test, although at this point the character also wore elaborate headgear in some footage. Roddenberry was insistent on this as a character attribute, but others such as Eisner hated the idea of a bald female character. His notes said that while a bald female character would be an interesting addition, it may prevent the audience from feeling at ease with Ilia and so the style may need to be given to a different character entirely. The auditions by this time were not held under the pretence that they were to play a part in a television series, but were openly talking about Star Trek becoming a feature film.\n\nThe casting for first officer Willard Decker had been delayed, both because of a slight delay in the production but also because the writers were no longer sure that the character was needed at all. This was despite auditions being conducted at the same time that Gautreaux was cast as Xon, during which, in his second audition with Barrett, he also read lines against ten actors competing for the role of Decker.\n\nOne further change to the cast was to have been the return of Grace Lee Whitney as Janice Rand. In 1977, having read the back cover of Susan Sackett's Letters to Star Trek book and discovering that one of the frequently asked questions sent into the production team was \"Whatever happened to Grace Lee Whitney?\", Whitney herself got in touch with Sackett and was invited along to meet with Roddenberry at his office in Paramount Studios. He was excited and happy to see her, and immediately offered to bring back the character for Phase II, describing the removal of Rand from The Original Series as his greatest mistake and blaming it on NBC executives. He said that \"when Captain Kirk came back from having affairs with all these other women on all these other planets – he'd have to deal with [Rand]. What a great plot-thickener that would have been!\".\n\n### Cancellation\n\nA key premise of the \"In Thy Image\" story was to see Earth itself threatened for the first time in Star Trek. Producer Goodwin proposed that this story should be the two-hours pilot of the series at a meeting with Eisner on August 3. He would later recall that this specific meeting changed the direction of the franchise, as Eisner declared that Foster's story was the one that he had been looking for to make a feature, not a television, film. At the same time, Paramount had come to realize that the expected advertising revenues for the Paramount Television Service could not support a fourth network, and so there was no possibility of creating the series. By this point, costs for the series had already reached \\$500,000, and the studio was looking to recoup those expenses in some manner. The initial concept was to continue with the pilot, and then attempt to sell the series to NBC, CBS, or ABC. But the Paramount executives were concerned about losing control of a potential franchise, and by moving the pilot into a feature film, it gave them the ability to keep it in-house.\n\nHowever, because of the number of times that a Star Trek film was announced in the 1970s, the Paramount executives decided that they could not lose face once more by making an announcement, only to potentially reverse the decision in several months time. Because of this, production continued on Phase II for a further five months after the decision was made that it would not go into production. By November, Livingston and Roddenberry were no longer working well together. They had each re-drafted \"In Thy Image\" themselves, and presented these versions to Eisner. The Paramount executive's response was that Roddenberry's version was suited for television, and Livingston's was better for a motion picture – and better overall. Collins was assigned to combine certain elements of Roddenberry's version into Livingston's and to complete that draft by the end of the month.\n\nThe first public announcement of the cancellation of the Paramount Television Service and Phase II came at the hands of the gossip columnist Rona Barrett at the start of December. In response, Paramount released a statement that said the new network had been pushed back to the fall of 1978, and that Phase II had its episode order increased from 13 to between 15 and 22. Despite this, behind the scenes, production continued on Star Trek as a film, not as a series. One of the changes around the same time as Barrett's reports was the realization that all the model work completed thus far had to be restarted from scratch, as it was not detailed enough to be blown up on a motion picture-sized screen. Two further changes took place in December: Collins was dropped as director, for Paramount wanted a motion picture director and not one with experience only in television; and Livingston allowed his contract to run out and left the production, owing to the poor relationship he had with Roddenberry. By January, Paramount no longer pretended that Star Trek was to be anything other than a feature film. Livingston was brought back, but only in a writing capacity, and Robert Wise was hired as director on the film to replace Collins.\n\n## Scripts\n\n## Legacy\n\nAfter production was underway on The Motion Picture, and Nimoy signed up for the film, Gautreaux requested that Xon be eliminated from the script entirely instead of being shown in a reduced capacity. Gautreaux would go on to portray Commander Branch in the film instead, in his only appearance in the franchise. At the time of the production on the film, the idea was to keep Xon in reserve for a future film or television series. Gautreaux was subsequently called in for an interview with Nimoy during the early work on Star Trek III: The Search for Spock. The pair started talking about the impact that Nimoy's return to Star Trek had made on Gautreaux, with the latter telling Nimoy that he had treated it as a play that had been cancelled on the first night of the performance, which had not made a major impact on his career.\n\nThe Phase II sets were located on stage 9 of the Paramount lot. The main layout and structures remained when those sets were overhauled to appear in The Motion Picture and various following films within the franchise. The sets were re-worked and converted prior to the start of Star Trek: The Next Generation to appear on television for the first time, and when Star Trek: Voyager aired, they were used once more. It was only with the start of Star Trek: Enterprise that the setup of the Star Trek sets at Paramount were completely changed and the Phase II foundations no longer remained.\n\nThe idea of a young male Vulcan scientist was once again proposed early in the work on Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, which was attributed by later reviewers to the influence of Xon from Phase II. The gender of this character was subsequently changed to female, and called Saavik. She was played by Kirstie Alley in that film, and later by Robin Curtis in The Search for Spock and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home.\n\nSeveral minutes of test footage, including a view of the redesigned Engineering Room, costume tests with crew, screen test footage of Gautreaux as Xon and costume test footage of Khambatta as Ilia, were included in a featurette on the DVD release of the Director's Edition of Star Trek: The Motion Picture. The presence of a second five-year mission, as would have been shown in Phase II, was included in the Star Trek timeline in the Star Trek Chronology book by Michael and Denise Okuda in 1993. This would have taken place after the events of The Motion Picture.\n\nA book based on the production of the series, Star Trek Phase II: The Lost Series was published in 1997 by Pocket Books. It was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens, and went into detail about the conception of the planned and later aborted series, looking at several aspects of production, with behind-the-series information, color artwork, storyboards, blueprints, technical information and photos. It also contained two full scripts from the planned series.\n\nJames Cawley purchased the costumes that would have been used in Phase II, and later repurposed them for his fan series Star Trek: New Voyages. He felt that they represented the step between those seen in The Original Series and the uniforms in The Motion Picture. The series also made other references to Phase II, as Xon was added in the episode \"Blood and Fire\", which was based on an unused script for Star Trek: The Next Generation. In New Voyages, Xon was played by Patrick Bell. In February 2008, Cawley announced that New Voyages would be re-titled Phase II in reference to the abandoned 1970s series. The change was reverted following an announcement by Cawley on June 9, 2015.\n\n### Star Trek: The Next Generation\n\nPhase II would prove influential on The Next Generation, whose creation began just over seven years later. The characters of Xon, Decker and Ilia were used as the basis for the creation of Data, William Riker and Deanna Troi. However, the series was allowed to be different in tone from the planned Phase II, for the feature films that had come before it had changed the audience expectations of what Star Trek was. It was originally proposed in Gerrold's The Worlds of Star Trek to have the second-in-command leading the away team, and it was anticipated that this would be included in Phase II – it was instead first introduced in The Next Generation.\n\nOwing to the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike, work on the second season of The Next Generation was delayed. The producers sought scripts that could be put into production as quickly as possible once the strike was lifted, and so \"The Child\" from Phase II was picked as one that could be used in the new series with Ilia's place in the script swapped out in favor of Troi. A further Phase II script was adapted later in the series, when \"Devil's Due\" was converted for The Next Generation in the fourth season.\n\nCertain elements of Klingon culture, such as the Emperor, and a general influence of Japanese culture with honor at the forefront, were first explored with the script for the two-part \"Kitumba\". Writer John Meredyth Lucas said that \"I wanted something that we had never seen before on the series, and that's a penetration deep into enemy space. I started to think of how the Klingons lived. Obviously for the Romulans we had Romans, and we've had different cultures modeled on those of ancient Earth, but I tried to think of what the Klingon society would be like. The Japanese came to mind, so basically that's what it was, with the Sacred Emperor, the Warlord and so on.\" While the episode itself was later filmed for the fan production Star Trek: New Voyages, Star Trek first visited the Klingon homeworld in The Next Generation episode \"Sins of the Father\", and the themes would be revisited through the series.\n\n### Star Trek: Voyager\n\nJudith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens described Voyager as the \"conceptual cousin\" of Phase II, in that it was used to launch the United Paramount Network (UPN) in January 1995. This was the fifth network, as Diller had moved to the Fox Entertainment Group in the years between Phase II and Voyager, where he launched the fourth network, the Fox Broadcasting Company. They hypothesised that Phase II would have seen a similar decline in ratings as seen by Voyager during the course of the first season, except this decline would have resulted in the cancellation of Phase II at the time of first broadcast in 1970s. While they felt this would not have been the end of the franchise, they suggest it would have resulted in a more immediate reboot with the entire crew re-cast.", "revid": "1164652218", "description": "Un-aired television program", "categories": ["American sequel television series", "Star Trek television series", "Star Trek: Phase II", "Unproduced television shows"]}
{"id": "1757305", "url": null, "title": "Independence Pass (Colorado)", "text": "Independence Pass, originally known as Hunter Pass, is a high mountain pass in central Colorado, United States. It is at elevation 12,095 ft (3,687 m) on the Continental Divide in the Sawatch Range of the Rocky Mountains. The pass is midway between Aspen and Twin Lakes, on the border between Pitkin and Lake counties.\n\nState Highway 82 traverses it, and after Cottonwood Pass to the south, is the second highest elevation of a paved Colorado state highway on a through road. It is also the second-highest pass with an improved road in the state, the fourth-highest paved road in the state and the second highest paved crossing of the Continental Divide in the U.S. Because of the heavy snowfall at its elevation, it is closed in wintertime, isolating Aspen from direct access from the east during the ski season.\n\nWhen the pass is open in warmer weather, it is a popular destination. A scenic overlook near the pass allows visitors to take in the alpine tundra environment above treeline, and offers excellent views to the east of Mount Elbert, Colorado's highest peak and the second-highest mountain in the contiguous United States. Rock climbers are drawn to nearby bouldering opportunities, and informal paths lead to nearby mountain summits of even higher elevation. Backcountry skiers make use of the slopes during the late spring and early summer. Since 2011 the pass has been on the route of the USA Pro Cycling Challenge.\n\nThe pass was formed by glacial action and erosion in the region, and its first recorded sighting was by Zebulon Pike in 1806. Ferdinand Hayden surveyed it in 1873. As part of the Continental Divide, it was the limit of European settlement in the region at the time, with the land to the west reserved for the Ute people. Prospectors who defied governor Frederick Walker Pitkin's order crossed the pass on July 4, 1879, giving it its current name and setting up a similarly named village (now a ghost town) to its west. A toll road built across the pass was abandoned and neglected after a railroad connection was made to Aspen. A new road replaced it in the 1920s; portions of the old route can still be seen along the western approach. The Independence Pass Foundation, based in Aspen, works to repair damage to the pass's environment caused by both roads since 1984.\n\n## Geography\n\nAt the pass, the main ridge of the Sawatch Range, and thus the Continental Divide, turns from running generally south to more southwesterly. North of the pass slopes rise to an unnamed 13,440-foot (4,100 m) peak a half-mile (1 km) away; a ridge of about the same length connects it to the nearest named summit, 13,711-foot (4,179 m) Twining Peak. To the south the ridge rises more gently around Mountain Boy Gulch to an unnamed 13,198-foot (4,023 m) summit 2 miles (3.2 km) distant. The first named summit in this direction is Grizzly Peak, Colorado's highest thirteener.\n\nThe terrain is level enough, and the ridge broad enough, to allow for a 500-foot (150 m) parking lot along the south side of Highway 82 at the height of land. The pass is split evenly between Pitkin and Lake counties, as well as White River and San Isabel national forests. Boundaries of the Collegiate Peaks Wilderness and the Mount Massive Wilderness are near the pass on the south and north respectively. The Hunter–Fryingpan Wilderness is also nearby.\n\nWest of the parking area is a small maintenance shed; on the east are toilet facilities. Both are maintained by the U.S. Forest Service. A paved walkway system extends to a pair of overlooks 500 feet (150 m) to the south allowing views in that direction over the Lake Creek valley to Mount Elbert, at 14,440 feet (4,400 m) the highest peak both in Colorado and the Rocky Mountains, and La Plata Peak, another fourteener and the state's fifth-highest peak. A wide dirt path continues southward three miles (4.8 km) along the ridge to an unnamed 13,020-foot (3,970 m) summit. Across the road a use path leads 2.5 miles (4.0 km) to the summits of the unnamed peak and Twining. The overlook, maintained by the Colorado Department of Transportation, includes an inaccurate demarcation of the Continental Divide dating back to estimated surveys taken during the Pike Expedition. Geologists have since determined the true Divide to be along the popular trailhead leading to Linkins Lake 2 miles (3.2 km) west of the current marker.\n\nThe pass comes roughly in the middle of a 32-mile (51 km) stretch of Highway 82 between the two winter gates, a corridor that is sometimes referred to in its entirety as Independence Pass. Aspen is 19 miles (31 km) to the west, with Twin Lakes 18 miles (29 km) to the east. Beyond Aspen the highway continues down the valley to the mouth of the Roaring Fork at Glenwood Springs. East of Twin Lakes Highway 82 continues a short distance to its eastern terminus at U.S. Highway 24, 15 miles (24 km) south of Leadville.\n\nOn both approaches, the dropoff is steep enough for Highway 82 to require a 6 percent grade and switchbacks: one on the west and three on the east. The former approach uses the narrow valley of the Roaring Fork River, a tributary of the Colorado, which rises from Independence Lake west of the pass. Its walls are steeper but shallower than those of the North Fork of Lake Creek, which drains into Twin Lakes Reservoir and the headwaters of the Arkansas River, on the east.\n\nThe pass is above tree line, so the surrounding terrain is alpine tundra. Open grassy expanses are occasionally broken by low shrubbery and bare patches of rock, particularly on the steep slope to the north. Snow lingers in some areas year-round. Adjacent to the road and parking area are small ephemeral pools on the southwest, with a larger, permanent one north of the road.\n\n## History\n\nLike the surrounding mountains, the pass was created by glaciation and erosion over thousands of years. Before European-American settlers arrived, it was in the territory of the Ute Native American tribe. One of the earliest sightings by a European-American was in 1806, when Zebulon Pike, mapping the southern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase, spotted the gap in what would later be named the Sawatch Range from the upper Arkansas River valley. It was not explored until Ferdinand Hayden and his team surveyed it in 1873. At the time it was known as Hunter Pass.\n\nThree years later, in 1876, Colorado became a state. At the time settlement had pushed as far west from its capital, Denver, as Leadville. There was a variety of metals and minerals in the surrounding mountains, and some miners had become rich from their claims there. Those who had not been so successful heard about reports from prospectors of abundant silver deposits farther west, over the Divide.\n\nGovernor Frederick Walker Pitkin had ordered all settlers to stay to the east of the Divide, as the state and federal governments had not made peace with the Utes. Nevertheless, some defied the order, drawn by the prospect of mining fortunes. Settlers sometimes used Hunter Pass to get to Ashcroft, an early camp on Castle Creek above the Roaring Fork. However, they preferred to take the southern route over the slightly higher Cottonwood Pass through Taylor Park and then back over Taylor Pass to get there, even though this made for a 100-mile (160 km) journey, 40 miles (64 km) more than the direct route offered by Hunter Pass.\n\nOn July 4, 1879, a group from Leadville struck gold in the uppermost Roaring Fork valley below the pass. Four miles (6.4 km) to the west, they established a settlement in the upper Roaring Fork Valley that eventually took the name Independence from the holiday on which it was established. The pass, the lake from which the Roaring Fork rises and another nearby mountain all took that name as well. The Twin Lakes and Roaring Fork Toll Company, established to build a road through to the camps in the lower Roaring Fork Valley, improved the original path over the pass sufficiently enough by 1880 that horses could be used for the trip.\n\nIndependence grew quickly when more gold was found in the nearby mountains. Within two years of its settlement permanent buildings had replaced the original tents, and a mining concern from Leadville had bought up all the claims. In two years they produced gold worth \\$190,000 (\\$ in modern dollars), funding the construction of a stamping mill and sawmill. In Aspen, farther down the valley, silver was found in even greater abundance than Independence's gold. B. Clark Wheeler, an early investor in those mines, funded the construction of a stage road to Leadville, the first road to cross the pass. It opened in November 1881, with winter already in full swing at the pass.\n\nThe road charged 25 cents (\\$ in modern dollars) for saddle horses and twice that for two-axle stagecoaches. The tolls, collected at three separate gates, primarily reflected the cost of retaining a large crew of men with snow shovels to keep the road open in wintertime; they were able to keep the road open through its first five winters. When the snow was too deep, sleighs were used instead. During the summer the stages were able to take the switchbacks at full speed, with dogs running in advance to warn other traffic. A typical voyage over the pass required 10–25 hours and five changes of horses.\n\nThe road improved Independence's economy, since coaches often stopped there on the multi-day journey. However, the year of its construction would turn out to be the settlement's economic peak year. Gold production dropped off after 1884. Independence's decline in population, remote location and severe high-altitude winters cost it the opportunity to be seat of newly formed Pitkin County to Aspen, located on a larger plain farther down the river and growing much more rapidly due to the Colorado Silver Boom. When a rail connection was made to that city in 1888, the stage road fell into disuse, further hurting Independence's economy. All but one of the remaining residents decamped as a group to Aspen on improvised cross-country skis during the severe winter of 1899. The holdout, J.R. Williams, remained until 1920. The nearby Williams Mountains were named for him.\n\nBy then Aspen's prosperity had receded as well. Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in response to the Panic of 1893, which took the largest buyer of the city's silver out of the market. Aspen began a period of steady decline known today as \"the quiet years\" as mines gradually closed down. The route over the pass remained useful, however. In 1895 a telephone line was routed over it.\n\nAlthough its population had dropped below a thousand by the late 1920s, in 1927 the state replaced the stage road with what eventually became Highway 82. Unlike the stage road, it was closed during the winter months. While most of the old route was used for the new road, a portion of the original grade remains three miles below the pass on the east side. It includes the foundation of the gatekeeper's house and the remains of the gate.\n\nDuring the Great Depression, another large public works project involved the pass. The federal Works Progress Administration (WPA) oversaw the construction of the Twin Lakes Tunnel, which diverted water from Grizzly Reservoir, on Lincoln Creek, a southern tributary of the Roaring Fork, to Twin Lakes, where it was used for irrigation purposes by beet and watermelon farmers in the Rocky Ford and Ordway areas. Starting in 1935, a volume of 50,000 acre-feet (62 million cubic meters) were made available this way.\n\nAnother WPA effort recognized the pass as a scenic attraction. A travel guidebook for automobile touring produced by the Federal Writers' Project gave as one route the trip along Highway 82 from Twin Lakes. It noted the distinctive landscape of the pass:\n\n> The highway rises in a series of loops and curves towards the Continental Divide. Thinning pines, gnarled and stubby from their fight for existence, give way to bare boulders, hardy grasses and the alpine vegetation of a world above the clouds. The road along the sheer face of the mountain, while steep, is one of the safest traversing a pass in Colorado.\n>\n> A stone monument and several small lakes mark the summit of Independence Pass, the highest and probably the most impressive automobile pass in the state. An arctic meadowland overshadowed only by the topmost notches of the Sawatch Range, it rises far above the peaks that towered high when viewed from the Lake Creek valley.\n\nAfter World War II, Aspen began to grow and prosper again due to the establishment of a popular ski resort, an annual music festival, and a relaxed lifestyle which attracted many celebrities and corporate executives to the city. Visitors to Aspen generally had to take Highway 82 up from Glenwood Springs or fly in, as few wanted to drive over the unpaved pass road. In 1967 the State Highway Department remedied this by paving the road over the pass. It has since been designated part of Colorado's \"Top of the Rockies\" scenic byway by the state and federal departments of transportation.\n\n## Environment\n\nThe alpine tundra biome of the pass extends below it on either side to an elevation of approximately 11,500 feet (3,500 m), or about the altitude of the Linkins Lake trailhead on the western side, Highway 82's uppermost crossing of the Roaring Fork. Below it is a subalpine zone where lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir and aspen dominate the forest. A few patches of those trees persist above that elevation, but they are mostly stunted krummholz.\n\nTree growth above those patches is curtailed by the alpine climate of the pass. It is characterized by severe changes in temperature, high winds and the deep winter snow. The resulting short growing season is made even shorter by the thin soil.\n\nThe most predominant plant species in the alpine zone around the pass are the grass species adapted to the harsh climate. Other alpine flora, such as moss and lichens on the rocks, and wildflowers in season, make appearances. Shrubs that survive among them include strawberry, snowberry, willows and bog birch. Animals in the alpine zone include ptarmigans, small burrowing species like pika, marmots, and pocket gopher, and mountain goats.\n\nTwo types of rock are found in the pass and its vicinity. Quartz monzonite forms many of the cliffs, while the crags are biotite gneiss. The glaciation, which dates to as recently as 12,000 years ago, smoothed much of the rock to the point of it being slippery.\n\n## Visitor attractions\n\nMany visitors stop at the parking lot and walk the paved path to the scenic overlook. In clear enough weather it offers views east of Mount Elbert, Colorado's highest peak, and La Plata Peak, the state's fifth-highest at 14,336 feet (4,370 m). To the west more fourteeners—the Maroon Bells, Snowmass Mountain and Capitol Peak—stand out among the mountains. A trail with Braille interpretive plaques is available for visually impaired visitors.\n\nOther outdoor recreation opportunities exist at and near the pass. Between the pass and Difficult Campground, 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Aspen, there are many popular rock climbing areas, some with grades up to 5.12 under the Yosemite Decimal System. The Grotto Wall across from Lincoln Gulch campground is a frequent destination. Closer to the pass are Instant Karma Cliff and Putterman's Dome. A pair of rocks along either side of Highway 82 on the east approach to the pass are popular bouldering spots.\n\nOn the days after the pass reopens in the spring, backcountry skiers often take advantage of the remaining snow on the slopes. In years following heavy winters, skiing is possible into July.\n\nWater-based recreation is available near the pass as well, particularly on the Roaring Fork side. At the Grottos climbing cliffs eight miles (14.4 km) to the west of the pass, a short trail leads to an area along the river known as the Devil's Punchbowl, with high stone cliffs on either side and waterfalls. It is a popular swimming hole due to its deep and cool waters. The river is popular with anglers casting for trout as well, and some even make the hike from the pass up to Blue Lake for its lake and cutthroat trout stocks.\n\nFour miles (6.4 km) west of the pass is the site of Independence, the village whose establishment on July 4 led to the pass's current name. It has been a ghost town since the early 20th century. In 1973 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Most of its buildings were cannibalized for their building supplies, but a few log cabins remain. The Aspen Historical Society, in conjunction with the U.S. Forest Service, built an interpretive trail with plaques.\n\nIn 2011 the USA Pro Cycling Challenge bicycle race around Colorado was held for the first time. A 131-mile (211 km) stage from Gunnison to Aspen was routed over both Cottonwood and Independence passes. Spectators were allowed to camp at the pass; their impact on the pass's environment led to a ban on camping within 10 miles (16 km) of it for the following year's event. The Forest Service posted signs reminding spectators at the pass of the fragility of the surrounding tundra\n\n## Travel advisories and restrictions\n\nThe Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT) restricts the use of Highway 82 through the pass. Most significant is the winter closure. The road is typically closed after the first significant winter snowfall, or by November 7 at the latest (but there have been exceptions.). CDOT tries to reopen just before Memorial Day weekend in late May, the traditional beginning of summer in the United States, when enough of the accumulated snowpack has melted to make it possible to clear and repair the road. Some years, after light winters, the pass has reopened as early as May 12. Two gates, just east of Aspen on the west end and west of the remaining buildings of the stage stop of Everett on the east, prevent motor vehicles from passage. When the road is closed, Aspen is isolated from the east and Highway 82 up the valley from Glenwood Springs becomes the only vehicular access to the city during its busy ski season.\n\nEven when the pass is open, not all vehicles may use the road. Oversized and overweight vehicles are prohibited from the pass, as are all vehicles or vehicle combinations longer than 35 feet (11 m) regardless of weight or size. This precludes use of the pass by tractor trailers, buses, and recreational vehicles.\n\nSome truck drivers use the pass despite the prohibition. They are generally either unaware of the restriction and following routes plotted by their GPS devices, or aware of it and willing to risk the fine for the sake of the time and distance saved. The resulting accidents have sometimes forced the closure of the pass. CDOT put up larger signs advising drivers of the ban and worked with GPS device manufacturers so their software notes the restriction. Aspen officials have suggested increasing the fines as a deterrent.\n\nDriving through the pass is challenging. Both approaches require 6% grades due to the height of the pass, and require navigating hairpin turns with advisory speeds of 10 mph (15 km/h). Rockfalls, particularly on the approach from Aspen, have narrowed some sections to a single lane 12 feet (4 m) wide with temporary traffic lights. On the Twin Lakes approach, they have resulted in temporary closures. Other vehicles frequently enter the road unexpectedly at the many parking areas for campgrounds and other recreational attractions, and bicyclists make frequent use of Highway 82 as well. Lastly, the weather at the pass can be unpredictable and vary considerably from conditions in either Aspen or Twin Lakes. There may be thunderstorms on otherwise clear days, and snow can occur at any time of the year. CDOT advises anyone coming to the pass for outdoor recreation to take precautions against the effects of the high altitude and the changeable weather.\n\n## Independence Pass Foundation\n\nSince the days of the stage road avalanches and rockfalls often forced closures of the highway, partly due to the massive disturbance of the land during the road's construction. No attempt was made to remedy this until shortly after the automobile road was built. In the 1930s, as a relief project during the Great Depression, a crew from the Civilian Conservation Corps replanted the slopes around Independence, by then abandoned for two decades.\n\nAt that time, Aspen was a faded mining town whose population had dwindled to fewer than a thousand. Later in the decade the first efforts to develop a ski resort began. They continued after World War II, and in the later decades of the 20th century the city began to grow again. Other than paving the road, CDOT was unable to undertake any significant improvements to the highway corridor due to its projects elsewhere in the state and the requirement to coordinate efforts with the Forest Service, which owns most of the damaged land.\n\nBeginning in 1976, Bob Lewis, an environmental activist in Aspen, organized revegetation efforts on some sections of the pass near the road that were having serious erosion problems. He realized eventually that a dedicated nonprofit organization would be a better way to address the many issues that remained. The Independence Pass Foundation (IPF) was established in 1989. Its first project, coordinated with the Forest Service, CDOT and Pitkin County, was the reconstruction of a curve near the popular Weller Lake trailhead.\n\nThe success of the Weller Curve project cleared the way for work on the Top Cut, the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) stretch just below the summit on the western side, which includes the most seriously eroded slopes anywhere in the pass corridor. Lewis had always intended to focus the IPF's efforts on it, and the organization began the first of several ongoing projects there in 1996. Work included the construction of stone retaining walls as well as revegetation. By the 2010s the results were evident.\n\nWith the success of these projects, IPF has been doing revegetation projects along the road below the Top Cut since 2004. Compost blankets were applied to large sections of the soil to replace lost nutrients. In 2009 the foundation began removing metal and rebar snow fences embedded in the soil just below the pass summit during the 1960s as part of an abortive project to increase meltwater capture by the Twin Lakes Tunnel. According to the IPF, they were an aesthetic blight as well as an environmental problem, and had to be removed using a team of mules and helicopters due to the wilderness area restrictions. The last fence material was removed in 2012.\n\nIPF has undertaken other projects to promote awareness of the work that needs to be done at the pass to protect its distinctive environment. Groups from local schools have spent a day up in the pass working and learning. Many have adopted the same sites and work on them with a new class each year. Along with the Aspen Center for Environmental Studies, the foundation also cosponsors a \"My Independence\" all-day walking tour of the pass for adults that covers ecological topics in depth.\n\nSince 1994, the foundation has held a 'Ride for the Pass' charity bicycle race in May, just before CDOT reopens the pass. The event serves as an outreach event and fundraiser. It follows a 9.5-mile (15.3 km) route from the gate east of Aspen to the Independence townsite, climbing 2,500 feet (760 m) in the process. By 2012, the IPF had canceled the event twice due to poor weather.\n\n## See also\n\n- Colorado mountain passes\n- List of mountain passes\n- List of Rocky Mountain passes on the continental divide", "revid": "1166303656", "description": "Highest paved crossing of North America's Continental Divide", "categories": ["Climbing areas of Colorado", "Landforms of Lake County, Colorado", "Landforms of Pitkin County, Colorado", "Mountain passes of Colorado", "Transportation in Lake County, Colorado", "Transportation in Pitkin County, Colorado"]}
{"id": "11607339", "url": null, "title": "Loretta Preska", "text": "Loretta A. Preska (born January 7, 1949) is an American lawyer who serves as a senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Born in Albany, Preska received law degrees from Fordham University School of Law and New York University School of Law. She practiced law in New York City from 1973 to 1992 at the law firms of Cahill Gordon & Reindel and Hertzog, Calamari & Gleason (now Winston & Strawn). President George H. W. Bush appointed her to the district bench in 1992. She served as chief judge of the court for a seven-year term from 2009 to 2016, and took senior status in 2017. President George W. Bush nominated Preska to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 2008, but the Senate did not act on the nomination.\n\n## Early life and education\n\nPreska was born in Albany, New York, on January 7, 1949, to her father, Victor, an engineer at Benét Laboratories at Watervliet Arsenal, and her mother, Etta Mae, a registered nurse. She is of Lithuanian descent. She grew up in the Albany suburb of Delmar, where she was active in the Girl Scouts and graduated from Bethlehem Central High School.\n\nShe earned her B.A. degree in chemistry from the College of Saint Rose (1970), her J.D. from Fordham University School of Law (1973), and her LL.M from New York University School of Law (1978). Her LL.M work focused on trade regulation.\n\n## Legal career\n\nPreska was an attorney in private practice in New York City from 1973 until 1992. She worked at Cahill Gordon & Reindel from 1973 to 1982, and then at Hertzog, Calamari & Gleason from 1982 until her appointment to the federal bench. She primarily practiced commercial civil litigation in the federal courts, but also represented several officers of EF Hutton in grand jury proceedings in connection with a case in which the company entered criminal guilty pleas. She cites Floyd Abrams as a friend and mentor.\n\n## Federal judicial service\n\nPreska was nominated by President George H. W. Bush on March 31, 1992, to a seat on the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York vacated by Judge Robert Joseph Ward. Senator Al D'Amato recommended the nomination. Preska was confirmed by the United States Senate on August 11, 1992, by unanimous consent. She received her commission the following day. Her confirmation was part of a \"bipartisan package\" that also including the confirmation of Sonia Sotomayor (who later became a Supreme Court justice). Sotomayor was confirmed by the Senate to the district bench the same day, also unanimously.\n\nPreska served as chief judge of the court for a seven-year term from June 1, 2009, to May 31, 2016, succeeding Kimba M. Wood in the role. As chief judge, Preska pressed for more adequate funding for the federal judiciary, which suffered from the effects of the Great Recession and budget sequestration. In 2010, as chief judge, Preska issued an order permitting criminal defense attorneys to carry mobile phones into the courthouse; previously, only federal prosecutors were permitted to do so. The rule change followed several years of lobbying by the Federal Bar Council.\n\nShe took senior status on March 1, 2017.\n\n### Consideration for higher courts\n\nIn 2007, it was reported that Preska was on President George W. Bush's short list of potential Supreme Court nominees.\n\nOn September 9, 2008, Bush nominated Preska to a judgeship on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to replace Judge Chester J. Straub, who retired. The American Bar Association's Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary unanimously rated Preska \"well qualified\" for the circuit judgeship, the committee's highest rating. The Senate did not act on the nomination, and it expired in January 2009 at the end of the 110th Congress, upon the sine die adjournment of the Senate.\n\n### Tenure and notable cases\n\nPreska is considered a conservative judge, and served on the advisory board of the Federalist Society. Preska has presided over a number of notable cases.\n\n#### Civil cases\n\n##### Commercial, copyright, and contract litigation\n\nIn Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. (1996), Preska ruled that an image of the actor Leslie Nielsen seemingly pregnant that mimicked a similar photo of Demi Moore was fair use as parody. Her ruling was upheld by the Second Circuit in 1998. In National Basketball Association v. Motorola, Inc. (1997), Preska ruled in favor of the NBA, granting a permanent injunction blocking Motorola Inc. and a statistics company from transmitting real-time basketball scores and other statistics through its \"SportsTrax\" pager service. Preska ruled that the service was a commercial misappropriation rather than mere media coverage, but dismissed the NBA's copyright and Lanham Act false-advertising claims. On appeal, the Second Circuit vacated the injunction, finding that the service was neither an unlawful misappropriation nor a Lanham Act violation.\n\nPreska presided over the case of Mastercard International Inc. v. Fédération Internationale de Football Association (2006), brought by MasterCard against FIFA after the soccer association awarded sponsorship deals for the next two World Cups to MasterCard's rival Visa. Preska ruled in December 2006 that FIFA had violated its previous 16-year sponsorship contract with MasterCard, which included a clause granting MasterCard a right of first refusal. The parties subsequently settled the case.\n\nIn Zuckerman v. Metropolitan Museum of Art (2018), Preska ruled in favor of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, dismissing a lawsuit seeking the return of Picasso's painting The Actor to the heir of its original owners, Paul and Alice Leffmann. The Leffmanns were a German Jewish couple who sold the painting in 1938 to finance their flight from Nazis. The painting was acquired by the Met in 1952. Preska ruled that the Leffmanns' heir could not show, under New York law, that the painting was sold under duress. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed the dismissal on the ground that the claim was raised too late (72 years after the work was sold and 58 years after it was donated to the art museum).\n\n##### Defamation litigation\n\nIn 1998, Preska presided over a defamation suit brought by Richard Jewell against the New York Post. Jewell, who was wrongly suspected of being the Centennial Olympic Park bomber, alleged that several articles, headlines, photographs, and editorial cartoons in the newspaper had libeled him. Preska dismissed claims based on a photograph and an editorial cartoon, but allowed the remainder of the claims to proceed. The Post subsequently settled the case for an undisclosed sum.\n\nIn 2019, Preska disqualified the law firm of Boies Schiller Flexner LLP from representing Virginia Giuffre in her lawsuit against professor emeritus Alan Dershowitz, but denied Dershowitz's motion to dismiss the suit, in which Giuffre alleged that Dershowitz falsely claimed that she fabricated her sexual-abuse accusations against Jeffrey Epstein, and thus defamed her. In 2020, Preska denied a motion by British socialite Ghislaine Maxwell, an Epstein associate charged with recruiting girls abused by Epstein, to block the public release of her 2016 deposition testimony in a civil case. Preska stayed her ruling pending Maxwell's appeal to the Second Circuit.\n\n##### Labor litigation\n\nPreska presided over long-running litigation between Local 100 of the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees Union and New York's Metropolitan Opera. In June 2000, Preska found the union to be in contempt, determining that the union had defamed the Met and engaged in harassment of Met board members. Preska enjoined the union from distributing leaflets at the opera, but at the 2000 season opening, the union held a demonstration. In February 2001, a panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit vacated the injunction, holding that \"While the injunction presents serious questions under the First Amendment and libel law, we hold that the injunction is impermissibly vague because it fails to provide the Union with adequate notice of what conduct is being enjoined.\" In November 2002, however, the Second Circuit held that Lincoln Center could permissibly block the union from holding a rally in Lincoln Plaza, holding that the location was not a \"public forum\" and that Lincoln Center management had a consistent policy of limiting \"expression in the plaza to events having an artistic or performance-related component.\" In January 2003, in a strongly worded 148-page decision, Preska ruled in favor of the Met in its defamation and harassment suit against the union, writing that the union and its counsel had withheld evidence in violation of the discovery rules and had not been truthful to the court. She ordered the union to pay the Met's sizable legal fees.\n\nIn 2015, Preska approved a settlement agreement between the federal government and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, terminating the consent decree that had been in place for 25 years. The consent decree required certain reforms to combat organized crime influence and corruption within the union, and had been entered into in 1989 to settle a civil racketeering suit brought against the Teamsters by the government. Under the settlement, a five-year transition away from federal monitoring of the union began.\n\n##### Other litigation\n\nIn Bloomberg L.P. v. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (2009), Preska presided over a Freedom of Information Act suit brought by Bloomberg L.P. against the Federal Reserve System, seeking to compel the Fed to provide documents revealing the identity of recipients of bailout money during the global financial crisis, along with the types and amounts of collateral provided. Preska sided with Bloomberg News reporters, concluding that the Fed's claims that disclosure would cause an \"imminent competitive harm\" to borrowers were merely conjecture. The Second Circuit affirmed this ruling.\n\nIn a 2014 case, Microsoft challenged a federal search warrant for a customer's email records, on the ground that the data was stored on servers in a data center in Ireland and could not be produced to the U.S. authorities without an Irish warrant. The magistrate judge denied Microsoft's motion to quash the warrant, and following a hearing, Preska upheld the magistrate judge's ruling in a decision from the bench, holding that \"It is a question of control, not a question of the location of that information.\" In 2016, the Second Circuit reversed on appeal, determining that the Stored Communications Act of 1986 did not apply extraterritorially. The case went to the Supreme Court, but was dismissed as moot due to Congress's enactment of the CLOUD Act in 2018, which created a process for U.S. investigators to access data stored overseas.\n\nIn Consumer Financial Protection Bureau v. RD Legal Funding, LLC (2018), Preska overturned the entirety of Title X of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, which created the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Preska ruled that the law establishing the CFPB's structure was unconstitutional because it established that the agency's single director could be removed by the president only for cause. Preska disagreed with the en banc decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit that upheld the constitutionality of the CFPB's structure, and sided with the dissenter in that case, then-Judge Brett Kavanaugh, who believed that the protections for the CFPB director violated the Constitution's Take Care Clause. (The U.S. Supreme Court ultimately ruled, in a 5–4 decision in Seila Law v. CFPB (2020), that the law's mandate that a CFPB director be removed only \"for cause\" was unconstitutional, but severed that portion of the statute, allowing the CFPB to continue operating while making its director removable at the will of the president.)\n\n#### Criminal cases\n\nIn 2008, Susan Lindauer, a former journalist and congressional aide charged with acting as an unregistered foreign agent of Saddam Hussein's Iraqi government, was released after Preska ruled her unfit to stand trial, saying that she was \"highly intelligent\" and \"generally capable of functioning at a high level in many ways,\" but suffered from a mental disease or defect that left her with \"a lack of connection with reality\" and rendered her \"unable to understand the nature and consequences of the proceedings against her or to assist properly in her defense.\" Preska's ruling affirmed earlier rulings by Judge Michael B. Mukasey.\n\nIn 2011, Preska sentenced Somali pirate Abduwali Muse to 33 years in prison for his leadership of a group of pirates who seized the Maersk Alabama and held its crew hostage. In pronouncing sentence, Preska cited the defendant's \"depraved acts of physical and psychological violence\" including forcing Captain Richard Phillips to undergo a mock execution.\n\nPreska oversaw the criminal case against Hector Xavier Monsegur (\"Sabu\"), a computer hacker who assisted Anonymous and others in cyberattacks targeting credit card companies, various governments, and media outlets. Monsegur became a government informant immediately after his arrest in early 2011, and pleaded guilty in August 2011 to twelve counts of hacking, fraud, and identity theft. In 2014, Preska sentenced Monsegur to time served (seven months in jail) and a \\$1,200 fine; federal prosecutors requested, and Preska granted, the lenient sentence due to Monsegur's \"extraordinary\" cooperation with the government. Information from Monsegur helped lead the authorities to at least eight co-conspirators, including Jeremy Hammond, and helped to stymie at least 300 cyberattacks. Hammond pleaded guilty in 2013 to hacking the private intelligence firm Stratfor, and Preska sentenced him to the maximum 10 years.\n\nIn 2009, Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani, the first detainee brought from the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to stand trial in a U.S. civilian court (as opposed to a Guantanamo military commission), appeared before Preska to plead not guilty. In 2010, Ghailani subsequently was convicted by a jury of conspiracy in the 1998 bombing of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, and in 2011 was sentenced to life in prison. Ghailani's trial and sentencing were by a different Southern District judge, Lewis A. Kaplan.\n\nIn 2014, Preska sentenced Eric Stevenson, a former New York state assemblyman from the Bronx, to three years in prison for bribery. In 2019, Preska sentenced Patrick Ho, a former Hong Kong ophthalmologist and government official, to three years in prison for conspiring to bribe African government officials (specifically, the presidents of Chad and Uganda) to secure oil rights for CEFC China, an energy company.\n\nIn 2017, Preska sentenced former Rikers Island guard Brian Coll to 30 years in prison for beating inmate Ronald Spear to death in 2012. Coll had been convicted the preceding year of deprivation of civil rights resulting in death, obstruction of justice, falsifying records, and conspiracy. Coll repeatedly kicked Spear, a seriously ill pretrial detainee in the jail complex's infirmary unit, in the head while other guards held the inmate face-down on the floor. During the sentencing hearing, Preska criticized a \"culture of violence and poor treatment of inmates\" at Rikers and referred to the \"particularly vicious and callous\" nature of Coll's attack on Spear.\n\nPreska oversaw the proceedings against Chuck Person, a former NBA player and assistant coach of the Auburn Tigers men's basketball team, who was implicated in a college basketball corruption scandal. Preska denied Person's motion to dismiss the charges. In 2019, after he pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit bribery, Preska sentenced him to two years of probation and 200 hours of community service. She found that \"no purpose would be served\" by sending the remorseful Person to prison; rejected prosecutors' argument that Person was motivated by \"insatiable greed\"; and cited Person's long record of charitable giving.\n\n##### Steven Donziger\n\nIn a 2021 bench trial, Preska found attorney Steven Donziger guilty of six counts of criminal contempt; in a 245-page opinion, Preska said that Donziger had \"repeatedly and willfully\" defied court orders. He faces a maximum six-month jail sentence. Preska wrote that she did not question the sincerity of Donziger's longrunning legal battle against Chevron on behalf of Ecuadorians over pollution in Ecuador's rainforest, but that Donziger was not entitled to \"take the law into his own hands.\" The United Nations' Human Rights Council criticized the situation and said that Donziger had not been granted a fair trial. With regards to Preska, \"[...] The Working Group is of the view that Judge P did not act in a manner which was independent, objective and impartial in relation to Mr. Donziger's case. Consequently, the Working Group concludes that the imposition of pre-trial detention upon Mr. Donziger violated Article 9 (3) of the Covenant.\" The council was also critical of how Judge Kaplan appointed Preska to hear Donziger's case and of Preska's dismissal of Donziger's challenge to her appointment.\n\n## Personal life\n\nIn 1983, Preska married Thomas J. Kavaler, with whom she attended law school. Kavaler was the editor-in-chief of the Fordham Law Review and is a partner at Cahill Gordon & Reindel. They live in Garrison, New York. The couple had two children.", "revid": "1158663856", "description": "American judge (born 1949)", "categories": ["1949 births", "20th-century American judges", "20th-century American women judges", "21st-century American judges", "21st-century American women judges", "American people of Lithuanian descent", "American women lawyers", "College of Saint Rose alumni", "Fordham University School of Law alumni", "Judges of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York", "Lawyers from Albany, New York", "Living people", "New York University School of Law alumni", "People associated with Cahill Gordon & Reindel", "People associated with Winston & Strawn", "People from Bethlehem, New York", "United States district court judges appointed by George H. W. Bush"]}
{"id": "1950", "url": null, "title": "American Civil Liberties Union", "text": "The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is an American nonprofit organization founded in 1920 \"to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States\". The ACLU works through litigation and lobbying and has over 1,800,000 members as of July 2018, with an annual budget of over \\$300 million. Affiliates of the ACLU are active in all 50 states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. The ACLU provides legal assistance in cases where it considers civil liberties at risk. Legal support from the ACLU can take the form of direct legal representation or preparation of amicus curiae briefs expressing legal arguments when another law firm is already providing representation.\n\nIn addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions established by its board of directors. Current positions of the ACLU include opposing the death penalty; supporting same-sex marriage and the right of LGBT people to adopt; supporting reproductive rights such as birth control and abortion rights; eliminating discrimination against women, minorities, and LGBT people; decarceration in the United States; supporting the rights of prisoners and opposing torture; and upholding the separation of church and state by opposing government preference for religion over non-religion or for particular faiths over others.\n\nLegally, the ACLU consists of two separate but closely affiliated nonprofit organizations, namely the American Civil Liberties Union, a 501(c)(4) social welfare group; and the ACLU Foundation, a 501(c)(3) public charity. Both organizations engage in civil rights litigation, advocacy, and education, but only donations to the 501(c)(3) foundation are tax deductible, and only the 501(c)(4) group can engage in unlimited political lobbying. The two organizations share office space and employees.\n\n## Overview\n\nThe ACLU was founded in 1920 by a committee including Roger Nash Baldwin, Crystal Eastman, Walter Nelles, Morris Ernst, Albert DeSilver, Arthur Garfield Hays, Helen Keller, Jane Addams, Felix Frankfurter, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and Rose Schneiderman. It focused on freedom of speech, primarily for anti-war protesters. It was founded in response to the controversial Palmer raids, which saw thousands of radicals arrested in matters which violated their constitutional search and seizures protection. During the 1920s, the ACLU expanded its scope to include protecting the free speech rights of artists and striking workers and working with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to mitigate discrimination. During the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLU's cases involved the defense of Communist Party members and Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps. During the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party.\n\nBy 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, and the ACLU participated in efforts to expand civil liberties. In the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War. The ACLU was involved in the Miranda case, which addressed conduct by police during interrogations, and in the New York Times case, which established new protections for newspapers reporting on government activities. In the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. In the twenty-first century, the ACLU has fought the teaching of creationism in public schools and challenged some provisions of anti-terrorism legislation as infringing on privacy and civil liberties. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 presidential election, and the ACLU's 2018 membership was more than 1.2 million.\n\n## Organization\n\n### Leadership\n\nThe ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Deborah N. Archer and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2021. The president acts as chair of the ACLU's board of directors, leads fundraising, and facilitates policy-setting. The executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate and at-large delegates. The organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City.\n\nThe leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions; differences of opinion within the ACLU leadership have sometimes grown into major debates. In 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Ford's right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a heated debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists. In 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Benjamin Spock's anti-war activism. In 1973, as the Watergate Scandal continued to unfold, leadership was initially divided over whether to call for President Nixon's impeachment and removal from office. In 2005, there was internal conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent the publication of internal disputes.\n\n### Funding\n\nIn the year ending March 31, 2014, the ACLU and the ACLU Foundation had a combined income from support and revenue of \\$100.4 million, originating from grants (50.0%), membership donations (25.4%), donated legal services (7.6%), bequests (16.2%), and revenue (0.9%). Membership dues are treated as donations; members choose the amount they pay annually, averaging approximately \\$50 per member. In the year ending March 31, 2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were \\$133.4 million, spent on programs (86.2%), management (7.4%), and fundraising (8.2%). (After factoring in other changes in net assets of +\\$30.9 million, from sources such as investment income, the organization had an overall decrease in net assets of \\$2.1 million.) Over the period from 2011 to 2014, the ACLU Foundation, on average, has accounted for roughly 70% of the combined budget, and the ACLU roughly 30%.\n\nThe ACLU solicits donations to its charitable foundation. The ACLU is accredited by the Better Business Bureau, and the Charity Navigator has ranked the ACLU with a four-star rating. The local affiliates solicit their own funding; however, some also receive funds from the national ACLU, with the distribution and amount of such assistance varying from state to state. At its discretion, the national organization provides subsidies to smaller affiliates that lack sufficient resources to be self-sustaining; for example, the Wyoming ACLU chapter received such subsidies until April 2015, when, as part of a round of layoffs at the national ACLU, the Wyoming office was closed.\n\nIn October 2004, the ACLU rejected \\$1.5 million from both the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation because the foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements, including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to \"underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities\". The ACLU views this clause, both in federal law and in the donors' agreements, as a threat to civil liberties, saying it is overly broad and ambiguous.\n\nDue to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments; a town, state, or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver. In some cases, the law permits plaintiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect money damages or other monetary relief. In particular, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976 leaves the government liable in some civil rights cases. Fee awards under this civil rights statute are considered \"equitable relief\" rather than damages, and government entities are not immune from equitable relief. Under laws such as this, the ACLU and its state affiliates sometimes share in monetary judgments against government agencies. In 2006, the Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act sought to prevent monetary judgments in the particular case of violations of church-state separation.\n\nThe ACLU has received court-awarded fees from opponents; for example, the Georgia affiliate was awarded \\$150,000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a Ten Commandments display from its courthouse; a second Ten Commandments case in the state, in a different county, led to a \\$74,462 judgment. The State of Tennessee was required to pay \\$50,000, the State of Alabama \\$175,000, and the State of Kentucky \\$121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases.\n\n### State affiliates\n\nMost of the organization's workload is performed by its local affiliates. There is at least one affiliate organization in each state, as well as one in Washington, D.C., and in Puerto Rico. California has three affiliates. The affiliates operate autonomously from the national organization; each affiliate has its own staff, executive director, board of directors, and budget. Each affiliate consists of two non-profit corporations: a 501(c)(3) corporation–called the ACLU Foundation–that does not perform lobbying, and a 501(c)(4) corporation–called ACLU–which is entitled to lobby. Both organizations share staff and offices\n\nACLU affiliates are the basic unit of the ACLU's organization and engage in litigation, lobbying, and public education. For example, in 2020, the ACLU's New Jersey chapter argued 26 cases before the New Jersey Supreme Court, about one-third of the total cases heard in that court. They sent over 50,000 emails to officials or agencies and had 28 full-time staff.\n\n### Positions\n\nThe ACLU's official position statements included the following policies:\n\n- Affirmative action – The ACLU supports affirmative action.\n- Birth control and abortion – The ACLU supports the right to abortion, as established in the Roe v. Wade decision. The ACLU believes everyone should have affordable access to the full range of contraceptive options. The ACLU's Reproductive Freedom Project manages efforts related to reproductive rights.\n- Campaign funding – The ACLU believes the current system is badly flawed and supports a system based on public funding. The ACLU supports full transparency in identifying donors. However, the ACLU opposes attempts to control political spending. The ACLU supported the Supreme Court's decision in Citizens United v. FEC, which allowed corporations and unions more political speech rights.\n- Criminal law reform – The ACLU seeks an end to what it feels are excessively harsh sentences that \"stand in the way of a just and equal society\". The ACLU's Criminal Law Reform Project focuses on this issue.\n- Death penalty – The ACLU is opposed to the death penalty in all circumstances. The ACLU's Capital Punishment Project focuses on this issue.\n- Free speech – The ACLU supports free speech, including the right to express unpopular or controversial ideas, such as flag desecration, racist or sexist views, etc. However, a leaked ACLU memo from June 2018 said that speech that can \"inflict serious harms\" and \"impede progress toward equality\" may be a lower priority for the organization.\n- Gun rights – The national ACLU's position is that the Second Amendment protects a collective right to own guns rather than an individual right, despite the 2008 Supreme Court decision in District of Columbia v. Heller that the Second Amendment is a personal right. The national organization's position is based on the phrases \"a well regulated Militia\" and \"the security of a free State\". However, the ACLU opposes any effort to create a registry of gun owners and has worked with the National Rifle Association of America to prevent a registry from being created, and it has favored protecting the right to carry guns under the 4th Amendment.\n- HIV/AIDS – The policy of the ACLU is to \"create a world in which discrimination based on HIV status has ended, people with HIV have control over their medical information and care, and where the government's HIV policy promotes public health and respect and compassion for people living with HIV and AIDS\". The ACLU's AIDS Project manages this effort.\n- Human rights – The ACLU's Human Rights project advocates (primarily in an international context) for children's rights, disability rights, immigrant rights, gay rights, and other international obligations.\n- Immigrants' rights – The ACLU supports civil liberties for immigrants to the United States.\n- Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender rights – The ACLU supports equal rights for all lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people and works to eliminate discrimination. The ACLU supports equal employment, housing, civil marriage, and adoption rights for LGBT couples.\n- National security – The ACLU is opposed to compromising civil liberties in the name of national security. In this context, the ACLU has condemned government use of spying, indefinite detention without charge or trial, and government-sponsored torture. The ACLU's National Security Project leads this effort.\n- Prisoners' rights – The ACLU's National Prison Project believes that incarceration should only be used as a last resort and that prisons should focus on rehabilitation. The ACLU advocates that prisons treat prisoners according to the Constitution and domestic law.\n- Privacy and technology – The ACLU's Project on Speech, Privacy, and Technology promotes \"responsible uses of technology that enhance privacy protection\" and opposes uses \"that undermine our freedoms and move us closer to a surveillance society\".\n- Racial issues – The ACLU's Racial Justice Program combats racial discrimination in all aspects of society, including the educational system, the justice system, and the application of the death penalty. However, the ACLU opposes state censorship of the Confederate flag.\n- Religion – The ACLU supports the right of religious persons to practice their faiths without government interference. The ACLU believes the government should neither prefer religion over non-religion nor favor particular faiths over others. The ACLU is opposed to school-led prayer but protects students' right to pray in school. It opposes the use of religious beliefs to discriminate, such as refusing to provide abortion coverage or providing services to LGBT people.\n- Sex education – The ACLU opposes abstinence-only sex education curricula, and supports comprehensive sex education curricula that encourage effective contraceptive usage and sexually-transmitted disease prevention alongside waiting to have sex. The ACLU opposes segregation in sex education classes because it can lead to increased class size and perpetuate antiquated gender stereotypes.\n- Vaccination policy — The ACLU supports vaccine mandates for people using public facilities and businesses because there is no right to harm others by spreading infectious diseases. Hence, the ACLU states, mandates are \"permissible in many settings where the unvaccinated pose a risk to others, including schools and universities, hospitals, restaurants and bars, workplaces and businesses open to the public\". The organization supports a public health-based approach to pandemic management and is opposed to criminalizing or jailing people with infectious diseases.\n- Voting rights – The ACLU believes that impediments to voting should be eliminated, particularly if they disproportionately impact minority or poor citizens. The ACLU believes that misdemeanor convictions should not lead to a loss of voting rights. The ACLU's Voting Rights Project leads this effort.\n- Women's rights – The ACLU works to eliminate discrimination against women in all realms. The ACLU encourages the government to be proactive in stopping violence against women. These efforts are led by the ACLU's Women's Rights Project.\n\n### Support and opposition\n\nA variety of persons and organizations support the ACLU. There were over 1,000,000 members in 2017, and the ACLU receives thousands of grants from hundreds of charitable foundations annually. Allies of the ACLU in legal actions have included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the American Jewish Congress, People for the American Way, the National Rifle Association of America, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Americans United for Separation of Church and State and the National Organization for Women.\n\nThe ACLU has been criticized by liberals such as when it excluded communists from its leadership ranks when it defended Neo-Nazis, when it declined to defend Paul Robeson, or when it opposed the passage of the National Labor Relations Act. In 2014, an ACLU affiliate supported anti-Islam protesters and in 2018 the ACLU was criticized when it supported the NRA.\n\nConversely, it has been criticized by conservatives such as when it argued against official prayer in public schools or when it opposed the Patriot Act.\n\nThe ACLU has supported conservative figures such as Rush Limbaugh, George Wallace, Henry Ford and Oliver North as well as liberal figures such as Dick Gregory, Rockwell Kent and Benjamin Spock.\n\nMajor sources of criticism are legal cases in which the ACLU represents an individual or organization that promotes offensive or unpopular viewpoints, such as the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazis, the Nation of Islam, the North American Man/Boy Love Association, the Westboro Baptist Church or the Unite the Right rally. The ACLU's official policy is \"... [we have] represented or defended individuals engaged in some truly offensive speech. We have defended the speech rights of communists, Nazis, Ku Klux Klan members, accused terrorists, pornographers, anti-LGBT activists, and flag burners. That's because the defense of freedom of speech is most necessary when the message is one most people find repulsive. Constitutional rights must apply to even the most unpopular groups if they're going to be preserved for everyone.\"\n\n## Early years\n\n### CLB era\n\nThe ACLU developed from the National Civil Liberties Bureau (CLB), co-founded in 1917 during World War I by Crystal Eastman, an attorney activist, and Roger Nash Baldwin. The focus of the CLB was on freedom of speech, primarily anti-war speech, and on supporting conscientious objectors who did not want to serve in World War I.\n\nThree United States Supreme Court decisions in 1919 each upheld convictions under laws against certain anti-war speech. In 1919, the Court upheld the conviction of Socialist Party leader Charles Schenck for publishing anti-war literature. In Debs v. United States, the court upheld the conviction of Eugene Debs. While the Court upheld a conviction a third time in Abrams v. United States, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote an important dissent which has gradually been absorbed as an American principle: he urged the court to treat freedom of speech as a fundamental right, which should rarely be restricted.\n\nIn 1918, Crystal Eastman resigned from the organization due to health issues. After assuming sole leadership of the CLB, Baldwin insisted that the organization be reorganized. He wanted to change its focus from litigation to direct action and public education.\n\nThe CLB directors concurred, and on January 19, 1920, they formed an organization under a new name, the American Civil Liberties Union. Although a handful of other organizations in the United States at that time focused on civil rights, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and Anti-Defamation League (ADL), the ACLU was the first that did not represent a particular group of persons or a single theme. Like the CLB, the NAACP pursued litigation to work on civil rights, including efforts to overturn the disfranchisement of African Americans in the South that had taken place since the turn of the century.\n\nDuring the first decades of the ACLU, Baldwin continued as its leader. His charisma and energy attracted many supporters to the ACLU board and leadership ranks. Baldwin was ascetic, wearing hand-me-down clothes, pinching pennies, and living on a minimal salary. The ACLU was directed by an executive committee and was not particularly democratic or egalitarian. New Yorkers dominated the ACLU's headquarters. Most ACLU funding came from philanthropies, such as the Garland Fund.\n\n### Free speech era\n\nIn the 1920s, government censorship was commonplace. Magazines were routinely confiscated under the anti-obscenity Comstock laws; permits for labor rallies were often denied; and virtually all anti-war or anti-government literature was outlawed. Right-wing conservatives wielded vast amounts of power, and activists that promoted unionization, socialism, or government reform were often denounced as un-American or unpatriotic. In one typical instance in 1923, author Upton Sinclair was arrested for trying to read the First Amendment during an Industrial Workers of the World rally.\n\nACLU leadership was divided on how to challenge civil rights violations. One faction, including Baldwin, Arthur Garfield Hays, and Norman Thomas, believed that direct, militant action was the best path. Hays was the first of many successful attorneys that relinquished their private practices to work for the ACLU. Another group, including Walter Nelles and Walter Pollak, felt that lawsuits taken to the Supreme Court were the best way to achieve change.\n\nDuring the 1920s, the ACLU's primary focus was on freedom of speech in general and speech within the labor movement particularly. Because most of the ACLU's efforts were associated with the labor movement, the ACLU itself came under heavy attack from conservative groups, such as the American Legion, the National Civic Federation, and Industrial Defense Association and the Allied Patriotic Societies.\n\nIn addition to labor, the ACLU also led efforts in non-labor arenas, for example, promoting free speech in public schools. The ACLU was banned from speaking in New York public schools in 1921. The ACLU, working with the NAACP, also supported racial discrimination cases. The ACLU defended free speech regardless of espoused opinions. For example, the reactionary, anti-Catholic, anti-black Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a frequent target of ACLU efforts, but the ACLU defended the KKK's right to hold meetings in 1923. There were some civil rights that the ACLU did not make an effort to defend in the 1920s, including censorship of the arts, government search and seizure issues, right to privacy, or wiretapping.\n\nGovernment officials routinely hounded the Communist Party USA, leading it to be the primary client of the ACLU. At the same time, the Communists were very aggressive in their tactics, often engaging in illegal conduct such as denying their party membership under oath. This led to frequent conflicts between the Communists and ACLU. Communist leaders sometimes attacked the ACLU, particularly when the ACLU defended the free speech rights of conservatives, whereas Communists tried to disrupt speeches by critics of the USSR. This uneasy relationship between the two groups continued for decades.\n\n### Public schools\n\n#### Scopes trial\n\nWhen 1925 arrived – five years after the ACLU was formed – the organization had virtually no success to show for its efforts. That changed in 1925, when the ACLU persuaded John T. Scopes to defy Tennessee's anti-evolution law in The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes. Clarence Darrow, a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The prosecution, led by William Jennings Bryan, contended that the Bible should be interpreted literally in teaching creationism in school. The ACLU lost the case, and Scopes was fined \\$100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law. Still, it overturned the conviction on a technicality.\n\nThe Scopes trial was a phenomenal public relations success for the ACLU. The ACLU became well known across America, and the case led to the first endorsement of the ACLU by a major US newspaper. The ACLU continued to fight for the separation of church and state in schoolrooms, decade after decade, including the 1982 case McLean v. Arkansas and the 2005 case Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District.\n\nBaldwin was involved in a significant free speech victory of the 1920s after he was arrested for attempting to speak at a rally of striking mill workers in New Jersey. Although the decision was limited to the state of New Jersey, the appeals court's judgment in 1928 declared that constitutional guarantees of free speech must be given \"liberal and comprehensive construction\", and it marked a major turning point in the civil rights movement, signaling the shift of judicial opinion in favor of civil rights.\n\nThe most important ACLU case of the 1920s was Gitlow v. New York, in which Benjamin Gitlow was arrested for violating a state law against inciting anarchy and violence when he distributed literature promoting communism. Although the Supreme Court did not overturn Gitlow's conviction, it adopted the ACLU's stance (later termed the incorporation doctrine) that the First Amendment freedom of speech applied to state laws, as well as federal laws.\n\n#### Pierce v. Society of Sisters\n\nAfter the First World War, many native-born Americans had a revival of concerns about the assimilation of immigrants and worries about \"foreign\" values; they wanted public schools to teach children to be American. Numerous states drafted laws designed to use schools to promote a common American culture, and in 1922, the voters of Oregon passed the Oregon Compulsory Education Act. The law was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools, including Catholic schools. It was promoted by groups such as the Knights of Pythias, the Federation of Patriotic Societies, the Oregon Good Government League, the Orange Order, and the Ku Klux Klan.\n\nThe Oregon Compulsory Education Act required almost all children in Oregon between eight and sixteen years of age to attend public school by 1926. Associate Director Roger Nash Baldwin, a personal friend of Luke E. Hart, the then–Supreme Advocate and future Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus, offered to join forces with the Knights to challenge the law. The Knights of Columbus pledged an immediate \\$10,000 to fight the law and any additional funds necessary to defeat it.\n\nThe case became known as Pierce v. Society of Sisters, a seminal United States Supreme Court decision that significantly expanded coverage of the Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment. In a unanimous decision, the court held that the act was unconstitutional and that parents, not the state, had the authority to educate children as they thought best. It upheld the religious freedom of parents to educate their children in religious schools.\n\n### Early strategy\n\nLeaders of the ACLU were divided on the best tactics to use to promote civil liberties. Felix Frankfurter felt that legislation was the best long-term solution because the Supreme Court could not (and – in his opinion – should not) mandate liberal interpretations of the Bill of Rights. But Walter Pollak, Morris Ernst, and other leaders felt that Supreme Court decisions were the best path to guarantee civil liberties. A series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1920s foretold a changing national atmosphere; anti-radical emotions were diminishing, and there was a growing willingness to protect freedom of speech and assembly via court decisions.\n\n### Free speech expansion\n\nCensorship was commonplace in the early 20th century. State laws and city ordinances routinely outlawed speech deemed obscene or offensive and prohibited meetings or literature promoting unions or labor organizations. Starting in 1926, the ACLU expanded its free speech activities to encompass censorship of art and literature. In that year, H. L. Mencken deliberately broke Boston law by distributing copies of his banned American Mercury magazine; the ACLU defended him and won an acquittal. The ACLU went on to win additional victories, including the landmark case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses in 1933, which reversed a ban by the Customs Department against the book Ulysses by James Joyce. The ACLU only achieved mixed results in the early years, and it was not until 1966 that the Supreme Court finally clarified the obscenity laws in the Roth v. United States and Memoirs v. Massachusetts cases.\n\nThe Comstock laws banned the distribution of sex education information based on the premise that it was obscene and led to promiscuous behavior. Mary Ware Dennett was fined \\$300 in 1928 for distributing a pamphlet containing sex education material. The ACLU, led by Morris Ernst, appealed her conviction and won a reversal, in which judge Learned Hand ruled that the pamphlet's primary purpose was to \"promote understanding\".\n\nThe success prompted the ACLU to broaden their freedom of speech efforts beyond labor and political speech to encompass movies, press, radio, and literature. The ACLU formed the National Committee on Freedom from Censorship in 1931 to coordinate this effort. By the early 1930s, censorship in the United States was diminishing.\n\nTwo major victories in the 1930s cemented the ACLU's campaign to promote free speech. In Stromberg v. California, decided in 1931, the Supreme Court sided with the ACLU and affirmed the right of a communist party member to salute a communist flag. The result was the first time the Supreme Court used the Due Process Clause of the 14th amendment to subject states to the requirements of the First Amendment. In Near v. Minnesota, also decided in 1931, the Supreme Court ruled that states may not exercise prior restraint and prevent a newspaper from publishing, simply because the newspaper had a reputation for being scandalous.\n\n## 1930s\n\nThe late 1930s saw the emergence of a new era of tolerance in the United States. National leaders hailed the Bill of Rights, particularly as it protected minorities, as the essence of democracy. The 1939 Supreme Court decision in Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization affirmed the right of communists to promote their cause. Even conservative elements, such as the American Bar Association, began to campaign for civil liberties, which were long considered to be the domain of left-leaning organizations. By 1940, the ACLU had achieved many of the goals it set in the 1920s, and many of its policies were the law of the land.\n\n### Expansion\n\nIn 1929, after the Scopes and Dennett victories, Baldwin perceived that there was vast, untapped support for civil liberties in the United States. Baldwin proposed an expansion program for the ACLU, focusing on police brutality, Native American rights, African American rights, censorship in the arts, and international civil liberties. The board of directors approved Baldwin's expansion plan, except for the international efforts.\n\nThe ACLU played a significant role in passing the 1932 Norris–La Guardia Act, a federal law that prohibited employers from preventing employees from joining unions and stopped the practice of outlawing strikes, marriages, and labor organizing activities with the use of injunctions. The ACLU also played a key role in initiating a nationwide effort to reduce misconduct (such as extracting false confessions) within police departments by publishing the report Lawlessness in Law Enforcement in 1931, under the auspices of Herbert Hoover's Wickersham Commission. In 1934, the ACLU lobbied for the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act, which restored some autonomy to Native American tribes, and established penalties for kidnapping Native American children.\n\nAlthough the ACLU deferred to the NAACP for litigation promoting civil liberties for African Americans, the ACLU engaged in educational efforts and published Black Justice in 1931, a report which documented institutional racism throughout the South, including lack of voting rights, segregation, and discrimination in the justice system. Funded by the Garland Fund, the ACLU also participated in producing the influential Margold Report, which outlined a strategy to fight for civil rights for blacks. The ACLU planned to demonstrate that the \"separate but equal\" policies governing the Southern discrimination were illegal because blacks were never, in fact, treated equally.\n\n### Depression era and the New Deal\n\nIn 1932 – twelve years after the ACLU was founded – it had achieved significant success; the Supreme Court had embraced the free speech principles espoused by the ACLU, and the general public was becoming more supportive of civil rights in general. But the Great Depression brought new assaults on civil liberties; the year 1930 saw a large increase in the number of free speech prosecutions, a doubling of the number of lynchings, and all meetings of unemployed persons were banned in Philadelphia.\n\nThe Franklin D. Roosevelt administration proposed the New Deal to combat the depression. ACLU leaders were of mixed opinions about the New Deal since many felt that it represented an increase in government intervention into personal affairs and because the National Recovery Administration suspended antitrust legislation. Roosevelt was not personally interested in civil rights but did appoint many civil libertarians to key positions, including Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, a member of the ACLU.\n\nThe economic policies of the New Deal leaders were often aligned with ACLU goals, but social goals were not. In particular, movies were subject to a barrage of local ordinances that banned screenings deemed immoral or obscene. Even public health films portraying pregnancy and birth were banned, as was Life magazine's April 11, 1938, issue, which included photos of the birth process. The ACLU fought these bans but did not prevail.\n\nThe Catholic Church attained increasing political influence in the 1930s; it used its influence to promote the censorship of movies and to discourage the publication of birth control information. This conflict between the ACLU and the Catholic Church led to the resignation of the last Catholic priest from ACLU leadership in 1934; a Catholic priest would not be represented again until the 1970s.\n\nThe ACLU took no official position on president Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 1937 court-packing plan, which threatened to increase the number of Supreme Court justices unless the Supreme Court reversed its course and began approving New Deal legislation. The Supreme Court responded by making a major shift in policy, and no longer applied strict constitutional limits to government programs, and also began to take a more active role in protecting civil liberties.\n\nThe first decision that marked the court's new direction was De Jonge v. Oregon, in which a communist labor organizer was arrested for calling a meeting to discuss unionization. The ACLU attorney Osmond Fraenkel, working with International Labor Defense, defended De Jonge in 1937 and won a major victory when the Supreme Court ruled that \"peaceable assembly for lawful discussion cannot be made a crime.\" The De Jonge case marked the start of an era lasting for a dozen years, during which Roosevelt appointees (led by Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and Frank Murphy) established a body of civil liberties law. In 1938, Justice Harlan F. Stone wrote the famous \"footnote four\" in United States v. Carolene Products Co. in which he suggested that state laws which impede civil liberties would – henceforth – require compelling justification.\n\nSenator Robert F. Wagner proposed the National Labor Relations Act in 1935, which empowered workers to unionize. Ironically, after 15 years of fighting for workers' rights, the ACLU initially opposed the act (it later took no stand on the legislation) because some ACLU leaders feared the increased power the bill gave to the government. The newly formed National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) posed a dilemma for the ACLU because, in 1937, it issued an order to Henry Ford, prohibiting Ford from disseminating anti-union literature. Part of the ACLU leadership habitually took the side of labor, and that faction supported the NLRB's action. But part of the ACLU supported Ford's right to free speech. ACLU leader Arthur Garfield Hays proposed a compromise (supporting the auto workers union, yet also endorsing Ford's right to express personal opinions), but the schism highlighted a deeper divide that would become more prominent in the years to come.\n\nThe ACLU's support of the NLRB was a significant development for the ACLU because it marked the first time it accepted that a government agency could be responsible for upholding civil liberties. Until 1937, the ACLU felt that citizens and private organizations best upheld civil rights.\n\nSome factions in the ACLU proposed new directions for the organization. In the late 1930s, some local affiliates proposed shifting their emphasis from civil liberties appellate actions to becoming a legal aid society centered on store front offices in low-income neighborhoods. The ACLU directors rejected that proposal. Other ACLU members wanted the ACLU to shift focus into the political arena and be more willing to compromise their ideals to strike deals with politicians. The ACLU leadership also rejected this initiative.\n\n### Jehovah's Witnesses\n\nThe ACLU's support of defendants with unpopular, sometimes extreme, viewpoints has produced many landmark court cases and established new civil liberties. One such defendant was the Jehovah's Witnesses, who were involved in a large number of Supreme Court cases. Cases that the ACLU supported included Lovell v. City of Griffin (which struck down a city ordinance that required a permit before a person could distribute \"literature of any kind\"); Martin v. Struthers (which struck down an ordinance prohibiting door-to-door canvassing); and Cantwell v. Connecticut (which reversed the conviction of a Witness who was reciting offensive speech on a street corner).\n\nThe most important cases involved statutes requiring flag salutes. The Jehovah's Witnesses felt that saluting a flag was contrary to their religious beliefs. Two children were convicted in 1938 of not saluting the flag. The ACLU supported their appeal to the Supreme Court, but the court affirmed the conviction in 1940. But three years later, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme court reversed itself and wrote, \"If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein.\" To underscore its decision, the Supreme Court announced it on Flag Day.\n\n### Communism and totalitarianism\n\nThe rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Russia, and other countries that rejected freedom of speech and association greatly impacted the civil liberties movement in the US; anti-Communist sentiment rose, and civil liberties were curtailed.\n\nThe ACLU leadership was divided over whether or not to defend pro-Nazi speech in the United States; pro-labor elements within the ACLU were hostile towards Nazism and fascism and objected when the ACLU defended Nazis. Several states passed laws outlawing hate speech directed at ethnic groups. The first person arrested under New Jersey's 1935 hate speech law was a Jehovah's Witness who was charged with disseminating anti-Catholic literature. The ACLU defended the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the charges were dropped. The ACLU defended numerous pro-Nazi groups, defending their rights to free speech and free association.\n\nIn the late 1930s, the ACLU allied itself with the Popular Front, a coalition of liberal organizations coordinated by the United States Communist Party. The ACLU benefited because affiliates from the Popular Front could often fight local civil rights battles much more effectively than the New York-based ACLU. The association with the Communist Party led to accusations that the ACLU was a \"Communist front\", particularly because Harry F. Ward was both chairman of the ACLU and chairman of the American League Against War and Fascism, a Communist organization.\n\nThe House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was created in 1938 to uncover sedition and treason within the United States. When witnesses testified at its hearings, the ACLU was mentioned several times, leading the HUAC to mention the ACLU prominently in its 1939 report. This damaged the ACLU's reputation severely, even though the report said that it could not \"definitely state whether or not\" the ACLU was a Communist organization.\n\nWhile the ACLU rushed to defend its image against allegations of being a Communist front, it also protected witnesses harassed by the HUAC. The ACLU was one of the few organizations to protest (unsuccessfully) against the passage of the Smith Act in 1940, which would later be used to imprison many persons who supported Communism. The ACLU defended many persons who were prosecuted under the Smith Act, including labor leader Harry Bridges.\n\nACLU leadership was split on whether to purge its leadership of Communists. Norman Thomas, John Haynes Holmes, and Morris Ernst were anti-Communists who wanted to distance the ACLU from Communism; opposing them were Harry F. Ward, Corliss Lamont, and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, who rejected any political test for ACLU leadership. A bitter struggle ensued throughout 1939, and the anti-Communists prevailed in February 1940 when the board voted to prohibit anyone who supported totalitarianism from ACLU leadership roles. Ward immediately resigned, and – following a contentious six-hour debate – Flynn was voted off the ACLU's board. The 1940 resolution was considered by many to be a betrayal of its fundamental principles. The resolution was rescinded in 1968, and Flynn was posthumously reinstated to the ACLU in 1970.\n\n## Mid-century\n\n### World War II\n\nWhen World War II engulfed the United States, the Bill of Rights was enshrined as a hallowed document, and numerous organizations defended civil liberties. Chicago and New York proclaimed \"Civil Rights\" weeks, and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced a national Bill of Rights day. Eleanor Roosevelt was the keynote speaker at the 1939 ACLU convention. Despite this newfound respect for civil rights, Americans were becoming adamantly anti-communist and believed that excluding communists from American society was an essential step to preserve democracy.\n\nContrasted to World War I, there was relatively little violation of civil liberties during World War II. President Roosevelt was a strong supporter of civil liberties, but – more importantly – there were few anti-war activists during World War II. The most significant exception was the internment of Japanese Americans.\n\n#### Japanese American internment\n\nTwo months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt authorized the creation of military \"exclusion zones\" with Executive Order 9066, paving the way for the detention of all West Coast Japanese Americans in inland camps. In addition to the non-citizen Issei (prohibited from naturalization as members of an \"unassimilable\" race), over two-thirds of those swept up were American-born citizens. The ACLU immediately protested to Roosevelt, comparing the evacuations to Nazi concentration camps. The ACLU was the only major organization to object to the internment plan, and their position was very unpopular, even within the organization. Not all ACLU leaders wanted to defend the Japanese Americans; Roosevelt loyalists such as Morris Ernst wanted to support Roosevelt's war effort, but pacifists such as Baldwin and Norman Thomas felt that Japanese Americans needed access to due process before they could be imprisoned. In a March 20, 1942, letter to Roosevelt, Baldwin called on the administration to allow Japanese Americans to prove their loyalty at individual hearings, describing the constitutionality of the planned removal \"open to grave question\". His suggestions went nowhere, and opinions within the organization became increasingly divided as the Army began the \"evacuation\" of the West Coast. In May, the two factions, one pushing to fight the exclusion orders then being issued, the other advocating support for the President's policy of removing citizens whose \"presence may endanger national security\", brought their opposing resolutions to a vote before the board and the ACLU's national leaders. They decided not to challenge the eviction of Japanese American citizens; on June 22, instructions were sent to West Coast branches not to support cases that argued the government had no constitutional right to do so.\n\nThe ACLU offices on the West Coast had been more directly involved in addressing the tide of anti-Japanese prejudice from the start, as they were geographically closer to the issue and were already working on cases challenging the exclusion by this time. The Seattle office, assisting in Gordon Hirabayashi's lawsuit, created an unaffiliated committee to continue the work the ACLU had started, while in Los Angeles, attorney A.L. Wirin continued to represent Ernest Kinzo Wakayama but without addressing the case's constitutional questions. Wirin would lose private clients because of his defense of Wakayama and other Japanese Americans; however, the San Francisco branch, led by Ernest Besig, refused to discontinue its support for Fred Korematsu, whose case had been taken on before the June 22 directive, and attorney Wayne Collins, with Besig's full support, centered his defense on the illegality of Korematsu's exclusion.\n\nThe West Coast offices had wanted a test case to take to court. However, they had a difficult time finding a Japanese American who was both willing to violate the internment orders and able to meet the ACLU's desired criteria of a sympathetic, Americanized plaintiff. Of the 120,000 Japanese Americans affected by the order, only 12 disobeyed, and Korematsu, Hirabayashi, and two others were the only resisters whose cases eventually made it to the Supreme Court. Hirabayashi v. United States came before the Court in May 1943, and the justices upheld the government's right to exclude Japanese Americans from the West Coast; although it had earlier forced its local office in L.A. to stop aiding Hirabayashi, the ACLU donated \\$1,000 to the case (over a third of the legal team's total budget) and submitted an amicus brief. Besig, dissatisfied with Osmond Fraenkel's tamer defense, filed an additional amicus brief that directly addressed Hirabayashi's constitutional rights. In the meantime, A.L. Wirin served as one of the attorneys in Yasui v. United States (decided the same day as the Hirabayashi case and with the same results). Still, he kept his arguments within the national office's parameters. The only case to receive a favorable ruling, ex parte Endo, was also aided by two amicus briefs from the ACLU, one from the more conservative Fraenkel and another from the more putative Wayne Collins.\n\nKorematsu v. United States proved to be the most controversial of these cases, as Besig and Collins refused to bow to the national ACLU office's pressure to pursue the case without challenging the government's right to remove citizens from their homes. The ACLU board threatened to revoke the San Francisco branch's national affiliation. At the same time, Baldwin tried unsuccessfully to convince Collins to step down so he could replace him as lead attorney in the case. Eventually, Collins agreed to present the case alongside Charles Horsky; however, their arguments before the Supreme Court remained based on the unconstitutionality of the exclusion order Korematsu had disobeyed. The case was decided in December 1944, when the Court once again upheld the government's right to relocate Japanese Americans, although Korematsu's, Hirabayashi's and Yasui's convictions were later overturned in coram nobis proceedings in the 1980s. Legal scholar Peter Irons later asserted that the national office of the ACLU's decision not to challenge the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066 directly had \"crippled the effective presentation of these appeals to the Supreme Court\".\n\nThe national office of the ACLU was even more reluctant to defend anti-war protesters. A majority of the board passed a resolution in 1942 that declared the ACLU unwilling to defend anyone who interfered with the United States' war effort. Included in this group were the thousands of Nisei who renounced their US citizenship during the war but later regretted the decision and tried to revoke their applications for \"repatriation\". (A significant number of those slated to \"go back\" to Japan had never actually been to the country and were being deported rather than repatriated.) Ernest Besig had in 1944 visited the Tule Lake Segregation Center, where the majority of these \"renunciants\" were concentrated, and subsequently enlisted Wayne Collins' help to file a lawsuit on their behalf, arguing the renunciations had been given under duress. The national organization prohibited local branches from representing the renunciants, forcing Collins to pursue the case independently, although Besig and the Northern California office provided some support.\n\nDuring his 1944 visit to Tule Lake, Besig had also become aware of a hastily constructed stockade in which Japanese American internees were routinely being brutalized and held for months without due process. The national ACLU office forbade Besig to intervene on behalf of the stockade prisoners or even to visit the Tule Lake camp without prior written approval from Baldwin. Unable to help directly, Besig turned to Wayne Collins for assistance. Using the threat of habeas corpus suits, Collins managed to have the stockade closed down. A year later, after learning that the stockade had been reestablished, he returned to the camp and had it closed down for good.\n\n#### End of WWII in 1945\n\nWhen the war ended in 1945, the ACLU was 25 years old and had accumulated impressive legal victories. President Harry S. Truman sent a congratulatory telegram to the ACLU on the occasion of their 25th anniversary. American attitudes had changed since World War I, and dissent by minorities was tolerated with more willingness. The Bill of Rights was more respected, and minority rights were becoming more commonly championed. During their 1945 annual conference, the ACLU leaders composed a list of important civil rights issues to focus on in the future, including racial discrimination and separation of church and state.\n\nThe ACLU supported the African-American defendants in Shelley v. Kraemer, when they tried to occupy a house they had purchased in a neighborhood with racially restrictive housing covenants. The African-American purchasers won the case in 1945.\n\n### Cold War era\n\nAnti-Communist sentiment gripped the United States during the Cold War beginning in 1946. Federal investigations caused many persons with Communist or left-leaning affiliations to lose jobs, become blocklisted, or be jailed. During the Cold War, although the United States collectively ignored the civil rights of Communists, other civil liberties – such as due process in law and separation of church and state – continued to be reinforced and even expanded.\n\nThe ACLU was internally divided when it purged Communists from its leadership in 1940, and that ambivalence continued as it decided whether to defend alleged Communists during the late 1940s. Some ACLU leaders were anti-Communist and felt that the ACLU should not defend any victims. Some ACLU leaders felt that Communists were entitled to free speech protections and that the ACLU should defend them. Other ACLU leaders were uncertain about the threat posed by Communists and tried to establish a compromise between the two extremes. This ambivalent state of affairs would last until 1954, when the civil liberties faction prevailed, leading to most anti-Communist leaders' resignations.\n\nIn 1947, President Truman issued Executive Order 9835, which created the Federal Loyalty Program. This program authorized the Attorney General to create a list of organizations that were deemed to be subversive. Any association with these programs was ground for barring the person from employment. Listed organizations were not notified that they were being considered for the list, nor did they have an opportunity to present counterarguments; nor did the government divulge any factual basis for inclusion in the list. Although ACLU leadership was divided on whether to challenge the Federal Loyalty Program, some challenges were successfully made.\n\nAlso in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed ten Hollywood directors and writers, the Hollywood Ten, intending to ask them to identify Communists, but the witnesses refused to testify. All were imprisoned for contempt of Congress. The ACLU supported several artists' appeals but lost on appeal. The Hollywood establishment panicked after the HUAC hearings and created a blacklist that prohibited anyone with leftist associations from working. The ACLU supported legal challenges to the blocklist, but those challenges failed. The ACLU was more successful with an education effort; the 1952 report The Judges and the Judged, prepared at the ACLU's direction in response to the blocklisting of actress Jean Muir, described the unfair and unethical actions behind the blocklisting process, and it helped gradually turn public opinion against McCarthyism.\n\nThe federal government took direct aim at the US Communist Party in 1948 when it indicted its top twelve leaders in the Foley Square trial. The case hinged on whether or not mere membership in a totalitarian political party was sufficient to conclude that members advocated the overthrow of the United States government. The ACLU chose not to represent any of the defendants, and they were all found guilty and sentenced to three to five years in prison. Their defense attorneys were all cited for contempt, went to prison, and were disbarred. When the government indicted additional party members, the defendants could not find attorneys to represent them. Communists protested outside the courthouse; a bill to outlaw picketing of courthouses was introduced in Congress, and the ACLU supported the anti-picketing law.\n\nIn a change of heart, the ACLU supported the party leaders during their appeal process. The Supreme Court upheld the convictions in the Dennis v. United States decision by softening the free speech requirements from a \"clear and present danger\" test to a \"grave and probable\" test. The ACLU issued a public condemnation of the Dennis decision, and resolved to fight it. One reason for the Supreme Court's support of Cold War legislation was the 1949 deaths of Supreme Court justices Frank Murphy and Wiley Rutledge, leaving Hugo Black and William O. Douglas as the only remaining civil libertarians on the Court.\n\nThe Dennis decision paved the way for the prosecution of hundreds of other Communist party members. The ACLU supported many Communists during their appeals (although most of the initiative originated with local ACLU affiliates, not the national headquarters), but most convictions were upheld. The two California affiliates, in particular, felt the national ACLU headquarters was not supporting civil liberties strongly enough, and they initiated more cold war cases than the national headquarters did.\n\nThe ACLU challenged many loyalty oath requirements across the country, but the courts upheld most loyalty oath laws. California ACLU affiliates successfully challenged the California state loyalty oath. The Supreme Court, until 1957, upheld nearly every law which restricted the liberties of Communists.\n\nThe ACLU, even though it scaled back its defense of Communists during the Cold War, still came under heavy criticism as a \"front\" for Communism. Critics included the American Legion, Senator Joseph McCarthy, the HUAC, and the FBI. Several ACLU leaders were sympathetic to the FBI, and as a consequence, the ACLU rarely investigated any of the many complaints alleging abuse of power by the FBI during the Cold War.\n\nIn 1950, Raymond L. Wise, ACLU board member 1933–1951, defended William Perl, one of the other spies embroiled in the atomic espionage cases (made famous by the execution of Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg). However, the ACLU publicly endorsed the guilty verdict in the Rosenberg case. The ACLU took the position that the execution of the Rosenbergs did not involve a civil rights issue.\n\n### Organizational change\n\nIn 1950, the ACLU board of directors asked executive director Baldwin to resign, feeling he lacked the organizational skills to lead the 9,000 (and growing) member organization. Baldwin objected, but a majority of the board elected to remove him from the position, and he was replaced by Patrick Murphy Malin. Under Malin's guidance, membership tripled to 30,000 by 1955 – the start of 24 years of continual growth leading to 275,000 members in 1974. Malin also presided over an expansion of local ACLU affiliates.\n\nThe ACLU, controlled by an elite of a few dozen New Yorkers, became more democratic in the 1950s. In 1951, the ACLU amended its bylaws to permit the local affiliates to participate directly in voting on ACLU policy decisions. A bi-annual conference, open to the entire membership, was instituted in the same year; in later decades, it became a pulpit for activist members, who suggested new directions for the ACLU, including abortion rights, death penalty, and rights of the poor.\n\n### McCarthy era\n\nDuring the early 1950s, the ACLU continued to steer a moderate course through the Cold War. When singer Paul Robeson was denied a passport in 1950, even though he was not accused of any illegal acts, the ACLU chose not to defend him. The ACLU later reversed their stance and supported William Worthy and Rockwell Kent in their passport confiscation cases, which resulted in legal victories in the late 1950s.\n\nIn response to communist witch-hunts, many witnesses and employees chose to use the fifth amendment protection against self-incrimination to avoid divulging information about their political beliefs. Government agencies and private organizations, in response, established policies which inferred communist party membership for anyone who invoked the fifth amendment. The national ACLU was divided on whether to defend employees who had been fired merely for pleading the fifth amendment, but the New York affiliate successfully assisted teacher Harry Slochower in his Supreme Court case, which reversed his termination.\n\nThe fifth amendment issue became the catalyst for a watershed event in 1954, which finally resolved the ACLU's ambivalence by ousting the anti-communists from ACLU leadership. In 1953, the anti-communists, led by Norman Thomas and James Fly, proposed a set of resolutions that inferred guilt of persons that invoked the fifth amendment. These resolutions were the first that fell under the ACLU's new organizational rules permitting local affiliates to participate in the vote; the affiliates outvoted the national headquarters and rejected the anti-communist resolutions. Anti-communist leaders refused to accept the results of the vote and brought the issue up for discussion again at the 1954 bi-annual convention. ACLU member Frank Graham, president of the University of North Carolina, attacked the anti-communists with a counter-proposal, which stated that the ACLU \"stand[s] against guilt by association, judgment by accusation, the invasion of privacy of personal opinions and beliefs, and the confusion of dissent with disloyalty\". The anti-communists continued to battle Graham's proposal but were outnumbered by the affiliates. The anti-communists finally gave up and departed the board of directors in late 1954 and 1955, ending an eight-year ambivalence within the ACLU leadership ranks. After that, the ACLU proceeded with firmer resolve against Cold War anti-communist legislation. The period from the 1940 resolution (and the purge of Elizabeth Flynn) to the 1954 resignation of the anti-communist leaders is considered by many to be an era in which the ACLU abandoned its core principles.\n\nMcCarthyism declined in late 1954 after television journalist Edward R. Murrow and others publicly chastised McCarthy. The controversies over the Bill of Rights that the Cold War generated ushered in a new era in American Civil liberties. In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court unanimously overturned state-sanctioned school segregation, and after that, a flood of civil rights victories dominated the legal landscape.\n\nThe Supreme Court handed the ACLU two key victories in 1957, in Watkins v. United States and Yates v. United States, both of which undermined the Smith Act and marked the beginning of the end of communist party membership inquiries. In 1965, the Supreme Court produced some decisions, including Lamont v. Postmaster General (in which the plaintiff was Corliss Lamont, a former ACLU board member), which upheld fifth amendment protections and brought an end to restrictions on political activity.\n\n## 1960s\n\nThe decade from 1954 to 1964 was the most successful period in the ACLU's history. Membership rose from 30,000 to 80,000, and by 1965 it had affiliates in seventeen states. During the ACLU's bi-annual conference in Colorado in 1964, the Supreme Court issued rulings on eight cases involving the ACLU; the ACLU prevailed on seven of the eight. The ACLU played a role in Supreme Court decisions reducing censorship of literature and arts, protecting freedom of association, prohibiting racial segregation, excluding religion from public schools, and providing due process protection to criminal suspects. The ACLU's success arose from changing public attitudes; the American populace was more educated, tolerant, and willing to accept unorthodox behavior.\n\n### Separation of church and state\n\nLegal battles concerning the separation of church and state originated in laws dating to 1938, which required religious instruction in school or provided state funding for religious schools. The Catholic church was a leading proponent of such laws, and the primary opponents (the \"separationists\") were the ACLU, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, and the American Jewish Congress. The ACLU led the challenge in the 1947 Everson v. Board of Education case, in which Justice Hugo Black wrote \"[t]he First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state.... That wall must be kept high and impregnable.\" It was not clear that the Bill of Rights forbid state governments from supporting religious education, and strong legal arguments were made by religious proponents, arguing that the Supreme Court should not act as a \"national school board\", and that the Constitution did not govern social issues. However, the ACLU and other advocates of church/state separation persuaded the Court to declare such activities unconstitutional. Historian Samuel Walker writes that the ACLU's \"greatest impact on American life\" was its role in persuading the Supreme Court to \"constitutionalize\" so many public controversies.\n\nIn 1948, the ACLU prevailed in the McCollum v. Board of Education case, which challenged public school religious classes taught by clergy paid for by private funds. The ACLU also won cases challenging schools in New Mexico that were taught by clergy and had crucifixes hanging in the classrooms. In the 1960s, the ACLU, in response to member insistence, turned its attention to the in-class promotion of religion. In 1960, 42 percent of American schools included Bible reading. In 1962, the ACLU published a policy statement condemning in-school prayers, observation of religious holidays, and Bible reading. The Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's position when it prohibited New York's in-school prayers in the 1962 Engel v. Vitale decision. Religious factions across the country rebelled against the anti-prayer decisions, leading them to propose the School Prayer Constitutional Amendment, which declared in-school prayer legal. The ACLU participated in a lobbying effort against the amendment, and the 1966 congressional vote failed to obtain the required two-thirds majority.\n\nHowever, not all cases were victories; ACLU lost cases in 1949 and 1961 which challenged state laws requiring commercial businesses to close on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath. The Supreme Court has never overturned such laws, although some states subsequently revoked many of the laws under pressure from commercial interests.\n\n### Freedom of expression\n\nDuring the 1940s and 1950s, the ACLU continued its battle against censorship of art and literature. In 1948, the New York affiliate of the ACLU received mixed results from the Supreme Court, winning the appeal of Carl Jacob Kunz, who was convicted for speaking without a police permit, but losing the appeal of Irving Feiner who was arrested to prevent a breach of the peace, based on his oration denouncing President Truman and the American Legion. The ACLU lost the case of Joseph Beauharnais, who was arrested for group libel when he distributed literature impugning the character of African Americans.\n\nCities across America routinely banned movies because they were deemed to be \"harmful\", \"offensive\", or \"immoral\" – censorship which was validated by the 1915 Mutual v. Ohio Supreme Court decision which held movies to be mere commerce, undeserving of first amendment protection. The film The Miracle was banned in New York in 1951 at the behest of the Catholic Church, but the ACLU supported the film's distributor in an appeal of the ban, and won a major victory in the 1952 decision Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson. The Catholic Church led efforts throughout the 1950s attempting to persuade local prosecutors to ban various books and movies, leading to conflict with the ACLU when the ACLU published it statement condemning the church's tactics. Further legal actions by the ACLU successfully defended films such as M and la Ronde, leading the eventual dismantling of movie censorship. Hollywood continued employing self-censorship with its own Production Code, but in 1956 the ACLU called on Hollywood to abolish the Code.\n\nThe ACLU defended beat generation artists, including Allen Ginsberg who was prosecuted for his poem \"Howl\"; and – in an unorthodox case –  the ACLU helped a coffee house regain its restaurant license which was revoked because its Beat customers were allegedly disturbing the peace of the neighborhood.\n\nThe ACLU lost an important press censorship case when, in 1957, the Supreme Court upheld the obscenity conviction of publisher Samuel Roth for distributing adult magazines. As late as 1953, books such as Tropic of Cancer and From Here to Eternity were still banned. But public standards rapidly became more liberal through the 1960s, and obscenity was notoriously difficult to define, so by 1971, obscenity prosecutions had halted.\n\n### Racial discrimination\n\nA major aspect of civil liberties progress after World War II was the undoing centuries of racism in federal, state, and local governments –  an effort generally associated with the civil rights movement. Several civil liberties organizations worked together for progress, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the ACLU, and the American Jewish Congress. The NAACP took primary responsibility for Supreme Court cases (often led by lead NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall), with the ACLU focusing on police misconduct, and supporting the NAACP with amicus briefs. The NAACP achieved a key victory in 1950 with the Henderson v. United States decision that ended segregation in interstate bus and rail transportation.\n\nIn 1954, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, which led to the ban on racial segregation in US public schools. Southern states instituted a McCarthyism-style witch-hunt against the NAACP, attempting to force it to disclose membership lists. The ACLU's fight against racism was not limited to segregation; in 1964, the ACLU provided key support to plaintiffs, primarily lower-income urban residents, in Reynolds v. Sims, which required states to establish the voting districts following the \"one person, one vote\" principle.\n\n### Police misconduct\n\nThe ACLU regularly tackled police misconduct issues, starting with the 1932 case Powell v. Alabama (right to an attorney), and including 1942's Betts v. Brady (right to an attorney), and 1951's Rochin v. California (involuntary stomach pumping). In the late 1940s, several ACLU local affiliates established permanent committees to address policing issues. During the 1950s and 1960s, the ACLU was responsible for substantially advancing the legal protections against police misconduct. In 1958, the Philadelphia affiliate was responsible for causing the City of Philadelphia to create the nation's first civilian police review board. In 1959, the Illinois affiliate published the first report in the nation, Secret Detention by the Chicago Police which documented unlawful detention by police.\n\nSome of the most notable ACLU successes came in the 1960s when the ACLU prevailed in a string of cases limiting the power of police to gather evidence; in 1961's Mapp v. Ohio, the Supreme court required states to obtain a warrant before searching a person's home. The Gideon v. Wainwright decision in 1963 provided legal representation to indigents. In 1964, the ACLU persuaded the Court, in Escobedo v. Illinois, to permit suspects to have an attorney present during questioning. And, in 1966, Miranda v. Arizona federal decision required police to notify suspects of their constitutional rights, which was later extended to juveniles in the following year's in re Gault (1967) federal ruling. Although many law enforcement officials criticized the ACLU for expanding the rights of suspects, police officers also used the services of the ACLU. For example, when the ACLU represented New York City policemen in their lawsuit, which objected to searches of their workplace lockers. In the late 1960s, civilian review boards in New York City and Philadelphia were abolished, over the ACLU's objection.\n\n### Civil liberties revolution of the 1960s\n\nThe 1960s was a tumultuous era in the United States, and public interest in civil liberties underwent explosive growth. Civil liberties actions in the 1960s were often led by young people and often employed tactics such as sit ins and marches. Protests were often peaceful but sometimes employed militant tactics. The ACLU played a central role in all major civil liberties debates of the 1960s, including new fields such as gay rights, prisoner's rights, abortion, rights of the poor, and the death penalty. Membership in the ACLU increased from 52,000 at the beginning of the decade to 104,000 in 1970. In 1960, there were affiliates in seven states, and by 1974 there were affiliates in 46 states. During the 1960s, the ACLU underwent a major transformation in tactics; it shifted emphasis from legal appeals (generally involving amicus briefs submitted to the Supreme Court) to direct representation of defendants when they were initially arrested. At the same time, the ACLU transformed its style from \"disengaged and elitist\" to \"emotionally engaged\". The ACLU published a breakthrough document in 1963, titled How Americans Protest, which was borne of frustration with the slow progress in battling racism, and which endorsed aggressive, even militant protest techniques.\n\nAfrican-American protests in the South accelerated in the early 1960s, and the ACLU assisted at every step. After four African-American college students staged a sit-in in a segregated North Carolina department store, the sit-in movement gained momentum across the United States. During 1960–61, the ACLU defended black students arrested for demonstrating in North Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The ACLU also provided legal help for the Freedom Rides in 1961, the integration of the University of Mississippi, the Birmingham campaign in 1963, and the 1964 Freedom Summer.\n\nThe NAACP was responsible for managing most sit-in related cases that made it to the Supreme Court, winning nearly every decision. But it fell to the ACLU and other legal volunteer efforts to provide legal representation to hundreds of protestors – white and black – who were arrested while protesting in the South. The ACLU joined with other civil liberties groups to form the Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee (LCDC), which provided legal representation to many protesters. The ACLU provided the majority of the funding for the LCDC.\n\nIn 1964, the ACLU opened up a major office in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to serving Southern issues. Much of the ACLU's progress in the South was due to Charles Morgan Jr., the charismatic leader of the Atlanta office. Morgan was responsible for desegregating juries (Whitus v. Georgia), desegregating prisons (Lee v. Washington), and reforming election laws. In 1966, the southern office successfully represented African-American congressman Julian Bond in Bond v. Floyd, after the Georgia House of Representatives refused to admit Bond into the legislature on the basis that he was an admitted pacifist opposed to the ongoing Vietnam War. Another widely publicized case defended by Morgan was that of Army doctor Howard Levy, who was convicted of refusing to train Green Berets. Despite raising the defense that the Green Berets were committing war crimes in Vietnam, Levy lost on appeal in Parker v. Levy, 417 US 733 (1974).\n\nIn 1969, the ACLU won a significant victory for free speech when it defended Dick Gregory after he was arrested for peacefully protesting against the mayor of Chicago. The court ruled in Gregory v. Chicago that a speaker cannot be arrested for disturbing the peace when hostility is initiated by someone in the audience, as that would amount to a \"heckler's veto\".\n\n### Vietnam War\n\nThe ACLU was at the center of several legal aspects of the Vietnam war: defending draft resisters, challenging the constitutionality of the war, the potential impeachment of Richard Nixon, and the use of national security concerns to preemptively censor newspapers.\n\nDavid J. Miller was the first person prosecuted for burning his draft card. The New York affiliate of the ACLU appealed his 1965 conviction (367 F.2d 72: United States of America v. David J. Miller, 1966), but the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal. Two years later, the Massachusetts affiliate took the card-burning case of David O'Brien to the Supreme Court, arguing that the act of burning was a form of symbolic speech, but the Supreme Court upheld the conviction in United States v. O'Brien, 391 US 367 (1968). Thirteen-year-old Junior High student Mary Tinker wore a black armband to school in 1965 to object to the war and was suspended from school. The ACLU appealed her case to the Supreme Court and won a victory in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District. This critical case established that the government may not establish \"enclaves\" such as schools or prisons where all rights are forfeited.\n\nThe ACLU defended Sydney Street, who was arrested for burning an American flag to protest the reported assassination of civil rights leader James Meredith. In the Street v. New York decision, the court agreed with the ACLU that encouraging the country to abandon one of its national symbols was a constitutionally protected form of expression. The ACLU successfully defended Paul Cohen, who was arrested for wearing a jacket with the words \"fuck the draft\" on its back while he walked through the Los Angeles courthouse. The Supreme Court, in Cohen v. California, held that the vulgarity of the wording was essential to convey the intensity of the message.\n\nNon-war-related free speech rights were also advanced during the Vietnam war era; in 1969, the ACLU defended a Ku Klux Klan member who advocated long-term violence against the government, and the Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's argument in the landmark decision Brandenburg v. Ohio, which held that only speech which advocated imminent violence could be outlawed.\n\nA major crisis gripped the ACLU in 1968 when a debate erupted over whether to defend Benjamin Spock and the Boston Five against federal charges that they encouraged draftees to avoid the draft. The ACLU board was deeply split over whether to defend the activists; half the board harbored anti-war sentiments and felt that the ACLU should lend its resources to the cause of the Boston Five. The other half of the board believed that civil liberties were not at stake and the ACLU would be taking a political stance. Behind the debate was the longstanding ACLU tradition that it was politically impartial and provided legal advice without regard to the defendants' political views. The board finally agreed to a compromise solution that permitted the ACLU to defend the anti-war activists without endorsing the activist's political views. Some critics of the ACLU suggest that the ACLU became a partisan political organization following the Spock case. After the Kent State shootings in 1970, ACLU leaders took another step toward politics by passing a resolution condemning the Vietnam War. The resolution was based on various legal arguments, including civil liberties violations and claiming that the war was illegal.\n\nAlso in 1968, the ACLU held an internal symposium to discuss its dual roles: providing \"direct\" legal support (defense for accused in their initial trial, benefiting only the individual defendant) and appellate support (providing amicus briefs during the appeal process, to establish widespread legal precedent). Historically, the ACLU was known for its appellate work, which led to landmark Supreme Court decisions, but by 1968, 90% of the ACLU's legal activities involved direct representation. The symposium concluded that both roles were valid for the ACLU.\n\n## 1970s and 1980s\n\n### Watergate era\n\nThe ACLU supported The New York Times in its 1971 suit against the government, requesting permission to publish the Pentagon Papers. The court upheld the Times and ACLU in the New York Times Co. v. United States ruling, which held that the government could not preemptively prohibit the publication of classified information and had to wait until after it was published to take action.\n\nOn September 30, 1973, the ACLU became first national organization to publicly call for the impeachment and removal from office of President Richard Nixon. Six civil liberties violations were cited as grounds: \"specific proved violations of the rights of political dissent; usurpation of Congressional war‐making powers; establishment of a personal secret police which committed crimes; attempted interference in the trial of Daniel Ellsberg; distortion of the system of justice and perversion of other Federal agencies\". One month later, after the House of Representatives began an impeachment inquiry against him, the organization released a 56‐page handbook detailing \"17 things citizens could do to bring about the impeachment of President Nixon\". This resolution, when placed beside the earlier resolution opposing the Vietnam war, convinced many ACLU critics, particularly conservatives, that the organization had transformed into a liberal political organization.\n\n### Enclaves and new civil liberties\n\nThe decade from 1965 to 1975 saw an expansion of civil liberties. Administratively, the ACLU responded by appointing Aryeh Neier to take over from Pemberton as executive director in 1970. Neier embarked on an ambitious program to expand the ACLU; he created the ACLU Foundation to raise funds and created several new programs to focus the ACLU's legal efforts. By 1974, ACLU membership had reached 275,000.\n\nDuring those years, the ACLU worked to expand legal rights in three directions: new rights for persons within government-run \"enclaves\", new rights for members of what it called \"victim groups\", and privacy rights for citizens in general. At the same time, the organization grew substantially. The ACLU helped develop the field of constitutional law that governs \"enclaves\", which are groups of persons that live in conditions under government control. Enclaves include mental hospital patients, military members, prisoners, and students (while at school). The term enclave originated with Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas's use of the phrase \"schools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism\" in the Tinker v. Des Moines decision.\n\nThe ACLU initiated the legal field of student's rights with the Tinker v. Des Moines case and expanded it with cases such as Goss v. Lopez, which required schools to provide students an opportunity to appeal suspensions.\n\nAs early as 1945, the ACLU had taken a stand to protect the rights of the mentally ill when it drafted a model statute governing mental commitments. In the 1960s, the ACLU opposed involuntary commitments unless it could be demonstrated that the person was a danger to himself or the community. In the landmark 1975 O'Connor v. Donaldson decision, the ACLU represented a non-violent mental health patient who had been confined against his will for 15 years and persuaded the Supreme Court to rule such involuntary confinements illegal. The ACLU has also defended the rights of mentally ill individuals who are not dangerous but create disturbances. The New York chapter of the ACLU defended Billie Boggs, a woman with mental illness who exposed herself and defecated and urinated in public.\n\nBefore 1960, prisoners had virtually no recourse to the court system because courts considered prisoners to have no civil rights. That changed in the late 1950s, when the ACLU began representing prisoners subject to police brutality or deprived of religious reading material. In 1968, the ACLU successfully sued to desegregate the Alabama prison system; in 1969, the New York affiliate adopted a project to represent prisoners in New York prisons. Private attorney Phil Hirschkop discovered degrading conditions in Virginia prisons following the Virginia State Penitentiary strike and won an important victory in 1971's Landman v. Royster which prohibited Virginia from treating prisoners in inhumane ways. In 1972, the ACLU consolidated several prison rights efforts across the nation and created the National Prison Project. The ACLU's efforts led to landmark cases such as Ruiz v. Estelle (requiring reform of the Texas prison system), and in 1996 US Congress enacted the Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) which codified prisoners' rights.\n\n### Victim groups\n\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, the ACLU expanded its scope to include what it referred to as \"victim groups\", namely women, the poor, and homosexuals. Heeding the call of female members, the ACLU endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1970 and created the Women's Rights Project in 1971. The Women's Rights Project dominated the legal field, handling more than twice as many cases as the National Organization for Women, including breakthrough cases such as Reed v. Reed, Frontiero v. Richardson, and Taylor v. Louisiana.\n\nACLU leader Harriet Pilpel raised the issue of the rights of homosexuals in 1964, and two years later, the ACLU formally endorsed gay rights. In 1972, ACLU cooperating attorneys in Oregon filed the first federal civil rights case involving a claim of unconstitutional discrimination against a gay or lesbian public school teacher. The US District Court held that a state statute that authorized school districts to fire teachers for \"immorality\" was unconstitutionally vague, and awarded monetary damages to the teacher. The court refused to reinstate the teacher, and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed that refusal by a 2-to-1 vote. Burton v. Cascade School District, 353 F. Supp. 254 (D. Or. 1972), aff'd 512 F.2d 850 (1975). In 1973, the ACLU created the Sexual Privacy Project (later the Gay and Lesbian Rights Project), which combated discrimination against homosexuals. This support continued into the 2000s. For example, after then-Senator Larry Craig was arrested for soliciting sex in a public restroom in 2007, the ACLU wrote an amicus brief for Craig, saying that sex between consenting adults in public places was protected under privacy rights.\n\nThe rights of the poor were another area that the ACLU expanded. In 1966 and again in 1968, activists within the ACLU encouraged the organization to adopt a policy overhauling the welfare system and guaranteeing low-income families a baseline income; but the ACLU board did not approve the proposals. However, the ACLU played a key role in the 1968 King v. Smith decision, where the Supreme Court ruled that welfare benefits for children could not be denied by a state simply because the mother cohabited with a boyfriend.\n\n### Reproductive Freedom Project\n\nThe ACLU founded the Reproductive Freedom Project in 1974 to defend individuals the government obstructs in cases involving access to abortions, birth control, or sexual education. According to its mission statement, the project works to provide access to reproductive health care for individuals. The project also opposes abstinence-only sex education, arguing that it promotes an unwillingness to use contraceptives.\n\nIn 1980, the Project filed Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital which attempted to overturn Buck v. Bell, the 1927 US Supreme Court decision which had allowed the Commonwealth of Virginia to legally sterilize persons it deemed to be mentally defective without their permission. Though the Court did not overturn Buck v.Bell, in 1985, the state agreed to provide counseling and medical treatment to the survivors among the 7,200 to 8,300 people sterilized between 1927 and 1979. In 1977, the ACLU took part in and litigated Walker v. Pierce, the federal circuit court case that led to federal regulations to prevent Medicaid patients from being sterilized without their knowledge or consent. In 1981–1990, the Project litigated Hodgson v. Minnesota, which resulted in the Supreme Court overturning a state law requiring both parents to be notified before a minor could legally have an abortion. In the 1990s, the Project provided legal assistance and resource kits to those who were being challenged for educating about sexuality and AIDS. In 1995, the Project filed an amicus brief in Curtis v. School Committee of Falmouth, which allowed for the distribution of condoms in a public school.\n\nThe Reproductive Freedom Project focuses on three ideas: (1) to \"reverse the shortage of trained abortion providers throughout the country\" (2) to \"block state and federal welfare \"reform\" proposals that cut off benefits for children who are born to women already receiving welfare, unmarried women, or teenagers\" and (3) to \"stop the elimination of vital reproductive health services as a result of hospital mergers and health care networks\". The Project proposes to achieve these goals through legal action and litigation.\n\n### Privacy\n\nThe right to privacy is not explicitly identified in the US Constitution, but the ACLU led the charge to establish such rights in the indecisive Poe v. Ullman (1961) case, which addressed a state statute outlawing contraception. The issue arose again in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), and this time the Supreme Court adopted the ACLU's position and formally declared a right to privacy. The New York affiliate of the ACLU pushed to eliminate anti-abortion laws starting in 1964, a year before Griswold was decided; in 1967 the ACLU itself formally adopted the right to abortion as a policy. The ACLU led the defense in United States v. Vuitch (1971), which expanded the right of physicians to determine when abortions were necessary. These efforts culminated in one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions, Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion throughout the United States. The ACLU successfully argued against state bans on interracial marriage, in the case of Loving v. Virginia (1967).\n\nRelated to privacy, the ACLU engaged in several battles to ensure that government records about individuals were kept private and to give individuals the right to review their records. The ACLU supported several measures, including the 1970 Fair Credit Reporting Act, which required credit agencies to divulge credit information to individuals; the 1973 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, which provided students the right to access their records; and the 1974 Privacy Act, which prevented the federal government from disclosing personal information without good cause.\n\n### Allegations of bias\n\nIn the early 1970s, conservatives and libertarians began to criticize the ACLU for being too political and too liberal. Legal scholar Joseph W. Bishop wrote that the ACLU's trend to partisanship started with its defense of Spock's anti-war protests. Critics also blamed the ACLU for encouraging the Supreme Court to embrace judicial activism. Critics claimed that the ACLU's support of controversial decisions like Roe v. Wade and Griswold v. Connecticut violated the intention of the authors of the Bill of Rights. The ACLU became an issue in the 1988 presidential campaign, when Republican candidate George H. W. Bush accused Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis (a member of the ACLU) of being a \"card carrying member of the ACLU\".\n\n### The Skokie case\n\nIn 1977, the National Socialist Party of America, led by Frank Collin, applied to the town of Skokie, Illinois, for a permit to hold a demonstration in the town park. Skokie at the time had a majority population of Jews, totaling 40,000 of 70,000 citizens, some of whom were survivors of Nazi concentration camps. Skokie refused to grant the NSPA a permit and passed ordinances against hate speech and military wear, in addition to requiring an insurance bond. Skokie's Village Council ordered village attorney, Harvey Schwartz, to seek an injunction to stop the demonstration. The ACLU assisted Collin and appealed to federal court, eventually prevailing in NSPA v. Village of Skokie\n\nThe Skokie case was heavily publicized across America, partially because Jewish groups such as the Jewish Defense League and Anti Defamation League strenuously objected to the demonstration, leading many members of the ACLU to cancel their memberships. The Illinois affiliate of the ACLU lost about 25% of its membership and nearly one-third of its budget. The financial strain from the controversy led to layoffs at local chapters. After the membership crisis died down, the ACLU sent out a fund-raising appeal which explained their rationale for the Skokie case and raised over \\$500,000 (\\$ in dollars).\n\n### Reagan era\n\nThe inauguration of Ronald Reagan as president in 1981 ushered in an eight-year period of conservative leadership in the US government. Under Reagan's leadership, the government pushed a conservative social agenda.\n\nFifty years after the Scopes trial, the ACLU found itself fighting another classroom case, the Arkansas 1981 creationism statute, which required schools to teach the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The ACLU won the case in the McLean v. Arkansas decision.\n\nIn 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of child pornography (New York v. Ferber). In an amicus brief, the ACLU argued that child pornography that violates the three prong obscenity test should be outlawed. However, the law was overly restrictive because it banned artistic displays and non-obscene material. The court did not adopt the ACLU's position.\n\nDuring the 1988 presidential election, Vice President George H. W. Bush noted that his opponent Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis had described himself as a \"card-carrying member of the ACLU\" and used that as evidence that Dukakis was \"a strong, passionate liberal\" and \"out of the mainstream\". The phrase subsequently was used by the organization in an advertising campaign.\n\n## 1990s\n\nIn 1990, the ACLU defended Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, whose conviction was tainted by coerced testimony – a violation of his fifth amendment rights – during the Iran–Contra affair, where Oliver North was involved in illegal weapons sales to Iran to illegally fund the Contra guerillas.\n\nIn 1997, ruling unanimously in the case of Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, the Supreme Court voided the anti-indecency provisions of the Communications Decency Act (the CDA), finding they violated the freedom of speech provisions of the First Amendment. In their decision, the Supreme Court held that the CDA's \"use of the undefined terms 'indecent' and 'patently offensive' will provoke uncertainty among speakers about how the two standards relate to each other and just what they mean.\" In 2000, Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, stated that proposed anti-spam legislation infringed on free speech by denying anonymity and by forcing spam to be labeled as such, \"Standardized labeling is compelled speech.\" He also stated, \"It's relatively simple to click and delete.\" The debate found the ACLU joining with the Direct Marketing Association and the Center for Democracy and Technology in 2000 in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the House of Representatives. As early as 1997, the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper, although it has supported \"opt-out\" requirements in some cases. The ACLU opposed the 2003 CAN-SPAM act suggesting that it could have a chilling effect on speech in cyberspace. It has been criticized for this position.\n\nIn November 2000, 15 African-American residents of Hearne, Texas, were indicted on drug charges after being arrested in a series of \"drug sweeps\". The ACLU filed a class-action lawsuit, Kelly v. Paschall, on their behalf, alleging that the arrests were unlawful. The ACLU contended that 15 percent of Hearne's male African-American population aged 18 to 34 were arrested based only on the \"uncorroborated word of a single unreliable confidential informant coerced by police to make cases\". On May 11, 2005, the ACLU and Robertson County announced a confidential settlement of the lawsuit, an outcome which \"both sides stated that they were satisfied with\". The District Attorney dismissed the charges against the plaintiffs of the suit. The 2009 film American Violet depicts this case.\n\nIn 2000, the ACLU's Massachusetts affiliate represented the North American Man Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), on first amendment grounds, in the Curley v. NAMBLA wrongful death civil suit. The organization was sued because a man who raped and murdered a child had visited the NAMBLA website. Also in 2000, the ACLU lost the Boy Scouts of America v. Dale case, which had asked the Supreme Court to require the Boy Scouts of America to drop their policy of prohibiting homosexuals from becoming Boy Scout leaders.\n\n## 21st century\n\n### Free speech\n\nIn 2006, the ACLU of Washington State joined with a pro-gun rights organization, the Second Amendment Foundation, and prevailed in a lawsuit against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon an adult patron's request. Library patrons attempting to access pro-gun web sites were blocked, and the library refused to remove the blocks. In 2012, the ACLU sued the same library system for refusing to disable temporarily, at the request of an adult patron, Internet filters which blocked access to Google Images.\n\nIn 2006, the ACLU challenged a Missouri law prohibiting picketing outside veterans' funerals. The suit was filed in support of the Westboro Baptist Church and Shirley Phelps-Roper, who were threatened with arrest. The Westboro Baptist Church is well known for its picket signs that contain messages such as \"God Hates Fags\", \"Thank God for Dead Soldiers\", and \"Thank God for 9/11\". The ACLU issued a statement calling the legislation a \"law that infringes on Shirley Phelps-Roper's rights to religious liberty and free speech\". The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit.\n\nThe ACLU argued in an amicus brief to the Supreme Court that a decision on the constitutionality of Massachusetts law required the consideration of additional evidence because lower courts have undervalued the right to engage in sidewalk counseling. The law prohibited sidewalk counselors from approaching women outside abortion facilities and offering them alternatives to abortion but allowed escorts to speak with them and accompany them into the building. In overturning the law in McCullen v. Coakley, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that it violated the counselors' freedom of speech and that it was viewpoint discrimination.\n\nIn 2009, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in Citizens United v. FEC, arguing that the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 violated the First Amendment right to free speech by curtailing political speech. This stance on the landmark Citizens United case caused considerable disagreement within the organization, resulting in a discussion about its future stance during a quarterly board meeting in 2010. On March 27, 2012, the ACLU reaffirmed its stance in support of the Supreme Court's Citizens United ruling, at the same time voicing support for expanded public financing of election campaigns and stating the organization would firmly oppose any future constitutional amendment limiting free speech.\n\nIn 2012, the ACLU filed suit on behalf of the Ku Klux Klan of Georgia, claiming that the KKK was unfairly rejected from the state's \"Adopt-a-Highway\" program. The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit.\n\n#### Waning interest in defending white supremacists' first amendment rights\n\nBeginning in 2017, some individuals claimed the ACLU was reducing its support of unpopular free speech (specifically by declining to defend speech made by conservatives) in favor of identity politics, political correctness, and progressivism. Former ACLU director Ira Glasser stated that \"the ACLU might not take the Skokie case today.\" In the 2020 documentary Mighty Ira, which chronicles Glasser's life and career at the ACLU, Glasser says he would defend the ACLU's decision to take the Skokie case again today if needed.\n\nOne basis of these allegations was a 2017 statement made by the ACLU president to a reporter after the death of a counter-protester during the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Virginia, where Romero told a reporter that the ACLU would no longer support legal cases of activists that wish to carry guns at their protests.\n\nAnother basis for these claims was an internal ACLU memo dated June 2018, discussing factors to evaluate when deciding whether or not to take a case. The memo listed several factors to consider, including \"the extent to which the speech may assist in advancing the goals of white supremacists or others whose views are contrary to our values\". Some analysts viewed this as a retreat from the ACLU's historically strong support of first amendment rights, regardless of whether minorities were negatively impacted by the speech, citing the ACLU's past support for certain KKK and Nazi legal cases. The memo's authors stated that the memo did not define a change in official ACLU policy, but was intended as a guideline to assist ACLU affiliates in deciding which cases to take. In 2021, the ACLU responded to the criticisms by denying that they are reducing their support for unpopular First Amendment causes and listing 27 cases from 2017 to 2021 where the ACLU supported a party holding an unpopular or repugnant viewpoint. The cases included one which challenged college restrictions on hate speech; a case defending a Catholic school's right to discriminate in hiring; and a case that defended antisemitic protesters who marched outside a synagogue.\n\n### LGBTQ issues\n\nIn March 2004, the ACLU, along with Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights, sued the state of California on behalf of six same-sex couples who were denied marriage licenses. That case, Woo v. Lockyer, was eventually consolidated into In re Marriage Cases, the California Supreme Court case which led to same-sex marriage being available in that state from June 16, 2008, until Proposition 8 was passed on November 4, 2008. The ACLU, Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights then challenged Proposition 8 and won.\n\nIn 2010, the ACLU of Illinois was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame as a Friend of the Community.\n\nIn 2011, the ACLU started its Don't Filter Me project, countering LGBT-related Internet censorship in public schools in the United States.\n\nOn January 7, 2013, the ACLU settled with the federal government in Collins v. United States that provided for the payment of full separation pay to servicemembers discharged under \"don't ask, don't tell\" since November 10, 2004, who had previously been granted only half that. Some 181 were expected to receive about \\$13,000 each.\n\nIn 2021, the ACLU tweeted a quote by Ruth Bader Ginsburg on the subject of pregnancy, replacing gender-specific words with bracketed gender-neutral words. The president of the ACLU later apologized for the changes to the quote, explaining that it was a good-faith mistake by the ACLU's media team, attempting to address the fact that there are people who seek abortions who do not identify as women.\n\nIn 2021, the ACLU filed a brief siding with a school district that had a policy of using preferred pronouns for transgender students. Some analysts felt this was a retreat from the ACLU's historical defense of the first amendment because the ACLU was opposing the teachers who were disciplined for refusing to use the preferred pronouns.\n\n### Second amendment\n\nIn light of the Supreme Court's Heller decision recognizing that the Constitution protects an individual right to bear arms, ACLU of Nevada took a position of supporting \"the individual's right to bear arms subject to constitutionally permissible regulations\" and pledged to \"defend this right as it defends other constitutional rights\". In 2021, the ACLU supported the position that the Second Amendment was originally written to ensure that Southern states could use militias to suppress slave uprisings, and that anti-Blackness ensured its inclusion in the Bill of Rights.\n\n### Anti-terrorism issues\n\nAfter the September 11 attacks, the federal government instituted a broad range of new measures to combat terrorism, including the passage of the Patriot Act. The ACLU challenged many of the measures, claiming that they violated rights regarding due process, privacy, illegal searches, and cruel and unusual punishment. An ACLU policy statement states:\n\n> Our way forward lies in decisively turning our backs on the policies and practices that violate our greatest strength: our Constitution and the commitment it embodies to the rule of law. Liberty and security do not compete in a zero-sum game; our freedoms are the very foundation of our strength and security. The ACLU's National Security Project advocates for national security policies that are consistent with the Constitution, the rule of law, and fundamental human rights. The Project litigates cases relating to detention, torture, discrimination, surveillance, censorship, and secrecy.\n\nDuring the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security, the membership of the ACLU increased by 20%, bringing the group's total enrollment to 330,000. The growth continued, and by August 2008 ACLU membership was greater than 500,000. It remained at that level through 2011.\n\nThe ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the Patriot Act of 2001, the PATRIOT 2 Act of 2003, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism. In response to a requirement of the USA PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from the Combined Federal Campaign charity drive. The campaign required ACLU employees to be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU has stated that it would \"reject \\$500,000 in contributions from private individuals rather than submit to a government 'blacklist' policy\".\n\nIn 2004, the ACLU sued the federal government in American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft on behalf of Nicholas Merrill, owner of an Internet service provider. Under the provisions of the Patriot Act, the government had issued national security letters to Merrill to compel him to provide private Internet access information from some of his customers. In addition, the government placed a gag order on Merrill, forbidding him from discussing the matter with anyone.\n\nIn January 2006, the ACLU filed a lawsuit, ACLU v. NSA, in a federal district court in Michigan, challenging government spying in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy. On August 17, 2006, that court ruled that the warrantless wiretapping program was unconstitutional and ordered it ended immediately. However, the order was stayed pending an appeal. The Bush administration did suspend the program while the appeal was being heard. In February 2008, the US Supreme Court turned down an appeal from the ACLU to let it pursue a lawsuit against the program that began shortly after the September 11 terror attacks.\n\nThe ACLU and other organizations also filed separate lawsuits against telecommunications companies. The ACLU filed a lawsuit in Illinois (Terkel v. AT&T), which was dismissed because of the state secrets privilege and two others in California requesting injunctions against AT&T and Verizon. On August 10, 2006, the lawsuits against the telecommunications companies were transferred to a federal judge in San Francisco.\n\nThe ACLU represents a Muslim-American who was detained but never accused of a crime in Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, a civil suit against former Attorney General John Ashcroft. In January 2010, the American military released the names of 645 detainees held at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility in Afghanistan, modifying its long-held position against publicizing such information. This list was prompted by a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed in September 2009 by the ACLU, whose lawyers had also requested detailed information about conditions, rules, and regulations.\n\nThe ACLU has also criticized targeted killings of American citizens who fight against the United States. In 2011, the ACLU criticized the killing of radical Muslim cleric Anwar al-Awlaki on the basis that it was a violation of his Fifth Amendment right not to be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.\n\nOn August 10, 2020, in an opinion article for USA Today by Anthony D. Romero, the ACLU called for the dismantling of the United States Department of Homeland Security over the deployment of federal forces in July 2020 during the George Floyd protests. On August 26, 2020, the ACLU filed a lawsuit on behalf of seven protesters and three veterans following the protests in Portland, Oregon, which accused the Trump Administration of using excessive force and unlawful arrests with federal officers.\n\n### Trump administration\n\nFollowing Donald Trump's election as president on November 8, 2016, the ACLU responded on Twitter by saying: \"Should President-elect Donald Trump attempt to implement his unconstitutional campaign promises, we'll see him in court.\" On January 27, 2017, President Trump signed an executive order indefinitely barring \"Syrian refugees from entering the United States, suspended all refugee admissions for 120 days and blocked citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries, refugees or otherwise, from entering the United States for 90 days: Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen\". The ACLU responded by filing a lawsuit against the ban on behalf of Hameed Khalid Darweesh and Haider Sameer Abdulkhaleq Alshawi, who had been detained at JFK International Airport. On January 28, 2017, District Court Judge Ann Donnelly granted a temporary injunction against the immigration order, saying it was difficult to see any harm from allowing the newly arrived immigrants to remain in the country.\n\nIn response to Trump's order, the ACLU raised more than \\$24 million from more than 350,000 individual online donations in two days. This amounted to six times what the ACLU normally receives in online donations in a year. Celebrities donating included Chris Sacca (who offered to match other people's donations and ultimately gave \\$150,000), Rosie O'Donnell, Judd Apatow, Sia, John Legend, and Adele. The number of members of the ACLU doubled in the time from the election to end of January to 1 million.\n\nGrants and contributions increased from US\\$106,628,381 reported by the 2016 year-end income statement to \\$274,104,575 by the 2017 year-end statement. The segment's primary revenue source came from individual contributions in response to the Trump presidency's infringements on civil liberties. The surge in donations more than doubled the total support and revenue of the non-profit organization year over year from 2016 to 2017. Besides filing more lawsuits than during previous presidential administrations, the ACLU has spent more money on advertisements and messaging as well, weighing in on elections and pressing political concerns. This increased public profile has drawn some accusations that the organization has become more politically partisan than in previous decades.\n\n### Miscellaneous\n\nDuring the 2004 trial regarding allegations of Rush Limbaugh's drug abuse, the ACLU argued that his privacy should not have been compromised by allowing law enforcement examination of his medical records.\n\nIn June 2004, the school district in Dover, Pennsylvania, required that its high school biology students listen to a statement that asserted that the theory of evolution is not fact and mentioning intelligent design as an alternative theory. Several parents called the ACLU to complain because they believed that the school was promoting a religious idea in the classroom and violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The ACLU, joined by Americans United for Separation of Church and State, represented the parents in a lawsuit against the school district. After a lengthy trial, Judge John E. Jones III ruled in favor of the parents in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District decision, finding that intelligent design is not science and permanently forbidding the Dover school system from teaching intelligent design in science classes.\n\nIn April 2006, Edward Jones and the ACLU sued the City of Los Angeles, on behalf of Robert Lee Purrie and five other homeless people, for the city's violation of the 8th and 14th Amendments to the US Constitution, and Article I, sections 7 and 17 of the California Constitution (supporting due process and equal protection, and prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment). The Court ruled in favor of the ACLU, stating that \"the LAPD cannot arrest people for sitting, lying, or sleeping on public sidewalks in Skid Row.\" Enforcement of section 41.18(d) 24 hours a day against persons with nowhere else to sit, lie, or sleep other than on public streets and sidewalks is breaking these amendments. The Court said the anti-camping ordinance is \"one of the most restrictive municipal laws regulating public spaces in the United States\". Jones and the ACLU wanted a compromise in which the LAPD is barred from enforcing section 41.18(d) (arrest, seizure, and imprisonment) in Skid Row between 9:00 p.m. and 6:30 am. The compromise plan permitted the homeless to sleep on the sidewalk, provided they were not \"within 10 feet of any business or residential entrance\" and only between these hours. One of the motivations for the compromise was the shortage of space in the prison system. Downtown development business interests and the Central City Association (CCA) were against the settlement. Police Chief William Bratton said the case had slowed the police effort to fight crime and clean up Skid Row and that when he was allowed to clean up Skid Row, real estate profited. On September 20, 2006, the Los Angeles City Council voted to reject the compromise. On October 3, 2006, police arrested Skid Row's transients for sleeping on the streets for the first time in months.\n\nIn 2009, the Oregon ACLU opposed changing state law to permit teachers to wear religious clothing in classrooms, citing the separation of church and state principles. The ACLU's efforts were not successful.\n\nIn 2018, the ACLU conceived and ghostwrote an op-ed in The Washington Post in which Amber Heard accused her ex-husband Johnny Depp of domestic abuse, leading Depp to sue Heard for defamation over the op-ed in the 2022 trial Depp v. Heard. The ACLU testified in the trial that they wrote the op-ed in exchange for a \\$3.5 million donation pledge from Heard, and timed its release to capitalize on the press from Heard's newly released film Aquaman. The ACLU demanded \\$86,000 from Depp for the cost of producing documents for the case. At the end of the trial, the jury ruled that Heard had defamed Depp with actual malice in all three counts related to the Washington Post op-ed.\n\nIn June 2020, the ACLU sued the federal government for denying Paycheck Protection Program loans to business owners with criminal backgrounds.\n\n## See also\n\n- American Civil Rights Union\n- British Columbia Civil Liberties Association\n- Canadian Civil Liberties Association\n- Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression (FIRE)\n- Institute for Justice\n- Liberty, a British equivalent\n- List of court cases involving the American Civil Liberties Union\n- National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee\n- New York Civil Liberties Union\n- Political freedom\n- Southern Poverty Law Center\n\n## General and cited references\n\n- Bodenhamer, David, and Ely, James, Editors (2008). The Bill of Rights in Modern America, second edition. Indiana University Press. .\n- Donohue, William (1985). The Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union. Transaction Books. .\n- Kaminer, Wendy (2009). Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, and the ACLU. Beacon Press. . A dissident member of the ACLU criticizes its post-9/11 actions as betraying the core principles of its founders.\n- Lamson, Peggy (1976). Roger Baldwin: Founder of the American Civil Liberties Union. Houghton Mifflin Company. .\n- Walker, Samuel (1990). In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU. Oxford University Press. .", "revid": "1164312377", "description": "Legal advocacy organization in the United States", "categories": ["1920 establishments in the United States", "501(c)(4) nonprofit organizations", "American Civil Liberties Union", "Civil liberties advocacy groups in the United States", "Drug policy reform", "Government watchdog groups in the United States", "Immigration political advocacy groups in the United States", "LGBT political advocacy groups in the United States", "Legal advocacy organizations in the United States", "Non-profit organizations based in New York City", "Nonpartisan organizations in the United States", "Organizations established in 1920", "Privacy in the United States", "Privacy organizations"]}
{"id": "21778431", "url": null, "title": "Temple of Eshmun", "text": "The Temple of Eshmun (Arabic: معبد أشمون) is an ancient place of worship dedicated to Eshmun, the Phoenician god of healing. It is located near the Awali river, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of Sidon in southwestern Lebanon. The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD, suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon. Although originally constructed by Sidonian king Eshmunazar II in the Achaemenid era (c. 529–333 BC) to celebrate the city's recovered wealth and stature, the temple complex was greatly expanded by Bodashtart, Yatonmilk and later monarchs. Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign hegemony, the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences.\n\nThe sanctuary consists of an esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental podium which was once topped by Eshmun's Greco-Persian style marble temple. The sanctuary features a series of ritual ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river (modern Awali) and from the sacred \"YDLL\" spring; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun. The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value, especially those inscribed with Phoenician texts, such as the Bodashtart inscriptions and the Eshmun inscription, providing valuable insight into the site's history and that of ancient Sidon.\n\nThe Eshmun Temple was improved during the early Roman Empire with a colonnade street, but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as Christianity replaced polytheism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures. The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars. Maurice Dunand, a French archaeologist, thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975. After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of Israel from Southern Lebanon, the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the World Heritage Site tentative list.\n\n## Eshmun\n\nEshmun (Latinized form of the Phoenician ) was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life; he was one of the most important divinities of the Phoenician pantheon and the main male divinity of Sidon. Originally a nature divinity, and a god of spring vegetation, Eshmun was equated to Babylonian deity Tammuz. His role later expanded within the Phoenician pantheon, and he gained celestial and cosmic attributes.\n\nThe myth of Eshmun was related by the sixth century Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius and ninth century Patriarch of Constantinople, Photius. They recount that Eshmun, a young man from Beirut, was hunting in the woods when Astarte saw him and was stricken by his beauty. She harassed him with her amorous pursuit until he emasculated himself with an axe and died. The grieving goddess revived Eshmun and transported him to the heavens where she made him into a god of heaven.\n\nFrom a historical perspective, the first written mention of Eshmun goes back to 754 BC, the date of the signing of the treaty between Assyrian king Ashur-nirari V and Mati'el, king of Arpad; Eshmun figures in the text as a patron of the treaty.\n\nEshmun was identified with Asclepius as a result of the Hellenic influence over Phoenicia; the earliest evidence of this equation is given by coins from Amrit and Acre from the third century BC. This fact is exemplified by the Hellenized names of the Awali river which was dubbed Asclepius fluvius, and the Eshmun Temple's surrounding groves, known as the groves of Asclepius.\n\n## History\n\n### Historical background\n\nIn the 9th century BC, the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities. The new sovereigns exacted tribute from Sidon, along with every other Phoenician city. These payments stimulated Sidon's search for new means of provisioning and furthered Phoenician emigration and expansion, which peaked in the 8th century BC. When Assyrian king Sargon II died in 705 BC, King Luli joined with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule, but was forced to flee to Kition (modern Larnaca in Cyprus) with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib, Sargon II's son and successor. Sennacherib instated Ittobaal on the throne of Sidon and reimposed the annual tribute. When Abdi-Milkutti ascended to Sidon's throne in 680 BC, he also rebelled against the Assyrians. In response, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon laid siege to the city. Abdi-Milkutti was captured and beheaded in 677 BC after a three-year siege, while his city was destroyed and renamed Kar-Ashur-aha-iddina (the harbor of Esarhaddon). Sidon was stripped of its territory, which was awarded to Baal I, the king of rival Tyre, and loyal vassal to Esarhaddon. Baal I and Esarhaddon signed a treaty in 675 in which Eshmun's name features as one of the deities invoked as guarantors of the covenant.\n\n### Construction\n\nSidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years (586–573 BC) by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II. Nevertheless, the Sidonian king was still held in exile at the court of Babylon. Sidon reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia's chief city in the Achaemenid Empire (c.529–333 BC). Eshmunazar I, a priest of Astarte, and the founder of his namesake dynasty, became king around the time of the Achaemenid conquest of the Levant. Archaeological evidence suggest that, at the time of the advent of the Eshmunazar dynasty, there already was a cultic space on the site of the temple, but there were no monumental constructions yet. Originally, the center of worship may have been a cave or a spring.\n\nIn the following years, Xerxes I awarded king Eshmunazar II with the Sharon plain for employing Sidon's fleet in his service during the Greco-Persian Wars. Eshmunazar II displayed his new-found wealth by constructing numerous temples to Sidonian divinities. Inscriptions found on the king's sarcophagus reveal that he and his mother, Amoashtart, built temples to the gods of Sidon, including the Temple of Eshmun by the \"Ydll source near the cistern\".As the Bodashtart inscriptions on the foundations of the monumental podium attest, construction of the sanctuary's podium did not begin until the reign of King Bodashtart. The first set of inscriptions bears the name of Bodashtart alone, while the second contains his name and that of the crown prince Yatonmilk. Thirty foundation inscriptions are known to date; they were found concealed in the interior of the podium. The practice of intentional inscription concealment can be traced back to Mesopotamian roots, and it has parallels in the royal buildings of the Achaemenids in Persia and Elam. A Phoenician inscription, located 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) upstream from the temple, that dates to the 7th year of Bodashtart's reign, alludes to water adduction works from the Awali river to the \"Ydll\" source that was used for ritual purification at the temple.\n\n### Roman era and decline\n\nThe Eshmun sanctuary was damaged by an earthquake in the fourth century BC, which demolished the marble temple atop the podium; this structure was not rebuilt but many chapels and temples were later annexed at the base of the podium.\n\nThe temple site remained a place of pilgrimage in the classical antiquity during the early Roman Empire and until the advent of Christianity, when the cult of Eshmun was banned during the Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire and a Christian church was built at the temple site across the Roman street from the podium.\n\nA Roman colonnade was built in the third century, probably by emperor Septimius Severus, and a Roman Villa showed a period of renewed relative importance for the city during the late period of Phoenicia under Roman rule. Furthermore, within the original Phoenician temple site the Romans added the processional stairway, the basins for ablutions and a nymphaeum with pictorial mosaics, that are still largely intact. Worn statuettes of three nymphs stand in the niches of a Roman fountain.\n\nAnother earthquake hit Sidon around 570 AD; Antoninus of Piacenza, an Italian Christian pilgrim, described the city as partly in ruins. For many years after the disappearance of the cult of Eshmun, the sanctuary site was used as a quarry: Emir Fakhr-al-Din II used its massive blocks to build a bridge over the Awali river in the 17th century.\n\nThe site later fell into oblivion until the 19th century\n\n### Modern discovery\n\nBetween 1737 and 1742, Richard Pococke, an English anthropologist, toured the Middle East and wrote of what he thought were ruins of defensive walls built with 3.7-metre (12 ft) stone blocks near the Awali river. When the French orientalist Ernest Renan visited the area in 1860, he noticed that the Awali bridge abutments were built of finely rusticated blocks that originated from an earlier structure. He also noted in his report, Mission de Phénicie, that a local treasure hunter told him of a large edifice near the Awali bridge.\n\nThe discovery was made in 1900 by four workers who were extracting blocks from the temple on behalf of Druze notable Nassib Jumblatt. They noticed that certain blocks had inscriptions with the engravings painted in red. A local antiques dealer bought three of the stones, all with the same inscription. Due to the enormous size of the blocks, they were cut down to just 15 or 20 cm in thickness, and some stones were also cut into two or three pieces. The Ottoman authorities dispatched Theodore Makridi, curator of the Museum of Constantinople, who cleared the temple remains between 1901 and 1903. Wilhelm Von Landau also excavated the site between 1903 and 1904. In 1920, Gaston Contenau headed a team of archaeologists who surveyed the temple complex. The first extensive archaeological excavation revealing the Eshmun Temple remains was undertaken by Maurice Dunand between 1963 and 1975. Archaeological evidence shows that the site was occupied from the seventh century BC to the eighth century AD.\n\n### After 1975\n\nDuring the Lebanese Civil War and the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon (1985–2000), the temple site was neglected and was invaded by vegetation overgrowth; it was cleared and recovered its former condition after the Israeli withdrawal. Today the Eshmun sanctuary can be visited all year round and free of charge, it is accessible from an exit ramp off the main Southern Lebanon highway near Sidon's northern entrance. The site holds a particular archaeological importance since it is the best preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon; it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List's Cultural category on July 1, 1996.\n\nIn literature, the temple of Eshmun figures in Nabil Saleh's 2009 novel, The Curse of Ezekiel as the setting where Bomilcar falls in love and rescues princess Chiboulet from the evil design of one of the temple's priests.\n\n## Location\n\nA number of ancient texts mention the Eshmun Temple and its location. The Phoenician inscriptions on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II, a Sidonian king, commemorate the construction of a \"house\" for the \"holy prince\" Eshmun by the king and his mother, queen Amashtart, at the \"Ydll source by the cistern\". Dionysius Periegetes, an ancient Greek travel writer, identified the Eshmun temple by the Bostrenos River, and Antonin de Plaisance, a 6th-century AD Italian pilgrim recorded the shrine as near the river Asclepius fluvius. Strabo and other Sidonian sources describe the sanctuary and its surrounding \"sacred forests\" of Asclepius, the Hellenized name of Eshmun, in written texts.\n\nLocated about 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Beirut and 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of Sidon, the Eshmun Temple sits on the southern bank of the modern Awali river, previously referred to as Bostrenos or Asclepius fluvius in ancient texts. Citrus groves, known as Bustan el-Sheikh (Arabic: بستان الشيخ, the grove of the Sheikh), occupy the ancient \"sacred forests\" of Asclepius and are a favorite summer picnic location for locals.\n\n## Architecture and description\n\nBuilt under Babylonian rule (605–539 BC), the oldest monument at the site was a pyramidal building resembling a ziggurat that included an access ramp to a water cistern. Fragments of an early, Babylonian-style temple survived into modern time; these include marble torus-shaped column bases with moldings, facetted columns, and bull protome capitals. The Babylonian-style temple was dismantled around the middle of the 4th century BC. The remains of the demolished temple were cast in a favissa that only contained material dating from the 5th and first half of the 4th century BC.\n\nThe pyramidal structure was superimposed during the Persian period by a massive ashlar podium constructed from heavily bossed limestone blocks that measured more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) across by 1 metre (3.3 ft) thick, which were laid down in courses 1-metre (3.3 ft) high. The podium stands 22 metres (72 ft) high, runs 50 metres (160 ft) into the hillside, and boasts a 70-metre (230 ft) wide façade. The terrace atop of the podium was once covered by a Greco-Persian style marble temple built in the Ionic order around 500 BC. The marble temple has been reduced to a few remaining stone fragments due to theft.\n\nDuring the Hellenistic period, the sanctuary was extended from the base of the podium across the valley. To the east base of the podium stands a large chapel, 10.5 by 11.5 metres (34 ft × 38 ft), dating to the 4th century BC. The chapel was adorned with a paved pool and a large stone \"Throne of Astarte\" carved of a single block of granite in the Egyptian style; it is flanked by two sphinx figures and surrounded by two lion sculptures. The throne, attributed to the Sidonian goddess Astarte, rests against the chapel wall, which is embellished by relief sculptures of hunting scenes. The once important Astarte basin lost its function during the 2nd century AD and was filled with earth and statue fragments. The west base contains another 4th-century BC chapel—centered on a bull protome topped capital—that remains preserved at the National Museum of Beirut.\n\nWidely known as the \"Tribune of Eshmun\" because of its shape, the altar of Eshmun is a white marble structure dating to the 4th century BC. It is 2.15 metres (7.1 ft) long by 2.26 metres (7.4 ft) wide and 2.17 metres (7.1 ft) tall. Unearthed in 1963 by Maurice Dunand, it stands on a limestone socleplated with marble blocks that rest against a retaining wall. The altar is adorned with Hellenistic style relief sculptures and is framed by decorative moldings, one of which divides the altar into two distinct registers of symmetrical composition. The upper register portrays 18 Greek deities, including two charioteers surrounding the Greek god Apollo, who is depicted playing a cithara (a type of lyre). The lower register honors Dionysus, who leads his thiasos (his ecstatic retinue) in a dance to the music of pipe and cithara players. The Tribune is displayed at the National Museum of Beirut.\n\nNortheast of the site, another 3rd century BC temple stands adjacent to the Astarte chapel. Its 22-metre (72 ft) façade is built with large limestone blocks and displays a two-register relief decoration illustrating a drunken revelry in honor of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine. Among the temple reliefs, one shows a man attempting to seize a large rooster which was the common sacrificial animal for Eshmun-Asclepius.\n\nThe Eshmun Temple complex comprises an elaborate hydraulic installation channeling water from \"Ydll\" spring that is made up of an intricate system of water canals, a series of retaining basins, sacred ablution basins and paved pools. This system demonstrates the importance of ritual ablutions in Phoenician therapeutic cults.\n\nLater vestiges date from the Roman epoch and include a colonnaded road lined with shops. Of the large marble columns bordering the Roman street only fragments and bases remain. The Romans also built a monumental staircase adorned with mosaic patterns that leads to the top of the podium. To the right of the Roman road, near the entrance of the site stands a nymphaeum with niches where statues of the nymphs once stood. The floor of the nymphaeum is covered by a mosaic depicting the Maenads. Across the colonnaded road, facing the nymphaeum, are the ruins of a Roman villa; only the villa's courtyard has survived along with the remains of a mosaic depicting the four seasons. To the right of the processional Roman staircase stands a cubic altar, also of Roman construction. Other Roman period structures include two columns of a great portico leading to pools and other cultic installations.\n\n## Function\n\nEshmun's cult enjoyed a particular importance at Sidon as he was the chief deity after 500 BC. Aside from the extramural sanctuary at Bustan el-Sheikh, Eshmun also had a temple within the city. The extramural Eshmun Temple was associated with purification and healing; ritual lustral ablutions were performed in the sanctuary's sacred basins supplemented by running water from the Asclepius River and the \"Ydll\" spring water which was considered to have a sacred character and therapeutic quality. The healing attributions of Eshmun were combined with his divine consort Astarte's fertilizing powers; the latter had an annex chapel with a sacred paved pool within the Eshmun sanctuary. Pilgrims from all over the ancient world flocked to the Eshmun Temple leaving votive traces of their devotion and proof of their cure. There is evidence that from the 3rd century BC onwards there have been attempts to Hellenize the cult of Eshmun and to associate him with his Greek counterpart Asclepius, but the sanctuary retained its curative function.\n\n## Artifacts and finds\n\nApart from the large decorative elements, carved friezes and mosaics which were left in situ, many artifacts were recovered and moved from the Eshmun Temple to the national museum, the Louvre or are in possession of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities. Some of these smaller finds include a collection of inscribed ostraca unearthed by Dunand providing rare examples of cursive Phoenician writing in the Phoenician mainland. One of the recovered ostracon bears the theophoric Phoenician name \"grtnt\" which suggests that veneration of the lunar-goddess Tanit occurred in Sidon.A number of fragmented votive life-size sculptures of little children lying on their side and holding a pet animal or a small object were also recovered at the temple site; among the best known of these is the Baalshillem Temple Boy, a sculpture of a royal child holding a dove with his right hand. The boy's head is shaved, his torso is bare and his lower body is wrapped in a large cloth. The socle of this sculpture is inscribed with a dedication from Baalshillem II, a Sidonian king to Eshmun, which illustrates the importance of the site to the Sidonian monarchy. These votive sculptures appear to have been purposely broken after dedication to Eshmun and then ceremoniously cast into the sacred canal, probably simulating the sacrifice of the sick child. All of these sculptures represent boys. A31.5 cm × 27 cm (12.4 in × 10.6 in) limestone bust of a Kouros dating from the 6th century BC was found at the site, but unlike the archaic Greek kouroi this figure is not bare.\n\nAmong the notable finds is a golden plaque showing a snake curling on a staff, a Hellenic symbol of Eshmun. and a granite altar bearing the name of Egyptian Pharaoh Achoris uncovered in the Eshmun sanctuary. This gift attests to the good relations between the Pharaoh and the kings of Sidon.\n\nThe repute of the sanctuary was far reaching. Cypriot pilgrims from Paphos left marks of their devotion for Astarte on a marble stele inscribed both in Greek and Cypriot syllabary at Astarte's shrine; this stele is now in the custody of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities.\n\n## Pillaging\n\nTreasure hunters have sought out the Eshmun Temple since antiquity; around 1900 artifacts bearing Phoenician inscriptions from the temple site found their way to Beirut's antiquities markets where they stirred the interest of the Ottoman authorities and prompted a series of archeological digs. During the civil war, upon a request from then Lebanese director general of antiquities Maurice Chehab, Maurice Dunand moved more than 2000 artifacts from Sidon to a subterranean chamber at the Byblos crusader castle, 30 kilometres (19 mi) north of Beirut. In 1981, the depot was looted and around 600 sculptures and architectural elements were stolen and smuggled out of Lebanon. Rolf Stucky, ex-director of the Institute of Classical Archaeology of Basel affirmed during a conference in Beirut in December 2009 the successful identification and return of eight sculptures to the Lebanese national museum.\n\n## See also\n\n- Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb\n- Roman temple of Bziza\n- Stucky's drawings architectural elements and reconstructed model of the Temple of Eshmun", "revid": "1173644835", "description": "Ancient temple to the Phoenician god of healing in Lebanon", "categories": ["1900 archaeological discoveries", "7th-century BC religious buildings and structures", "Archaeological sites in Lebanon", "Archaeology of the Achaemenid Empire", "Astarte", "Conversion of non-Christian religious buildings and structures into churches", "Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire", "Phoenician inscriptions", "Phoenician sites in Lebanon", "Phoenician temples", "Sidon District", "Temple of Eshmun", "Temples in Lebanon", "Temples of Asclepius", "Tourism in Lebanon", "Tourist attractions in Lebanon", "World Heritage Tentative List"]}
{"id": "5313443", "url": null, "title": "Ace Attorney", "text": "Ace Attorney is a visual novel adventure video games franchise developed by Capcom. With storytelling fashioned after legal dramas, the first entry in the series, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney, was released in 2001; since then, five further main series games, as well as various spin-offs, prequels and high-definition remasters for newer game consoles, have been released. Additionally, the series has seen adaptations in the form of a live-action film and an anime, and has been the base for manga series, drama CDs, musicals and stage plays.\n\nThe player takes the roles of various defense attorneys, including Phoenix Wright, his mentor Mia Fey, and his understudies Apollo Justice and Athena Cykes, who investigate cases and defend their clients in court; they find the truth by cross-examining witnesses and finding inconsistencies between the testimonies and the evidence they have collected. The cases all last a maximum of three days, with the judge determining the outcome based on evidence presented by the defense attorney and the prosecutor.\n\nWhile the original Japanese versions of the games are set in Japan, the series' localizations are set in the United States (primarily Los Angeles), though retaining Japanese cultural elements. In the spin-off series Ace Attorney Investigations, the player takes the role of prosecutor Miles Edgeworth and in the prequel series The Great Ace Attorney Chronicles, of Phoenix's ancestor Ryunosuke Naruhodo.\n\nThe series was created by the writer and director Shu Takumi. He wanted the series to end after the third game, but it continued, with Takeshi Yamazaki taking over as writer and director starting with Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth (2009); Takumi has since returned to write and direct some spin-off titles. The series has been well received, with reviewers liking the characters and story, and the finding of contradictions; it has also performed well commercially, with Capcom regarding it as one of their strongest intellectual properties. The series has been credited with helping to popularize visual novels in the Western world. As of December 31, 2022, the game series has sold 9.8 million units worldwide.\n\n## Games\n\nThe Ace Attorney series launched in Japan with the Game Boy Advance game Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney in 2001, and has been published in the West since the release of a Nintendo DS port in 2005. The series currently consists of six main series games and five spin-offs.\n\n### Main series\n\n- Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is the first entry in the series. It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 in Japan; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2005, Microsoft Windows in 2008, and the Wii and iOS in 2009.\n- Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2006, Microsoft Windows in 2008, and the Wii in 2010.\n- Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan; it has also been released for Microsoft Windows in 2006, the Nintendo DS in 2007, and the Wii in 2010.\n- Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 in Japan and in 2008 in the West, for iOS and Android in 2016, and for Nintendo 3DS in 2017.\n- Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Dual Destinies was originally released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013 in Japan, North America and Europe; outside of Japan, it was given a digital-only release. It was also released for iOS in 2014, and Android in 2017.\n- Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Spirit of Justice was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2016 in Japan, North America and Europe. Like Dual Destinies, it was given a digital-only release outside Japan. It was released for iOS and Android in 2017.\n\n### Spin-offs\n\n#### Ace Attorney Investigations series\n\n- Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth is the first entry in the Investigations spin-off series. It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and in 2010 in the West; it has also been released for Android and iOS in 2017.\n- Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is the second entry in the Investigations series. It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2011 in Japan; it has also been released for Android and iOS in 2017. It has not been released in the West and, as of 2023, is the only game in the series that has not had an official English language translation.\n\n#### The Great Ace Attorney series\n\n- The Great Ace Attorney: Adventures was released in Japan for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015, and for Android and iOS in 2017.\n- The Great Ace Attorney 2: Resolve was released in Japan for the Nintendo 3DS in 2017, and for Android and iOS in 2018.\n\n#### Professor Layton crossover\n\n- Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is a crossover between Ace Attorney and the Professor Layton series. It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012 in Japan and in 2014 in the West.\n\n### Compilations\n\n- Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trilogy contains the first three games in the series: Phoenix Wright, Justice for All, and Trials and Tribulations. It was released for iOS and Android in 2012 in Japan and for iOS in 2013 in the West, It was later released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2014, and Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One, in 2019. Capcom removed the mobile-only version of the game from stores, and replaced it with the console version on iOS and Android as of June 10, 2022.\n- The Great Ace Attorney Chronicles contains both games in The Great Ace Attorney series: Adventures and 2: Resolve. It was released in July 2021 for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Windows. This was the first time both games were made officially available outside of Japan.\n- Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney Trilogy contains the fourth through sixth mainline games: Apollo Justice, Dual Destinies, and Spirit of Justice. It is set for release in early 2024 for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.\n\n## Common elements\n\n### Gameplay\n\nThe Ace Attorney games are visual novel adventure games in which the player controls defense attorneys and defends their clients in several different episodes. The gameplay is split into two types of sections: investigations and courtroom trials. During the investigations, the player searches the environments, gathering information and evidence, and talks to characters such as their client, witnesses, and the police. Once enough evidence has been collected, the game moves on to a courtroom trial section.\n\nIn the courtroom trials, the player aims to get their client declared \"not guilty\". To do so, they cross-examine witnesses, and aim to find lies and inconsistencies in the testimonies. They are able to go back and forth between the different statements in the testimony, and can press the witness for more details on a statement. When the player finds an inconsistency, they can present a piece of evidence that contradicts the statement. If the player is correct, the game presents a sequence that often starts with the protagonist shouting \"Objection!\" and pointing at the witness along with a shift in music before they begin to grill the witness with the inconsistency, which has become an iconic aspect of the series. The player is penalized if they present incorrect evidence: in the first game, a number of exclamation marks are shown, with one disappearing after each mistake the player makes; in later games, a health bar that represents the judge's patience is used instead; and in 3DS games, the character's lawyer badge is used. If all exclamation marks or lawyer badges are lost, or the health bar reaches zero, the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty.\n\nSeveral Ace Attorney games introduce new gameplay mechanics to the series. Justice for All introduces \"psyche-locks\", which are shown over a witness when the player asks them about a topic they do not want to discuss; using a magatama, the player can start breaking the psyche-locks by showing the witness evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something. The number of psyche-locks depends on how deep the secret is; when all locks are broken, the topic becomes available, giving the player access to new information. Apollo Justice introduces the \"perceive\" system, where the player looks for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness, similar to a tell in poker.\n\nDual Destinies introduces the \"mood matrix\", through which the player can gauge the emotions of a witness, such as tones of anger when mentioning certain topics; if the player notices a contradictory emotional response during testimony, they can point out the discrepancy and press the witness for more information. Dual Destinies also introduces \"revisualization\", where the player reviews vital facts and forms links between evidence to reach new conclusions. Spirit of Justice introduces \"divination séances\", in which the player is shown the memories of victims moments before their deaths, and must find contradictions in the victim's five senses to determine what has happened. Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney introduces simultaneous cross-examinations of multiple witnesses, with the player being able to see and hear reactions from the different witnesses to the testimony and using this to find contradictions. The Great Ace Attorney introduces \"joint reasoning\", where the player finds out the truth by pointing out when their investigative partner Herlock Sholmes takes his reasoning \"further than the truth\".\n\nThe Ace Attorney Investigations spin-off series splits the gameplay into investigation phases and rebuttal phases, the latter of which is similar to the courtroom trials of the main series. During the investigation phases, the player searches for evidence and talks to witnesses and suspects. Things the player character notices in the environment are saved as thoughts; the player can use the \"logic\" system to connect two such thoughts to gain access to new information. At some points, the player can create hologram reproductions of the crime scene, through which they can discover new information that would otherwise be hidden. Ace Attorney Investigations 2 introduces \"logic chess\", where the player interrogates witnesses in a timed sequence that is visualized as a game of chess, with the player aiming to destroy the other character's chess pieces. To do this, they need to build up their advantage in the discussion by alternating between speaking and listening, and then choose to go on the offensive.\n\n### Characters and setting\n\nThe protagonist of the first three games is the defense attorney Phoenix Wright (Ryūichi Naruhodō in the Japanese version), who is assisted by the spirit medium Maya Fey; in the third game, Phoenix's mentor Mia Fey is also a playable character. In the fourth game, the protagonist is the defense attorney Apollo Justice; in the fifth, Phoenix, Apollo and the new defense attorney Athena Cykes are all protagonists; and in the sixth, Phoenix and Apollo are the main protagonists, while Athena is playable in one case. The spin-off The Great Ace Attorney is set in England near the end of the 19th century, and follows Phoenix's ancestor Ryunosuke Naruhodo.\n\nPhoenix's childhood friend Miles Edgeworth, who is the protagonist of the Ace Attorney Investigations games, is a recurring rival prosecutor character; in addition to him, each new game in the series introduces a new rival: Franziska von Karma is introduced in the second game, Godot in the third, Klavier Gavin in the fourth, Simon Blackquill in the fifth, Nahyuta Sahdmadhi in the sixth, Barok van Zieks in Adventures, and Kazuma Asogi in Resolve. Most of the prosecutor characters are portrayed as powerful and arrogant characters of high social status and who care about keeping perfect-win records in court, and even may favor convictions over finding the truth, although most have secret motivations and sympathetic backstories and typically help the protagonist at the game's climax. Similarly to real Japanese prosecutors, the prosecutors in the series often directly oversee investigations, issuing orders to the police. Japanese attitudes towards the police force are reflected in the series, with the police being represented by incompetent characters such as Dick Gumshoe, Maggey Byrde and Mike Meekins. In the world of Ace Attorney, trials only last three days, and usually end with a \"guilty\" verdict, with trials taken up by the protagonists of the games being rare exceptions. The outcomes of cases are decided by a judge, based on evidence provided by the defense attorney and the prosecutor.\n\n## Development\n\nThe series was created by Shu Takumi, who wrote and directed the first three games. The first game was conceived in 2000 when Takumi's boss at the time, Shinji Mikami, gave him six months to create any type of game he wanted to; Takumi had originally joined Capcom wanting to make mystery and adventure games, and felt that this was a big chance for him to make a mark as a creator. The game was designed to be simple, as Takumi wanted it to be easy enough for even his mother to play. It was originally going to be a detective game, with Phoenix being a private investigator, but at one point Takumi realized that finding and taking apart contradictions was not related to detective work, and felt that the main setting of the game should be courtrooms.\n\nTakumi cited Japanese mystery author Edogawa Ranpo as an inspiration, particularly The Psychological Test, a short story which involves a crime that \"unravels due to the criminal's contradictory testimony.\" It had a big impact on him, and was a major influence on the game. He was also inspired by stories from another Japanese author, Shinichi Hoshi, stating that he was pursuing his \"element of surprise and unexpectedness.\"\n\nTakumi felt that the best way to write a mystery with a good climax is to reveal various clues, and then pull them together into one conclusion, and not have multiple possible endings. He said that the biggest challenge with that was to make the gameplay and story work together; the goal was to make the player feel like they have driven the story forward themselves, with their own choices, even though the game is linear. He only spent little time on writing a backstory for Phoenix before writing the first game's story, and instead made up dialogue and developed Phoenix's personality as he went along. He came up with the partner character Maya because he thought it would be more fun for players to have another character with them, giving them advice, than investigating on their own.\n\nAfter the first game's development was finished, Mikami told Takumi that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy, with a grand finale in the third game's last case. Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes in the second game, but during the production the development team learned that the character had become popular. This led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly; he created the new prosecutor character Franziska von Karma, to save Edgeworth for the game's last case, and avoid a situation where he—a supposed prodigy—loses every case. As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work, he avoided making a lot of changes between games: art from the first game for main characters such as Phoenix, Maya and Edgeworth was reused, to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations, as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after having added the psyche-lock mechanic for Justice for All.\n\nFor the fourth game, Takumi wrote the scenario and took on a supervisory role. He had wanted the series to end with the third game, as he felt Phoenix had been fully explored and that his story had been told; he said that it is important to know when to end a story, that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self, and that he did not see any reason to continue it. Despite this, the spin-off series Ace Attorney Investigations was created, being directed by Takeshi Yamazaki and produced by Motohide Eshiro; Takumi returned to the series to write the crossover Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney. He also directed and wrote The Great Ace Attorney, which was described as being the first entry in a new Ace Attorney series. He said that he has mixed feelings about the series being developed by other Capcom staff, comparing it to a parent sending their child to their first day in school. Yamazaki and Eshiro went on to direct and produce the main series entries Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice. Due to exhaustion after working on Dual Destinies, Yamazaki split direction responsibilities with Takuro Fuse for Spirit of Justice, with Yamazaki working on the scenario, and Fuse on the art and gameplay. In 2020, Yamazaki left Capcom.\n\n## Localization\n\nThe localization of the first game was outsourced to Bowne Global, and was handled by the writer Alexander O. Smith and the editor Steve Anderson. While the Japanese version takes place in Japan, the localized version is set in the United States: because one of the episodes involves time zones, they had to specify where the game takes place, and chose the United States without thinking a lot about it. The Japanese justice system of the original still remained intact in the localization, as changing it would have altered the entire game structure.\n\nThe change in the series' setting became an issue in later games, where the Japanese setting was more obvious. Starting with the second game, the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu; One of the first decisions she had to make was how to localize Maya's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan. She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti-Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed, anti-Japanese sentiments were not powerful, and where Japanese culture flourished. This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese, as that was Maya's heritage, while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed, such as changing Maya's favorite food from ramen to burgers. That particular change was mocked by players as the dish later became more well known in the West, and was lampshaded in the English release of Spirit of Justice, where Maya is described as liking both ramen and burgers.\n\nCharacter names were also localized to use double meanings similarly to the Japanese names; the name puns were based on the characters' personalities or backgrounds, or were visual gags. Several English names were based on their Japanese counterparts, but for some characters the names had to be altered heavily compared to the Japanese versions. Smith and Anderson had a lot of freedom when localizing the names of minor characters in the first game, but discussed the names of the main cast with Capcom. Phoenix's English surname, \"Wright\", was chosen as his Japanese name, \"Naruhodō\"—meaning \"I see\" or \"I understand\"—was frequently used as a joke in the script.\n\nDual Destinies was given a digital-only release in the West as to release the English version as close to the Japanese release date as possible while maintaining a tight development schedule. Its follow-up, Spirit of Justice, was released in the same manner. Although Ace Attorney Investigations 2 has not been officially localized, an English fan translation has been made. Both The Great Ace Attorney games were released in the West with English localization in July 2021 as part of The Great Ace Attorney Chronicles, making Ace Attorney Investigations 2 the only game in the series to remain a Japan-only release.\n\n## Reception\n\nThe Ace Attorney series has been well received by critics, and has performed well commercially: in December 2009, it was Capcom's 9th-best-selling series of all time, and in October 2010, they called it one of their \"strongest intellectual properties\", with more than 3.9 million units sold worldwide. By December 2013, the series had sold over 5 million units. In the United States, the first game became surprisingly successful, forcing Capcom to prepare at least three additional runs to meet the demand. By June 2018, the series had sold over 6.7 million units. As of December 31, 2022, the game series has sold 9.8 million units worldwide. Geoff Thew at Hardcore Gamer said that the \"craziness\" of the game world makes the cases entertaining, but also that it \"resonates on a deeper level\" due to its connection to the real Japanese legal system, making the setting still feel relevant in 2014. Bob Mackey at USgamer said that the Ace Attorney games were among the best written games of all time, and that the series' strength is how each game builds up to a \"stunning and satisfying finale\". Thomas Whitehead at Nintendo Life also liked the writing, praising its balance between \"light-hearted nonsense\" and darker, more serious scenarios. Several reviewers have appreciated the series' characters; Thew said that Phoenix and Maya's banter is among the best in video games, and that Edgeworth's character arc is one of the most compelling parts of the stories.\n\nReviewers have liked finding contradictions; a common complaint, however, is the games' linearity, as well as how the player sometimes has to resort to a trial-and-error method due to the games only accepting specific pieces of evidence, and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a specific order. Some reviewers have criticized the lack of changes to the gameplay and presentation throughout the series, while some have said that fans of the series would not have a problem with this.\n\nSeveral reviewers have praised the series' music. They said that the greatest aspect of the series is its audio design, with the first three games using the Game Boy Advance sound chip better than any other game for that platform; he called the music phenomenal, with the exception of that in Justice for All, but said the sound effects are what \"steals the show\". Mackey commented that the games' small amounts of animations for each character are used well for their characterization.\n\n## Related media and other appearances\n\nThe Takarazuka Revue, an all-female theater troupe, has adapted the series into stage musicals: 2009's Ace Attorney: Truth Resurrected, which is based on the last episode of the first game; 2010's Ace Attorney 2: Truth Resurrected Again, whose first act is an original story, and whose second is based on the final episode of the second game; and 2013's Ace Attorney 3: Prosecutor Miles Edgeworth, which is set before the events of Truth Resurrected Again. A stage play based on the series, titled Gyakuten no Spotlight, ran in 2013, and was written by Eisaku Saito. A 2012 live-action film adaptation of the first game, titled Ace Attorney, was produced at the film studio Toei and directed by Takashi Miike. A 2016 TV anime adaptation of the series, Ace Attorney, was produced at A-1 Pictures and directed by Ayumu Watanabe.\n\nKodansha has published several manga based on the series: a short story anthology was published in Bessatsu Young Magazine in 2006; Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney and Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth were serialized in Weekly Young Magazine in 2007 and 2009, respectively; and another manga, which is based on the anime, was published in V Jump in 2016. A novel based on the series, Gyakuten Saiban: Turnabout Idol, was released in June 2016. Ace Attorney drama CDs, soundtrack albums, and figurines have also been released.\n\nAce Attorney characters have made crossover appearances in other video games. Some Ace Attorney characters appear in SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighters DS. Phoenix and Edgeworth make a cameo appearance in She-Hulk's ending in the fighting game Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds; in the game's update, Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, Phoenix appears as a playable character. Phoenix and Maya are playable characters in Project X Zone 2, while Edgeworth makes a non-player appearance. Phoenix, Maya, Edgeworth and Franziska were all playable in the mobile game Monster Hunter Explore in 2017, as part of one of its temporary crossover events, and a Phoenix transformation is available for a companion character in Monster Hunter XX. Music from the Ace Attorney series is featured in Taiko Drum Master: Doko Don! Mystery Adventure, with Phoenix making an appearance in the game's story. In April 2021, Ace Attorney was introduced to Teppen alongside the Dead Rising franchise with the \"Ace vs. The People\" expansion.\n\n## Legacy\n\nIn 2015, GamesRadar+ named Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney as the 55th-best video game of all time. In 2016, Famitsu readers voted Gyakuten Saiban as the second-most memorable Game Boy Advance title (behind only Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire) and Gyakuten Saiban 123 as the tenth-best Nintendo 3DS game. In 2017, Famitsu readers voted Gyakuten Saiban the third-best adventure game of all time, behind only Steins;Gate and 428: Shibuya Scramble.\n\nThe Ace Attorney series has been credited with helping to popularise visual novels in the Western world. Vice magazine credits the Ace Attorney series with popularising the visual novel mystery format, and notes that its success anticipated the resurgence of point-and-click adventure games as well as the international success of Japanese visual novels. According to Danganronpa director Kazutaka Kodaka, Ace Attorney's success in North America was due to how it distinguished itself from most visual novels with its gameplay mechanics, which Danganronpa later built upon and helped it also find success in North America.\n\nThe Ace Attorney series has also inspired many video games. The 2008 Capcom title Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law, based on the animated series, shares many elements with the Ace Attorney series. The 2013 title Socrates Jones: Pro Philosopher keeps the Ace Attorney format but swaps law for philosophical argument, and the 2015 adventure game Aviary Attorney features similar gameplay but with an all-bird cast of characters. The 2016 video game Detective Pikachu, which received a 2019 film adaptation, has also drawn comparisons to the Ace Attorney series.\n\nAce Attorney is referenced in several anime shows. In a murder mystery arc of the 2006 anime series Haruhi Suzumiya, the show's titular character mimics Phoenix Wright during an episode. The 2014 anime series No Game No Life also pays homage to the game during an episode.\n\nIn early 2021, a user on Reddit created a bot that took selected Reddit forum arguments into short movies fashioned after Ace Attorney courtroom battles between the games' various characters.\n\nLater that year, the San Francisco Chronicle took note of its queer inspiration and influence: the first game inspired a great deal of fanwork featuring same-sex pairings and developers in turn took inspiration from boys' love in writing the sequels' characters.", "revid": "1173113321", "description": "Japanese media franchise of adventure games by Capcom", "categories": ["Ace Attorney", "Capcom franchises", "Kodansha manga", "Shueisha manga", "Video game franchises", "Video game franchises introduced in 2001", "Video games about wrongful convictions", "Video games adapted into films", "Video games adapted into television shows", "Video games set in Japan", "Video games set in Los Angeles", "Visual novels"]}
{"id": "266034", "url": null, "title": "O. G. S. Crawford", "text": "Osbert Guy Stanhope Crawford CBE FBA FSA (28 October 1886 – 28 November 1957) was a British archaeologist who specialised in the archaeology of prehistoric Britain and Sudan. A keen proponent of aerial archaeology, he spent most of his career as the archaeological officer of the Ordnance Survey (OS) and also wrote a range of books on archaeological subjects.\n\nBorn in Bombay, British India, to a wealthy middle-class Scottish family, Crawford moved to England as an infant and was raised by his aunts in London and Hampshire. He studied geography at Keble College, Oxford, and worked briefly in that field before devoting himself professionally to archaeology. Employed by the philanthropist Henry Wellcome, Crawford oversaw the excavation of Abu Geili in Sudan before returning to England shortly before the First World War. During the conflict he served in both the London Scottish Regiment and the Royal Flying Corps, where he was involved in ground and aerial reconnaissance along the Western Front. After an injury forced a period of convalescence in England, he returned to the Western Front, where he was captured by the German Army in 1918 and held as a prisoner of war until the end of the conflict.\n\nIn 1920, Crawford was employed by the Ordnance Survey, touring Britain to plot the location of archaeological sites, and in the process identified several that were previously unknown. Increasingly interested in aerial archaeology, he used Royal Air Force photographs to identify the extent of the Stonehenge Avenue, excavating it in 1923. With the archaeologist Alexander Keiller, he conducted an aerial survey of many counties in southern England and raised the finances to secure the land around Stonehenge for The National Trust. In 1927, he established the scholarly journal Antiquity, which contained contributions from many of Britain's most prominent archaeologists, and in 1939 he served as president of The Prehistoric Society. An internationalist and socialist, he came under the influence of Marxism and for a time became a Soviet sympathiser. During the Second World War he worked with the National Buildings Record, photographically documenting Southampton. After retiring in 1946, he refocused his attention on Sudanese archaeology and wrote several further books prior to his death.\n\nFriends and colleagues remembered Crawford as a cantankerous and irritable individual. His contributions to British archaeology, including in Antiquity and aerial archaeology, have been widely acclaimed; some have referred to him as one of the great pioneering figures in the field. His photographic archive remained of use to archaeologists into the 21st century. A biography of Crawford by Kitty Hauser was published in 2008.\n\n## Early life\n\n### Childhood: 1886–1904\n\nO. G. S. Crawford was born on 28 October 1886 at Breach Candy, a suburb of Bombay in British India. His father, Charles Edward Gordon Crawford, was a civil servant who had been educated at Marlborough College and Wadham College, Oxford before moving to India, where he became a High Court judge at Thane. The Crawford family came from Ayrshire in Scotland, and the child's great-uncle was the politician Robert Wigram Crawford. Crawford's mother, Alice Luscombe Mackenzie, was the daughter of a Scottish army doctor and his Devonshire wife. Alice died a few days after her son's birth, and so when he was three months old, Crawford was sent to England aboard the P&O liner Bokhara. During the journey he was entrusted to the care of his paternal aunt Eleanor, an Anglican nun who was the head of the Poona Convent of the Community of St Mary the Virgin.\n\nIn Britain, he spent the next seven years with two paternal aunts who lived together near to Portland Place in the Marylebone district of central London. Like his father, they were devout Christians, having been the children of a Scottish clergyman. Under their guardianship Crawford had little contact with other children or with men. Crawford saw his father on the few occasions that the latter visited England, prior to his death in India in 1894. In 1895, Crawford and his two aunts moved to a rural house in East Woodhay, Hampshire. Initially educated at Park House School, which he enjoyed, he was then moved to Marlborough College, his father's alma mater. He was unhappy there, complaining about bullying and enforced sporting activities, and characterising it as a \"detestable house of torture\".\n\nAt the school, Crawford was influenced by his housemaster, F. B. Malim, who presided over the archaeological section of the college's Natural History Society and encouraged the boy's interest in the subject. It is possible that Malim provided something of a father figure for the young Crawford. With the society, Crawford visited such archaeological sites as Stonehenge, West Kennet Long Barrow, Avebury, and Martinsell. It was also through the society that he obtained Ordnance Survey maps of the landscape, allowing him to explore the downs near to his aunts' home. He began excavation of a barrow near to Bull's Copse, thus attracting the attention of the antiquarian Harold Peake, who was then involved in compiling the Victoria County History of Berkshire. Peake and his wife lived a Bohemian lifestyle, being vegetarians and social reformers, and their ideas had a strong impact on Crawford. Under the Peakes' influence, Crawford rejected his religious upbringing in favour of a rationalist world-view based in science. Crawford gained an appreciation from Peake for the understanding of past societies through an examination of the geographical landscape rather than simply through texts or artefacts.\n\n### University and early career: 1905–1914\n\nFollowing his schooling, Crawford won a junior scholarship to study at Keble College, Oxford. There he began reading literae humaniores in 1905 but – after gaining only a third-class score in his second year exams – he switched courses to study geography in 1908. In 1910 he gained a distinction for his diploma, for which he had conducted a study of the landscape surrounding Andover. Reflecting his interest in the relationship between geography and archaeology, during a walking tour of Ireland he had also written a paper on the geographic distribution of Bronze Age flat bronze axes and beakers in the British Isles. It was presented to the Oxford University Anthropological Society before being published in The Geographical Journal. The archaeologist Grahame Clark later related that the paper \"marked a milestone in British Archaeology; it was the first real attempt to deduce prehistoric events from the geographical distribution of archaeological objects\". Crawford's fellow archaeologist Mark Bowden stated that while archaeological distribution maps had been previously produced, \"archaeological data had never before been married with environmental information\" in the way that Crawford did in this article.\n\nAfter Crawford graduated, Professor A. J. Herbertson offered him a job as a junior demonstrator in the university's geography department. Crawford agreed, and served in the teaching position over the ensuing year. Through Herbertson, Crawford was introduced to the geographer Patrick Geddes. Crawford then decided to focus his attentions on archaeology rather than geography even though few professional positions in the field existed in Britain at the time. Looking elsewhere for archaeological employment, he unsuccessfully applied for a Craven Fellowship and for a post at Bombay Museum.\n\nAt Herbertson's recommendation, in 1913 Crawford gained employment as an assistant on William Scoresby Routledge and Katherine Routledge's expedition to Easter Island. The expedition had the intention of learning more about the island's first inhabitants and its Moai statues. After the team departed from Britain aboard the schooner Mana, Crawford began quarrelling with the Routledges. Informing them that they had demonstrated an \"extraordinary lack of courtesy\" and \"appalling stinginess\" toward both him and other crew members, he left the ship at Cape Verde and returned to Britain. He then gained employment from the wealthy philanthropist Henry Wellcome, who sent him to Egypt to gain further training in archaeological excavation from G. A. Reisner. Wellcome then sent him to Sudan, where Crawford was given charge of the excavation of the Meroitic site at Abu Geili, remaining there from January to June 1914. On his return to England—where he was planning on sorting through the artefacts found in Sudan—he and his friend Earnest Hooton began excavation of a long barrow on Wexcombe Down in Wiltshire.\n\n### First World War: 1914–1918\n\nIt was while Crawford was engaged in this excavation that the United Kingdom entered the First World War. At Peake's encouragement, Crawford enlisted in the British Army, joining the London Scottish Regiment and was sent to reinforce the First Battalion on the Western Front. The battalion marched to Béthune to relieve the British line, fighting at Givenchy. Crawford was afflicted with influenza and malaria, and in February he was invalided back to England and stationed at Birmingham for his recuperation. After he recovered, he applied to join the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) but was deemed too heavy. He was commissioned in May 1915. In July 1915 he joined the Royal Berkshire Regiment as part of the Third Army, being stationed at Beauval and then St. Pol. Using his existing skills, he served as the regiment's maps officer, and was responsible for mapping the areas around the front line, including German Army positions. He also took photographs which were used for British propaganda purposes, and in 1916 he guided the writer H. G. Wells around the trenches on the latter's visit to the Front.\n\nIn January 1917, Crawford successfully applied to join the RFC as an observer with 23 Squadron RFC, which flew over enemy lines to make observations and draw maps. On his maiden flight, the German Army opened fire on his aircraft, and his right foot was pierced by bullets and badly injured. To recuperate, he spent time at various hospitals in France and England before being sent to the RFC Auxiliary Hospital at the Heligan estate in Cornwall. During this time in England he spent a weekend at Wells's home in Dunmow, Essex, embracing the latter's desire for a united world government and the idea that writing about global history was a contribution to that cause. While at Heligan, Crawford began work on a book, Man and his Past, in which he examined a broad sweep of human history from an archaeological and geographical perspective.\n\nIn September 1917, Crawford—who had been promoted to the position of squadron intelligence officer—joined 48 Squadron RFC, for which he again took aerial photographs during reconnaissance missions. While on one flight in February 1918, Crawford's aircraft was shot at and forced to land in German-held territory; he and his pilot were taken as prisoners of war. He was initially imprisoned at Landshut in Bavaria, from where he tried to escape by swimming down the River Isar; the river current proved too strong and he was soon recaptured. He was then transferred to Holzminden prisoner-of-war camp, where he was aware of an escape plan involving tunnelling out of the camp, but did not take part. Instead he spent much of his time working on Man and his Past and reading works by Wells, Carl Jung, and Samuel Butler. Crawford remained in the camp for seven months, until the declaration of armistice, at which he returned to Britain and was demobilised.\n\n## Career: 1920–1945\n\n### Ordnance Survey and Antiquity\n\nBack in England, Crawford finished writing Man and his Past, which was published by Oxford University Press in 1921. According to the historian of archaeology Adam Stout, the book was \"a manifesto, a rallying-cry for a new generation of archaeologists who shared in the idealism and the faith in the potential of Progress\". Bowden suggested that it could be seen as a \"manifesto for geoarchaeology, environmental archaeology and economic archaeology. The unifying theme is that all these topics should be approached through the compilation of maps\". In discussing geographical methods for delineating \"cultures\", the work fit within the theoretical trend of culture-historical archaeology, but did not attempt to apply the concept of culture in a systematic fashion.\n\nCrawford also returned to field work, carrying out archaeological excavation for the Cambrian Archaeological Association in both Wiltshire and Wales. In mid-1920, he excavated at Roundwood, Hampshire and on the Isle of Wight for Sir William Portal.\n\nHis expertise resulted in his being invited by Charles Close, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey (OS), to join that organisation as their first archaeological officer. Accepting the position, Crawford moved to Southampton and began work at the project in October 1920. His arrival at the OS generated some resentment, with co-workers often seeing his post as superfluous and deeming archaeology to be unimportant. His job entailed correcting and updating information about archaeological monuments as the OS maps were revised, and involved him undertaking much fieldwork, travelling across the British landscape to check the location of previously recorded sites and discover new ones. He began in Gloucestershire in late 1920, visiting 208 sites around the Cotswolds and adding 81 previously unknown barrows to the map. Based on his research in this region, in 1925 he published his book Long Barrows and the Stone Circles of the Cotswolds and the Welsh Marches.\n\nAs part of his job, he travelled around Britain, from Scotland in the north to the Scilly Isles in the south, often conducting his fieldwork by bicycle. At archaeological sites he took photographs and stored them in his archive, and he also obtained aerial photographs of archaeological sites taken by the Royal Air Force. In this he was aided by regional antiquarian societies and by his correspondents, whom he called his \"ferrets\". In 1921, the Ordnance Survey published Crawford's work, \"Notes on Archaeology for Guidance in the Field\", in which he explained how amateur archaeologists could identify traces of old monuments, roads, and agricultural activity in the landscape. He also began producing \"period maps\" in which archaeological sites were marked; the first of these was on Roman Britain, and featured Roman roads and settlements. First published in 1924, it soon sold out, resulting in a second edition in 1928. He followed this with a range of further maps in the 1930s: \"England in the Seventeenth Century\", \"Celtic Earthworks of Salisbury Plain\", \"Neolithic Wessex\", and \"Britain in the Dark Ages\". Although his position had initially been precarious, in 1926 it was made permanent, despite the reluctance of the Treasury, which financed the OS at the time. By 1938, he had been able to persuade the OS to employ an assistant, W. F. Grimes, to aid him in his work.\n\nCrawford became particularly interested in the new technique of aerial archaeology, claiming that this new process was to archaeology what the telescope was to astronomy. His association with it was honoured in Wells' 1939 novel The Shape of Things to Come, which names a survey aeroplane that discovers an ancient archaeological device \"Crawford\". He produced two OS leaflets containing various aerial photographs, printed in 1924 and 1929 respectively. Through these and other works he was keen to promote aerial archaeology, coming to be firmly identified with the technique. Crawford did not take these photographs himself, but collected them from RAF files and, in the 1930s, from flyers such as George Allen and Gilbert Insall.\n\nUsing RAF aerial photographs, Crawford determined the length of the Avenue at Stonehenge before embarking on an excavation of the site with A. D. Passmore in late 1923. This project attracted press attention, resulting in Crawford being contacted by the marmalade magnate and archaeologist Alexander Keiller. Keiller invited Crawford to join him in an aerial survey, financed by Keiller himself, in which they flew over Berkshire, Dorset, Hampshire, Somerset, and Wiltshire in 1924, taking photographs of archaeological traces in the landscape. Many of these images were published in Crawford and Keiller's Wessex from the Air in 1928. In 1927 Crawford and Keiller helped raise the finances to buy the land around Stonehenge and present it to The National Trust to prevent it from being damaged by further agricultural or urban development. Previously, in 1923, Crawford had assisted Keiller in campaigning to prevent a radio mast being erected on the archaeologically significant Windmill Hill in Wiltshire, with Keiller later purchasing the hill and the surrounding Avebury area. Despite this working relationship, the two never became friends, perhaps a result of their highly divergent opinions and interests outside of archaeology.\n\nIn 1927, Crawford founded Antiquity; A Quarterly Review of Archaeology, a quarterly journal designed to bring together the research of archaeologists working across the world to supplement the variety of regional antiquarian periodicals that were then available. In particular, Crawford saw Antiquity as a rival to the Antiquaries Journal published by the Society of Antiquaries. Crawford was contemptuous of the Society, disliking their neglect of prehistory and believing that they did little valuable research. Although designed to have an international scope, Antiquity exhibited a clear bias towards the archaeology of Britain, with its release coinciding with the blossoming of British archaeology as a field of study. It contained contributions from a variety of young archaeologists who came to dominate the field of British archaeology, among them V. Gordon Childe, Grahame Clark, Cyril Fox, Christopher Hawkes, T. D. Kendrick, Stuart Piggott, and Mortimer Wheeler. They shared Crawford's desire to professionalise the field, thereby taking it away from the domination of antiquarian hobbyists and in a more scientific direction. To some of these individuals, Crawford himself was affectionately known as \"Ogs\" or \"Uncle Ogs\"\n\nThe journal proved influential from the start. Although not initially using a process of peer review, Crawford asked his friends to read through submissions that he was unsure about. As well as seeking to shape and define the discipline, Antiquity sought to spread news of archaeological discoveries to a wider public, thereby being more accessible than pre-existing scholarly journals. This resulted in Crawford receiving letters from proponents of various pseudo-archaeological ideas, such as the ley line theory of Alfred Watkins; he filed these letters under a section of his archive titled \"Crankeries\" and was annoyed that educated people believed such ideas when they were demonstrably incorrect. He refused to publish an advert in Antiquity for The Old Straight Track by Watkins, who became very bitter towards him. In 1938, Crawford served as president of the Prehistoric Society; in this position he instigated a series of excavations, inviting the German archaeologist Gerhard Bersu—persecuted in Germany by the Nazi authorities—to move to England to oversee the excavation of Little Woodbury.\n\n### Foreign visits and Marxism\n\nCrawford enjoyed foreign travel. In 1928 the OS sent him to the Middle East to collect aerial photographs that had been produced during the First World War and which were stored at Baghdad, Amman, and Heliopolis. In mid-1931 he visited Germany and Austria, furthering his interest in photography through the purchase of a Voigtländer. He later visited Italy with the intent of examining the possibility of producing OS maps pinpointing the country's archaeological sites; in November 1932 he met with the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, who was interested in Crawford's ideas about creating an OS map of archaeological sites in Rome. This was part of a wider project to produce a series of maps covering the entirety of the Roman Empire, for which Crawford visited various parts of Europe during the late 1920s and 1930s. Holiday destinations included Germany, Austria, Romania, Corsica, Malta, Algeria, and Tunisia, and in 1936 he purchased a plot of land in Cyprus on which he had a house built. During these vacations, he visited archaeological sites and met with local archaeologists, encouraging them to contribute articles to Antiquity.\n\nCrawford believed that society would progress with the growth of internationalism and the increased application of science. Politically, he had moved toward socialism under the influence of Childe, who had become a close friend. He expressed the view that socialism was \"the natural corollary of science in the regulation of human affairs\". He attempted to incorporate Marxist ideas into his archaeological interpretations, as a result producing articles such as \"The Dialectical Process in the History of Science\", which was published in The Sociological Review. He became enthusiastic about the Soviet Union, a state governed by the Marxist Communist Party, viewing it as the forerunner of a future world state.\n\nWith his friend Neil Hunter, he travelled to the Soviet Union in May 1932, sailing to Leningrad aboard the Smolny. Once there, they followed a prescribed tourist itinerary, visiting Moscow, Nizhni Novgorod, Stalingrad, Rostov-on-Don, Tiflis, Armenia, Batum, and Sukhum. Crawford admired what he perceived as the progress that the Soviet Union had made since the fall of the Tsarist regime, the increasingly classless and gender-equal status of its population, and the respect accorded to scientists in planning its societal development. He described his holiday with glowing praise in a book, A Tour of Bolshevy, stating that he did so to \"hasten the downfall of capitalism\" while at the same time making \"as much money as possible\" out of capitalists. The book was rejected by the publisher Victor Gollancz, after which Crawford decided not to approach other publishers, instead giving typed copies of the work to his friends. Although he became involved with the Friends of the Soviet Union and wrote several articles for the Daily Worker newspaper, he never joined the Communist Party of Great Britain, nor did he become involved in organised politics at all, perhaps fearing that to do so would jeopardise his employment in the civil service.\n\nIn Britain, he photographed sites associated with the prominent Marxists Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. He also photographed the signs erected by landowners and religious groups, believing that in doing so he was documenting the traces of capitalist society before they would be swept away by socialism. Both in Britain and on a visit to Germany he photographed pro-fascist and anti-fascist propaganda and graffiti. Like many leftists at the time, he believed that fascism was a temporary, extreme expression of capitalist society that would soon be overcome by socialism. He nevertheless expressed admiration for the German archaeological establishment under the Nazi government, highlighting that the British state lagged far behind in terms of funding excavations and encouraging the study of archaeology in universities; he refrained from commenting on the political agenda that the Nazis had in promoting archaeology.\n\nDespite his socialist and pro-Soviet beliefs, Crawford believed in collaborating with all foreign archaeologists, regardless of political or ideological differences. In early 1938, he lectured on aerial archaeology at the German Air Ministry; the Ministry published his lecture as Luftbild und Vorgeschichte, and Crawford was frustrated that the British government did not publish his work with the same enthusiasm. From there, he visited Vienna to meet with his friend, the archaeologist Oswald Menghin; Menghin took Crawford to an event celebrating the Anschluss, at which he met the prominent Nazi Josef Bürckel. Shortly after, he holidayed in Schleswig-Holstein, where German archaeologists took him to see the Danevirke.\n\nIn 1939, Crawford was involved in photographing the excavation of the Sutton Hoo Anglo-Saxon ship burial in Suffolk. He was present on the site from 24 to 29 July 1939, and took 124 photographs. Several of his photographs are used in the British Museum's display of Sutton Hoo artefacts, but he was not originally credited; this may may be due to the lack of recognition for certain types of archaeological labour, such as photography. His photographs recorded the excavation process as well artefacts recovered during the dig, such as the Anastasius Dish. A photographic record of an archaeological excavation was novel at the time.\n\nIn the late 1930s he began work on a book titled Bloody Old Britain, which he described as \"an attempt to apply archaeological methods to the study of contemporary society\" and in which he was heavily critical of his homeland. It examined 1930s Britain through its material culture, with Crawford reaching the judgement that it was a society in which appearances were given greater importance than value, with clothing, for instance, emphasising bourgeois respectability over comfort. He attributed much of this to the impact of capitalism and consumerism on British culture. The work fitted within an established genre of 1930s publications which lamented the state of British society, in particular the quality of its food and manufactured products as well as its increasing suburbanisation. By the outbreak of the Second World War the work had become less marketable due to its unpatriotic nature, and when in 1943 Crawford proposed it to Methuen Publishing they turned it down; he gave copies to a few friends, but never published it.\n\n### Second World War\n\nIn anticipation of the Second World War, Crawford expressed the view that he would \"remain neutral\" and not take sides, not because he favoured fascism over liberal democracy but because he saw both as repugnant forms of capitalist society which would ultimately be swept away by a socialist revolution; in his words the war would be \"a clash of imperialisms, a gangsters' feud\". After war broke out, he decided that in the event of a German invasion of Britain he would destroy all of his leftist literature lest he be persecuted for possessing it.\n\nIn November 1940, the German Luftwaffe began bombing Southampton, where the OS offices were located. Crawford removed some of the old OS maps and stored them in the garage of his house at Nursling, while also unsuccessfully urging the Director-General to remove the OS' archive of books, documents, maps and photographs to a secure location. Subsequently, the OS headquarters were destroyed in the bombing, resulting in the loss of most of their archive. The refusal of the OS administration to take his warnings seriously infuriated Crawford, exacerbating his anger about the civil service's red tape and bureaucracy. In his words, \"trying to get a move on in the Civil Service was like trying to swim in a lake of glue\". Resigning his membership in various British societies, he unsuccessfully tried to find employment abroad.\n\nWith little for an archaeology officer to do at the OS in wartime, in mid-1941 Crawford was seconded to the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England \"for special duties during wartime\". They assigned him to carry out a project of photographic documentation in Southampton for the National Buildings Record, producing images of many old buildings or architectural features that were threatened by the Luftwaffe's bombing campaign. He appreciated the value of this work, taking 5,000 photographs over the course of the war. In 1944, the Council for British Archaeology was founded, and while Crawford was invited to serve on its first council, he declined the offer, being lukewarm about the project.\n\n## Later life: 1946–1957\n\nIn 1946, at the earliest possible opportunity, Crawford resigned his post at the OS, where he was replaced by Charles Philips. He remained in the Southampton area and retained his interest in the city's architecture, in particular that of the Middle Ages. In 1946 he was a founding member of a lobby group, Friends of Old Southampton, which sought to protect the city's historic architecture from destruction amid post-war development. During the post-war period he also came to be preoccupied and terrified by the prospect of a nuclear war, urging archaeological authorities to make copies of all their information and disperse it in different locations to ensure that knowledge survived any forthcoming Third World War. Retaining his left-wing interests, in 1945 and 1946 he had some involvement with the Labour Party, although elsewhere he mocked the \"ignorant\" who thought that Labour \"genuinely\" represented socialism. In the latter part of the 1940s he became increasingly disillusioned with the Soviet Union after reading Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon, a book about Joseph Stalin's Great Purge and Moscow show trials, as well as learning of how Soviet scientists who did not support the ideas of Trofim Lysenko had been persecuted. In 1950—after reading the memoir of Margarete Buber-Neumann—he declared himself to be \"fanatically anti-Soviet [and] anti-communist\".\n\nIn 1949, Crawford was elected a Fellow of the British Academy, and in 1950 he became a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. In 1952 he was made an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Cambridge for his contributions to aerial archaeology.\n\nCrawford returned his attention to Sudanese archaeology, describing Sudan as \"an escape-land of the mind at a time when the island of Britain was an austere prison\". At the invitation of the Sudanese government, he visited the country on an archaeological reconnaissance trip in January 1950, before visiting the Middle Nile in 1951. At Nursling, he wrote a book on the northern Sudanese Funj Sultanate of Sennar, which appeared in the same year as his long-delayed report on the Abu Geili excavation, co-written with Frank Addison. He followed this with the 1953 book Castles and Churches in the Middle Nile Region. Another of Crawford's book projects in this period was a short history of Nursling, as well as an introductory guide to landscape studies, Archaeology in the Field, published in 1953. In 1955 he published his autobiography, Said and Done, which the archaeologist Glyn Daniel and the historian Mark Pottle—the authors of Crawford's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography—described as \"a vivacious and amusing autobiography in which his character comes clearly through\".\n\nAfter the discovery of prehistoric rock art on Stonehenge in 1953, Crawford decided to examine the engravings on the megalithic monuments in Brittany. Inspired by this subject, in 1957 he published The Eye Goddess. In this book he argued that many of the abstract designs featured in prehistoric rock art were representations of eyes. He further argued that they provided evidence for a religion devoted to a mother goddess which had existed across the Old World from the Palaeolithic through to the period of Christianisation. That same decade also witnessed similar ideas regarding a Neolithic religion focused around a great goddess being espoused in the works of Childe and Daniel; the historian Ronald Hutton later observed that \"whether or not there was ever an 'Age of the Goddess' in Neolithic Europe, there certainly was one among European intellectuals in the mid twentieth century\". Crawford's book was not well received within academia.\n\nCrawford was also interested in cats, and learned how to mimic cat noises, performing these on a BBC broadcast, \"The Language of Cats\", which proved popular and led to a range of fan letters. A publisher in the United States invited him to write a book on the subject, but Crawford never completed it. In the mid-1950s, Crawford began to take an interest in astronomy and cosmological ideas about the origin of the universe, favouring Fred Hoyle's steady state theory about an eternal universe with no beginning or end.\n\nIn 1951, an edited volume, Aspects of Archaeology in Britain and Beyond: Essays Presented to O. G. S. Crawford, was published, having been edited by Grimes and brought out to mark Crawford's 65th birthday. Reviewing the anthology for Antiquity, J. v. d. Waals and R. J. Forbes described it as \"an exquisite birthday present\". Many of Crawford's associates worried about him, aware that he lived alone at his cottage in Nursling—with only the company of his elderly housekeeper and cats—and that he lacked either a car or telephone. It was there that he died in his sleep on the night of 28–29 November 1957. He had arranged for some of his letters and books to be destroyed, while others were to be sent to the Bodleian Library, with the proviso that some of them would not be opened until the year 2000. His body was buried in the church graveyard at Nursling. In accordance with his instructions, the title \"Editor of Antiquity\" was inscribed on his gravestone, reflecting his desire to be remembered primarily as an archaeologist. On Crawford's death, the editorship of Antiquity was taken on by Daniel.\n\n## Personality\n\nCrawford's socialist beliefs were known to his colleagues and associates, as was his antipathy toward religion. While he became an atheist during his time at Marlborough College, it is not known exactly when he embraced socialism. He placed a strong emphasis on personal self-sufficiency, and openly expressed contempt for those who required social interaction for their own happiness. His adult life was a solitary one, with no family and no human dependents. His sexual orientation remains unknown, with Bowden noting that Crawford's interactions with women were \"cordial but not significant\". He was fond of cats, and kept several as pets, also rearing pigs for food as well as growing vegetables in his garden at Nursing. A heavy smoker, he was known for rolling his own cigarettes.\n\nCrawford was often irritable and some colleagues found him exasperating to work with. He was known for his lack of patience, and when angry or frustrated was known to fling his hat to the floor in a gesture of rage. His biographer Kitty Hauser noted that \"apparently trifling events left an indelible mark on him\", for he would remember a perceived slight for decades. Bowden expressed the view that while Crawford \"had a quick temper, which he strove to control ... he was essentially a friendly man\", adding that he could be \"clubbable, hospitable and kind\".\n\nJonathan Glancey referred to Crawford as \"a compelling if decidedly cantankerous anti-hero\" and an \"essentially Victorian eccentric\". Hauser characterised him as \"a very British combination of a snob and a rebel\", also noting that he was \"no great intellectual\". Similarly, Clark expressed the view that \"Crawford's achievements\" stemmed from his \"moral integrity and singleness of mind\" rather than \"any outstanding intellectual brilliance\". The journalist Neal Ascherson described Crawford as \"not conventionally intellectual\". Ascherson added that Crawford was \"withdrawn, generally ill at ease with other members of the human species except on paper, and suspicious of personal celebrity\", in this way contrasting Crawford with his \"gregarious\" contemporaries Wheeler and Daniel.\n\nDaniel characterised Crawford as having a \"messianic desire\" to promote archaeology \"to the people of the world\". He was opinionated and dogmatic and expressed disdain for those who viewed the past in a different manner to himself. Piggott noted that Crawford was unable to sympathise with the perspectives of those studying past societies through a discipline other than archaeology, such as history or art history, and that he could not sympathise with \"anyone not as passionately concerned as himself in field antiquities\". For example, in one of his publications, Crawford dismissed historians as being \"bookish\" and \"clean-booted\". The archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes commented that in Crawford's editorials for Antiquity, he directed \"righteous indignation\" toward \"everybody from the State, Dominion and Colonial Governments, Universities and Museums, to tardy reviewers and careless proof-correctors\".\n\nWheeler—who considered Crawford to be \"one of [his] closest friends\"—claimed that the latter was \"an outspoken and uncompromising opponent\" and a man who had a \"boyish glee in calling the bluff of convention\". He added that Crawford exhibited the \"divine impatience of the pioneer\" and that he had an \"inability to work in harness. If he joined a committee or a sodality, he did so only to resign at the first opportunity.\" Piggott described Crawford as a mentor who \"was encouraging, helpful, and unconventional: his racy outspoken criticism of what then passed for the archaeological Establishment was music to a schoolboy's ear\".\n\n## Reception and legacy\n\nCrawford was much respected by his peers. According to Hauser, at the time of his death Crawford had \"acquired an almost mythical status among British archaeologists as the uncompromising – if eccentric – progenitor of them all\". In 1999, the archaeologist John Charlton referred to Crawford as \"one of the pioneers of British archaeology this century\", while nine years later Ascherson described him as \"beyond question one of the great figures of the 'modern' generation which transformed British archaeological practice and its institutions between 1918 and – say – 1955\". Ascherson noted that Crawford's contributions to archaeology had little to do with archaeological theory and more to do with \"the institutions and tools ... which he bequeathed to his profession\", including Antiquity. Crawford devoted little time to interpreting the archaeological record, and when he did so usually embraced functionalist interpretations, believing that people in traditional societies devoted almost all of their time to survival rather than behaving according to religious or symbolic concepts; in this he was typical of his time and was influenced by Marxist materialism.\n\nCrawford was recognised for his contributions to bringing archaeology to a wide sector of the British public. The archaeologist Caroline Malone stated that many viewed Crawford as \"an 'amateur's' archaeologist, providing the means to publish and comment outside the restrictions of local journals and to offer a vision of a new and universal discipline\". Clark expressed the view that Crawford \"always hankered to restore the flesh and blood and to make the past a reality to the living generation\", and in doing so helped to attract a greater public audience for British archaeology than many of his colleagues. Wheeler remarked that \"he was our greatest archaeological publicist; he taught the world about scholarship, and scholars about one another\". Commenting on Crawford's editorship of Antiquity, Hawkes expressed the view that his \"skill in steering between over-simplification and over-specialization has enabled the Magazine to succeed admirably in its role as go-between for experts and public\".\n\nCrawford's system of documenting archaeological sites in the OS' Archaeological Record provided the blueprint on which both the later National Archaeological Records in England, Scotland, and Wales, and the local sites and monuments records were based. In the 21st century, Crawford's photographic archive stored at Oxford University's Institute of Archaeology was still consulted by archaeologists seeking to view how various sites appeared during the first half of the 20th century. In 2008, Kitty Hauser's biography, Bloody Old Britain, was published. Reviewing her work for The Guardian, Glancey described it as \"a truly fascinating and unexpected book\". Writing in Public Archaeology, Ascherson characterised it as \"full of clever perception and sympathetic insight\" but was critical of its lack of references and \"occasional mistakes of fact\".", "revid": "1171323076", "description": "British archaeologist (1886–1957)", "categories": ["1886 births", "1957 deaths", "Aerial photographers", "Alumni of Keble College, Oxford", "Antiquity (journal) editors", "British Army personnel of World War I", "British World War I prisoners of war", "English archaeologists", "English atheists", "English people of Scottish descent", "English socialists", "London Scottish soldiers", "Military personnel of British India", "People educated at Marlborough College", "People from East Woodhay", "Remote sensing archaeologists", "Royal Berkshire Regiment officers", "Royal Flying Corps officers", "Scientists from Mumbai", "Sutton Hoo", "Victoria Medal recipients", "World War I prisoners of war held by Germany"]}
{"id": "1657064", "url": null, "title": "Hauran", "text": "The Hauran (Arabic: حَوْرَان, romanized: Ḥawrān; also spelled Hawran or Houran) is a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan. It is bound in the north by the Ghouta oasis, eastwards by the al-Safa field, to the south by Jordan's desert steppe and to the west by the Golan Heights. Traditionally, the Hauran consists of three subregions: the Nuqrah and Jaydur plains, the Jabal al-Druze massif, and the Lajat volcanic field. The population of the Hauran is largely Arab, but religiously heterogeneous; most inhabitants of the plains are Sunni Muslims belonging to large agrarian clans, while Druze form the majority in the eponymous Jabal al-Druze and a significant Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic minority inhabit the western foothills of Jabal al-Druze. The region's largest towns are Daraa, al-Ramtha and al-Suwayda.\n\nFrom the mid-1st century BCE, the region was governed by the Roman Empire's Herodian and Nabatean client kings until it was formally annexed by the empire in the 2nd century CE. The Hauran prospered under Roman rule (106–395 CE) and its villages functioned as largely self-governing units, some of which developed into imperial cities. The region continued to prosper in the Byzantine era (395–634), during which different Arab tribes ruled the Hauran on Byzantium's behalf, including the Salihids (5th century) and Ghassanids (6th century) until the Muslim conquest in the mid-630s. For much of the Islamic era until Ottoman rule (1517–1917), the Hauran was divided into the districts of al-Bathaniyya and Ḥawrān, which corresponded to the Classical Batanea and Auranitis. Medieval Muslim geographers variously described these districts as prosperous, well-watered and well-populated.\n\nUnder the Romans, the grain of Batanea and the wine of Auranitis were important for imperial trade, and throughout its history, the Hauran was the major source of the Levant's grain. The region saw a decline in the 17th century until increased demand for Syrian grain and improved security led to the agricultural revival and re-population of the Hauran in the mid-19th century. The region also historically benefited as a key transit area on the traditional Hajj caravan route to Mecca and later the Hejaz railway. The Hauran remained Syria's breadbasket until being largely supplanted by northern Syria in the mid-20th century, which coincided with its separation from interdependent areas due to international borders and the Arab–Israeli conflict. Nonetheless, it persisted as an important agricultural and commercial transit area into the 2000s. During the Syrian Civil War, which was sparked in the Hauran in 2011, it became a major conflict zone between rebels and government forces in the Daraa Governorate campaign until the government reasserted control in 2018.\n\nThe wide availability of basalt in the Hauran led to the development of a distinct vernacular architecture characterized by the exclusive use of basalt as a building material and a fusion of Hellenistic, Nabatean and Roman styles. The durability of basalt is credited for the Hauran's possession of one of the highest concentrations of well-preserved Classical-era monuments in the world. Hauran towns such as Bosra, Qanawat, Shahba, Salkhad, Umm al-Jimal and numerous others contain Roman temples and theaters, Byzantine-era churches and monasteries, and forts, mosques and bathhouses built by successive Muslim dynasties.\n\n## Geography\n\n### Geographic definition\n\nThough its geographic definition may vary, the Hauran generally consists of the following subregions: the Hauran plain, which forms the heart of the region; the mountains of Jabal Hauran (also known as 'Jabal al-Druze' or 'Jabal al-Arab') east of the plain; and the Lajat volcanic field to the north of Jabal Hauran. The region is bound to the north by the Ghouta and Marj plains around Damascus and to the south by the desert steppe of Jordan. Its western boundary is marked by the Ruqqad tributary, which separates it from the Golan Heights (al-Jawlān in Arabic). It is eastwardly bound by the al-Hamad and al-Safa desert steppes. Geographer John Lewis Burckhardt, writing in 1812, defined it as follows:\n\n> To the south of Jabal Kiswah and Jabal Khiyara begins the country of Hauran. It is bordered on the east by the rocky district of Lajat, and by the Jabal Hauran, both of which are sometimes comprised within the Hauran ... To the southeast, where Bosra and Ramtha are the farthest inhabited villages, the Hauran borders upon the desert. Its western limits are the chain of villages on the Hajj road, from Ghabaghib as far south as Ramtha ... Hauran comprises therefore part of Trachonitis and Iturea, the whole of Auranitis, and the northern districts of Batanea.\n\nThe plain of Hauran stretches between the Marj plain of Damascus southward into modern-day Jordan where it borders Jabal Ajlun to the southwest and the desert steppe to the south and southeast. To the west is the Golan plateau and to the east are the uplands of Jabal Hauran. The plain has historically been divided into the northern Jaydur and the southern Nuqrah. The former is identified with the ancient Iturea, while the latter is identified with the ancient Batanea (al-Bathaniyya in Arabic). The much larger Nuqrah extends northward to the approaches of al-Sanamayn, being bound to the east by the Lajat and Jabal Hauran. It forms the heart of the Hauran plain. Al-Nuqra is a relatively recent appellation, meaning \"the cavity\" in Arabic. The Jaydur extends northwest from al-Sanamayn to the minor lava field located at the foothills of Mount Hermon (Jabal al-Shaykh in Arabic).\n\n### Topography\n\nA common feature throughout the Hauran is the basaltic topography, though altitude and soil vary between the Hauran's subregions. The Nuqrah, Jaydur and Jabal Hauran consist of arable land derived from decomposed basaltic, volcanic rock. The Nuqrah is a relatively low plateau measuring roughly 100 by 75 kilometers (62 mi × 47 mi) with an average elevation of 600 meters (2,000 ft) above sea level. Its land is characterized by vast, contiguous tracts of fertile, basalt-derived soil. In contrast to the Nuqrah, the Jaydur's landscape is more fractured and rocky. Its average elevation ranges between 600 and 900 meters (2,000 and 3,000 ft) above sea level, with some volcanic cones reaching above 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level, including Tell al-Hara. In terms of its landscape and cinder cones, the Jaydur is a topographic continuation of the Golan Heights. The Jabal Hauran was formed by large lava flows into a roughly 60 by 30 kilometers (37 mi × 19 mi) massif of volcanic hills, the highest point of which is over 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) above sea level in the range's center. The Lajat comprises a topography of depressions, rifts and ridges with scattered arable patches, and is characterized by rocky soil and scarce vegetation. Its average elevation is between 600–700 meters (2,000–2,300 ft) above sea level, though some of the area's volcanic cones are over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) with the highest over 1,150 meters (3,770 ft).\n\n### Climate\n\nRainfall above the 200 millimetres (7.9 in) mark is characteristic throughout the Hauran, but otherwise climate and precipitation levels vary between its subregions. The relatively frequent rainfall and the abundance of water springs have historically allowed the Nuqrah and Jabal Hauran to become major grain-growing regions. The Hauran plain receives an average 250 millimetres (9.8 in) of rainfall, which allows the plains to support stable, grain-based agriculture. Jabal Hauran receives considerably greater rainfall, which supports more orchard and tree-based cultivation. Jabal Hauran is frequently covered by snow during the winter.\n\n## History\n\nThere are records of settlements in the Hauran in the Ancient Egyptian Amarna letters and the Book of Deuteronomy of the Hebrew Bible, when the region was generally known as Bashān. Control of it was contested between the Aramean kingdom of Damascus and the Kingdom of Israel during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE. It was ultimately conquered and pillaged by the Assyrian Empire, which held onto it from 732 to 610 BCE. The area is mentioned in the description of the future borders of Israel in Ezekiel 47:16. Bashān later saw security and prosperity under Achaemenid rule; its settlements became better developed and culturally Aramized.\n\n### Hellenistic period\n\nDuring the Hellenistic period beginning in the mid-4th century BCE, the Hauran was at first a possession of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which saw the region as a buffer zone separating their kingdom from Seleucid Damascus. Its sparse population consisted of semi-nomadic and nomadic groups such as the Itureans and Nabateans and the area remained largely undeveloped. The Seleucids conquered the Hauran following their victory over the Ptolemies in the Battle of Panium near Mount Hermon in 200 BCE. During the decline of the Seleucid Empire, the Petra-based Nabatean Kingdom emerged to the Hauran's south. The Arab Nabateans expanded their presence to the southern Hauran towns of Bosra and Salkhad. By the end of the 2nd century BCE, Seleucid control of the Hauran had become largely nominal and the region became a contested area between the Nabataean Kingdom, the Jerusalem-based Hasmonean dynasty and the Iturean principality based in the northern Golan and southern Mount Lebanon.\n\n### Roman era\n\n#### Herodian period\n\nBy 63 BCE the Roman Empire extended its influence to all of Syria and initially charged local princes with keeping order in Auranitis (Jabal Hauran), Batanea (Nuqrah) and Trachonitis (Lajat). However, the districts remained largely in the hands of nomadic tribes. To supplement their meager income, these nomads often raided nearby settlements as far as Damascus, and robbed pilgrims traversing the region. When Zenodorus, a prince entrusted with the Hauran districts' security, collaborated with the nomads, the Romans transferred the districts to their Judean client king, Herod the Great in 23 BCE.\n\nAfter Herod quelled resistance in the Hauran during the early years of his rule, the brigandage of the nomads largely ceased. Their rebellion resumed in 12 BCE and two years later Herod renewed his efforts to bring the nomads to heel. This resulted in an alliance formed between the nomads of Trachonitis and Auranitis with the Nabateans in Transjordan, which defeated Herod's Idumean troops. Herod ultimately stabilized the area after establishing permanent colonies and a network of forts in the less vulnerable Batanea district, from which Herod's forces could keep order without fear of attack by the nomads of Auranitis and Trachonitis. Through the establishment of security, land distribution and early tax incentives, Batanea prospered under Herod and his successors and became Syria's main source of grain. Auranitis began to similarly prosper during the reign of Philip, Herod's successor in the Hauran.\n\n#### Post-annexation\n\nBy the early 2nd century CE, the last vassal kings of the Hauran region, Agrippa II (r.  53–100 CE) of the Herodian Tetrarchy and Rabbel II (r.  70–106 CE) of the Nabatean Kingdom, had died and Rome under Emperor Trajan (r.  98–117) no longer saw the need for local intermediaries. The deaths of the Herodian and Nabatean monarchs in relatively quick succession provided an opportunity for the Romans to absorb their domains. In 106, the empire formally annexed the entire Hauran, incorporating its southern part in Arabia Province and its northern part in Syria Province. The provincial boundary followed the boundary just north of the Adraa–Bosra–Salkhad line that had separated the Herodian and Nabatean kingdoms. This administrative division remained intact for much of the 2nd century. This period, under the Antonine emperors who ruled until 180 CE, saw consistent stability, development and prosperity.\n\nDuring the late 2nd century, imperial order gradually weakened and political instability ensued. In 244 a native of the Hauran, Philip the Arab, became emperor and turned his hometown of Shahba (Philippopolis) into an imperial city. Though Shahba and Auranitis prospered, the general state of the empire was marked by decline. Philip was killed in 249 and Auranitis was largely abandoned in the late 3rd century. By the early 3rd century, Auranitis, Batanea and Trachonitis had been annexed to Arabia, bringing the entire Hauran under the jurisdiction of a single province. This also coincided with the completion of the north-south Via Nova Traiana road connecting the Red Sea-port of Ayla with Bosra, the provincial capital, and an east-west road connecting the cities of the Adraa–Bosra–Salkhad line. Commenting on this development, historian Henry Innes MacAdam writes:\n\n> For the first time since the Hellenistic age the Hawran in its entirety came under one administrative system. The road network and the settlements it linked were the framework upon which the economic and social infrastructure of the region was built. Secure towns and safe, well-maintained roads meant that internal and external commerce could flow freely. The wine and grain of the Hawran were marketed, we may assume, far and wide.\n\nAfter Rome's annexation, the rural villages of the Hauran exercised considerable self-rule. Each village had common areas and buildings, a law council and a treasury. Between the late 1st and 5th centuries, several underwent urbanization and became cities, including Qanawat (Canatha), al-Suwayda (Dionysias), Shahba (Philippopolis), Shaqqa (Maxmimianopolis), al-Masmiyah (Phaina) and Nawa (Naveh). The inhabitants were generally wealthy landowners whose large dwellings housed their extended families. Among the inhabitants were Roman army veterans who upon returning to their villages in the Hauran invested money in land, houses, tombs, temples and public buildings and filled high-ranking local positions. Agriculture was the main economic sector, with Batanea and Auranitis mainly producing grain and wine, respectively, both of which were important to imperial trade.\n\nMuch of the settled population consisted of Arameans, Jews and a larger Arab population, consisting of Nabateans and Safaitic groups. These groups continued to use Semitic languages, mainly Aramaic and an early form of Arabic at the colloquial level, though the Hellenization process was well underway and by the 4th century Greek supplanted the Hauran's native languages at the official level. Though the particularly wealthy and army veterans engaged in Hellenistic activities, such as visiting theaters and bathhouses, much of the population held on to Arab and Aramaic traditions and worshiped their native gods.\n\n### Byzantine era\n\nArab groups, including from South Arabia, continued to migrate to the Hauran well into the Byzantine period. During the 4th and 5th centuries, when direct imperial rule was weakened and nomadic groups overran the Sinai and the Euphrates valley, the Byzantines turned to certain powerful Arab tribes to maintain internal order and guard the Hauran. Beginning in the 4th century, this role was played by the Lakhmids, and by the Salihids for much of the 5th century. These groups protected the population in return for payment in gold and corn.\n\n#### Ghassanid period\n\nIn the early 6th century, the Salihids were replaced by the Ghassanids. A major component of the Azd tribal confederation, the Ghassanids established themselves in Arabia Province and like the Salihids, embraced Christianity. They became formal military allies of the Byzantines in 502, contributing troops in the wars with Sassanian Persia and the Persians' Lakhmid vassals. In 531, the Ghassanid chieftain al-Harith ibn Jabalah was decreed 'phylarch of all Arabs' in the empire, but by 582 his son (and the last powerful Ghassanid phylarch) al-Mundhir III was arrested and exiled. This led to a rebellion in the Hauran and a siege on Bosra led by al-Mundhir's son al-Nu'man VI, which only ended when the latter was allowed by the Byzantines to reestablish the Ghassanid phylarchy. This only lasted until al-Nu'man was exiled in 584, after which the empire dissolved the phylarchy into numerous, smaller Ghassanid and other Arab Christian units. Some of these units continued to fight alongside the Byzantines, but their overall power had diminished, leaving the area more vulnerable to invasion. In 613, the Sassanian Persians invaded Syria and defeated the Byzantines in a battle between Adraa and Bosra.\n\nThe Byzantine era in the Hauran was marked by the dual processes of rapid Arabization and the growth of Christianity. The region's Ghassanid rulers were semi-nomadic and established permanent encampments throughout the Hauran, chief of which was al-Jabiya, but also Aqraba, Jalliq, Harith al-Jawlan and others. They were entrusted by the Byzantines to secure the Hauran's agricultural production and stave off nomadic marauders. The region prospered under Ghassanid supervision and the tribe itself built or patronized secular and religious architecture in the region's villages, including churches, monasteries and large homes for their chieftains. Although a Christian presence in some cities of Auranitis was established in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, by the 5th century nearly all the villages in the Hauran had churches, most of them dedicated to saints favored by the Arabs. The Ghassanids played a significant role in promoting Monophysite Christianity in Syria which was viewed as heretic by the Chalcedonian Church embraced by most Byzantine emperors.\n\n### Early Islamic era\n\nThe advent of Islam in Arabia and its expansion northward to Syria was countered by the Byzantines and their Arab Christian allies. However, the region's defenses had been significantly weakened as a consequence of the Ghassanids' decline in status in 582–584. The first Arab Muslim forces arrived in the Hauran in April 634 and Bosra was conquered by them in May. Following the decisive Muslim victory in the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, all of the Hauran came under Muslim rule. The Umayyad dynasty took control of the expanding Islamic caliphate and relocated its capital from Medina to Damascus and were supported by the people of Hauran. After the death of the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya II and the ensuing chaos of succession, the Umayyads' Arab tribal allies in Syria convened a summit in the Hauran town of al-Jabiya, where they chose Marwan I to be the next caliph, in opposition to the ascendant Mecca-based Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. Following the Abbasids’ toppling of the Umayyads in 750, the Arab tribes of Hauran rose in a rebellion that was put down by the Abbasid general Abd Allah ibn Ali.\n\nDuring the early Muslim period (7th-10th centuries), the Hauran formed part of the military district of Damascus, itself a part of the larger province of Bilad al-Sham. The Hauran subdistrict roughly corresponded to the ancient Auranitis and its capital was Bosra, while the Bathaniyya subdistrict corresponded to the ancient Batanea and had Adhri'at as its capital. Settlement within the Hauran continued and in some cases \"thrived\" in the early Islamic period, with \"no perceptible change in activity or cultural patterns under the Umayyad caliphs\", according to historian Moshe Hartal. According to the 10th-century Muslim geographer Istakhri, the Hauran and Bathaniyya were \"...two great districts of the Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers of these two districts extend down to... ...the Balqa district and Amman\".\n\nThe Abbasid period in Hauran was marked by numerous damaging raids from the Qarmatians of eastern Arabia in the 10th century. After 939, the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts came under the direct rule of the Egyptian-based Ikhshidid dynasty, nominal governors of the Abbasids. During this period, the large Arab tribe of Banu Uqayl, formerly allies of the Qarmatians, migrated to the Syrian steppe extending from the Hauran northward to Upper Mesopotamia. After 945, the de jure Ikshidid ruler Abu al-Misk Kafur assigned the Uqaylid sheikhs (chieftains) Salih ibn Umayr and Zalim ibn Mawhub with keeping order in the Hauran districts. This ended when the Fatimids conquered southern Syria in 970 and the Uqayl were consequently chased out of the Hauran by the Fatimid-allied tribes of Banu Fazara and Banu Murra. The villages of Hawran and Bathaniyya were rehabilitated by Abu Mahmud Ibrahim, the nominal Fatimid governor of Damascus, in the early 980s, after the damage inflicted on the area by the Fazara and Murra.\n\n### Middle Islamic era\n\nThe arrival of the Crusaders in the coastal regions of Bilad al-Sham in 1099 had repercussions for the Hauran and the region was periodically targeted by Crusaders in plundering campaigns. These occurred when the Crusaders captured Muslim-held fortresses in the Hauran or passed by the region after raids against Damascus. In the early 12th century, the entire Hauran was assigned by the Burid emir of Damascus to the Turkish general Amin al-Dawla Kumushtakin as an iqta (fief), which he held until his death in 1146. Under his patronage the region, and Bosra in particular, saw a renewal of building activity after a roughly 300-year hiatus. The population of the Hauran at the time was largely Greek Orthodox.\n\nThe last recorded appearance of the Crusaders in Hauran was in 1217. The Ayyubids had conquered the region in the late 12th century, but their rule collapsed in Syria following the Mongol invasion in 1260. That year the Mongols were defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut and Syria, including the Hauran, came under Mamluk rule.\n\nDuring the 12th and 13th centuries, the Hauran continued to be administratively divided into the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts of Damascus. In general, both districts were well-populated and prosperous, benefiting particularly from grain production. Though mostly Muslim, a significant portion of the inhabitants were Christians. A contemporary Syrian geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi (died 1229) described the Hauran as \"a large district full of villages and very fertile\".\n\nFollowing its incorporation into the Mamluk Sultanate, the Hauran continued to be divided into the two districts of the Bosra-centered Hauran and the Adhri'at-centered Bathaniyya. However, within the region were the two smaller administrative units of Salkhad, a fortress town typically held by a high-ranking Mamluk emir, and Zur’, which corresponded with the Lajat. Under the Mamluks, the region's strategic importance stemmed from its position on the barid (postal route) between Gaza and Damascus and Bosra's role as a major marshaling point for the Hajj caravans going to Mecca. The arrival of nomadic clans from the Banu Rabi'a tribe in the 14th century caused instability in the region, but they eventually became settled inhabitants.\n\n### Ottoman era\n\n#### Grain cultivation and Hajj caravan transit\n\nThe Hauran was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire following its conquest of Mamluk Syria in 1517. In the early Ottoman era, during the 16th and 17th centuries, there were numerous agrarian, primarily grain-growing villages in the Hauran plain and the western slopes of Jabal Hauran. Most of the inhabitants paid taxes on wheat and barley. The Hauran had long been a major grain-producing region and officially, its land belonged to the Ottoman state and its inhabitants were required to pay taxes and be conscripted into the army. However, as state authority receded, the region effectively became autonomous. An exception to this virtual autonomy came during the annual thirty- to sixty-day Hajj season, during which the state mobilized its forces to organize, protect and supply the annual Muslim pilgrim caravan to Mecca and Medina; In the 18th century, the Hajj route was moved westward from Bosra to Muzayrib, which became the caravan's marshaling point in the Hauran.\n\nInstead of their direct involvement in the Hauran, the authorities entrusted its affairs to the Damascene aghawat, who commanded small, mobile units of mounted irregulars. In return for the political and economic influence they were allowed in the Hauran, the aghawat secured revenue from the region's population to fund the Hajj caravan, escorted the caravan and other travelers and policed the region. The principal restriction on the power of the aghawat was resistance from the Hauran's inhabitants. Thus, the aghawat sought to become more indispensable to the local population. To that end, they often mediated between the settled inhabitants of the plain and the Bedouin nomads, and between the Hauran's population as a whole and all outside powers, including the state. According to historian Linda S. Schilcher,\n\n> This hinterland political system had its own internal checks and, of course, its strains, but it appears to have existed with a fair degree of equilibrium for a very long period of time. The low pressure of population on the land and the natural economies that existed between steppe and cultivated plain and between town and countryside appear to have contributed to this relatively stable situation.\n\n#### Increased Bedouin pressures and Druze influx\n\nAs state authority receded in the Hauran, Bedouin tribes from the Anaza confederation increasingly took advantage of the security vacuum. The Bedouin encamped in the Hauran in the spring and retreated into the desert as soon as the autumn rains began. The Anaza's entry into the Hauran caused the exodus of the semi-nomadic tribes of the Banu Rabi'a confederation. The largest tribes that encamped in the Hauran were the Wuld Ali (also known as Awlad Ali), who arrived in the early 18th century, and the Rwala, who arrived in the late 18th century. Both were part of the Anaza confederation. Smaller tribes included the Sardiyah, the Sirhan and the Sulut. The Sulut, which was based in the Lajat wilderness, was the only Bedouin tribe that remained relatively stationary.\n\nThe Bedouin used the Hauran for access to water, to graze their camels and sheep and to stock up on supplies for the winter. They traded their livestock and meats for grains from the plainsmen, and wares from other Syrian merchants. The Hajj caravan was a major source of income for the Bedouin, who supplied the pilgrims with protection, logistical support, meat and transportation. Bedouin depredations against the locals included the imposition of the khuwwa (tribute), ostensibly in return for protection. The Bedouin also launched occasional raids and their flocks often grazed on the plainsmen's fields.\n\nIn addition to the Bedouin, the 18th and 19th centuries also witnessed large migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon to the Jabal Hauran, which gradually became known as the Jabal al-Druze ('mountain of the Druze'). Their arrival pushed the mountain's previous inhabitants to the Hauran plains and introduced a new element of instability to the region. A small group of Druze led by the Alam al-Din family first arrived in 1685. A much larger wave arrived in the region as a result of the intra-Druze Battle of Ain Dara in 1711. The new arrivals were concentrated in the northwestern corner of Jabal Hauran and the Lajat and established roots in abandoned villages with extensive ancient ruins. The area was chosen by the Druze because it was well-watered, defensible and relatively close to the Druze settlements in the Damascus countryside and Mount Hermon. The paramount leaders of the community between 1711 and 1860 were the Najran-based Al Hamdan family.\n\nPersistent migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon, Wadi al-Taym and the Galilee, caused by the increased turbulence they faced, continued throughout the 18th century: historian Kais Firro stated that \"each sign of danger in their traditional lands of settlement seemed to instigate a new Druze migration to the Hauran\". During the final years of the decade-long Egyptian administration of Syria, the Druze of Jabal Hauran launched their first revolt against the authorities, in response to a conscription order by Ibrahim Pasha. By then, their numbers in the region had been swollen by migration. The 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war between the Druze and Christians and the resulting French military intervention caused another large exodus of Druze to Jabal Hauran.\n\nThe Hauran plains declined economically and demographically during the 17th and 18th centuries. Factors that caused this decline included the taxation of the peasantry by both the government and the Bedouin, periodic raids by the Bedouin and the encroachments of their livestock, and occasional strife with the neighboring Druze, Ottoman irregulars and between themselves. Many southern plainsmen migrated to the northern Hauran plain, where the soil was more productive in comparison to the drier south and was less often overrun by the Bedouin and their herds. According to the historian Norman Lewis, southern Haurani plainsmen \"had been moving northwards for generations\". Thus, by the start of the 19th century, the northern plains contained several full or half-empty villages, while the south had been all but deserted, with the exception of the larger towns of Daraa (Adhri'at), Bosra and al-Ramtha.\n\n#### Regional revival and centralization\n\nDuring the 1850s, increased demand for grain in the Damascene and European markets led to a resurgence of grain cultivation in the Hauran. This in turn brought about the mass resettlement of abandoned villages and the establishment of new settlements. By the end of the decade, resettlement caused a scarcity of grazing lands for Bedouin livestock.\n\nThe civil war of 1860, which spilled over into Damascus, where thousands of Christians were massacred, spurred the Ottomans to expand their centralization efforts in Syria. Prior to 1860, the Hauran had been largely excluded from the Tanzimat centralization reforms. In January 1861, the provincial governor, Fu'ad Pasha. attempted to integrate and reorganize the region. There followed other largely unsuccessful attempts by four successive Ottoman governors. At the time, the Hauran's leadership consisted of the chiefs of the largely pacified clans of the plains, such as Al Miqdad and Al Hariri; the more rebellious chiefs of the Druze clans of Jabal Hauran, such as Al Hamdan and Bani al-Atrash; and the chiefs of the Bedouin tribes of Rwala, Wuld Ali, Sirhan and Sardiyah, whose herds seasonally grazed the Hauran plains.\n\nThe centralization efforts, backed by the Damascene aghawat, faced stiff resistance. They were opposed by both the Druze of Ismail al-Atrash and a coalition he formed, that included the Bedouin and many of the Haurani plainsmen. This coalition was defeated in 1862 and the government came to terms with al-Atrash, entrusting him to collect taxes from the entire Hauran and to pay heavy fines in place of conscription. Though this did not translate into the ultimate goal of integrating the Hauran, and the Bedouin continued their rebellions in 1863–1864, it still ended the region's virtual autonomy.\n\nNot until the appointment of Rashid Pasha did centralization efforts take hold. Rashid sought to change the general view in the Hauran that the government was an alien power that was only intent on collecting taxes and conscripting its youth. He accomplished this change by according the chiefs of Wuld Ali and Rwala adequate grazing lands; granting the leaders of the plainsmen and the Druze certain privileges and state functions; and replacing the aghawat as the state's intermediaries with the locals, whilst still utilizing them for military campaigns in Transjordan and facilitating the Hajj caravan. Tax concessions were also granted, but an Ottoman military presence was retained, as Rashid Pasha viewed it as a stabilising force. As part of the Hauran's reorganization, a new administrative district, the Hauran Sanjak, was formed, which included Jabal Hauran, the Nuqrah and Jaydur plains, the Golan plateau, the hilly Balqa plain and Jabal Ajlun.\n\nRashid Pasha also pressed wealthier Syrians to take advantage of the 1858 Land Code and auctioned massive tracts of state land. From 1869, many Damascene merchants and landowners and entrepreneurial Haurani farmers invested in these lands, which increased agricultural production. With these investments came a reinforced military presence and a consequent reduction in Bedouin raids. These combined factors caused the peasantry to “feel themselves more protected and risk further settlement\", according to German archaeologist Gottlieb Schumacher.\n\nInto the 1870s and 1880s, the peasants of the Hauran, including the Druze, persisted in their agitation against the central government, European commercial interests and their own leaders. However, increased security in the plains as well as an end to Bedouin tribute collection were both largely secured and continued into the 20th century. To illustrate the extent of the Hauran's cultivation in the mid-1890s, Schumacher noted that \"no hectare of good land was without its owner\". The central plain had become entirely cultivated or settled, Daraa and Bosra grew significantly and many of the hamlets established or reestablished in the 1850s had become large villages. In 1891-95, Zionist organisations, helped by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, acquired 100,000 dunams of land in Saham al-Jawlan and established there a Jewish village, but in 1896 the authorities evicted the non-Ottoman Jewish families. In 1904, the annual Hajj caravan and Muzayrib's role in it was replaced by the construction of the Hejaz Railway.\n\n### French Mandatory period\n\nAt the end of World War I, the Hauran was captured and held for about two years by the Arab army of Emir Faisal, until French forces occupied Damascus in July 1920 to enforce French Mandatory rule in Syria. A revolt broke out in the Hauran in response to the French occupation. Following the crushing of the Great Syrian Revolt, which began in the Hauran, the area experienced increased prosperity and security, as its inhabitants were now protected from incursions by Bedouin tribes.\n\nUnder French Mandatory rule, the Hauran plains formed an eponymous district within the State of Damascus, while the Jabal Hauran formed the Jabal Druze State. Its total population was 83,000 and included 110 villages. Its principal population centers were the small towns of Daraa, Bosra, Izra and Nawa. The district was subdivided into two qadaat (subdistricts), the southern one centered in Daraa and the northern one in Izra.\n\n### Post-Syrian independence period\n\nIn the period following Syria's independence from France in 1946, the Hauran developed into \"a busy and prosperous region\", according to the historian Dominique Sourdel. It remained a significant source of the country's grain and point of transit between Syria and Jordan. It was often a place where Bedouin came to trade their wool and butter for other commodities. However, following World War II, the Hauran also lost much of its importance within Syria's national economy. Though it continues to supply grain to Damascus, its role as the 'granary of Syria' was eclipsed by the country's northern and northeastern regions. Grain production in the Hauran has been limited by dependence on rain and underground reservoirs. Moreover, the region's economic potential has been curtailed by the creation of international borders and the Arab–Israeli conflict, which have separated it from previously interdependent areas that are located today in Israel, Lebanon and Jordan. In particular, the dual loss of Palestine as an alternative market to Damascus, and of Haifa as the Hauran's main economic outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, have also contributed to its economic decline.\n\nUnlike other rural regions in Syria, most land in the Hauran was not concentrated in the hands of large owners, being owned instead by small or medium-sized proprietors. Thus, the region was not as affected by the Agrarian Reform Law passed in 1958 during the United Arab Republic period (1958–1961) and enforced by the Ba'ath Party government in 1963, which effected land redistribution and mostly targeted large landowners. According to historian Hanna Batatu, parts of the Hauran, such as the area within and around Bosra, were practically self-governing during the presidency of Hafez al-Assad (1970–2000). Politically, many of the clans that dominated local politics under the French continued to do so under the Ba'ath. Economically and socially, however, the higher levels of leadership within the clans declined and lower-ranking members gradually became more influential.\n\nDuring the presidency of Bashar al-Assad (2000–present), the Hauran has remained an important agricultural region. Its principal city, Daraa, is a major transit hub for commercial traffic between Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, as well as for smuggled goods between these countries.\n\n#### Syrian Civil War\n\nThe Syrian Civil War was sparked in the Hauran town of Daraa on 6 March 2011 when anti-government demonstrations were organized in response to the detention and alleged torture of a group of teenagers by the local branch of the security forces. As the revolt spread in the Hauran, anti-government forces utilized their clan networks that extended to Jordan and Arab states of the Persian Gulf, smuggling funds and weapons to sustain the rebellion. According to historian Nicholas Heras, \"the major tribes of Dar\\`a are reported to share common grievances... ...against the al-Assad government in Dar\\`a\". During the course of the war, they formed loosely-coordinated rebel militias, fighting under the banner of the Free Syrian Army-affiliated Southern Front, which claimed it had the allegiance of some fifty armed groups with a collective strength of 30,000 fighters. Anti-government Salafist armed groups, such as the Nusra Front, also gained increasing influence, at times either challenging or cooperating with the Southern Front.\n\nUntil 2018, rebel groups controlled large areas on either side of the main north-south Damascus-Daraa highway and the Nasib border crossing, though the Syrian Army (SAA) and its affiliates controlled the highway corridor itself. Meanwhile, the pro-government Druze Muwahhidin Army largely stayed out of the fighting and secured Jabal al-Druze. In June 2018, the Syrian government launched an offensive to recapture the rebel-held areas of the Daraa and Quneitra governorates. By the end of the following month, the entire Hauran was under government control, including a pocket of territory in the Yarmouk basin that had previously been held by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Although some rebels and their families opted to relocate to rebel-held Idlib, most rebel factions surrendered in reconciliation deals with the government and remained in their hometowns. A number of rebel groups also joined the Syrian Army offensive against ISIL.\n\n## Demography\n\n### Religion\n\nThe population of the Hauran region is religiously heterogeneous. The largely agrarian Sunni Muslim Arabs form a majority in the Hauran plain in Syria and Jordan and are known as Ḥawarna (singular: Ḥawrānī). In addition to the indigenous Ḥawarna, the plains are also populated by communities of former Bedouin tribes who gradually became settled, and Circassians who arrived over fifty years prior to the end of the 19th century.\n\nThe Druze form a majority in the Jabal Hauran, which is part of the al-Suwayda Governorate. There is a significant Christian population, both Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic (Melkite), in the Hauran region as a whole, though most Christians are concentrated in the towns and villages straddling the western foothills of Jabal Hauran. A sizable Twelver Shia Muslim community, whose origins are from the Lebanese city of Nabatieh, make up about 40% of Bosra's population.\n\n### Clan structure and geographic distribution\n\nThe social structure of the Hauran plain is characterized by networks of large extended agrarian clans, such as the Hariri, Zu'bi, Miqdad, Abu Zeid, Mahamid, Masalma and Jawabra. The Zu'bi are the largest clan, inhabiting some sixteen villages in the Daraa and Izra districts. They also have an extensive presence across the border in the Irbid Governorate, particularly in the cities of al-Ramtha and Irbid. They form the predominant group in the city of Daraa and many of its surrounding villages. Altogether, they number some 160,000 members in southern Syria and northern Jordan.\n\nThe second largest clan are the Hariri, who generally inhabit eighteen villages, including many that are inhabited by the Zu'bi. They are mostly concentrated just north of Daraa in Abtaa, Da'el, and al-Shaykh Maskin. The Miqdad are predominant in many of the villages southwest of Daraa. They are also the largest clan in the city of Bosra, but are predated there by the smaller al-Hamd clan. The tribesmen of Nu'aym (or Na'imeh) are predominant in the towns of al-Shaykh Maskin, Jasim and Nawa in the Izra District, the villages of north-central al-Sanamayn District and in the Quneitra Governorate. Smaller clans such as the Rifa'i are concentrated in Ataman and Nasib, while the Masalma, Mahamid and Abu Zeid are concentrated in Daraa city.\n\nAmong the settled Bedouin are many Anizah tribesmen who made Daraa their home alongside the city's established agrarian clans. In addition, members of the Shammar Arab tribe from northeastern Syria have migrated to the city, mainly for economic reasons.\n\nLike the agrarian Sunni clans of the plains, the Druze in Jabal Hauran were traditionally organized in a hierarchical clan order that saw a disparity in the distribution of social influence and prestige. The Bani al-Atrash are the leading clan and predominate in some sixteen towns and villages, mostly in the southern parts of Jabal Hauran. In the northern parts, the Bani 'Amer predominate in eleven villages, while the other major clan in the northern Jabal Hauran was the Halabiya family. Though the Bani al-Atrash and Bani ‘Amer were the more powerful clans in the governorate, members of the Banu Assaf of Attil, Salim and Walghah and Bani Abu Ras of al-Ruha historically dominated the judiciary, while the Hajari, Hinnawi and Jarbu families historically provided the Druze community's religious leadership in Qanawat.\n\n## Architecture\n\nThe Hauran has its own vernacular architectural tradition, known as the Hawrani style, which is characterized by a number of distinctive factors. One of these is the exclusive use of basaltic stone for building material. Known for its hardness and black color, basalt is readily available throughout the region and until recent decades, was used for nearly all construction work done in the Hauran. Due to a lack of timber, basalt took the usual place of wood and was used for doors, window seals and ceilings. The reliance upon basalt in the Hauran \"formed a truly lithic architecture“, according to the architectural anthropologist Fleming Aalund.\n\nThe tensile strength of basalt enabled the \"development of unusual building techniques\", according to historian Warwick Ball. Among these methods was the cutting of long, narrow beams from basalt to roof large areas spanning 10 meters (33 ft) or longer. Because of the size restrictions of the beams, a distinctive system of traverse, semi-circular arches was devised to support the roof. Corbels, typically no longer than 4 meters (13 ft), were used to expand the intervals between the arches and the walls. This method \"gave rise to the distinctive, cantilevered 'slab and lintel' architectural style that is peculiar to the black basalt areas of the Hauran\", according to Ball.\n\nThe fusion of Nabatean, Hellenistic and Roman styles also characterizes the architecture of the region. Hawrani-style architecture is dated to at least the 1st century CE, when the Nabateans moved their capital from Petra to Bosra. The Nabateans were avid builders who had their own distinctive architectural tradition. After the Romans annexed the Kingdom of the Nabateans in 106, the area experienced a building boom that lasted until the onset of strife and instability in the mid-3rd century. Though the Romans greatly influenced the region's architecture, the Hauran's Nabatean inhabitants largely maintained their own building traditions, particularly in the smaller towns.\n\nThe architecture of the Byzantine era was influenced by the spread of Christianity and the consequent construction of churches and monasteries, the majority dating between the 4th century and early 6th century. Surveys of the region indicated that a long period of uninterrupted building activity took place in the Hauran between the Nabatean period in the 1st century to the Umayyad period in the 7th century. The region's pre-Islamic architectural tradition became the basis for later Islamic buildings in the Hauran, particularly in Bosra in the 12th–14th centuries. However, the Muslim patrons of these works also introduced outside elements, mostly inspired by Damascene architecture, to give their projects their own stately character.\n\n### Archaeology\n\nThe Hauran is distinguished by the large-scale preservation of its ancient structures. This preservation extends to public and religious buildings, but also to simpler structures, such as village dwellings. The durability of basalt is generally credited with their well-preserved state. As a result, there are some 300 towns and villages in the Hauran containing ancient structures, almost as high a concentration as the Dead Cities of northwestern Syria. In the words of 20th-century archaeologist Howard Crosby Butler,\n\n> There is no other country in the world where the architectural monuments of antiquity have been preserved in such large numbers, in such perfection, and in so many varieties as in North Central Syria [the Dead Cities] and in the Hauran. There are many places where the minor details of buildings, such as wall-paintings and mosaics, are in a better state of preservation; but there is no [other] region where numbers of towns of undoubted antiquity stand unburied, and still preserving their public and private buildings and their tombs in such a condition that, in many cases, they could be restored, with a small outlay, to their original state.\n\nWhen Classical-era sites were largely resettled in the late Ottoman era, many of the Hauran's ancient monuments were converted into houses.\n\n### Surveys\n\nThe earliest surveys of the Hauran's archaeological sites were taken in the 19th century by the French archaeologist Melchior de Vogüé between 1865 and 1877, S. Merrill in 1881 and Gottlieb Schumacher in 1886 and 1888. The most thorough and abundant documentation was recorded in surveys carried out by Butler and his team from Princeton University in 1903 and 1909 and then published periodically between 1909 and 1929. In 1913, Butler also surveyed Umm al-Jimal, which contained numerous ruins, some as high as three storeys high. The period in which these surveys were carried out coincided with the Hauran's mass resettlement. This resulted in the partial damage of some sites due to their occupation as homes or as a source of masonry for new buildings, a process which continuously increased in later years.\n\nRenewed interest in the Hauran's ancient sites began in the 1970s. Umm al-Jimal was surveyed between 1972 and 1981 by the American archaeologist Bert de Vries and reports from that expedition were published in 1998. Surveys of the Hauran plain in Syria were carried out by French expeditionary teams led by François Villeneuve in 1985 and Jean-Marie Dentzer in 1986. Early photographs of Hauran's archaeological sites, taken in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the German explorer and photographer Hermann Burchardt, are now held at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin.", "revid": "1172087632", "description": "Region in Syria and Jordan", "categories": ["Hebrew Bible places", "Historical regions of Jordan", "Landforms of Jordan", "Landforms of Syria", "Lava plateaus", "Regions of Syria"]}
{"id": "55358735", "url": null, "title": "Star Trek: Discovery (season 1)", "text": "The first season of the American television series Star Trek: Discovery is set a decade before Star Trek: The Original Series in the 23rd century and follows the crew of the starship Discovery during the Federation–Klingon war. The season was produced by CBS Television Studios in association with Secret Hideout, Roddenberry Entertainment, and Living Dead Guy Productions, with Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts serving as showrunners, and Akiva Goldsman providing producing support.\n\nSonequa Martin-Green stars as Michael Burnham, first officer of the USS Shenzhou and later the Discovery, along with Doug Jones, Shazad Latif, Anthony Rapp, Mary Wiseman, and Jason Isaacs. The series was announced in November 2015, and Bryan Fuller joined as showrunner the next February. He brought on Berg and Harberts to support him, and they took over as showrunners when Fuller left the series in October 2016 following creative disagreements with CBS. The season's war storyline was intended to represent the divide between different political factions of the modern United States, with effort put into redesigning the Klingon species and developing their culture and biology. Filming took place in Toronto, Canada, from January to October 2017, with additional filming on location in Jordan for the series premiere. The crew, including the visual effects team—led by Pixomondo—and composer Jeff Russo, aimed for the series' production values to match that of a feature film. The season features several guest stars taking on roles from The Original Series.\n\nThe first episode was broadcast on CBS and released on the streaming service CBS All Access on September 24, 2017. The rest of the 15-episode season was released weekly on All Access in two chapters: the first ended on November 12, and the second was released from January 7 to February 11, 2018. The season led to record subscriptions for All Access, and generally positive reviews from critics who highlighted Martin-Green's performance, the production values, and new additions to Star Trek canon. Some criticized the writing. The season was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards and received several other awards and nominations. A second season was ordered in October 2017.\n\n## Episodes\n\nIn March 2018, a \"secret scene\" was released depicting an alternative ending to the season finale, in which Mirror Georgiou is approached by an operative of Section 31. This storyline is further explored in the second season.\n\n## Cast and characters\n\n### Main\n\n- Sonequa Martin-Green as Michael Burnham\n- Doug Jones as Saru\n- Shazad Latif as Voq / Ash Tyler\n- Anthony Rapp as Paul Stamets\n- Mary Wiseman as Sylvia Tilly\n- Jason Isaacs as Gabriel Lorca\n\n### Recurring\n\n- Michelle Yeoh as Philippa Georgiou\n- Mary Chieffo as L'Rell\n- James Frain as Sarek\n- Kenneth Mitchell as Kol\n- Jayne Brook as Katrina Cornwell\n- Wilson Cruz as Hugh Culber\n\n### Notable guests\n\n- Mia Kirshner as Amanda Grayson\n- Rainn Wilson as Harry Mudd\n- Katherine Barrell as Stella Mudd\n- Clint Howard as an Orion drug dealer\n\n## Production\n\n### Development\n\nOn November 2, 2015, CBS announced that a new Star Trek television series would premiere in January 2017, \"on the heels\" of Star Trek: The Original Series' 50th anniversary in 2016. The series would be developed specifically for the streaming service CBS All Access. Bryan Fuller was hired to be showrunner and executive producer in February 2016, as well as co-creator with Alex Kurtzman. Fuller began his career writing for the series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager, and had publicly called for Star Trek to return to television for years after the end of the previous series, Star Trek: Enterprise, in 2005. When Fuller first met with CBS about the series, the company did not have a plan for what the show would be. He proposed an anthology series where each season would be a standalone, serialized show set in a different era, beginning with a prequel to the original series. CBS told Fuller to start with a single serialized show and see how that performs first, and so he began further developing the prequel concept. In June, Fuller announced that the first season would consist of 13 episodes, and a month later, at Star Trek's 50th anniversary San Diego Comic-Con panel, he revealed the series' title to be Star Trek: Discovery. He also said it would be set in the \"Prime Timeline\" alongside the previous Star Trek series, rather than in the alternate \"Kelvin Timeline\" that the concurrent Star Trek film series was set in.\n\nAt the end of July, CBS hired David Semel, a veteran television procedural director who was under an overall deal with the studio, to direct the first episode for Discovery. Fuller did not approve of this decision, believing that Semel was \"wrong for the job\" and wanting a more visionary director to establish the style of the series. Fuller had personally reached out to Edgar Wright to direct the first episode before CBS hired Semel. As development and pre-production on the series continued, Fuller and Semel \"clashed\" on the direction of the show. The series was also starting to overrun its per-episode budget. Fuller was attempting to design new sets, costumes, and aliens for the series while heading the series' writers room and also spending considerable time addressing his commitments as showrunner of another new series, American Gods. This caused frustration among CBS executives that were pushing for a January 2017 debut. By August 2016, Fuller had hired Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts, who he had worked with on his earlier series Pushing Daisies, to serve as co-showrunners with him on Discovery. A month later, Fuller and Kurtzman asked CBS to delay the series' release so they could realistically meet the high expectations for the series, and the studio announced that the series premiere had been pushed back to May 2017. The pair said in a statement that \"these extra few months will help us achieve a vision we can all be proud of.\"\n\nA few weeks after the delay was announced, Fuller met with Sonequa Martin-Green about portraying the series' lead, a character that had been surprisingly difficult for the production to cast. Fuller felt he had \"found the crucial piece of the puzzle\", but the actress would not be released from her contract at AMC until her character's death on The Walking Dead was publicly revealed. This episode was not set to air until April 2017, meaning Discovery would have to be delayed again if Martin-Green was cast in the series. At the end of October, CBS asked Fuller to step down as showrunner. They announced that the production was being restructured to keep Fuller actively involved with the series, but not on a day-to-day production level as he shifted his focus fully to American Gods: Berg and Harberts were made sole showrunners of Discovery, working off a broad story arc and overall mythology established by Fuller; Kurtzman and Fuller would continue as executive producers, with Fuller still helping the writers break stories; and Akiva Goldsman would join the series as a supporting producer—similar to the role he held on Fringe alongside Kurtzman—to help the showrunners and other producers \"juggle the demands of the series\". In a statement, CBS reiterated that they were \"extremely happy with [Fuller's] creative direction\" for the series, and were committed to \"seeing this vision through\". However, some elements of the series that came directly from Fuller were soon dropped, including some \"more heavily allegorical and complex story\" points and some of his design plans. Fuller later confirmed that he was no longer involved in the series at all, which he said was \"bittersweet ... I can only give them the material I've given them and hope that it is helpful for them.\" By the end of the year, Martin-Green had indeed been cast as the series' lead, and in May 2017, the episode order was expanded to 15. That June, CBS announced a new premiere date of September 24. The season was divided into two chapters, with an airing break after the ninth episode to allow time for post-production on episodes in the second half of the season to be completed.\n\n### Writing\n\nFuller wanted to differentiate the series from the previous 700+ episodes of Star Trek by taking advantage of the streaming format of All Access and telling a single story arc across the entire first season. He and the writers had completely planned this arc by the end of June 2016. Fuller said the original series episode \"Balance of Terror\", one of his favorites, would be a \"touchstone\" for the season's story direction. In August, Fuller teased that the story arc revolved around \"an event in Star Trek history that's been talked about but never been explored\", 10 years before the events of the original series. This was later revealed to be the Federation-Klingon cold war. Goldsman explained that this story would be told over the course of the first season and end with the creation of the Neutral Zone, allowing a new story to be told in potential future seasons. He described the events explored by the season as \"sufficiently inexact [in previous Star Trek stories] that we can now fill in how we got there.\" He acknowledged that this time period has been widely covered by previous Star Trek novels, and explained that the series' writers considered these novels to be non-canon.\n\nThe writers felt that a traditional series might have begun with the series' protagonist, Michael Burnham, boarding the USS Discovery and then revealed her backstory through flashbacks. For Star Trek: Discovery, they wanted to take a different approach and begin with a prologue that explored Burnham's initial actions and her relationship to Captain Philippa Georgiou. Feeling that at least \"two hours\" were needed to convey this, the first two episodes of the season (released as a two-part premiere) cover this prologue, with the season's main story beginning with the third episode. The third episode was considered to be the series' equivalent of a pilot episode, and begins six months after the second. This time jump was inspired by film sequels that begin with significant events having transpired since the previous instalment such as Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). The third episode reveals that the season's story involves the development of a new form of space travel that could win the war for the Federation. When it was noted that this form of travel is not known in the previous Star Trek series (set later in the timeline), actor Jason Isaacs stated that the writers were aware of this, and were \"very clear, in not a cop-out way, to both incorporate this stuff which is exciting and very visual, to make sure that it didn't rankle canon.\" The season's story is split into two \"micro-arcs\", covering the first nine episodes and then the rest of the season, with a break in airing between the two. It finishes with the end of the war, which comes down to an agreement between two characters. These negotiations are made entirely by female characters, which was an intentional choice that Kurtzman felt was justified by the Me Too movement. The writers felt this was true to the spirit of Star Trek, and allowed them to move beyond the war storyline that Fuller had established for the show. The second season is then set-up with the appearance of the USS Enterprise from previous Star Trek media. Harberts explained that the writers knew they would have to acknowledge the existence of the Enterprise at some point due to the series' place in the timeline, and after Fuller left they decided to just \"tell this story now\" with the second season.\n\nBecause of the season's focus on Klingons and their culture, the producers decided that members of the species would speak their own language with subtitles throughout the show. Berg said this was \"very important for us ... They have their own pride. They have their own interests and talent.\" Klingons historically represented the Soviet Union, and were portrayed as becoming friendlier with the protagonists of Star Trek as the real Cold War ended. For Discovery, the Klingons and Starfleet are intended to represent different factions within the modern United States, with Harberts explaining that the writers wanted to introduce two different points of view and explore their differences. He said the season is ultimately about \"finding a way to come together\". Berg added that one of the main themes being explored for the season was the \"universal\" lesson of \"you think you know 'the other,' but you really don't\". The showrunners stated that where previous Star Trek series revolved around the relationships between central male characters, Discovery focuses more on female characters. They described a \"friendship structure\" that goes from Captain Georgiou to First Officer Burnham to Cadet Tilly. They also explained that the two main Starfleet captains in the series, Georgiou and Lorca, are \"metaphors for how people and institutions act in times of conflict\", with Georgiou responding to war as would be expected of a traditional Starfleet officer, but Lorca representing a more \"complicated version of a Starfleet captain who can almost only exist during a time of war\".\n\n### Casting\n\nIn addition to Martin-Green as protagonist Michael Burnham, the season's main cast includes Doug Jones as Saru, an alien lieutenant commander; Shazad Latif as Ash Tyler, a former prisoner of war; Anthony Rapp as Paul Stamets, an astromycologist; Mary Wiseman as Sylvia Tilly, a cadet; and Jason Isaacs as Gabriel Lorca, captain of the USS Discovery. Isaacs was just cast for one season. Not all of the show's characters are introduced in the first episode as would be done in a traditional television series, with the writers taking advantage of the serialized format to take their time introducing each character over several episodes. Tyler is eventually revealed to actually be the Klingon Voq disguised as a human. Voq was initially credited as being portrayed by the actor \"Javid Iqbal\", who was invented for the ruse to hide the fact that Latif was portraying both Voq and Tyler. The name Javid Iqbal comes from Latif's father.\n\nIn November 2016, series' writer and consulting producer Nicholas Meyer mentioned that Michelle Yeoh had been cast in Discovery, and she was soon confirmed to be portraying Captain Georgiou of the USS Shenzhou. A month later, Mary Chieffo was cast as the Klingon L'Rell. In April 2017, Kenneth Mitchell was cast as Kol, who Latif was originally cast as before he was recast as Voq. That July, Rapp revealed that Wilson Cruz, whom Rapp had previously worked with on the musical Rent, would portray Stamets' love interest Hugh Culber. Jayne Brook also has a recurring role in the season, as Admiral Katrina Cornwell. Additionally appearing throughout the season in \"co-starring\" roles are Emily Coutts as Keyla Detmer, Ali Momen as Kamran Gant, Chris Violette as Britch Weeton, Romain Waite as Troy Januzzi, Sara Mitich as Airiam, Oyin Oladejo as Joann Owosekun, Ronnie Rowe Jr. as R.A. Bryce, Conrad Coates as Terral, and Patrick Kwok-Choon as Rhys. Tasia Valenza and Julianne Grossman provided the computer voices for the Shenzhou and the Discovery, respectively.\n\nFuller said in August 2016 that the series would eventually include characters from previous Star Trek media, but he wanted to establish its own characters in the first season. He did express interest in including the character Amanda Grayson from The Original Series, saying, \"there's much to be told about that\". She was later confirmed to be appearing in the season due to Burnham having been adopted by Grayson and her husband Sarek in Discovery's backstory. James Frain was cast as Sarek by January 2017. Rainn Wilson was cast as another original series character, Harry Mudd, that March. In September, Harberts revealed that Mia Kirshner had been cast as Grayson. Katherine Barrell portrays Mudd's wife Stella. Clint Howard, who appeared in several previous Star Trek series, has a role in the season finale as an Orion drug dealer. The role was written specifically for Howard, who is friends with Goldsman.\n\n### Design\n\n#### Sets and starships\n\nMark Worthington and Todd Cherniawsky served as initial production designers for the series, with Tamara Deverell taking over around the sixth episode. She was the first female production designer for the Star Trek franchise. After CBS told the writers to add an excursion to a planet for an upcoming episode, which became the visit to Pahvo, Deverell had 10 minutes to pitch a design for the new sets. She came up with the idea of a yurt consisting of membranes, based on a mathematical structure, which was added to a forest using visual effects. For the second half of the season, Deverell had to redesign the Mirror Universe, a classic location from previous series. Deverell said the previous depictions had \"just slapped a logo on the wall\" to represent the Mirror Universe's Terran Empire, but for this series her team created a multi-dimensional version of the Terran Empire logo and then augmented sets with new mirrors to further distance them from the Prime Universe sets. For the flagship spaceship of the Terran Empire, the ISS Charon, Deverell used a \"monolithic, Brutalist, concrete form\" for her designs.\n\nThe design of the USS Discovery is based on an unused Ralph McQuarrie design for the USS Enterprise from the unproduced film Star Trek: Planet of the Titans. The USS Shenzhou was designed to look older than the Discovery, and was compared more to a submarine from The Hunt for Red October (1990) than previous Star Trek spaceships. The Shenzhou is a Walker-class starship, a new designation created for the series that is named for test pilot Joe Walker. Sets for the Shenzhou and the Discovery's interiors were built for the series, described as a \"tangle of corridors and rooms\". Because the bridge of the Shenzhou is on the bottom of that ship, the set for that room was built 12 feet (3.7 m) off the ground and upside down, and became a challenge for the crew to work in. In some cases, such as the transporter rooms and corridors, the same sets were used for both ships. These were dressed differently, with alternate lighting, graphics, and paint. The \"turn over\" process from depicting on ship to another within a set took up to a week.\n\n#### Costumes\n\nFabric for the Starfleet uniforms seen in the series were custom-dyed in Switzerland; the costumes were cut and assembled in Toronto by costume designer Gersha Phillips and her department. For officers in combat situations or hazardous away missions, jumpsuit-versions of the main uniform were paired with armored vests. Also designed for the series was a Starfleet long haul space suit, which was built in the United Kingdom from sections of high-density foam that were then covered in fiberglass. Phillips designed traditional Vulcan robes for Sarek which were meant to reflect his devotion to logic and \"serious intellectual pursuits\". Vulcan pendants celebrating \"Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations\" were 3D printed and hand painted. For Harry Mudd's costume, primarily made of leather, Phillips was inspired by Adam Ant.\n\n#### Klingons\n\nFuller had \"really, really wanted\" to redesign the Klingons, which he felt had inconsistent designs throughout the franchise's history. He wanted to portray the race as \"sexy and vital and different\" rather than \"the thugs of the universe\", and spent months working with prosthetics designer Neville Page and production designer Mark Worthington on the new look. Page was aware that changing the look of the Klingons would be controversial with Star Trek fans. The idea was to bring a fresh take to the Klingon race by creating a \"high level of sophisticated detail—for a race that had long been perceived as brutal, one-minded, and simplistic\".\n\nPage first designed a generic, \"realistic\" Klingon skull, inspired by real biology, and then developed the different Klingons from that base in an evolution-based approach. The skull design includes spaces for \"extra sensory receptors\" running from the top of the head to the back, as Page wanted to show the Klingons to be apex predators with heightened senses. To not cover these receptors, the Klingons are depicted as being bald in the series, which is a design decision that was mandated by Fuller. It was important to the producers to show diversity within the Klingons, so the series depicts both light and dark skinned members of the species, and features different clothing, weapon, and armor designs for each of the 24 Klingon houses. Glenn Hetrick, co-founder of Alchemy Studios with Page, explained that the Klingon Empire covers many planets beyond the homeworld of Qo'noS and so different subsets of the species would have evolved on those different planets, each with different environments and cultures.\n\nHetrick and Page created armor and weapons with 3D printing and aluminum casts made from hand carved moulds. Some props, such as helmets, were designed to be augmented with visual effects. Weapons like Klingon ceremonial blades and gun-like disruptors were reimagined versions of previous props from franchise, especially Star Trek: The Next Generation. The overall design for Klingon weapons, helmets, and armor was based on the culture notes created for the species in the original series, which included influences from Middle Eastern, Mongolian, and Byzantine culture. Several motifs recur throughout the designs for the Klingons' weapons and armor, including their skulls and vertebrae, images of Klingons \"poised to thrust themselves into the honor of battle\", and images of Klingons sacrificing themselves in battle. The latter is similar to the emblem of the Klingon Empire.\n\nPhillips and Suttirat Anne Larlarb created the clothing worn by the Klingon T'Kuvma and his followers, inspired more by \"ancient Klingon ways\" than the costumes seen previously in Star Trek. T'Kuvma wears a tunic created from three different types of leather and a chest plate made with 3D printed beads, decorated with Swarovski crystals. Costumes for his followers were created with individually stained, painted, modelled, and hand-pressed pieces of leather. Each suit took ten costumers 110 hours to complete. Different colored leather was used to differentiate males and females. A notable set of armor created for the season is the Torchbearer armor, which is worn in a ritual to unite the Klingon houses. It was made from 100 individually 3D printed pieces. When first describing the Torchbearer armor, Fuller referred to baroque and samurai styles. Kol, a member of the house of Kor that appeared in the original series, wears more leather and a different set of armor that is closer to those worn previously by Klingons in the franchise. US\\$3 million was spent on a \"massive\" ship set for T'Kuvma's house, known as the \"Klingon sarcophagus ship\", which was designed to look like an alien cathedral. The outside of the ship is covered in coffins ranging from days old to hundreds of years old. The set was 40 feet (12 m) tall, 100 feet (30 m) long, and 50 feet (15 m) wide, and included multiple levels, mezzanines, and cantilevers. The set also included Klingon text and glyphs inspired by the novel The Final Reflection, which helped develop Klingon culture and language. Other details that were taken from the novel include the strategy game Klin zha and Klingon bloodwine cups. Research was done on how written languages evolve to accurately depict the ancient form of Klingon written on the ship. Instead of physical displays like Starfleet's ships, the sarcophagus ship uses holographic displays created with visual effects.\n\nThe Klingon homeworld of Qo'noS is visited in the season finale, though the town depicted is an Orion outpost. The production team attempted to reuse existing sets given any new sets would potentially not be reused. The graveyard chamber from the sarcophagus ship set was turned into an Orion sex cabaret, with other sets including a Klingon drinking tent and street stalls. The Orion elements were inspired by Indian architecture, with fabrics from Morocco and other \"far east\" countries, as these were the inspirations for the original Orion designs in previous Star Trek series. Deverell described the sets as \"lush like a bordello in the 1800s. We were allowed to go crazy.\"\n\n### Filming\n\nFilming for the season began at Pinewood Toronto Studios on January 24, 2017, with cinematographers including Guillermo Navarro, working on the pilot, and Colin Hoult. Set construction had initially been set to begin within a month of June 2016, for a filming period of that September to around March 2017, but by that September, production was not expected to begin until November. After Fuller stepped down as showrunner, set construction was expected to be completed by the end of 2016, with filming to begin \"shortly thereafter\". By mid-May 2017, filming for scenes set on an unidentified planet had taken place on location in Jordan. Some of the series' sets took over six weeks to create, and new sets were being built up until the end of production on the season. Some episodes for the season were restricted to a few existing sets, making them bottle episodes, though Harberts said the series would not do anything \"as bottle-y as 'everyone is stuck in the mess hall!'\" Additional location shooting took place around Ontario, Canada, including at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto which stood in for the Vulcan Science Academy, and in the Hilton Falls and Kelso Conservation Areas for the forest planet Pahvo. Filming for the season concluded on October 11, 2017.\n\nFor the visual scope of the series, Kurtzman felt that the show had to \"justify being on a premium cable service\". The showrunners were particularly inspired by Star Trek: The Motion Picture and its \"wider scope\", with Harberts explaining that the first season was shot in a 2:1 aspect ratio which \"just lends itself to a very lyrical way of telling the story.\" He added that some of the series' visuals were influenced by the modern Star Trek films from J. J. Abrams. Some of these influences, per Goldsman, are \"the ability to be creative cinematically...the intimate discourse, the humanistic storytelling with the giant canvas that is Star Trek. A more kinetic camera, a more dynamic way of existing\". The producers worked closely with pilot director David Semel to make the series look as cinematic as possible, including filming the bridge of Starfleet's ships in such a way as \"not to shoot in a sort of proscenium box...to be able to get the camera into spaces where, you know, to shoot it in interesting ways, which is a combination of choreographing a scene to motivate the camera moving, and also lighting.\" The cinematographers wanted to emphasize on-set sourcing, with lighting built in wherever it would naturally appear to help create a more realistic feel, and distance the series from the \"stage\" feel of The Original Series.\n\nRobyn Stewart, an expert in the Klingon language, and linguist Rea Nolan worked closely with the Klingon actors to ensure they could both speak and understand their lines in the language, having the actors practice while their makeup and prosthetics were being applied, which took three hours each day. They would first rehearse their lines in English, and worked to \"inhabit [the lines] emotionally\". Chieffo felt that \"it makes sense that when we are speaking to each other we are speaking in our native tongue and really adding a fluidity and nuance\", while Mitchell said, \"It's an incredibly complex language ... it feels alien. Because it is incredibly difficult and I don't speak the language it takes a lot of muscle memory to memorize each separate syllable over and over and over.\" For a sequence where L'Rell and Tyler are shown having sex, Chieffo required full-body prosthetics which took four hours to apply. Though these are only seen for around 30 seconds in the episode, Chieffo felt strongly that she film the scene rather than a body double.\n\n### Visual effects\n\nThe season has 5000 visual effects shots, which visual effects supervisor Jason Zimmerman said was similar to one feature-length film. He said the department was aiming for \"high-end\" effects, similar to those seen in films, and the number of visual effects in each episode was always driven by the story. Pixomondo was the primary visual effects vendor, with Spin VFX and Crafty Apes also working on the show. The shot that went through the most iterations during the season was a simple composite of computer screen graphics onto an on-set monitor, with 146 different iterations of the graphics tried before the final design was chosen.\n\n### Music\n\nComposer Jeff Russo wrote several themes for the series, in addition to the main title theme, but not necessarily for the different characters in the show as would often be done. Instead, Russo wanted to focus on the emotions of the characters over the story beats, for instance, \"Even when you are shooting, you're still feeling, so why not play that as opposed to 'Oh my god, he's got a gun'\". Like the rest of the series' departments, Russo's aim was to make the score feel as cinematic as possible.\n\nFor the Kasseelian Opera that Stamets talks about later in the season, Russo did not want to attempt to make a \"futuristic opera\", believing instead that \"opera is opera\" and that it should have the same style as what is heard during the present day. For the seventh episode, source music from Wyclef Jean is used which Russo compared to people in the current day listening to the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. Singer Ayana Haviv recorded arias for the opera, and in a \"moment of inspiration\" Russo asked her to sing the vocal section of the original Star Trek theme. Russo and Kurtzman responded positively to her rendition, and Russo arranged the theme for the series' 74-piece orchestra to play over the end credits of the season finale after the USS Enterprise appears. Haviv altered her voice for the final recording to match the original 1960s style of the theme.\n\nA soundtrack album for the first chapter of the season was released digitally on December 15, 2017, by Lakeshore Records. Another, for the second chapter, was released digitally on April 6, 2018. CD versions of both albums were set for release in 2018, along with a vinyl release combining selections from both chapters and titled \"Intergalactic Starburst\" Vinyl. All music composed by Jeff Russo:\n\n## Marketing\n\nWith the announcement of the series' title in July 2016 came a promotional video giving a first look at the USS Discovery. The video did not feature final designs, as the producers had put it together in three weeks to show the concepts for the series to fans. In January 2017, a YouTube video presented by Alcatel was released, using 360° technology to showcase digital models of previous Star Trek ships. The first full trailer for the series was released in May 2017. Chris Harnick of E! News said the trailer was gorgeous and cinematic, and added, because of the appearances of both Sarek and the Klingons, that \"this is the Star Trek you know and love.\" Aja Romano at Vox called the trailer's visuals \"sumptuous [and] modern, but still very much in keeping with the aesthetic of previous Trek series\". She did note that the series' plot was not conveyed in the trailer.\n\nIn July 2017, Discovery had an extensive presence at San Diego Comic-Con, including a panel featuring Martin-Green, Isaacs, Jones, Latif, Wiseman, Rapp, Frain, Kurtzman, Berg, Kadin, Harberts, and Goldsman, and moderated by Wilson. Footage from the series was screened at the panel, with a new trailer released online soon afterwards. CBS also created an immersive art experience at the Michael J. Wolf Fine Arts Gallery, featuring the USS Discovery's captain's chair and other props, costumes, and sketches from the series, as well as limited edition posters and a shop selling Comic-Con-exclusive items. Pedicabs inspired by the series gave free rides through the Gaslamp District, while a \"#TrekDiscovery Challenge\" competition saw fans have to take pictures with \"authentically costumed Trek ambassadors\", one each representing the crews of the five previous Star Trek series, as well as the captain's chair at the art gallery, and post them online with the hashtag \\#TrekDiscovery to be eligible to win a Roku streaming stick and a subscription to CBS All Access. At the convention, Gentle Giant Studios revealed that they had gained the license to create mini-busts and statues based on the series, and planned to particularly focus on the series' Klingons. At the beginning of August, an afternoon of four panels at the Star Trek Las Vegas event was dedicated to the series, featuring producers and writers, actors who were not present at Comic-Con, creature designers, and writers involved with related books and comics.\n\nBy the beginning of September, promotion was taking place around the world: Isaacs was involved in the Blackpool Illuminations festival in the UK; cast and crew promoted the series at the Fan Expo Canada; a USS Shenzhou-themed photobooth, that took pictures of fans as Klingons, was in operation at the IFA consumer electronics trade show in Berlin; and an outdoor campaign of posters and billboards was underway, including a large billboard on the roof of an LAX Airport building. The night before the premiere, a model of the USS Discovery was flown above the Hudson River on Manhattan's west side. Created by Remarkable Media, the 50 feet (15 m) skeleton rig was covered in LEDs and suspended from a Black Hawk helicopter. On October 7, panels for the series were held at both the PaleyFest television festival and at New York Comic Con.\n\n## Release\n\n### Broadcast and streaming\n\nStar Trek: Discovery premiered at the ArcLight Hollywood on September 19, 2017. The first episode aired in a \"preview broadcast\" on CBS in the United States on September 24, and was made available for free on CBS All Access along with the second episode (which required an All Access subscription). Subsequent first-run episodes, making up the first chapter of the season, were streamed weekly on All Access through November 5. The second chapter streamed from January 7 to February 11, 2018.\n\nCBS Studios International licensed the series to Bell Media for broadcast in Canada, and to Netflix for another 188 countries. In Canada, the premiere was broadcast on September 24, 2017, on both the CTV Television Network and on the specialty channels Space (English) and Z (French) before being streamed on CraveTV, with subsequent episodes just broadcast on Space and Z before streaming on CraveTV. In the other countries, Netflix released each episode of the series for streaming within 24 hours of its U.S. debut. This agreement with CBS also saw Bell and Netflix acquire all previous Star Trek series to stream in their entirety.\n\nIn August 2020, CBS announced that it would be broadcasting the full first season of Discovery beginning on September 24, 2020, alongside other older or acquired series, due to the lack of television content available to the network due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Also in September, ViacomCBS announced that CBS All Access would be expanded and rebranded as Paramount+ in March 2021. Existing episodes of the season remained on Paramount+ along with future seasons of the series. In November 2021, ViacomCBS announced that it had bought back the international streaming rights to Discovery from Netflix effective immediately. In July 2023, Bell Media announced that the series would be leaving Crave (CraveTV) over the following month. It would continue to be broadcast on CTV Sci-Fi (Space) and past seasons would remain available on CTV.ca and the CTV app.\n\n### Broadcast breach\n\nAfter reviewing the episode \"Choose Your Pain\", Space chose to air it uncensored despite its use of the word \"fuck\" and depictions of violence. The Canadian Broadcast Standards Council received an official complaint about this given the channel aired the episode before 9 pm, since series intended for adult audiences should be shown after that time according to the Canadian Association of Broadcasters' Code of Ethics and Violence Code. The complainant, the council, and Space itself acknowledged that the use of the word was unexpected given the franchise's \"51 year track record of being fairly clean with regards to its content.\" The Council found Space to have breached the regulations in not censoring the episode or scheduling it post-watershed, and required the channel to air an announcement stating as such twice during the week following April 19, 2018. At the time, Bell Media accepted the decision and agreed to comply with the ruling, but did not indicate any intention to change their approach to broadcasting future seasons of the series.\n\n### Home media\n\nThe season was released on DVD and Blu-Ray formats in the U.S. on November 13, 2018. The release included two hours of bonus features, including deleted and extended scenes, and behind-the-scenes featurettes. On November 2, 2021, a home media box set collecting the first three seasons of Discovery was released, with more than eight hours of special features including behind-the-scenes featurettes, deleted and extended scenes, audio commentaries, and gag reels.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Ratings and viewership\n\nAccording to Nielsen Media Research, the CBS broadcast of the first episode was watched by a \"decent\" audience of 9.5 million viewers. The premiere of the series led to record subscriptions for All Access, with the service attributing its biggest day, week, and month of signups to the debut of Star Trek: Discovery. According to \"app analytics specialist\" App Annie, the premiere of the series caused the number of downloads of the All Access mobile app to more than double. Following a 7-day trial period for new subscribers, revenue from the app for CBS doubled on October 1 compared to the average in-app revenue during the previous 30 days.\n\n### Critical response\n\nThe review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 82% approval rating for the first season, with an average rating of 7/10 based on 371 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Although it takes an episode to achieve liftoff, Star Trek: Discovery delivers a solid franchise instalment for the next generation—boldly led by the charismatic Sonequa Martin-Green.\" The average rating for each of the season's individual episodes is 89%. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 72 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\n\nMatt Zoller Seitz of Vulture praised the series' premiere, feeling it \"stands tall alongside the best-regarded incarnations of the Trek franchise... with an almost entirely new slate of characters... and casts them with actors you can't help but like\". Writing for Vox, Emily VanDerWerff noted \"the best thing about Discovery is that Michael Burnham, played beautifully by Martin-Green, does stuff. She gets in trouble. She breaks rules. She violates Starfleet protocol. She has emotions that get the best of her, even as she knows they shouldn't. She is, in other words, very human\". Overall, she declared that \"Star Trek is best when it's hopeful, but hope shines brightest amid horror. On some level, Discovery knows both of those things\". Writing for TVLine, Dave Nemetz graded the premiere episode a B+, saying, \"The nail-bitingly tense premiere delivered a cracking good action story, eye-popping special effects and a number of gasp-worthy twists\" that was worth the wait. Maureen Ryan of Variety, after watching the first two episodes, said the series \"has yet to prove itself a worthy successor to The Next Generation or Deep Space Nine. But there are reasons to hope that Discovery will be a promising addition to the Trek canon\".\n\nChaim Gartenberg for The Verge criticized the \"extended prologue\" approach, but called the two-part premiere \"surprisingly satisfying\". He praised Burnham as a \"far more rounded, human character than any of the previous captains, with some serious trauma from a Klingon attack in her youth that's left her predisposed to hate the warrior race. And while Star Trek has plumbed the 'main character has demons' well in the past—most notably with Sisko in Deep Space Nine, and Picard in the later films, when it comes to the Borg—Burnham feels far more compelling for not being a flawless human being in other respects, as her series-protagonist predecessors were.\" Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Darren Franich gave the two-part premiere a B grade, praising Martin-Green's performance as the lead and the production design as well as commenting on the \"undeniable appeal\" of the \"introduction of a new ship, the revelation that we're watching that ship's final voyage, the cliffhanger possibility that our new hero is a fallen angel.\" However, he felt that the series' third episode retroactively made the two episode prologue \"feel even more overextended\". Patrick Cooley of cleveland.com criticized the dialogue and \"wooden, bewilderingly stupid\" characters in the first two episodes. Brian Lowry from CNN called the first three episodes \"Star Trek Lite\", criticizing the bridge crew and lore, and describing the series as an \"unspectacular addition\" to the franchise that was mostly designed \"to entice new subscribers to CBS All Access.\"\n\nDiscussing the season as a whole, Seitz praised it as the strongest first season of any Star Trek series since the original and defended it against fan criticisms, believing that most complaints about the series could be applied to all Star Trek series or were about intentional differences from those prior series that Seitz saw as \"honorable attempts\" to modernize the franchise \"while still keeping the whole thing recognizably Trek.\" Seitz in particularly praised the more serialized storytelling, visual effects, original characters like Burnham and Saru, existing characters like Frain's Sarek and Wilson's Harry Mudd, and the themes of science vs. war that the series explored. On the latter, Seitz felt Discovery improved on the efforts of the J. J. Abrams Star Trek films. Discussing the \"hits\" and \"misses\" of the season, Witney Seibold of IGN praised the characters, effects, and design as \"hits\", but criticized as \"misses\" the tone and storytelling for respectively being too busy and having too many subplots. Gartenberg criticized the writers for over-using science fiction tropes, repeating plot elements, inconsistently portraying characters' attitudes, and for being unsubtle with the values of Starfleet in the finale. He was optimistic for further seasons though, feeling that the end of the season left \"the entire slate of the show ... wiped clean for whatever comes next.\" At Mashable, Chris Taylor felt the Klingons' prosthetics made it difficult to see the actors' emotions, the development of the characters Tyler and Lorca was wasted, the rest of the bridge characters were not explored enough, and the ending of the Klingon war storyline was rushed in the season finale before the Enterprise reveal \"left us on the oldest, safest, most recognizable piece of Trek fan service ever.\"\n\n### Accolades\n\nNetflix listed Star Trek: Discovery fourth in its list of series most watched together by families in 2017. Martin-Green was named TVLine's Performer of the Week for her performance in \"The Wolf Inside\", in which Burnham is \"put through the emotional wringer with a barrage of jaw-dropping twists, giving Martin-Green an opportunity to deliver her finest performance of the season.\" In January 2019, Comic Book Resources rated Discovery's first season as the ninth best season of all Star Trek series so far, comparing its high production values to a feature film and calling Michael Burnham \"the most interesting character Trek has provided us in generations\".", "revid": "1171653303", "description": "First season of Star Trek: Discovery", "categories": ["2017 American television seasons", "2018 American television seasons", "Split television seasons", "Star Trek: Discovery seasons"]}
{"id": "548443", "url": null, "title": "Degrassi Junior High", "text": "Degrassi Junior High is a Canadian television series created by Kit Hood and Linda Schuyler. The second series in the Degrassi franchise and the first to be set in a universe that has spanned multiple decades, it aired for three seasons on the CBC from 18 January 1987 to 27 February 1989, and on PBS in the United States starting from September 1987. A non-union production by Hood and Schuyler's Playing With Time, Inc., Kate Taylor of WGBH Boston also served as the show's executive producer, and the series was produced in association with the Corporation for Public Broadcasting with participation of Telefilm Canada.\n\nThe series centred around an ensemble cast of seventh, eighth, and later ninth grade students attending the titular Degrassi Junior High School, as they faced various issues and challenges including substance abuse, child abuse, teenage pregnancy, homophobia, and racism. The series often mixed comedy and drama, with serious storylines often balanced with more light-hearted secondary plots. The series was developed by Hood and Schuyler in response to what they perceived to be a lack of proper educational programming targeted toward teenagers. The cast was drawn from a repertory company that comprised age-appropriate actors with little to no prior acting experience, who undertook acting workshops before each season commenced filming. The building used for the school was the partially vacant Vincent Massey Public School in Toronto, Ontario, with the rest of the series shot entirely on-location in and around the Greater Toronto Area, specifically the Queen-Broadview Village, where the eponymous De Grassi Street is located.\n\nThe show was acclaimed almost immediately following its debut, with critics praising it for its realistic and diverse portrayal of teenage issues in contrast to other programs of the time period. Enamored by the show themselves, the CBC had it moved from its Sunday afternoon time slot to prime time Monday night in between two popular American sitcoms, despite Schuyler's doubts it would succeed in the new slot. Following this move, its viewership increased by 40 percent, and by 1988, it was the highest-rated drama series in Canada, with ratings consistently in the millions. The show was also a ratings success internationally, including in the United Kingdom; on the BBC, the series received a peak of six million viewers, prior to the network refusing to air several first-season episodes and utimately dropping it. The series' actors were brought to celebrity status in their home country, receiving adulation from fans on a level compared to Beatlemania. The cast also participated in many public appearances to promote various causes; in 1989, they were named ambassadors for the Ontario branch of UNICEF. The show also spawned a series of paperback novelizations, and was incorporated into health curricula by schools. The series received twenty-eight awards during its run, including eight Gemini Awards (including two won by actors Pat Mastroianni and Stacie Mistysyn) and an International Emmy for the 1987 episode \"It's Late\". It was succeeded by Degrassi High, which debuted on 6 November 1989 and focused on the same characters in high school.\n\nDegrassi Junior High and its sequel maintained a significant cult following into the 1990s as it continued to be broadcast in re-runs and syndication. As the decade progressed, an online community developed around the series and led to several public reunions taking place. One of these reunions, which occurred on the CBC teenage talk show Jonovision in 1999, became a catalyst for the development of the reboot series Degrassi: The Next Generation, which premiered in 2001 and features several characters from the original series as adults. Although not generally acknowledged by the mainstream, Degrassi Junior High has been frequently referred to as a pioneer of the teen drama genre that prefigured later and better-known series such as Beverly Hills, 90210 and Dawson's Creek. In 2017, the series was named by the Toronto International Film Festival as one of Canada's most significant contributions to the cinematic landscape.\n\n## Premise\n\nThe show centred around an ethnically and economically diverse group of students from East End Toronto attending the fictional Degrassi Junior High School as they confronted a multitude of social issues, including, but not limited to, teenage pregnancy, child abuse, homosexuality, shoplifting, drug abuse and alcohol abuse. Co-creator Linda Schuyler outlined the show's mandate as informing its adolescent viewers as opposed to directly advising them not to make controversial choices. Schuyler and Hood saw Degrassi Junior High as a response to what they felt was a lack of television series that addressed adolescent issues from the adolescent's perspective, always usually dominated with an adult centred moralistic mentality.\n\n> For the most part, there are no subjects that we say are taboo. I think it's very important that sexual matters...death...whatever, are the human emotions and experiences that are liable to confront all of us as we pass ages and stages in our lives. As long as it's discussed in a healthy and wholesome manner, I don't think there's any topic that can't be discussed.\n\nAmanda Stepto, who played the character Christine \"Spike\" Nelson, stated in 1989 that the series was intended as a conversation starter for kids and their parents to discuss topics that would otherwise not usually be mentioned.\n\nEach episode would begin with a 30–60-second cold open which would set up the A-plot by establishing the issues the plot would address. Following the opening sequence, the story would concern the A-plot, before making way for the B-plot, which would have some connection to the A-plot. Sometimes, there would be a C-plot, which leaned more toward comic relief. There would be a crisis at mid-point in time for the commercial break. The episode would end on a freeze-frame of a character involved in the A-plot.\n\nThe first two seasons span an entire year, with some characters in Grade 7, and others in Grade 8. For the third season, Grade 9, which is typically the first year of high school in Canada, was added to the junior high school as a creative decision. In the third season, which is set the year after the first two seasons, the Grade 9 students attend a nearby high school part-time, and new Grade 7 characters are introduced.\n\nIn the series finale, the Degrassi Junior High School building is destroyed by a fire started by a faulty boiler, during a school dance.\n\n## Cast\n\nSixty-five overall teenagers from Toronto comprised the Playing With Time Repertory Company and mostly would appear as either extras or minor characters. The series did not have a fixed cast, and instead focused loosely on a select group. Minor characters would occasionally become the main focus or would be generally given an increased role overtime; by contrast, major characters would sometimes only be seen in the background, or phased out almost entirely. Unlike the trend of casting young adults to play teenagers, Degrassi Junior High cast real age-appropriate actors with little-to-no prior acting experience, a trend that was later continued in the development of Degrassi: The Next Generation in reaction to the teen dramas throughout the 1990s. The actors were not a part of any unions.\n\nPat Mastroianni portrayed Joey Jeremiah, a fedora-wearing class clown who is later held back in the third season and is the keyboardist and founder of The Zit Remedy. Stacie Mistysyn portrayed Caitlin Ryan, a high-achiever and passionate activist who has epilepsy. Amanda Stepto portrayed Christine \"Spike\" Nelson, a punk rock girl with large spiked hair who becomes pregnant and deals with the social stigma and responsibilities of being a teenage mother. Stefan Brogren portrayed Archie \"Snake\" Simpson, The Zit Remedy's guitarist and later the longest-running character in the franchise, Neil Hope portrayed Derek \"Wheels\" Wheeler, the bassist of The Zit Remedy whose parents are killed by a drunk driver and is a friend of Joey and Snake's. Nicole Stoffman portrayed Stephanie Kaye, a provocatively dressed queen bee who is school president. Stoffman would leave the series after the second season to star in the CTV sitcom Learning the Ropes.\n\nRebecca Haines-Saah portrayed Kathleen Mead, a \"snooty mean girl\" who deals with her alcoholic mother and later anorexia nervosa. Sara Ballingall portrayed Melanie Brodie, Kathleen's naive friend. Twins Angela & Maureen Deiseach portrayed Erica & Heather Farrell. Anais Granofsky portrayed Lucy Fernandez, a relatively wealthy girl who is usually always a latchkey kid. Bill Parrott portrayed Shane McKay, Spike's boyfriend who later suffers brain damage from a fall. Other actors included Irene Courakos, who portrayed Alexa Pappadopoulos, Amanda Cook, who portrayed Lorraine \"L.D\" Delacorte, Dayo Ade, who portrayed Bryant Lister \"B.L.T.\" Thomas, Maureen McKay who portrayed Michelle Accette, and Kyra Levy, who portrayed Maya Goldberg.\n\nThe series also features characters that would not appear in the later series of the franchise. Tyson Talbot, who portrayed Billy Martin on The Kids Of Degrassi Street, appeared briefly in Degrassi Junior High as Jason Cox. Talbot quit the series after three episodes. Craig Driscoll portrayed Rick Munro, a troubled Grade 7 boy and a love interest of Caitlin who leaves after season 2. Niki Kemeny portrayed Voula Grivogiannis, Stephanie Kaye's best friend who has a love-hate relationship with her, and who left after season 1, save for a voice-only appearance in season 2. Sarah Charlesworth, who originally played the role of Casey in The Kids Of Degrassi Street, played Susie Rivera, Caitlin's best friend, but left after season 2; conversely, her brother Christopher Charlesworth played Scooter Webster, an accelerated student who was introduced in season 2 and appeared through Degrassi High.\n\nThe second season introduced new characters. Michael Carry portrayed Simon Dexter, a model and later boyfriend of Alexa. Cathy Keenan portrayed Liz O'Rourke, who becomes Spike's best friend. Darrin Brown portrayed Dwayne Myers, a school bully who fights Joey Jeremiah in an episode of the second season and occasionally appears in the background, before getting a prominent role in Degrassi High.\n\nThroughout the series, there are three prominent teachers. Dan Woods portrayed Dan Raditch, a teacher who later becomes the vice principal of Degrassi High School, and then principal of Degrassi Community School. Michelle Goodeve portrayed Karen Avery, and Roger Montgomery portrayed Mr. Garcia, a Grade 9 teacher who only appears in the third season. People involved with the series would often make background cameos, including art director Judy Shiner, picture editor Rob de Lint, and writer Kathryn Ellis. Susin Nielsen, a writer for the series, starred as the school's janitor, Louella Hawkins, and had a speaking part in two different episodes.\n\n## Development\n\n### Concept\n\nSchoolteacher Linda Schuyler and her partner Kit Hood founded the company Playing With Time, Inc. in 1976 to produce educational films and documentaries. In 1979, the two produced Ida Makes a Movie, a short film which evolved into the children's television series The Kids of Degrassi Street. The series was a critical success on the CBC, with the episode \"Griff Makes A Date\" winning an International Emmy Award in 1985. The production team also featured editor Yan Moore, who became the head writer of the next series, as well as the co-creator of Degrassi: The Next Generation.The final six episodes of the series were dubbed 'Yearbook' and followed a narrative of the kids creating the school yearbook. A year before the end of The Kids Of Degrassi Street, Schuyler announced Degrassi Junior High in a November 1985 Toronto Star article: \"We'll launch a new series in about one year – Degrassi Junior High. The very last segment (in Yearbook) shows the kids graduating. Where are they going? Degrassi Junior High!\". Development commenced for the new series in early 1986. The show was not a direct sequel, but rather intended to be a spinoff of the previous series.\n\n### Casting\n\nDuring the development stage, Schuyler and Hood held a \"pow-wow\" with the cast of The Kids of Degrassi Street at the Playing With Time offices and offered them a choice between reprising their old roles or take new roles. According to Kit Hood, the kids \"wanted to leave behind the baggage, personalities and families of where they'd been\" and decided to play new characters instead. Schuyler explained that the show's age-appropriate casting was because \"so much of the American stuff set in high schools is played by late teens and early 20s – and then some\". Auditions took place throughout schools in Toronto; an estimated 300 kids auditioned and fifty-four were selected. Pat Mastroianni, who played Joey Jeremiah, was the first to audition. The selected fifty-four would undergo a three-week workshop that took place from 26 May to 13 June 1986 which helped them with basic acting skills, techniques and improvisation and included seminars in the behind-the-scenes aspects of production. The workshops would be repeated at the beginning of production for each season, as new cast members joined, and existing cast members underwent more advanced workshops.\n\nCharacters would be developed based on the strengths of the actors; those who did exceptionally well would have their roles expanded. The actors comprised The Playing With Time Repertory Company (referred to by Kathryn Ellis as \"the Repco\"), which at its peak consisted of sixty-five kids. The idea of the repertory company meant that there was no bias towards a particular set of actors on screen; major characters could be background extras in one episode, as minor characters could get a major role or focus, a practice very rare on television. The actors would also earn school credits for being in the repertory company. The actors were required to avoid missing more than eight days of their real school, but those with prominent roles usually missed three to four days a week. They would also be usually helped by a tutor, who would also administer tests and exams. The parents of the teenage actors were also given scripts of which their child was a prominent role and were consulted about the issues the show would address before they joined the company, but none of them \"wanted their kid taken out\". On set, the teenage actors would also usually run errands, including washing dishes and moving sandbags.\n\nHope, Mistysyn, Granofsky, Charlesworth and others returned to the new series with different characters. Stephen Stohn, who later co-founded Epitome Pictures with Schuyler and executive produced Degrassi: The Next Generation, served as the show's legal counsel.\n\n### Production and filming\n\nFollowing the first read-through of the script, which would take place in a circle, Linda Schuyler sought significant input from the teenage actors on the credibility of the dialogue. Many of the show's ideas were drawn from the actor's personal experiences, the writers' own teenage experiences, and \"official idea sessions\" with the actors. Yan Moore recalled in 2005: \"In the old days, the kids would come to the office...and they'd tell us things.\" For instance, actor Siluck Saysanasy, who played Yick Yu, was forbidden to get an earring by his father, but was only allowed if he got one for the show; writer Yan Moore would write an earring into the script for Saysanasy. Amanda Stepto often experienced unwanted attention for her spiked hair, which was incorporated into an episode of the series. A typical episode would take two weeks to rehearse and two weeks to film. Each episode cost approximately \\$250,000 to \\$350,000 to produce; the first season cost \\$2.6 million.The school used for the show was the Vincent Massey Public School (then known as Daisy Avenue Public School) in Etobicoke, Ontario. At the time, the ground floor was being used as a Seventh-day Adventist school. As a result, the majority of the series was shot on the second floor, with the ground floor only used occasionally. One of the rooms, which was used as a library, served as a green room. The principal's office that characters enter and exit did not actually exist, with the door opening to a blank wall. The lockers in the school were arranged to create an \"illusion\" of corridors. Principal photography of the series usually took place from April to December. Filming for the show began on 8 July 1986 in Etobicoke, Ontario. and finished in December 1988. The actors would routinely gather at the Playing With Time production office and be taken via a minivan to Vincent Massey, where shooting would take place from 9:00 a.m to 6:30 p.m.\n\nThe series was filmed entirely on-location throughout the Greater Toronto Area. Places seen on the series include Queen-Broadview Village, which contained the real De Grassi Street as well as a building similar to that of Vincent Massey's, Dundas Street Junior School, which coincidentally served as the location for the school in The Kids of Degrassi Street, that served as a background double; this was done to make it seem like that neighbourhood was near the school, when in reality it was not. Various real life stores and other locations are shown and mentioned in the series, such as the Shoppers Drug Mart location on the corner of Queen & Carlaw streets, where various characters are seen shopping. Other locations, such as the Degrassi Grocery and the Broadview Community Health Clinic featured in the episode \"It's Late\" no longer exist. Earl Grey Senior Public School in Toronto, where Linda Schuyler was a teacher, served as the setting for Borden High School, where several grade 9 students attend science classes in the show's third season due to student overpopulation. In an effort to avoid dating the show, the popular culture referred to in the series is fictional. This includes bands such as \"Gourmet Scum\", movies such as \"Teen Academy IV\" and \"Swamp Sex Robots\", game shows such as \"Quest for the Best\", and soap operas such as \"Days Of Passion\". Sex educator Sue Johanson played \"Dr. Sally\", who hosts a radio talk show similar to Johanson's Sunday Night Sex Show.\n\n### Music\n\nWendy Watson and Lewis Manne, who worked on the music for The Kids Of Degrassi Street, composed, arranged and performed all of the original music for Degrassi Junior High, including its theme song, which was sung by Watson. Watson and Manne recorded the show's music using a drums, bass, guitar and keyboard arrangement. Songs by various Canadian recording artists, including Watson and Manne's own music, were used for school dances and radios.\n\nThe garage band The Zit Remedy is formed late into the first season by characters Joey Jeremiah, Archie \"Snake\" Simpson, and Derek \"Wheels\" Wheeler. The band have only one song, \"Everybody Wants Something\", jokingly described by Kathryn Ellis as \"Lewis's biggest hit\". The song was written by a nephew of Watson and Manne on the back of a school permission letter, and sent to them. Actors Pat Mastroianni, Stefan Brogren and Neil Hope were musically inexperienced, and would be taught by Manne on how to play their instruments. In the book Exit Stage Left, the Zit Remedy have a second song, entitled, \"I Don't Want To Be A Porcupine With Anyone Else But You, Baby\", which Joey claims will \"revolutionize the pop music industry\". Stories around the group continue in Degrassi High, where their name is shortened to The Zits.\n\n### Opening sequence\n\nThe \"documentary-style\" opening sequence follows the show's 30–60-second cold open. The sequence begins with a stop-motion live-action scene of a person picking up a group of textbooks, labeled \"History\", \"Geography\", \"Math\" and \"English\", and walking away. It mostly consists of scenes from various episodes of the characters in and around the school, juxtaposed with images of students with blackboard-esque transitions. The opening sequence does not credit the cast members.\n\nThe theme song that accompanies the opening sequence is an upbeat track sung by show co-composer Wendy Watson, in the key of C major and driven by synthesizers and guitars. It begins with a pessimistic tone, with the narrator feeling uncertain about going to school. The lyrics turn optimistic as the narrator notices \"that someone is smiling right at me\". It concludes with the lyrics \"Everybody can succeed, all you need is to believe/Be honest with yourself, forget your fears and doubts/Come on give us a try at Degrassi Junior High!\". Anne Weiss of Cinema Canada magazine described the theme song as having a \"chirpy, almost inane melody\". Shamus Kelley of Den of Geek called it \"\"inspirational\", and said: \"For a show that’s all about slice of life and dealing with big problems, it’s perfect.\" but had mixed feelings about the visuals, feeling that its emphasis on random shots of characters did not properly establish them. An instrumental variation of the opening theme is used in the end credits. The theme song was later reworked with different lyrics for Degrassi High.\n\n### Makeup and wardrobe\n\nIn an unconventional practice for television, Degrassi Junior High did not have a makeup and wardrobe department. The cast would usually wear their own clothes and apply their own makeup, although the art department would tweak their appearances for continuity purposes. Neil Hope, who played Derek \"Wheels\" Wheeler, stated: \"It's looking phony. [...] When you look more natural, its helping the show.\" Some of the clothing choices however were not of the actors; actress Nicole Stoffman did not dress like her sexually provocative character Stephanie Kaye. However, the \"outrageously-coiffed\" hair of character Christine \"Spike\" Nelson, was the real hair of actress Amanda Stepto, who was an avid fan of punk rock music.\n\n## Episodes\n\n### Degrassi Between Takes\n\nDegrassi Between Takes is a half-hour documentary special that aired on 30 October 1989, a week before the premiere of the sequel series Degrassi High, on CBC. The documentary is a behind-the-scenes look at Degrassi Junior High, shot during the show's third season and narrated by Peter Gzowski. The special focuses on the development and impact of the series, with footage of the cast at the Gemini Awards, working on set, socializing in public and on publicity tours.\n\n## Release\n\n### Initial broadcast\n\nThe series premiered on CBC on 18 January 1987 and concluded on 27 February 1989. From its debut, the show ran on Sundays at 5:00 p.m. Starting from its second season, due to a budget squeeze, it was then moved to Monday nights at 7:30 p.m, and then later by then-new CBC programming chief Ivan Fecan, who championed the series to primetime at 8:30 p.m, between the popular American series Kate & Allie and Newhart. Fecan was one of the biggest proponents of the series and viewed it as a standard for Canadian television writers; in 1988, he stated that there was \"nothing bogus about that show\", and that he wished that he had \"20 more shows like it\". When Fecan called Schuyler to inform her of the move, she reportedly disagreed, feeling that the series wasn't ready for prime time. She eventually agreed to the decision, under the condition that if the move was unsuccessful, the series wouldn't be cancelled and instead be moved back to its original timeslot. Following its move to prime time, the viewership increased 40 percent.\n\nIn the United States, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) debuted the series on 26 September 1987. On PBS, the show aired on Saturdays at 7:00 p.m. In New York City, the series aired on Tuesdays at 6:00 p.m. on WNET starting from 22 September 1987. The first two thirteen-episode seasons were aired as one twenty-six-episode season during the 1987–88 television season. The third season premiered in the United States on 10 December 1988 with the series finale airing on 15 April 1989. The program was distributed through PBS member station WGBH-TV in Boston, who also offered financial support for the show. Due to PBS's lack of commercials, the American airings often featured scenes that were not seen in Canada.\n\nBy November 1988, Degrassi Junior High was being shown in over forty countries, including Australia, Greece, China, France, and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, where it began airing on the BBC starting from 5 April 1988, several episodes from the first season were banned, including several episodes about Spike's pregnancy and the episode \"Rumour Has It\", which involved rumors of a teacher and a student being homosexual. Despite the banned episodes airing on DEF II on BBC2, the rest of the series was not aired. The series concluded its BBC run on 10 May 1988, with re-runs of the aired episodes from the first season continuing into 1989. In Australia, the show debuted on ABC TV on 8 February 1988, as part of The Afternoon Show hosted by James Valentine, where it aired at 5:00 p.m. The series finale aired in Australia on 10 October 1989.\n\nIn France, Junior High and High were aired under the banner Les Années collège (The College Years) on Antenne 2 starting from September 10, 1988.\n\n### Re-runs and syndication\n\nIn Canada, the series re-ran on CBC starting from summer 1991. On 1 September 1997, the show began to air in re-runs on Showcase. In the United States, the series was rerun on Showtime starting from 14 August 1994, in its original 1987 CBC timeslot. Starting from 8 October 2005, coinciding with the premiere of Degrassi: The Next Generation's fifth season, the show along with its sequel debuted on the Noggin block The N with a two-hour block, followed by standard re-runs.\n\nIn Australia, re-runs aired starting on ABC from 1992. It later re-ran on ABC1's Rollercoaster and ABC2. By 2001, it had been syndicated in over seventy countries. In the United Kingdom, UK Gold screened Degrassi Junior High daily starting from its launch in 1992. Later in the mid-1990s, Degrassi Junior High later reran on The Children's Channel.\n\n### Use in schools\n\nThe series was often shown in schools as part of health and sex education curricula. Educational materials relating to the series were released by WGBH in the United States during its original run, including discussion & activity guides. 25,000 copies of the Degrassi Junior High Discussion and Activity Guide were distributed to educators. In 1989, ten schools in Omaha, Nebraska were reported as using the first season of the series in their seventh and eighth grade human growth and development curriculum.\n\n### Home media and streaming\n\nThe series has seen multiple home video releases as well as releases to streaming. In the United States, the series is distributed on home video by WGBH Boston Home Video, who released a twenty-one volume VHS boxset in 2000. WGBH would later release it on DVD in Region 1 in 2005. Each season was released separately followed by a complete 9-disc boxset. The 2005 WGBH box set, as well as the individual sets, include various special features, including the Degrassi Talks series, the 1989 Degrassi Between Takes documentary, printable materials, wallpapers, and a pop quiz.\n\nIn Region 4, the show's home media releases are distributed by Beyond Home Entertainment (under the imprint Force), who released a seven-disc set in 2006, including an extra disc containing special features. The special features are similar to the Region 1 box set, omitting the pop quiz. The series was also made available on YouTube.\n\nIn July 2023, Degrassi Junior High was made available on Amazon Prime Video in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\n## Reception and impact\n\n### Critical reception\n\nDegrassi Junior High was a critical and commercial success as well as a cultural phenomenon in Canada, where it is considered one of the country's greatest television achievements. It established the franchise's popularity and longevity. According to American psychiatrists David A. and Beatrix Hamburg, research on adolescent reactions to the series found that young viewers found it \"exceptionally appealing\", highly effective in presenting their issues, and successful in stimulating in-depth discussion. Favourable reviews regularly came from critics from the Toronto Star, the Globe and Mail, the Ottawa Citizen, and the Montreal Gazette. The Canadian press, including CBC itself, celebrated the series and its international success and considered it to be one of the most groundbreaking and one of the greatest children's television series of all time. In particular, Toronto Star film and television critic Jim Bawden's regular championing of the series was credited by cast member Stefan Brogren with influencing its move to prime time. After its move to prime time, critics felt it had been well deserved.\n\nIt was also a cult hit and received favourable reviews in the United States. Speaking of the show's upcoming premiere on PBS, Fred M. Hechinger of the New York Times pondered whether the show's then-uncommon way of addressing adolescent issues would have an impact; \"Can teen-agers be won over to entertainment that is not mindless, violent or sexually irresponsible?\". In 1989, in the lead-up to the premiere of its third season, the series was profiled by John Fisher Burns, also of the New York Times, who asserted it was \"remolding the pat-a-cake image of what the industry, with at least some sense of paradox, likes to call ''children's television.'\" Writing for New Jersey's The Record, Joel Pitsezner remarked that he was so impressed with the series that he skipped two press conferences to watch more episodes, citing in particular the \"intelligent and sensitive writing\" of Yan Moore, the \"believable interplay\" between the actors, and in particular the portrayal of the \"pain and awkwardness of the early teen years\", the latter of which he believed to be its best quality.\n\nPraise for the series was often directed to its portrayal of controversial topics, its casting choices, character development, balance of comedy and drama, cinematography, writing and low-budget production, which critics felt offered a more sincere and realistic depiction of adolescence in opposition to other youth and family-focused television programs of the period, which were widely viewed as trivializing serious issues and leaning heavily towards moralism. Writing for the Edmonton Journal, Bob Remington described the show and its characters as an exception to the \"unrealistically antiseptic\" television series such as The Cosby Show and Our House. Dave Rhein, in a review for wire service Gannett, declared that it \"put to shame\" other efforts to make a realistic show targeted towards teenagers. Other critics, including Janice Kennedy of the Montreal Gazette, who also often covered the series in her Children's Television column, and Anne Weiss of Cinema Canada magazine, praised the show's cinematography; Kennedy praising the producer's decision to shoot on film instead of video tape, and Weiss suggesting its \"highly developed psychological use of the camera\" was influenced by soap operas. The portrayal of the characters was praised by Steve Sonsky of the Miami Herald, who felt that it differentiated the series from others with teenage characters that were less realistically problematic.\n\nRetrospectively, the series has continued to receive critical acclaim. Ian Warden of The Canberra Times, speaking of the show's continued reruns on ABC-TV, asserted in 1995 that it was \"perhaps the best sustained piece of children's television drama ever made\". In 2000, Leah McLaren of the Globe and Mail would recall disliking the series with her friends as a teenager, before later appreciating the \"raw beauty\" of the series as an adult. In addition, McLaren called it \"way ahead of its time, both aesthetically and conceptually\". Ottawa Citizen critic Tony Atherton, in a mixed review of the premiere episode of Degrassi: The Next Generation, made numerous comparisons between the characters of the older and newer series, and felt that due to the \"deluge of teen dramas since\". Next Generation would not make the same impact as the \"groundbreaking\" original series. David Berry of the National Post noted the difference between the show and the \"slicker\" Next Generation, saying that it was \"like someone snuck a piece of avant-garde socialist realism onto mainstream network airwaves\".\n\nReviewing the DVD release of its first season in 2007, Andrew Mickel of Den of Geek felt the show still held up twenty years after its debut, and singled out the character of Joey Jeremiah, which he compared to Ferris Bueller, as being a \"big casting draw\". Although also praising the series for its realism and sincerity, Exclaim!'''s Noel Dix felt that the DVD release leaned too much towards having an educational purpose rather than having \"the fans in mind\". Brodie Lancaster of the Sydney Morning Herald commented on the age-appropriate casting, calling it a \"rare occurrence in the genre\" of teen drama.\n\n### Television ratings\n\nIn Canada, the show reached a quarter of the adolescent viewing audience aged 12 to 17. In total, it received a 4 percent share of the viewing audience, which translated to several million viewers, despite minimal funding from the US public broadcasting system. By season two, Degrassi Junior High was receiving an average of 1.4 million viewers with a peak of 1.9 million, aided by its move to a prime time slot. The show's season 3 premiere, the two-parter \"Can't Live With 'Em\", drew 1.7 million viewers. The number accounted for 21 percent of the entire audience during that slot. By 1988, Degrassi Junior High was the highest-rated drama series in Canada.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the series drew in six million followers by 1988, making it the highest-rated children's television series in the country, despite the BBC banning several of its episodes.\n\n### Awards and nominations\n\nDegrassi Junior High has received twenty-eight awards, including eight Gemini Awards, three Parents' Choice Awards, three Chris Awards, and one International Emmy Award. The series won a Rockie Award for Best Continuing Series at the Banff Television Festival in 1988, where it drew praise from MTM Enterprises senior vice president and judge Laurence Bloustein, and marked the first time it had won an award outside of children's categories. Despite the win, the next year's festival saw an episode that addressed AIDS unanimously rejected for being \"sloppily executed\". The episode \"It's Late\" won the International Emmy Award for Children & Young People in 1987, and the series was nominated again for the award in 1988 for the second season episode \"Great Expectations\".\n\nOut of the eight Gemini Awards won by the series, including one won in 1987 for Best Children's Series, it won four in 1988, including Best Continuing Dramatic Series, and Best Direction in a Dramatic Comedy Series for Kit Hood. When one award was announced, thirty four cast members took the stage. Furthermore, actors Pat Mastroianni and Stacie Mistysyn won the Best Leading Actor and Best Leading Actress in a Dramatic Role awards in 1988 and 1989 respectively. Mastroianni's win in particular was considered an upset, as he had beaten several established Canadian actors such as Scott Hylands and Donnelly Rhodes. Nineteen members of the cast, including Mastroianni, Mistysyn, Amanda Stepto, Stefan Brogren and Neil Hope were nominated for the Young Artist Award for Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in 1990, but lost to A Mother's Courage: The Mary Thomas Story.\n\n### Influence on teen drama\n\nDegrassi Junior High was one of the first drama series in Canada to exclusively target teenage audiences. Michelle Byers. editor of Growing Up Degrassi, states that while largely excluded from most discussions about teen television, Degrassi was \"probably one of the earliest examples of the genre\". According to the book The Greatest Cult Television Shows of All Time, the series was a trailblazer for future teen-oriented drama series \"mainly because it understood teenage culture better than almost any other show produced before or since\". The series is widely described as an early teen drama and an influence on several key series of the genre. most specifically Beverly Hills, 90210, which Degrassi Junior High is frequently compared to. For many years, an urban legend, supported by Pat Mastroianni, circulated that American television producer Aaron Spelling had attempted to adapt the series for a US audience, but was unsuccessful, and instead created Beverly Hills, 90210. Linda Schuyler denied the rumor in 2008, but indicated Spelling may have been aware of Degrassi. The Guardian's Sarah Hughes suggested that Beverly Hills, 90210 was \"Spelling's answer\" to Degrassi Junior High. Writing about the death of actor Neil Hope, the New York Times's Paul Vitello said the show anticipated Beverly Hills 90210 as well as the MTV's The Real World. It has also been named as an influence on Dawson's Creek, 7th Heaven, and Felicity. Various academic studies have been written about the comparison between Degrassi and American teen drama series.\n\n### Promotion and fan reaction\n\nThe cast members became national celebrities as a result of the show's success. They would often embark on promotional tours across North America and even in Europe for the series during its run. They were primarily accompanied by Kathryn Ellis, who acted as the publicist. When travelling by plane, one of the actors would be in charge of checking the others through the airport. They were warmly received in most places, and participated in various cultural activities. The actors frequently visited Halifax, Nova Scotia in particular.\n\nThe success of the show led to the actors making appearances at public service events. For instance, Bill Parrott, who played Shane McKay, co-hosted the launch of the Kids Help Phone hotline in Toronto. The actors often participated in meet-and-greets and book signings at shopping malls and other places, where they drew a reaction comparable to Beatlemania. The actors were also sometimes conflated with their characters by fans and viewers. Amanda Stepto, who portrayed Spike, was mistaken for being pregnant like her character, and often received baby products and toys. Kit Hood expressed his concerns over the fan reactions: \"That's what scares me is that the audience sometimes expects the kids to have knowledge about their characters that they don't have in real life\".\n\nDespite their international fame, and an on-set tutor, the actors were still required to attend school, and some recalled their teachers not being lenient about their busy schedules. Pat Mastroianni recalled that his geography teacher gave him a low grade despite succeeding in other subjects; Rebecca Haines recalled her parents threatening to remove her from the show if her grades were low enough. Speaking to the Edmonton Journal, Haines stated: \"Some teachers can be jerks about it. [...] When you get home at eight at night, after working all day, you don't feel like writing an essay\".\n\n### UNICEF partnership\n\nIn 1989, UNICEF Canada entered a partnership with Degrassi Junior High, with the cast being named UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors. The cast members would make various appearances and appear in several public service announcements. Pat Mastroianni and Amanda Stepto flew to New York City to tour the Headquarters of the United Nations and meet other ambassadors. That same year, coinciding with the Convention on the Rights of the Child (which was ratified by Canada in 1991), a ten-minute video called The Degrassi Kids Rap On Rights that was distributed in Canadian schools nationwide. The video, narrated by Amanda Stepto, focused on the impending ratification of the Convention and highlighted the childhood experiences of several cast members in refugee camps and natural disasters.\n\n### In popular culture\n\nAmerican filmmaker Kevin Smith was a particular fan of Degrassi Junior High, having discovered it while working at a convenience store in New Jersey, and acknowledged an infatuation with Stacie Mistysyn and her character Caitlin Ryan. Smith wrote a piece about his enthusiasm for the series for Details magazine in November 1996, where it is claimed that he spent \\$3,000 on the series on home video. Smith has referenced the series several times in his work, including Clerks, which features a character named Caitlin Bree, and Chasing Amy. He attempted to cast Mistysyn in his 1995 film Mallrats in the role of Rene Mosier, but was denied by Universal Pictures, who wanted a better-known name. As a compromise, Smith made Shannen Doherty, who got the role, wear a Degrassi jacket for the character. Smith, along with Jason Mewes, guest-starred on and wrote several episodes of Degrassi: The Next Generation, in which they play fictional versions of themselves filming a Jay and Silent Bob movie at the school. Smith later wrote the introduction to The Official 411: Degrassi Generations by Kathryn Ellis.\n\nReviewing the 2005 film Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Boston Globe critic Ty Burr quipped that it sometimes felt like \"Degrassi Junior High with dragons\".\n\n### Cult following and legacy\n\nThe series endured a significant cult following after its initial broadcast. Throughout the 1990s, an online fan community emerged, with the creation of various fansites about Degrassi Junior High and its sequel series. The fan sites, part of a webring created by Mark Aaron Polger, featured multimedia related to the show and spawned fan fiction, including a 1998 story called Degrassi: The Next Generation that centred around Spike's daughter Emma and included a character named Paige, similar to the real series of the same name that debuted in 2001. In 1996, a website named Degrassi Update appeared which chronicled public sightings of the Degrassi Junior High cast and drew mixed responses from cast members. A small reunion was organized on 24 August 1999 at Centennial College where the sequel series was filmed, and the cast reunited on the CBC youth show Jonovision, hosted by Jonathan Torrens, on 24–25 December 1999. The Jonovision reunion, which according to Torrens saw in-studio viewers attend from as far as San Francisco, served as a catalyst for the development of Degrassi: The Next Generation.\n\nEpitome Pictures (the company that eventually produced Next Generation) would later send Polger a draft statement of claim over his use of the Degrassi name, claiming he was confusing the public, and threatening legal action. After he sent various media outlets a press release, and garnered support from other fans of the series, Epitome withdrew the claim. Polger criticized Epitome Pictures for showing a lack of gratitude for the online community's impact on the show's continued success.\n\nIn 2017, the series was named by the Toronto International Film Festival as one of Canada's 150 most significant contributions to the cinematic landscape. Pat Mastroianni, after appearing at numerous fan conventions, later organized Degrassi Palooza, a convention celebrating the legacy of the 1980s Degrassi series and featuring a reunion of 26 cast and crew members, at the Westin Toronto Airport Hotel in mid-June 2019.\n\n## Print media\n\nStarting from 1988, a series of mass-market paperback novelizations were released by James Lorimer & Co. The books would often centre on a particular character on the show and expanded upon storylines from the series, although the novel Exit Stage Left, which centres around various students as they organize a school play, is original. A thirteenth book, based on the characters Arthur Kobalewscuy and Yick Yu and written by Kathryn Ellis, remains unreleased.\n\nThe books were also published in other places; in Australia, they were published by ABC in November 1990, with more published in January 1991. The books also saw French Canadian releases by Les Éditions de Minuit.\n\n## See also\n\n- The Kids Of Degrassi Street — predecessor to Degrassi Junior High featuring some of its actors in different roles\n- Degrassi High — sequel series of Degrassi Junior High, following the same characters in high school\n- Degrassi: The Next Generation — 2001 reboot of the series, featuring several characters from Degrassi Junior High'' as adults", "revid": "1169970427", "description": "1987 Canadian teen drama television series", "categories": ["1980s Canadian LGBT-related drama television series", "1980s Canadian teen drama television series", "1987 Canadian television series debuts", "1989 Canadian television series endings", "CBC Television original programming", "Canadian television soap operas", "Coming-of-age television shows", "Degrassi Junior High", "English-language television shows", "Fictional schools", "Gemini and Canadian Screen Award for Best Drama Series winners", "Middle school television series", "Teenage pregnancy in television", "Television series about bullying", "Television series about teenagers", "Television series by DHX Media", "Television shows filmed in Toronto", "Television shows set in Toronto", "Works about puberty"]}
{"id": "2342291", "url": null, "title": "HMS Ark Royal (1914)", "text": "HMS Ark Royal was the first ship designed and built as a seaplane carrier. She was purchased by the Royal Navy in 1914 shortly after her keel had been laid and the ship was only in frames; this allowed the ship's design to be modified almost totally to accommodate seaplanes. During the First World War, Ark Royal participated in the Gallipoli Campaign in early 1915, with her aircraft conducting aerial reconnaissance and observation missions. Her aircraft later supported British troops on the Macedonian Front in 1916, before she returned to the Dardanelles to act as a depot ship for all the seaplanes operating in the area. In January 1918, several of her aircraft unsuccessfully attacked the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben when she sortied from the Dardanelles to attack Allied ships in the area. The ship left the area later in the year to support seaplanes conducting anti-submarine patrols over the southern Aegean Sea.\n\nAfter the end of the war, Ark Royal mostly served as an aircraft transport and depot ship for those aircraft in support of White Russian and British operations against the Bolsheviks in the Caspian and Black Sea regions during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. She also supported Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft in British Somaliland in the campaign against Diiriye Guure's Darawiish and Mohammed Abdullah Hassan in 1920. Later that year, the ship was placed in reserve. Ark Royal was recommissioned to ferry an RAF squadron to the Dardanelles during the Chanak Crisis in 1922. She was reduced to reserve again upon her return to the United Kingdom the following year.\n\nThe ship was recommissioned in 1930 to serve as a training ship, for seaplane pilots and to evaluate aircraft catapult operations and techniques. She was renamed HMS Pegasus in 1934, freeing the name for the aircraft carrier ordered that year, and continued to serve as a training ship until the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939. Assigned to the Home Fleet at the beginning of the war, she took on tasks as an aircraft transport, in addition to her training duties, until she was modified to serve as the prototype fighter catapult ship in late 1940. This type of ship was intended to defend convoys against attacks by German long-range maritime patrol bombers by launching fighters via their catapult to provide air cover for the convoy. Pegasus served in this role until mid-1941 when she reverted to her previous duties as a training ship. This lasted until early 1944 when she became a barracks ship. The ship was sold in late 1946 and her conversion into a merchant ship began the following year. However, the owner ran out of money during the process and Anita I, as she had been renamed, was seized by her creditors in 1949 and sold for scrap. She was not broken up until late 1950.\n\n## Design and description\n\nThe Royal Navy had conducted trials in 1913 with a modified cruiser, Hermes, to evaluate the ability of seaplanes to work with the fleet. They were successful enough that the Admiralty allocated £81,000 in the 1914–1915 Naval Programme to purchase a merchant ship for a more thorough modification than had been possible with Hermes to better accommodate seaplanes. A tramp steamer was purchased in 1914 that had just begun construction at the Blyth Shipbuilding Company so it could be easily modified to suit its new role.\n\nArk Royal was laid down on 7 November 1913 by the Blyth Shipbuilding Company in Blyth, Northumberland, as a freighter, probably intended for the coal-for-grain trade in the Black Sea. She was purchased in May 1914 and was launched on 5 September 1914. The ship was commissioned on 10 December 1914.\n\nExtensive changes to the ship were made in converting her to a seaplane tender, with the superstructure, funnel, and propulsion machinery moved aft and a working deck occupying the forward half of the ship. The deck was not intended as a flying-off deck, but for starting and running up of seaplane engines and for recovering damaged aircraft from the sea. The ship was equipped with a large aircraft hold, 150 feet (45.7 m) long, 45 feet (13.7 m) wide and 15 feet (4.6 m) high along with extensive workshops. Two 3-long-ton (3.0 t) steam cranes on the sides of the forecastle lifted the aircraft through the sliding hatch of the hangar onto the flight deck or into the water. She carried 4,000 imperial gallons (18,000 L; 4,800 US gal) of petrol for her aircraft in standard commercial 2-imperial-gallon (9.1 L; 2.4 US gal) tins.\n\nShe could carry five floatplanes and two to four wheeled aircraft. The seaplanes would take off and land in the water alongside the carrier, lifted on and off the ship by cranes; the other aircraft would have to return to land after launch. Her original complement of aircraft consisted of a Short Folder, two Wight Pushers, three Sopwith Type 807 seaplanes and two to four Sopwith Tabloid wheeled aircraft.\n\nArk Royal had an overall length of 366 feet (111.6 m), a beam of 50 feet 10 inches (15.5 m), and a draught of 18 feet 9 inches (5.7 m). She normally displaced 7,080 long tons (7,190 t), with a displacement of 7,450 long tons (7,570 t) at deep load. The ship had one vertical triple-expansion steam engine driving one propeller shaft. The ship's three cylindrical boilers generated enough steam to produce 3,000 indicated horsepower (2,200 kW) from the engine. The ship had a designed speed of 11 knots (20 km/h; 13 mph); she made a speed of 10.64 knots (19.71 km/h; 12.24 mph) during her sea trials with 2,675 shaft horsepower (1,995 kW) in December 1914. Ark Royal carried 500 tonnes (490 long tons) of fuel oil, enough to give her a range of 3,030 nautical miles (5,610 km; 3,490 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).\n\nThe ship was armed with four QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns and two machine guns. Her crew totalled 180 officers and men, including 60 aviation personnel. \"Her truly unique feature was the steadying sail on the mizzen to help keep her head to the wind; she remains the only aircraft carrier to have been fitted with a sail.\"\n\n## Service\n\n### First World War\n\nThe ship proved to be too slow to work with the Grand Fleet and for operations in the North Sea in general, so Ark Royal was ordered to the Mediterranean in mid-January 1915 to support the Gallipoli campaign. Under the command of Commander Robert Clark-Hall, the ship sailed on 1 February 1915 and arrived at the island of Tenedos on 17 February. She attempted to fly three of her seaplanes on the day of her arrival to reconnoitre the Straits, but two of them had engine troubles and the third could not take off because the water was too calm, a common problem with many early seaplanes. A Wight Pusher eventually managed to get into the air and discovered new fortifications down the Straits; it dropped a single 20-pound (9.1 kg) bomb on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles and returned with seven bullet holes in its skin. Two days later, the ship's aircraft attempted unsuccessfully to spot for the fleet as they bombarded the Ottoman fortifications defending the Straits. They conducted more aerial reconnaissance and observation missions in support of the fleet later in the month and in early March as it moved further up the Straits. Ark Royal lost her first aircraft on 5 March as the propeller of one of her Sopwiths splintered into pieces at 3,000 feet (910 m). Both of the aircraft's crewmen were recovered by the destroyer HMS Usk.\n\nLater in the month, the ship's aircrew learned to spot mines from the air and were moderately successful, although they failed to detect the minefield that sank one French and two British predreadnoughts and damaged a British battlecruiser on 18 March. Later in the month, Ark Royal and her aircraft were relieved by No. 3 Squadron of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS). In preparation for the squadron's arrival, the ship's crew cleared a vineyard on the island to serve as an airfield and unloaded its crated aircraft on 26–27 March. From 31 March to 7 April, Ark Royal and her companions made several fake landing attempts and her aircraft bombarded the port of Smyrna with little effect. When she returned to Tenedos on 8 April, she exchanged her Tabloids, which had never flown from the ship, for a pair of Sopwith Schneider single-seat floatplanes. In addition, she received two Sopwith Type 860s, another Wight Pusher, and a Short Type 166, all two-seat floatplanes, as replacements. The ship had no room for all these aircraft and she used the collier Penmorvalt to store them and for additional workshop space. Her aircraft resumed reconnaissance and observation missions over the Dardanelles; aircraft discovered a large ammunition dump on 12 April, and provided corrective data to direct gunfire from HMS Lord Nelson onto the target.\n\nArk Royal's aircraft provided support to the Australian and New Zealand troops at Anzac Cove as they landed on 25 April on the Gallipoli Peninsula. Two days later, the ship was taken under fire by the Ottoman predreadnought Turgut Reis, firing across the peninsula, and she had to move in a hurry to avoid being hit. A month later, the battle on the peninsula had bogged down and the success of the German submarine U-21 in sinking two British predreadnoughts forced Ark Royal to move to a safer anchorage at Imbros at the end of May. There she became a depot ship for all the seaplanes in the area, while her own aircraft continued to support operations at Gallipoli. On occasion, aircraft were loaned out to other ships for reconnaissance or observation missions.\n\nThe ship left Imbros on 1 November for Mytilene, from where her aircraft flew aerial reconnaissance missions over Smyrna, before she continued onwards to Salonika, where she arrived on 8 November. While based there, her aircraft supported British troops fighting the Bulgarians, spotted for British ships conducting shore bombardments, and conducted anti-submarine patrols. At this time, Ark Royal operated five Short 166s and a couple of Sopwith seaplanes. On 27 March 1917, the ship was transferred to Mudros to serve as a depot ship for all the seaplanes assigned to No. 2 Wing RNAS, which controlled all RNAS aircraft in the area. By the end of 1917, she operated a mixture of Short Type 184 and Sopwith Baby aircraft.\n\nOn the morning of 20 January 1918, the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavûz Sultân Selîm, together with the light cruiser Midilli (formerly the German Goeben and Breslau, and still with German crews), sortied from the Dardanelles to attack British warships based at Mudros. Yavuz struck a mine shortly after they exited the mouth of the Dardanelles so they switched targets and sank two British monitors off Imbros Island. As they were returning to the Dardanelles, the two ships were attacked by two of Ark Royal's Sopwith Babies with 65-pound (29 kg) bombs. One Baby was quickly shot down and the other was forced to make an emergency landing with engine problems off Imbros; the pilot was able to taxi the aircraft onto a beach and it was recovered several days later. Midilli struck five mines and sank on the return whilst Yavuz struck two more mines and then ran aground inside the Straits. Ark Royal's Short 184s attempted to bomb her at dawn on the following morning, but all ten bombs missed, and an attempt to attack the ship with a Short 184 modified to carry a 14-inch (356 mm) torpedo failed when the weight of the torpedo proved to be more than the aircraft could lift.\n\nOn 3 April, the ship was transferred to the island of Syros, where she could support the seaplanes of No. 62 Wing of the Royal Air Force (RAF) on anti-submarine patrols; part of the former No. 2 Wing RNAS redesignated when the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps were merged to form the RAF. Ark Royal was transferred to Piraeus in October and was still there when the Armistice of Mudros with Turkey was signed on 31 October. The ship joined the Allied fleet that occupied Constantinople after the surrender.\n\n### Interwar years and the Second World War\n\nAfter the war, Ark Royal transported aircraft across the Black Sea to Batumi, where they were ferried across the Caucasus to the British naval forces supporting White Russian forces fighting the Bolsheviks in the Caspian Sea during the Russian Civil War. The ship was withdrawn from the Black Sea in late 1919 and disembarked her seaplanes at Malta to load a dozen Airco DH.9 bombers and 181 personnel of the supporting Z Force for transport to British Somaliland. The ship arrived in Berbera on 30 December and the squadron was unloaded to support the air and land campaign against Diiriye Guure. Ark Royal served during this campaign solely as a depot and repair ship for the RAF. She was withdrawn before its conclusion and transferred to the Black Sea to support the White Russian forces there as they began to collapse. The ship twice ferried refugees from the Caucasian coast to the Crimea and, after the second voyage, had to be fumigated at Constantinople after an outbreak of typhus among her passengers. During the summer of 1920, Ark Royal ferried RAF aircraft and personnel to Basra. She then returned to Britain for a refit and was put into reserve at Rosyth in November.\n\nShe was recommissioned in September 1922 to transport 4 Squadron, equipped with a dozen Bristol F.2 Fighters, out to the Dardanelles during the Chanak crisis. The aircraft were ferried semi-assembled and then transferred to the aircraft carrier Argus where they were fully assembled. On 11 October, the F.2s flew from the carrier to an airfield at Kilya on the European side of the straits. The ship remained in the area until she was given a brief refit at Malta in early 1923. Now equipped with Fairey IIID seaplanes, Ark Royal returned to the Dardanelles until she was transferred back to the United Kingdom late in the year. Upon her arrival, the ship was placed back in reserve and became the depot ship for the reserve of minesweepers at Sheerness until 1930.\n\nIn 1930, Ark Royal was recommissioned again as a training ship and an aircraft catapult was installed on her forecastle, forward of her cranes. For the next nine years, the ship conducted trials and evaluations of catapults and seaplane launch and recovery equipment and techniques. On 21 December 1934, she was renamed HMS Pegasus to release her name for a new carrier that was then beginning construction. The ship was assigned to the Home Fleet when the Second World War began, and was mostly used to train sailors in catapult launching and shipboard recovery techniques. The ship used the Fairey Seafox, Supermarine Walrus, and Fairey Swordfish of 764 Naval Air Squadron. She also served as an aircraft transport and was present in Scapa Flow, having just delivered some aircraft, on 14 October when the battleship Royal Oak was sunk by the . As the closest ship to Royal Oak, Pegasus was able to rescue some 400 survivors.\n\nPegasus was converted to the prototype fighter catapult ship in November 1940, carrying three Fairey Fulmar fighters from 807 Naval Air Squadron between 1 December and 10 February 1941, which were replaced by aircraft from 804 Naval Air Squadron between 10 February and 23 July. These fighters were supposed to defend convoys against attacks from Focke-Wulf Fw 200 maritime patrol bombers and to prevent them from radioing location reports to U-boats. If out of range of land, the fighters would have to ditch at sea and hope to be recovered by a ship from their convoy. The ship escorted nine convoys between December 1940 and July 1941. At some point during the war, the ship's anti-aircraft armament was supplemented with a pair of Oerlikon 20 mm light anti-aircraft guns mounted in the bow, the ship's bridge was enlarged and the mast was replaced with a tripod mast bearing a Type 291 air warning radar. The ship then became a seaplane training ship again, hosting 763 NAS aboard from 20 April 1942 to 13 February 1944. Pegasus then became a barracks ship until May 1946 and was then listed for disposal in June.\n\nShe was sold to R. C. Ellerman on 18 October, renamed Anita I, and registered under the Panamanian flag. Under the management of the Compania de Navigation Ellanita, the ship sailed from Cardiff to Antwerp in October 1947 to begin conversion to a freighter. The work ceased in early 1948 and Anita I was seized by her creditors and auctioned off to a Dutch shipbreaking firm on 16 June 1949. She was resold once more before the ship was purchased by the British Iron and Steel Corporation in October 1950. Later that year, the ship was broken up for scrap at Thos. W. Ward, Grays, Essex.", "revid": "1138560937", "description": "1914 seaplane carrier of the Royal Navy", "categories": ["1914 ships", "Aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy", "Ships built on the River Blyth", "World War I aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom", "World War II aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom"]}
{"id": "2496574", "url": null, "title": "Francis William Reitz", "text": "Francis William Reitz, Jr. (Swellendam, 5 October 1844 – Cape Town, 27 March 1934) was a South African lawyer, politician, statesman, publicist, and poet who was a member of parliament of the Cape Colony, Chief Justice and fifth State President of the Orange Free State, State Secretary of the South African Republic at the time of the Second Boer War, and the first president of the Senate of the Union of South Africa.\n\nReitz had an extremely varied political and judicial career that lasted for over forty-five years and spanned four separate political entities: the Cape Colony, the Orange Free State, the South African Republic, and the Union of South Africa. Trained as a lawyer in Cape Town and London, Reitz started off in law practice and diamond prospecting before being appointed Chief Justice of the Orange Free State. In the Orange Free State Reitz played an important role in the modernisation of the legal system and the state's administrative organisation. At the same time he was also prominent in public life, getting involved in the Afrikaner language and culture movement, and cultural life in general. He was a South African Freemason.\n\nReitz was a popular personality, both for his politics and his openness. When State President Brand suddenly died in 1888, Reitz won the presidential elections unopposed. After being re-elected in 1895, subsequently making a trip to Europe, Reitz fell seriously ill, and had to retire. In 1898, now recovered, he was appointed State Secretary of the South African Republic, and became a leading Afrikaner political figure during the Second Boer War. Reluctant to shift allegiance to the British, Reitz went into voluntary exile after the war ended. Several years later he returned to South Africa and set up a law practice again, in Pretoria. In the late 1900s he became involved in politics once more, and upon the declaration of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Reitz was chosen the first president of the Senate.\n\nReitz was an important figure in Afrikaner cultural life during most of his life, especially through his poems and other publications.\n\n## Family\n\nFrancis William Reitz, Jr., was born in Swellendam on 5 October 1844, as the son of Francis William Reitz, Sr. MLC, model farmer and politician, and Cornelia Magdalena Deneys. He was the seventh child in a family of twelve. He grew up at Rhenosterfontein, the model farm (Afrikaans: plaas) of his father, situated on the borders of the Breederivier (Broad River) in the Cape Colony.\n\nReitz married twice. His first marriage (Cape Town 24 June 1874) was to Blanka Thesen (Stavanger, Norway, 15 October 1854 – Bloemfontein, 5 October 1887). She was the sister of Charles Wilhelm Thesen, and the daughter of Arnt Leonard Thesen, tradesman, and Anne Cathrine Margarethe Brandt. The Thesen family had settled in Knysna, Cape Colony, from Norway in 1869. The couple had seven sons and one daughter. After the death of his first wife Reitz remarried (Bloemfontein, 11 December 1889) with Cornelia Maria Theresia Mulder (Delft, Netherlands, 25 December 1863 – Cape Town 2 January 1935), daughter of Johannes Adrianus Mulder, typesetter, and Engelina Johanna van Hamme. At the time of her marriage Mulder was acting director of the Eunice Ladies' Institute at Bloemfontein. With his second wife he had six sons and one daughter.\n\nDeneys, his son, fought against the British in the Second Boer War, commanded the First Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers during World War I and served as a Member of the Union Parliament, Cabinet Minister, Deputy Prime Minister (1939–1943), and South African High Commissioner (1944) to the Court of St. James's. His book, Commando: A Boer Journal of the Boer War, has for many years been regarded as one of the best narratives of war and adventure in the English language.\n\n## Education\n\nReitz received his earliest schooling at home, from a governess, and at a neighbouring farm. When he was nine years old, he went to the Rouwkoop Boarding School in Rondebosch (Cape Town). Here he stood out for his academic achievements and was subsequently elected Queen's Scholar by the Senate of the South African College in Cape Town. In the six years he spent at the College, after arriving in 1857, he received a broad education in arts and sciences, and developed himself into a well-balanced young man with obvious leadership qualities. He graduated from South African College in September 1863 with the equivalent of a modern bachelor's degree in arts and sciences.\n\nBy then, Reitz had developed a keen interest in law, and he continued his studies at South African College, reading law with professor F.S. Watermeyer. The latter's death only months after Reitz started working with him, made Reitz decide to continue his studies in London, at the Inner Temple. It was a decision that needed deliberation, as his father was hoping for his son to return to the farm in due time, and the financial situation of the family was not strong. However, Reitz did go to London, and finished his studies successfully. He was called to the bar at Westminster on 11 June 1867. During his time in England Reitz became interested in politics, and regularly attended sessions of the House of Commons. Before returning to South Africa he made a tour of Europe. Back in South Africa, Reitz established himself as a barrister in Cape Town, where he was called to the bar on 23 January 1868.\n\n## Early career\n\nIn the beginning Reitz found it hard to make a living, as competition among lawyers in Cape Town was quite severe at this time. Nevertheless, he succeeded in making a name for himself, due to his sharp legal mind and his social intelligence. Being part of the western Circuit Court of the Cape Colony gave him a lot of experience in a very short time. At the same time, Reitz nurtured his political interests by writing lead articles for the Cape Argus newspaper, for which he also reported on the proceedings of the Cape Parliament and acted as deputy editor. In 1870 Reitz moved his legal practice to Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State. The discovery of diamonds on the banks of the Vaal River, Reitz thought, would lead to a growth of legal work and enable him to set up a thriving practice. This was not to be, however, and after a few months Reitz left Bloemfontein to set up as a diamond prospector in Griqualand West, where he bought a small claim near Pniel from the Berlin Missionary Society. This enterprise also proved unsuccessful, and again after only a few months Reitz returned to Cape Town. This time, his Cape Town law practice was successful, ironically because of the British annexation of the Orange Free State diamondfields (1871) and the economic prosperity this emanated for the Cape Colony.\n\nIn 1873 Reitz was asked to represent the district of Beaufort West in the Cape Parliament. The day he took his seat, 30 May, his father, who was the representative for Swellendam, announced his retirement from the Assembly. As so many of Reitz's activities up to that point, his parliamentary career was short-lived. Only two months later, President Johannes Brand of the Orange Free State offered Reitz the position of chairman of the newly formed Appellate court of the Orange Free State, despite the fact that Reitz was not fully qualified (inter alia too young). Reitz refused the offer for this reason, but when another candidate also refused, Brand insisted on the nomination of Reitz, and convinced the Volksraad to appoint him.\n\n## Judge and official of Orange Free State\n\nWith his appointment to the judiciary of the Orange Free State, Reitz came into his own. His arrival – now almost thirty years old and just married – in Bloemfontein in August 1874 was the start of a residency of twenty-one years, as well as the start of a glowing career, to be crowned with his election as State President.\n\nBefore the mid-1870s, the judicial system of the Orange Free State was rather amateurish and haphazard in character, particularly because most of the judges were legally unqualified. Most of the judicial procedures were in the hands of district magistrates, the so-called Landdrosts, whose main task was administrative. Reitz's first task was to ameliorate this situation, which he did with much vigour. Well within his first year of tenure the Volksraad passed an Ordinance, in which both a professional Circuit Court and a Supreme court were called into being. Reitz became the first president of the Supreme court and consequently also the first Chief Justice of the Orange Free State. Right from the beginning Reitz showed himself to be a fighter, opposing the Volksraad on more than one occasion, tackling deeply ingrained political traditions that stood in the way of the modernisation of the judicial system, but also fighting hard to get the salaries and pensions of state officials improved. As a colonial – he was born in the Cape Colony after all – he had to win the confidence of the Boer population to have his ideas accepted. This he did by travelling with the Circuit Court through the country for over ten years, acquiring insight into and empathy for their way of life and their often conservative and always God-fearing beliefs. It helped that Reitz himself was a religious person and that he had started out in life in the Afrikaans speaking countryside of the Cape Colony. Eventually he became the symbol of Afrikanerdom for many Orange Free Staters.\n\nInstitutionally, Reitz did much for the codification and review of the laws of the Orange Free State. With his colleagues C.J. Vels, O.J. Truter, and J.G. Fraser Reitz published the first Ordonnantie boek van den Oranje Vrijstaat (Ordinance Book of the Orange Free State) in 1877, making the acts and ordinances of the republic available to the larger public. He also played a role in the revision of the constitution of the Orange Free State, with regard to articles on citizenship and the right to vote, was chairman of the examination committee for aspirant practitioners, and contributed to the improvement of the prison system and the district administration.\n\n## State President of Orange Free State\n\nAlready in 1878, voices sounded for Reitz to run for the presidency, but President Brand's position was still very strong and Reitz openly praised his qualities and refused to stand against him. In the late 1870s and early 1880s the political temperature ran high in the Orange Free State. The annexation of the South African Republic (Transvaal) by the British in 1877 and the First Anglo-Boer War of 1880–1881 in which that republic regained its autonomy impacted deeply on political sentiments in the Orange Free State. On the one hand there were those who propagated caution in the relationship with the British, on the other there developed a political movement that strongly propagated a (reawakened) Afrikaner national consciousness. Reitz was part of the latter, and together with C.L.F. Borckenhagen, editor of the Bloemfontein Express newspaper, he wrote a constitution for the Afrikaner Bond (Afrikaner Union), a political party originally set up by leading Afrikaner politicians in the Cape Colony, like Rev S.J. du Toit and his Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners ('Society of True Afrikaners') and Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr and the Zuidafrikaansche Boeren Beschermings Vereeniging ('South African Boer Protection Association'). Among the supporters of this new Afrikaner nationalism in the Orange Free State was also Reitz's successor, M.T. Steyn, then still a young lawyer. The constitution was presented in April 1881, and several months later Reitz became the chairman of the Bond. His overt political activities earned Reitz criticism from those who feared a breakdown of relations with the British. It is obvious, however, that a wind of change was blowing through the Boer republics and among the Afrikaners in the Cape Colony, which was to change Anglo-Boer relations drastically.\n\nIn the Orange Free State President Brand was one of the politicians who held on to a more cautious and consolidating policy towards the British government at the Cape, maintaining strict neutrality. In this position Brand followed the habit of a lifetime, and it earned him a British knighthood. Despite the changing political climate and the polarisation of political positions, Brand remained hugely popular with the burghers of the Orange Free State. The presidential elections of 1883 could on content have become a political battle between the pan-Dutch Afrikaner Bond supporters and followers of the Brand-line. However, Reitz, as the ideal pan-Dutch candidate, again refused to stand against Brand. Only when Brand died in office five years later, the time was ripe for change. Reitz stood candidate and won a landslide victory on the ticket of Afrikaner nationalism. He was inaugurated as state president in the Tweetoringkerk (Two-Towers Church) in Bloemfontein on 10 January 1889.\n\nAs president Reitz was one of the first Afrikaners to actively develop a so-called Bantu policy, in philosophy and terminology going beyond contemporary ideas on segregation between white and black. Under his government Indian immigrants were by law forbidden to settle in the Orange Free State (1890). This led to a confrontation with the British government and an extensive correspondence between Reitz and the British high commissioner in Cape Town, in which internal sovereignty was claimed and established.\n\nIn economic terms, the late 1880s were a period of growth in the Orange Free State. Agriculture picked up, and the railway system became an important source of income as well. Reitz was instrumental in the modernisation of farming, propagating new techniques and a scientific approach to the prevention of plagues. Here Reitz showed himself the agriculturalist and model farmer his father had been before him.\n\nUnder Reitz's presidency the new meeting hall for the Volksraad, the so-called Vierde Raadszaal (Fourth Council Hall) was opened (1893), and the new Government Building received a second floor (1895). Outside Bloemfontein the road network received attention.\n\nAs could be expected, immediately after he was inaugurated, Reitz contacted the government of the South African Republic with the objective to establish new and closer political ties. Already on 4 March 1889 the Orange Free State and the South African Republic concluded a treaty of common defence at Potchefstroom. Treaties about trade and the railways were to follow. Even earlier, in January 1889, the Volksraad charged Reitz to negotiate a customs treaty with both the British South African colonies and the South African Republic. On 20 March 1889 a Customs Conference was held in Bloemfontein which led to an agreement between the Orange Free State and the Cape Colony which was hugely beneficial for the former. The economic benefits grew further when new railway lines were opened between the Cape Colony and Bloemfontein (1890) and between Bloemfontein and Johannesburg (1892), directly connecting Cape Town with Johannesburg and turning the Orange Free State into a transit economy. For Reitz the development of a unified South African railway system was also a political goal: the railways as a means to diminish mutual distrust and create unity and mutual understanding between the white population of South Africa.\n\nReitz's policies were appreciated by the Volksraad, reflecting the change in the mood of the Afrikaner electorate towards Afrikaner nationalism. Months before the presidential election of 1893 the Volksraad endorsed Reitz's candidature with a vote of forty-three against eighteen. Reitz accepted the endorsement on the condition that he be allowed three months leave to Europe. On 22 November 1893 he was re-elected, again with a landslide majority.\n\nThe trip to Europe was far from just a family holiday. In Britain Reitz made some strong public statements, defending the republican system of government in South Africa and opposing British intervention in 'Bantu affairs'. On the continent Reitz was received by several heads of state and political leaders. In October 1894 he returned in Bloemfontein. Soon after Reitz was diagnosed with hepatitis, which moreover affected his already strained nerves and led to sleeplessness. The situation was so serious that he eventually had to resign the presidency. The Volksraad accepted his resignation on 11 December 1895.\n\nIn June 1896 Reitz travelled to Europe once more on a five-month trip to recover from his debilitating illness. On his return to South Africa he established himself in Pretoria in the South African Republic in July 1897, where he set up a new law practice.\n\n## State Secretary of South African Republic\n\nReitz did not stay a private person for long because a conflict between the South African Republic legislature and judiciary resulted in the dismissal of the Chief Justice. Reitz then took up an appointment as judge in early 1898 and quickly became part of the inner circle of the Transvaal administration. At the time the relationship with the British was already rapidly deteriorating and the government of the South African Republic was taking action to reinforce its national and international position. One of the measures taken was to replace State Secretary W.J. Leyds, who had the Dutch nationality, with a South African. Leyds was appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Europe to represent the Republic abroad. Reitz took his place as State Secretary in June 1898, after Abraham Fischer had declined.\n\nAs State Secretary Reitz had a complicated and hefty job. After the State President he was the most important member of the Executive Council (Uitvoerende Raad). As the most senior civil servant he was responsible for the oversight over the implementation of the laws and regulations, as well as for all the correspondence of the President, official government reports, etc. He was also an intermediary between the Executive Council and parliament, the First and Second Volksraad, and a key figure in the foreign affairs of the State. Experienced and well organised as he himself was Reitz managed to quickly modernise the structure of the state apparatus, by implementing regulations for the running of the government departments, appointing an archivist for his own, and by prescribing that all correspondence with the government should be in Dutch.\n\nThe State President of the South African Republic, Paul Kruger, was not an easy man to work with, and in some circles it was predicted that Reitz would quickly find himself subordinated to Kruger. This was not the case, however. On occasion the two men clashed on matters of policy, but Reitz remained true to his own convictions, gaining some influence over Kruger in the process. Originally praised by the British for his diplomatic courtesy, their attitude quickly changed when they understood that Reitz was a protagonist of Transvaal independence. Reitz was sometimes rather brazen in his political statements, so when he claimed the South African Republic to be a fully sovereign state, the British jumped on him.\n\nIn view of rapidly mounting British pressure and an ensuing armed conflict over the position of the Uitlanders and economic control over the Witwatersrand gold fields, foreign policy in the South African Republic was eventually determined by a triumvirate: State President Kruger, State Secretary Reitz, and State Attorney General J.C. Smuts. During 1899 they decided that an offensive attitude towards British demands was the only way forward, despite the risks this entailed. Reitz sought and received the support of the Orange Free State for this approach. On 9 October 1899 the South African Republic and the Orange Free State issued a joint ultimatum to the British government to retract their demands.\n\nThe British government did not give in to the ultimatum, and two days later, on 11 October 1899, the Second Anglo-Boer War (South African War) broke out. When the British army marched on Pretoria in May 1900, the government was forced to flee the capital. From that moment on, Reitz was responsible for the continuous relocation of its seat throughout the Transvaal, which occurred sixty-two times until March 1902. In May of that year, Reitz took an active part in the peace negotiations with the British, and he was one of the signatories of the Treaty of Vereeniging, signed in Pretoria on 31 May 1902.\n\n## Self-chosen exile and return to politics\n\nAlthough instrumental in drafting the Treaty of Vereeniging, Reitz personally did not want to swear allegiance to the British government and chose to go into exile. On 4 July 1902, he left South Africa and joined his wife and children in the Netherlands. To alleviate his financial troubles, Reitz set out on a lecture tour in the United States. A waning interest in the Boer cause since the war was over made the tour fail and forced Reitz to return to the Netherlands. There, his health failed him again, leading to his hospitalisation and an extensive period of convalescing. He was then supported by his friends W.J. Leyds and H.P.N. Muller and the Nederlandsch Zuid-Afrikaansche Vereeniging (Dutch South-African Society).\n\nIn 1907, after the old Boer republics received self-government, and in the run-up to the formation of the Union of South Africa, leading Afrikaner politicians J.C. Smuts and L. Botha asked Reitz to return to South Africa and play a role in politics again. Together with his wife, he established himself in Sea Point, Cape Town. In 1910, already sixty-six years old, he was appointed president of the Senate of the newly formed Union of South Africa.\n\nThese were no easy years, again, as former Afrikaner compatriots found each other on two sides of the political fence, in a rapidly changing world. As in his earlier life, Reitz remained a man of outspoken convictions, which he aired freely. As such, he came into conflict with the Smuts government, and in 1920 he was not re-appointed as president of the Senate. He did remain a member of that House until 1929, however.\n\n## Honours and death\n\nAs an important public figure, Reitz was honoured and remembered in different ways. In 1923, Reitz the University of Stellenbosch bestowed on him an honorary doctorate in law for his public services. Already in 1889, a village was named after him in the Orange Free State. In 1894 one also named a village after his second wife, Cornelia. A ship named after him, the President Reitz, sank off Port Elizabeth in 1947. The Jubilee Diamond, found in the Free State village of Jagersfontein in 1895 was originally named the Reitz Diamond, but renamed in honour of the sixtieth anniversary of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1897.\n\nWhen he finally retired from public life, Reitz moved to Gordon's Bay, but returned to Cape Town several years later, where he had a house in Tamboerskloof and was taken care of by his daughter Bessie, a medical doctor. He remained active to the end with writing and translating. Reitz died at his house Botuin on 27 March 1934, and received a state funeral three days later, with a funeral service at the Grote Kerk. He was buried at the Woltemade cemetery at Maitland.\n\n## Cultural figure\n\nReitz was an important figure in Afrikaner cultural life. He was a poet and published many poems in Afrikaans, which made him a progenitor of the development of Afrikaans as a cultural language. As such he sympathised with the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners (Society of Real Afrikaners), established in the Cape Colony in 1875. Although he never became a member himself, he was an active contributor to the society's journal, Die Suid-Afrikaansche Patriot. With his literary work, Reitz was solidly anchored in the so-called First Afrikaans Language Movement, although he was less interested in the didactic drive of that movement than in writing in Afrikaans as a purely cultural activity. Much of his work was based on English texts, which he translated, edited, and adapted. In the process he produced completely new works of art.\n\nFor Reitz, Afrikaans was predominantly a language of culture, not of government, where he propagated the use of the official language of the Boer republics, Dutch. During his presidency of the Orange Free State, where the use of English was significant among the burghers, he strongly promoted the use of Dutch, against politicians like John G. Fraser and others who were in favour of English.\n\nInstitutionally, Reitz promoted the foundation of the Letterkundige en Wetenschappelijke Vereeniging (Literary and Scientific Society) of the Orange Free State, of which he was chairman for a while, the library at Bloemfontein, and the National Museum of the Orange Free State.", "revid": "1170924375", "description": "South African politician and statesman", "categories": ["1844 births", "1934 deaths", "19th-century South African historians", "19th-century South African judges", "19th-century South African writers", "20th-century South African historians", "20th-century South African politicians", "20th-century South African writers", "Afrikaans-language poets", "Afrikaner people", "Historians of South Africa", "Members of the House of Assembly of the Cape Colony", "Orange Free State judges", "People from Swellendam", "People of the Second Boer War", "Presidents of the Senate of South Africa", "South African Freemasons", "South African Republic politicians", "South African poets", "State Presidents of the Orange Free State"]}
{"id": "3016772", "url": null, "title": "Gershwin Theatre", "text": "The Gershwin Theatre (originally the Uris Theatre) is a Broadway theater at 222 West 51st Street, on the second floor of the Paramount Plaza office building, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Opened in 1972, it is operated by the Nederlander Organization and is named after brothers George and Ira Gershwin, who wrote several Broadway musicals. The Gershwin is Broadway's largest theater, with approximately 1,933 seats across two levels. Over the years, it has hosted musicals, dance companies, and concerts.\n\nThe Gershwin was designed by Ralph Alswang. It was one of the first theaters constructed under the Special Theater District amendment of 1967. The theater's main entrances are from a midblock passageway that runs between 50th and 51st Streets. There are escalators leading from the ground floor to the second-story lobby and rotundas. The American Theater Hall of Fame, which contains inscriptions of the names of over 500 notable theatrical personalities, is placed within the lobby and rotundas. The Gershwin's orchestra level, which has about 1,300 seats, is more than double the size of the mezzanine level, which has about 600 seats.\n\nThe Uris Buildings Corporation built the theater within the Uris Building, now Paramount Plaza, in the 1960s in exchange for several additional floors of office space. The Uris opened on November 28, 1972, with a performance of the musical Via Galactica. Following several flops, the theater was rented out for concerts and dance specials in the 1970s. The musicals The King and I and Sweeney Todd had relatively long runs at the end of the decade. The theater was renamed the Gershwin during the 37th Tony Awards in 1983, the first of six Tony Awards ceremonies to be hosted there. In the 1980s, the theater hosted concerts; its first straight plays; and musicals such as Singin' in the Rain and Starlight Express. The theater continued to host concert appearances in the early 1990s, as well as musicals such as Show Boat, and was renovated in 1993. The Gershwin has been home to the musical Wicked since 2003.\n\n## Description\n\nThe Gershwin Theatre is on the second floor of Paramount Plaza, also known as 1633 Broadway, north of Times Square in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Ralph Alswang designed the theater, which opened in 1972 as the Uris Theatre, while Emery Roth and Sons designed Paramount Plaza. It is one of two theaters in Paramount Plaza; the other is the Circle in the Square Theatre in the building's basement. The Gershwin, Circle in the Square, Minskoff, and American Place theaters were all constructed under the Special Theater District amendment of 1967 as a way to give their respective developers additional floor area.\n\nThe Gershwin was decorated in what Alswang described as an Art Nouveau style. The theater covers 50,000 sq ft (4,600 m<sup>2</sup>) and has bronze velour decorations throughout its major public spaces. Originally decorated in white and gold, the Gershwin was redecorated in a blue-and-white color scheme in 1993. The theater is operated by the Nederlander Organization.\n\n### Lobbies and Hall of Fame\n\nAt the base of Paramount Plaza is a promenade that connects 50th and 51st Streets, providing entry to the Gershwin and Circle in the Square theaters. There are marquees for the theaters' entrances on both 50th and 51st Streets. The box office is at ground level. Escalators lead from the ground floor to the Gershwin Theater. The names of 90 celebrities who were active between 1860 and 1930 are inscribed in bronze-gold lettering along the escalators.\n\nThe second floor contains the American Theater Hall of Fame, where the names of notable theatrical personalities are inscribed in gold letters. Eligible inductees have had a career in American theater for at least 25 years and at least five major Broadway production credits. The lobby contains a white wall behind the orchestra seats and measures 220 ft (67 m) wide. The Hall of Fame's names stretch across the four-story-high wall of the lobby. The theater also has two rotundas, one of which originally contained the music and theater collections of the Museum of the City of New York. The hall's names stretch into the rotundas.\n\n### Auditorium\n\nPlaybill cites the theater as having 1,926 seats, while The Broadway League gives a figure of 1,933 seats. The Gershwin's seats are spread across two levels: an orchestra with about 1,300 seats and a smaller mezzanine with about 600 seats. This was based on Alswang's observation that most people wanted orchestra seats. The seats in the Gershwin are spaced 36 in (910 mm) apart from row to row, compared to in older theaters where each row was only 32 to 33 in (810 to 840 mm) apart. The balcony has 14 rows. Like traditional Broadway houses (and unlike the contemporary Minskoff Theatre), the theater had aisles in the center and along the sides. The orchestra level is ADA-accessible via an elevator from the ground story.\n\nThe mezzanine level has protrusions on the side walls instead of box seats. The proscenium arch is designed with light bars, which could be removed if necessary. The wall panels also contains panels that can be removed for the installation of speakers. The stage was also designed with a flexible layout in that it could be disassembled or extended forward. When the stage was extended forward, it basically functioned as a thrust stage, covering the orchestra pit. With a 65 ft-wide (20 m) adjustable proscenium arch and an 80 ft-wide (24 m) stage, it is one of the largest Broadway stages, ideal for very large musical productions.\n\nUnlike older theaters in New York City, the Minskoff and Gershwin theaters were subject to less stringent building codes. For example, the Gershwin was designed without fire curtains, since the city had allowed sprinkler systems to be installed in both theaters. The theater also used Hydra-Float, a computerized rigging system. This made it the first commercial theater in the U.S. to be completely automated. Backstage, there were eight large dressing suites for lead performers, which were equipped with air conditioning, green rooms, and private bathrooms.\n\n## History\n\n### Construction\n\nIn September 1967, Uris Buildings Corporation leased the site of the Capitol Theatre on Broadway, between 50th and 51st Streets, for 100 years. Uris announced it would build an office tower and a Broadway theater on the site. The Broadway theater would have 1,500 to 2,000 seats. In October 1967, the New York City Planning Commission (CPC) proposed the Special Theater District Zoning Amendment, which gave zoning bonuses to office-building developers who included theaters. The proposed legislation would directly allow theaters in One Astor Plaza and the Uris Building, which would be the first completely new Broadway theaters since the Mark Hellinger Theatre was completed in 1930. The CPC approved the theater amendment that November, and the New York City Board of Estimate gave final approval to the proposal the next month. A second theater, which subsequently became the Circle in the Square, was announced in February 1968.\n\nIn April 1968, the CPC scheduled a public hearing to determine whether the Astor and Uris theater permits should be approved. Six parties testified in favor; the Shubert Organization, the largest operator of Broadway theaters, was the only dissenting speaker. The CPC approved the theaters over the Shuberts' objections, as did the Board of Estimate. That September, Uris Buildings Corporation made a tentative deal with James M. Nederlander and Gerard Oestricher to operate the larger of the building's two theaters. The larger venue was renamed for Percy Uris, head of the Uris Buildings Corporation, in 1971. The New York Daily News subsequently said that the Uris family's decision to name the theater for themselves \"became an object of ridicule in theatrical circles\".\n\nMeanwhile, civic group Broadway Association had proposed constructing a theatrical hall of fame in a median island of Broadway several blocks north. Earl Blackwell then suggested that the Nederlanders include a theatrical hall of fame at the Uris Theatre. Plans for the hall were announced in March 1972, as the building and theater were being completed. The first names were inducted that October, just before the theater opened.\n\n### 1970s\n\nThe Uris Theatre was dedicated on November 19, 1972, and hosted its first show on November 28, a performance of the musical Via Galactica starring Raul Julia. The theater was cited as having 1,840, 1,870, 1,900, or 1,940 seats when it was completed. Alswang estimated the theater's total cost at \\$12.5 million. Despite a top ticket price of \\$12.75 (lower than the typical top price of \\$15), it flopped with seven performances and was the first Broadway show to lose a million dollars. The next show was Cy Coleman and Dorothy Fields's musical Seesaw, which opened in March 1973 and transferred to the Hellinger that August, ultimately running for 296 performances. A revival of the Sigmund Romberg operetta The Desert Song premiered at the Uris in September 1973 but closed after only 15 performances. This was followed that November by the Lerner and Loewe musical Gigi, which lasted 103 performances. For the most part, the Uris lost money during its first two seasons, since it was dark most of the time. The Uris also hosted annual ceremonies when people were inducted into the Theatrical Hall of Fame. Due to a lack of money, there were no new inductions between 1973 and 1979.\n\nThere were no new legitimate shows in 1974. After singer Sammy Davis Jr. had a highly profitable concert that May, James M. Nederlander decided to book concerts at the theater for the remainder of the year, citing its acoustic qualities. Nederlander said the theater could also be used for musicals if there was demand in the future. A New York Times critic said the Uris Building, which had just gone into foreclosure, might be a \"monument to its mortality\" instead of \"a leader in the revitalization of Broadway\". Musicians who appeared in 1974 included Mott the Hoople (performing with Queen); Enrico Macias and his La Fete Orientale Co.; Andy Williams with Michel Legrand; Anthony Newley with Henry Mancini; Johnny Mathis and the Miracles; The 5th Dimension; and Raphael. The 17th Annual Grammy Awards were presented at the Uris in March 1975, and the Dance Theatre of Harlem performed at the theater that May. Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, and Count Basie had a limited concert appearance that September, and the Houston Grand Opera Association presented the opera Treemonisha the next month. This was followed by performances from ballet dancers Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev, singer-songwriter Paul Anka, and the American Ballet Theatre.\n\nThe Dance Theatre of Harlem returned to the theater in March 1976. The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company presented three Gilbert and Sullivan operettas at the Uris that May, followed the next month by a concert appearance from Al Green and Ashford & Simpson. That October, the Houston Grand Opera presented the musical Porgy and Bess. The theater went back to hosting concerts, with appearances by Bing Crosby and Barry Manilow in December 1976. The Dance Theatre of Harlem canceled a planned 1977 season at the Uris due to a financial deficit. Instead, Nureyev returned in March 1977 for a ballet performance, and Béjart: Ballet of the Twentieth Century performed the same month. The musical The King and I, with Yul Brynner and Constance Towers, opened in May 1977 and ran for 719 performances, becoming the theater's longest-running show. Another long-lasting show was Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler's musical Sweeney Todd with Angela Lansbury, which opened in March 1979 and ran for 755 performances over the next year.\n\n### 1980s\n\nIn 1980, the Uris mostly hosted performances by ballet companies. The following January, the New York Shakespeare Festival produced Gilbert & Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance, which relocated to the Minskoff in August 1981. This was followed immediately afterward by a revival of Lerner and Loewe's My Fair Lady, with Rex Harrison, which lasted 124 performances. That November, the musical Annie transferred to the Uris; it ran for over a year, concluding its run of 2,377 performances there. Next, Nureyev performed with the Boston Ballet in early 1983, and the Houston Grand Opera presented Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II's musical Show Boat that April. At that time, Tony Awards producer Alexander H. Cohen announced that the 37th Tony Awards ceremony would be hosted there and that the Uris would be renamed after musical-writing brothers Ira and George Gershwin. During the ceremony on June 5, 1983, the theater was rededicated. Show Boat closed shortly thereafter and was followed in July by Mame, featuring Lansbury.\n\nThe Gershwin hosted a memorial for Ira Gershwin after he died in August 1983, two months after the theater's renaming. The theater continued to face issues with booking extended runs of large musicals. In January 1984, Nederlander announced he would again use it as a concert hall for a year. This time, the theater hosted performances from Shirley MacLaine; Twyla Tharp; Rudolf Nureyev; and Gladys Knight & the Pips with Kashif. In addition, the theater hosted the 38th Tony Awards in June 1984. The Royal Shakespeare Company presented Much Ado about Nothing and Cyrano de Bergerac in repertory for ten weeks starting in October 1984. The theater was acoustically modified for these plays, as it was the first time the theater had hosted straight plays. This was followed in early 1985 by concert appearances from Patti LaBelle and Smokey Robinson. Next, the musical Singin' in the Rain opened in July 1985 and ran for 367 performances over the next ten months.\n\nAfter Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical Starlight Express was announced for the theater in mid-1986, the theater was renovated to accommodate the technologically complex set. Starlight opened in March 1987 and ran for two years, closing at a loss despite critical acclaim. Afterward, the Nederlanders announced plans to use the Gershwin as a concert hall for the 1989–1990 season. At the time, six of the Nederlanders' nine Broadway theaters were dark, and there was a shortage of new musicals. Only one live performance happened this time: a set of concerts by Barry Manilow in mid-1989. That November, the musical comedy Meet Me in St. Louis opened, running for 253 performances.\n\n### 1990s\n\nThe concert special Bugs Bunny on Broadway appeared briefly in late 1990, followed by a revival of the musical Fiddler on the Roof. A special appearance by the Moscow Circus then opened at the Gershwin in late 1991. The musical Grand Hotel moved to the Gershwin in February 1992, ending a run of over 1,000 performances there. The Gershwin hosted the 46th Tony Awards in June 1992, and the theater hosted a \\$1 million launch party that October for Windows for Workgroups. This was followed by concert appearances from Tommy Tune in December 1992, Raffi in April 1993, and Yanni in June 1993. The theater was renovated in mid-1993 prior to its hosting the 47th Tony Awards.\n\nA revival of Lerner and Loewe's Camelot opened in June 1993 and ran for two months. The musical The Red Shoes opened that December, but it was one of Broadway's biggest flops, closing after three days at a loss of \\$8 million. By the mid-1990s, there was high competition for large Broadway houses. Less than a week after The Red Shoes closed, production company Livent booked a revival of Show Boat for the theater. The theater once again hosted the 48th Tony Awards in 1994. The awards ceremonies subsequently relocated to Radio City Music Hall, as that theater was much larger (allowing the public to attend) and did not require shutting down Broadway productions. Show Boat opened in October 1994 and ran for 949 performances over two years.\n\nFollowing this, in January 1997, John Gray performed a monologue of his book Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. Livent's revival of the operetta Candide opened that April. and ran for 103 performances. The Roundabout Theatre Company then transferred the musical 1776, its most popular production, to the Gershwin that November, where it ran until June 1998. The New York Shakespeare Festival's production of the musical On the Town opened at the Gershwin in November 1998, but it was unprofitable and closed after 65 performances. The Gershwin also hosted the 53rd Tony Awards in 1999, since Radio City Music Hall was undergoing renovation. Also in 1999, the theater hosted the musicals Peter Pan and Tango Argentino.\n\n### 2000s to present\n\nThe dance revue Riverdance on Broadway opened at the Gershwin in March 2000, running for 605 performances through the following August. After Riverdance closed, the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Oklahoma! was booked at the Gershwin. Additionally, Linda Eder performed at the theater at the end of 2001. Oklahoma! opened in March 2002 and ran for 388 performances for the next year. For Oklahoma!, the first five rows of seats in the orchestra level were removed to make way for a temporary thrust stage. In June 2002, the theater hosted a party celebrating what would have been the 100th birthday of Richard Rodgers, one of the composers of Oklahoma!.\n\nThe next production at the Gershwin Theatre was Stephen Schwartz's musical Wicked, which opened in October 2003. David Stone, one of Wicked's producers, was initially reluctant to book the Gershwin because of the theater's reputation for short-lived productions, as well as its size. Despite initial negative reviews, Wicked became so popular that it continued at the Gershwin indefinitely. The theater's large seating capacity also turned out to be suitable for the musical's popularity. As part of a settlement with the United States Department of Justice in 2014, the Nederlanders agreed to improve disabled access at their nine Broadway theaters, including the Gershwin. Wicked was still playing when the theater closed on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The theater reopened on September 14, 2021, with performances of Wicked.\n\n## Notable productions\n\nProductions are listed by the year of their first performance.\n\n### Uris Theatre\n\n- 1972: Via Galactica\n- 1973: Seesaw\n- 1973: The Desert Song\n- 1973: Gigi\n- 1974: Sammy Davis Jr.\n- 1974: Mott the Hoople\n- 1974: Enrico Macias and his La Fete Orientale Co.\n- 1974: Andy Williams with Michel Legrand\n- 1974: Anthony Newley/Henry Mancini\n- 1974: Johnny Mathis and the Miracles\n- 1974: The 5th Dimension\n- 1974: Raphael\n- 1975: Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, and Count Basie\n- 1975: Treemonisha\n- 1975: Fonteyn & Nureyev on Broadway\n- 1975: Paul Anka\n- 1975: American Ballet Theatre\n- 1976: H.M.S. Pinafore/The Pirates of Penzance/The Mikado\n- 1976: Al Green with Ashford & Simpson\n- 1976: Porgy and Bess\n- 1976: Bing Crosby\n- 1976: Barry Manilow\n- 1977: Nureyev\n- 1977: Béjart: Ballet of the Twentieth Century\n- 1977: The King and I\n- 1979: Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street\n- 1980: Dance Theatre of Harlem\n- 1980: The Bat\n- 1980: Coppelia\n- 1980: Makarova and Company\n- 1980: Boston Ballet Company\n- 1981: The Pirates of Penzance\n- 1981: My Fair Lady\n- 1981: Annie\n- 1983: Show Boat\n\n### Gershwin Theatre\n\n- 1983: Mame\n- 1984: Shirley MacLaine on Broadway\n- 1984: Twyla Tharp Dance on Broadway\n- 1984: Nureyev and Friends\n- 1984: Gladys Knight & the Pips & Kashif\n- 1984: Much Ado About Nothing\n- 1984: Cyrano de Bergerac\n- 1985: Patti LaBelle on Broadway\n- 1985: An Evening with Smokey Robinson\n- 1985: Singin' in the Rain\n- 1987: Starlight Express\n- 1989: Barry Manilow Live on Broadway\n- 1989: Meet Me in St. Louis\n- 1990: Bugs Bunny on Broadway\n- 1990: Fiddler on the Roof\n- 1991: Moscow Circus\n- 1992: Grand Hotel\n- 1992: Tommy Tune Tonite!\n- 1993: Raffi\n- 1993: Yanni\n- 1993: Camelot\n- 1993: The Red Shoes\n- 1994: Show Boat\n- 1997: Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus\n- 1997: Candide\n- 1997: 1776\n- 1998: On the Town\n- 1999: Peter Pan\n- 1999: Tango Argentino\n- 2000: Riverdance on Broadway\n- 2001: Linda Eder at the Gershwin\n- 2002: Oklahoma!\n- 2003: Wicked\n\n## Box office records\n\nWhen Starlight Express opened in 1987, it had the highest single-week gross of any show in both the Gershwin Theatre's history and Broadway history. Starlight Express broke this record several times, ultimately grossing \\$617,022 during the last week of 1987. Fiddler on the Roof set the record for the highest number of tickets sold for a Broadway production in a single week during the last week of 1990. From October 4 to 9, 1994, Show Boat sold \\$842,636 worth of tickets. This was the highest single-week ticket sale for any Broadway production, in terms of monetary profit, as well as the second-highest in number of tickets sold.\n\nWicked set the box office record for the Gershwin Theatre multiple times. In 2010, the musical became the first Broadway show to gross over \\$2 million in a single week. Wicked held the record for the highest single-week gross of any Broadway show from its opening until 2011, when the musical Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark earned \\$58 more during a single week (both shows had earned \\$1.5 million). The theater's current record was set in 2018, when Wicked grossed \\$3,411,819 over nine performances for the week ending December 30, 2018.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Broadway theaters", "revid": "1158913943", "description": "Broadway theater in Manhattan, New York", "categories": ["1972 establishments in New York City", "Art Nouveau architecture in New York City", "Art Nouveau theatres", "Broadway theatres", "Nederlander Organization", "Theatres completed in 1972"]}
{"id": "43991244", "url": null, "title": "Arrival (film)", "text": "Arrival is a 2016 American science fiction drama film directed by Denis Villeneuve and adapted by Eric Heisserer, who conceived the project as a spec script based on the 1998 short story \"Story of Your Life\" by Ted Chiang. The film stars Amy Adams as Louise Banks, a linguist enlisted by the United States Army to discover how to communicate with extraterrestrials who have arrived on Earth, before tensions lead to war. Jeremy Renner, Forest Whitaker, Michael Stuhlbarg, and Tzi Ma appear in supporting roles.\n\nArrival had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on September 1, 2016, and was released theatrically in the United States by Paramount Pictures on November 11, 2016. It grossed \\$203 million worldwide and received critical acclaim, with particular praise for Adams's performance, Villeneuve's direction, and the exploration of communication with extraterrestrial intelligence. Considered one of the best films of 2016, Arrival appeared on numerous critics' year-end lists and was selected by the American Film Institute as one of ten \"Movies of the Year\".\n\nIt received eight nominations at the 89th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Cinematography, Best Adapted Screenplay, and won Best Sound Editing. For her performance, Adams received nominations for a BAFTA, SAG, Critics' Choice, and at the 74th Golden Globe Awards, Adams was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress and Jóhann Jóhannsson was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. The film was awarded the Ray Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation in 2017. The score by Jóhannsson was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 60th Grammy Awards.\n\n## Plot\n\nLinguist Louise Banks's daughter Hannah dies at the age of twelve from an incurable illness.\n\nTwelve extraterrestrial spacecraft hover over various locations around the Earth. In the ensuing widespread panic, affected nations send military and scientific experts to monitor and study them. In the United States, US Army Colonel Weber recruits Banks and physicist Ian Donnelly to study the craft above Montana. On board, Banks and Donnelly make contact with two cephalopod-like, seven-limbed aliens, whom they call \"heptapods\"; Donnelly nicknames them Abbott and Costello. Banks and Donnelly research the complex written language of the aliens, consisting of palindromic phrases written with circular symbols, and share the results with other nations. As Banks studies the language, she starts to have flashback-like visions of her daughter.\n\nWhen Banks is able to establish sufficient shared vocabulary to ask why the aliens have come, they answer with a statement that could be translated as \"offer weapon\". China interprets this as \"use weapon\", prompting it to break off communications, and other nations follow. Banks argues that the symbol interpreted as \"weapon\" can be more abstractly related to the concepts of \"means\" or \"tool\"; China's translation likely results from interacting with the aliens using mahjong, a highly competitive game.\n\nRogue soldiers plant a bomb in the Montana craft. Unaware, Banks and Donnelly re-enter the alien vessel, and the aliens give them a more complex message. Just before the bomb explodes, one of the aliens ejects Donnelly and Banks from the vessel, knocking them unconscious. When they wake, the alien craft has moved beyond reach and the US military is preparing to evacuate in case of retaliation.\n\nChina's General Shang issues an ultimatum to his local alien craft, demanding that it leave China within 24 hours. Russia, Pakistan, and Sudan follow suit; communications between the international research teams are terminated as worldwide panic sets in.\n\nDonnelly discovers that the symbol for time is present throughout the message and that the writing occupies exactly one-twelfth of the 3D space into which it is projected. Banks suggests that the full message is split among the twelve craft and that the aliens want all the nations to share what they learn.\n\nBanks goes alone to the Montana craft, which sends down a transport pod. Abbott has been mortally injured as a result of the explosion. Costello explains that they have come to help humanity, for in 3,000 years they will need humanity's help in return. Banks realizes the \"weapon\" is their language. Learning the language alters humans' linear perception of time, allowing them to experience memories of future events. Banks's visions of her daughter are revealed to be premonitions; her daughter will not be born until sometime in the future.\n\nBanks returns to the camp as it is being evacuated and tells Donnelly that the aliens' language is the \"tool\" that was meant by the word \"weapon\". She has a premonition of a United Nations event celebrating newfound unity, following the alien arrival, in which Shang thanks her for persuading him to stop the attack when she called his private number and recited his wife's dying words. He then shows her his private number.\n\nIn the present, Banks takes CIA agent Halpern's satellite phone from a table and calls Shang's private number to recite the words. The Chinese announce that they are standing down and releasing their twelfth of the message. The other countries follow suit, and the twelve spacecraft depart.\n\nBased on what she has learned, she writes and publishes a book called \"The Universal Language\", a guide to the heptapod language, which will eventually teach humanity to perceive time the same way as the heptapods.\n\nDuring the evacuation, Donnelly expresses his love for Banks. They talk about life choices and whether he would change them if he could see his life from beginning to end. Banks knows that she will agree to have a child with him despite knowing their fate: that Hannah will die from an incurable disease and Donnelly will leave them both after she reveals that she knew this.\n\n## Cast\n\n## Production\n\n### Development and pre-production\n\nArrival is based on the Nebula-winning science fiction novella \"Story of Your Life\" by Ted Chiang, written in 1998. The novella involves Earth's first communication with heptapods who speak in a cryptic language. Screenwriter Eric Heisserer had been introduced to the story through another of Chiang's stories, \"Understand\", and had begun reading through Chiang's collected works when \"Story of Your Life\" had a \"profound emotional effect\" on him. As a result, he decided to try to adapt the story into a film script as he wanted to share it with a wider audience. After writing an initial spec script, Heisserer pitched it to production companies for several years without receiving any interest and nearly gave up on the project. Heisserer believes it was not until he had successfully completed and produced 2013's Hours that others took interest in his work, his having proved himself capable. Eventually, Dan Levine and Dan Cohen of 21 Laps Entertainment expressed interest in Heisserer's script. Shawn Levy of 21 Laps said they had become aware of \"Story of Your Life\" around 2011 and considered it a powerful work; when they learned of Heisserer's script adaptation, they started working closely with him, helping him refine the script before they began seeking a director and distribution studio.\n\nOne of the directors that 21 Laps approached was Denis Villeneuve. Villeneuve had wanted to make a science fiction film for some time, although he \"never found the right thing\". Cohen and Levine, however, introduced Villeneuve to the novella, which the director immediately took to, although his work on Prisoners meant that he did not have the time to properly adapt it into a screenplay with Heisserer. Heisserer completed a first draft, which Villeneuve and Heisserer reworked into the final script. Villeneuve changed the title, as he felt the original sounded like a romantic comedy and that the script had become very different from the short story. While Villeneuve went through \"hundreds\" of possible titles, Arrival was the first one his team of producers and writers had suggested.\n\nHeisserer had made several changes from \"Story of Your Life\" between writing his original screenplays and the final script, the main one being that the heptapods actually arrived on Earth in a type of first contact situation, as he felt this helped to create the tension and conflict needed for a film. Heisserer said that earlier versions of the script had a different ending: the gift from the heptapods was to have been \"blueprints to an interstellar ship, like an ark of sorts\", to enable humanity to help them in 3,000 years. But after the release of Interstellar in 2014, Heisserer and Villeneuve agreed that this would not work, and decided that the heptapods' gift would be what was \"there in front of us ... the power of their language\".\n\nAmy Adams entered negotiations to star in the film in April 2014, and would be confirmed by the time Jeremy Renner joined the film in March 2015. Forest Whitaker signed on in April, with Michael Stuhlbarg joining soon after in June. Adams, who was playing a linguistics professor in the film, consulted with linguist Jessica Coon to prepare for her role.\n\n### Filming\n\nPrincipal photography lasted for 56 days, beginning on June 7, 2015, after Renner had fulfilled his obligations to Captain America: Civil War. Filming was done mainly in and around Montreal, Quebec, with Saint-Fabien serving as Montana. The team took some time to find the right site to represent the landing of the spacecraft because producers wanted to avoid a mountainous site that might dwarf the scale of the ship, but thought that a barren location would be clichéd. Most of the filming that did not involve the exterior of a ship was done indoors on sound stages, although a real house located in Chemin de l'Île, Vaudreuil-Dorion, was used as Banks's home. The scenes of the university where Banks teaches were shot at HEC Montréal. Bradford Young was sought out by Villeneuve as he was looking for a cinematographer with a sensibility toward natural lighting. Said Villeneuve: \"I wanted the movie to have strong roots in realism. I wanted a cinematographer who would not be afraid to deal with intimacy. It’s a very specific sensibility that I felt in Bradford’s previous work.\" Color timing was used as a means of matching Louise's state of mind at a given moment. Young stated \"I went for cooler colors when I wanted Amy to feel worn down. We tried to pull back on that a little bit, but then Denis stopped me in the [color timing] and told me not to be so concerned about skin tone and let her be pasty, let her exist in that melancholy space, let us feel that visually.\" When discussing the film with Villeneuve, Young described the director's goal of making a \"dirty\" science fiction film, by making the look of the film more grounded and \"slightly boring\" as Villeneuve put it. Additionally, Young looked towards the book Speedway by photographer Martina Hoogland Ivanow as a reference for the look of the film.\n\n### Visual effects\n\nProduction designer Patrice Vermette discussed the film in a February 2017 interview with Popular Mechanics, stating that a big influence on the look of the film was the works of artist James Turrell, particularly the design of the meeting room aboard the alien craft. \"I wanted the simplicity and the sensorial experience you feel in a room like that. That big screen was always there in the script, and I used it as an element to unite Louise's world. For me, that big screen is more than a screen—that room, which they called in the script 'the interview room,' is a classroom. That big white screen, [you see it] represented in Louise's house with the big window. You also see it in her school, in her classroom.\"\n\nRodeo FX completed 60 visual shots for the film, and stated that the biggest challenge for them was the sequence in which Louise and Ian first enter the alien craft.\n\nThe asteroid 15 Eunomia is the inspiration for the look of the heptapod ships.\n\n### Linguistics\n\nBoth the book and the screenwriting required the invention of a form of alien linguistics which recurs in the plot. The film uses a script designed by the artist Martine Bertrand (wife of the production designer Patrice Vermette), based on scriptwriter Heisserer's original concept. Computer scientists Stephen and Christopher Wolfram analyzed it to provide the basis for Banks's work in the film. Their works are summarized in a GitHub repository. Three linguists from McGill University were consulted. The sound files for the alien language were created with consultation from Morgan Sonderegger, a phonetics expert. Lisa Travis was consulted for set design during the construction of the scientist's workplaces. Jessica Coon, a Canada Research Chair in Syntax and Indigenous Languages, was consulted for her linguistics expertise during the review of the script. Heisserer said at the Alamo Drafthouse's Fantastic Fest premiere of Arrival at the end of September 2016 that Shang's wife's last words, translated into English, were \"In war, there are no winners, only widows\". Villeneuve decided not to include subtitles for the line; Heisserer said he would have preferred it not be kept secret, and was happy to reveal the translation.\n\n### Music and soundtrack\n\nJóhann Jóhannsson began writing the score as the shooting started, drawing on the screenplay and concept art for inspiration. He developed one of the main themes in the first week using vocals and experimental piano loops. The original soundtrack was released by Deutsche Grammophon on November 11, 2016.\n\nMax Richter's pre-existing piece \"On the Nature of Daylight\" is featured in the film's opening and closing scenes. Due to the prominent use of Richter's music, which had also featured in Martin Scorsese's film Shutter Island, Jóhannsson's score was deemed ineligible for the Academy Award for Best Original Score, the rationale being that voters would be influenced by the use of pre-existing music when judging the merits of the score.\n\n## Marketing and release\n\nA teaser trailer was released in August 2016, followed the next week by the first official trailer. Paramount Pictures released a series of promotional posters, with one showing a UFO hovering above a Hong Kong skyline that included Shanghai's Oriental Pearl Tower. The inaccuracy angered Hong Kong social media users. The posters were withdrawn and a statement attributed the inaccuracy to a third-party vendor.\n\nIn May 2014, while titled Story of Your Life, Paramount acquired the US and Canadian distribution rights. Shortly after, Sony Pictures Releasing International and Stage 6 Films acquired some international distribution rights, while Entertainment One acquired the UK distribution rights and Roadshow Films acquired Australian distribution rights. Spentzos Films acquired distribution rights for Greece, Reliance Entertainment for India (ultimately it was MVP Entertainment that released it there), Lev Cinemas for Israel, Italia Films for the UAE, and Chantier Films for Turkey. The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on September 1, 2016. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, the Telluride Film Festival, and the BFI London Film Festival. The film was released on November 11, 2016.\n\n### Home media\n\nArrival was released on Digital HD on January 31, 2017 and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on February 14, 2017.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Box office\n\nArrival grossed \\$100.5 million in the United States and Canada, and \\$102.8 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of \\$203.4 million, against a production budget of \\$47 million.\n\nIn the United States and Canada, Arrival was released alongside Almost Christmas and Shut In, and was originally expected to gross around \\$17 million from 2,317 theaters in its opening weekend, with the studio projecting a more conservative debut of \\$12–15 million. The film made \\$1.4 million from Thursday night previews at 1,944 theaters and \\$9.4 million on its first day, pushing projections up to \\$24 million. It ended up grossing \\$24.1 million over the weekend, finishing third at the box office. In its second weekend, the film grossed \\$12.1 million (a drop of 49.6%), and in its third made \\$11.5 million (dropping just 5.6%). Following its eight Oscar nominations, the film returned to 1,221 theaters on January 27, 2017 (an increase of 1,041 from the week before) and grossed \\$1.5 million (up 357.4% from its previous week's \\$321,411).\n\n### Critical response\n\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 94% based on 439 reviews, with an average rating of 8.40/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Arrival delivers a must-see experience for fans of thinking person's sci-fi that anchors its heady themes with genuinely affecting emotion and a terrific performance from Amy Adams.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 52 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A+ to F scale.\n\nRobbie Collin of The Telegraph praised the film, calling it \"introspective, philosophical and existentially inclined—yet [it] unfolds in an unwavering tenor of chest-tightening excitement. And there is a mid-film revelation—less a sudden twist than sleek unwinding of everything you think you know—that feels, when it hits you like your seat is tipping back.\" Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four: \"It's a movie designed to simultaneously challenge viewers, move them and get them talking. For the most part, it succeeds.\" For Time, Sam Lansky described it as \"sophisticated, grownup sci-fi: a movie about aliens for people who don't like movies about aliens\". IGN reviewer Chris Tilly gave it a score of 8.5 out of 10, saying: \"Arrival is a language lesson masquerading as a blockbuster, though much more entertaining than that sounds... it's smart, sophisticated sci-fi that asks big questions, and does a pretty good job of answering them\". Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times praised Adams's performance, stating \"Arrival is really Adams’ film, a showcase for her ability to quietly and effectively meld intelligence, empathy, and reserve\". Writing for USA Today, Brian Truitt referred to Adams as a \"definite Oscar contender\", and credited Adams as \"spectacular in giving Louise the right emotional balance\".\n\nConversely, Forrest Wickman of Slate had a more mixed opinion of the film, praising the cinematography and musical score, but stating that he thought it was similar to Christopher Nolan's \"only intermittently stellar\" Interstellar, and criticizing the dialogue as \"clunky\".\n\nRex Reed, writing for the New York Observer, gave the film one out of four, calling it Villeneuve's \"latest exercise in pretentious poopery\" and referring to a lack of action in the storyline.\n\nThe Guardian rated it as the third-best film of 2016. Critic Catherine Shoard said that it \"amounts to something transcendent; something to reignite your excitement for cinema, for life\". Numerous other publications and websites, including io9, Den of Geek, Mir Fantastiki, The Atlantic, Blastr, and Digital Trends named Arrival the best film of 2016.\n\n### Response from academics\n\nDavid Adger, a linguistics professor who teaches at Queen Mary University of London, had a favorable view of the accuracy of the linguistics in Arrival, saying that \"the portrayal of trying different hypotheses about the language, coming up with generalizations, and testing them out was spot on.\"\n\nSimilarly, Jessica Coon, a linguistics professor who teaches at McGill University and helped with the film's linguistics, stated that \"what the film gets exactly right is both the interactive nature but also that you really have to start small.\" She noted that the creators had not invented a complete language.\n\nLinguistics professor Betty Birner, who teaches at Northern Illinois University, said that the film's use of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis went \"beyond anything that is plausible\". She also felt the film oversimplified the process of translating the aliens' language, skipping straight from Banks establishing the basic vocabulary of the language, to her being able to understand abstract concepts such as \"weapon\".\n\n### Accolades, awards and nominations\n\nArrival received numerous nominations and awards. At the 89th Academy Awards, it won the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing, and had received nominations for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Film Editing, Best Production Design and Best Sound Mixing. Additionally, at the 74th Golden Globes, Adams had received a nomination for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, and composer Jóhann Jóhannsson had received a nomination for Best Original Score.\n\n## See also\n\n- Alien language in science fiction\n- List of films featuring extraterrestrials", "revid": "1173405729", "description": "2016 science fiction film by Denis Villeneuve", "categories": ["2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s mystery drama films", "2010s science fiction drama films", "2016 thriller films", "21 Laps Entertainment films", "Alien visitations in films", "American mystery thriller films", "American nonlinear narrative films", "American psychological thriller films", "American science fantasy films", "American science fiction thriller films", "BAFTA winners (films)", "Fictional-language films", "FilmNation Entertainment films", "Films about extraterrestrial life", "Films about interpreting and translation", "Films about language", "Films about precognition", "Films based on American short stories", "Films based on science fiction short stories", "Films directed by Denis Villeneuve", "Films scored by Jóhann Jóhannsson", "Films set in Montana", "Films shot in Montreal", "Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award", "Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form winning works", "IMAX films", "Lava Bear Films films", "Paramount Pictures films", "Stage 6 Films films", "Works about Chinese military personnel"]}
{"id": "22323096", "url": null, "title": "Princely Abbey of Stavelot-Malmedy", "text": "The Princely Abbey of Stavelot-Malmedy, also Principality of Stavelot-Malmedy, sometimes known with its German name Stablo, was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire. Princely power was exercised by the Benedictine abbot of the imperial double monastery of Stavelot and Malmedy, founded in 651. Along with the Duchy of Bouillon and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, it was one of only three principalities of the Southern Netherlands that were never part of the Spanish Netherlands, later the Austrian Netherlands, which after 1500 were assigned to the Burgundian Circle while the principalities were assigned to the Lower Rhenish Imperial Circle.\n\nAs a prince-abbot, the abbot of Stavelot-Malmedy sat on the Ecclesiastical Bench of the College of Ruling Princes of the Imperial Diet alongside the prince-bishops. Along with the handful of other prince-abbots, he cast a full vote (votum virile), in contrast to the majority of imperial abbots who were only entitled to collectively determine the votes of their respective curial benches.\n\nIn 1795, the principality was abolished and its territory was incorporated into the French département of Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 assigned Stavelot to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and Malmedy became part of the Prussian district of Eupen-Malmedy. Both are currently parts of the Kingdom of Belgium—since the 1830 Belgian Revolution and the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, respectively (Malmedy annexed to Bejgium in 1925). In 1921 the Abbey church of Malmedy became the Cathedral of the short-lived Diocese of Eupen-Malmedy.\n\n## History\n\n### Establishment\n\nSaint Remaclus founded the Abbey of Stavelot on the Amblève river, circa 650, on lands along the border between the bishoprics of Cologne and Tongeren, this territory belonged at that time to Grimoald, the Austrasian mayor of the palace and member of the Arnulfinger-Peppinid family. A charter of Sigebert III, king of Austrasia entrusted Remaclus with the monasteries of both Stavelot and Malmedy, which was located a few kilometres eastwards in the Ardennes forest, \"a place of horror and solitary isolation which abounds with wild beasts\". Sigebert granted forest land; charged his Mayor of the Palace, Grimoald the Elder, with furnishing money to build the two monasteries; and continued to foster these communities with personal gifts.\n\nThe site of Malmedy was probably already settled before the foundation of the abbey, despite etymology seeming to indicate Malmedy's unsuitability. Mal(u)mund(a)-arium was \"a place with winding waters\", or, most probably, Malmund-arium, a \"bad confluency\". The Warchenne was partially canalised and its banks strengthened, to prevent the flooding that Malmedy often experienced. The abbey church in Malmedy was dedicated to St Benedict. The monastery of Malmedy is considered by historians and hagiographers to be slightly older than the monastery of Stavelot, with the town claiming its foundation date as 648. Malmedy is listed on earlier maps than Stavelot, and the commission appointed in 670 by Childeric II, in order to delimit the abbey territory, started from Malmedy (Latin: de Monasterio Malmunderio). Afterwards, the territory of the abbey was enlarged westwards, so that Stavelot became the geographical centre and the capital of the principality.\n\nThe first church in Stavelot was built by abbot Godwin and, on 25 June 685, was dedicated to saints Martin, Peter, and Paul. The relics of Saint Remaclus were housed in this new church.\n\n### Development and the High Middle Ages\n\nIn 747, Carloman, Duke of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, enlarged the abbeys' lands with gifts from his own, on his abdication. Throughout the ninth century, the abbeys played an important cultural role in Lotharingia, particularly thanks to abbot Christian. Around 875, the relics of St Quirinus were translated from Gasny to Malmedy Abbey after the intercession of Emperor Charles the Bald, partly to secure relics comparable to those of St. Remaclus at Stavelot.\n\nThrough the seventh and eighth centuries, the two abbeys followed their mission of evangelism, along with forest clearance. With the decline of the Carolingian Empire, however, the abbeys suffered the same decay as elsewhere, leaving the principality in the custody of lay abbots—temporal guardians—from 844 to 938, including Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims, Adalard the Seneschal, and Reginar and Giselbert, dukes of Lorraine.\n\nWelcoming pilgrims and the sick was a part of the monks' mission. The Miracula sancti Remacli mention the xenodochium, the monastery's hospice, where poor pilgrims were granted hospitality, including food for almost eight days, whilst they made their devotions; this hospice differs from the abbey's hospital: hospitale coenobii. On 13 April 862, Lothair II of Lotharingia, while dealing with the distribution of property ad hospital ejusdem coenobii, ordered that local tithes be paid to the hospital absque netligentia et tarditate, an order he confirmed on 10 June 873.\n\nIn December 881, Normans, including Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, invaded the area, burning both abbeys and causing the monks to flee with their treasures and relics. Several historical sources provide evidence of the raid of 881, which was well prepared and organised. The monks rushed to dig up the relics of Remaclus and fled to the county of Porcien in present-day Bogny-sur-Meuse, in the French Ardennes; the surrounding region was largely unaffected by the invasion. Stavelot and Malmedy were both burned, with the monks not returning until just before Christmas 882, with a stay in Chooz, to allow them to repair the roofs of the monastic buildings. Relics from Aachen, which had been entrusted to the monks at Stavelot because of the Norman threat, were returned intact. In gratitude, on 13 November 882, Charles the Fat—Carolingian emperor and king of East Francia, Alemannia, and Italy—granted the abbeys the lands of Blendef, a dependency of Louveigné, and restored to them the chapel in Bra (now a part of Lierneux in Liège).\n\nIn 885, Normans extracted ransom from Hesbaye and passed through the Meuse valley, marching on Prüm, causing the monks of Stavelot to flee again, finding refuge in the county of Logne and Chèvremont; the Miracula Remacli details the flight from the invaders and follows the monks' wanderings. After the invasions, abbot Odilon began to rebuild the ruined abbey of Stavelot, with support from bishops of Liège—including Notker, the first prince-bishop. The abbots Odilon and Werinfride rebuilt the abbeys, with new building; re-established the monastic community; re-organised the principality. By the time of the Ottonian dynasty in the early 10th century, the abbeys were once again of suitable Imperial stature. A new abbey church was built in Malmedy in 992, dedicated to St Quirinus; in 1007, a parish church was consecrated to Saint Gereon.\n\nAnother danger threatened the abbey—and the Western Empire—in the 10th century: the Hungarian invasions. Having been deposed as duke of Lotharingia, Conrad the Red invited the Hungarians to undermine his opponents, Bruno the Great, archbishop of Cologne, and Reginar III, Count of Hainaut. The Annales Stabulensis reports: Anno 954 Ungri populantur regiones Galliæ ... Anno 955. Victoria des Ungris [\"In the year 954, Hungarians ravage the regions of Gaul ... In the year 955, victory over the Hungarians\"]. On 1 July 960, Eraclus, bishop of Liège, driven by the fears of the time, granted the monks a place to build a refuge in Liège, although five years earlier, the victory of emperor Otto I over the Hungarians at Lechfeld had removed the danger of Hungarian sack.\n\nThe key building period at the abbey of Stavelot corresponds to the rule of prince-abbot Poppo of Deinze, the second founder of the abbey, who was made abbot by Holy Roman Emperor Henry II in 1020. He built an imposing church over 100 metres (330 ft) in length, which was consecrated in the presence of Emperor Henry III on 5 June 1040. Thietmar was the lay patron who assembled carpenters and stonemasons to build the abbey church. As well as confirming the authenticity of the relics of St Quirinus at Malmedy in 1042, Poppo revived the cult of St Remaclus. Poppo died in 1048; his cult, which began almost immediately, focused on his resting place in the crypt. Malmedy developed around the monastery; until the end of the tenth century, the villagers used the chapel of Saint Laurent, an apsidiole of the abbey church, as their place of worship.\n\nIn 1065, controversy arose when Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne, named Tegernon of Brauweiler abbot of Malmedy, on dubious authority—whilst Malmedy was in the archdiocese of Cologne, the two abbeys were linked and, thus, under the purview of the diocese of Liège, where Stavelot lay. This occurred despite several previous Imperial bulls reinforcing the position that the two abbeys should be subject to a single abbot. The monks from Stavelot processed to Malmedy with the crosier and relics of St Remaclus to remind the rebellious monks of the traditional ordering of the abbeys that the saint had instituted. The relics and crosier were also transported to an Imperial Diet of Henry IV in Goslar. In 1066, they processed again, this time to Aachen and Fritzlar; they processed to Bitburg and Bamberg the following year. That their prayers were not answered apparently led the monks to despair that the relics were becoming impotent or that the monks were being punished by their patron; in 1067 and 1068, abbot Thierry even went to Rome to appeal to Pope Alexander II. This impasse lasted for a further three years, until Henry held court at Liège during Easter in 1071; with great ceremony, the monks processed with Remaclus's relics to meet with his legendary fellow bishop St Lambert, joined en route by the relics of St Symmetrus. Numerous miracles convinced the emperor to recognise the union of the two abbeys and reiterate the superiority of Stavelot, forcing Anno eventually to capitulate. A rejoiceful procession back to Stavelot paused en route to celebrate Mass on the banks of the Meuse; finally, the monks processed with Remaclus's relics to the abbey at Malmedy, to symbolise the restoration of his and their authority. This series of episodes is recounted in the heroic narrative of the Triumph of St Remaclus and confirmed by several contemporary sources.\n\nIn 1098, Wibald was born in the hamlet of Chevrouheid, near Stavelot. Elected prince-abbot in 1130, he played a key role in the religious life of the region and the abbeys. In 1138, he granted permission for the castle to be built in Logne, first mentioned in an 862 abbey charter. In the 12th to 15th centuries, however, the abbacy experienced a slow decline. In the 14th and 15th centuries, several Imperial edicts, initially issued by Emperor Charles IV, put the abbacy under the protection of the counts of Luxembourg.\n\n### Early Modern Age\n\nIn 1509, William of Manderscheid organised a procession to induce the recalcitrant county of Logne, a fief of the abbey, to submit to his jurisdiction. The cortège was pious, rather than fraught with tension; with Stavelot monks carrying the shrines of Remaclus and Babolene with other reliquaries; and the monks of Malmedy with reliquaries of Quirinus, Just, Peter, and Philip; joined by parishioners from Lierneux with the relics of Symmetrus. In 1521, after the castle in Logne had been dismantled, William added \"Count of Logne\" to the abbots' titles, with the county representing most of the western portion of the principality's territory.\n\nThe abbey church served as a monastic church and as a church of pilgrimage until the French Revolution. Its imposing gatehouse tower was rebuilt in 1534; (its ground floor and some further foundation still remain). Malmedy began to flourish particularly in the 16th century with the development of tannery; in 1544 there were only 216 houses with a thousand inhabitants, but that more than tripled by 1635.\n\nAfter the death of abbot Christopher of Manderscheid, there was a series of absent abbots, including Maximilian Henry of Bavaria (also bishop of Liège and of Hildesheim), who reformed the abbey in 1656. In the 17th century, Stavelot and Malmedy were major centres of tanning in Europe. Papermaking was particularly important to Malmedy, as was the manufacture of gunpowder. Other industries included cotton manufacturing, manufacture of chess sets and dominoes, and gingerbread baking. In 1659, a Capuchin convent was built in Stavelot.\n\nDespite the abbacy's neutrality and the protection of the prince-abbots, the territory was invaded at least 50 times by troops passing through, whose depredations had disastrous consequences for the population, including the 4 October 1689 razing of both Stavelot and Malmedy on the orders of Nicolas Catinat, general to Louis XIV of France, during the Nine Years' War. In Stavelot, the entire town, including over 360 houses, was destroyed, leaving just the abbey and its farmyard standing. In Malmedy, some 600 out of the 660 houses of the town were destroyed and it took more than a century to completely rebuild. Malmedy's 1601 city walls had previously been destroyed by French troops in 1658, during the 1635–59 Franco-Spanish War. The wars—and passage by troops of Brandenburg-Prussia, the Dutch Republic, France, and Liège—had cost the principality the sum of 2.75 million Reichsthaler. The abbey had to borrow 134 000 thalers from Liège and Verviers; another loan, shared amongst the communities, totalled 109 000 thalers, with annual interest of 14 161 thalers and arrears of 26 000 thalers.\n\nBy the start of the 18th century the principality had lost a third of its territory, as a result of war, fires, pillage, and unjust encroachments. The deputies to the Imperial Diet complained that, in the 16th century, the Spanish Netherlands had seized several territories and that the Bishopric of Liège had stolen over half a dozen seigneuries totalling over 2000 households; adding that the principality itself retained only 1693 households, having had 3780 households before the upheavals and that the suffering of the principality had caused some of the richest and most powerful families to emigrate. The Imperial Diet was moved to halve the Reichsmatrikel for the abbeys (reducing the sums and troops the abbeys needed to provide towards the Imperial army) and exempting any need for the abbeys to send troops to the Imperial army for three years, an exemption extended for four more years on 24 March 1715.\n\n### Abolition\n\nDuring the French Revolutionary Wars, from 1793 to 1804, the abbey was abandoned by the monks and the principality extinguished. Stavelot was incorporated into the French Republic by a decree of 2 March 1793, along with Franchimont and Logne. Despite opposition from local notables, Malmedy was similarly incorporated by a decree of 9 Vendémiaire of the Year IV (1 October 1795). Stavelot abbey itself was sacked and the church sold and demolished; of the church just the western doorway remains, as a free-standing tower. Two cloisters—one secular, one for the monks—survive as the courtyards of the brick-and-stone 17th-century domestic ranges. The foundations of the abbey church are presented as a footprint, with walls and column bases that enable the visitor to visualize the scale of the Romanesque abbey.\n\n## Geography and administration\n\nBased largely in the Amblève and Ourthe river valleys, the principality occupied a substantial proportion of what is now the arrondissement of Verviers in the province of Liège. By the time of the French Revolution, the principality was bounded on the north by the duchy of Limburg, on the south and east by the duchy of Luxembourg and on the north-west by the marquisate of Franchimont and the Condroz. The principality was divided into three administrative districts: the postelleries of Stavelot and Malmedy, and the county of Logne, totalling around 28,000 inhabitants. The postellerie of Stavelot contained 14 communities and that of Malmedy contained the town itself and the bans of Waimes and Francorchamps. The county of Logne was divided into four quartiers: Hamoir (7 communities), Ocquier (6), Comblain (5) and Louveigné (2), with public assemblies being based in Bernardfagne. In addition, six other communities were exclaves, and there were the seigneuries of Anthisnes and Vien, in the Confroz. In 1768, these two seigneuries were exchanged with Liège for Chooz, Sclessin, and Ougrée.\n\nSeveral sources note that there were disputes between the two abbeys, with Stavelot assuming primacy over Malmedy, to the latter's discontent; though new abbots were invested in Stavelot on behalf of both abbeys. Whilst an absolute principality, in some matters the prince-abbot would consult a general assembly or états of clergy, dignitaries, prince's officers, mayors, and aldermen, whose main role was to vote for taxes. Each of the three districts had its own provincial assembly and court, with a Princely Council for highly contested cases. As a court of last resort, citizens could appeal to the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), created by Emperor Maximilian I (reigned 1508–19) on the model of the parliaments in Paris and Mechelen and headquartered in Frankfurt (1495–1527), Speyer (1527–1693) and Wetzlar (1693–1806).\n\nShortly before the principality's extinction, it contributed just over 81 Reichsthaler per session for the maintenance of the Imperial Chamber Court, from annual revenues of around 25 000 Rhenish guilder.\n\n## Art\n\nThe abbeys at Stavelot and Malmedy commissioned some of the finest surviving works of Mosan art, one of the leading schools of Romanesque art, especially in goldsmith metalwork, which was then the most prestigious art form. Their collections were dispersed by wars and, finally, the French Revolution. Works from the abbeys are now in museums across the world. The illuminated manuscript Stavelot Bible (now in the British Library) was probably the abbey's main bible, and was created there by several hands over a four-year period ending in 1097 (other works have been identified as being from the same scriptorium). The bible has been described as \"a perfect microcosm of the influences and interests that gave rise to the first Romanesque painting\". A group of manuscripts from the less productive scriptorium at Malmedy were donated to the Vatican Library in 1816 by Pope Pius VII, including the Malmedy Bible and two lectionaries from about 1300. Malmedy illuminations show a particular closeness with metalwork styles.\n\nAbbot Wibald (ruled 1130–58) was an important Imperial minister and diplomat, and was regarded as one of the greatest patrons of Mosan art in its best period, although much of the evidence for this is circumstantial. Some of his surviving letters discuss works which may be identifiable with existing pieces, and an \"aurifaber G\", who some have identified with Godefroid de Claire, a shadowy figure to whom many masterpieces are attributed. Several important commissions were certainly placed by Wibald with Mosan workshops of goldsmiths and metalworkers, and other works later connected with Stavelot are also presumed to have been commissioned by him. The works, mostly champlevé enamels of very high quality, include the Stavelot Triptych, a portable altar reliquary for two fragments of the True Cross, c. 1156, (now in the Morgan Library & Museum in New York), the Stavelot Portable Altar of 1146, and a head-shaped reliquary of Pope Alexander II, c. 1150, possibly by Godefroid (both now Cinquantenaire Museum, Brussels). A gold relief retable of the Pentecost (1160–70) is in the Musée national du Moyen Âge in Paris. An important and more elaborate retable of Saint Remaclus, of about 1150, about nine square metres in extent, was broken up during the French Revolution; and only two round enamel plaques survive, in Berlin and Frankfurt, though a 17th-century drawing survives in Liège.\n\n## Coat of arms\n\nThe coat of arms granted to the town of Stavelot, in 1819, is also that of the abbey—parted fesswise between an image of St Remaclus and the wolf, which in Stavelot's founding legend carried bricks for the building of the abbey after having killed Remaclus's donkey.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Carolingian monasteries\n- Carolingian architecture", "revid": "1170930933", "description": "Ecclesiastical state of the Holy Roman Empire", "categories": ["651 establishments", "Former states in the Low Countries", "Geographic history of Belgium", "Imperial abbeys", "Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle", "Malmedy", "Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Belgium", "Principalities of the Holy Roman Empire", "Southern Netherlands", "States and territories established in the 650s", "Stavelot"]}
{"id": "49539777", "url": null, "title": "Be the One (Dua Lipa song)", "text": "\"Be the One\" is a song recorded by English-Albanian singer Dua Lipa for her eponymous debut studio album (2017). The song was written by Lucy Taylor, Jack Tarrant and Digital Farm Animals, with the latter of the three also handling the production. They wrote it about a relationship that Taylor was in and gave the song to Lipa, who was originally reluctant to record it due to the writing credits. It is a dream pop, Europop and synth-pop song with elements of gospel and power pop. Lyrically, it sees Lipa begging her boyfriend for a romantic redemption. The song received acclaim from music critics, with many hailing it as a standout on the album and praising the anthemic qualities in the production.\n\nReleased through Dua Lipa Limited for digital download and streaming on 30 October 2015, \"Be the One\" received limited attention at the time as it was only intended to be promoted on blogs and online outlets. However, after being picked up by German radio stations, it became a sleeper hit the following year. Due to this success, the song was re-released on 6 December 2016, being promoted in the United Kingdom and the United States. It reached the top ten of charts in nine territories worldwide, including the Flanders region of Belgium where it reached the summit and Lipa's native region of the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number nine becoming her first solo top 10 single. The song is currently certified gold or higher in eleven regions, including a double platinum in the UK.\n\nThe music video for \"Be the One\" was directed by Nicole Nodland. It features several scenes of Lipa in London. With the song's re-release, a second music video was released. Directed by Daniel Kaufman, it stars Ansel Elgort as Lipa's love interest and was created in a collaboration between Vevo and Lexus, where a Lexus IS covered in LEDs appears. The video features Elgort following Lipa out of a motel after the two had an argument. Lipa promoted the song with numerous live performances, including ones for Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Good Morning America, and Later... with Jools Holland. Remixes by Paul Woolford, Take a Daytrip and Netsky were also released for promotion.\n\n## Background and composition\n\n\"Be the One\" was written by Lucy Taylor, Digital Farm Animals and Jack Tarrant. They wrote it about the miscommunication in a relationship Taylor was in at the time. A good friend of Dua Lipa's, Taylor played the song for her and offered her to record it, prior to Lipa releasing any music. Lipa immediately fell in love with the song, specifically citing the melodies and \"persistent\" lyrics as why; she thought it would be a perfect fit on her album. However, she was reluctant to record the song due to the fact that she did not write it.\n\nFollowing much pressure from her management and after she sang it once and realized how fun it was to sing, Lipa formed a personal connection to it, which she described as \"different\" than that to ones she has written due to the fact that when performing a song, she reminisces about having written it. Lipa then went into the studio with Taylor and Digital Farm Animals to complete the song. Lipa recalled having a fun time with them and felt as though she made the song her own. The song was recorded by Evelyn Yard at Sony/ATV Recording Studios while Lipa's vocals were recorded at TaP Studio / Strongroom 7 in London. The mixing was done by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia while John Davis mastered the song at Metropolis Studios in London. \"Be the One\" is one of the two songs on Lipa's self-titled debut studio album that Lipa does not have a writing credit on, with the other being \"New Rules\".\n\nMusically, \"Be the One\" is a soulful, dream pop, Europop and synth-pop song, with gospel and power pop elements. Constructed in verse–chorus form, the song runs for 3 minutes and 22 seconds and is composed in time and the key of B major, with a tempo of 176 beats per minute and a chord progression of F–E6–Emaj7. It has an airy production, containing a tropical R&B beat, 1980s grooves, electropop riffs, layered melodies, a programmed drum loop, calypso synths, handclaps, a vinyl hiss, and a guitar arpeggio. Lipa uses sensuous alto vocals, spanning a range of F<sub>3</sub> to D<sub>5</sub>. Described by Lipa as about \"self belief, perseverance, and fighting for what you want,\" the song sees her pleading for a romantic redemption after a falling out with her boyfriend.\n\n## Release and promotion\n\n\"Be the One\" was first announced by Lipa during an interview with Nylon in October 2015. The song was released for digital download and streaming on 30 October 2015 through the singer's independent record label Dua Lipa Limited. Discussing releasing the single, Lipa admitted that she lacked excitement due to the writing credits. A \"Bedtime Mix\" was made available on 5 January 2016 to Phil Taggart for airplay on BBC Radio 1. The song was sent for radio airplay in Italy on 29 January 2016. The same day, an extended play including a dark trap remix of the song by Shy Luv, as well as remixes by Dillistone, Paul Woolford, Take a Daytrip, Ten Ven and With You was released; They were sent for radio airplay in Italy on 9 February 2016. An extended play for the song was released on 19 February 2016, exclusively in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. It featured Lipa's singles \"New Love\" (2015) and \"Last Dance\" (2016), as well as the \"Be the One\" remix by With You and a Max + Johann remix of the song. The first music video for \"Be the One\" and the \"Last Dance\" music video are also included.\n\nIn Germany, a CD single with \"Last Dance\" as its B-side was released on 11 March 2016. Universal Music Germany held a contest for fans to win signed versions of the CD, only three of which were available. A live version of \"Be the One\" appears as the fourth track on Lipa's extended play Spotify Sessions, released 8 July 2016. After finding commercial success, \"Be the One\" was re-released on 6 December 2016 in the United Kingdom. In the United States, the song was promoted to contemporary hit radio formats as a promotional single on 22 February 2017, before officially impacting the format on 21 March 2017, becoming the album's second single in the US following \"Blow Your Mind (Mwah)\" (2016). With the re-release, a remix by Netsky on 24 February 2017. The remix is a \"blissful and laid back\" drum and bass track with daydream vibes. It uses the song's original arrangement with a \"pounding\" percussion and synths. \"Be the One\" is included on Lipa's 21 April 2017-released, Urban Outfitters-exclusive vinyl extended play The Only, serving as the fourth track on the EP. The song also appears as the fourth track on Lipa's eponymous debut studio album, released on 2 June 2017 and serving as the album's second single. Lipa revealed that the song was never intended to be promoted to radio, only to blogs and online outlets.\n\n## Critical reception\n\n\"Be the One\" was met with acclaim from music critics. In The Guardian, Paul Lester called the song \"fabulous\" while comparing Lipa's \"smoky\" vocals to that of Lana Del Rey's \"younger, poppier\" style. Claire Biddles of The Line of Best Fit named it a standout on Dua Lipa and compared it to Shura, while she also called the song \"gorgeous enough to warrant a reappraisal [in 2017].\" In a separate review for the same magazine, Paul Bridgewater labelled it a \"fresh breath of pop air.\" Writing for musicOMH, Ben Hogwood called the song \"utterly beguiling,\" praising the production and also stating that it is \"arguably her best song to date.\" For DIY, Jamie Milton described the song as \"a sweet club track given pop takeover potential,\" as well as comparing it to Justin Bieber's My World 2.0 (2010).\n\nAlim Kheraj, also of DIY, stated that the song has an \"airy wistfulness,\" while he also viewed it as \"transcendent\" and a \"euphoria.\" Carl Williott of Idolator called the track \"bouncier and catchier\" than Lipa's \"New Love\". For The Fader, Jeff Ihaza branded the song \"blissful.\" In a review for Clash, Alex Green stated that \"Be the One\" \"sparkles\" with the \"zeal\" that \"Hotter than Hell\" (2016) misses. Richard Jones, in a separate Clash review, called the song a \"dark and seductive anthem.\" In the Evening Standard, Rick Pearson labelled its chorus \"irresistible.\" Sean Ward of The 405 called the song a standout on Dua Lipa, categorizing the chorus as \"rushing\" and lyrical structure as \"sophisticated,\" as well as comparing the song to Body Talk by Robyn.\n\nNylon's Laura Studarus described the song as \"perfect club music,\" while also calling its hooks \"sticky\" and melodies \"moody.\" For Vice, Alexandra Hayward branded the song \"glossily\" and \"anthemic\" as well as commenting on the \"desperation\" of Lipa's vocals. The staff at The Singles Jukebox gave the song an average of 6.83. Crystal Leww praised the production but criticized its meaning, writing that the song does not \"make sense,\" while Thomas Inskeep praised Lipa's vocals for being \"rich\" and \"luscious.\" Popjustice ranked \"Be the One\" at number 44 on their 2015 year-end list for best songs of the year. In April 2020, Glamour's Christopher Rosa ranked \"Be the One\" as Lipa's third best song, calling it \"ethereal\" and comparing the song to the music of Florence and the Machine.\n\n## Commercial performance\n\nAfter its release in October 2015, \"Be the One\" failed to chart and received little airplay. However, it became a sleeper hit the following year after being picked up by radio stations in Germany, and later, across the rest of Europe. The song debuted at number 77 in Germany on the chart dated 25 December 2015. It spent a total on 28 weeks on the chart and reached a peak of number 11 in its eighth week. The song was awarded a platinum certification in the country from the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for track-equivalent sales of 400,000 units. In Belgium, \"Be the One\" reached number 42 in the Wallonia region, however, it performed significantly better in the Flanders region. In 2015, the song spent five weeks on the Ultratip Flanders chart, before entering the Ultratop 50 chart at number 43, dated 23 January 2016. In its ninth week, the song rose to the chart's summit and lasted for 13 weeks following. In 2017, it was awarded a platinum certification by the Belgian Entertainment Association (BEA) for 30,000 track-equivalent unit sales.\n\n\"Be the One\" peaked at number seven on the Euro Digital Song Sales chart, and reached number seven in Austria, three in Hungary, two in Slovenia, one in Poland and four in Scotland. Additionally, the song holds a double platinum certification in Italy and a diamond certification Poland. The song reached number 11 in the Netherlands and was given a double platinum certification in the country for selling 60,000 track-equivalent units. In Australia, \"Be the One\" debuted at number 46 on the ARIA Singles Chart dated 3 April 2016, becoming her first entry on the chart. In its fifth week, the song rose to a peak of number six and spent a total of 18 weeks on the chart. That year, it was awarded a double platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for 140,000 track-equivalent sales in the country. In New Zealand, the song sold 7,500 track-equivalent units, resulting in it being awarded a gold certification from Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ). It spent seven weeks on their singles chart, reaching a peak of number 20.\n\n\"Be the One\" debuted at number 70 on the UK Singles Downloads Chart dated 13 January 2017. The following week, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 54, becoming Lipa's fourth entry on the chart. It peaked at number nine on the chart issue dated 17 February 2017, becoming Lipa's highest-charting single for that occasion as well as her first solo top 10 single. The song lasted for 25 weeks on the chart. In May 2021, it received a double platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of 1,200,000 track-equivalent units in the United Kingdom. As of February 2022, \"Be the One\" has sales figures of 1,300,000 in the country that includes 106,000,000 streams. In the United States, the song reached number 40 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart and the summit of the Dance Club Songs chart. For track-equivalent sales of 500,000 units, the Recording Industry Association of America awarded the song a gold certification. The song also has that certification from Music Canada for 40,000 track-equivalent unit sales.\n\n## Music videos\n\n### Version 1\n\nThe music video for \"Be the One\" was directed by Nicole Nodland, who was also director of the video for \"New Love\". Following the recording of the video for \"New Love\" in Los Angeles, Lipa recalled having lots of fun and decided to attempt to re-create it with the music video for \"Be the One\", except in London. The singer stated that the video had no concept. Filming it, they went around to some of Lipa's favourite places in London, as well as exploring Soho, playing dress-up and dancing. Lipa cited 1990s fashion and vintage clothing as her inspirations for the visual. Nodland also produced it, while editing and cinematography was handled by Jackson Ducasse. The visual premiered through Nylon on 29 October 2015.\n\nThe video showcases several different colour effects. In an abandoned room, Lipa wears a black outfit and sings while sitting on a white chair. At some points she gets down to her knees and walks around the space. She is also seen laying in a field wearing a pink fur coat and glasses. In other scenes, she rides a limo with her head out the sun roof, roams the streets of Soho and sings in front of dark, white and rose backgrounds. Writing for Nylon, Sydney Gore praised the video's wardrobe. Ihaza wrote the music video \"skips the melancholy, though, instead opting to dance in the face of vulnerability, and who wouldn't.\" Courtney Buck of The 405 stated that the video complements the song \"seamlessly.\"\n\n### Version 2\n\nThe second music video for \"Be the One\" was released through Vevo on 5 December 2016, in promotion of the song's re-release. It was directed by Daniel Kaufman and stars Ansel Elgort as Lipa's love interest. The video was made as a collaboration between Lexus and Vevo, and features a Lexus IS wrapped in 41,999 LEDs, which generates visuals based on the song. It was created after Lipa noticed fans asking her on social media for a second video to be shot. With it, Lipa wanted to show the darker side of the song, showing its themes of miscommunication in a relationship. The video begins with Lipa and Elgort having an argument in a neon-lit motel room, followed by Lipa storming out while Elgort follows. Elgort follows Lipa down an empty motorway, where flashback scenes are shown. The video concludes with Elgort catching up to Lipa, where she eventually escapes in the Lexus IS. For V, William Defebaugh named the music video \"futuristic\".\n\n## Live performances\n\nLipa delivered her first live performance of \"Be the One\" at BBC's Sound of... ceremony on 8 January 2016. Five days later, she performed it at the Eurosonic festival for that year. It was also included on the set lists of both Lipa's Hotter than Hell Tour and the Self-Titled Tour. On 29 January 2016, Lipa performed the song for BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge. She performed the song at the Glastonbury Festival in 2016 and 2017. In 2017, Lipa performed \"Be the One\" at the Brit Awards for the Critics' Choice Award, EBBA Awards, and the NME Awards. Also in 2017, Lipa performed the song during Capital FM's Summertime Ball and Jingle Bell Ball, at The O2 Arena. That same year, in the US, Lipa performed the song on iHeartRadio, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, and Good Morning America. The song was part of Lipa's setlists for 2017s BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend as well as Bonnaroo, and 2018s Tomorrowland. On 31 October 2017, she performed it on Later... with Jools Holland. On 16 November 2018, Lipa performed the song at the Bambi Awards. 2018 UEFA Champions League Final in Kyiv, Ukraine. \"Be the One\" was also included in the setlist for Lipa's 2022 Future Nostalgia Tour.\n\n## Track listings\n\n- Digital download and streaming\n\n1. \"Be the One\" – 3:22\n\n- Digital EP – remixes\n\n1. \"Be the One\" (Shy Luv remix) – 3:28\n2. \"Be the One\" (Dillistone remix) – 3:47\n3. \"Be the One\" (Paul Woolford remix) – 6:21\n4. \"Be the One\" (Take a Daytrip remix) – 4:08\n5. \"Be the One\" (Ten Ven remix) – 5:24\n6. \"Be the One\" (With You remix) – 5:45\n\n- Digital download and streaming – Netsky remix\n\n1. \"Be the One\" (Netsky remix) – 4:17\n\n- Digital EP\n\n1. \"Be the One\" – 3:23\n2. \"New Love\" – 3:59\n3. \"Last Dance\" – 3:49\n4. \"Be the One\" (With You remix) – 5:45\n5. \"Be the One\" (Max + Johann Remix) – 4:06\n6. \"Be the One\" (music video) – 3:25\n7. \"Last Dance\" (music video) – 3:48\n\n- CD single\n\n1. \"Be the One\" – 3:22\n2. \"Last Dance\" – 3:49\n\n## Personnel\n\n- Dua Lipa –  lead vocals, backing vocals\n- Digital Farm Animals –  production\n- Lucy Taylor –  backing vocals\n- Jack Tarrant –  vocal production, guitar\n- Evelyn Yard –  recording\n- John Hanes –  engineering for mix\n- Serban Ghenea –  mixing\n- John Davis –  mastering\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## Release history\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Live Lounge cover versions\n- List of interpolated songs\n- List of Platinum singles in the United Kingdom awarded since 2000\n- List of Ultratop 50 number-one singles of 2016\n- List of number-one singles of 2016 (Poland)\n- List of Billboard Dance Club Songs number ones of 2017\n- List of UK top-ten singles in 2017\n- List of top 10 singles in 2016 (Australia)", "revid": "1163690114", "description": "2015 single by Dua Lipa", "categories": ["2015 singles", "2015 songs", "2016 singles", "Dua Lipa songs", "Number-one singles in Poland", "Song recordings produced by Digital Farm Animals", "Songs written by Digital Farm Animals", "Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles"]}
{"id": "22139494", "url": null, "title": "Ben Revere", "text": "Ben Daniel Revere (born May 3, 1988) is an American former professional baseball outfielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Minnesota Twins, Philadelphia Phillies, Toronto Blue Jays, Washington Nationals, and Los Angeles Angels.\n\nRevere played baseball at Lexington Catholic High School, where he received several awards during his junior and senior seasons. Revere was selected in the first round of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft by the Minnesota Twins and played in their farm system for three seasons before being called up to Major League Baseball in late 2010. He played with the Twins for two more seasons before being traded to the Phillies in the 2012 offseason.\n\nRevere began the 2013 season as the Phillies’ leadoff hitter before suffering an injury and being moved down in the lineup. His primary strengths were his speed and his defense; he struggled to hit for power, hitting just seven home runs in the major leagues. Writers and teammates have described Revere as being a genuine, goofy, energetic player.\n\n## Early life\n\nRevere was born in Atlanta and raised in LaGrange, Georgia. In the early 2000s, he moved to Richmond, Kentucky, where he attended Lexington Catholic High School from 2003 to 2007. He led the varsity baseball team to a state championship his junior season (2006), and was named most valuable player. After his senior season, he was named the Gatorade Kentucky Baseball Player of the Year, 2007 Mr. Baseball for Kentucky, and a member of the All-USA Today high school baseball team. The Minnesota Twins selected him in the first round (28th overall pick) of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft and signed shortly thereafter. He had previously committed to play college baseball at Georgia.\n\n## Professional career\n\n### Minor league career\n\nAfter his first-round selection, the Twins assigned Revere to the Gulf Coast League Twins, with whom he posted a .325 batting average (BA) in his first season of professional ball, and was named a 2007 Gulf Coast League Postseason All-Star. The following season with the Beloit Snappers of the Class A Midwest League, Revere's batting average increased to .379 with 44 stolen bases and ten triples. He won several awards for his performance, including a Midwest League All-Star selection, Mid-season MVP, Postseason All-Star, Most Valuable Player, Prospect of the Year, and the Sherry Robertson Award as Twins' minor league player of the year. Baseball America placed him on their 2008 High Class A All-Star team and called him the Twins' second best prospect, behind Aaron Hicks.\n\nRevere began the 2009 season with the Fort Myers Miracle of the Florida State League (FSL). In the first half of the season, he batted .342 with 23 RBIs, 32 runs scored and 22 stolen bases. He was named the FSL Player of the Week for May 11–17, and was an All-star for the FSL's Southern division. He did not commit an error all season in 225 chances playing both center field and left field. He finished the season with a .311 batting average, two home runs, and 48 RBIs.\n\nBefore the season, Baseball America ranked him the Twins' fifth-best prospect. Revere began the 2010 season with the New Britain Rock Cats of the Class AA Eastern League. He was named the Twins minor league player of the month in May after hitting .336 with 6 doubles, a home run, and 15 runs batted in (RBIs). He played in the 2007 All-Star Futures Game at Angel Stadium in Anaheim. After totaling a .305 BA with 36 stolen bases during the season, his contract was purchased by the Twins on September 4, 2010.\n\n### Minnesota Twins\n\nHe made his major league debut on September 7, 2010, as a pinch hitter for Denard Span, striking out against Kansas City Royals' pitcher Jesse Chavez. He remained in the game, replacing Span in center field. He recorded his first major league run batted in (RBI) on September 18, 2010, when he grounded out to score J. J. Hardy in a game against the Oakland Athletics. He recorded his first major league hit a day later.\n\nRevere began the 2011 season with the Twins' Class AAA affiliate, the Rochester Red Wings of the International League. In May, Revere was called up to Minnesota to play left field for the injured Delmon Young. Soon after Young's return, Span was placed on the seven-day disabled list with a concussion. As a result, Revere was given another position to play.\n\nIn late 2012, Revere amassed a 21-game hitting streak, his career best. He finished the 2012 season playing 124 major league games with a .294 batting average, no home runs, and 32 RBIs.\n\n### Philadelphia Phillies\n\nOn December 6, 2012, Revere was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for Vance Worley and Trevor May. Revere was picked to lead off the Phillies' Opening Day lineup for the 2013 season against the Atlanta Braves over Jimmy Rollins after a strong spring training performance. After acquiring Revere, Phillies General Manager (GM) Rubén Amaro Jr. said, \"He can go to the top of the order or bottom of the order. Either way, for us it was about the defense and the speed. We like athletic players and he's certainly that. He has great energy, a fantastic defender. And those are priorities for us.\"\n\nOn April 15, 2013, the day of the Boston Marathon bombing, Revere inscribed \"Pray for Boston\" onto a piece of masking tape and taped it to his glove, which he left sitting out while he stretched. A photographer from Getty Images photographed the glove, and Revere later commented that his phone was \"ringing off the hook\" with thanks for the gesture. Revere commented,\n\n> \"A bunch of people who live in Boston said it was all over the news out there\", Revere said. \"I just showed my appreciation. Even when I'm playing, I'm thinking of the people in Boston. It's just terrible that it happened. For me, I'm just playing the game for them a little bit.\"\n\nIn the subsequent game, Revere made an incredible leaping, diving catch with the glove, robbing Todd Frazier of an extra base hit.\n\nNear the beginning of the season, Revere sustained an injury to his quadriceps that he worsened in the April 24 game against the Pittsburgh Pirates. He missed multiple consecutive games and was replaced in the lineup by Freddy Galvis. Revere finally returned on May 3, his 25th birthday. He injured his elbow in a game against the Boston Red Sox on May 27 after jamming it into the metal fence at Fenway Park. He remained in the game, and x-rays later turned up negative. Revere later said of the injury, \"Luckily, I've got strong enough bones. If it was somebody else it may have been bad, but luckily it wasn't serious.\"\n\nBy the end of May, Revere was back hitting mainly at the top of the order after manager Charlie Manuel decided to adjust the lineup in hopes of sparking some offense. He managed two hits in a game against the Miami Marlins on June 3, stole two bases, and stopped an extra-base hit from Adeiny Hechavarria. \"I just have to take it one game at a time and not put any pressure on myself. I'm finding my stroke\", Revere later said of the game. On July 13, Revere suffered a fractured foot after a foul ball hit him while at-bat. He had surgery for the fracture on July 16. Although the initial timetable for Revere's return was six to eight weeks, the Phillies official website later published an article stating that there was no timetable for his return and they were unsure whether or not he will return for a remainder of the 2013 season. He ended up missing the rest of the 2013 season, and finished with a .305 batting average, 0 home runs, 17 runs batted in and 22 stolen bases.\n\nRevere entered the 2014 season healthy, and, amidst chaos and position battles elsewhere, he was the preeminent starter in center field. Before the season, Pat Egan of Phillies Nation published an article declaring the Phillies as the clear winners of the trade that brought Revere to Philadelphia. Though initially writers thought the Twins received a terrific return and it was a terrible trade for the Phillies, Worley was ultimately outrighted of the Twins' roster and traded, and May's status as a top prospect languished, whereas Revere had emerged as a viable everyday center fielder who was under contract with the Phillies through 2018. On April 1, 2014, Revere set a new MLB record for most plate appearances without a home run (1,410) by a non-pitcher. Despite his initial preeminence, because of sore ribs (caused by a diving catch in the outfield), backup Tony Gwynn Jr. started four consecutive games in center field (beyond the time Revere needed to recover from his injury due to Gwynn's success at the plate) while Revere, who had recently struggled at the plate, was on the bench. However, a few days later, Revere came up to bat in the eighth inning in a scoreless game, and hit an RBI single, which re-implanted him atop the Phillies' starting lineup. As for Gwynn, Revere commented,\n\n> We're kind of the same player. He's like my older brother. If I do something wrong, he's right there telling me how to correct myself. I'm the same way with him. If I see something, I tell him. He's definitely a great motivator for me. I just learn from him, since he's been in the game for a while. I'm still learning. I kind of just watched him those few days to help me out and improve my game, and he watches me to improve his. We kind of feed off each other\n\nOn May 27, 2014, Revere hit his first MLB home run in his 1,466th career at-bat, the longest streak without a home run to begin a career since Frank Taveras in 1977. On September 5, Revere hit another home run, the second of his career, against Washington Nationals right-handed pitcher Rafael Soriano. In the waning weeks of the season, Revere was firmly embroiled in the battle for the National League batting title with Justin Morneau, Josh Harrison, and others. In 151 games of 2014, Revere hit .306 with an NL-leading 184 hits, 49 stolen bases, two home runs, and 28 RBIs. Paul Boye wrote, \"The fact of the matter boils down to this: Ben Revere is the best option in center field for this team, given both internal and external options at this point.\" On October 1, 2014, Revere underwent right ankle surgery to remove two screws.\n\nAfter having played center field exclusively during his first two years with the Phillies, Revere spent some time in left field during spring training in 2015 while Odubel Herrera played in center; manager Ryne Sandberg noted that Revere's arm may fit better in left field. In 96 games with the Phillies, Revere batted .298 with 24 stolen bases, 1 home run, and 26 RBI.\n\n### Toronto Blue Jays\n\nOn July 31, 2015, Revere was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for Alberto Tirado and Jimmy Cordero. Revere struggled early in his tenure with the Blue Jays, going hitless in his first 13 at-bats. He would return to form for the remainder of August, making several highlight-reel catches in left field and extending a hit streak to 9 games on August 29. During those 9 games, Revere batted .514. He played in 56 games for the Blue Jays in the 2015 regular season, and batted .319 with 1 home run, 19 RBI, and 7 stolen bases. He played 152 total games in 2015 with a .306 batting average, 2 home runs, 31 stolen bases, and 45 RBI.\n\nWith the Blue Jays finishing the season 93–69, the team clinched the AL-East pennant for their first postseason berth in 22 years. During Game 6 of the 2015 ALCS against the Kansas City Royals, Revere was involved in controversy where Jeff Nelson called a strike on a pitch that was up and outside on a 2–1 count. The very next pitch, Revere struck out swinging. He attacked a garbage can with his bat in frustration in the dugout, and the Blue Jays would end up losing the game 3–4, eliminating them from further postseason contention. In 11 postseason games, Revere batted .256 with 2 stolen bases.\n\n### Washington Nationals\n\nOn January 8, 2016, Revere and a player to be named later were traded to the Washington Nationals in exchange for Drew Storen and cash considerations.\n\nRevere was placed on the 15-day disabled list on April 6 after suffering a strained right oblique in the season opener on April 4. He batted .217/.260/.300 for the 2016 season. The Nationals opted not to tender Revere a contract after the 2016 season, making him a free agent.\n\n### Los Angeles Angels\n\nOn December 23, 2016, Revere signed a one-year, \\$4 million contract with the Los Angeles Angels that included unspecified incentives. Revere began the season as the team's 4th outfielder but after inconsistent play, Revere was entrusted as the left fielder. In 109 games, Revere hit .275/.308/.344 with 1 home run and 21 stolen bases.\n\n### Cincinnati Reds\n\nOn February 25, 2018, Revere signed a minor league contract with the Cincinnati Reds. He was released on March 25.\n\n### Second stint with the Angels\n\nOn March 30, 2018, Revere signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Angels. He was released on July 26, 2018.\n\n### Texas Rangers\n\nOn February 17, 2019, Revere signed a minor league contract with the Texas Rangers that included an invitation to spring training. The Rangers released Revere on March 26, 2019.\n\n### Second stint with the Blue Jays\n\nOn April 27, 2019, Revere signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays. He was released on May 22.\n\n### Lexington Legends\n\nDuring the COVID-19 Pandemic, Revere played with the Lexington Legends during their \"Battle of the Bourbon Trail\" series due to the cancellation of the 2020 MiLB season.\n\n#### Player-coach\n\nOn May 18, 2021, Revere was named hitting coach for the Lexington Legends (now members of the independent Atlantic League of Professional Baseball) for the 2021 season.\n\nOn July 31, 2021, the team activated him as a player. In his first game, he went 2-3 with a triple and 2 RBI's. Revere did not return to the organization after the season.\n\n## Coaching career\n\nOn February 17, 2023, it was announced that Revere would be joining the Florida Complex League Braves, the rookie-level affiliate of the Atlanta Braves, as a coach for the 2023 season.\n\n## Scouting report\n\n### Offense\n\nRevere's former teammate Denard Span described him as having the \"ability to change games with his speed both offensively and defensively\" and saying that he is always \"looking to steal second and third\" to gain offense momentum. A slap hitter, he has struggled to hit for power during his career; it took him 1,466 at-bats to hit his first home run, the most since 1977. According to a hot zone chart generated by ESPN Stats and Information, Revere has the best batting average and slugging percentage on pitches on the lower-outside part of the plate. Revere hits left-handed pitchers as well as he does right-handed pitchers. Lindy's Sports noted that despite having a long swing with a \"big timing hitch\", he makes \"excellent line-drive contact\" and is a productive leadoff hitter with excellent speed. The Baseball Cube's player ratings, which are based solely on statistics on a 0-100 scale, rated Revere as a 98 for contact and a 97 for speed.\n\n### Defense\n\nDefensively, Revere has excellent range in the outfield and, during the 2012 season, amassed a 16.4 ultimate zone rating (UZR), which is well above average. FanGraphs described him as being an \"elite\" defensive player due to his speed and range. Even when he has struggled offensively, his defense kept him in the lineup during his early career with the Twins as a right fielder and during his 2013 slump with the Phillies. Though Revere used his speed efficiently in covering ground in the outfield, he struggled to produce outs with his below-average arm. In 2014, some writers asserted that his speed covered for poor range in the outfield, and that he was a below-average outfielder.\n\n## Personal life\n\nDescribed by writer Craig Hughner as embodying a \"full-throttle\" style of play along with a \"genuine, charismatic personality\", Revere is known for his energy on the field. Revere called his personality a product of the manner in which he was raised, and that he always tries to be \"goofy\" and to keep things loose. Former teammate Denard Span corroborated Revere being \"goofy\", that he is a \"real good teammate\", and that he comes to play the right way every day. Revere is a devout Christian; he says that he prays nightly and reads his Bible weekly. A self-proclaimed history buff, Revere said he wants to explore Philadelphia museums and famous sites when he no longer has to focus so much on baseball.", "revid": "1165972360", "description": "American baseball player (born 1988)", "categories": ["1988 births", "20th-century African-American people", "21st-century African-American sportspeople", "African-American Christians", "African-American baseball players", "American expatriate baseball players in Canada", "Baseball players from Atlanta", "Beloit Snappers players", "Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players", "Fort Myers Miracle players", "Gulf Coast Twins players", "Lexington Catholic High School alumni", "Lexington Legends players", "Living people", "Los Angeles Angels players", "Major League Baseball outfielders", "Minnesota Twins players", "New Britain Rock Cats players", "Peoria Saguaros players", "Philadelphia Phillies players", "Rochester Red Wings players", "Sportspeople from LaGrange, Georgia", "Toronto Blue Jays players", "Washington Nationals players"]}
{"id": "31306385", "url": null, "title": "Rock of Ages (2012 film)", "text": "Rock of Ages is a 2012 American jukebox musical comedy film directed by Adam Shankman and based on the rock jukebox Broadway musical Rock of Ages by Chris D'Arienzo. Starring Julianne Hough and Diego Boneta in his film debut leading an ensemble cast that includes Russell Brand, Alec Baldwin, Paul Giamatti, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Malin Åkerman, Mary J. Blige, Bryan Cranston and Tom Cruise, the film features the music of many 1980s rock artists including Def Leppard, Journey, Scorpions, Poison, Foreigner, Guns N' Roses, Pat Benatar, Joan Jett, Bon Jovi, Twisted Sister, Whitesnake, REO Speedwagon, and others.\n\nOriginally scheduled to enter production in summer 2009 for a 2011 release, it eventually commenced production in May 2011 and was released on June 15, 2012. The film received mixed critical reviews and was a box-office bomb, grossing only \\$59 million worldwide on a \\$75 million budget. However, Cruise was particularly lauded for his performances of \"Pour Some Sugar on Me\" and \"Wanted Dead or Alive\". The related film soundtrack was also well-received, debuting at \\#1 on the Billboard Top Soundtracks chart.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn 1987 Los Angeles, Sherrie Christian arrives from Oklahoma with dreams of becoming a singer. Sherrie's suitcase is stolen, and Barback Drew Boley gets her a job as a waitress at the Bourbon Room after the previous waitress quits (\"Sister Christian/Just Like Paradise/Nothin' But a Good Time\").\n\nDesperate to save the club from a tax debt, the club's owner Dennis Dupree and his right-hand man Lonny Barnett book Stacee Jaxx, a detached and self-indulgent rock star preparing for his final gig with his band, Arsenal. Drew tells Sherrie his own dreams of becoming a rock star, but that he has stagefright (\"Juke Box Hero/I Love Rock 'n' Roll\"). Learning of Stacee's upcoming concert, Patricia Whitmore, the conservative wife of mayor Mike Whitmore, organizes a protest in front of the club (\"Hit Me with Your Best Shot\").\n\nDrew and Sherrie have their first date at the Hollywood Sign, where Drew reveals he is writing a song for Sherrie (\"Don't Stop Believin'\"). On the night of Arsenal's final show, Dennis learns the opening act has cancelled; Sherrie convinces him to use Drew's band, Wolfgang Von Colt (\"More Than Words/Heaven\"). Stacee's manager, Paul Gill, schedules an interview with Constance Sack, a reporter for Rolling Stone.\n\nConstance mentions rumors of Stacee's difficult behavior and implies he was kicked out of Arsenal, which Stacee denies (\"Wanted Dead or Alive\"). Stacee sends Sherrie for a bottle of scotch from his limo. Constance lashes out at the once-great Stacee; they recognize their mutual attraction and are about to have sex when Stacee sings (\"I Want to Know What Love Is\"). Ashamed, Constance leaves as Sherrie enters and collides with Stacee. Drew mistakenly believes that Sherrie and Stacee had sex and is angrily inspired to sing (\"I Wanna Rock\") for the opening act. Drew and Sherrie break up and she quits the Bourbon Room. Paul, impressed with his performance, offers Drew a record deal as Arsenal sings their last song of the night (\"Pour Some Sugar on Me\").\n\nSherrie takes refuge at a strip club, the Venus Club, where owner Justice Charlier offers her a job as a dancer (\"Shadows of the Night/Harden My Heart\"), but Sherrie chooses to wait tables. She realizes she needs more money, as Drew signs to Gill's record label (\"Here I Go Again\"). Dennis worries the Bourbon Room will close and that he has disappointed everyone. Lonny confesses his love for him, and Dennis reciprocates (\"Can't Fight This Feeling\"). Drew discovers his record deal makes him part of hip-hop boy band \"The Zee Guys\" as Joshua Zee, while Sherrie decides to become a dancer at the Venus Club (\"Any Way You Want It\").\n\nSherrie visits the Hollywood Sign, where she finds Drew, whose life has also not gone as planned. She tells him she did not have sex with Stacee and will be returning to Oklahoma. They part ways, lamenting their situation (\"Every Rose Has Its Thorn\").\n\nStacee realizes his feelings for Constance (\"Rock You Like A Hurricane\") and calls Rolling Stone to learn that she is covering his show at The Bourbon Room. Stacee rushes to the venue, where Lonny leads the patrons against Patricia's protest group (\"We're Not Gonna Take It/We Built This City\"). Stacee recognizes Patricia, whom Lonny exposes as a former Arsenal groupie. Drew buys back Sherrie's stolen records and drops them off at the strip club.\n\nAs the Zee Guys are rejected by the crowd at the Bourbon Room, Drew spots Sherrie in the audience and leaves the stage. They reconcile, and Drew fires Paul. Sherrie reunites Wolfgang Von Colt onstage, where she and Drew perform the song he wrote for her (\"Don't Stop Believin'\"). Stacee, having sex with Constance in the bathroom, is moved by the song.\n\nEight months later, Stacee has rejoined Arsenal and performs the song with Drew and Sherrie, now part of Wolfgang Von Colt, at Dodger Stadium in front of a crowd including Dennis, Lonny, Justice, a pregnant Constance, and Patricia, who has returned to her rock 'n' roll persona.\n\n## Cast\n\n- Julianne Hough as Sherrie Christian\n- Diego Boneta as Drew Boley\n- Russell Brand as Lonny Barnett\n- Paul Giamatti as Paul Gill\n- Catherine Zeta-Jones as Patricia Whitmore\n- Malin Åkerman as Constance Sack\n- Mary J. Blige as Justice Charlier\n- Alec Baldwin as Dennis Dupree\n- Tom Cruise as Stacee Jaxx\n- Bryan Cranston as Mayor Mike Whitmore\n- Will Forte as Mitch Miley\n- Jack Mountford as Joey\n\nAdditionally, Kevin Nash and Jeff Chase starred as Jaxx's bodyguards. Constantine Maroulis, who played Drew in the original Broadway cast, appears as the Capitol Records executive during \"Any Way You Want It\".\n\nSeveral 1980s musicians also made cameo appearances throughout the film, including Kevin Cronin of REO Speedwagon, Sebastian Bach of Skid Row, Debbie Gibson, Nuno Bettencourt of Extreme, Joel Hoekstra of Night Ranger and Porcelain Black, during \"We Built This City/We're Not Gonna Take It\".\n\nEli Roth makes an appearance as Stefano, the Zee Guys' music video director, and T. J. Miller appears as a Rolling Stone receptionist.\n\n## Production\n\n### Development\n\nAfter the success of the original Off-Broadway production, the film rights were sold to Warner Bros. and New Line Cinema in early 2009. Adam Shankman was hired to direct the film in October that year. Chris D'Arienzo, creator of the stage musical, revealed he was originally attached to write and direct the film, wishing to have it visualised as similar to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) musicals such as Singin' in the Rain, however the studio elected to hire someone they felt they could trust with the budget they wanted to give the film, resulting in Shankman's hiring.\n\n### Casting\n\nTom Cruise played Stacee Jaxx in the film. Shankman knew Cruise was in when he heard him on the first go around of his voice lesson, confirming he \"actually has a fantastic voice.\" Cruise had been singing five hours a day to prepare for his work as musician Stacee Jaxx. \"It's this brilliant mashup, it seems, of Axl Rose, Bret Michaels, Keith Richards and Jim Morrison,\" Shankman said of what to expect from Cruise. All of the actors sing their own parts in the film. Cruise said that he had always wanted to appear in a musical but he found the idea frightening because he was uncertain whether he could actually pull it off.\n\nOn February 14, 2011, it was announced that Mary J. Blige had signed on to play Justice Charler in the film. On March 3, 2011, it was confirmed that Julianne Hough would play the role of Sherrie, Drew's love interest. On March 6, 2011, it was confirmed that Alec Baldwin would play the role of Dennis Dupree in the film. Baldwin's agreement to star in the film prompted Warner Bros. to have the film fast-tracked. On March 24, 2011, it was announced that Paul Giamatti would be in the film, playing the manager of Stacee Jaxx.\n\nPretty Little Liars star Diego Boneta was confirmed to play the male protagonist, Drew Boley, on April 5, 2011. Not wanting an older actor to act like he is 23, Shankman thought it better to go as authentic as possible, \"and Diego is absolutely that. He is [a] kid who came to Los Angeles with a dream and who sings and has an amazing voice, and drive. And he's also as honest and sweet as you can possibly make him and he's authentically the age. It creates a piece of something on screen that I don't have to fabricate.\" Of Boneta's audition, Shankman said, \"It's that feeling you get when you realized you've discovered lightning in a bottle. It reminds me of when Zac Efron auditioned for Hairspray, Channing Tatum for Step Up, and Liam Hemsworth auditioned for The Last Song. When the guy walks in, the guy walks in!\" Shankman also said he did not know that Boneta was a Latin music star until after he auditioned. \"I have since seen him on stage and in his concerts, and he totally owns the room,\" Shankman said.\n\nConstantine Maroulis (Drew Boley from the musical) made a cameo appearance in the film like Ricki Lake did for Hairspray. On April 13, Russell Brand was confirmed to portray Lonny.\n\nCatherine Zeta-Jones joined the cast on April 20, and portrayed an original character added to the story line. The unnamed character is described as \"the Villainess of the movie\" who \"wants to shut down rock’n roll in the great city of Los Angeles.\" On May 1 Bryan Cranston joined the cast as the Mayor of Los Angeles, who is the husband of Catherine Zeta-Jones's character, and Malin Åkerman completed the cast when she was added as Constance Sack on May 3, 2011, a role Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams declined.\n\nSinger Porcelain Black made a cameo in the film, playing a 1980s hair metal singer. She performed one of the sole original tracks for the film, \"Rock Angels\". \"Rock Angels\" was written and composed by Adam Anders and Desmond Child. Professional wrestler Kevin Nash played Stacee's bodyguard.\n\n### Filming\n\nPrincipal photography began at Revolution Live, a small music venue in Fort Lauderdale. Scenes were shot at a Hollywood, Florida beach on May 24. The scenes at the iconic Hollywood Sign were filmed at the Monarch Hill Renewable Energy Park in Pompano Beach.\n\nIn June 2011, a full six-block section of N.W. 14th Street in Downtown Miami was decorated as a late 1980s version set of the Hollywood, California Sunset Strip complete with the Whisky a Go Go, Frederick's of Hollywood, Tower Records, Angelyne Billboard along with other landmarks.\n\nOn July 18, filming took place at the Hard Rock Casino in Hollywood, Florida, for a concert scene with \"Don't Stop Believin'\" and \"Wanted Dead or Alive\".\n\n## Release\n\nThe film is distributed by New Line Cinema via Warner Bros. It had its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 8, 2012, where rock bands Def Leppard and Poison performed, and was released theatrically on June 15, 2012.\n\n### Box office\n\nOn its opening weekend in theaters, the film grossed \\$14,447,269, ranking third place, behind the previous week's holdovers Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted and Prometheus. The film did, however, do slightly better business than the other newcomer, That's My Boy.\n\nRock of Ages was a box office bomb, grossing \\$38,518,613 in North America and \\$20,900,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of \\$59,418,613, failing to bring back its \\$75 million budget. However, the film still has the seventh-highest opening ever for a musical.\n\nIn a 2019 interview, Adam Shankman said \"I think it would have been huge if it had been something that was made for streaming. Here are the problems with what Rock of Ages was. I think it was released on a very complicated date. We were in the early summer days, there were marketing challenges to do with the cast, but that wasn’t their fault,\" he explained. \"The cast all loved it, and Tom Cruise really wanted to feel like an ensemble member and Warner Brothers wanted to put the whole thing on him. He wasn’t a problem at all; he just had a real point of view. Then there was the other piece of it which was there was a misguided belief that you could market musicals to men as opposed to going the whole hog and making the movie more of a romantic fantasy. It's a weird cult movie. I kept calling one of those guys and saying, ‘I think I’m making like a really expensive cult movie over here,’ and they were like, ‘No, no, it’s great! You made Hairspray!’ and my reaction was, ‘I don’t know. This isn’t really about ending racism. Rock of Ages is something else entirely.’ It has a lot of joy in it, but the story isn't really solid, so it's just a lot of fun, right?\"\n\n### Critical reception\n\nThe film received mixed reviews from critics, and has a critical score of 42% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 228 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The site's consensus states: \"Its exuberant silliness is almost enough to make up for its utter inconsequentiality, but Rock of Ages is ultimately too bland and overlong to justify its trip to the big screen.\" Metacritic reports a 47 out of 100 rating, based on 42 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A+ to F scale.\n\nSeveral critics gave praise to the performances, particularly that of Cruise as Stacee Jaxx. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote: \"Rock of Ages is pretty fun despite a terrible script, bland leads and awful wigs, mainly thanks to a performance by Tom Cruise as fictional hair metal rocker Stacee Jaxx.\" Writing for the San Francisco Chronicle, Amy Biancolli called his performance \"a revelation\", calling it a \"reminder that he's always at his best in wildly transformative character parts\". Steve Persall of the Tampa Bay Times praised Cruise's singing, and compared his performance to his earlier work as Lestat in Interview with the Vampire. In her review, Dana Stevens of Slate found Cruise's performance the \"boldest use of the actor since Paul Thomas Anderson made him a rage-fueled motivational speaker in Magnolia\".\n\nAs for the negative reviews, Rex Reed of The New York Observer was heavily critical of every aspect of the film, giving the film no stars out of his ranking of four and compared the film to Battlefield Earth and Howard the Duck. Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw derided the film, and the stage musical, as \"bland and tiring\". Bradshaw also criticized Russell Brand's accent, and gave slight praise to Cruise's performance. Claudia Puig, of USA Today, criticised the main leads of the film as \"deadly dull dreamers\" and the story as \"tame and tone deaf\". Richard Corliss for Time found the cast as being wasted in the film, highlighting Baldwin, Zeta-Jones, Cranston, and Cruise, to whose performance Corliss provided positive reception.\n\nRock of Ages creator Chris D'Arienzo, though having not seen the film adaptation, spoke negatively on the final product. \"When the trailer came out, I saw there was a monkey in it, and then I knew what kind of movie it was. And I think America knew what sort of movie it was\". D'Arienzo voiced disappointment in how the film depicted itself, stating,\n\n> Instead of coming from the point of view of \"I'm going to validate this and elevate it,\" they embraced the kitsch and just made it more kitschy. They made it more silly and goofy. Not that our show isn't silly or goofy, but it's always from the point of view of \"This is really good. And if you don't like Warrant's 'Cherry Pie,' then you're a fucking dick. Because it's good! And we're gonna show you why it's good!\"\n\nAlec Baldwin, who played Dennis Dupree in the film, was also critical, calling it \"a horrible movie\" and \"a complete disaster\". Baldwin had asked New Line Cinema studio head Toby Emmerich to replace him in his role shortly before the beginning of production.\n\n### Accolades\n\n### Home media\n\nRock of Ages was released on DVD and Blu-ray on October 9, 2012. An extended cut is available on the Blu-ray, which includes the deleted \"Rock You Like a Hurricane\" lap dance scene between Stacee Jaxx (Tom Cruise) and Sherrie (Julianne Hough), which is also played in the theatrical version's end credits, as well as an extended version of \"Waiting for a Girl Like You\", between Drew (Diego Boneta) and Sherrie (Hough) (both scenes can also be found on YouTube). The extended cut runs 136 minutes, 13 minutes longer than the theatrical version, and is rated R for sexual content, as opposed to the PG-13 theatrical version.\n\n## Soundtrack\n\nThe cover and track listing of the soundtrack was confirmed by Entertainment Weekly on April 30, 2012. The soundtrack was released on June 5, 2012. It debuted at No. 15 on Billboard 200, and peaked at No. 5 on that chart in its third week. It also debuted at No. 1 on the Top Soundtracks chart. It sold 267,000 copies in the US in 2012, making it the second best-selling soundtrack album of the year. It had sold 320,000 copies as of May 2013.\n\n1. \"Paradise City\" – Tom Cruise\n2. \"Sister Christian\" / \"Just Like Paradise\" / \"Nothin' but a Good Time\" – Julianne Hough, Diego Boneta, Russell Brand, Alec Baldwin\n3. \"Juke Box Hero\" / \"I Love Rock 'n' Roll\" – Diego Boneta, Alec Baldwin, Russell Brand, Julianne Hough\n4. \"Hit Me With Your Best Shot\" – Catherine Zeta-Jones\n5. \"Waiting for a Girl Like You\" – Diego Boneta, Julianne Hough\n6. \"More Than Words\" / \"Heaven\" – Julianne Hough, Diego Boneta\n7. \"Wanted Dead or Alive\" – Tom Cruise, Julianne Hough\n8. \"I Want to Know What Love Is\" – Tom Cruise, Malin Åkerman\n9. \"I Wanna Rock\" – Diego Boneta\n10. \"Pour Some Sugar on Me\" – Tom Cruise\n11. \"Harden My Heart\" – Julianne Hough, Mary J. Blige\n12. \"Shadows of the Night\" / \"Harden My Heart\" – Mary J. Blige, Julianne Hough\n13. \"Here I Go Again\" – Diego Boneta, Paul Giamatti, Julianne Hough, Mary J. Blige, Tom Cruise\n14. \"Can't Fight This Feeling\" – Russell Brand, Alec Baldwin\n15. \"Any Way You Want It\" – Mary J. Blige, Constantine Maroulis, Julianne Hough\n16. \"Undercover Love\" – Diego Boneta\n17. \"Every Rose Has Its Thorn\" – Julianne Hough, Diego Boneta, Tom Cruise, Mary J. Blige\n18. \"Rock You Like a Hurricane\" – Julianne Hough, Tom Cruise\n19. \"We Built This City\" / \"We're Not Gonna Take It\" – Russell Brand, Catherine Zeta-Jones\n20. \"Don't Stop Believin'\" – Julianne Hough, Diego Boneta, Tom Cruise, Alec Baldwin, Russell Brand, Mary J. Blige\n\nThe following songs appear in the film as sung by the original artists. These songs do not appear on the official soundtrack.\n\n### Musical numbers", "revid": "1172419005", "description": "2012 American musical comedy film by Adam Shankman", "categories": ["2010s American films", "2010s English-language films", "2010s musical comedy films", "2012 LGBT-related films", "2012 comedy films", "2012 films", "American LGBT-related films", "American musical comedy films", "American rock musicals", "Films about striptease", "Films based on musicals", "Films directed by Adam Shankman", "Films produced by Tobey Maguire", "Films set in 1987", "Films set in Los Angeles", "Films shot in Florida", "Films with screenplays by Allan Loeb", "Films with screenplays by Justin Theroux", "Glam metal", "IMAX films", "Jukebox musical films", "LGBT-related musical comedy films", "New Line Cinema films", "Warner Bros. films"]}
{"id": "984310", "url": null, "title": "Battle of Long Tan", "text": "The Battle of Long Tan (18 August 1966) took place in a rubber plantation near Long Tân, in Phước Tuy Province, South Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. The action was fought between Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) units and elements of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF).\n\nAustralian signals intelligence (SIGINT) had tracked the VC 275th Regiment and D445 Battalion moving to a position just north of Long Tan. By 16 August, it was positioned near Long Tan outside the range of the 1 ATF artillery at Nui Dat. Using mortars and recoilless rifles (RCLs), on the night of 16/17 August, the VC attacked Nui Dat from a position 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east, until counter-battery fire made it stop. The next morning D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR), departed Nui Dat to locate the firing positions and determine the direction of the VC withdrawal. D Company found weapon pits and firing positions for mortars and RCLs, and around midday on 18 August made contact with VC elements.\n\nFacing a larger force, D Company called in artillery support. Heavy fighting ensued as the VC attempted to encircle and destroy the Australians, who were resupplied several hours later by two UH-1B Iroquois from No. 9 Squadron RAAF. With the help of strong artillery fire, D Company held off a regimental assault before a relief force of M113 armoured personnel carriers and infantry from Nui Dat reinforced them that night. Australian forces then pulled back to evacuate their casualties and formed a defensive position; when they swept through the area next day, the VC had withdrawn and the operation ended on 21 August.\n\nAlthough 1 ATF initially viewed Long Tan as a defeat, the action was later re-assessed as a strategic victory since it prevented the VC moving against Nui Dat. The VC also considered it a victory, due to the political success of an effective ambush and securing of the area around the village. Whether the battle impaired the capabilities of the VC is disputed.\n\n## Background\n\nThe 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) began arriving in Phước Tuy Province of South Vietnam between April and June 1966. Following the establishment of its base at Nui Dat in Operation Hardihood, standing patrols were established outside the base in the evening and clearing patrols sent out every morning and evening along the 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) perimeter. Daily platoon patrols and ambushes were initially conducted out to Line Alpha (4,000 metres (4,400 yd)), which was the range of the Viet Cong (VC) mortars, but were later extended out to Line Bravo (10,000 metres (11,000 yd)) to counter the threat from artillery.\n\nAll inhabitants of Long Phước and Long Hải villages within Line Alpha were removed, and resettled nearby. A protective security zone was established and a free-fire zone declared. Although unusual for allied installations in Vietnam, many of which were located near populated areas, the Australians hoped to deny the VC observation of Nui Dat, and afford greater security to patrols entering and exiting the area. While adding to the physical security of the base through disrupting a major VC support area and removing the local population from danger, such measures may have been counter-productive. The resettlement resulted in widespread resentment.\n\nThe VC continued to observe the base from the Nui Dinh hills. Movement was heard around the perimeter over the first few nights as they attempted to locate the Australian defences under the cover of darkness and heavy rain. Although no clashes occurred and the reconnaissance soon ceased, they were believed to be preparations for an attack. On 10 June reports indicated that a VC regiment was moving towards Nui Dat from the north west and was about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away. The same day three 120 mm mortar rounds landed just outside the base. That night Australian artillery fired on suspected movement along Route 2, but no casualties were found the next day. Further warnings of an attack hastened the call-forward of 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR), which arrived from Vũng Tàu 30 kilometres (19 mi) to the south on 14 June. No attack occurred, and the initial reaction to 1 ATF's lodgement proved unexpectedly limited.\n\n### Opposing forces\n\n#### Communist forces\n\nThe principal communist units in Phước Tuy were main forces from the 274th and 275th Regiments of the VC 5th Division. Under command of Senior Colonel Nguyen The Truyen, the division was headquartered in the Mây Tào Mountains. Operating in Phước Tuy, Biên Hòa and Long Khánh Provinces, it comprised both South Vietnamese VC guerrillas and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) units. Given the task of isolating the eastern provinces from Saigon by interdicting the main roads and highways, including National Routes 1 and 15 and provincial routes 2 and 23, it proved a major challenge to Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) units that ventured into the province, demonstrating a capacity to mount regimental-size ambushes. The 274th Regiment was the stronger and better trained of the two. Based in the Hát Dịch in north west Phước Tuy with three battalions—D800, D265 and D308—it numbered 2,000 men. The 275th Regiment was based in the Mây Tào Mountains and mainly operated in the east of the province. Commanded by Senior Captain Nguyen Thoi Bung (aka Ut Thoi), it consisted of three battalions—H421, H422 and H421—with a total of 1,850 men.\n\nIn support was an artillery battalion equipped with 75 mm recoilless rifles (RCLs), 82 mm mortars, and 12.7 mm heavy machine-guns, an engineer battalion, a signals battalion and a sapper reconnaissance battalion, as well as medical and logistic units. Local forces included D445 Battalion, which normally operated in the south and in Long Khánh. Under command of Bui Quang Chanh (alias Sau Chanh), it consisted of three rifle companies—C1, C2, C3—and a weapons company, C4; a strength of 550 men. Recruited locally and operating in familiar terrain, they possessed an intimate knowledge of the area. Guerrilla forces numbered 400 men operating in groups of five to 60, with two companies in Châu Đốc district, one in Long Dat, and a platoon in Xuyên Mộc. In total, VC strength was estimated to have been around 4,500 men.\n\n#### Allied Forces\n\nARVN forces included the 52nd Ranger Battalion, a unit that had previously earned a US Presidential Unit Citation defeating the 275th Regiment the year before, and relatively weak territorial forces of 17 Regional Force (RF) companies and 47 Popular Force (PF) platoons, in total some 4,500 men. Most villages were garrisoned by an RF company operating from a fortified compound, and PF platoons guarded most hamlets and important infrastructure, but their value was questionable. RF companies were technically available for tasks throughout the province, while PF platoons were mostly restricted to operating around their village. While RF and PF units occasionally defended themselves successfully they rarely conducted offensive operations, and when they did they were usually limited. Mostly recruited from the same population as their opponents, they often suffered equally at the hands of the VC and a largely inept government. Poorly trained and unable to rely on being reinforced, they provided little opposition to the VC. A US Advisory Team operated in support, as did a few Australians from the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV); despite their efforts, the capabilities of the ARVN remained limited. The arrival of 1 ATF further restricted their ability to operate in Phước Tuy as it increasingly came to dominate the province.\n\nInitially, 1 ATF, under the command of Brigadier Oliver David Jackson, consisted of two infantry battalions: the 5th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (5 RAR), commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Warr, and 6 RAR under Lieutenant Colonel Colin Townsend. Other units included the 1st Armoured Personnel Carrier Squadron operating M113 armoured personnel carriers (APCs); 1st Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery, consisting of the New Zealand 161st Battery, two Australian batteries equipped with eighteen 105 mm L5 Pack Howitzers, and six 155 mm M109 self-propelled howitzers from the US A Battery, 2nd Battalion, 35th Artillery Regiment; 3rd SAS Squadron; 1st Field Squadron and 21st Engineer Support Troop; 103rd Signals Squadron; 161st Reconnaissance Flight operating Cessna 180s and Bell H-13 Sioux light observation helicopters; and an intelligence detachment. Support was provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group (1 ALSG) at Vũng Tàu, and eight UH-1B Iroquois helicopters from No. 9 Squadron RAAF. US forces provided considerable support including artillery, close air support, helicopter gunships, and utility, medium and heavy lift helicopters. The largest Australian force deployed since the Second World War, it had been rapidly assembled. Although many of its officers and non-commissioned personnel had extensive operational experience, it included many National Servicemen. Few had direct experience of counter-insurgency operations, or first-hand understanding of the situation in Vietnam. The task force was unable to train together before departure.\n\n### Preliminary operations\n\nWith 1 ATF established at Nui Dat, subsequent operations included a search and destroy missions to gain control over Phước Tuy. Seeking to extend its influence beyond Line Alpha, in early July 5 RAR patrolled north through Nui Nghệ, while 6 RAR cleared Long Phước to the south, removing the former inhabitants who had returned since May. 5 RAR then began operations along Route 2, cordoning and searching Dục Mỹ on 19–20 July in preparation for the clearance of Bình Ba, while the SAS conducted long-range patrols to the edge of the Tactical Area of Operations (TAOR) to provide early warning of VC concentrations. With the 5th Division believed able to concentrate anywhere in Phước Tuy within 24 to 48 hours, it was a significant threat. As 1 ATF began to impact the VC's freedom of action, a response was expected. Mortar fire and small probes on the Nui Dat perimeter occurred, with such activity considered a possible prelude to an attack. Assessments of VC intentions changed from those of May and June. Whereas previously a full-scale assault was expected, as Nui Dat's defences were strengthened an attack against an isolated company or battalion was considered more likely. Other possibilities included skirmishes or ambushes during routine patrolling, or an attempt to interdict a resupply convoy from Vũng Tàu.\n\nBy the end of July, a large VC force had been detected by SAS patrols east of Nui Dat, near the abandoned village of Long Tân. In response, 6 RAR launched a battalion search and destroy operation. In a series of fire-fights on 25 July, a company from D445 Battalion attacked C Company, and in the process of retreating assaulted B Company occupying a blocking position. Over the following days, further clashes occurred around Long Tan, resulting in 13 VC killed and 19 wounded, and Australian losses of three killed and 19 wounded. Yet with the inhabitants resettled, the village fortified and the perimeter regularly patrolled, the Australians considered the area secure. Believing VC sympathisers had returned to Long Tân, they searched the area again on 29 July. That afternoon, as 6 RAR commenced a detailed search following its initial sweep, Jackson ordered its immediate return to Nui Dat in response to South Vietnamese reports of a large VC presence close to the base. Although the warnings were unconfirmed and an attack against Nui Dat was considered unlikely, 1 ATF was re-postured. Company patrols were sent out in each direction over the following days, but found little of significance. Jackson had seemed to over-react, and his requests for assistance from US II Field Force, Vietnam (II FFV) were denied. Later intelligence discredited the original reporting and the crisis subsided, but it was indicative of the alarms experienced during the first months of 1 ATF's lodgement, and their effect.\n\nAfter two months, 1 ATF had moved beyond the initial requirements of establishing itself and securing its immediate approaches, and commenced operations to open the province. The task force had penetrated the VC base areas to the east and clashed with D445 Battalion. Operations had been conducted in the Núi Dinh hills to west, Bình Ba had been cleared of VC influence and Route 2 opened to civilian traffic. Yet the ongoing need to secure Nui Dat reduced the combat power available to the task force commander, and it was evident that with only two battalions—rather than the usual three—1 ATF lacked operational flexibility, as while one battalion carried out operations the other was required to secure the base and provide a ready reaction force. Significant logistic problems also plagued the task force, as 1 ALSG struggled to become operational amid the sand dunes at Vũng Tàu, resulting in shortages of vital equipment. By the middle of August, the Australian troops were growing tired from constant day and night patrolling with no respite from base defence duties. A rest and recreation program began, with many granted two days leave in Vũng Tàu, but this further stretched the limited forces available to 1 ATF. Meanwhile, in response to the growing threat posed by the Australians, the commander of the VC 5th Division finally ordered the 275th Regiment to move against Nui Dat.\n\nFor several weeks, Australian signals intelligence (SIGINT) had used direction finding to track a VC radio transmitter from the headquarters of the 275th Regiment westwards to a position just north of Long Tân. Extensive patrolling failed to find the unit. The reports began on 29 July at the height of the false alarm, with the radio detected moving towards Nui Dat from a position north of Xuyên Mộc. The movement continued at a rate of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) a day and by 13 August was located near the Nui Dat 2 feature, a hill in the vicinity of Long Tân, 5,000 metres (5,500 yd) east of Nui Dat. While direction finding indicated the movement of the radio, no actual communications had been intercepted. However it suggested the presence of the 275th Regiment or at least a reconnaissance party of that unit. Jackson could not rule out deception and therefore took the threat seriously when he decided to send company patrols out. The existence of a SIGINT capability was a closely guarded secret, and knowledge of the source of the reports was limited to Jackson, his two intelligence officers, and the 1 ATF operations officer; neither battalion commander had access. On 15 August D Company, 6 RAR patrolled to Nui Dat 2 and returned through the Long Tân rubber plantation. The following day A Company, 6 RAR departed on a three-day patrol on a route which included Nui Dat 2 and the ridge to the north west. Any sizeable VC force in the vicinity would have been located, but neither patrol found anything of significance. SAS patrols focused on the Núi Dinh hills to the west.\n\nBy 16 August, the VC force was positioned east of the Long Tân rubber plantation, just outside the range of the artillery at Nui Dat. The Australians thought that Colonel Nguyen Thanh Hong, a staff officer from the VC 5th Division who was likely in overall control, planned the operation. Although VC intentions have been debated in the years since, the aim was likely both a political and military victory to prove their strength to the local population, and undermine Australian public support for the war. They would probably have known one of 1 ATF's battalions was involved in the search of Bình Ba, and may have considered Nui Dat weakly defended as a result. Undetected, it likely consisted of three battalions of the 275th Regiment with approximately 1,400 men, possibly reinforced by at least one regular PAVN battalion, and D445 Battalion with up to 350 men. Well armed, they were equipped with AK-47 and SKS assault rifles, RPG-2 rocket-propelled grenades, light machine-guns, mortars and RCLs. Large quantities of ammunition were carried, with each man issued two or three grenades, and grenadiers up to ten or twelve, and a reserve of small arms, mortar bombs and rounds for their crew-served weapons. The 274th Regiment was probably located 15 to 20 kilometres (9.3 to 12.4 mi) north west, occupying a position on Route 2 to ambush a squadron of the US 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, which they anticipated would move down the inter-provincial highway from Long Khánh to support the Australians.\n\n## Battle\n\n### Opening moves, 16/17 August 1966\n\n#### Initial assault\n\nAt 02:43 on the night of 16/17 August Nui Dat was bombarded by the VC, and hit by over 100 rounds from several 82 mm mortars, 75 mm RCLs and an old Japanese 70 mm howitzer fired from a position 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east. Most of the infantry were deployed at the time, with 5 RAR still engaged on Operation Holsworthy while a small party remained at the base. A Company, 6 RAR was on patrol in the north-east of the TAOR, while a platoon from C Company was manning a night ambush to the south-east. The bombardment lasted for 22 minutes, damaging vehicles, tents and wounding 24 men, one of whom later died.\n\nThe impact was spread over the south and south-east, with the 103rd Field Battery heaviest hit. The 1st Field Regiment commenced counter-battery fire at 02:50. As the artillery locating radar was suspected of being faulty, the enemy firing position was located manually using compass bearings on sound and flash. With the likely firing point plotted, 240 rounds were fired that made the mortaring cease. The Australians remained alert in case of a ground assault, but this did not occur. The Australian artillery continued to shell suspected VC firing positions and withdrawal routes until 04:10. Although the VC were expected to have withdrawn, several company patrols were dispatched the following morning to search the area east of Nui Dat in response.\n\n#### Pursuing the Vietcong\n\nTownsend ordered B Company under Major Noel Ford to prepare for a patrol to locate the firing points which were believed to be in the area between the abandoned villages of Long Tân, Long Phước, and the Nui Dat 2 feature. Having done so, it was to establish the direction of the VC withdrawal. Meanwhile, a platoon from C Company mounted in armoured personnel carriers was to investigate a suspected mortar location south-west of Nui Dat. A Company would continue its patrol in the vicinity of Nui Dat 2, while 7 Platoon, C Company, already conducting a night ambush on the southern edge of the TAOR, would search some sites as it returned that morning. No SAS patrols were deployed as a result of the attack, although several previously had been planned to the north between Bình Ba and the Courtenay plantation in preparation for upcoming operations went ahead. Another patrol was inserted near the Song Rai, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) north-east of Nui Dat, on the morning of 17 August. The patrol located several tracks about six hours old and headed in a westerly direction that were possibly made by a VC logistics unit. Radio interference and faulty equipment meant that the company was unable to report the information until extraction two days later. Australian intelligence continued to assess a ground attack against Nui Dat as unlikely, with the bombardment an indicator of further offensive action against 1 ATF, Jackson felt he would be unable to adequately respond with only one battalion. 5 RAR was therefore ordered to return to Nui Dat, and was expected back by 18 August.\n\nAlthough SIGINT had earlier alerted Jackson to the possible presence of a strong VC force in the vicinity of Nui Dat 2, patrols of the area revealed nothing, and as a consequence B Company did not expect to meet significant opposition. Stepping off early on 17 August with just 80 men—some due on leave the following day—they were significantly under-strength, lacking provisions. Crossing the Suối Da Bang creek, the firing point of the mortars was soon located, as were signs of the VC withdrawal. Meanwhile, A Company, 6 RAR under Captain Charles Mollison continued its patrol north of Nui Dat 2, and was involved in three minor clashes, killing one VC and wounding two. B Company was subsequently given the task of remaining in the area and searching to the north and east the following day, and was met by porters that afternoon to supply them with rations. 9 Platoon, C Company returned to Nui Dat with nothing to report, leaving A and B Company in their night locations. Speculation about the size of the VC in the area increased. Captain Bryan Wickens, the 6 RAR Intelligence Officer, assessed that the presence of medium mortars, RCLs and artillery likely indicated a significant force. Due to growing uncertainty about VC intentions, Jackson agreed the patrol scheduled for 18 August should be increased from platoon to company size. D Company, 6 RAR under command of Major Harry Smith had previously been detailed for a three-day patrol south-east of Nui Dat and was instead ordered to relieve B Company the next day to continue the search. Neither Townsend nor Smith were warned of the possible presence of the 275th Regiment.\n\n### Patrolling east of Nui Dat, 18 August 1966\n\nB Company were due to go on leave, and therefore returned to Nui Dat on the morning of the 18th. At 07:05 the depleted company—reduced to a single platoon and Company Headquarters—continued the search east as far as the edge of the rubber plantation, while A Company searched down the Suối Da Bang towards them. They located several weapon pits and the firing positions of the mortars and RCLs, while discarded stained clothing nearby confirmed the accuracy of the Australian artillery.\n\nAt Nui Dat D Company, 6 RAR prepared for its patrol; despite the earlier bombardment, they did not take any extra ammunition with them. Wickens briefed Smith, who assessed that the VC would be incapable of mounting an ambush because of the effectiveness of the Australian counter-battery mortar fire. While the size of the VC force was unknown, the Australians could not discount the possibility it was part of a larger force preparing to move against Nui Dat. The VC were believed able to attack a company-sized force and to launch mortar attacks similar to that the previous morning. Smith then discussed the patrol with Townsend. If B Company located the withdrawal route used by the mortar crews, he was to follow it with the aim of interdiction; otherwise he was to continue the search until it was located. Assuming D445 Battalion to be the only unit in the area, Smith believed they were looking for that unit's heavy weapons platoon of approximately 30 to 40 men. He briefed his platoon commanders accordingly, although he also felt the VC would have long since left the area. Meanwhile, 5 RAR (minus one company) returned to Nui Dat.\n\n#### Troop support and pursuit\n\nD Company departed Nui Dat at 11:00 on 18 August led by Smith. They were accompanied by a three-man New Zealand artillery forward observer party under Captain Maurice Stanley, making up a 108-man company. Already behind schedule and with B Company having been out for longer than expected, Smith wanted to relieve Ford and then follow the VC tracks to continue the pursuit that afternoon. Opting for speed, he adopted single file, with 12 Platoon under Second Lieutenant David Sabben in the lead. Despite the heat the company moved at a fast pace, traversing the low scrub, swamp and paddy fields as they closed in on B Company's position.\n\nMeanwhile, the rock and roll acts Little Pattie and Col Joye and the Joy Boys had flown into Nui Dat and were setting up for an afternoon concert. Many of the Australians were disappointed at the prospect of missing the entertainment, and as they patrolled east they occasionally heard the music through the trees. At 13:00 D Company met up with B Company on the edge of the Long Tân rubber plantation, approximately 2,500 metres (2,700 yd) from Nui Dat. D Company moved into all-round defence and posted sentries. While the soldiers had lunch, Smith and Ford inspected the area with a small protection party. The position appeared to have been used by the VC as a staging area prior to the bombardment two nights before, and there were signs that they had evacuated their casualties by cart. The Australians found blood stains and a quantity of equipment and sandals, and examined the mortar and RCL firing locations. After briefing Smith, Ford and the remainder of B Company turned for Nui Dat. D Company subsequently took over the pursuit.\n\nSmith decided to follow signs of a fresh track leading north-east. Setting off at 15:00, D Company paralleled a well-defined track running slightly uphill. Second Lieutenant Gordon Sharp's 11 Platoon was in the lead, followed by Company Headquarters, with 10 Platoon on the left under Second Lieutenant Geoff Kendall, and 12 Platoon on the right. Each platoon moved in open formation, with two sections forward in arrowhead and one back, on a frontage of approximately 160 metres (170 yd). Moving deeper into the plantation, there were select areas with less visibility. After 200 metres (220 yd) the track divided into two which ran roughly east-south-east in parallel, 300 metres (330 yd) apart. At the junction, D Company found evidence of the VC mortars having been prepared for firing, while more scattered equipment was found which again indicated the accuracy of the counter-battery fire and a rapid withdrawal. Unable to cover both tracks, Smith radioed Townsend to discuss the situation. It was decided D Company would take the more easterly track, towards the limit of the range of their covering artillery. Smith adopted a \"two up, one back\" formation, with 10 Platoon on the left and 11 Platoon on the higher ground to the right. Company Headquarters was in the centre, with 12 Platoon following to the rear. Well dispersed with about 10 metres (11 yd) between each man, the company had a total frontage of 400 metres (440 yd) and was about the same in depth. Amid the trees observation was 150 to 200 metres (160 to 220 yd), allowing visual contact between Smith and his platoons. While standard for Australian infantry in such terrain, this spacing was larger than that usually adopted by ARVN or US units.\n\n### Initial contact\n\n#### First contact with Vietcong\n\nD Company moved off again. Shortly after 11 Platoon's lead section crossed a dirt road running south-west to north-east. Straight, well-established and sunken with a clearing on either side, it was 20 to 30 metres (22 to 33 yd) wide and required them to complete an obstacle-crossing drill to traverse it. At 15:40, just as the forward sections entered the tree line on the other side, but before platoon headquarters could follow, a group of six to eight VC approached their right flank along the track from the south. Unaware of their presence, the VC squad continued into the middle of the platoon. One was hit in a brief action after the platoon sergeant, Sergeant Bob Buick, engaged them, while the remainder scattered. They rapidly moved south-east, and although the Australians believed it just another fleeting contact, artillery was called onto their likely withdrawal route 500 metres (550 yd) south. After pausing to reorganise, 11 Platoon moved into extended line, sweeping the area and recovering an AK-47 and the body of a VC soldier. Sharp reported to Smith that the VC had been dressed in khaki uniforms and were carrying automatic weapons, yet D445 Battalion soldiers typically wore black and were equipped with US-origin bolt-action rifles or carbines. At the time only main force units were so equipped, but the significance was not immediately apparent. With the area clear following the initial contact, Smith ordered D Company to continue the advance. Meanwhile, Second Lieutenant David Harris was at Headquarters 1 ATF at Nui Dat when the first reports came in. As Jackson's aide he was aware of the intelligence being received and believed D Company had clashed with a main force regiment. Harris alerted Jackson, before telephoning Major Bob Hagerty—officer commanding 1st APC Squadron—to warn him of the possible requirement for his standby troop.\n\nMoving forward again, D Company continued east. 11 Platoon's rapid follow-up had opened a 500-metre (550 yd) gap with Company Headquarters, while the two lead platoons were also widely dispersed. 11 Platoon penetrated further into the plantation, widening the gap with 10 Platoon to more than 300 metres (330 yd). Although 12 Platoon in the rear covered most of the ground bypassed by the forward platoons, the gap was such that their flanking sections had lost sight of each other, while Smith was unable to see them in the dense vegetation. At that distance, the spacing between the Australians was now greater than the maximum effective range of their weapons. Meanwhile, 11 Platoon had moved forward approximately 250 metres (270 yd) from the first engagement. As Smith reached the site of the contact, the sound of firing continued to the front as Sharp manoeuvred his sections in pursuit of the withdrawing force. Still in extended line, 11 Platoon came across a rubber tapper's hut. Believing sounds coming from it were from VC hiding there, Sharp launched a platoon attack, but the VC had already fled, and the assaulting sections found only two grenades as they swept through the area. Advancing with three sections abreast—6 Section on the left, 4 Section in the centre and 5 Section on the right—they pushed on through the rubber towards a clearing. This formation allowed them to cover a broad front, but offered little flank security.\n\nAt 16:08, shortly after resuming the advance, 11 Platoon's left flank was engaged by machine-gun fire from a previously undetected VC force, killing and wounding several men from 6 Section. They went to ground and adopted firing positions, only to be engaged by a second machine-gun firing tracer. The firing lasted two to three minutes then stopped, and Sharp then ordered 5 Section to sweep across the front of the platoon from the right. Yet just as they began to move, they came under heavy small-arms and RPG fire from their front and both flanks. Pinned down by the weight of fire, and under threat of being overrun, the isolated platoon was forced to fight for their lives. Over the next 10 to 15 minutes the VC engaged 11 Platoon with heavy fire, putting their left flank out of action. At that moment a heavy monsoon rain began which reduced visibility to just 50 metres (55 yd) and turned the ground to mud. Assessing the VC to be in greater strength than previously thought and believing they were preparing to assault his position, Sharp called for artillery fire as he moved to bring his exposed section back into line and then gradually withdraw his platoon into all-round defence. He subsequently reported being under fire from a force estimated to be platoon-sized. The Australians had started the contact thinking they were numerically superior and would attack the VC, yet far from clashing with a small force which would try to withdraw before being decisively engaged, 11 Platoon had run into the forward troops of a main force regiment. Beginning as an encounter battle, heavy fighting ensued as the advancing battalions of the 275th Regiment and D445 Battalion clashed with D Company, 6 RAR and attempted to encircle and destroy them.\n\n### 11 Platoon isolated\n\nAmid the noise of machine-gun and rifle fire and the VC bugle calls, Stanley brought the 161st Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery into action to support the Australian infantry. Yet as he was unable to see them, for safety reasons the initial rounds were directed a distance from 11 Platoon's known location, before \"walking\" the fire in to between 200 and 300 metres (220 and 330 yd) of their position, aided by D Company's favourable location between the VC and the gunline at Nui Dat, which allowed the rounds to pass over their heads and fall away from them. Landing beyond 11 Platoon, the rounds exploded amid the VC as they began to form up for an assault. But with 11 Platoon engaged from its left, front and right, it became clear the VC force was stronger than a platoon, and was probably at least company-sized. Supported by heavy machine-guns, they launched a series of assaults against 11 Platoon, only to be held off by small arms and artillery fire. As the fighting continued, Stanley realised a single artillery battery was insufficient, and at 16:19 requested a regimental fire mission using all 24 guns of the 1st Field Regiment. The VC continued their assault, surging around the flanks of 11 Platoon. The Australians responded with controlled small arms fire, picking off VC soldiers as the rain and artillery continued to fall. After making the required corrections, Stanley requested another regimental fire mission at 16:22, yet still unable to see the rounds land he had to work entirely from radio communications with 11 Platoon, adjusting the fire over an area of 200 metres (220 yd) using just a map.\n\nLess than 20 minutes after the first contact more than a third of 11 Platoon had been killed or wounded. Several 60mm light mortar rounds were fired towards the D Company position and although they landed to the east they further separated the remainder of the company from 11 Platoon, putting the main body behind a slight rise. At 16:26 Smith reported to Townsend that D Company was facing a force using mortars, and called for artillery support. Shortly afterwards Sharp was shot and killed after he raised himself to observe the fall of shot. With the platoon commander dead, Buick took charge of 11 Platoon, directing the artillery through Stanley. Unable to extricate itself, 11 Platoon was almost surrounded. Taking heavy casualties and running short of ammunition, Buick radioed for assistance. Soon after the aerial of the platoon's radio was shot away and communications lost. Meanwhile, Smith requested an air-strike to deal with the mortars. In response, Stanley organised counter-battery fire from the American 155 mm self-propelled howitzers at Nui Dat, which appeared to silence them.\n\nMeanwhile, 10 Platoon was approximately 200 metres (220 yd) to the north and Smith ordered it to move up on the left of 11 Platoon to try to relieve pressure on them and allow a withdrawal back to the company defensive position. Dropping their packs, Kendall's platoon wheeled to the south-east in extended line, advancing towards 11 Platoon. As they came over a small rise, through the rain they observed a VC platoon of 30 to 40 men advancing south, firing on 11 Platoon as they attempted to outflank them. Advancing to close range before dropping to their knees to adopt firing positions, 10 Platoon engaged them from the rear, hitting a large number and breaking up the attack. As the surviving VC withdrew, Kendall pushed on. Yet shortly after 10 Platoon was engaged on three sides from a heavy machine-gun firing tracer from the high ground of the Nui Dat 2 feature 400 metres (440 yd) to their left, wounding the signaller and damaging the radio, putting it out of action. Now also without communications, and still 100 to 150 metres (110 to 160 yd) from 11 Platoon, 10 Platoon moved into a defensive position, fighting to hold on. Finally, a runner arrived from Company Headquarters with a replacement radio, having moved 200 to 300 metres (220 to 330 yd) through heavy fire as he tried to locate the platoon, killing two VC with his Owen gun on the way. With the wounded starting to arrive back at Smith's position and communications with 10 Platoon restored, he ordered Kendall to pull back under cover of the artillery. 10 Platoon was ultimately forced back to its start point.\n\n### Reaction at Nui Dat\n\nIt appeared the VC would shortly overrun D Company if they were not soon reinforced but no quick reaction force was prepared to deploy at short notice. Consequently, it took several hours to organise a relief force. Although essentially a sub-unit battle fought by a rifle company supported by artillery and co-ordinated by Townsend from the 6 RAR command post at Nui Dat, Jackson was concerned. Not only was D Company in trouble, but the entire force might be under threat. VC radio jamming on the battalion command net forced them to switch frequencies to communicate with D Company. Such a jamming capability was rarely found below divisional-level. Intending to lead the company out himself and take command of the battle, at 16:30 Townsend ordered A Company to prepare to reinforce them, despite themselves only having returned from a three-day patrol an hour prior, and 3 Troop, 1st APC Squadron under Lieutenant Adrian Roberts was warned to be ready to lift the relief force. US ground attack aircraft at Bien Hoa Air Base were also placed on alert by Headquarters 1 ATF. Meanwhile, on hearing the sounds of the fighting while returning to Nui Dat, B Company halted 2,300 metres (2,500 yd) short of the base and was ordered to rejoin D Company. Apparently under close observation by the VC, they were engaged by two 60 mm mortars as they turned around, but took no casualties.\n\nRequiring the task force commander's permission to send out the relief force and to accompany it, Townsend telephoned Jackson. Concerned for the safety of the entire force, Jackson was initially reluctant to authorise its dispatch should it weaken the position at Nui Dat. Although he was unsure of the size of the VC facing D Company, from Smith's reports it appeared to be at least a regular battalion. Intelligence suggested it was likely from the 275th Regiment, although the location of its remaining two battalions were unknown, as was that of D445 Battalion. The whereabouts of the 274th Regiment was equally unclear. While radio direction finding suggested it may have been near Phước Tuy's northern border, three weeks earlier it had been reported close to the western side of the Australian TAOR, and one of its battalions had (incorrectly) been believed involved in an attack on Phú Mỹ in the south-west of the province on 11 August. Consequently, Jackson reasoned that if the battle unfolding near Long Tân was the opening phase of an attack on Nui Dat, the main assault was still to come, and he would need the bulk of his forces to defend the base. He considered the commitment of A Company would tie up the bulk of 6 RAR and the artillery. Yet Townsend believed Nui Dat's defences sufficient to deter such an attack, even if they remained incomplete, while the strategic reserve held by US II FFV could also be called upon if required. Ultimately Jackson gave in-principle support to the plan, but would not release the relief force until he thought it was warranted.\n\n### Fighting continues\n\nBy 16:50, it was apparent to Smith that he was facing a force of at least battalion-strength. Yet with his two forward platoons still separated and unable to support each other, D Company was badly positioned for a defensive battle. 10 Platoon had been prevented from engaging the VC attacking 11 Platoon, and was unable to support its withdrawal. Meanwhile, 11 Platoon had gone to ground in extended line following the initial contact, leaving its flanks vulnerable, while its aggressive push forward prior to the engagement also complicated the application of artillery support, which had to be switched to support each platoon as required rather than allowing it to be concentrated. Unable to see either platoon, the D Company forward observer was unsure of 11 Platoon's exact position. As a consequence 10 and 11 Platoons were each forced to fight their own battles, and despite the weight of the indirect fire increasingly becoming available to support the Australian infantry, the VC were able to apply superior firepower as they tried to isolate and attack each platoon in turn. To retrieve the situation, Smith planned to pull his company into an all-round defensive position, enabling his platoons to support each other fighting a co-ordinated battle and care for the wounded until a relief force could arrive. The VC moved to overrun the beleaguered force, but the dispersal of the Australian platoons made it difficult for them to find D Company's flanks and roll them up, and may have led the VC commander to believe he was engaging a much larger force.\n\nIn the meantime, Buick repaired the 11 Platoon radio and re-established communications with company headquarters, and with Stanley, who was again able to adjust the artillery by radio. The VC succeeded in closing to within 50 metres (55 yd) of 11 Platoon's position, and much of the artillery was beginning to fall behind them. Although the fire was probably impacting the VC rear area and causing casualties there, these assault troops had deliberately closed with the Australians to negate its effect. Buick estimated 11 Platoon was being assaulted by at least two companies; down to the last of their ammunition and with just 10 of its 28 men still able to fight, he feared they would soon be overrun, and were unlikely to survive beyond the next 10 to 15 minutes. Confident the rest of D Company would be attempting to reach them, but unable to see how that might occur, Buick requested artillery fire onto his own position despite the danger this entailed. Stanley refused, but after confirming 11 Platoon's precarious situation, he was able to walk the artillery in closer. Landing 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft) to their front, the artillery detonated among a large concentration of VC troops, destroying an entire assault line as they formed up. At 17:00, three US F-4 Phantoms arrived on station for an airstrike arranged by battalion headquarters.\n\n#### Ammunition shortage and urgent request for support of D Company\n\nAt 17:02, Smith reported D Company was running low on ammunition and required aerial resupply. With just three magazines carried by each rifleman, they were only lightly equipped prior to the battle. This was a standard load calculated on 1 RAR usage rates which had been enough during previous actions, but it proved insufficient for sustained fighting. Due to the thick vegetation, the ammunition boxes would need to be dropped through the trees, and intending on moving his headquarters behind a low knoll, Smith nominated a point 400 metres (440 yd) west. This position would afford greater protection, while the helicopters would be less likely to attract ground fire. Yet with their casualties now unable to be moved, D Company would have to remain where it was. Townsend passed the ammunition demand to Headquarters 1 ATF. In response, Jackson requested two UH-1B Iroquois from No. 9 Squadron RAAF to deliver it; however, the senior RAAF officer at Nui Dat, Group Captain Peter Raw, was not prepared to risk aircraft hovering at tree-top height in the heavy rain where they would be exposed to ground fire, citing Department of Air regulations. Relations between the Army and RAAF over the use of the helicopters had become increasingly bitter in the preceding months, and were still tenuous despite recent improvements. Jackson requested American assistance, and when the US Army liaison officer responded more favourably, Raw felt no alternative than to accede to the original request, offering to effect the resupply instead. By coincidence, two RAAF Iroquois were available at Nui Dat, having been used for the concert.\n\nSmith called for the waiting aircraft to drop napalm across 11 Platoon's eastern frontage. The Phantoms soon arrived, but the rain and low cloud obscured the coloured smoke the Australians had thrown to mark their position through the trees. Stanley was forced to halt the artillery while the aircraft flew overhead, but as Smith was unable to establish communications with the forward air observer he wanted the aircraft to move out of the area so it could resume firing. Townsend directed the aircraft to attack the forward slopes of Nui Dat 2 instead, believing the VC command element to be located there. The artillery fire recommenced as the VC formed assault waves. Major Harry Honnor—officer commanding 161st Battery, RNZA attached to 6 RAR in direct support—served as Townsend's artillery advisor at Nui Dat and during the battle controlled the fires of the three field batteries and the American medium artillery. Stanley called down the fire or relayed the direction of the assault, from which Honnor selected targets and ordered the fire, which was then adjusted by Stanley using sound ranging to bring it closer. Although the rain and the soft ground reducing the impact of the artillery, its effectiveness was aided by otherwise favourable conditions: the location of the infantry between the guns and the assaulting VC, the convenient range of 5,000 to 6,000 metres (5,500 to 6,600 yd) at which the engagement occurred, good communications afforded by the newly issued AN/PRC-25 radios, the air burst effect created by rounds exploding in the trees, and the large supply of rounds stock-piled at Nui Dat.\n\n### 12 Platoon attempts to link up with Buick\n\nHaving been repulsed on the left, Smith tried the right flank. Pushing his headquarters forward, he ordered Sabben to move 12 Platoon—until then held in reserve—to support 11 Platoon. As new radio traffic was received, Smith was again forced to ground to work on fresh orders, while the arrival of casualties required the establishment of an aid post in the dead ground, which effectively tied them in location and prevented further manoeuvre. After more than an hour of fighting, D Company was still widely dispersed; 10 Platoon had been unable to break through to 11 Platoon from the north, and there remained only a slight chance 12 Platoon would have more success from the north-west. With the VC enjoying a considerable numerical advantage, Smith feared his platoons would be defeated in detail and that it was only a matter of time before his entire company was overrun, despite the devastating effect of the artillery on the VC assault formations. 12 Platoon departed at 17:15, moving south-east in an attempt to retrieve the now cut-off 11 Platoon, but having been forced to leave 9 Section behind to protect Company Headquarters and support the wounded, with just two sections it was significantly under-strength. Smith requested an airmobile assault to reinforce his position, but due to the bad weather, poor visibility and lack of a suitable landing zone this was considered impossible. Instead, Townsend informed him an infantry company mounted in APCs would be dispatched as a relief force.\n\nAt 17:05 Roberts had arrived at the 6 RAR headquarters at Nui Dat with his troop of 10 APCs, and was briefed by the Operations Officer on the situation before departing to pick up A Company from their lines. Yet Jackson was reluctant to reduce the defences at Nui Dat, considering the attack a possible feint. Consequently, although Smith repeatedly pressed Townsend, there was a delay of more than an hour from when the relief force was ordered to ready themselves until Roberts was allowed to move. Townsend finally ordered the relief force to move at 17:30, having received Jackson's approval. A Company, 6 RAR and 3 Troop were on standby in the company lines and departed fifteen minutes later. With the route largely dictated by the terrain, the possibility of the relief force being ambushed concerned Townsend and Jackson, but given the dire situation, they saw no alternative, and considered it unlikely, given the ground had been covered by frequent patrols, the proximity of D Company's position to Nui Dat, the open country between the base and rubber plantation, and that it was not yet dark. With 5 RAR back at Nui Dat, Jackson ordered it to take over the defensive positions normally occupied by 6 RAR, while deploying a platoon to the 1st APC Squadron lines, and placing D Company, 5 RAR on one hour's notice to move if required. The remainder of the battalion prepared to repel any attack on Nui Dat or to pursue the VC if they withdrew.\n\nMeanwhile, after departing D Company's position, the two sections from 12 Platoon moved south towards the sound of firing heard approximately 400 metres (440 yd) away. Unaware of the exact position of 11 Platoon, Sabben instead located the rubber tapper's hut previously assaulted by Sharp in the opening phases of the battle. As they advanced, they were forced to fight off an attack on their right flank, before eventually pushing forward another 100 metres (110 yd). By this time, the VC had succeeded in pushing behind 11 Platoon in an effort to outflank them, and a large force clashed with 12 Platoon as they attempted to come to their aid. Advancing from the north, two VC platoons then assaulted the Australians, who were now heavily engaged from three directions. Meeting a similar fate to 10 Platoon, Sabben's men were forced to ground 150 metres (160 yd) short of their objective, and were themselves in danger of being encircled. Sustaining increasing casualties, they clashed with several groups of VC trying to move around their western flank to get between 11 and 12 Platoon and form a cut-off force prior to mounting a frontal assault. In so doing, 12 Platoon succeeded in opening a path to 11 Platoon, yet after 45 minutes under fire Sabben was unable to advance any further, and with the rain reducing visibility to just 70 metres (77 yd) he was unsure of Buick's location.\n\nAt 18:00 two RAAF UH-1B Iroquois piloted by Flight Lieutenants Cliff Dohle and Frank Riley arrived over D Company's location with the ammunition resupply, and guided by red smoke thrown by the infantry, they hovered in the heavy rain just above the rubber trees near a small clearing. Because they were to be dropped from some height, the wooden outer crates were wrapped in blankets for the wounded. Aboard the helicopters the 6 RAR Regimental Sergeant Major, Warrant Officer Class One George Chinn, Private Bob Service of RAOC and the Administration Company commander, Major Owen O'Brien, pushed the crates out to the soldiers waiting below, many of whom were now very low on ammunition. The boxes landed in the centre of the position and the RAAF pilots were later praised for their skill and daring. Without tools to cut the metal straps on the crates, the infantry had to smash them open using machetes or the butts of their rifles. Under heavy fire, the Company Sergeant Major (CSM) Warrant Officer Class 2 (WO2) Jack Kirby, and Sergeant Neill Rankin, the 12 Platoon sergeant, began to distribute the ammunition. However, while the machine-gun rounds were pre-loaded in belts, the rifle rounds were still in bandoliers, complicating Kirby's job and forcing the soldiers to reload their own magazines as they struggled to keep the ammunition clean in the mud and rain. The resupply renewed the situation for D Company. Prior to its arrival they had been down to their last 100 rounds, but now the Australians resumed firing, forcing the VC back for a third time.\n\n### D Company regroups\n\nDespite being exposed to heavy fire from three sides, 11 Platoon had maintained its position for over two hours, narrowly holding off the VC with small arms fire and massive artillery support. However, many of the platoon had been killed or wounded, and most of the survivors were now out of ammunition. To their rear Sabben threw yellow smoke in the hope it would be seen through the trees by the beleaguered platoon. Finally, with the close artillery fire causing heavy casualties among the assaulting VC, Buick decided to take advantage of a temporary lull in the fighting to achieve a clean break. Intending to withdraw 100 to 150 metres (110 to 160 yd) west to regroup, on his signal the platoon rose to their feet. One of the Australians was immediately shot and killed as he did so, while two more were wounded before they reached a position of temporary safety. From this location Buick could see yellow smoke 75 to 100 metres (82 to 109 yd) away, and believing it to be Smith's headquarters, 11 Platoon moved towards it in what Buick described as a \"mad scramble\" in his autobiography, calling out to identify themselves as they approached. Locating 12 Platoon instead, but still finding themselves heavily engaged, the two platoons then moved back to the company position covered by the artillery and torrential rain. By 18:10 D Company had reformed, and the VC appeared to have momentarily broken contact. Having concentrated his company, Smith began to re-organise it into a position of all-round defence.\n\nSmith attempted to place his depleted platoons into a defensible position, but D Company's location had been dictated by the actions of the VC and the need to care for the wounded, and as a result they had little choice of where to make their stand. However, with the Australians occupying a shallow fold in the ground on a reverse slope the terrain proved decisive. The VC found it difficult to use their heavy calibre weapons effectively and could only engage at close range. The jungle covered Nui Dat 2 feature lay 1,000 metres (1,100 yd) to the north-east, and an impenetrable wall of thick bamboo and scrub abutted the lower slopes to the west. The remainder of the position faced the relatively open rubber plantation. Believing the northern approach unsuitable for a major assault, Smith assessed the most likely VC courses of action to be a frontal assault from the east, or a flanking attack from either the south or south-west. As a consequence, he placed 10 and 12 Platoons in positions on the southern and eastern flanks, while the badly mauled 11 Platoon was allocated a position to the north-west. Company Headquarters was located in the south-west. During the lull, Smith walked around the position to gain an understanding of the situation and check the wounded. With one platoon almost destroyed, and the other two at approximately 75 per cent strength, D Company had been battered but morale remained high. Kirby completed the distribution of ammunition and Stanley plotted new defensive fire tasks for the artillery.\n\nThe respite proved brief as the VC soon located the Australian position. At 18:20 they re-engaged D Company with concentrated machine-gun fire from the east and south-east as they reorganised for a further attack. Movement was soon detected through the trees; however, at a distance of 150 to 200 metres (160 to 220 yd) the Australians thought they may have been B Company, and only engaged the VC as they moved out of range to the north. By following up the withdrawal of 12 Platoon and conducting probes, the attackers succeeded in confirming D Company's position. A company-sized VC force formed up to the south on a broad frontage which threatened to engulf them. The assault commenced at 18:35, with several bugle blasts marking the beginning of a series of attacks against D Company. Well spaced, the assault force stepped-off at a fast walk supported by a company in reserve which moved 90 metres (98 yd) to their rear. Yet as they did so an accurate barrage from the Australian artillery fell among them, effectively destroying the rear echelon. The assault force continued on, only to be engaged with small arms just 50 metres (55 yd) from the forward Australian positions. Lacking any reserve, the assault was halted, although many of unwounded attackers attempted to crawl around the D Company perimeter, and snipers fired from the trees.\n\nA second assault soon advanced over the same ground, only to again be hit by artillery, with those unscathed going to ground among the dead and wounded. As they moved forward, they were joined by survivors of the first assault and together attempted to roll over the Australians. The VC then tried to site another heavy machine-gun 50 metres (55 yd) from the D Company perimeter, but Kirby killed the crew. Despite the casualties, attacks continued, supported by machine-guns. The main attacks came from the east, south-east and south, falling on 10 and 12 Platoons, with smaller ones elsewhere. However, due to the slope of the ground, much of the fire passed over the heads of the defenders. The slope likewise screened the advancing VC, preventing either side from effectively firing on the other until the VC closed within 50 metres, but few survived the artillery fire to get that close. Meanwhile, the VC had set up a light and a heavy machine-gun on the forward slopes of Nui Dat 2 and these continued to engage the Australians. While they were able to achieve plunging fire from this vantage point, they were unable to observe D Company's position through the rubber trees and so were reduced to sweeping a broad area. Australian casualties included four killed and several wounded during this period, the majority from head and chest wounds.\n\n### A Company and 3 Troop fight through\n\nBy 18:45, D Company had succeeded in moving into an all-round defensive position, throwing back heavy attacks With D Company unable to manoeuvre, the initiative lay with the VC, the 1 ATF's artillery holding them at bay, with the main role of the infantry increasingly becoming one of protecting their forward observer. Stanley's efforts remained crucial to the survival of D Company, with the ability to strike artillery more precisely in closer combat. The close fire devastated the VC ranks, however a mistake led to the wounding of a member of D Company. Nonetheless, D Company was heavily outnumbered, unlikely to survive another assault; a simultaneous attack would completely overrun them. The battle's outcome rested on whether they could keep the VC at bay long enough for reinforcements. A fresh force was observed moving to the west, likely an attempt to encircle and cut off D Company.\n\n#### Initial delays of the relief force\n\nThe relief force had been delayed by several factors, including flooding from the heavy rain, VC action, poor equipment, limited communications and an ambiguous command relationship between the armour and infantry. 3 Troop was exceedingly exposed, with their APC strength reduced from 13 to seven, with the remainder undergoing maintenance, many of the remainder marred with mechanical errors. In an attempt to supplement their APC's, three vehicles from 2 Troop, devoid of gun shields, were used leaving the crew commander exposed. Mounted in the carriers, 100 men from A Company 6 RAR departed Nui Dat ordered to relieve pressure on D Company by attacking from the south and then to reinforce them and secure the area to allow the evacuation of the wounded. With few gaps in the Nui Dat perimeter wide enough for the APCs, a longer route was taken, and a diverted exit led to further delays until an alternative was located. At 17:55, after finally clearing the wire, Roberts was ordered to send two APCs back for Townsend and to wait until he came up, as he intended to accompany the carriers rather than move by helicopter. Detaching two APCs, Roberts ignored the second part of the order and the remainder of the troop proceeded, leaving Nui Dat at 18:00.\n\nAs the rain began, Roberts moved along the edge of the rubber plantation north-east of Long Phước in column towards the heavily swollen Suối Da Bang. The terracing of the paddy fields resulted in a steep drop to the creek and a difficult climb out; however, using a bullock track alongside a dam, Roberts swam the carriers across the water, despite the threat of fast flowing water At 18:10, Roberts was ordered for a second time to halt and wait for Townsend. Continuing to monitor D Company's situation over the radio, he again chose to disregard the order. After crossing without incident, Roberts left one carrier and its infantry to secure the point (and to act as a guide for Townsend), while the remaining seven APCs moved towards the battle. Advancing another kilometre, by 18:20 they reached the junction leading directly to the fighting; using it as his centre axis, Roberts deployed one section of three APCs on the right commanded by Sergeant Ron Richards and one on the left under Sergeant Leslie O'Reilly, each with two vehicles forward and one back evenly spaced approximately 40m apart, while he remained in the centre moving astride the road. They rapidly began to advance on a 300m frontage. Despite being again ordered to wait by Townsend, Roberts once more decided to press on.\n\n#### Battle with D445 Battalion and further small battles\n\nThe relief force moved into the plantation in open formation, unaware of the location of D Company or the VC. With visibility limited by the low vegetation of the young rubber trees and the heavy rain, they suddenly encountered a company moving west in arrowhead dressed in greens, cloth hats and webbing. Realising they were VC attempting to outflank D Company, Lieutenant Peter Dinham ordered the crew commander to engage.\n\nThe rain had masked their approach and the VC (D445 Battalion), initially caught by surprise, returned fire. Dinham ordered the rear door open and the remainder of the men in the APC—consisting of platoon headquarters and one section—disembarked to protect him. Moving into extended line, they advanced, engaging the VC and causing heavy casualties. The spontaneous assault caught them by surprise, adding to their growing disorder. All serving to delay the relief force. After re-embarking the infantry, 3 Troop resumed the advance, breaking into the VC force as it streamed west, firing their .50 calibre machine-guns and small arms. D445 Battalion was forced to withdraw east, having lost an estimated 40 killed, while one Australian was wounded.\n\n3 Troop continued forward in assault formation, moving deeper into the plantation, with improved visibility allowing them to increase speed. By 18:30. B Company was also drawing near on foot, and observed the VC moving around the western flank, likely to escape the APCs. Shortly after, they were accidentally engaged by the APCs and lost one man wounded. After moving a further 200m, the relief force came out of the tree-line and were confronted by groups of 8 to 10 VC moving east, in total about 100 men, believed to be the lead elements of the force that had just been struck, now withdrawing after abandoning its attempt to outflank D Company. The APCs opened fire, engaging their flank with heavy machine-guns. A number were hit while others turned to engage the APCs as it closed with them. A 57 mm RCL then fired on one of the APCs at close range with the round narrowly missing and blowing apart a tree which fell across the vehicle. The crew commander, Corporal John Carter, engaged the anti-armour team from the top of the APC as they reloaded, but his .50 calibre machine-gun jammed as they fired again, and he killed two of them with his Owen gun from just 15 to 20 metres (16 to 22 yd). The second RCL round subsequently detonated against the fallen tree, saving both the vehicle and its occupants. Despite being dazed, Carter killed three more VC soldiers as he scrambled back into the carrier, which was now without communications following the destruction of its aerial. By drawing further fire he allowed the remainder of the troop to advance.\n\nThe potential presence of a second RCL team sited in mutual support forced the APCs to halt, once again. Concerned about the danger of bypassing an anti-armour weapon only to be engaged from the rear, Roberts ordered the troop to scan the area. Frustrated by the delay, Mollison demanded Roberts continue the advance, and an argument broke out between the two. As commander of the APCs, Roberts ignored the senior ranking Mollison, refusing to continue until he either located the weapon or was confident the threat did not exist. After a five-minute delay, with no weapon located, the Australians moved off again. A machine-gun engaged three APCs without gun shields. Under heavy fire, the troop sergeant ran between the carriers to take command of the APC, after Roberts ordered him to return to Nui Dat due to the mistaken belief some of the infantry on board had also been wounded. Despite Mollison's objections, the vehicle departed, taking the headquarters of one of the infantry platoons with it. Still uncertain of the location of D Company, Roberts was forced to closely control the fire of the troop due to the concern any survivors might be hit by overshoots from the armoured vehicle's heavy machine-guns. At the same time, the infantry continued to engage from the rear of the vehicles. A further 45 VC were estimated to have been killed during this action.\n\n### D Company reinforced\n\nUnaware of the hold up on the left flank, the right hand section of APCs continued to advance. Pressing on, the section moved through the friendly artillery fire targeting the D445 Battalion as it had attempted to outflank D Company. As they moved closer to D Company the carriers were engaged by small arms and RPGs, continuing through and returning fire. The arrival of the carriers led to the men from D Company to stand and cheer. At the same time, Dinham's platoon dug in at the Eastern flank of D Company, awaiting the arrival of the remainder of A Company. To the west Roberts and the three remaining carriers of 3 Troop had resumed the advance and linked up with Richards at a junction in the road 300 metres (330 yd) south-west of D Company. Townsend arrived with elements of his headquarters aboard three more M113s at 18:50. Following a number of uncoordinated manoeuvres by the APCs Townsend took command, and with the light failing he ordered Roberts to assault from the west into the flank of the main VC force.\n\n#### Arrival of the APCs and turning tide of the battle\n\nBolstered to nine M113s, 3 Troop again moved forward through the artillery fire with Roberts spreading the additional APCs across the rear of his formation for depth. Utilising a track as a guide he reformed the troop into a wide assault formation. Beginning the advance at 18:55, 3 Troop prepared for a frontal assault on the VC force. Continuing past D Company to their left, the APCs moved forward rapidly, firing their machine-guns. A brief but heavy engagement occurred, with the VC responding with automatic fire, including tracer and explosive rounds, mostly missing. Arriving at a crucial point in the fighting, the APCs turned the tide of the battle. The VC had been massing for another assault which would likely have destroyed D Company, yet the additional firepower and mobility of the APCs broke their will to fight, forcing them to break contact and begin to withdraw as night approached. At 19:00 the 32 men from B Company finally entered D Company's position, even as the APCs continued to assault the VC. After a long approach under mortar fire and the threat of ambush by a superior force, Smith placed Ford on the western side of the D Company defensive position to act as a screen to allow them to treat their wounded and prepare to resist a counter-attack. 3 Troop swept forward with the APCs continuing to assault a further 500 metres (550 yd) before Townsend ordered their return. Turning north-west, Roberts moved back to the company location at 19:10. Yet even as they did so the VC continued to attack from the north-east, although this too was soon broken off.\n\nLinking up with D Company, the APCs moved through the company position. Around the perimeter the Australians engaged the withdrawing VC, while the APCs moved into a line from north to south on the eastern side of the company position. A Company disembarked and took up firing positions between the vehicles, joining 2 Platoon. The artillery had been almost constant throughout the battle and had prevented D Company from being destroyed. By 19:15 the firing had ceased and as darkness fell they prepared for the VC to mount another attack. Although snipers continued to engage the Australians there were no further assaults and the battle came to a conclusion. The APCs formed a hollow square around D Company. With the VC at least temporarily driven off, the Australian position was now more strongly held and additional ammunition had been brought in by the APCs, but it was now dark and they would be unable to receive further reinforcement, while the ability of the VC to mount a night attack was unknown. Meanwhile, the expenditure of artillery ammunition had been high and an urgent demand for 1,000 rounds was submitted by 1st Field Regiment, RAA at 19:30 in case the fighting continued. However, with arrangements for the emergency aerial resupply of Nui Dat by night still being worked out, and with a road resupply by 1 ALSG in danger of being ambushed, it took several hours for the rounds to be loaded and delivered by CH-47 Chinook from Vũng Tàu.\n\n#### Townsend assuming command of D Company\n\nTownsend assumed command as the defenders regrouped, while Kirby co-ordinated the collection of the dead and wounded. In total, one of the platoons had been destroyed and D Company was \"non-effective\", with five dead, 16 wounded and 16 men still missing. VC losses were believed to have been heavy; but with no confirmed casualty figures it looked to the Australians like they had suffered a defeat. The two officers agreed it would be impossible to secure the battlefield or to attempt to locate the missing from 11 Platoon in the darkness, and after it became clear the VC were not going to counter-attack, Townsend ordered a withdrawal to a position 750 metres (820 yd) to the west from whence their casualties could be evacuated. Handling the dead and wounded proved a slow process but with the casualties finally loaded onto the carriers D Company left at 22:45, while B and A Companies departed on foot 45 minutes later. Roberts established a landing zone by forming a square and illuminated it with the interior lights of the APCs by opening their top hatches. The artillery fire ceased as the evacuation commenced with the first casualties taken out by a US Army Dustoff helicopter, while the remainder were extracted by six UH-1Bs from No. 9 Squadron RAAF. Despite being slowed by the requirement for the helicopters to land without lights, the operation went smoothly and was completed after midnight. The last casualties were taken out by 00:34, and flown to the Australian hospital at Vũng Tàu.\n\nDuring the night the artillery continued to fire on likely VC forming-up points, although 11 Platoon's final position was avoided for fear of hitting any survivors, while US aircraft bombed likely withdrawal routes to the east. Forming a defensive position ready to repulse an expected attack the Australians remained overnight, enduring the cold and heavy rain. Although they were now in a better position to hold off an attack, further reinforcement from 1 ATF at night was difficult and was therefore unlikely. Yet with the VC spent no further attack was mounted. Smith and Townsend spent the night in the back of one of the carriers planning the clearance of the battlefield and pursuit of the VC, which was scheduled for the following day under the codename Operation Smithfield. Jackson stipulated the force was to remain within artillery range, but would otherwise have freedom of action to complete the exploitation over the next two to three days. Townsend requested the remaining APCs bring out 6 RAR headquarters, C Company and a section of mortars the following morning, while D Company, 5 RAR would also be placed under his command for the operation. However, with a company from 5 RAR still in Bình Ba, the bulk of 1 ATF's remaining combat power would be deployed as part of the clearance, leaving just two companies from 5 RAR to defend Nui Dat. Smith was determined to recover the missing from 11 Platoon, and despite its losses, D Company would lead the assault.\n\n### Clearing the battlefield, 19–21 August 1966\n\nBy morning the weather had cleared. At 06:55 the remainder of 6 RAR departed Nui Dat with 2 Troop, 1st APC Squadron, while D Company, 5 RAR departed at the same time aboard US Army helicopters. Meanwhile, at 07:40 Jackson arrived at 6 RAR's night location to observe the clearance, flying in as Townsend gave orders for the operation. Stepping off at 08:45, the Australians returned to the battlefield in strength, while artillery and airstrikes continued to hit the area. The battalion group moved in a \"two up\" formation with D Company, 5 RAR and D Company, 6 RAR both mounted in APCs as the forward left and forward right assault companies, followed by A, B and C Companies in depth, each dismounted. The assault companies planned to sweep the area then dismount and commence a detailed search, while the others would clear the surrounding features and begin the follow-up. Moving cautiously in case the VC launched a counter-attack, they advanced along the route used by D Company, 6 RAR the previous day. The battlefield was a scene of devastation, with rubber trees stripped of leaves and branches and bleeding sap, while the area around D Company's final position was heavily cratered. At 09:21 D Company, 5 RAR reported finding the body of a dead VC soldier; while half an hour later D Company, 6 RAR found 12 to 15 more. A large number of VC dead were found, including a 60 mm mortar crew. At 10:20 a bulldozer was requested to bury the bodies of approximately 100 VC soldiers.\n\n#### Scale of Vietcong defeat and treatment of wounded Vietcong\n\nBy late morning, a total of 113 bodies and two wounded had been found, while numerous drag marks and blood trails indicated many more casualties had been moved the previous night. With the clearance continuing, two wounded VC still bearing arms were killed by D Company, 6 RAR after they moved to engage them, while in a separate incident another wounded soldier was also killed. A third wounded VC was later captured; and all three wounded were given first aid then being evacuated. These events later caused controversy when journalist Ian Mackay published claims in 1968 that the Australians had deliberately killed unarmed VC wounded, citing a \"witness\" to the alleged incident; while a major newspaper stated they had killed wounded \"civilians\". An official investigation determined the allegations were exaggerated and based on hearsay, with the soldier claimed as the source found not to have been present during the fighting and those killed confirmed to have been armed. Similar accusations were made in 1986 by Terry Burstall, a former D Company soldier, who claimed up to 17 wounded VC had been executed, although they were also refuted, and his credibility challenged. In 2000, Buick admitted in his memoirs to having killed a mortally wounded soldier the day after the battle as an act of mercy. Burstall argued this may have constituted a breach of the Geneva Convention; while Buick's decision to publish was questioned by John Heslewood, the President of the Australian Long Tan Association and a private in 11 Platoon during the battle. Mollison later also criticised Buick's actions. In his 2015 autobiography, Harry Smith states that two mortally wounded VC soldiers were killed on 19 August out of compassion, one by Buick and another by a soldier from A Company, 6 RAR.\n\n#### Recovery of lost Australian troops\n\nAt 11:00 6 RAR reported they had located the missing men from 11 Platoon, their bodies found lying in a straight line where they had been killed, largely undisturbed and still holding their weapons. The majority were from 6 Section, which had been the first to be hit. One man was found to have survived despite his wounds, having spent the night on the battlefield in close proximity to the VC as they attempted to evacuate their own casualties. Another wounded soldier had been found nearby, leaning against a tree but still alive. Both were evacuated, and later recuperated in hospital. Thirteen Australian dead were also recovered, accounting for all the missing. As the search continued, VC dead were found up to 500 metres (550 yd) south-east of the position reached by 11 Platoon. A large bunker complex was uncovered consisting of 200 pits with overhead protection sufficient for a battalion, but its layout suggested it had been constructed as a defensive position rather than for an ambush. Another position of 100 pits was found to the east. By 14:35, the total number of VC dead was reported as 168. A large amount of weapons and equipment were uncovered, including assault rifles, mortars, light machine guns, submachine guns, an RCL, plus ammunition and grenades. By 18:10, the figure had risen to 188 VC dead, with shallow graves dug by the Australians to bury them where they were found.\n\nDue to the likely presence of a significant force nearby, the Australians remained cautious as they searched for the VC. Over the next two days, they continued to clear the battlefield, uncovering more dead as they did so. Yet, with up to two VC battalions still believed to be in the area and the continued vulnerability of Nui Dat to attack from the 274th Regiment, Jackson lacked the resources to pursue the withdrawing force. Company patrols searched up to 1,500 metres (1,600 yd) east, and to the north of Nui Dat 2. The search area was subsequently expanded to include that contested during Operation Hobart. Several tracks were found with telephone cables running along them, as well as more drag marks, blood stains, discarded equipment, fresh graves and evidence of use by heavy cart and foot traffic. The main VC withdrawal route was discovered after midday on 19 August. Townsend requested permission to follow it, believing he had sufficient forces, but Jackson would only permit 6 RAR to advance a further 1,000 metres (1,100 yd), remaining within artillery cover, and would not allow the guns to move forward to increase the range of their protective fire. By 20 August, the Australians had counted 245 VC dead, while scores more were found later. Up to four weeks after the battle, decomposed bodies were still found in the area, while numerous graves were also located, none of which were included in the estimates of VC losses. The bodies found later brought the total to about 300 dead. D Company, 5 RAR returned to Nui Dat early on 21 August, while D Company, 6 RAR was withdrawn for two days leave in Vung Tau.\n\nThe rest of 6 RAR continued the search, with A Company discovering a series of freshly built and recently abandoned hides along the VC withdrawal route, which were believed to have been prepared as delay positions. An older defensive position of approximately 40 pits was also found, while C Company located a makeshift hospital close by containing 14 graves. Both had recently been occupied. Later, an Australian OH-13 reported the presence of scattered groups of civilians, with the largest numbering 30 to 40 people—mostly women with baskets and bags, while others had ox carts—believed to be carrying medical supplies. These reports were followed up by the 1st APC Squadron and a number of military age males were detained for questioning. The infantry companies completed their search by midday, moving to the edge of the rubber plantation, 500 metres (550 yd) north-east of Long Tân. Smithfield concluded at 17:00, with the Australians returning to Nui Dat by helicopter and APC by 17:30. They had hoped to catch the remnants of the VC force before they could reach their mountain sanctuaries, but the operation failed to prevent their withdrawal. Some Australian officers later questioned the caution with which it was conducted. Jackson felt unable to mount a pursuit due to the continued threat posed by the 274th Regiment, which was still believed to be in the area. With 1 ATF lacking the resources required for such an operation, the opportunity to trap and destroy the VC while they were still vulnerable was lost and they made good their escape.\n\n## Aftermath\n\n### Casualties\n\nVC and PAVN casualties were claimed by the Australians to have numbered 245 dead left on the battlefield and three captured, with many more were thought to have been removed as they withdrew. Others were so badly mutilated their remains were unidentifiable. Approximately half were believed to have been caused by artillery and the remainder by small arms. The initial estimate was given by an Australian Army spokesman, and some participants in the battle regarded them as inflated. They were disputed by many individuals present at the battle, with reports by a D Company commander stating actual body counts as no more than 50. The official history of the D445 Battalion and 275th Regiment records either 30 or 47 were killed in total, primarily by artillery fire. Another estimate was 150 according to Colonel Bao who was overall district commander, but did not directly participate.\n\nThe Australians estimated the VC had evacuated up to a further 350 casualties, including an unknown number of dead buried along the withdrawal route. With such losses representing the operational strength of two battalions, Australian intelligence assessed that the 275th Regiment, which had borne the brunt of the fighting, would be incapable of mounting a regimental-sized operation for several months, but the 275th Regiment carried out attacks against the ARVN 18th Division a week later. D445 Battalion, thought to have played a supporting role and to have suffered less heavily, was assessed as still capable of engaging forces up to company size, with a remaining strength of 300 men. McNeill states that this was based on the capture of the diary of the battle commander Nguyen Thoi Bung, who later became the Deputy Defense Minister of Vietnam; but according to Ernest Chamberlain this has not been corroborated. A captured soldier stated D445 Battalion's casualties had been 70 killed and 100 wounded.\n\nWhether the combat effectiveness of D445 and the 275th Regiment was eroded is in dispute, as the D445 were redeployed in September and October against the newly deployed 11th Armored Cavalry Taskforce, while the 275th were combat-capable a week later. Weapons captured included 33 AK-47s, seven RPD light machine-guns, five SKS rifles, four RPG-2 launchers, two 57 mm RCLs, two M1 carbines, a PPSh-41, Thompson submachine-gun, Browning Automatic Rifle, M1 Garand and an SGM heavy machine-gun. More than 10,500 rounds of small arms ammunition was recovered, as well as 300 hand grenades, 40 mortar bombs, 28 RPG-2 rockets and 22 RCL rounds.\n\nAustralian losses were 17 killed, one died of wounds and 24 wounded: approximately one third of the initial force engaged. A high proportion were National Servicemen, drawing criticism in Australia where conscription for overseas service was increasingly controversial. The government later limited the number of conscripts to no more than 50 per cent of a unit, requiring a rapid and disruptive reorganisation within 1 ATF.\n\n### Recognition\n\nIn the aftermath, both sides claimed success. Heralded as an Australian victory against overwhelming odds, the battle was widely covered in the Western press, making headlines in Australia and the United States. 1 ATF received congratulatory messages from the US, South Vietnamese and Australian military commands in Vietnam, and from Prime Minister Harold Holt, while General William Westmoreland considered it one of the more spectacular allied victories to that point in the war. Despite their losses, the VC claimed to have inflicted a heavy defeat on the Australians. Shortly afterwards, leaflets circulated the province stating that \"700 Australians were killed, one battalion and two companies were destroyed and two squadrons of APCs\". Similar claims were repeated on Radio Hanoi on 27 August 1966, and the day after on Radio Peking. In contrast, the Vietnamese history of Dong Nai Province published in 1986 gave the battle little attention, claiming to have \"eliminated 500 Australians and destroyed 21 tanks\" while their own losses were not recorded. D445 Battalion later received a PAVN heroic unit citation, and the 275th Regiment may have been given a similar award. Many VC soldiers were also awarded Certificates of Commendation for their role in the fighting.\n\nD Company, 6 RAR was awarded a US Presidential Unit Citation by President Lyndon Johnson on 28 May 1968. The Royal Australian Regiment and 3rd Cavalry Regiment were later awarded the battle honour \"Long Tan\", one of only five presented to Australian units during the war. Commonwealth decorations were made to 17 Australians and New Zealanders, including Smith who received the Military Cross (MC), Carter and Kirby the Distinguished Conduct Medal, Stanley the Member of the Order of the British Empire, Buick the Military Medal, Riley was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, and Dohle, Roberts, Kendall and Sabben were mentioned in despatches. Both Townsend and Jackson later received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), although these were on the basis of their entire period in command, not solely for actions during the battle. South Vietnamese gallantry medals were also awarded to 22 Australians, but due to official policy regarding foreign awards they were not permitted to wear them until 2004. The limited number of awards later became the subject of considerable criticism.\n\nAt the time, the allocation of medals under the Imperial honours system was based on a quota, resulting in many of the original recommendations being downgraded or not awarded, with Smith initially nominated for the DSO, Sabben and Kendall the MC, and Sharp a posthumous mention in despatches. In 2008, a review recommended awards made to three officers be upgraded to the equivalent medals in the modern Australian honours system. Smith was subsequently awarded the Star of Gallantry, and Kendall and Sabben the Medal for Gallantry (MG). Following further review in 2009, Dohle received the Distinguished Service Medal, while D Company, 6 RAR was presented a Unit Citation for Gallantry on 18 August 2011. Another review in 2016 led to awards to ten more soldiers, including Roberts, Alcorta and Lance Corporal Barry Magnussen who received the MG, and Sharp and six others a Commendation for Gallantry. On 18 August 1969, 6 RAR erected the Long Tan Cross on the battlefield.\n\n### Assessment\n\nInitial estimates of the VC force ranged from several companies to a battalion, yet following the battle Australian intelligence assessed it as having totalled between 1,500 and 2,500 men, while 1,000 were believed to have directly engaged D Company. The fighting left one-third of D Company killed or wounded. Long Tân proved a local setback for the VC, forestalling movement against Nui Dat. Although there were other large-scale encounters in later years, 1 ATF was not fundamentally challenged again. The battle established the task force's dominance over the province, and allowed it to pursue operations to restore government authority. Yet such actions were atypical of the Australian experience, and although 1 ATF invariably inflicted heavy casualties on the VC when encountered in large numbers, they were less important than routine patrolling in separating the guerrillas from the population and maintaining constant pressure, coupled with pacification operations to extend South Vietnamese control. Nonetheless, Long Tân represented a watershed in the campaign, increasing the confidence of the Australians in their ability to defeat the VC and enhancing their military reputation.\n\nThe reasons for D Company's survival included superior radio communications which had allowed Stanley to co-ordinate the fire of the guns at Nui Dat, the weight of the artillery which repeatedly broke up the assaulting formations, its timely aerial resupply which prevented them running out of ammunition, and the mobility and firepower of the APCs in the relief force which broke the VC's will to fight. The battle highlighted the power of modern weapons and the importance of sound small-unit tactics, and has since been cited as an example of the effect of combined arms, demonstrating the effective coordination of infantry, armour, artillery and aviation. Artillery was the mainstay of the defence, with D Company supported by 24 guns of the 1st Field Regiment, RAA and A Battery, US 2/35th Artillery Battalion. Indirect fire provided close protection to the infantry, allowing D Company to hold their line and repulse any VC that succeeded in getting through the barrage. Likely forming-up positions and withdrawal routes had also been heavily engaged throughout the battle. In total 3,198 rounds of 105 mm ammunition were fired by the Australian and New Zealand field guns and 242 rounds of 155 mm high explosive by the Americans. The VC made the error of attacking within range of the artillery at Nui Dat and had to withstand the fire of three field batteries and one medium battery as a result. Long Tân also confirmed the importance of armoured support to infantry, even in dense jungle.\n\nIn the wake of the battle the Australians were left to speculate on the reason it occurred. One hypothesis was that the VC had intended to attack and overwhelm Nui Dat, with the initial plan to mortar the base to draw a response force into an ambush after which the base would be attacked and captured, but that they had been prevented from doing so after clashing with D Company. A second possibility was that they may have had the more limited aim of drawing an Australian force into an ambush to destroy it and secure a small victory over an isolated force. Finally, it was possible no ambush was planned at all, and that the VC had been moving on Nui Dat in regimental strength when they unexpectedly ran into D Company, resulting in an encounter battle. The evidence suggested they intended an attack on Nui Dat in some form, while the lack of prepared positions from which to mount an ambush made this unlikely. McNeill argues though that too many facts may be missing to make a conclusive assessment of VC intentions and to date no definitive Vietnamese account is available. In the years since the battle the intentions of the VC have been widely discussed, including by both participants and historians, with debate about it continuing until the present. Yet although there remains divided opinion about whether the VC had intended to attack the base at Nui Dat or to ambush an Australian element, according to Coulthard-Clark what is certain was that the force that clashed with D Company, 6 RAR \"had been preparing a decisive action against 1 ATF\". The outcome prevented them achieving a politically important victory so soon after the Australian deployment, and \"placed Viet Cong plans in the province on the back foot for some time\".\n\nLong-standing disputes include the size of the PAVN/VC attacking force, the number of casualties they suffered, how the battle had unfolded and issues around alleged documentation. Some of the documents assessing casualties or impacts on the PAVN/VC were uncorroborated diaries and anecdotal evidence from \"Chinese Generals\". There were also issues with the size of the attacking PAVN/VC forces and communist dead by several authors and by the Red Dunes Film Group, which has received criticism from an Australian Vietnam War veteran and later historian and Vietnamese-language linguist Ernie Chamberlain. In 2015, Harry Smith published Long Tan, The Start of a Lifelong Battle in which he accused senior officers including Jackson and Townsend of fabricating claims about the battle, and alleged that the official history was disingenuous and self-serving. This included deliberate inflation of communist dead by Army Spokesmen and others, and embellishing the roles of officers at the battle at the expense of their men.\n\n### Lessons learned by the Australians\n\nAfter Long Tân a rifle company with armoured support was dedicated to provide a rapid reaction force, on standby to respond to an attack or exploit any opportunity. The VC had been armed with weapons at least equal to those used by the Australians. Most had carried modern Soviet assault rifles, as well as a large quantity of ammunition, which allowed them to sustain a high rate of fire. In contrast, the amount of ammunition carried by the Australians had been insufficient, and following the battle the minimum load was increased to 140 rounds per rifle and 500 for each machine-gun. The aerial resupply of D Company had been delayed because no prepacked ammunition was available. This also changed, with rounds loaded in magazines for quick use. The VC had used 60 mm mortars, but they were no longer standard equipment for Australian rifle companies, and although battalions were issued 81 mm mortars they were controlled by Support Company. Such weapons would afford integral fire support in situations where their opponents had closed within the safety distance of the artillery, and consideration was given to their re-issue. Yet the added weight would limit the ability of sub-units to patrol and M-79 grenade launchers were issued instead, while some APCs were modified as mortar carriers.\n\nDespite detecting a transmitter from the 275th Regiment moving west towards Nui Dat, such intercepts were unable to predict VC intentions with certainty, and patrols through the area also failed to find it. Jackson had responded by maintaining patrols at company strength when outside Line Alpha, while ensuring a level of base security. Townsend had not been given access to this intelligence and some officers were later critical of the restrictions placed on it. Although it would not have altered the requirement for a company-sized patrol it might have changed the way the battle was fought, and afterwards both battalion commanders were regularly briefed on such intercepts. The value of patrolling in depth and in sufficient strength to prevent the VC concentrating their forces had been reinforced, and while there was no change to the pattern of Australian operations, when a significant engagement was possible patrols would be a minimum of a company and would operate close enough to rapidly support each other to stop them becoming isolated. Lastly, the command relationship between the infantry and APCs had been problematic during the battle and changes to standard operating procedures were implemented to provide clearer direction in such circumstances.\n\n### Subsequent operations\n\nA week following the battle US II FFV launched a large-scale corps-sized sweep of Phước Tuy on 23 August. Operation Toledo saw the deployment of two brigades of the US 1st Infantry Division, the 173rd Airborne Brigade, 1st Battalion, 26th Marines, and two ARVN Ranger battalions in an attempt to destroy the 274th and 275th Regiments. 1 ATF involvement included both 5 and 6 RAR and supporting units. It lasted until 8 September and despite the intensity of the previous fighting little contact occurred, with no evidence of a large force having been in the area uncovered. Poorly planned, it failed to trap the VC, while 5 RAR's involvement resulted in only two VC killed, one wounded and one captured without loss, although several tunnels were discovered in Long Tân village and destroyed. In the months that followed 1 ATF conducted further search and destroy, village cordon and search and route security operations to extend its control and to separate the local people from the influence of the VC. Such operations usually resulted in contacts between the Australians and small groups of VC, while during cordon and search operations of Bình Ba and Hòa Long a number of villagers suspected of sympathising with the VC were apprehended and handed over to the South Vietnamese authorities. Several search operations were also conducted in areas suspected of containing VC base camps, and these often resulted in the discovery of recently used and quickly evacuated camps, hospitals and logistic bases which were then destroyed. Meanwhile, 1 ATF continued an extensive patrolling and ambushing program around Nui Dat.\n\n## 50th anniversary\n\nCelebrated in Australia ever since, in time the battle became part of the legend of its involvement in the war. The best known of the Australian Army's actions in Vietnam, it has assumed a similar significance as battles such as Gallipoli, Kokoda and Kapyong. The date it was fought is observed annually as Long Tan Day and is also known as Vietnam Veterans' Remembrance Day, the national day of commemoration of the Vietnam War.\n\nFor the 50th anniversary of the battle the Vietnamese government permitted Australians to hold a 'low-key ceremony', but the unexpected booking of 3,500 individuals to attend as well as a concert by Little Pattie led to the Vietnamese government cancelling the event. Following late-night talks by Malcolm Turnbull with the prime minister of Vietnam, a low-key ceremony was once again permitted. On 18 August 2016 a ceremony was held on the battlefield; more than 1,000 Australian veterans and their families travelled to Vietnam to participate in the 50th anniversary commemoration.\n\nIn Australia hundreds attended the Australian War Memorial and Vietnam Forces National Memorial in Canberra. Commemorations were also held at Sydney's Cenotaph, Brisbane's ANZAC Square, Melbourne's Shrine of Remembrance and elsewhere. The events in Canberra included a four-gun salute and flyover by Vietnam-era aircraft, including Iroquois helicopters, Hercules and Caribou transports and two B-52 bombers. A Last Post Ceremony was held at the War Memorial, with a reading by Victoria Cross-recipient Mark Donaldson. In 2017, Turnbull negotiated for the repatriation of the original Long Tan cross, and the Prime Minister of Vietnam donated it to the Australian government on conditions of no publicity surrounding the transfer. The original cross was installed at the Australian War Memorial following the transfer.", "revid": "1170209414", "description": "1966 battle of the Vietnam War", "categories": ["1966 in Vietnam", "August 1966 events", "Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1966", "Battles involving Vietnam", "Battles of the Vietnam War involving Australia", "Battles of the Vietnam War involving New Zealand", "Battles of the Vietnam War involving the United States", "Conflicts in 1966", "History of Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu Province"]}
{"id": "47510", "url": null, "title": "Cirrus cloud", "text": "Cirrus (cloud classification symbol: Ci) is a genus of high cloud made of ice crystals. Cirrus clouds typically appear delicate and wispy with white strands. Cirrus are usually formed when warm, dry air rises, causing water vapor deposition onto rocky or metallic dust particles at high altitudes. Globally, they form anywhere between 4,000 and 20,000 meters (13,000 and 66,000 feet) above sea level, with the higher elevations usually in the tropics and the lower elevations in more polar regions.\n\nCirrus clouds can form from the tops of thunderstorms and tropical cyclones and sometimes predict the arrival of rain or storms. Although they are a sign that rain and maybe storms are on the way, cirrus themselves drop no more than falling streaks of ice crystals. These crystals dissipate, melt, and evaporate as they fall through warmer and drier air and never reach ground. Cirrus clouds warm the earth, potentially contributing to climate change. A warming earth will likely produce more cirrus clouds, potentially resulting in a self-reinforcing loop.\n\nOptical phenomena, such as sun dogs and halos, can be produced by light interacting with ice crystals in cirrus clouds. There are two other high-level cirrus-like clouds called cirrostratus and cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus looks like a sheet of cloud, whereas cirrocumulus looks like a pattern of small cloud tufts. Unlike cirrus and cirrostratus, cirrocumulus clouds contain droplets of supercooled (below freezing point) water.\n\nCirrus clouds form in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune; and on Titan, one of Saturn's larger moons. Some of these extraterrestrial cirrus clouds are made of ammonia or methane ice, much like water ice in cirrus on Earth. Some interstellar clouds, made of grains of dust smaller than a thousandth of a millimeter, are also called cirrus.\n\n## Description\n\nCirrus are wispy clouds made of long strands of ice crystals that are described as feathery, hair-like, or layered in appearance. First defined scientifically by Luke Howard in an 1803 paper, their name is derived from the Latin word cirrus, meaning 'curl' or 'fringe'. They are transparent, meaning that the Sun can be seen through them. Ice crystals in the clouds cause them to usually appear white, but the rising or setting Sun can color them various shades of yellow or red. At dusk, they can appear gray.\n\nCirrus comes in five visually-distinct species: castellanus, fibratus, floccus, spissatus, and uncinus:\n\n- Cirrus castellanus has cumuliform tops caused by high-altitude convection rising up from the main cloud body;\n- Cirrus fibratus looks striated and is the most common cirrus species;\n- Cirrus floccus species looks like a series of tufts;\n- Cirrus spissatus is a particularly dense form of cirrus that often forms from thunderstorms.\n- Cirrus uncinus clouds are hooked and are the form that is usually called mare's tails.\n\nEach species is divided into up to four varieties: intortus, vertebratus, radiatus, and duplicatus:\n\n- Intortus variety has an extremely contorted shape, with Kelvin–Helmholtz waves being a form of cirrus intortus that has been twisted into loops by layers of wind blowing at different speeds, called wind shear;\n- Radiatus variety has large, radial bands of cirrus clouds that stretch across the sky;\n- Vertebratus variety occurs when cirrus clouds are arranged side-by-side like ribs;\n- Duplicatus variety occurs when cirrus clouds are arranged above one another in layers.\n\nCirrus clouds often produce hair-like filaments called fall streaks, made of heavier ice crystals that fall from the cloud. These are similar to the virga produced in liquid–water clouds. The sizes and shapes of fall streaks are determined by the wind shear.\n\nCirrus cloud cover varies diurnally. During the day, cirrus cloud cover drops, and during the night, it increases. Based on CALIPSO satellite data, cirrus covers an average of 31% to 32% of the Earth's surface. Cirrus cloud cover varies wildly by location, with some parts of the tropics reaching up to 70% cirrus cloud cover. Polar regions, on the other hand, have significantly less cirrus cloud cover, with some areas having a yearly average of only around 10% coverage. These percentages treat clear days and nights, as well as days and nights with other cloud types, as lack of cirrus cloud cover.\n\n## Formation\n\nCirrus clouds are usually formed as warm, dry air rises, causing water vapor to undergo deposition onto rocky or metallic dust particles at high altitudes. The average cirrus cloud altitude increases as latitude decreases, but the altitude is always capped by the tropopause. These conditions commonly occur at the leading edge of a warm front. Because absolute humidity is low at such high altitudes, this genus tends to be fairly transparent. Cirrus clouds can also form inside fallstreak holes (also called \"cavum\").\n\nAt latitudes of 65° N or S, close to polar regions, cirrus clouds form, on average, only 7,000 m (23,000 ft) above sea level. In temperate regions, at roughly 45° N or S, their average altitude increases to 9,500 m (31,200 ft) above sea level. In tropical regions, at roughly 5° N or S, cirrus clouds form 13,500 m (44,300 ft) above sea level on average. Across the globe, cirrus clouds can form anywhere from 4,000 to 20,000 m (13,000 to 66,000 ft) above sea level. Cirrus clouds form with a vast range of thicknesses. They can be as little as 100 m (330 ft) from top to bottom to as thick as 8,000 m (26,000 ft). Cirrus cloud thickness is usually somewhere between those two extremes, with an average thickness of 1,500 m (4,900 ft).\n\nThe jet stream, a high-level wind band, can stretch cirrus clouds long enough to cross continents. Jet streaks, bands of faster-moving air in the jet stream, can create arcs of cirrus cloud hundreds of kilometers long.\n\nCirrus cloud formation may be effected by organic aerosols (particles produced by plants) acting as additional nucleation points for ice crystal formation. However, research suggests that cirrus clouds more commonly form on rocky or metallic particles rather than on organic ones.\n\n### Tropical cyclones\n\nSheets of cirrus clouds commonly fan out from the eye walls of tropical cyclones. (The eye wall is the ring of storm clouds surrounding the eye of a tropical cyclone.) A large shield of cirrus and cirrostratus typically accompanies the high altitude outflowing winds of tropical cyclones, and these can make the underlying bands of rain—and sometimes even the eye—difficult to detect in satellite photographs.\n\n### Thunderstorms\n\nThunderstorms can form dense cirrus at their tops. As the cumulonimbus cloud in a thunderstorm grows vertically, the liquid water droplets freeze when the air temperature reaches the freezing point. The anvil cloud takes its shape because the temperature inversion at the tropopause prevents the warm, moist air forming the thunderstorm from rising any higher, thus creating the flat top. In the tropics, these thunderstorms occasionally produce copious amounts of cirrus from their anvils. High-altitude winds commonly push this dense mat out into an anvil shape that stretches downwind as much as several kilometers.\n\nIndividual cirrus cloud formations can be the remnants of anvil clouds formed by thunderstorms. In the dissipating stage of a cumulonimbus cloud, when the normal column rising up to the anvil has evaporated or dissipated, the mat of cirrus in the anvil is all that is left.\n\n### Contrails\n\nContrails are an artificial type of cirrus cloud formed when water vapor from the exhaust of a jet engine condenses on particles, which come from either the surrounding air or the exhaust itself, and freezes, leaving behind a visible trail. The exhaust can trigger the formation of cirrus by providing ice nuclei when there is an insufficient naturally-occurring supply in the atmosphere. One of the environmental impacts of aviation is that persistent contrails can form into large mats of cirrus, and increased air traffic has been implicated as one possible cause of the increasing frequency and amount of cirrus in Earth's atmosphere.\n\n## Use in forecasting\n\nRandom, isolated cirrus do not have any particular significance. A large number of cirrus clouds can be a sign of an approaching frontal system or upper air disturbance. The appearance of cirrus signals a change in weather—usually more stormy—in the near future. If the cloud is a cirrus castellanus, there might be instability at the high altitude level. When the clouds deepen and spread, especially when they are of the cirrus radiatus variety or cirrus fibratus species, this usually indicates an approaching weather front. If it is a warm front, the cirrus clouds spread out into cirrostratus, which then thicken and lower into altocumulus and altostratus. The next set of clouds are the rain-bearing nimbostratus clouds. When cirrus clouds precede a cold front, squall line or multicellular thunderstorm, it is because they are blown off the anvil, and the next to arrive are the cumulonimbus clouds. Kelvin-Helmholtz waves indicate extreme wind shear at high levels. When a jet streak creates a large arc of cirrus, weather conditions may be right for the development of winter storms.\n\nWithin the tropics, 36 hours prior to the center passage of a tropical cyclone, a veil of white cirrus clouds approaches from the direction of the cyclone. In the mid- to late-19th century, forecasters used these cirrus veils to predict the arrival of hurricanes. In the early 1870s the president of Belén College in Havana, Father Benito Viñes, developed the first hurricane forecasting system; he mainly used the motion of these clouds in formulating his predictions. He would observe the clouds hourly from 4:00 am to 10:00 pm. After accumulating enough information, Viñes began accurately predicting the paths of hurricanes; he summarized his observations in his book Apuntes Relativos a los Huracanes de las Antilles, published in English as Practical Hints in Regard to West Indian Hurricanes.\n\n## Effects on climate\n\nCirrus clouds cover up to 25% of the Earth (up to 70% in the tropics at night) and have a net heating effect. When they are thin and translucent, the clouds efficiently absorb outgoing infrared radiation while only marginally reflecting the incoming sunlight. When cirrus clouds are 100 m (330 ft) thick, they reflect only around 9% of the incoming sunlight, but they prevent almost 50% of the outgoing infrared radiation from escaping, thus raising the temperature of the atmosphere beneath the clouds by an average of 10 °C (18 °F)—a process known as the greenhouse effect. Averaged worldwide, cloud formation results in a temperature loss of 5 °C (9 °F) at the earth's surface, mainly the result of stratocumulus clouds.\n\nCirrus clouds are likely becoming more common due to climate change. As their greenhouse effect is stronger than their reflection of sunlight, this would act as a self-reinforcing feedback. Metallic particles from human sources act as additional nucleation seeds, potentially increasing cirrus cloud cover and thus contributing further to climate change. Aircraft in the upper troposphere can create contrail cirrus clouds if local weather conditions are right. These contrails contribute to climate change.\n\nCirrus cloud thinning has been proposed as a possible geoengineering approach to reduce climate damage due to carbon dioxide. Cirrus cloud thinning would involve injecting particles into the upper troposphere to reduce the amount of cirrus clouds. The 2021 IPCC Assessment Report expressed low confidence in the cooling effect of cirrus cloud thinning, due to limited understanding.\n\n## Cloud properties\n\nScientists have studied the properties of cirrus using several different methods. Lidar (laser-based radar) gives highly accurate information on the cloud's altitude, length, and width. Balloon-carried hygrometers measure the humidity of the cirrus cloud but are not accurate enough to measure the depth of the cloud. Radar units give information on the altitudes and thicknesses of cirrus clouds. Another data source is satellite measurements from the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment program. These satellites measure where infrared radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere, and if it is absorbed at cirrus altitudes, then it is assumed that there are cirrus clouds in that location. NASA's Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer gives information on the cirrus cloud cover by measuring reflected infrared radiation of various specific frequencies during the day. During the night, it determines cirrus cover by detecting the Earth's infrared emissions. The cloud reflects this radiation back to the ground, thus enabling satellites to see the \"shadow\" it casts into space. Visual observations from aircraft or the ground provide additional information about cirrus clouds. Particle Analysis by Laser Mass Spectrometry (PALMS) is used to identify the type of nucleation seeds that spawned the ice crystals in a cirrus cloud.\n\nCirrus clouds have an average ice crystal concentration of 300,000 ice crystals per 10 cubic meters (270,000 ice crystals per 10 cubic yards). The concentration ranges from as low as 1 ice crystal per 10 cubic meters to as high as 100 million ice crystals per 10 cubic meters (just under 1 ice crystal per 10 cubic yards to 77 million ice crystals per 10 cubic yards), a difference of eight orders of magnitude. The size of each ice crystal is typically 0.25 millimeters, but they range from as short as 0.01 millimeters up to several millimeters. The ice crystals in contrails can be much smaller than those in naturally-occurring cirrus cloud, being around 0.001 millimeters to 0.1 millimeters in length.\n\nIn addition to forming in different sizes, the ice crystals in cirrus clouds can crystallize in different shapes: solid columns, hollow columns, plates, rosettes, and conglomerations of the various other types. The shape of the ice crystals is determined by the air temperature, atmospheric pressure, and ice supersaturation (the amount by which the relative humidity exceeds 100%). Cirrus in temperate regions typically have the various ice crystal shapes separated by type. The columns and plates concentrate near the top of the cloud, whereas the rosettes and conglomerations concentrate near the base. In the northern Arctic region, cirrus clouds tend to be composed of only the columns, plates, and conglomerations, and these crystals tend to be at least four times larger than the minimum size. In Antarctica, cirrus are usually composed of only columns which are much longer than normal.\n\nCirrus clouds are usually colder than −20 °C (−4 °F). At temperatures above −68 °C (−90 °F), most cirrus clouds have relative humidities of roughly 100% (that is they are saturated). Cirrus can supersaturate, with relative humidities over ice that can exceed 200%. Below −68 °C (−90 °F) there are more of both undersaturated and supersaturated cirrus clouds. The more supersaturated clouds are probably young cirrus.\n\n## Optical phenomena\n\nCirrus clouds can produce several optical effects like halos around the Sun and Moon. Halos are caused by interaction of the light with hexagonal ice crystals present in the clouds which, depending on their shape and orientation, can result in a wide variety of white and colored rings, arcs and spots in the sky, including sun dogs, the 46° halo, the 22° halo, and circumhorizontal arcs. Circumhorizontal arcs are only visible when the Sun rises higher than 58° above the horizon, preventing observers at higher latitudes from ever being able to see them.\n\nMore rarely, cirrus clouds are capable of producing glories, more commonly associated with liquid water-based clouds such as stratus. A glory is a set of concentric, faintly-colored glowing rings that appear around the shadow of the observer, and are best observed from a high viewpoint or from a plane. Cirrus clouds only form glories when the constituent ice crystals are aspherical; researchers suggest that the ice crystals must be between 0.009 millimeters and 0.015 millimeters in length for a glory to appear.\n\n## Relation to other clouds\n\nCirrus clouds are one of three different genera of high-level clouds, all of which are given the prefix \"cirro-\". The other two genera are cirrocumulus and cirrostratus. High-level clouds usually form above 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Cirrocumulus and cirrostratus are sometimes informally referred to as cirriform clouds because of their frequent association with cirrus.\n\nIn the intermediate range, from 2,000 to 6,100 m (6,500 to 20,000 ft), are the mid-level clouds, which are given the prefix \"alto-\". They comprise two genera, altostratus and altocumulus. These clouds are formed from ice crystals, supercooled water droplets, or liquid water droplets.\n\nLow-level clouds usually form below 2,000 m (6,500 ft) and do not have a prefix. The two genera that are strictly low-level are stratus, and stratocumulus. These clouds are composed of water droplets, except during winter when they are formed of supercooled water droplets or ice crystals if the temperature at cloud level is below freezing. Three additional genera usually form in the low-altitude range, but may be based at higher levels under conditions of very low humidity. They are the genera cumulus, and cumulonimbus, and nimbostratus. These are sometimes classified separately as clouds of vertical development, especially when their tops are high enough to be composed of supercooled water droplets or ice crystals.\n\n### Cirrocumulus\n\nCirrocumulus clouds form in sheets or patches and do not cast shadows. They commonly appear in regular, rippling patterns or in rows of clouds with clear areas between. Cirrocumulus are, like other members of the cumuliform category, formed via convective processes. Significant growth of these patches indicates high-altitude instability and can signal the approach of poorer weather. The ice crystals in the bottoms of cirrocumulus clouds tend to be in the form of hexagonal cylinders. They are not solid, but instead tend to have stepped funnels coming in from the ends. Towards the top of the cloud, these crystals have a tendency to clump together. These clouds do not last long, and they tend to change into cirrus because as the water vapor continues to deposit on the ice crystals, they eventually begin to fall, destroying the upward convection. The cloud then dissipates into cirrus. Cirrocumulus clouds come in four species: stratiformis, lenticularis, castellanus, and floccus. They are iridescent when the constituent supercooled water droplets are all about the same size.\n\n### Cirrostratus\n\nCirrostratus clouds can appear as a milky sheen in the sky or as a striated sheet. They are sometimes similar to altostratus and are distinguishable from the latter because the Sun or Moon is always clearly visible through transparent cirrostratus, in contrast to altostratus which tends to be opaque or translucent. Cirrostratus come in two species, fibratus and nebulosus. The ice crystals in these clouds vary depending upon the height in the cloud. Towards the bottom, at temperatures of around −35 to −45 °C (−31 to −49 °F), the crystals tend to be long, solid, hexagonal columns. Towards the top of the cloud, at temperatures of around −47 to −52 °C (−53 to −62 °F), the predominant crystal types are thick, hexagonal plates and short, solid, hexagonal columns. These clouds commonly produce halos, and sometimes the halo is the only indication that such clouds are present. They are formed by warm, moist air being lifted slowly to a very high altitude. When a warm front approaches, cirrostratus clouds become thicker and descend forming altostratus clouds, and rain usually begins 12 to 24 hours later.\n\n## Other planets\n\nCirrus clouds have been observed on several other planets. In 2008, the Martian Lander Phoenix took a time-lapse photograph of a group of cirrus clouds moving across the Martian sky using lidar. Near the end of its mission, the Phoenix Lander detected more thin clouds close to the north pole of Mars. Over the course of several days, they thickened, lowered, and eventually began snowing. The total precipitation was only a few thousandths of a millimeter. James Whiteway from York University concluded that \"precipitation is a component of the [Martian] hydrologic cycle\". These clouds formed during the Martian night in two layers, one around 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above ground and the other at surface level. They lasted through early morning before being burned away by the Sun. The crystals in these clouds were formed at a temperature of −65 °C (−85 °F), and they were shaped roughly like ellipsoids 0.127 millimeters long and 0.042 millimeters wide.\n\nOn Jupiter, cirrus clouds are composed of ammonia. When Jupiter's South Equatorial Belt disappeared, one hypothesis put forward by Glenn Orten was that a large quantity of ammonia cirrus clouds had formed above it, hiding it from view. NASA's Cassini probe detected these clouds on Saturn and thin water-ice cirrus on Saturn's moon Titan. Cirrus clouds composed of methane ice exist on Uranus. On Neptune, thin wispy clouds which could possibly be cirrus have been detected over the Great Dark Spot. As on Uranus, these are probably methane crystals.\n\nInterstellar cirrus clouds are composed of tiny dust grains smaller than a micrometer and are therefore not true cirrus clouds, which are composed of frozen crystals. They range from a few light years to dozens of light years across. While they are not technically cirrus clouds, the dust clouds are referred to as \"cirrus\" because of their similarity to the clouds on Earth. They emit infrared radiation, similar to the way cirrus clouds on Earth reflect heat being radiated out into space.", "revid": "1170165346", "description": "Genus of atmospheric cloud", "categories": ["Cirrus", "Cloud types"]}
{"id": "4917584", "url": null, "title": "Maryland Route 355", "text": "Maryland Route 355 (MD 355) is a 36.75-mile (59.14 km) north–south road in western central Maryland in the United States. The southern terminus of the route, Wisconsin Avenue, is located in Bethesda in Montgomery County, at the county's border with Washington, D.C. It continues south into Washington, D.C. as Wisconsin Avenue NW. The northern terminus is just north of a bridge over Interstate 70 (I-70)/U.S. Route 40 (US 40) in the city of Frederick in Frederick County, where the road continues north as Market Street through Frederick towards MD 26.\n\nMD 355 serves as a major thoroughfare through Frederick and Montgomery counties, passing through Bethesda, Rockville, Gaithersburg, Germantown, Clarksburg, Hyattstown, Urbana, and Frederick, roughly parallel to I-270. The southern portion of the route from the Washington, D.C. border to Germantown is a suburban four–to–six–lane divided highway lined with many businesses. North of Germantown, the route is predominantly a two lane rural road until it reaches Frederick, where it passes through commercial areas in the southern part of the city. The road changes names along its route, from the south, as Wisconsin Avenue, to Rockville Pike, followed by Hungerford Drive, then Frederick Road, and lastly as Urbana Pike.\n\nMD 355 is the original route of US 240, which was planned in 1926 to run from Washington, D.C. north to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; however, the route was designated a part of US 15 north of Frederick. This route served as the primary connector linking Frederick and points west to Washington, D.C. During the 1950s, US 240 was relocated in stages to the Washington National Pike, a freeway between Bethesda and Frederick shared with I-70S (now I-270). MD 355 was designated onto the former alignment of US 240 between Bethesda and Frederick as each stage of freeway was built. MD 355 was also designated through Frederick along Market Street, which was the former alignment of US 15 through the city before it was moved to a bypass in 1959. US 240 was decommissioned in 1972, and MD 355 was extended south along the former US 240 to the Washington, D.C. border. In 2006, the interchange with US 15 at the route's northern terminus was removed, resulting in MD 355 ending just short of US 15 at a dead end. By 2009, a four lane divided bypass of Urbana for MD 355, funded by private developers, was completed. The former alignment of MD 355 through Urbana was designated as MD 355 Business (MD 355 Bus.) before being removed from the state highway system. The same year, the portion of MD 355 north of I-70 was transferred to the city of Frederick and is no longer considered part of the route.\n\n## Route description\n\nMD 355 is a part of the main National Highway System from the District of Columbia line to I-495, in Bethesda. The highway is also a part of the National Highway System as an intermodal connector from I-495 to Shady Grove Road in Rockville, and as a principal arterial from Shady Grove Road to MD 27 in Germantown.\n\n### Montgomery County\n\nMD 355 begins in the Bethesda CDP, at the intersection with Western Avenue NW / Western Avenue (Maryland), the northwestern border between Washington, D.C., and the state of Maryland. It heads north from this point as Wisconsin Avenue, a six-lane divided highway. Washington Metro's Red Line runs in a tunnel underneath the road. Wisconsin Avenue NW traverses southeastward inside Washington, D.C., ending in Georgetown at an intersection with K Street NW underneath US 29 (Whitehurst Freeway NW), just north of the Potomac River. From the Washington, D.C. border, MD 355 heads north through areas of retail and high-rise buildings in Friendship Heights, and the Village of Friendship Heights, including The Shops at Wisconsin Place and the Friendship Heights station along the Red Line. Past Friendship Heights, the route continues into the wooded residential area of Somerset, before passing the Chevy Chase Country Club on the east side of the road, and the residential areas of the town of Chevy Chase, and its associated villages, to the west. It then forms an intersection with MD 191 (Bradley Boulevard) and Bradley Lane. Past this intersection, MD 355 enters downtown Bethesda, where it heads back into commercial areas with high-rise buildings.\n\nIn downtown Bethesda, the road intersects MD 410 (Montgomery Avenue) one-way eastbound, the westbound direction of MD 410 (East West Highway), and MD 187 (Old Georgetown Road), a short distance north, near the Red Line's Bethesda station. The road continues through the community and passes by Bethesda Theatre, a 1938 Art Deco cinema. It leaves the downtown area of Bethesda and becomes Rockville Pike at the intersection with Glenbrook Parkway / Woodmont Avenue. From here, the road passes west of Naval Support Activity Bethesda, which is home to the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, one of the United States' most prominent military hospitals, and east of the National Institutes of Health, which is home to the United States National Library of Medicine, the world's largest medical library. The Medical Center station along the Red Line is located in this area.\n\nPast the naval hospital and the NIH, the road passes west of Stone Ridge School of the Sacred Heart and intersects Cedar Lane. After this intersection, the route heads north into wooded areas, passing near residences as well as the Bethesda Meeting House, an 1850 wood-frame church. MD 355 continues north through more suburban residential areas before coming to an interchange that provides access to I-495 (Capital Beltway) and the southern terminus of I-270, where the Metro Red Line comes above the surface in the median of the route and passes over I-495. Past this interchange, the road skirts the edge of Rock Creek Park, coming to an intersection with Grosvenor Lane that features a northbound jughandle. The route passes to the west of the Linden Oak at the Grosvenor Lane intersection. MD 355 continues into residential areas of North Bethesda, where the Red Line parallels the route to the east to the Grosvenor–Strathmore station before returning to running under the road. Farther north, the route comes to the intersection with MD 547 (Strathmore Avenue) east of Georgetown Preparatory School.\n\nThe route heads through some residential neighborhoods before entering a commercial area with strip malls and some high-rise buildings where White Flint Mall, once one of the D.C. metropolitan area's largest shopping malls, was located on the east side of the road. MD 355 passes to the west of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission headquarters and heads past the North Bethesda station along the Red Line. The road comes to an intersection with Old Georgetown Road as well as a grade-separated interchange at Montrose Parkway. The Metro Red Line tunnel draws farther east from MD 355 before it crosses into Rockville, the county seat of Montgomery County. In Rockville, the road passes more commercial development with the Metro Red Line and CSX's Metropolitan Subdivision railroad line paralleling the road a short distance to the east. The route intersects MD 911 (First Street) and Wootton Parkway. MD 355 intersects MD 660 (Dodge Street), which is a short connector to MD 28 (Veirs Mill Road) that the route intersects a short distance later.\n\nPast this intersection, MD 355 continues into downtown Rockville, where it becomes Hungerford Drive. The road passes by the Rockville station, which is used by the Metro's Red Line, MARC's Brunswick Line, and Amtrak's Capitol Limited (MARC and Amtrak trains run along the CSX line). MD 355 heads into more commercial areas and passes the Rockville Campus of Montgomery College before intersecting Gude Drive. Past this intersection, MD 355 becomes Frederick Road and heads northwest into a mix of commercial and residential areas in Derwood, drawing further away from the railroad tracks. The route leaves Rockville and intersects Shady Grove Road. Past Shady Grove Road, MD 355 has an interchange with I-370 and crosses into Gaithersburg. Here, the road heads through more commercial areas before heading into residential neighborhoods. It heads into business areas again and passes northeast of Gaithersburg High School as it approaches downtown Gaithersburg, where the route has an interchange with MD 117 (Diamond Avenue) and passes over CSX's Metropolitan Subdivision before continuing northwest past more businesses. MD 355 passes southwest of the Lakeforest Mall before intersecting MD 124 (Montgomery Village Avenue). MD 355 passes more strip malls past this intersection before crossing over Great Seneca Creek and leaving Gaithersburg. The route continues northwest into Germantown through residential areas before passing businesses again and intersecting Middlebrook Road. It passes through residential developments, with the road narrowing to four lanes before it reaches an intersection with MD 118 (Germantown Road). From here, the road passes more homes and a shopping center prior to crossing MD 27 (Ridge Road).\n\nPast MD 27, the road passes more suburban developments before narrowing to a two-lane undivided road and heading through some woodland. It continues northwest through a mix of rural woodland and suburban development in Clarksburg, where MD 355 passes northeast of Clarksburg High School and intersects MD 121 (Clarksburg Road). Past this intersection, the route passes Little Bennett Regional Park on the east and businesses on the west, running closely parallel to I-270 located to the west. The route eventually draws farther east of I-270 and heads through residential neighborhoods and woodland before reaching Hyattstown. In Hyattstown, MD 355 intersects MD 109 (Old Hundred Road).\n\n### Frederick County\n\nAfter passing through Hyattstown, MD 355 crosses into Frederick County, where it becomes Urbana Pike. Here, it passes some businesses before intersecting MD 75 (Green Valley Road). Past this intersection, the road continues into a more rural setting consisting of farmland, woods, and some residential areas and businesses. The route reaches Urbana, where it heads onto a four-lane divided bypass called Worthington Boulevard to the east of the community, while the former alignment of MD 355 continues through Urbana as Urbana Pike. MD 355 intersects MD 80 (Fingerboard Road) and passes through residential areas in the Villages of Urbana subdivision, encountering two roundabouts. Upon leaving Urbana, the route intersects Lew Wallace Street and returns to its alignment along two-lane undivided Urbana Pike as it continues north through areas of woods and farms with some rural residences. The road passes Monocacy National Battlefield, the site of the Battle of Monocacy Junction in the American Civil War fought on July 9, 1864. Past the battlefield, the road crosses the Monocacy River and CSX's Old Main Line Subdivision railroad line.\n\nIn a short distance, MD 355 heads from rural areas into a commercial district on the outskirts of Frederick. The road widens to four lanes as it passes by the Francis Scott Key Mall and several other businesses. It intersects MD 85 (Buckeystown Pike), which provides access to and from I-70/US 40. MD 355 passes over I-70/US 40 and ends just north of the overpass, with the road continuing north into Frederick as locally maintained Market Street.\n\n## History\n\nThe Rockville Pike portion of MD 355 dates back to what was a Native American trail that led from the mouth of Rock Creek to the great Conestoga Trail. In later times it was used as an escape route from Washington during the War of 1812 as well as a route for settlers to travel from Montgomery County to developing areas north and west. In 1911, a small portion of state highway leading northwest out of Rockville was completed, with the remainder between Rockville and Gaithersburg under contract. A state highway was proposed between Gaithersburg and Germantown. The state road between Gaithersburg and Germantown was finished by 1915. By 1921, the portions of state highway between the Washington, D.C. border and Rockville, to the northwest of Germantown, and between northwest of Urbana and Frederick were completed. At this time, a state highway was proposed between northwest of Germantown and northwest of Urbana. The state road was completed between Germantown and Clarksburg and through Urbana to a point southeast of the community by 1923. The entire length of the state road connecting Washington, D.C. and Frederick was completed by 1927. In the approved plan for the U.S. Highway System in 1926, US 240 was planned to run from Washington, D.C. to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania via Frederick. In 1927, US 240 was designated along the proposed 1926 route south of US 15/US 40 in Frederick with the US 15 designation given to the road north of Frederick. In 1950, US 240 was widened into a divided highway between the Washington, D.C. border and Bethesda.\n\nIn 1947, plans were made to construct a freeway, the Washington National Pike (now I-270), parallel to US 240. In 1953, the US 240 freeway was completed between MD 121 in Clarksburg and US 15 (now MD 85) in Frederick. The former alignment of US 240 between Clarksburg and Frederick was designated as US 240 Alt. A year later, the freeway was extended down to MD 118 in Germantown. At this time, the original alignment between Germantown and Frederick was designated MD 355, replacing what was US 240 between Germantown and Clarksburg and the entire length of US 240 Alt. between Clarksburg and Frederick. The US 240 freeway was extended south to MD 28 in Rockville in 1956, and MD 355 was subsequently extended south along the former alignment to the MD 28 intersection in Rockville. Also, the US 240 freeway was completed from US 15 north to US 40. In 1957, US 240 was upgraded to a divided highway between Bethesda and Rockville. The US 240 freeway was extended south to Montrose Road in 1958, resulting in MD 355 being extended south along the former alignment to Montrose Road. I-70S was designated onto the US 240 freeway in 1959. In addition, MD 355 was extended north to US 15 north of Frederick, passing through the city on Market Street, the one-way pair of Market Street northbound and Bentz Street southbound in the downtown area, and Market Street to the north of downtown. The route replaced US 15/US 240 south of downtown Frederick and US 15 north of downtown Frederick, with US 15 shifted to a bypass west of the city. In 1960, I-70S/US 240 was extended south to the Capital Beltway, and MD 355 was extended south along former US 240 between Montrose Road and the Capital Beltway.\n\nIn 1972, the American Association of State Highway Officials approved for the US 240 designation to be removed. As a result, MD 355 was extended south along the former US 240 alignment to the Washington, D.C. border. MD 355 was widened into a divided highway between Rockville and Gaithersburg in 1977. The divided highway was extended north from Gaithersburg to Germantown by 1997. In 2006, the northern terminus of MD 355 at the interchange with US 15 in Frederick was truncated to a dead end a short distance south of that route. In 2009, the portion of MD 355 north of the I-70 overpass was transferred to the city of Frederick, with the MD 355 designation officially being removed from this stretch. In 2010, an interchange was completed at Montrose Parkway.\n\nIn Frederick County, the two bridges which carry portions of MD 355 have been subject to infrastructure status concerns, and receive annual inspections, as part of the Federal Highway Administration's National Bridge Inventory (NBI). The Monocacy River crossing was built in 1930, and reconstructed in 1980. Its June 2016 NBI report noted that this bridge is possibly eligible to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The CSX crossing was built in 1931, but never reconstructed. This bridge's NBI report, from September 2016, determined that its deck was in poor condition, with advanced section loss or deterioration. The 2016 inspection reports for both bridges concluded that both of these MD 355 carriers' deck geometries were \"[b]asically intolerable requiring high priority of replacement.\"\n\nA four-lane divided bypass of Urbana was constructed for MD 355 in the 2000s. The primary reason for constructing the bypass was to relieve traffic heading through the community brought on by the construction of numerous shopping centers in the area, and the costs for constructing the bypass were entirely paid for by the developers of an area shopping center. The proposal for the bypass called for two roundabouts to control traffic. The first portion of the road opened in late 2005 from MD 355 south to a roundabout at Sugarloaf Parkway. On October 30, 2008, construction began to build the connection of the bypass to MD 355 south of MD 80. The bypass was completed by January 2009, at which point MD 355 was realigned onto it and the former alignment became MD 355 Bus. In 2013, maintenance of the bypass of MD 355 around Urbana was transferred from the developers to the state.\n\n## Junction list\n\n## Related routes\n\n### MD 355 Business\n\nMaryland Route 355 Business (MD 355 Bus.) was the designation of a 1.06-mile (1.71 km) business route of MD 355 in Urbana that ran along Urbana Pike. The route began at MD 355 south of Urbana, heading west as a two-lane undivided road and coming to an intersection with MD 80. Past this intersection, the road continued northwest through residential areas. The business route reached its terminus at another intersection with MD 355. The entire length of MD 355 Bus. originally followed MD 355C. In 2014, all of MD 355C except for a 0.376-mile (0.605 km) portion between a point south of Urbana Church Road and Sprigg Street was turned over to county maintenance. The remainder of MD 355C was turned over to county maintenance in an agreement dated December 8, 2017.\n\nJunction list\n\n### Auxiliary routes\n\n- MD 355A runs along an unnamed road from MD 355 north to a cul-de-sac in Frederick, Frederick County. The route is 0.05 mi (0.080 km) long.\n- MD 355B ran along an unnamed road from MD 355 Bus. east to a dead end in Urbana, Frederick County. The route was 0.12 mi (0.19 km) long. MD 355B was turned over to county maintenance in 2014.\n\n## See also", "revid": "1169413499", "description": "State highway in Montgomery and Frederick Counties, Maryland, United States", "categories": ["Roads in Frederick County, Maryland", "Roads in Montgomery County, Maryland", "State highways in Maryland"]}
{"id": "669691", "url": null, "title": "Pather Panchali", "text": "Pather Panchali ( transl. Song of the Little Road) is a 1955 Indian Bengali-language drama film written and directed by Satyajit Ray and produced by the Government of West Bengal. It is an adaptation of Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay's 1929 Bengali novel of the same name, and marked Ray's directorial debut. Featuring Subir Banerjee, Kanu Banerjee, Karuna Banerjee, Uma Dasgupta, Pinaki Sengupta, Chunibala Devi and being the first film in The Apu Trilogy, Pather Panchali depicts the childhood travails of the protagonist Apu and his elder sister Durga amidst the harsh village life of their poor family.\n\nProduction was interrupted because of funding problems and it took nearly three years for the film to be completed. The film was shot mainly on location, had a limited budget, featured mostly amateur actors, and was made by an inexperienced crew. The sitar player Ravi Shankar composed the film's soundtrack and score using classical Indian ragas. Subrata Mitra was in charge of the cinematography while editing was handled by Dulal Dutta. Following its premiere on 3 May 1955 during an exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art, Pather Panchali was released in Calcutta later the same year to an enthusiastic reception. It was a hit at the box-office, yet up until early 1980 had earned a profit of only ₹24 lakh. A special screening was attended by the Chief Minister of West Bengal and the Prime Minister of India. Critics have praised its realism, humanity, and soul-stirring qualities, while others have called its slow pace a drawback, and some have condemned it for romanticising poverty. Scholars have commented on the film's lyrical quality and realism (influenced by Italian neorealism), its portrayal of the poverty and small delights of daily life, and the use of what the author Darius Cooper has termed the \"epiphany of wonder\", among other themes.\n\nThe tale of Apu's life is continued in the two subsequent installments of Ray's trilogy: Aparajito (The Unvanquished, 1956) and Apur Sansar (The World of Apu, 1959). Pather Panchali is described as a turning point in Indian cinema, as it was among the films that pioneered the Parallel cinema movement, which espoused authenticity and social realism. The first film from independent India to attract major international critical attention, it won India's National Film Award for Best Feature Film in 1955, the Best Human Document award at the 1956 Cannes Film Festival, and several other awards, establishing Ray as one of the country's most distinguished filmmakers. It is often featured in lists of the greatest films ever made.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn 1910s Nischindipur, rural Bengal, Harihar Roy earns a meagre living as a pujari (priest) but dreams of a better career as a poet and playwright. His wife Sarbajaya cares for their children, Durga and Apu, and Harihar's elderly cousin, Indir Thakrun. Because of their limited resources, Sarbajaya resents having to share her home with the old Indir, who often steals food from their already bare kitchen. Durga is fond of Indir and often gives her fruit stolen from a wealthy neighbour's orchard. One day, the neighbour's wife accuses Durga of stealing a bead necklace (which Durga denies) and blames Sarbajaya for encouraging her tendency to steal.\n\nAs the elder sibling, Durga cares for Apu with motherly affection but spares no opportunity to tease him. Together, they share life's simple joys: sitting quietly under a tree, viewing pictures in a travelling vendor's bioscope, running after the candy man who passes through, and watching a jatra (folk theatre) performed by an acting troupe. Every evening, they are delighted by the sound of a distant train's whistle.\n\nSarbajaya's grows increasingly resentful of Indir and becomes more openly hostile, which causes Indir to take temporary refuge in the home of another relative. One day, while Durga and Apu run to catch a glimpse of the train, Indir—who is feeling unwell—goes back home, and the children find she has passed away upon their return.\n\nWith prospects drying up in the village, Harihar travels to the city to seek a better job. He promises that he will return with money to repair their dilapidated house, but is gone longer than expected. During his absence, the family sinks deeper into poverty, and Sarbajaya grows increasingly desperate and anxious. One day during the monsoon season, Durga plays in the downpour, catches a cold and develops a high fever. Her condition worsens as a thunderstorm batters the crumbling house with rain and wind, and she dies the next morning.\n\nHarihar returns home and starts to show Sarbajaya the merchandise he has brought from the city. A silent Sarbajaya breaks down at her husband's feet, and Harihar cries out in grief as he discovers that Durga has died. The family decide to leave their ancestral home for Benaras. As they pack, Apu finds the necklace Durga had earlier denied stealing; he throws it into a pond. Apu and his parents leave the village on an ox-cart, while a snake is seen slithering into their, now barren, house.\n\n## Cast\n\n## Production\n\n### Novel and title\n\nBibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay's novel Pather Panchali is a classic bildungsroman (a type of coming-of-age story) in the canon of Bengali literature. It first appeared as a serial in a Calcutta periodical in 1928, and was published as a book the next year. The novel depicts a poor family's struggle to survive in their rural ancestral home and the growing up of Apu, the son of the family. The later part of the novel, where Apu and his parents leave their village and settle in Benaras, formed the basis of Aparajito (The Unvanquished, 1956), the second film of the Apu trilogy.\n\nSatyajit Ray (2 May 1921 – 23 April 1992), working as a graphic designer for Signet Press, created the illustrations for an abridged edition of the book in 1944. At that time, Ray read the unabridged novel; Signet's owner D. K. Gupta told Ray that the abridged version would make a great film. The idea appealed to Ray, and around 1946–47, when he considered making a film, he turned to Pather Panchali because of certain qualities that \"made it a great book: its humanism, its lyricism, and its ring of truth\". The author's widow permitted Ray to make a film based on the novel; the agreement was in principle only, and no financial arrangement was made.\n\nThe Bengali word path literally means path, and pather means \"of the path\". Panchali is a type of narrative folk song that used to be performed in Bengal and was the forerunner of another type of folk performance, the jatra. English translations of the Bengali title include Song of the Little Road, The Lament of the Path, Song of the Road, and Song of the Open Road.\n\n### Script\n\nPather Panchali did not have a script; it was made from Ray's drawings and notes. Ray completed the first draft of the notes during his sea voyage to and from London in 1950. Before principal photography began, he created a storyboard dealing with details and continuity. Years later, he donated those drawings and notes to Cinémathèque Française.\n\nIn Apur Panchali (the Bengali translation of My Years with Apu: A Memoir, 1994), Ray wrote that he had omitted many of the novel's characters and that he had rearranged some of its sequences to make the narrative better as cinema. Changes include Indir's death, which occurs early in the novel at a village shrine in the presence of adults, while in the film Apu and Durga find her corpse in the open. The scene of Apu and Durga running to catch a glimpse of the train is not in the novel, in which neither child sees the train, although they try. Durga's fatal fever is attributed to a monsoon downpour in the film, but is unexplained in the novel. The ending of the film—the family's departure from the village—is not the end of the novel.\n\nRay tried to extract a simple theme from the random sequences of significant and trivial episodes of the Pather Panchali novel, while preserving what W. Andrew Robinson describes as the \"loitering impression\" it creates. According to Ray, \"the script had to retain some of the rambling quality of the novel because that in itself contained a clue to the feel of authenticity: life in a poor Bengali village does ramble\". For Robinson, Ray's adaptation focuses mainly on Apu and his family, while Bandopadhyay's original featured greater detail about village life in general.\n\n### Casting\n\nKanu Banerjee (who plays Harihar) was an established Bengali film actor. Karuna Banerjee (Sarbajaya) was an amateur actress from the Indian People's Theatre Association, and the wife of Ray's friend. Uma Dasgupta, who successfully auditioned for the part of Durga, also had prior theatre experience.\n\nFor the role of Apu, Ray advertised in newspapers for boys of ages five to seven. None of the candidates who auditioned fulfilled Ray's expectations, but his wife spotted a boy in their neighbourhood, and this boy, Subir Banerjee, was cast as Apu. The surname of three of the main actors and two supporting actors happened to be Banerjee, but they were not related to each other. The hardest role to fill was the wizened old Indir. Ray eventually found Chunibala Devi, a retired stage actress living in one of Calcutta's red-light districts, as the ideal candidate. Several minor roles were played by the villagers of Boral, where Pather Panchali was filmed.\n\n### Filming\n\nShooting started on 27 October 1952. Boral, a village near Calcutta, was selected in early 1953 as the main location for principal photography, and night scenes were shot in-studio. The technical team included several first-timers, including Ray himself and cinematographer Subrata Mitra, who had never operated a film camera. Art director Bansi Chandragupta had professional experience, having worked with Jean Renoir on The River (1951). Both Mitra and Chandragupta went on to establish themselves as respected professionals.\n\nMitra had met Ray on the set of The River, where Mitra was allowed to observe the production, take photographs and make notes about lighting for personal reference. Having become friends, Mitra kept Ray informed about the production and showed his photographs. Ray was impressed enough by them to promise him an assistant's position on Pather Panchali, and when production neared, invited him to shoot the film. As the 21-year-old Mitra had no prior filmmaking experience, the choice was met with scepticism by those who knew of the production. Mitra himself later speculated that Ray was nervous about working with an established crew.\n\nFunding was a problem from the outset. No producer was willing to finance the film, as it lacked stars, songs and action scenes. On learning of Ray's plan, one producer, Mr Bhattacharya of Kalpana Movies, contacted author Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay's widow to request the filming rights and get the film made by Debaki Bose, a well-established director. The widow declined as she had already permitted Ray to make the film. The estimated budget for the production was ₹70,000 (about US\\$14,613 in 1955). One producer, Rana Dutta, gave money to continue shooting, but had to stop after some of his films flopped.\n\nRay thus had to borrow money to shoot enough footage to persuade prospective producers to finance the whole film. To raise funds, he continued to work as a graphic designer, pawned his life insurance policy and sold his collection of gramophone records. Production manager Anil Chowdhury convinced Ray's wife, Bijoya, to pawn her jewels. Ray still ran out of money partway through filming, which had to be suspended for nearly a year. Thereafter shooting was done only in intermittent bursts. Ray later admitted that the delays had made him tense and that three miracles saved the film: \"One, Apu's voice did not break. Two, Durga did not grow up. Three, Indir Thakrun did not die\".\n\nBidhan Chandra Roy, the Chief Minister of West Bengal, was requested by an influential friend of Ray's mother to help the production. The Chief Minister obliged, and government officials saw the footage. The Home Publicity Department of the West Bengal government assessed the cost of backing the film and sanctioned a loan, given in installments, allowing Ray to finish production. The government misunderstood the nature of the film, believing it to be a documentary for rural uplift, and recorded the loan as being for \"roads improvement\", a reference to the film's title.\n\nMonroe Wheeler, head of the department of exhibitions and publications at New York's Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), who was in Calcutta in 1954, heard about the project and met Ray. He considered the incomplete footage to be of very high quality and encouraged Ray to finish the film so that it could be shown at a MoMA exhibition the following year. Six months later, American director John Huston visited India for some early location scouting for The Man Who Would Be King (eventually made in 1975). Wheeler had asked Huston to check the progress of Ray's project. Huston saw excerpts of the unfinished film and recognised \"the work of a great film-maker\". Because of Huston's positive feedback, MoMA helped Ray with additional money.\n\nIncluding the delays and hiatuses in production, it took three years to complete the shooting of Pather Panchali.\n\n## Influences\n\nThe realist narrative style of Pather Panchali was influenced by Italian neorealism and the works of French director Jean Renoir. In 1949 Renoir came to Calcutta to shoot his film The River (1951). Ray, a founding member of the Calcutta Film Society (established in 1947), helped him scout for locations in the countryside. When Ray told him about his longstanding wish to film Pather Panchali, Renoir encouraged him to proceed. In 1950 Ray was sent to London by his employer, the advertising agency D.J. Keymer, to work at their headquarters. During his six months in London, he watched about 100 films. Among these, Vittorio De Sica's neorealist film Bicycle Thieves (1948) had a profound impact on him. In a 1982 lecture, Ray said that he had come out of the theatre determined to become a filmmaker. The film made him believe that it was possible to make realistic cinema that was shot on location with an amateur cast.\n\nThe international success of Akira Kurosawa's Japanese film Rashomon (1950) and Bimal Roy's 1953 Hindi film Do Bigha Zamin (which was shot partly on location and was about a peasant family) led Ray to believe that Pather Panchali would find an international audience. Ray also had more indigenous influences, such as Bengali literature and the native Indian theatrical tradition, particularly the rasa theory of classical Sanskrit drama. Darius Cooper describes the complicated doctrine of rasa as \"center[ed] predominantly on feelings experienced not only by the characters but also conveyed in a certain artistic way to the spectator\".\n\n## Soundtrack\n\nThe soundtrack of the film was composed by the sitar player Ravi Shankar, who was at an early stage of his career, having debuted in 1939. The background scores feature pieces based on several ragas of Indian classical music, played mostly on the sitar. The soundtrack, described in a 1995 issue of The Village Voice as \"at once plaintive and exhilarating\", is featured in The Guardian's 2007 list of 50 greatest film soundtracks. It has also been cited as an influence on The Beatles, specifically George Harrison.\n\nShankar saw about half the film in a roughly edited version before composing the background score, but he was already familiar with the story. According to Robinson, when Ray met Shankar the latter hummed a tune that was folk-based but had \"a certain sophistication\". This tune, usually played on a bamboo flute, became the main theme for the film. The majority of the score was composed within the duration of a single night, in a session that lasted for about eleven hours. Shankar also composed two solo sitar pieces—one based on the raga Desh (traditionally associated with rain), and one sombre piece based on the raga Todi. He created a piece based on the raga Patdeep, played on the tar shehnai, by Dakshina Mohan Tagore to accompany the scene in which Harihar learns of Durga's death. The film's cinematographer, Subrata Mitra, performed on the sitar for parts of the soundtrack.\n\n## Release and reception\n\nRay and his crew worked long hours on post-production, managing to submit it just in time for Museum of Modern Art's Textiles and Ornamental Arts of India exhibition of May 1955. The film, billed as The Story of Apu and Durga, lacked subtitles. It was one of a series of six evening performances at MoMA, including the US debut of sarod player Ali Akbar Khan and the classical dancer Shanta Rao. Pather Panchali's MoMA opening on 3 May was well received. A film still of Apu having his hair brushed by his sister Durga and mother Sarbojaya was featured in The Family of Man, a 1955 MoMA exhibition.\n\nPather Panchali had its domestic premiere at the annual meeting of the Advertising Club of Calcutta; the response there was not positive, and Ray felt \"extremely discouraged\". Before its theatrical release in Calcutta, Ray designed large posters, including a neon sign showing Apu and Durga running, which was strategically placed in a busy location in the city. Pather Panchali was released in Basusree, a Calcutta cinema on 26 August 1955 and received a poor initial response. The screenings started filling up within a week or two, buoyed by word of mouth. It opened again at another cinema, where it ran for seven weeks. A delay in subtitling led to the postponement of the UK release until December 1957. It went on to achieve great success in the US in 1958, running for eight months at the Fifth Avenue Playhouse in New York. It was a record run for the Fifth Avenue cinema. The Bengali government earned a profit of \\$50,000 from its initial US release, and decades later the film grossed \\$402,723 from its 2015 limited release. The film reportedly grossed an estimated total of ₹100 million (\\$million) at the worldwide box office, as of 2017.\n\nIn India the film's reception was enthusiastic. The Times of India wrote: \"It is absurd to compare it with any other Indian cinema... Pather Panchali is pure cinema\". Chief Minister Roy arranged a special screening in Calcutta for Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who came out of the theatre impressed. Despite opposition from some within the governments of West Bengal and India because of its depiction of poverty, Pather Panchali was sent to the 1956 Cannes Film Festival with Nehru's personal approval. It was screened towards the end of the festival, coinciding with a party given by the Japanese delegation, and only a small number of critics attended. Although some were initially unenthusiastic at the prospect of yet another Indian melodrama, the film critic Arturo Lanocita found \"the magic horse of poetry... invading the screen\". Pather Panchali was subsequently named Best Human Document at the festival.\n\nLindsay Anderson commented after the Cannes screening that Pather Panchali had \"the quality of ultimate unforgettable experience\". In subsequent years, critics have given positive reviews. A 1958 review in Time described Pather Panchali as \"perhaps the finest piece of filmed folklore since Robert Flaherty's Nanook of the North\". In her 1982 book 5001 Nights at the Movies, Pauline Kael wrote: \"Beautiful, sometimes funny, and full of love, it brought a new vision of India to the screen\". Basil Wright considered it \"a new and incontrovertible work of art\". James Berardinelli wrote in 1996 that the film \"touches the souls and minds of viewers, transcending cultural and linguistic barriers\". In 2006 Philip French of The Observer called it \"one of the greatest pictures ever made\". Twenty years after the release of Pather Panchali, Akira Kurosawa summarised the effect of the film as overwhelming and lauded its ability \"to stir up deep passions\".\n\nThe reaction was not uniformly positive. On seeing the film, François Truffaut is reported to have said: \"I don't want to see a movie of peasants eating with their hands\". Bosley Crowther, the most influential critic of The New York Times, wrote in 1958, \"any picture as loose in structure or as listless in tempo as this one is would barely pass as a 'rough cut' with the editors in Hollywood\", even though he praised its gradually emerging poignancy and poetic quality. The Harvard Crimson argued in 1959 that its fragmentary nature \"contributes to the film's great weakness: its general diffuseness, its inability to command sustained attention. For Pather Panchali, remarkable as it may be, is something of a chore to sit through\". Early in the 1980s, Ray was criticised by Nargis Dutt, an Indian parliamentarian and former actress, for \"exporting poverty\". Darius Cooper writes that while many critics celebrated the Apu trilogy \"as a eulogy of third-world culture, others criticized it for what they took to be its romanticization of such a culture\". Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic wrote that \"its story is simple almost to the point of banality, it is rewarding if taken as a dramatized documentary\".\n\nAs of May 2021, the film has a 97% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on an aggregate of 69 reviews with an average score of 9.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"A film that requires and rewards patience in equal measure, Pather Panchali finds director Satyajit Ray delivering a classic with his debut\". In 2018 the film earned the 15th spot when BBC released the top 100 foreign language films ever, and filmmaker Christopher Nolan called it \"one of the best films ever made\".\n\n### 1990s restoration\n\nIn the 1990s, Merchant Ivory Productions, with assistance from the Academy Film Archive and Sony Pictures Classics, undertook a project to restore the prints. The restored prints, along with several other Ray films, were released in select US theatres. Pather Panchali is available in DVD in Region 2 (DVD region code) PAL and Region 1 NTSC formats. Artificial Eye Entertainment is the distributor of Region 2 while Columbia Tri-Star is the distributor of Region 1 format.\n\n### 2015 restoration\n\nIn 2013, the video distribution company The Criterion Collection, in collaboration with the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' Film Archive, began the restoration of the original negatives of the Apu trilogy, including Pather Panchali. These negatives had been severely damaged by a fire in London in 1993, and all film cans and fragments belonging to the Ray films were sent to the Motion Picture Academy for storage, where they lay unseen for two decades. It was discovered upon reexamination that, although many parts of the films were indeed destroyed by fire or the effects of age, other parts were salvageable. The materials were shipped to a restoration laboratory in Bologna, Italy: L'Immagine Ritrovata. Over a thousand hours of labor by hand were expended in restoring and scanning the negatives and, in the end, about 40 percent of the Pather Panchali negative was restored. For those parts of the negative that were missing or unusable, duplicate negatives and fine-grain masters from various commercial or archival sources were used. The Criterion Collection's own lab then spent six months creating the digital version of all three films, at times choosing to preserve the distinctive look of the films even at the cost of retaining some imperfections.\n\nOn 4 May 2015, the restored Pather Panchali premiered at the Museum of Modern Art, a little more than 60 years to the day after the film's world premiere at the same venue. Several days later, all three films opened at New York's Film Forum, where they were originally scheduled to run for three weeks. Because of overwhelming public demand – with one writer commenting that \"audiences can't seem to get enough\" – the films were held over at that theater until 30 June. The trilogy was then sent to be exhibited in many other cities throughout the U.S. and Canada. The restoration work was widely acclaimed, with commentators calling the look of the restored films \"gorgeous\", \"pristine\" and \"incredible\".\n\n## Themes\n\nAuthor Andrew Robinson, in the book The Apu Trilogy: Satyajit Ray and the Making of an Epic (2010), notes that it is challenging to narrate the plot of Pather Panchali and the \"essence of the film lies in the ebb and flow of its human relationships and in its everyday details and cannot be reduced to a tale of events\". In his 1958 New York Times review, Crowther writes that Pather Panchali delicately illustrates how \"poverty does not always nullify love\" and how even very poor people can enjoy the little pleasures of their world. Marie Seton describes how the film intersperses the depiction of poverty and the delights and pleasures of youth. She represents the bond between Durga and Indir, and their fate, as signifying a philosophical core: that both the young and the old die. Seton writes of the film's \"lyrical\" qualities, noting especially the imagery immediately before the onset of monsoon. Robinson writes about a peculiar quality of \"lyrical happiness\" in the film, and states that Pather Panchali is \"about unsophisticated people shot through with great sophistication, and without a trace of condescension or inflated sentiment\".\n\nDarius Cooper discusses the use of different rasa in the film, observing Apu's repeated \"epiphany of wonder\", brought about not only by what the boy sees around him, but also when he uses his imagination to create another world. For Cooper, the immersive experience of the film corresponds to this epiphany of wonder. Stephen Teo uses the scene in which Apu and Durga discover railway tracks as an example of the gradual build-up of epiphany and the resulting immersive experience.\n\nSharmishtha Gooptu discusses the idea that the idyllic village life portrayed in Pather Panchali represents authentic Bengali village life, which disappeared during the upheavals of Partition in 1947. She suggests that the film seeks to connect an idealised, pre-partition past with the actual present of partitioned Bengal, and that it uses prototypes of rural Bengal to construct an image of the ideal village. In contrast to this idealism, Mitali Pati and Suranjan Ganguly point out how Ray used eye-level shots, natural lighting, long takes and other techniques to achieve realism. Mainak Biswas has written that Pather Panchali comes very close to the concept of Italian neorealism, as it has several passages with no dramatic development, even though the usual realities of life, such as the changing of seasons or the passing of a day, are concretely filmed.\n\n## Accolades\n\nPather Panchali has won many national and international awards. At India's 3rd National Film Awards in 1955, it was named Best Feature Film and Best Bengali Feature Film. The next year, it competed for the Palme d'Or at Cannes, where it won Best Human Document and an OCIC Award – Special Mention. More awards from film festivals across the world followed: the Vatican Award (Rome), the Golden Carabao (Manila), and the Diploma of Merit (Edinburgh) in 1956; the Selznick Golden Laurel for Best Film (Berlin), the Golden Gate for Best Director and Best Picture (San Francisco) in 1957; Best Film (Vancouver), and the Critics' Award for Best Film (Stratford) in 1958. It also won several awards for best foreign-language film: at the National Board of Review Awards 1958; at the Afro Arts Theater, New York, 1959; the Kinema Jumpo Award in Japan, 1966; and the Bodil Award in Denmark, 1969. In 1958 it had been nominated for Best Film at the 11th British Academy Film Awards.\n\nSight & Sound, the British Film Institute's (BFI) magazine, has included Pather Panchali several times in its Critics' Polls of the greatest-ever films. In 1962, it ranked 11th; in 1992, 6th; and in 2002, 22nd. It also topped the British Film Institute's user poll of \"Top 10 Indian Films\" of all time in 2002. The magazine ranked the film 42nd in its 2012 critics' poll of \"Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time\" and 48th in its 2012 directors' poll. In the most recent 2022 edition of BFI's Greatest films of all time list the film ranked 35th in the critics poll and 22nd in the director's poll. In 1998, in a similar critics' poll from Asian film magazine Cinemaya, Pather Panchali was ranked the second-greatest film of all time. The Village Voice ranked the film at number 12 (tied with The Godfather) in its Top 250 \"Best Films of the Century\" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics. In 2010, The Guardian ranked the film 12th in its list of 25 greatest arthouse films.\n\nPather Panchali was included in various other all-time lists, including Time Out's \"Centenary Top One Hundred Films\" in 1995, the San Francisco Chronicle \"Hot 100 Films From the Past\" in 1997, the Rolling Stone \"100 Maverick Movies of the Last 100 Years\" in 1999, \"The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made\" in 2002, the BFI Top Fifty \"Must See\" Children's Films in 2005, and BFI's \"Top 10 Indian Films\" of all time. It was included in NDTV's list of \"India's 20 greatest films\", and in 2013 in CNN-IBN's list of \"100 greatest Indian films of all time\". Akira Kurosawa ranked Pather Panchali at No. 37 on his Top 100 favourite films of all time list. The Apu trilogy as a whole was included in film critic Roger Ebert's list of \"100 Great Movies\" in 2001 and in Time's All-Time 100 best movies list in 2005.\n\n## Legacy\n\nPather Panchali was followed by two films that continued the tale of Apu's life—Aparajito (The Unvanquished) in 1956 and Apur Sansar (The World of Apu) in 1959. Together, the three films constitute the Apu trilogy. Aparajito portrays the adolescent Apu, his education in a rural school and a Calcutta college. Its central theme is the poignant relationship between a doting mother and her ambitious young son. Apur Sansar depicts Apu's adult life, his reaction to his wife's premature death, and his final bonding with his son whom he abandoned as an infant. The sequels also won many national and international awards. Ray did not initially plan to make a trilogy: he decided to make the third film only after being asked about the possibility of a trilogy at the 1957 Venice Film Festival, where Aparajito won the Golden Lion. Apur Panchali (2014) is a Bengali film directed by Kaushik Ganguly, which depicts the real-life story of Subir Bannerjee, the actor who portrayed Apu in Pather Panchali. Aparajito, a 2022 Bengali film directed by Anik Dutta, tells the story of the making of Pather Panchali.\n\nPather Panchali was the first film made in independent India to receive major critical attention internationally, placing India on the world cinema map. It was one of the first examples of Parallel Cinema, a new tradition of Indian film-making in which authenticity and social realism were key themes, breaking the rule of the Indian film establishment. Although Pather Panchali was described as a turning point in Indian cinema, some commentators preferred the view that it refined a \"realist textual principle\" that was already there. In 1963 Time noted that thanks to Pather Panchali, Satyajit Ray was one of the \"hardy little band of inspired pioneers\" of a new cinematic movement that was enjoying a good number of imitators worldwide. The film has since been considered as a \"global landmark\" and \"among the essential moviegoing experiences\". On 2 May 2013, commemorating Ray's birthday, the Indian version of the search engine Google displayed a doodle featuring the train sequence.\n\nAfter Pather Panchali, Ray went on to make 36 more films, including feature films, documentaries and shorts. He worked on scripting, casting, scoring, cinematography, art direction and editing, as well as designing his own credit titles and publicity material. He developed a distinctive style of film-making based, as was the case with Pather Panchali, on visual lyricism and strongly humanistic themes. Thus, Ray established himself as an internationally recognized auteur of cinema.", "revid": "1162946495", "description": "1955 film by Satyajit Ray", "categories": ["1950s Bengali-language films", "1950s coming-of-age drama films", "1955 directorial debut films", "1955 drama films", "1955 films", "Bengali-language Indian films", "Best Bengali Feature Film National Film Award winners", "Best Feature Film National Film Award winners", "Films about poverty in India", "Films based on Indian novels", "Films based on works by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay", "Films directed by Satyajit Ray", "Films scored by Ravi Shankar", "Films set in India", "Films with screenplays by Satyajit Ray", "Indian black-and-white films", "Indian coming-of-age drama films", "Indian epic films"]}
{"id": "26725588", "url": null, "title": "First Battle of Naktong Bulge", "text": "The First Battle of Naktong Bulge was an engagement between United Nations Command (UN) and North Korean forces early in the Korean War from August 5–19, 1950 in the vicinity of Yongsan (Yeongsan, Changnyeong county) and the Naktong River in South Korea. It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter, and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously. The battle ended in a victory for the UN after large numbers of US reinforcements destroyed an attacking North Korean division.\n\nOn August 5, the Korean People's Army (KPA), 4th Infantry Division crossed the Naktong River in the vicinity of Yongsan, attempting to cut UN supply lines to the north as well as gaining a bridgehead into the Pusan Perimeter. Opposing it was the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army. Over the next two weeks, US and KPA forces fought a bloody series of engagements inflicting heavy casualties on one another in a confusing series of attacks and counterattacks, but neither side was able to gain the upper hand. In the end, the US forces, aided by reinforcements, air support and heavy weapons, destroyed the KPA force which was hampered by lack of supply and high desertion rates.\n\nThe battle was a turning point in the war for the KPA, which had seen previous victories owing to superior numbers and equipment. UN forces now had a numerical superiority and more equipment, including M4 Sherman tanks and heavy weapons capable of defeating the KPA T-34 tanks.\n\n## Background\n\n### Outbreak of war\n\nFollowing the 25 June 1950 outbreak of the Korean War after the invasion of South Korea by North Korea, the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea. The United States subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean Peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing. However, US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II, five years earlier, and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division, headquartered in Japan. The division was understrength, and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending. Regardless, the 24th was ordered to South Korea.\n\nThe 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial \"shock\" of KPA advances, delaying much larger KPA units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive. The division was consequently alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the KPA, making time for the 1st Cavalry and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions, along with other Eighth Army supporting units, to move into position. Advance elements of the 24th Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5, the first encounter between US and KPA forces. For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith, 24th Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior KPA numbers and equipment. The regiments of the 24th Division were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon, Chonan, and Pyongtaek. The 24th made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon, where it was almost completely destroyed but delaying KPA forces until July 20. By that time, the Eighth Army's force of combat troops were roughly equal to KPA forces attacking the region, with new UN units arriving every day.\n\n### North Korean advance\n\nWith Taejon captured, KPA forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it. The KPA 4th and 6th Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver. The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN's left flank, but became extremely spread out in the process. They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers, repeatedly pushing back UN forces.\n\nUN forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the KPA advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country. Forces of the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment, newly arrived in the country, were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by KPA forces on July 27, opening a pass to the Pusan area. Soon after, KPA forces took Chinju to the west, pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more KPA attacks. US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the KPA on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2. Suffering mounting losses, the KPA force in the west withdrew for several days to re-equip and receive reinforcements. This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter.\n\n### Naktong Bulge\n\nAbout 7 miles (11 km) north of the point where it turns east and is joined by the Nam River, the Naktong River curves westward opposite Yongsan in a wide semicircular loop. For most of this span, the Naktong is around 400 metres (1,300 ft) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep, allowing infantry to wade across with some difficulty but preventing vehicles from crossing without assistance. This perimeter was defended by a network of observation posts on the high ground, manned by 24th Infantry. Forces in reserve would counterattack any attempted crossings by KPA. Artillery and mortar fire units were also deployed so large amounts of fire could be delivered on any one spot. The division was extremely dispersed, already understrength, it presented a very thin line.\n\n## Battle\n\nThe 24th US Infantry Division, under the command of Major General John H. Church, occupied a region some 16 miles (26 km) long along the Naktong River. The 34th Infantry Regiment occupied the southern half, west of Yongsan while the 21st Infantry Regiment occupied the northern half, west of Changyong. The 19th Infantry Regiment, meanwhile, was re-equipping in the rear of the lines. In all, the 24th and its supporting units had a strength of 14,540 on August 5.\n\nOpposing the 24th Infantry was the KPA 4th Division, under the command of Major General Lee Kwon Mu. Both Mu and his division were highly decorated for their exploits so far in the war, particularly during the First Battle of Seoul. By August 4 the 4th Division had concentrated all of its regiments in the vicinity of Hyopch'on. It stood at a strength of about 7,000 with 1,500 in each infantry regiment.\n\n### North Korean attack\n\nAt midnight on the night of August 5–6, 800 KPA soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 16th Regiment waded across the river at the Ohang ferry site, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) south of Pugong-ni and west of Yongsan, carrying light weapons and supplies over their heads or on rafts. A second force attempted to cross further north but was hit with machine gun and artillery fire, falling back in confusion. At 02:00 on August 6, the KPA began engaging the forces of 3rd Battalion, 34th Infantry and moved forward after a small fight, attempting to penetrate the lines to Yongsan. KPA infantry forced 3rd Battalion back, and they abandoned their command post to consolidate their position. The attack caught the Americans by surprise as US commanders expected the KPA to attempt a crossing further north. The landing threatened to split the US lines and disrupt supply lines to positions further north. Subsequently, the KPA were able to capture a large amount of US equipment.\n\n### US counterattack\n\nThe 34th Infantry's regimental headquarters ordered the 1st Battalion to counterattack the KPA. When 1st Battalion arrived at 3rd Battalion's former command post, it was ambushed by KPA troops on the high ground. C Company, the first to arrive, suffered over fifty percent casualties. A and B Companies counterattacked with tanks and armor, eventually rescuing the beleaguered C Company. At around 20:00, A Company made contact with L Company, 3rd Battalion, still in its positions on the river, radioing that the KPA had penetrated eastward north of the Yongsan-Naktong River road to Cloverleaf Hill, but had not yet crossed south of the road to Obong-ni Ridge. The KPA had penetrated 3 miles (4.8 km) east of the Naktong and halfway to Yongsan.\n\nSeveral units of the 34th Regiment began to retreat north and into the 21st Infantry's lines, but Church ordered them turned around. He also ordered the 19th Infantry to counterattack west along the northern flank of the 34th Infantry to help oppose the KPA. Although the 24th Infantry was repulsed closer to the river, 1 mile (1.6 km) inland the 19th Infantry trapped about 300 KPA in a village and killed most of them.\n\nThe 1st Battalion, 34th Infantry, had managed to block the KPA advance to Yongsan while the 19th Infantry was able to push it back and inflict substantial casualties. However, by the evening of August 6, the KPA held firmly on to their bridgehead. Attempted crossings that night were repulsed to the south by Republic of Korea Army (ROK) forces, but an unknown number of reinforcements were moved across the river the night of August 6–7. On August 7–8, the KPA tried to move two more battalions across the river to the north, but were repulsed by 21st Infantry, which was still in place. The KPA battalions were shifted south to cross at the bridgehead, instead. By August 8, an estimated KPA regiment were across the Naktong.\n\n### Counterattacks\n\nAmerican counterattacks continued into the morning of August 7, but the gains were slow, hampered by the hot weather and a lack of food and water. The KPA were able to press forward and regain the Cloverleaf Hill and Oblong-ni Ridge, critical terrain astride the main road in the bulge area. By 16:00 that day, the 9th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division, a unit newly arrived in Korea, was sent to the region. Church immediately ordered it to attack the KPA salient at the bulge. 9th Infantry was fresh and well-equipped. They were also inexperienced, many of their number being reservists. Despite a tenacious attack, the 9th Infantry was only able to regain part of Cloverleaf Hill before intense fighting stalled its movement.\n\nKPA forces began making gains in the hills along the river adjacent to their bridgehead, against positions of the 34th Infantry. Coordinated attacks pushed A Company to the north back from their hills with heavy casualties on August 7. K Company to the south was also attacked but held its line, reinforced by L Company on August 10. Fighting continued for several days, resulting in heavy casualties as both sides captured and recaptured the hills along the Naktong, neither side able to gain a decisive advantage against the other.\n\n### Task Force Hill\n\nIn an attempt to destroy the KPA bridgehead, Church assembled a large force under the 9th Infantry Regiment. Dubbed Task Force Hill, this force comprised the 9th, 19th and 34th Infantry Regiments as well as 1st Battalion, 21st Infantry, plus supporting artillery and other attached units. It was assigned to drive the KPA from the east bank of the river on August 11. Commanding the task force was Colonel John G. Hill, the Commanding Officer of the 9th Infantry Regiment.\n\nThe KPA 4th Division, meanwhile, had constructed underwater bridges of sandbags, logs, and rocks, finishing the first on August 10. 4th Division used it to move trucks and heavy artillery as well as additional infantry and a few tanks across the river. By the morning of August 10, an estimated two KPA regiments were across the river and occupying fortified positions. Supplies continued to stream in through rafts. Task Force Hill mounted its attack, but was once again unable to make progress due to the newly established artillery. Its directive to attack quickly became one to dig in and hold its ground, and by nightfall the entire KPA 4th Division was across the river. On August 10, elements of the KPA 4th Division began to move south, outflanking Task Force Hill. The next day, scattered KPA elements attacked Yongsan. The KPA repeatedly attacked at night, when American soldiers were resting and had greater difficulty resisting.\n\n### Reinforcements\n\nOn August 12, General Walton Walker, in command of the Eighth Army, dispatched part of the 27th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division, to attack north from the 25th Division's zone to drive off KPA 4th Division troops moving into Yongsan. Simultaneously, Church assembled all the combat service support soldiers he could and formed them into a combat unit to block further penetration of KPA forces, which were setting up roadblocks on the roads from Yongsan.\n\nAdditional reinforcements poured in. The rest of the 27th Infantry moved in, as well as a battalion from the 23rd Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division. These were able to push KPA infiltrators out of Yongsan and back to their firmly held positions at Cloverleaf Hill. On August 14, following an artillery barrage, Task Force Hill launched a direct assault on these positions. Fighting continued the entire day in a fierce series of attacks and counterattacks in which both sides, already at far reduced strength, inflicted large numbers of casualties. However, Task Force Hill'''s second attack was just as unsuccessful as its first. Casualties among officers was high in the fight, and the disorganization that followed meant most of the units in the fight could not communicate to coordinate any large actions. It became a battle of attrition by August 15 as neither the KPA 4th Division nor Task Force Hill were able to get the upper hand in the fight, which in several cases erupted in desperate hand-to-hand combat. Casualties mounted and a frustrated Walker ordered the 5,000-man 1st Provisional Marine Brigade to the area to turn the tide. The brigade moved from the Masan region in the middle of a counteroffensive being conducted by the 25th US Infantry.\n\nThe KPA 4th Division in the meantime was suffering serious logistical setbacks from lack of food, equipment, ammunition and, weapons. Conscripts from local South Korean villages were brought in to replace mounting losses. There was also virtually no provision for the wounded in the division, and the KPA forces began to come apart under these stresses. Still, the division's morale remained relatively high and General Lee refused to withdraw.\n\n### Destruction of the bridgehead\n\nThe 1st Marine Provisional Brigade, in conjunction with Task Force Hill, mounted a massive attack on Cloverleaf Hill and Obong-ni on August 17. The offensive began at 08:00 on August 17, with US forces unleashing all heavy weapons available to them against the KPA positions; artillery, mortars, M26 Pershing tanks and airstrikes.\n\nAt first, tenacious KPA defense halted the Marines who responded with artillery, raking Cloverleaf Hill. Heavy indirect fire forced the KPA out of their positions before the Marines and Task Force Hill'' eventually overwhelmed them, one hill at a time. The Marines approached Obong-ni first, destroying resistance on the slope with an airstrike and a barrage from US tanks, but strong resistance caused heavy casualties, and they had to withdraw. The KPA 18th Regiment, in control of the hill, mounted a disastrous counterattack in hopes of pushing the Marines back. The division's tactics of cutting off supplies and relying on surprise, which had provided them so much success up to this point, failed in the face of massive US numerical superiority.\n\nBy nightfall on August 18, KPA 4th Division had been annihilated; huge numbers of deserters had weakened its numbers during the fight, but by that time, Obong-ni and Cloverleaf Hill had been retaken by the US forces. Scattered groups of KPA soldiers fled back across the Naktong, pursued by American planes and artillery fire. The next day, the remains of 4th Division had withdrawn across the river. In their hasty retreat, they left a large number of artillery pieces and equipment behind which the Americans later pressed into service.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nThe battle caused massive casualties for both sides. By the end of the fight, KPA 4th Division had been completely destroyed, with only 300 or 400 men in each of its regiments. Of its original 7,000 men, the division now had a strength of only 3,500, having suffered over 1,200 killed. Several thousand of the members of the division deserted during the fight. Most of these men were South Korean civilians forcibly conscripted into the KPA. 4th Division would not recover until much later in the war. The battle represented a new phase in the war for the KPA. Their numerical superiority was gone, and their strategy of attacking supply lines and rear formations of US units was no longer effective without overwhelming numbers. Additionally, the advantage the T-34 tank had once provided was also gone; American units were now well equipped with effective anti-tank weapons, as well as larger numbers of tanks of their own. Subsequently, all 4th Division's T-34s were quickly knocked out before they could inflict much damage.\n\nThe 9th Infantry and supporting units sustained 57 killed, 106 wounded, two captured, and 13 missing, a total of 180 casualties. The 21st Infantry suffered around 30 killed and 70 wounded, the 19th Infantry around 450 casualties, and the 34th Infantry around 400. The 27th Infantry reported around 150. The 1st Provisional Brigade reported 66 Marines dead, 278 wounded, and one missing. In total, American forces suffered around 1,800 casualties during the conflict, including about a third them killed.\n\nIn memory of the battle at Naktong Bulge, as well as other conflicts along the Pusan Perimeter and the Battle of Taegu, the South Korean government set up the Nakdong River Battle Museum along the river in the vicinity of the conflict in 1979, which includes a number of artifacts from the Korean War as well as a memorial to those killed during the war.\n\n## See also\n\n- Hill 303 massacre", "revid": "1154953724", "description": "Battle of the Korean War during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter", "categories": ["August 1950 events in Asia", "Battle of Pusan Perimeter", "Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950", "Battles of the Korean War", "Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea", "Battles of the Korean War involving the United States", "History of South Gyeongsang Province"]}
{"id": "67506321", "url": null, "title": "Happier Than Ever (song)", "text": "\"Happier Than Ever\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Billie Eilish from her 2021 second studio album of the same name. It was released as the album's sixth single on July 30, 2021, through Darkroom and Interscope Records. An emo and pop-punk song with elements of jazz, it is about Eilish's anger towards a former partner due to a toxic relationship. It opens with soft vocals backed by classical and bass guitars, and transitions into a distorted pop-punk and rock production with electric guitars and snare drums midway. She wrote the song with its producer, Finneas O'Connell, after completing the American leg of her When We All Fall Asleep Tour (2019).\n\nUpon release, many music journalists lauded \"Happier Than Ever\" as an album highlight. Critics praised Eilish's vocal performance, which they perceived as cathartic and louder than her previous work, as well as its rock-infused production. Multiple publications such as Billboard, Pitchfork, and Rolling Stone listed it as one of her best songs to date. At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, it received four nominations, including Record of the Year and Song of the Year. It won the latter category at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards. \"Happier Than Ever\" peaked at number 11 and number 6 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Global 200 charts, respectively.\n\nThe music video for \"Happier Than Ever\" premiered the same day as the single's release. In it, Eilish performs the song through a telephone conversation, after which she climbs a rooftop and dances in the rain. She performed the song live on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and Jimmy Kimmel Live! in 2021, and at the 2022 Coachella and Glastonbury festivals. Eilish included performances of it in a concert film and a world tour in support of the album.\n\n## Background and development\n\nBillie Eilish won five awards at the 62nd annual ceremony of the Grammy Awards for her debut studio album When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? (2019) and its single \"Bad Guy\". An avant-pop album with a horror-like atmosphere and whispery vocals, it debuted atop record charts in various countries and brought Eilish to mainstream fame. Her soft singing style became recognized as her signature sound.\n\nIn a January 2020 interview, Eilish stated she would begin working on her second studio album during the year. Her brother Finneas O'Connell confirmed this during a March 2020 interview, stating that it would be \"pretty pure in its intention\" and something that they would appreciate making and performing live. Eilish released the singles \"My Future\" and \"Therefore I Am\" in 2020. Eilish confirmed in February 2021 that she had worked on 16 tracks for the project, and she cited self-reflection and life during the COVID-19 pandemic as her biggest inspirations. During a cover story for Rolling Stone, she prefaced that \"almost none of the songs on this album are joyful\".\n\n\"Happier Than Ever\" was the first song Eilish and Finneas wrote for her second studio album of the same name, initially titled \"Away from Me\". In the summer of 2019, after completing the American leg of her When We All Fall Asleep Tour, Eilish flew to Middelfart with Finneas. They wrote the melody for the song's first chorus on a cheap \\$80 guitar, and a lyric about a situation Eilish was going through: \"When I'm away from you, I'm happier than ever.\" The two picked the song back up eight months later upon beginning work for the album, and completed it in May or June 2020. Finneas wanted the style to be dynamic and propel Eilish's emotionality instead of overshadowing it. He used plugins to add texture to the acoustic intro of \"Happier Than Ever\", and Eilish digitally edited her own vocal takes for its vocal programming.\n\nThe song was first used in the 2021 documentary film Billie Eilish: The World's a Little Blurry, where its lyrics \"when I'm away from you, I'm happier than ever, wish I could explain it better. Wish it wasn't true\" were revealed. During an interview with NPR, Eilish commented that it was one of the most important songs she had written. She explained that the recording process felt like finding the best way to tell a person something she wished to tell them for a while: \"You don't really know what you want to say or how to say it — and then maybe you have a conversation with somebody else, or you think a little bit about it, and you figure out what it is...\"\n\n## Composition and lyrics\n\n\"Happier Than Ever\" is a sentimental power ballad. Music journalists classified it as emo, pop-punk, and \"almost blue-eyed soul\". Others wrote that the song incorporates arena rock, alternative rock, and grunge elements. Billboard writer Glenn Rowley described its musical style as \"genre-shifting\".\n\nWith a duration of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, \"Happier Than Ever\" is the longest song in Eilish's discography. The song opens with sparse acoustic instrumentation, as Eilish sings softly over a classical guitar. The bass in its second verse evokes annoyance according to MTV News's Athena Serrano. Around its third verse, \"Happier Than Ever\" transitions into a distorted pop-punk and rock production. During the stylistic change, crashing snare drums and electric guitars can be heard in the background. In an act of catharsis, Eilish continues the song by yelling some of its lyrics to express her pain, with a multitracking technique applied to her voice.\n\nMultiple critics noted that Eilish's screams and Finneas's rock-infused production marked a significant departure from both of their previous musical styles. Lindsay Zoladz of The New York Times wrote that \"Happier Than Ever\" showcases Eilish at her loudest yet. Eilish described the song: \"[It was] probably the most therapeutic song I've ever written or recorded, like ever, ever, ever, 'cause I just screamed my lungs out and could barely talk afterwards, which was very satisfying to me somehow. I had wanted to get those screams out for a very long time and it was very nice to.\"\n\nAccording to a comment Eilish made on The World's a Little Blurry, \"Happier Than Ever\" is about \"nothing even specific that they did, you’re just not happy being with them. You can't even explain it\". Like other tracks in the album, the song's themes include growing up and healing as time passes. The lyrics to \"Happier Than Ever\" recount Eilish's experiences with an unhealthy, failed romantic relationship. The track is a \"kiss-off\" directed at her former partner, whom she condemns for committing several misdeeds—gaslighting her, showing up late to meetings with her, and driving home while drunk. The song begins with the gently-delivered lines \"When I'm away from you / I'm happier than ever\", and it culminates with Eilish shouting \"just fucking leave me alone\".\n\n## Release\n\nEilish teased an upcoming release in April 2021, posting \"things are comingggg\" on her Instagram account. One week later, on April 26, she released a 15-second long snippet of \"Happier Than Ever\" on her Instagram account, featuring visuals of her sitting in a chair with her back to the camera. DIY described the clip as \"stripped-back\", speculating that it is \"welcoming Billie's brand new era\". The song was released alongside the album on July 30, 2021, as its sixth single. An edit comprising only its second part was released for digital download and streaming on September 4, 2021, and a different radio edit was solicited to contemporary hit radio in Italy six days later.\n\n## Reception\n\nMany music reviewers lauded \"Happier Than Ever\" as the album's standout song. Critics who dubbed the song a highlight included Consequence's Mary Siroky, Pitchfork's Quinn Moreland, and Complex's Jessica McKinney. Jason Lipshutz, a staff editor for Billboard, thought that it \"best captures the essence of the album\" due to demonstrating Eilish's songwriting and vocal talents, which he believed was a defiance of traditional expectations from pop music. In an article for NME, El Hunt argued that Eilish's performance in the song offered powerful emotional impact and proved that her voice had improved throughout the years. Evaluating the album for Stereogum, Tom Breihan opined that \"Happier Than Ever\" provided it with the \"only real moment of greatness, and he lamented that the rest of its tracks were not as vocally loud and cathartic. Insider's Callie Ahlgrim, who dubbed \"Happier Than Ever\" as the best song in Eilish's discography to date, shared a similar opinion: \"Eilish fully casts aside her cool-girl exterior and just f---ing goes for it. I only wish she'd done that more.\"\n\nThe Line of Best Fit's Matthew Kent viewed the transition of \"Happier Than Ever\" as \"the album's biggest surprise\", and noted its second part as \"not only a highlight of the album but a highlight of Eilish's entire discography thus far\", which proved Eilish could achieve pop radio hits if she pleased. Tim Sentz of Beats Per Minute called the song an \"'S-tier' level Eilish track\", and opined that, while Eilish sounds like she needs an exorcism, it perfectly captures her appeal and personality. Zoladz thought the song is the album's \"most exhilarating moment\" and a \"disarmingly earnest torrent of bottled-up grievances\", a full display of Eilish's versatility. Writing for The Guardian, Alexis Petridis deemed \"Happier Than Ever\" a \"discomfiting and alienating\" track, which gets nearest amongst the album tracks to replicating the \"sonic firework display\" of \"Bury a Friend\" (2019).\n\nIn 2022, Rolling Stone and NME ranked \"Happier Than Ever\" as Eilish's best song ever. The former magazine's Brittany Spanos stated that the song is \"pure angst and a departure [from her] usually cool-headed\" demeanor, and likened its beginning to a lamb and its outro to \"a whole pack of lions\". Thomas Smith of NME named it \"the quintessential Billie Eilish song\" and a \"crowning glory of a song\", which listeners would feel like singing \"at the top of [their] lungs\", but never quite be able to. For MTV Australia, Jackson Langford honed \"Happier Than Ever\" as her second-best song and a \"volcanic outpour of anger and emotion\", noting it replaced any previous release that may have contended as \"the song that would define Billie Eilish's artistry and career\". Uproxx's Rachel Brodsky placed the song 11th in Eilish's discography.\n\n### Rankings\n\n## Accolades\n\n\"Happier Than Ever\" received several awards and nominations. The song was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Song of Summer in 2021, and Best Pop, Best Direction, Best Visual Effects, and Song of the Year at the 2022 ceremony, winning the latter. It additionally earned nominations for Best Music Video at the NME Awards 2022, and Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Music Video, and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards.\n\n## Commercial performance\n\n\"Happier Than Ever\" debuted at its peak position of number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue for August 14, 2021, spending 26 weeks on the chart. It topped the US Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart, becoming her second number-one there after \"My Future\". This made Eilish the second woman to have multiple number-one songs on the chart, with Taylor Swift as the first. The song charted at number six on the Canadian Hot 100, Eilish's seventh to reach the top 10. It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart in the United Kingdom, and earned a Platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry in March 2022. In Australia, \"Happier Than Ever\" reached number three on the ARIA Singles Chart, becoming Eilish's 13th song to make the top 10. The Australian Recording Industry Association certified it 4× Platinum in 2023. The song charted at number four on the New Zealand Singles Chart, giving Eilish her 12th top-10 in New Zealand. \"Happier Than Ever\" received a 2× Platinum certification from Recorded Music NZ in September 2022.\n\nElsewhere, the song peaked within the top 10 of national record charts: number 2 in Malaysia; number 3 in Ireland; number 4 in Greece; number 5 in Norway, and Singapore; number 6 in Portugal; number 8 in both Lithuania and South Africa; and number 10 in both Hungary and Slovakia; It earned a 3× Platinum certification in Portugal, Platinum in Denmark, France, Greece, and Italy, and Gold in Belgium and Spain. Worldwide, \"Happier Than Ever\" entered at number 6 and number 8 on the Global 200 and the Global Excl. US, respectively—its peak positions in those charts. During its opening week, it earned 36.6 million streams from outside the US.\n\n## Music video\n\nEilish directed the music video for \"Happier Than Ever\", which accompanied its release. She announced it on Instagram: \"This is my favorite ... video ever.\" The video comprises two parts. In the former, Eilish walks back and forth in a glitzy room and performs the song over a vintage landline telephone, to a former partner. In the second part, she opens the door and water rushes in. It ends with Eilish dancing on the roof mid-downpour and being completely submerged into the water. Vulture's Justin Curto described it as \"a flood of emotion to match that glorious guitar breakdown\". Ellie Robinson of NME praised the video as a \"poignant film clip\", and Billboard's Hannah Dailey opined its transition encapsulates breaking in the \"facade of serenity\" and that \"instead of cowering there, she embraces the wrath of the storm\".\n\n## Live performances\n\nThe first live performance of \"Happier Than Ever\" occurred at The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on August 10, 2021. Eilish sang in front of clouds and flashing lights that gave the impression of a storm, joined by a drummer and Finneas on the guitar. She and Finneas reprised \"Happier Than Ever\" for Jimmy Kimmel Live! on top of The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel on October 14, and at Saturday Night Live on December 11, where they performed it alongside \"Male Fantasy\" (2021). Eilish was accompanied by the fictional character Count von Count during a numbers-themed rendition of the song for Sesame Street, which premiered on November 9, 2021. The following month, she visited the World Cafe radio program to sing \"Happier Than Ever\" alongside three other tracks from the album: \"Billie Bossa Nova\", \"Goldwing\", and \"Halley's Comet\".\n\nEilish included a performance of the song in her concert film Happier Than Ever: A Love Letter to Los Angeles, released to Disney+ on September 3, 2021. She added it on the set list of a 2022–2023 world tour in support of the album, and sang the song as a closing number on April 16 for that year's Coachella festival, amid gusts of wind from a dust storm. The next week at Coachella, she paired up with Hayley Williams, the vocalist of the band Paramore. Finneas accompanied the two as they performed Paramore's \"Misery Business\" (2007), followed by \"Happier Than Ever\". On June 24, 2022, Eilish headlined the year's Glastonbury Festival in the UK, becoming the youngest artist to do so. She concluded her appearance with a live rendition of \"Happier Than Ever\", accompanied by pyrotechnics.\n\nAt the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, Eilish performed the song live with Finneas. She began by singing inside an upside-down model of a house, donning a shirt which paid tribute to Taylor Hawkins, who had died earlier in the week. Eilish climbed atop the roof and banged her head while Finneas played the guitar; the performance concluded with thunder and lightning striking as rain poured down the stage. USA Today's Marco della Cava listed it among the night's most memorable moments, and the staff of The New York Times complimented Eilish's vocals and described the performance as \"too raw to feel petty\", noting that it \"injected some much-needed feeling into the first half of the show\". On July 30, 2022, in celebration of the album's one-year anniversary, Eilish and Finneas headed for the Amoeba Music record store in Hollywood to perform \"Happier Than Ever\", along with three other songs.\n\nKelly Clarkson performed a live cover of \"Happier Than Ever\" on The Kelly Clarkson Show on September 30, 2021. Its studio version, released on May 25, 2022, was later used as the lead single from her seventh extended play Kellyoke (2022). Canadian singer Shawn Mendes and Japanese-British singer-songwriter Rina Sawayama covered the song for BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge in 2021 and 2022, respectively. Mendes sang its first half with mellow vocals while playing an acoustic guitar, and the rest on an electric guitar with fervid vocal runs and high notes, while Sawayama performed an alt-rock version she described as \"a little darker ... [and] moodier\" than Eilish's original version. Black Country, New Road did a cover of \"Happier Than Ever\" at a concert on September 5, 2022.\n\n## Credits and personnel\n\n- Billie Eilish O'Connell –  vocals, songwriting, vocal engineering\n- Finneas O'Connell –  songwriting, production, bass, drum programming, electric guitar, engineering, nylon-string guitar, percussion, programming, synthesizer, vocal arrangement\n- Dave Kutch –  mastering\n- Rob Kinelski –  mixing\n- Casey Cuayo –  mixing assistant\n- Eli Heisler –  mixing assistant\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## Release history", "revid": "1171418707", "description": "2021 single by Billie Eilish", "categories": ["2020s ballads", "2021 singles", "2021 songs", "American pop punk songs", "American soul songs", "Billie Eilish songs", "Emo songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Pop ballads", "Rock ballads", "Song recordings produced by Finneas O'Connell", "Songs about heartache", "Songs written by Billie Eilish", "Songs written by Finneas O'Connell", "Soul ballads"]}
{"id": "7831081", "url": null, "title": "Harry McNish", "text": "Henry McNish (11 September 1874 – 24 September 1930), often referred to as Harry McNish or by the nickname Chippy, was the carpenter on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917. He was responsible for much of the work that ensured the crew's survival after their ship, the Endurance, was destroyed when it became trapped in pack ice in the Weddell Sea. He modified the small boat, James Caird, that allowed Shackleton and five men (including McNish) to make a voyage of hundreds of miles to fetch help for the rest of the crew.\n\nAfter the expedition he returned to work in the Merchant Navy and eventually emigrated to New Zealand, where he worked on the docks in Wellington until poor health forced his retirement. He died destitute in the Ohiro Benevolent Home in Wellington.\n\n## Early life\n\nHarry \"Chippy\" McNish was born in 1874 in the former Lyons Lane near the present site of the library in Port Glasgow, Inverclyde, Scotland. He was part of a large family, being the third of eleven children born to John and Mary Jane (née Wade) McNish. His father was a journeyman shoemaker. McNish held strong socialist views, was a member of the United Free Church of Scotland and detested bad language. He married three times: in 1895 to Jessie Smith, who died in February 1898; in 1898 to Ellen Timothy, who died in December 1904; and finally to Lizzie Littlejohn in 1907.\n\nThere is some confusion as to the correct spelling of his name. He is variously referred to as McNish, McNeish, and in Alexander Macklin's diary of the expedition, MacNish. The McNeish spelling is common, notably in Shackleton's and Frank Worsley's accounts of the expedition and on McNish's headstone, but McNish is also widely used, and appears to be the correct version. On a signed copy of the expedition photo his signature appears as \"H. MacNish\", but his spelling is in general idiosyncratic, as revealed in the diary he kept throughout the expedition. There also is a question regarding McNish's nickname. \"Chippy\" was a traditional nickname for a shipwright; both this and the shorter \"Chips\" (as in wood chips from carpentry) seem to have been used.\n\n## Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition\n\n### Endurance\n\nThe aim of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was to be the first to cross the Antarctic continent from one side to the other. McNish was apparently attracted by Shackleton's advertisement for the expedition (although there are doubts as to whether the advertisement ever appeared):\n\n> MEN WANTED: FOR HAZARDOUS JOURNEY. SMALL WAGES, BITTER COLD, LONG MONTHS OF COMPLETE DARKNESS, CONSTANT DANGER, SAFE RETURN DOUBTFUL. HONOUR AND RECOGNITION IN CASE OF SUCCESS. SIR ERNEST SHACKLETON\n\nMcNish, at 40, was one of the oldest members of the crew of the Endurance (Shackleton though was seven months older). He suffered from piles and rheumatism in his legs. He was regarded as somewhat odd and unrefined, but also highly respected as a carpenter – Frank Worsley, the captain of the Endurance, refers to him as a \"splendid shipwright\". The pipe-smoking Scot was, however, the only man of the crew that Shackleton was \"not dead certain of\". His Scots accent was described as rasping like \"frayed cable wire\".\n\nDuring the initial stage of the voyage to Antarctica from Buenos Aires, he was kept busy with a number of routine tasks. He worked on the pram dinghy Nancy Endurance; made a small chest of drawers for Shackleton; specimen shelves for the biologist, Robert Clark; and instrument cases for Leonard Hussey, the meteorologist; and put up wind screens to protect the helmsman. He constructed a false deck, extending from the poop-deck to the chart-room to cover the extra coal that the ship had taken on board. He also acted as the ship's barber. As the ship pushed into the pack ice in the Weddell Sea it became increasingly difficult to navigate. McNish constructed a six-foot wooden semaphore on the bridge to enable the navigating officer to give the helmsman directions, and built a small stage over the stern to allow the propeller to be watched in order to keep it clear of the heavy ice.\n\nWhen the ship became trapped in pack ice his duties expanded to constructing makeshift housing, and, once it became clear that the ship was doomed, to altering the sledges for the journey over the ice to open water. He built the quarters where the crew took their meals (nicknamed The Ritz) and cubicles where the men could sleep. These were all christened as well; McNish shared The Sailors' Rest with Alfred Cheetham, the Third Officer. Assisted by the crew, he constructed kennels for the dogs on the upper deck. Once Endurance became trapped, and the crew were spending the days on the ice, McNish erected goalposts and football became a daily fixture for the men. To pass the time in the evening, McNish joined Frank Wild, Tom Crean, James McIlroy, Worsley and Shackleton playing poker in the wardroom.\n\nThe pressure from the ice caused Endurance to start to take on water. To prevent the ship from flooding McNish built a cofferdam, caulking it with strips of blankets and nailing strips over the seams, standing for hours up to his waist in freezing water as he worked. He could not prevent the pressure from the ice crushing the ship though and was experienced enough to know when to stop trying. Once the ship had been destroyed he was put in charge of rescuing the stores from what had been The Ritz. With McNish in charge it took only a couple of hours to open the deck far enough to retrieve a good quantity of provisions.\n\n### On the ice\n\nDuring his watch one night while the crew were camped on the ice, a small part of the ice floe broke away and he was only rescued due to the quick intervention of the men of the next watch who threw him a line allowing him to jump back to safety. Shackleton reported that McNish calmly mentioned his narrow escape the next day after further cracks appeared in the ice. Mrs Chippy, the cat McNish had brought on board, had to be shot after the loss of the Endurance, as it was obvious he would not survive the harsh conditions. McNish apparently never forgave Shackleton for giving the order.\n\nMcNish proposed building a smaller craft from the wreckage of the ship, but was overruled, with Shackleton instead deciding to head across the ice to open water pulling the ship's three lifeboats. McNish had been suffering with piles and homesickness from almost before the voyage had begun, and once the ship was lost his frustration began to grow. He vented his feelings in his diary, targeting his tent-mates' language:\n\n> I have been shipmates with all sorts of men both in sail and steam, but never nothing like some of our party – as the most filthy language is used as terms of endearment, and, worse of all, is tolerated.\n\nIn great pain while pulling sledges across the ice, McNish briefly rebelled, refusing to take his turn in the harness and protesting to Frank Worsley that since the Endurance had been destroyed the crew was no longer under any obligation to follow orders. Accounts vary as to how Shackleton handled this: some report that he threatened to shoot McNish; others that he read him the ship's articles, making it clear that the crew were still under obligation until they reached port. McNish's assertion would have normally been correct: duty to the master (and pay) normally stopped when a ship was lost, but the articles the crew had signed for the Endurance had a special clause inserted in which the crew agreed \"to perform any duty on board, in the boats, or on the shore as directed by the master and owner\". Aside from this, McNish really had no choice but to comply: he could not survive alone and could not continue with the rest of the party unless he obeyed orders.\n\nAs supplies began to dwindle the party grew hungry. McNish records that he smoked himself sick trying to alleviate the pangs of hunger and although he thought the shooting of the dogs terribly sad, he was happy to eat the meat they provided stating \"Their flesh tastes a treat. It is a big treat for us after being so long on seal meat.\"\n\nWhen the ice finally brought the camp to the edge of the pack ice, Shackleton decided that the three boats, the James Caird, Stancomb Wills, and Dudley Docker, should make initially for Elephant Island. McNish had prepared the boats as best he could for a long journey in the open ocean, building up their sides to give them a higher clearance from the water.\n\n### Elephant Island and the James Caird\n\nOn the sea journey to Elephant Island, McNish was in the James Caird with Shackleton and Frank Wild. As they approached the island, Wild, who had been at the tiller for 24 hours straight, was close to collapse, so Shackleton ordered McNish to relieve him. McNish was not in a much better state himself and, despite the terrible conditions, he fell asleep after half an hour. The boat swung around and a huge wave drenched him. This was enough to wake him, but Shackleton, seeing McNish too was exhausted, ordered him to be relieved.\n\nAfter the crew had made it to Elephant Island, Shackleton decided to take a small crew and make for South Georgia, where there was a possibility that they would find crews from the whaling ships to help effect a rescue for the rest of the men. McNish was called upon by Shackleton to make the James Caird seaworthy for the long voyage and was selected as part of the crew, possibly because Shackleton was afraid of the effect he would have on morale if left behind with the other men. For his part, McNish seemed happy to go; he was unimpressed by the island and the chances of survival for the men overwintering there:\n\n> I don't think there are ever many fine days on this forlorn island... I dont think there will be many survivers if they have to put in a winter here. [sic]\n\nMcNish used the mast of another of the boats, the Stancomb Wills, to strengthen the keel and build up the small 22 foot (6.7 m) long boat, so it would withstand the seas during the 800 mile (1480 km) trip. He caulked it using a mixture of seal blood and flour, and, using wood and nails taken from packing cases and the runners of the sledges, he built a makeshift frame which was then covered with canvas. Shackleton was worried the boat \"bore a strong likeness to stage scenery\", only giving the appearance of sturdiness. He later admitted that the crew could not have lived through the voyage without it. When launching the boat McNish and John Vincent were thrown from the deck into the sea. Although soaked, both were unharmed, and managed to exchange some clothes with the Elephant Island party before the James Caird set off. The mood on board was buoyant and McNish recorded in his diary on 24 April 1916:\n\n> We took Good bye with our companions. & set sail on our 870 miles to South Georgia for assistance...we were in the open sea wet through but happy through it all.\n\nThe mood did not last though: conditions aboard the small craft during the trip were terrible, with the crew constantly soaked and cold. McNish impressed Shackleton with his ability to bear up under the strain (more so than the younger Vincent, who collapsed from exhaustion and cold). The six men split into two watches of four hours: three of the men would handle the boat while the other three lay beneath the canvas decking attempting to sleep. McNish shared a watch with Shackleton and Crean. All the men complained of pains in their legs and, on the fourth day out from Elephant Island, McNish suddenly sat down and removed his boots, revealing his legs and feet were white and puffy with the early signs of trench foot. On seeing the state of McNish's feet Shackleton ordered all the men to remove their boots.\n\n### South Georgia\n\nThe crew of the James Caird reached South Georgia on 10 May 1916, 15 days after setting out from Elephant Island. They landed in Cave Cove on King Haakon Bay; it was on the wrong side of the island, but it was a relief for all of them to make land; McNish wrote in his diary:\n\n> I went to the top of the hill & had a lay on the grass & it put me in mind of old times at Home sitting on the hillside looking down at the sea.\n\nThey found albatross chicks and seals to eat, but despite the relative comfort of the island compared to the small boat, they still urgently needed to reach the whaling station at Husvik on the other side of the island to fetch help for the men on Elephant Island. It was clear that McNish and Vincent could not continue, so Shackleton left them in the care of Timothy McCarthy camped in the upturned James Caird, and with Worsley and Crean made the hazardous trip over the mountains. McNish took screws from the James Caird and attached them to the boots of the men making the journey to help them grip the ice. He also fashioned a crude sledge from driftwood he found on the beach, but it proved too clumsy to be practical. When Shackleton's party set off on 18 May 1916, McNish accompanied them for a few hundred yards but he was unable to go any further. He shook hands with each of the men, wishing them good luck, and then Shackleton sent him back. Putting McNish in command of the remaining men, Shackleton charged him to wait for relief and if none had come by the end of winter to attempt to sail to the east coast. Once Shackleton's party had crossed the mountains and arrived in Husvik, he sent Worsley with one of the whaler's ships, Samson, to pick up McNish and the other men. After seeing the emaciated and drawn McNish on his arrival at the whaling station, Shackleton recorded that he felt that the rescue had come just in time for him.\n\n## Polar Medal\n\nWhatever the true story of the rebellion on the ice, neither Worsley nor McNish ever mentioned the incident in writing. Shackleton omitted it entirely from South, his account of the expedition, and referred to it only tangentially in his diary: \"Everyone working well except the carpenter. I shall never forget him in this time of strain and stress\". The event was recorded in the ship's log, but the log entry was struck during the sea voyage in the James Caird, Shackleton being impressed by the carpenter's show of \"grit and spirit\". Nevertheless, McNish's name appeared on the list of the four men not recommended for the Polar Medal in the letter sent by Shackleton on his return. Macklin thought the denial of the medal unjustified:\n\n> I was disheartened to learn that McNeish, Vincent, Holness and Stephenson had been denied the Polar Medal...of all the men in the party no-one more deserved recognition than the old carpenter....I would regard the withholding of the Polar Medal from McNeish as a grave injustice.\n\nMacklin believed that Shackleton may have been influenced in his decision by Worsley who shared a mutual enmity with McNish, and had accompanied Shackleton back from Antarctica. Members of the Scott Polar Research Institute, New Zealand Antarctic Society and Caroline Alexander, the author of Endurance, have criticised Shackleton's denial of the award to McNish.\n\n## Later life, memorials and records\n\nAfter the expedition McNish returned to the Merchant Navy, working on various ships. He often complained that his bones permanently ached due to the conditions during the journey in the James Caird; he would reportedly sometimes refuse to shake hands because of the pain. He divorced Lizzie Littlejohn on 2 March 1918, by which time he had already met his new partner, Agnes Martindale. McNish had a son named Tom and Martindale had a daughter named Nancy. Although she is mentioned frequently in his diary, it appears McNish was not Nancy's father.\n\nHe spent 23 years in the Navy in total during his life, but eventually secured a job with the New Zealand Shipping Company. After making five trips to New Zealand he moved there in 1925, leaving behind his wife and all of his carpentry tools. He worked on the waterfront in Wellington until his career was ended by an injury. Destitute, he would sleep in the wharf sheds under a tarpaulin and relied on monthly collections from the dockworkers. He was found a place in the Ohiro Benevolent Home, but his health continued to deteriorate and he died on 24 September 1930, aged 56, in Wellington Hospital.\n\nHe was buried in Karori Cemetery, Wellington, on 26 September 1930, with full naval honours; HMS Dunedin (which happened to be in port at the time) provided twelve men for the firing party and eight bearers. However, his grave remained unmarked for almost thirty years; the New Zealand Antarctic Society (NZAC) erected a headstone on 10 May 1959. In 2001, it was reported that the grave was untended and surrounded by weeds. However, in 2004 the grave was tidied and a life size bronze sculpture of McNish's beloved cat, Mrs Chippy, was placed on his grave by NZAC, having been paid for by public subscription. His grandson, Tom, believes this tribute would have meant more to him than receiving the Polar Medal.\n\nIn 1958, the British Antarctic Survey named a small island in his honour, McNeish Island, which lies in the approaches to King Haakon Bay, South Georgia. The island was renamed McNish Island in 1998 after his birth certificate was presented to the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee.\n\nOn 18 October 2006, a small oval wall plaque commemorating his achievements was unveiled at the Port Glasgow Library in his home town, and earlier in the same year he was the subject of an exhibition at the McLean Museum, Greenock. His journals are held in the Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington, New Zealand.", "revid": "1159942679", "description": "Scottish ships' carpenter (1874–1930)", "categories": ["1874 births", "1930 deaths", "British Merchant Navy personnel", "Burials at Karori Cemetery", "Explorers of Antarctica", "Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition", "People from Port Glasgow", "Scottish emigrants to New Zealand", "Scottish explorers", "Scottish sailors"]}
{"id": "11924059", "url": null, "title": "SMS Kaiser Friedrich III", "text": "SMS Kaiser Friedrich III (\"His Majesty's Ship Emperor Frederick III\") was the lead ship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class of pre-dreadnought battleships. She was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven in March 1895, launched in July 1896, and finished in October 1898. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 24-centimeter (9.4 in) guns in two twin gun turrets supported by a secondary battery of eighteen 15 cm (5.9 in) guns.\n\nSea trials and modifications lasted more than a year, and once she entered active service in October 1899, the ship became the flagship of Prince Heinrich in I Squadron of the German Heimatflotte (Home Fleet). I Squadron was primarily occupied with training exercises throughout each year, and also made numerous trips to other European countries, particularly Great Britain and Sweden–Norway. In 1901, the ship was severely damaged after striking submerged rocks in the Baltic Sea; the incident contributed to design changes in later German battleships to make them more resistant to underwater damage.\n\nKaiser Friedrich III was extensively modernized in 1908; her secondary guns were reorganized and her superstructure was cut down to reduce top-heaviness. After returning to service in 1910, Kaiser Friedrich III was placed in the Reserve Formation; she spent the next two years laid up, being activated only for the annual fleet maneuvers. The years 1913 and 1914 passed without any active service until the outbreak of World War I in July 1914. Though obsolete, Kaiser Friedrich III and her sister ships served in a limited capacity as coastal defense ships in V Battle Squadron in the early months of the war, tasked with defending Germany's North Sea coastline. The ships conducted two operations in the Baltic but did not encounter any hostile warships. By February 1915, Kaiser Friedrich was withdrawn from service and eventually decommissioned in November, thereafter being employed as a prison ship and later as a barracks ship. She was scrapped in 1920.\n\n## Design\n\nAfter the Imperial German Navy ordered the four Brandenburg-class battleships in 1889, a combination of budgetary constraints, opposition in the Reichstag (Imperial Diet), and a lack of a coherent fleet plan delayed the acquisition of further battleships. The former Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt (Imperial Navy Office), Leo von Caprivi, became the Chancellor of Germany in 1890, and Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral) Friedrich von Hollmann became Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt. Hollmann requested a new battleship in 1892 to replace the ironclad turret-ship Preussen, built twenty years earlier, but the Franco-Russian Alliance, signed the year before, put the government's attention on expanding the Army's budget. Parliamentary opposition forced Hollmann to delay until the following year, when Caprivi spoke in favor of the project, noting that Russia's recent naval expansion threatened Germany's Baltic Sea coastline. In late 1893, Hollmann presented the Navy's estimates for the 1894–1895 budget year, again with a request for a replacement for Preussen, which was approved. The new ship abandoned the six-gun arrangement of the Brandenburgs for four large-caliber pieces, the standard arrangement of other navies at the time.\n\nKaiser Friedrich III was 125.3 m (411 ft 1 in) long overall and had a beam of 20.4 m (66 ft 11 in) and a draft of 7.89 m (25 ft 11 in) forward and 8.25 m (27 ft 1 in) aft. She displaced 11,097 t (10,922 long tons) as designed and up to 11,785 t (11,599 long tons) at full load. The ship was powered by three 3-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines that drove three screw propellers. Steam was provided by four Marine-type and eight cylindrical boilers, all of which burned coal and were vented through a pair of tall funnels. Kaiser Friedrich III's powerplant was rated at 13,000 metric horsepower (12,820 ihp; 9,560 kW), which generated a top speed of 17.5 knots (32.4 km/h; 20.1 mph). She had a cruising radius of 3,420 nautical miles (6,330 km; 3,940 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The crew comprised between 658 and 687 officers and enlisted men.\n\nThe ship's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm (9.4 in) SK L/40 guns in twin gun turrets, one fore and one aft of the central superstructure. Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/40 guns carried in a mix of turrets and casemates. Close-range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twelve 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/30 quick-firing guns, all mounted in casemates. She also carried twelve 3.7 cm (1.5 in) machine cannon; these were later removed. There were six 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, all in above-water swivel mounts. The ship's belt armor was 150 to 300 mm (5.9 to 11.8 in) thick, and the main armor deck was 65 mm (2.6 in) thick. The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm (9.8 in) of armor plating, and the secondary casemates received 150 mm (5.9 in) of armor protection.\n\n## Service history\n\n### Construction to 1900\n\nKaiser Friedrich III's keel was laid on 5 March 1895 at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Wilhelmshaven, under construction number 22. Kaiser Wilhelm II, the son of the ship's namesake, hammered the first rivet into the keel. She was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Preussen, to replace the elderly armored frigate Preussen. Kaiser Friedrich III was launched on 1 July 1896 and Wilhelm II was present again, this time to give the launching speech. The ship was commissioned on 7 October 1898 and began sea trials in the Baltic Sea. Of major concern was how the three-shaft arrangement would perform on a ship the size of Kaiser Friedrich III; the preceding Brandenburg class had used two shafts. After the trials were completed in mid-February 1899, Kaiser Friedrich returned to Wilhelmshaven and was decommissioned so defects identified during the trials could be remedied. The work lasted longer than originally planned, her main battery guns had not yet been delivered, and the ship remained out of service for much of the year.\n\nUpon recommissioning on 21 October, Kaiser Friedrich III was assigned to II Division of I Squadron of the Heimatflotte (Home Fleet), which was commanded by Vizeadmiral Paul Hoffmann. She took the place of the ironclad Baden, which had been decommissioned the previous day. Kaiser Friedrich III became the flagship of II Division, commanded by Konteradmiral (Rear Admiral) Wilhelm Büchsel. Before she could join her division, Kaiser Friedrich III and the aviso Hela were sent to escort the Kaiser's yacht Hohenzollern on a trip to Britain for the Kaiser to visit his grandmother, Queen Victoria. The ships left Germany on 17 November and stayed in Dover from 18 to 20 November, before proceeding to Portsmouth on the 20th, remaining there for three days. On their return they stopped in Vlissingen in the Netherlands, from 24 to 29 November, before continuing to Kiel, where they arrived on 1 December.\n\nKaiser Friedrich III finally assumed her role as II Division flagship on 24 January 1900, when Büchsel transferred his flag to the ship. On 2 April, I Squadron steamed to Danzig Bay, where they stayed for four days. The next month, they began a cruise into the North Sea on 7 May; during the trip, the ships made stops in Lerwick in Shetland from 12 to 15 May and Bergen, Norway, from 18 to 22 May. They arrived back in Kiel four days after leaving Bergen. In early July, the four Brandenburg-class battleships were sent to Asia to suppress the Boxer Uprising, prompting a reorganization of the Heimatflotte. Kaiser Friedrich III and Kaiser Wilhelm II were the only battleships available for the annual fleet maneuvers, which were conducted from 15 August to 15 September. They were joined by the armored frigates Sachsen and Württemberg and six Siegfried and Odin-class coastal defense ships. Throughout the maneuvers, Kaiser Friedrich III was assigned to the \"German\" force, which had to combat a hostile \"Yellow\" squadron. Thereafter, Büchsel became the deputy commander of I Squadron, but he remained aboard Kaiser Friedrich III only briefly before transferring his flag to the ironclad Württemberg. Konteradmiral Max von Fischel replaced him on 30 September, but Kaiser Friedrich III went into drydock for her annual overhaul shortly thereafter.\n\nOn 1 November, Vizeadmiral Prince Heinrich, who had replaced Hoffmann as I Squadron commander, raised his flag aboard Kaiser Friedrich III; the ship held the role as squadron flagship for the next three years, interrupted only during the annual fleet exercises conducted in August and September, when Admiral Hans von Koester, the Generalinspekteur der Marine (Inspector-General of the Navy), commanded the fleet from Kaiser Wilhelm II. Through November, the ships of the squadron were occupied with individual training. On 17 November 1900, Kaiser Friedrich III was steaming to Kiel after conducting training exercises. Kaiser Wilhelm II attempted to pass Kaiser Friedrich III, so the latter stopped and allowed the former to pass to port. However, the order to resume steaming was given too quickly, and the ship accidentally rammed Kaiser Wilhelm II. Kaiser Friedrich III suffered minor damage to her bow, while her sister was slightly damaged in the steering engine compartment. Repairs were completed within three days, without the need for either vessel to enter drydock. On 4 December, the ships began a winter training cruise, during which they stopped in Larvik, Norway, from 10 to 12 December. The squadron returned to Germany three days later.\n\n### 1901 grounding\n\nIn early 1901 the ships underwent maintenance. The repairs were completed by mid-March, and the members of the squadron reunited in Kiel. They then began a training cruise into the Baltic Sea, stopping in Danzig on 1 April. There, Koester informed Prince Heinrich about upcoming joint Army–Navy maneuvers. While returning to Kiel on the night of 1–2 April, Kaiser Friedrich III struck an uncharted rock off Kap Arkona, north of the Adlergrund, at around 01:27. The rock breached the starboard side of the hull and damaged four of the ship's watertight compartments, which filled with water and caused the ship to list to port. Eventually, some 1,200 t (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) of water entered the ship. The shock from the collision damaged the ship's boilers and started a fire in the coal bunkers, which spread to the starboard aft boiler room, forcing the crew to shut down the ship's engines. All the ship's ammunition magazines, engine rooms, and storage compartments had to be flooded to prevent the fire from spreading. Three men were seriously injured while fighting the fire, one of whom died of his injuries.\n\nThe crew were able to suppress the fire and contain the flooding. Kaiser Wilhelm II, which had also had a slight grounding (without damage), came alongside to take off the crew if it became necessary to abandon ship and, once the fires were controlled, attempted to take Kaiser Friedrich III under tow, but the cables snapped. By this time, the crew had raised steam in the remaining boilers, and the ship proceeded at 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph) to Kiel, which she reached on 3 April. There, the ship was thoroughly examined. The dockyard workers found that eight of the ship's boilers had been badly damaged, and many bulkheads had been bent from the pressure of the water. The keel was extensively damaged, with large holes torn in several places. All three of the ship's propellers were damaged as well. Temporary repairs were effected in Kiel, which included sealing the holes with cement and wood. On 23 April, this work was completed, and she left for Wilhelmshaven, where she was decommissioned for permanent repairs on 4 May.\n\nThe investigation found that the nearby lightship—which was used to navigate the channel at night—was 700 meters (2,300 ft) from its assigned location, and there were several uncharted rocks in the area of the accident. Therefore, the investigation concluded that the ship's command staff was not at fault in the accident. The investigators recommended design changes to the Deutschland-class battleships, then still being designed, namely the adoption of a torpedo bulkhead to improve resistance to underwater damage. The changes would not be incorporated in a German battleship until the subsequent Nassau-class dreadnought battleships, as their increased size allowed room for the bulkhead and associated watertight compartments.\n\nWhile Kaiser Friedrich III was decommissioned for repairs, her crew was transferred to her new sister Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. The work was completed by early November, and on the 11th, the ship was recommissioned. Both her crew and Prince Heinrich returned from Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. Divisional exercises followed through the rest of November, and on 2 December, I Squadron began another winter training cruise into the Kattegat and Skagerrak. From 7 to 12 December, the ships stopped in Oslo, Norway, where Oscar II visited Kaiser Friedrich III. The ships returned to Kiel on 15 December.\n\n### 1902–1903\n\nThe last ironclad left the squadron in February 1902, having been replaced by Kaiser Friedrich III's newly commissioned sister ship Kaiser Karl der Grosse. The squadron began a major training cruise on 25 April; that day, while the ships were passing through the Danish straits, there was a serious boiler accident aboard Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, forcing her to turn back for repairs. Kaiser Friedrich III and the rest of the squadron continued into the North Sea, toward Scotland. They passed through the Pentland Firth on 29 April before turning south toward Ireland. The ships stopped briefly in Lough Swilly on 1 May before proceeding to Bantry Bay, where they anchored off Berehaven five days later. There, Prince Heinrich visited his British uncle, Prince Arthur, and the ships were received by the British Channel Squadron. The German vessels then steamed to Dublin, and then the Isles of Scilly, where Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse rejoined the squadron. They returned to Dublin, where they were visited by Gerald Cadogan, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The ships began their return voyage to Germany on 24 May, and reached Kiel four days later.\n\nFor most of June, the ships of the squadron conducted individual training. Vizeadmiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the State Secretary of the Imperial Naval Office, brought the Reichstag budget committee to view I Squadron in an attempt to convince them of the value of continued naval expansion. Toward the end of the month, Kaiser Friedrich III departed for Britain with Prince Heinrich to represent Germany during the coronation of King Edward VII. The ceremony was delayed, however, and Kaiser Friedrich III returned to Kiel on 30 June. I Squadron began a training cruise to Norwegian waters on 8 July that ended on 20 July. During the annual gunnery training held after the ships' return to Kiel, Kaiser Friedrich III won the Kaiser's Schießpreis (Shooting Prize) for excellence in gunnery. On 17 August, the fleet assembled in Kiel for the annual training maneuvers. Assigned to the \"hostile\" force, Kaiser Friedrich III patrolled the Great Belt in the Baltic to prevent the \"German\" squadron from passing through. Kaiser Friedrich III and several other battleships then forced an entry into the mouth of the Elbe, where the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and Hamburg could be seized. The \"hostile\" flotilla accomplished these tasks within three days.\n\nStarting in November, I Squadron—less the Wittelsbach-class ships, which were still occupied with trials—conducted a number of short cruises, culminating in the annual winter cruise that began on 1 December. The ships steamed into the Kattegat and stopped in Frederikshavn, Denmark, before continuing to Bergen, where they stayed from 6 to 10 December. Kaiser Friedrich III and the rest of the squadron returned to Kiel, arriving two days later. On 2 April 1903, the squadron went to sea again, and began gunnery training two days later. These exercises continued for the rest of the month, interrupted only by heavy storms. A major training cruise followed the next month; on 10 May the ships departed the Elbe and made their way into the Atlantic. They cruised south to Spain, passing Ushant on 14 May and reaching the Iberian Peninsula five days later. There, they conducted a reconnaissance exercise off Pontevedra before anchoring in Vigo on 20 May. Prince Heinrich left Kaiser Friedrich III for a visit to Madrid. After he returned, the squadron departed Spain on 30 May. The ships passed through the Strait of Dover on 3 June and continued into the Kattegat. There, they rendezvoused with the torpedo boats of I Torpedobootsflotille (Torpedo Boat Flotilla)—commanded by Korvettenkapitän (Lieutenant Commander) Franz von Hipper—for a mock attack on the fortifications at Kiel.\n\nLater in June, the ships took part in additional gunnery training and were present at the Kiel Week sailing regatta. During Kiel Week, an American squadron that included the battleship USS Kearsarge and four cruisers visited. After Kiel Week, I Squadron, which had been strengthened with the new cruiser Arcona, and I Torpedobootsflotille went to sea for more tactical and gunnery exercises in the North Sea from 6 to 28 July. During the maneuvers, Kaiser Friedrich III collided with the torpedo boat G112. One man aboard G112 was killed in the accident, but the boat remained afloat and was towed to Wilhelmshaven. Kaiser Friedrich III sustained only minor damage. After the exercises, I Squadron stopped in Arendal from 24 to 27 July, while the smaller vessels went to Stavanger. The ships returned to Kiel on 28 July to prepare for the annual fleet maneuvers, which started on 15 August. Following the exercises, the Heimatflotte was reorganized as the Aktive Schlachtflotte (Active Battle Fleet), and Koester replaced Prince Heinrich as the fleet commander; he transferred his flag from Kaiser Friedrich III to Kaiser Wilhelm II.\n\n### 1904–1914\n\nIn 1904 Kaiser Friedrich III took part in a training cruise to Britain that included squadron exercises in the northern North Sea and along the Norwegian coast. During the cruise, the ship stopped in Plymouth, Vlissingen, Lerwick, and Molde. The annual autumn fleet maneuvers, conducted from 29 August to 15 September, passed uneventfully for Kaiser Friedrich III. On 1 October, she was transferred to II Squadron, where she served as the flagship. She had informally served in this role since 17 September, as the previous flagship, the coastal defense ship Hildebrand, had been decommissioned. Fischel, by now promoted to Vizeadmiral, raised his flag aboard the ship during her formal transfer to the squadron. The two squadrons of the fleet ended the year with the usual training cruise into the Baltic, which took place uneventfully. On 12 July 1905, the fleet began its annual summer cruise to northern waters; the ships stopped in Gothenburg from 20 to 24 July and Stockholm from 2 to 7 August. The trip ended two days later, and was followed by the autumn fleet maneuvers later that month. On 1 October, the position of deputy commander of I Squadron was recreated, and Kapitän zur See (Captain) Hugo von Pohl was assigned to the role and Kaiser Friedrich III became his flagship. In December the fleet took its usual training cruise in the Baltic.\n\nKaiser Friedrich III followed the same routine of training exercises through 1906. During gunnery training that year, the ship won the Schießpreis for a second time. The summer cruise went to Norway, including stops in Molde from 20 to 26 July and Bergen from 27 July to 2 August. That year, the autumn fleet maneuvers lasted only a week, from 7 to 15 September. After the maneuvers ended, Kaiser Wilhelm II replaced Kaiser Friedrich III as the deputy commander's flagship, though she remained in I Squadron. In December the fleet took its winter cruise into the North Sea instead of the Baltic. In 1907 the ship took part in three major training exercises: the first from 8 May to 7 June; the second from 13 July to 10 August; and the third, the annual fleet maneuvers, from 26 August to 14 September. Directly after the end of the fleet maneuvers, Kaiser Friedrich III was decommissioned in the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel, being replaced by her sister Kaiser Barbarossa. While decommissioned, the ship underwent an extensive modernization that lasted until 1909. Four of her 15 cm guns were removed, though two 8.8 cm guns were added. All twelve machine guns were removed, as was the ship's stern-mounted torpedo tube. The superstructure was also cut down to reduce the ship's tendency to roll excessively, and her funnels were lengthened.\n\nAfter completing the reconstruction, Kaiser Friedrich III was assigned to the Reserve Formation of the Baltic, spending most of the year out of service. She was reactivated for the annual fleet maneuvers in August and September 1910 with the Hochseeflotte (High Seas Fleet). The ship was recommissioned on 2 August and assigned to III Battle Squadron, serving as the flagship of Vizeadmiral Max Rollmann, who came aboard four days later. The squadron was disbanded after the maneuvers on 8 September, and Kaiser Friedrich III was decommissioned again on 15 September. The ship spent most of 1911 in reserve, being activated only for the annual fleet maneuvers. After recommissioning on 31 July, she briefly served as the flagship of the deputy commander of III Squadron, Konteradmiral Heinrich Saß. The ships initially trained individually before joining the rest of the fleet on 17 August. The maneuvers lasted until 11 September, after which Kaiser Friedrich III was decommissioned yet again. This was the last time the ship would be activated before the outbreak of World War I in July 1914. She and her sister ships were removed from the Reserve Formation in May 1912, having been replaced by the Wittelsbach-class vessels.\n\n### World War I\n\nAt the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Kaiser Friedrich III and her sisters were brought back to active service and mobilized as V Battle Squadron. Kaiser Friedrich III was commanded by Käpitan zur See Alfred Begas. V Squadron was tasked with providing coastal defense in the North Sea. The ships were deployed to the Baltic twice, from 19 to 26 September and 26 to 30 December 1914. For the first operation, the commander of naval forces in the Baltic, Prince Heinrich, initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau, but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan. Instead, V Squadron was to carry the landing force, but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September. Kaiser Friedrich III and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day, where the landing force disembarked. The ships then proceeded to the North Sea, where they resumed guard ship duties. For their second deployment to the Baltic, Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland to attack any Russian warships in the area. On 26 December 1914, the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie. Two days later, the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the flag, and was back in Kiel by 30 December, having failed to locate any Russian vessels.\n\nThe squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties, but was withdrawn from front-line service in February 1915. Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet, and the risk of operating older ships in wartime, necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser Friedrich III and her sisters. The ship had her crew reduced on 6 March in Kiel, where she was assigned as a harbor defense ship. The V Squadron staff came aboard the ship on 25 April, until Begas, by now promoted to Konteradmiral, left for Wörth. On 20 November, Kaiser Friedrich III was decommissioned for the last time. The ship was disarmed and used as a floating prison moored in Kiel after 1916. The guns from Kaiser Friedrich III and the rest of the ships of her class were emplaced in coastal batteries: eight guns on the mole outside Libau, and four each on the islands of Norderney and Sylt. The following year, the ship was moved to Flensburg, where she was used as a barracks; later that year she was again moved to Swinemünde. Kaiser Friedrich III was stricken from the navy list on 6 December 1919 and sold to a ship breaking firm based in Berlin. The ship was broken up at Kiel-Nordmole in 1920. Her bow ornament (bugzier) is on display at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden.", "revid": "1158095087", "description": "Battleship of the German Imperial Navy", "categories": ["1896 ships", "Kaiser Friedrich III-class battleships", "Ships built in Wilhelmshaven", "World War I battleships of Germany"]}
{"id": "22676889", "url": null, "title": "2005–06 Arsenal F.C. season", "text": "The 2005–06 season was Arsenal Football Club's 14th season in the Premier League and their 80th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. It was the final season in which home matches were played at the club's Highbury stadium after 93 years; Arsenal intended to move to its new 60,000 capacity Emirates Stadium in time for the following season. The club ended their Premier League campaign in fourth, having pipped local rivals Tottenham Hotspur to the position on the final day. Arsenal became the first London club to reach a UEFA Champions League final, though lost 2–1 to Barcelona in Paris. In the League Cup the club was eliminated in the semi-finals on aggregate score by Wigan Athletic and knocked out of the FA Cup, against Bolton Wanderers in the fourth round.\n\nBefore the season commenced midfielder Patrick Vieira was sold to Juventus; striker Thierry Henry assumed his club captaincy role. Alexander Hleb was purchased from Stuttgart for an undisclosed fee in July 2005; in the winter transfer window Arsenal signed midfielder Abou Diaby, and forwards Emmanuel Adebayor and Theo Walcott.\n\nArsenal lost to league champions Chelsea in the 2005 FA Community Shield at the Millennium Stadium. An indifferent start in the league saw Arsenal peak in second position after 13 matches, but a run of three consecutive defeats a month later had effectively ruled them out of title contention. On the final day, they beat Wigan Athletic 4–2 at Highbury; Tottenham Hotspur's defeat at West Ham United meant Arsenal secured fourth place. The team's performances in Europe were more striking; they eliminated Real Madrid, Juventus and Villarreal in the knockout stages. In the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final held at the Stade de France in Paris on 17 May 2006, goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was sent off for a professional foul on Barcelona's Samuel Eto'o. Although defender Sol Campbell gave Arsenal a first half lead from a set piece, the team conceded twice in the final 15 minutes to lose the match.\n\nTo mark the final season at Highbury, Arsenal held a valedictory campaign titled \"Highbury – The Final Salute\". The club staged several themed matchdays and a redcurrant home kit replaced the common red to honour the shirts worn in 1913.\n\n## Background\n\nArsenal began the preceding season as league champions; a win against Blackburn Rovers in August 2004 ensured they eclipsed Nottingham Forest's record of 42 league matches unbeaten. The run extended to six more matches, before losing 2–0 to Manchester United at Old Trafford on 24 October 2004. Poor form throughout November allowed league leaders Chelsea to extend the gap at the top; Wenger conceded retaining the title in April 2005, calling his opponents \"worthy champions ... they have been remarkably consistent.\" A run of twelve league matches unbeaten, culminating in a 7–0 home win against Everton helped Arsenal finish in second place. In spite of exiting the Champions League to Bayern Munich in the second round, the team won the 2005 FA Cup Final against Manchester United – winning 5–4 on penalties after a goalless draw.\n\n### Highbury – The Final Salute\n\nThe 2005–06 season marked Arsenal's final season at Highbury, their home since 1913. The club planned to move half a mile to the Emirates Stadium, considered \"vital to our future\" by Wenger, as it financially would help them to compete at the top level. To mark the valedictory campaign titled \"Highbury – The Final Salute\", the club staged many special activities on matchdays \"...to celebrate the many great players and moments that this fantastic stadium has witnessed.\" A redcurrant home kit was designed to honour the shirts worn in the club's first season at Highbury. It was adorned with gold lettering and accompanied by white shorts and redcurrant socks.\n\n### Transfers\n\nArsenal signed youth players Nicklas Bendtner, Vito Mannone and Armand Traoré in the summer transfer window. Belarusian Alexander Hleb joined the club for an undisclosed fee on 12 July 2005. Arsenal made four more additions during the season: goalkeeper Mart Poom, signed on a permanent deal, midfielder Abou Diaby, who reportedly turned down an offer to join Chelsea and forwards Emmanuel Adebayor and Theo Walcott.\n\nAfter the early departures of Jermaine Pennant and Stuart Taylor, club captain Patrick Vieira joined Italian side Juventus in a £13.7 million deal. Wenger did not intend to sign a replacement, saying \"I am not in a hurry. We have Gilberto, Flamini, and Fàbregas. Pires can play in there also so we have plenty of players.\" English midfielder David Bentley made his loan deal at Blackburn Rovers permanent in the January transfer window.\n\nIn\n\nOut\n\nLoans in\n\nLoans out\n\n## Pre-season\n\n## FA Community Shield\n\nAs winners of the FA Cup in the previous season, Arsenal contested the 2005 FA Community Shield against league champions Chelsea. Two goals scored by striker Didier Drogba in either half meant Arsenal lost the match. Wenger commented afterwards that Chelsea's gameplan made it difficult for the Arsenal defenders, and noted his opposition's strength was playing long balls. When asked if he was concerned by the performance, Wenger replied: \"Why should I worry? Did you see the game? You can worry for the Chelsea supporters.\"\n\n## Premier League\n\n### August–October\n\nArsenal began their final league season at Highbury against Newcastle United on 14 August 2005. In spite of having a man advantage after midfielder Jermaine Jenas was sent off for a challenge on Gilberto Silva, striker Thierry Henry scored from the penalty spot in the 81st minute. Robin van Persie added a second, four minutes from the end of the match. A fortunate goal from Drogba inflicted Arsenal's first defeat against Chelsea in the league for almost a decade. The team responded with a 4–1 victory against Fulham, whereby Henry and defender Pascal Cygan both scored twice. Arsenal lost away to Middlesbrough on 10 September 2005, in a performance derided by Wenger as being \"unacceptable\". A brace (two goals) from Sol Campbell against Everton was followed by a goalless draw against newly promoted West Ham United.\n\nAn own goal scored by Stephen Clemence gave Arsenal a 1–0 victory in the first week of October at home to Birmingham City. Despite being \"technically the better side\" away to West Bromwich Albion, Arsenal lost 2–1; Wenger after the match commented that the team \"played with great spirit but ... were punished for a lack of experience and maturity because we didn't take advantage of the chances we created.\" A penalty scored by Robert Pires was enough to secure three points against Manchester City. The midfielder wasted a second penalty in the second half, choosing to recreate a spot kick executed by Johan Cruyff and Jesper Olsen for Ajax. Having attempted to roll the ball towards onrushing Henry, Pires inadvertently flicked the ball twice, enabling referee Mike Riley to award a free-kick to Manchester City. Although both players were scrutinised by Chelsea manager José Mourinho, they were commended by Cryuff for showing a desire to try something different. The final league match of October ended in a 1–1 draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotpsur.\n\n### November–February\n\nA 3–1 win at home to Sunderland on 5 November 2005 meant Arsenal moved third in the league table. This was followed by a trip to the JJB Stadium; Arsenal beat Wigan Athletic 3–2 in a \"hugely entertaining game on a cold, frosty afternoon\". Henry scored his 100th goal at Highbury against Blackburn Rovers to extend a club unbeaten run of nine matches. Defeat at Bolton Wanderers in early December concerned Wenger, admitting the opponents showed the template required to beat his team. A further defeat against Newcastle United, where Gilberto Silva was sent off in the second half highlighted the \"physical absence\" of Vieira in midfield. In losing 2–0 to Chelsea a week after – their third successive defeat for the first time under Wenger, Arsenal lay in eighth position, 11 points behind Manchester United. An early morning kick-off away to Charlton Athletic ended in a 1–0 victory for Arsenal; José Antonio Reyes scored his second goal in the league. Four first-half goals against Portsmouth helped Arsenal to close the gap on second place by nine points. They ended the calendar year and began 2006 with goalless draws against Aston Villa and Manchester United respectively.\n\nArsenal recorded the biggest win of the league season, against Middlesbrough at Highbury. Henry scored a hat-trick in a 7–0 victory; the striker post-match deemed it was vital for the club to finish in the top four \"...for me, for the club and for the fans.\" They suffered two consecutive defeats: away to Everton and at home to West Ham United. In the latter match, Campbell was substituted at his request before the second half, having been at fault for Nigel Reo-Coker and Bobby Zamora's goals. He \"went missing\" after the match, subsequently returning to training five days later. Emmanuel Adebayor scored his first goal for Arsenal in a 2–0 win against Birmingham City on 4 February 2006. A stoppage time goal scored by Gilberto earned the team a point against Bolton Wanderers at Highbury; they went 1–0 down in the 12th minute after Kevin Nolan chipped the ball past goalkeeper Jens Lehmann. Arsenal conceded a late goal away to Liverpool on Valentine's Day – a result which left the club 10 points behind their opponents. Defeat against Blackburn Rovers meant they lost for the second consecutive game. Having collected just three wins out of a possible 14 away from home, Wenger admitted the form of the team remained \"a big worry\" given they needed to play five more.\n\n### March–May\n\nIn the first week of March, Arsenal beat Fulham 4–0 with a \"commanding performance\" from Henry, who scored two goals. The striker scored the winning goal against Liverpool in their next match, from a Steven Gerrard backpass. A polished performance against Charlton Athletic was followed by a five-goal win at home to Aston Villa on 1 April 2006. Arsenal lost 2–0 to Manchester United and dropped two points against relegation-threatened Portsmouth, meaning a fourth-place finish was in Tottenham Hotspur's favour.\n\nDennis Bergkamp scored his final goal for Arsenal against West Bromwich Albion in a 3–1 win; he came on as a substitute in the second half to set up Pires to score the winning goal, moments after Nigel Quashie had leveled the scoreline; fittingly the day was dedicated to him. Arsenal drew 1–1 at home to Tottenham Hotspur, with Wenger choosing to rest players in mind for the club's Champions League semi-final. A 3–0 win away at Sunderland was overshadowed by a tackle on Abou Diaby, ruling him out for the remainder of the season. Two late goals scored by Reyes against Manchester City moved Arsenal a point behind Tottenham Hotspur in fourth. In the final competitive match played at Highbury, Arsenal faced Wigan Athletic, needing to better their rivals result to guarantee Champions League qualification. Henry scored a hat-trick in a six-goal match, helping Arsenal end the season with 67 points from 38 matches. Tottenham Hotspur's defeat against West Ham United meant Arsenal finished fourth, a position Gilberto felt the club \"deserved\".\n\n### Match results\n\n### Classification\n\n#### Results summary\n\n#### Results by round\n\n## FA Cup\n\nArsenal entered the competition in the third round, receiving a bye as a Premier League club. Their opening match was a 2–1 home win against Cardiff City on 7 January 2006, with both goals scored by Pires. Arsenal faced Bolton Wanderers the following round; an understrength team lost 1–0 after Giannakopulos headed in the winning goal, six minutes from the end of the match.\n\n## Football League Cup\n\nArsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round, where they were drawn away to Sunderland. A 3–0 victory meant they progressed to the fourth round, where they beat First Division club Reading by an identical scoreline. Extra time and penalties was required in Arsenal's fifth round tie against Doncaster Rovers, after a 2–2 draw in 90 minutes. Two saves by goalkeeper Manuel Almunia helped Arsenal win 3–1 on penalties and reach the semi-finals of the competition for the first time since 1998. They faced Wigan Athletic, losing 1–0 in the first leg and in spite of winning the second leg 2–1 with a full strength team, Arsenal was eliminated on the away goals rule.\n\n## UEFA Champions League\n\n### Group stage\n\nArsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2005–06 season on virtue of finishing runners-up in the Premier League the preceding season. They were drawn in Group B, along with Swiss' Thun, Czech club Sparta Prague and Ajax of the Netherlands. In spite of Van Persie's dismissal against Thun in the opening group match, Arsenal won 2–1, courtesy of a late goal by substitute Bergkamp. A 2–1 win against Ajax was followed by a 2–0 victory against Sparta Prague; Henry scored both goals to surpass Ian Wright's all-time leading scorer record. A goal from Henry and two from Van Persie in the reverse fixture meant the club reached the knockout stages. A win at Thun on 22 November 2005 ensured Arsenal topped the group; they ended the group stages with a draw at Highbury against Ajax.\n\n### Knockout phase\n\n#### First knockout round\n\nThe club faced Real Madrid in the last 16 – the first encounter between both clubs in the competition. A solo goal by Henry at the Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in the first leg, inflicted the home team's first defeat in 18 Champions League matches. A disciplined display at home a fortnight after helped Arsenal to reach the quarter-finals and become the sole English representative left in the competition.\n\n#### Quarter-finals\n\nAt home to Juventus, Arsenal won 2–0 with goals from Fàbregas and Henry; the match was overshadowed by the return of former captain Vieira. A goalless draw at the Stadio delle Alpi meant the club progressed into the semi-finals against Villarreal.\n\n#### Semi-finals\n\nIn the club's final European match at Highbury, Touré scored a first-half goal to give Arsenal a 1–0 win. A late penalty save by goalkeeper Lehmann in the second leg helped Arsenal become the first London club to reach a Champions League final. The result, another goalless draw was Arsenal's tenth clean sheet in a row – a new competition record. Campbell, returning from injury praised the team performance in his post-match interview: \"It's brilliant for us. It's also great for the manager Arsène Wenger to get to the final in France – I'm sure he will get a great reception.\"\n\n#### Final\n\nIn the final against Barcelona at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis, Paris, Arsenal fielded a 4–5–1 formation, with Eboué replacing the injured Lauren, and Cole making a return at left-back for Flamini.\n\nLehmann was sent off in 18th minute for a professional foul on striker Samuel Eto'o. Wenger reacted by substituting Pires for goalkeeper Manuel Almunia, altering the formation. In spite of the disadvantage, Arsenal took the lead in the 37th minute, after Henry's free kick was headed in by Campbell. Henry missed a chance in the second half to give Arsenal a two-nil lead before Eto'o equalised with 14 minutes left. Substitute Henrik Larsson set up Juliano Belletti to score the winner for Barcelona. Wenger used his post-match press conference to criticise referee Terje Hauge for sending off Lehmann, a view later shared by club captain Henry and FIFA president Sepp Blatter.\n\n## Squad statistics\n\nArsenal used a total of 34 players during the 2005–06 season and there were 16 different goalscorers. There were also six squad members who did not make a first-team appearance in the campaign. The team played in a 4–4–2 formation for much of the season, though Wenger deployed a 4–5–1 formation in Europe – a five-man midfield with Ljungberg playing behind the main striker Henry. Fàbregas featured in 50 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign; Lehmann started in all 38 league matches.\n\nThe team scored a total of 96 goals in all competitions. The highest scorer was Henry, with 33 goals, followed by Van Persie and Pires who both scored 11 goals. Four Arsenal players were sent off during the season: Lehmann, Fàbregas, Van Persie and Gilberto.\n\nKey\n\nNo. = Squad number\n\nPos = Playing position\n\nNat. = Nationality\n\nApps = Appearances\n\nGK = Goalkeeper\n\nDF = Defender\n\nMF = Midfielder\n\nFW = Forward\n\n`= Yellow cards`\n\n`= Red cards`\n\nNumbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute. Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season. Players with names in italics and marked \\* were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with Arsenal.\n\nSource:\n\n## See also\n\n- 2005–06 in English football\n- List of Arsenal F.C. seasons", "revid": "1173318391", "description": "120th season in existence of Arsenal F.C.", "categories": ["2005–06 FA Premier League by team", "Arsenal F.C. seasons"]}
{"id": "10973779", "url": null, "title": "Brad Stevens", "text": "Bradley Kent Stevens (born October 22, 1976) is an American basketball executive and former coach who is currently the president of basketball operations for the Boston Celtics.\n\nBorn and raised in Zionsville, Indiana, Stevens starred on the Zionsville Community High School basketball team, setting four school records. After high school, he attended DePauw University, where he played basketball and earned a degree in economics. Stevens made the all-conference team multiple times and was a three-time Academic All-America nominee. He transitioned into coaching after quitting his job at Eli Lilly and Company, joining the basketball program at Butler University as a volunteer prior to the 2000–01 season. Stevens was promoted to a full-time assistant coach the following season. After five seasons in the role, he assumed the position of head coach on April 4, 2007, after Todd Lickliter left to coach the Iowa Hawkeyes. In his first year, Stevens led Butler to 30 wins, becoming the third-youngest head coach in NCAA Division I history to have a 30-win season.\n\nIn 2010, his third year as head coach, Stevens broke the NCAA record for most wins in a coach's first three years, exceeding the previous record by eight wins. In the NCAA tournament, Stevens coached Butler to the first Final Four in school history, while also becoming the second-youngest head coach to make an NCAA national championship game, losing 61–59 to Duke. With the following season's team also making the Final Four, Stevens became the youngest coach to go to two Final Fours. Stevens coached the Bulldogs in their second consecutive national championship game on April 4, 2011, where the team again lost, this time to the Connecticut Huskies. Stevens was regularly named a finalist for Horizon League Coach of the Year award, winning twice, and was also a nominee for both the Hugh Durham Award and Jim Phelan Award in every year of his college career.\n\nThis success garnered Stevens a job with the NBA's Boston Celtics in 2013, when Stevens signed a six-year, \\$22 million contract to become head coach. After undertaking a rebuild early in his career, Stevens led the Celtics to the NBA playoffs every year from 2014 to 2021, won a division championship, and appeared in the Eastern Conference finals in 2017, 2018, and 2020. He gained a reputation as one of the NBA's best coaches, with his motion offense and stingy defense earning plaudits from fans, peers, and players. Stevens was named the president of basketball operations of the Celtics in 2021 following the retirement of Danny Ainge.\n\n## Early life\n\nStevens grew up in Zionsville, Indiana, where he developed his love for basketball. Starting at age five, Stevens would watch taped basketball games \"before he went to afternoon kindergarten\". His father often drove him to Bloomington to watch Indiana Hoosiers games. \"It's hard not to be [in love with basketball] when you're a kid growing up in Indiana\", Stevens later said.\n\nFor his eighth birthday, Stevens received a new basketball hoop. \"It's so much fun to dream in your driveway,\" he later remarked. \"That's where my friends and I hung out. It was a lot of fun to grow up in that era.\" When a friend, Brandon Monk, had a basketball court installed in his back yard, Stevens \"appeared instantaneously\". He was so dedicated to the game that he would bring the unprepared ingredients for grilled cheese sandwiches to Monk's house so that he would not waste time waiting for the sandwiches to cook.\n\nMonk's court soon became a gathering place, where kids from Zionsville and the surrounding areas would hold pickup games. These games helped develop Stevens's competitive streak. Besides playing basketball, the young Stevens also enjoyed solving puzzles, a skill he later applied to analyzing opposing teams to find their weaknesses.\n\nStevens attended Zionsville Community High School, where he became a star basketball player. Stevens wore No. 31 in high school in honor of Indiana Pacers guard Reggie Miller. During his freshman year, Stevens got up early to practice shooting at a local gym before school. The hard work paid off as Stevens made the varsity team that year. By the time his high school career was complete, Stevens had set school records for career scoring, assists, steals, and three-point field goals. As of 2017, he still holds the records for career points per game average (26.8), total career points (1,508), assists (444), and steals (156), as well as the single-season points record (644 in 1995). Stevens was named to the all-conference team three times. In 1995, Stevens was the sectional MVP and the leading scorer in state sectional play (32.3 ppg).\n\nStevens made the academic all-state first team and received the Straight A Gold Medal Award all four years. He was a member of the National Honor Society, graduating seventh in his class of 165. Stevens also earned three letters in basketball, three in track, and one in baseball during his days at Zionsville. During summers, he traveled the country playing AAU basketball.\n\nStevens was recruited to play Division III basketball at NCAC powerhouse DePauw University, where he played in all 101 DePauw games, earning four varsity letters. Stevens earned multiple all-conference and academic all-conference awards, and was a three-time Academic All-America nominee. He was a team captain his senior year, and averaged more than eight points per game three of his four years. Stevens' career highs were 24 points and eight rebounds in a game. After his senior year, Stevens received the Coaches' Award. Coach Bill Fenlon later described Stevens as \"one of the most selfless, team-oriented person  [sic] I've ever been around.\"\n\nAt DePauw, Stevens was a member of the Management Fellows Honors Program and the DePauw Community Services' Sports Night executive board. He was also a brother of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. During summer vacations, Stevens spent time teaching at Butler basketball camps. He was named to the Dean's list and graduated in 1999 with a degree in economics.\n\n## College coaching career\n\nIn the summer of 2000, Stevens was offered the opportunity to volunteer in the Butler basketball office. He ran the idea of quitting his job at Eli Lilly by then-longtime girlfriend (and now wife) Tracy Wilhelmy. She thought about it for two hours before telling him to go for it. \"Now, it looks like a great idea,\" Stevens later remarked. \"At the time, I thought it was something I really wanted to try.\" Tracy began law school to get a J.D. degree that could support the couple if things did not work out for Stevens. \"We were 23 and realized this was our chance,\" Tracy later said. \"Five years down the road, we were probably not going to be in a position to do that. The more success you had at Lilly, the harder it would be to leave.\"\n\nStevens planned to live in a friend's basement and took a job at Applebee's to pay the bills. Before he started training at Applebee's, Stevens was offered a low-paying administrative position as coordinator of basketball operations under then-coach Thad Matta. The position had opened up when assistant coach Jamal Meeks resigned after being arrested on solicitation and drug charges, of which he was later acquitted. Years later, Matta recalled, \"[Stevens] was just a hungry young kid that was desperate to get into coaching. He had a great passion and was willing to take a risk to get into the coaching profession.\"\n\nAfter Matta left the school following the 2000–01 season, new head coach Todd Lickliter promoted Stevens to a full-time assistant coach. Under Lickliter, Stevens was active in every aspect of the game: skills instruction, game preparation, in-game coaching, and recruiting. Butler was 131–61 during Stevens' time as an assistant coach.\n\n### Named head coach\n\nOn April 2, 2007, Lickliter resigned in order to take the head-coaching position at the University of Iowa. The Butler players had a meeting with athletic director Barry Collier, urging him to promote from within. Collier, having spent the entire season observing the assistant coaches' interaction with the team, agreed. The day after Lickliter resigned Stevens and Butler's two other assistant coaches interviewed for the job. Within 24 hours of the interviews the 30-year-old Stevens was named Butler's new head coach. According to Collier, Stevens had something older, outside candidates could never match: six years of experience learning the Butler system, dubbed \"The Butler Way\" by Collier. \"Age wasn't a factor because I'd seen his ability shine through during the course of the season,\" Collier said.\n\n### 2007–08 season\n\nAt the start of the 2007–08 season, Stevens was the second-youngest coach in Division I basketball. He got off to a fast start, winning his first eight games before falling to Wright State 43–42. Legendary coach Bob Knight, whose Texas Tech team was an early victim, said \"I wish we played as smart as they do.\" Virginia Tech coach Seth Greenberg added \"they've got toughness about them and they expect to win.\"\n\nMidway through Stevens' first season, with the Bulldogs at 12–1, The New York Times wrote \"so far, Stevens has made the transition [to head coach] look easy.\" The Times went on to state that Stevens had the calm and composure of a seasoned veteran. \"You've got a lot of people always looking for the next step. And that's not what I was doing. I was just trying to figure out a way to win the next game and think like a head coach.\" Stevens said.\n\nButler ended the regular season with a 27–3 record, taking first place in the Horizon League with a 16–2 in conference mark. The team beat Illinois–Chicago 66–50 and Cleveland State 70–55 to claim the league's tournament title and an automatic bid to the 2008 NCAA tournament. Butler was awarded the seven seed in the East Regional. They beat tenth-seeded South Alabama 81–61 in the first round, before falling to second-seeded Tennessee 76–71 in overtime.\n\nStevens ended up with a school and Horizon league record 30 wins, beating several big-name schools—Michigan, Texas Tech, Florida State, Ohio State—along the way. In so doing, he became the third-youngest head coach in NCAA Division I history to lead a team to 30 wins in a season, and became the fourth-winningest first-year coach. Butler was nationally ranked for a school and league record 19 consecutive weeks. Butler's 30–4 record was the best among teams that did not reach the Final Four. Stevens was a finalist for the Hugh Durham Award, losing to Keno Davis of Drake, and a finalist for the Jim Phelan National Coach of the Year Award, losing to Bo Ryan.\n\nAt the conclusion of the season, Butler signed Stevens to a seven-year contract. \"We are extremely excited to reach this long-term agreement to have Brad continue to lead our program,\" Collier remarked.\n\n### 2008–09 season\n\nButler lost four starters after the 2007–08 season, and was picked to finish fifth in the Horizon league during the 2008–09 season. The team got off to a 12–1 start that won Stevens the Hugh Durham mid-season coaching award. On February 5, Stevens notched his 50th win as Butler beat Detroit 66–61. In so doing, Stevens became the sixth head coach in NCAA history to reach 50 wins in 56 games or fewer. Butler finished first in the Horizon League with a 15–3 in conference record, defying preseason expectations. Butler lost the Horizon League tournament final 57–54 to Cleveland State, but made the NCAA tournament as an at-large selection. The team received the nine seed in the South Regional, and lost to eighth-seeded Louisiana State in the first round by a score of 75–71 to finish the year at 26–6 overall.\n\nStevens' 56–10 two-year record places him second only to Bill Guthridge (58) in total wins during one's first two years as head coach. Stevens was a finalist for both the Hugh Durham and Jim Phelan Awards for the second straight year and was named the Horizon League Coach of the Year. He was also named as a finalist for the Henry Iba Coach of the Year Award. Stevens was given a one-year contract extension at the conclusion of the season.\n\n### 2009–10 season\n\nFueled in large part by Gordon Hayward's and Shelvin Mack's roles in leading Team USA to the gold medal in the FIBA Under-19 World Championship during the off-season, Butler began the season ranked 10th in the Coaches' Poll and 11th in the AP Poll. A few commentators picked the Bulldogs as a possible \"sleeper team\" to make the Final Four. Stevens was not so sure, privately telling his father, \"We have a really good team, and I'm not sure how far we can go this year, but next year, we ought to go really far.\"\n\nButler got off to a mediocre start, losing twice in the 76 Classic 82–73 to 22nd-ranked Minnesota and to 19th-ranked Clemson 70–69. After the tournament Butler's record stood at 4–2 and the team dropped to \\#23 in the AP Poll and \\#20 in the Coaches' Poll. Butler won its next two games before falling to 13th-ranked Georgetown 72–65 in the Jimmy V Classic. The team won its next two games beating \\#15 Ohio State 74–66 and edging out former conference rival Xavier 69–68, both at home. After losing 67–57 at UAB three days later, Butler stood at 9–4 and fell out of the AP rankings. However, the team remained in the Coaches' Poll at \\#23.\n\nStevens rallied the team, and they proceeded to win 16 straight games before facing Siena in a BracketBusters game. Butler beat Siena 70–53 and Stevens tied the NCAA record for most wins (81) by a head coach in his first three seasons set by Mark Few of Gonzaga in 2002 and tied by Mark Fox of Nevada in 2007.\n\nOn February 26, 2010, Butler traveled to Valparaiso for their regular-season finale. Leading scorer Gordon Hayward was sidelined with lower back pain, but the team still won 74–69. In so doing, Stevens broke the coaching record he had tied the prior week and Butler completed an 18–0 undefeated conference schedule. It was Butler's first undefeated conference record since joining the Horizon League, and first since Joe Sexson led the 1978 team to a 6–0 record in the now-defunct Indiana Collegiate Conference. Stevens earned his third straight regular-season conference championship.\n\nIn the Horizon league tournament, Stevens' Bulldogs used their home-court advantage to beat Milwaukee 68–59 in the semi-finals and to beat Wright State 70–45 in the finals. The win earned the team an automatic bid into the 2010 NCAA tournament, and completed a 20–0 run through league play. Stevens became the first coach to lead a Horizon League team to both an undefeated regular season and conference tournament since the league was formed in 1979. Stevens was also the only coach in Division I to lead his team to an undefeated conference schedule during the 2009–10 season.\n\n#### NCAA tournament\n\nFor their season, the Bulldogs were ranked 8th in the final pre-NCAA tournament Coaches' Poll and 11th in the corresponding AP Poll. On Selection Sunday, the Bulldogs were seeded fifth in the West regional of the NCAA tournament and given a first-round match-up with twelfth-seeded UTEP on March 18.\n\nMany basketball commentators picked UTEP to pull the upset, and at halftime it looked like they might be right, as UTEP led 33–27. Stevens made a number of halftime adjustments, and the Bulldogs came out firing on all cylinders in the second half. The team dominated the second half and won the game 77–59. Butler next faced off with 13th-seeded Murray State. The game was close throughout, but Butler emerged victorious 54–52 when Hayward deflected a Murray State pass into the back court with less than five seconds on the clock. The win gave Stevens the first Sweet Sixteen appearance of his career.\n\nOn March 25, 2010, Butler faced top-seeded Syracuse. The Bulldogs got off to a good start, jumping out to a 12–1 lead and a 35–25 halftime advantage. Syracuse rallied in the second half, taking its first lead of the game, 40–39, off a Wes Johnson three-pointer. Stevens called timeout and Butler regained the lead on its next possession, stopping the run. At the 5:32 mark, Syracuse got a rare fast-break opportunity that ended with a dunk and 54–50 lead. Stevens again called time out and re-focused the team. Butler responded by holding Syracuse scoreless for the next five minutes, taking a 60–54 lead with 0:59 to go. Butler held on to win 63–59, advancing to the Elite Eight for the first time in school history.\n\nTwo days later, Stevens' Bulldogs met second-seeded Kansas State in the regional finals. Perhaps feeling the effects of their 101–96 double-overtime win two days prior, Kansas State got off to a slow start, scoring just 20 points in the first half to trail 27–20. Butler kept the lead in the upper single digits for most of the second half, before Kansas State went on a 13–2 run and took a 52–51 lead. Stevens immediately called time out and re-focused the team. \"Play your game. Just play your game,\" he told them. On the ensuing possession, Butler regained the lead for good. They outscored Kansas State 12–4 the rest of the way and won the game 63–56. In the post-game celebration, Stevens and walk-on forward Emerson Kampen connected on a flying back-bump that became one of the iconic images of the tournament.\n\nThe win earned the Bulldogs a trip to Indianapolis for the first Final Four appearance in school and Horizon League history. The win made Stevens, at age 33, the youngest coach to lead a team to the Final Four since Bob Knight made his first Final Four appearance at age 32 in 1973. Butler became the smallest school (enrollment 4,200) to make the Final Four since seeding began in 1979.\n\n##### Final Four\n\nOn April 3, Stevens and the Butler Bulldogs faced off with Michigan State in the national semi-finals. Michigan State took an early 14–7 lead, and Matt Howard got in early foul trouble, sitting most of the first half. Stevens kept the team focused with a \"next man up\" attitude and the game was tied at 28 at halftime. The second half was dominated by tight defense for both sides. With 2:45 to go in the game, the score was 47–44 Butler. Michigan State called a time out to set up a play. Stevens correctly anticipated the play call and had Ronald Nored, the team's best defender, switch onto Korie Lucious off a screen. Nored stole the ball and Shawn Vanzant got fouled on the resulting run out, hitting 1 of 2. Trailing 50–49 with under 30 seconds remaining, Michigan State came up empty and was forced to foul. Nored hit both foul shots, giving Butler a 52–49 lead. After a Michigan State time-out, Stevens had his team foul Lucious with two seconds remaining to prevent a potentially game tying 3-pointer. After making the first, Lucious intentionally missed the second free throw. Hayward came down with the rebound to seal the victory. Butler became the first team since the shot clock was adopted for the 1985–86 season to hold five straight tournament opponents under 60 points.\n\nOn April 5, 2010, Butler and Duke faced off in what The New York Times called \"the most eagerly awaited championship game in years\". Late in the first half, Duke went on an 8–0 run to take a 26–20 lead. Stevens called a timeout. With starters Matt Howard and Ronald Nored on the bench in foul trouble, Stevens was forced to call on backup center Avery Jukes who came up big for Butler. Jukes scored 10 first half points, tying his season high. At half time, Duke's lead stood at 33–32.\n\nThe second half was played very closely, with neither team taking a substantial lead. With 3:16 to play, Duke took a 60–55 lead on two made free throws by Nolan Smith. Butler cut the lead to one point in the final minute and, after a missed Kyle Singler jump shot with 36 seconds remaining, got a chance to retake the lead. Butler was unable to initiate their offense and Stevens called a timeout to set up a play. A failed inbounds attempt and a timeout later, Hayward missed a baseline fade-away jumper and Brian Zoubek came down with the rebound for Duke. He was quickly fouled with less than four seconds remaining. Hayward narrowly missed a desperation half-court shot as time expired, making the final margin 61–59.\n\nThe loss snapped Butler's 25-game winning streak, the longest in school history. Butler became the smallest school to play for a National Championship since Jacksonville in 1970. Stevens became the second-youngest head coach to coach in the NCAA National Championship Game, behind Branch McCracken who led the Indiana Hoosiers to the 1940 national championship at age 31. Stevens was named as both a Hugh Durham and Jim Phelan Award finalist for the third consecutive year, losing to Mike Young and Jamie Dixon, respectively. He was also a finalist for the Skip Prosser Man of the Year Award, which was won by Bob Marlin.\n\nButler finished the year ranked \\#2 in the Coaches' Poll, the highest ranking in school history. The school was ranked for 19 consecutive weeks, tying the school record.\n\n### 2010 off-season\n\nAfter the end of the 2009–10 season, Stevens and Butler continued to attract considerable attention. Then-U.S. president Barack Obama personally called Stevens to congratulate him on Butler's season. David Letterman had Stevens on his show for a guest appearance. Butler admissions inquiries increased by 67%. Stevens received fan letters from around the world, and his phone rang off the hook. Stevens was even invited to throw the ceremonial first pitch before the Chicago Cubs versus Florida Marlins game in Chicago on May 10. \"It's all been very surreal,\" Stevens said. \"If you are the runner-up, you don't expect to talk to the president.\" \"It's been a little overwhelming, because I'm a pretty simple guy,\" he added.\n\nThe 2009–10 season also helped increase Butler's recruiting profile. Asked if the increased fame would change things, Stevens said it better not spoil him or the university. \"I look at this new challenge of not changing and sticking to your core values and making sure you remain humble as a great coaching opportunity.\"\n\n### 2010–11 season\n\nRankings by ESPN's Andy Katz and Fox Sports' Jeff Goodman released shortly after the 2010 championship game both had Butler third for the 2010–11 season. Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski agreed, saying Butler would be\"right up there, No. 1 or No. 2... They'll be a favorite next year.\" However, Hayward chose to leave early for the NBA draft and Butler went through a rough patch early in the season, at one point losing three straight games and having a 6–5 conference record. Bolstered by the emergence of Andrew Smith at center and Matt Howard's success as a perimeter forward, Butler ended up winning a share of the conference title at 13–5. The Bulldogs then won the Horizon League tournament to secure an automatic NCAA tournament bid, and received the No. 8 seed.\n\nPicked by many to lose a first-round match-up against Old Dominion, Butler advanced on a last-second tip-in by Howard. Howard was also clutch in their next game, hitting a free throw with a less than one second remaining to beat Pitt in a dramatic finish. Shelvin Mack scored 30 points in the win. Butler won their next game when they defeated Wisconsin. On March 26, 2011, the Bulldogs beat Florida 74–71 in overtime to earn back-to-back trips to the Final Four. On April 2, Butler beat fellow Cinderella team VCU 70–62 to make it to a second consecutive national championship game. For the second consecutive year, the Bulldogs fell in the national championship game, this time to Connecticut.\n\n### Coaching future\n\nOn April 8, 2010, Stevens signed a long-term deal with Butler, extending his contract through the 2021–22 season. Financial terms of the contract were not disclosed; however, Butler president Bobby Fong had publicly stated that the university could afford to increase Stevens' base salary to approximately US \\$1 million a few days prior. Stevens had previously made US\\$395,000 plus benefits in base salary, a relatively low figure for a successful Division I head basketball coach. His total compensation for 2009–10 was estimated at US\\$750,000. Stevens had received a raise after each of his three seasons at Butler and his contract contains a buyout clause estimated in the high-six or low-seven figures.\n\n> What Butler is, Butler is a great school. We're in a great city. We have a niche from the standpoint of basketball with a good tradition of basketball and a fieldhouse that really embraces the history of the game. So we're very unique. I think being unique is a good thing, too. I think Butler, certainly you always want to improve the facilities you have. We need to do that. There's no question about that. But we also need to remember who we are. I think that's why we're here, because we've got unselfish guys. They have a great passion for history, tradition, team, things like that. So we've been able to recruit to that.\n\nBy re-signing with Butler, Stevens temporarily ended speculation that he would leave the university for a higher paying job. Oregon, Clemson, and Wake Forest were all said to be interested in offering Stevens multi-million-dollar contracts to leave Butler. \"First and foremost, I'm loyal to Butler,\" Stevens said. When asked if he would ever leave Butler, Stevens replied \"I guess if they kicked me out.\"\n\nAfter the 2011–12 season, Stevens was pursued vigorously by Illinois to fill their coaching vacancy before he declined their offer.\n\nIn March 2013, UCLA reportedly offered Stevens between \\$2.5 and \\$3 million a year to leave Butler. Rumors circulated that Stevens was in contract negotiations with UCLA, but ultimately the rumors proved false and Stevens stayed at Butler. Commenting on the situation, a source close to Stevens said \"Brad doesn't understand why people would assume he's leaving.\" A few days later, Stevens reiterated that he was very happy at Butler and had no intentions to leave as long as he had the support of the university to continue running the program the \"right way\".\n\n## NBA coaching career\n\n### Boston Celtics\n\nOn July 3, 2013, Stevens was signed as the head coach for the Boston Celtics to coach in the NBA. In April 2015, in his second season as head coach, Stevens led the Celtics to the 2015 playoffs as the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference with a 40–42 record. On April 21, 2015, it was announced that Stevens finished fourth in voting for the NBA's Coach of the Year Award. In April 2016, Stevens led the Celtics to their second consecutive playoff appearance as the fifth seed in the 2016 playoffs, finishing the season with a 48–34 record.\n\nStevens was named the Eastern Conference Coach of the Month for April 2015. He led the Celtics to the East's best record in April at 7–1. The Celtics recorded a 4–0 mark on the road, and closed the month with six consecutive victories—five of them against playoff teams. On February 28, 2016, Stevens was named the Eastern Conference Coach of the Month for February. He guided his squad to an Eastern Conference-best 9–3 record during the month, including a perfect 6–0 mark at home. The Celtics (36–25 overall) finished the month in sole possession of third place in the East behind the Cleveland Cavaliers and Atlantic Division foe the Toronto Raptors.\n\nOn June 1, 2016, Stevens received a contract extension. On February 3, 2017, Stevens was named the Eastern Conference head coach for the 2017 NBA All-Star Game. In April 2017, in his fourth season as head coach, Stevens led the Celtics to the 2017 playoffs as the first seed in the Eastern Conference with a 53–29 record. They reached the Eastern Conference finals, where they lost to the defending champion Cleveland Cavaliers in five games.\n\nOn July 4, 2017, Stevens was reunited with his former college player Gordon Hayward when Hayward signed a contract to play for the Celtics. In the 2017–18 season, the Celtics' roster saw a massive change, as two-time All-Star Isaiah Thomas was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for Kyrie Irving. Stevens and the Celtics went 55–27, finishing the season as the second seed in the Eastern Conference, despite losing Hayward for the season to a broken ankle in the first game of the season and Irving missing significant playing time due to knee injuries. Despite Irving missing the playoffs, Stevens led the Celtics on a deep playoff run, losing to the Cleveland Cavaliers in seven games in the Eastern Conference finals. Stevens was considered a front-runner for the NBA Coach of the Year Award, but lost to Dwane Casey of the Toronto Raptors.\n\n## Executive career\n\nOn June 2, 2021, the Celtics named Stevens president of basketball operations, replacing Danny Ainge, who announced his retirement. On June 18, 2021, Stevens made his first transaction in his new position trading away Kemba Walker, the 16th pick in the 2021 NBA draft, and a 2025 second-round pick in exchange for Al Horford, Moses Brown, and a 2023 second-round pick. The deal gave the Celtics a bit more financial flexibility with Horford due about \\$20 million less than Walker over the next two years. The Celtics also improved their depth in the frontcourt by adding Horford and Moses Brown, who recorded 21 points and 23 rebounds, which included 19 rebounds in the first half, in a March 27 game between the Celtics and the Thunder. On June 23, 2021, it was reported that Stevens had made the decision to hire Ime Udoka as his own replacement as head coach of the Celtics. The Celtics advanced to the 2022 NBA Finals in Udoka's first year as coach and Stevens' first year as executive, but lost to the Golden State Warriors in six games. On February 16, 2023, Stevens replaced Udoka with Joe Mazzulla after the former was suspended for a year following an incident in the offseason pertaining to an improper intimate relationship with a female Celtics staff member.\n\n## Coaching style\n\nAccording to Stevens, in one of his first games as head coach, he was nervous and \"felt like our team played on edge\" because of it. Stevens decided that a team's play will reflect its coach's mood; a calm coach means a team that will remain poised in difficult game situations, while a nervous coach means a team that plays on edge. \"I don't want to lose a game because of my approach,\" he told himself. Accordingly, Stevens developed a strategy of always remaining calm and focused during games. He rarely raises his voice or gets emotional, instead quietly observing on the sideline with folded arms. Stevens does not get upset about bad calls by referees or player mistakes, preferring to focus on \"the next play\" rather than what just happened. Butler player Willie Veasley explained Butler's 2010 Final Four run by saying, \"When those big runs [by Syracuse and Kansas State] came, Coach called a timeout and said a few calm words. Then he said he believes in us, he loves us and we're going to win the game.\" On the rare occasion Stevens feels the need to correct a player, he does it with \"positive reinforcement, just at a little louder decibel\", according to former assistant coach Matthew Graves. Above all, Stevens wants his players to be confident, not living in fear of being yanked for making a bad play.\n\nExternally, Stevens is always calm, but internally he is far from it. \"I'm not as calm as everybody thinks,\" Stevens says. His wife Tracy adds, \"He's calm and collected, but he's fiercely competitive. He's always thinking about how he can beat you.\" Former player Joel Cornette says \"Everyone sees Brad as a level-headed, calm and cool coach, but he's about as competitive of a guy as I know. We would get into it constantly, whether playing two-on-two or arguing about players' having better college careers.\"\n\nStevens spends a lot of time preparing for each game, and always tries to add a few new wrinkles specific to that game's opponent. Sports Illustrated calls him an expert \"on breaking down tape and looking at statistical trends to find opponents' weaknesses.\" Former player Ronald Nored agrees: \"We know everything we need to about our opponents, all their tendencies are broken down\" ahead of time.\n\nStevens is a proponent of statistical analysis to enhance his coaching decisions, spending almost as much time looking at statistics as watching game film. \"I think it's a unique way of looking at the game that may be able to help best communicate to your players\", Stevens explains. For example, when Butler was slumping in late 2010, Stevens challenged his team: \"this [46% defensive field goal percentage] is where we are. This isn't acceptable to get to where we want to go. But what does that really mean? It's not just get better defensively, it is, if we give up three less baskets a game, then we will be at 40 percent field goal percentage defense which will be top 20 in the country\". The team got the message, improved throughout the season, and ultimately went on a March run fueled by defense. In 2012, Stevens became the first college coach to hire someone solely for statistical research when he added Drew Cannon to the staff. If he had the resources, Stevens says he would hire a team of statisticians to analyze the team's play.\n\nStevens' teams are built around solid basketball fundamentals and good teamwork rather than individual basketball skill. His teams are known for their defense, forcing opponents into uncharacteristic mistakes. The secret to basketball—and life—is \"just to do the job to the best of your ability and don't worry about anything else,\" Stevens says. \"Win the next game. Win the next possession. That's our focus. It's boring. It's also the way championships are won\", he says. In short, Stevens is a strong believer in \"The Butler Way\"—doing all the little things that transform a group of good basketball players into a great basketball team. \"I tell the players 'the Butler Way' isn't easy to define,\" Stevens says, \"but you can see it on the floor when we share the basketball, play with great energy and defend.\"\n\nStevens prefers to recruit strong team players instead of going after \"top recruits.\" \"The guys we [have] recruited, most of them weren't very highly ranked,\" he says. \"They had very good high school careers or careers at other places (transfers), but for one reason or the other they weren't seen as great players. But they all had intangibles.\" Stevens puts a strong emphasis on education and has said he would only recruit a \"one and done\" player if he was committed to getting his degree while playing professionally.\n\nStevens has often been referred to as a coaching prodigy, but is not interested in self-promotion. He instead prefers to deflect the praise he receives to the players, athletic department, and his mentors. Stevens has not been known to posture for more money, or to leak his name for open coaching positions. He has been described as humble, modest, and not \"about the money\".\n\nThe New York Times, USA Today, ESPN, and other commentators attributed Butler's success against teams with superior athletes to Stevens' coaching style. The Times remarked, \"the Bulldogs are very well prepared for their opponents, and they do not rattle easily\", and says that the resulting confidence has led to the team's success. \"He coaches to his personality and to his strengths,\" Collier says. \"Obviously, he has great rapport and communication ability with his team.\" Yahoo! Sports compared Stevens to legendary coach John Wooden, writing \"Brad Stevens is winning at Butler the Wooden way—calm and composed on the sideline.\" Wooden agreed, saying, \"I enjoy watching [Stevens] and very much enjoy [Butler's] style of play.\"\n\nWith background at his short Eli Lilly stint, Stevens also gave a priority to mental health in his locker room. Stevens implemented wellness programs and invited Dr. Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, founding director of McLean Hospital's College Mental Health Program, to speak to his players.\n\n## Personal life\n\nStevens is known for projecting a professional, \"corporate\" look from the sidelines. Asked what his life would be like if he had never taken up coaching, Stevens replies \"If everything else remained the same, I would have been as happy as heck... Friends and family and faith, they're going to take the cake over all this stuff.\" Stevens met his wife, Tracy (née Wilhelmy), while attending DePauw University. Tracy, who played soccer for DePauw, quickly learned of Brad's love for basketball; on their third date he drove her an hour and a half to attend a high school basketball game. Tracy graduated from Rocky River High School in 1995, and from DePauw in 1999. She returned to school in 2000, driving five hours from Case Western's law school to Indianapolis on weekends to see Stevens. She finished her final year of law school in Indianapolis, and the couple married in August 2003. Tracy works as a labor and employment lawyer, and also serves as Stevens' agent. Stevens and his wife have two children.\n\nBrad and Tracy are involved with the American Cancer Society's Coaches Vs. Cancer. Stevens says that the cause really hit home for them after Tracy's mother died of the disease in June 2004. The day before Butler's 2010 Final Four appearance, they hosted a fundraiser for the organization. Stevens has also volunteered his time to the Jukes Foundation for Kids, a charity benefiting Ugandan children run by former Butler player Avery Jukes. Stevens remains in close contact with the Butler basketball family; he notably took a one-game leave from the Celtics in January 2016 to visit with Andrew Smith, a player on both of Butler's Final Four teams who was dying of cancer; Smith died less than a week later. At the request of Andrew's widow, Sam, Stevens delivered the eulogy at the memorial service on January 17, 2016.\n\nStevens' father, Mark, is an orthopedic surgeon in Indianapolis who played college football for Indiana. His mother, Jan, is a university professor who has previously taught at Butler.\n\n## Head coaching record\n\n### College\n\n### NBA\n\n\\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2013–14 \\| 82\\|\\|25\\|\\|57\\|\\|.305\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|4th in Atlantic\\|\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Missed Playoffs \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2014–15 \\| 82\\|\\|40\\|\\|42\\|\\|.488\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2nd in Atlantic \\|\\|\\|4\\|\\|0\\|\\|4\\|\\|.000 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in First round \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2015–16 \\| 82\\|\\|48\\|\\|34\\|\\|.585\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2nd in Atlantic\\|\\|\\|6\\|\\|2\\|\\|4\\|\\|.333 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in First round \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2016–17 \\| 82\\|\\|53\\|\\|29\\|\\|.646\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1st in Atlantic\\|\\|18\\|\\|9\\|\\|9\\|\\|.500 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in Conference finals \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2017–18 \\| 82\\|\\|55\\|\\|27\\|\\|.671\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2nd in Atlantic\\|\\|19\\|\\|11\\|\\|8\\|\\|.579 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in Conference finals \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2018–19 \\| 82\\|\\|49\\|\\|33\\|\\|.598\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|3rd in Atlantic\\|\\|9\\|\\|5\\|\\|4\\|\\|.556 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in Conference semifinals \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2019–20 \\| 72\\|\\|48\\|\\|24\\|\\|.667\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2nd in Atlantic\\|\\|17\\|\\|10\\|\\|7\\|\\|.588 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in Conference finals \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Boston \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|2020–21 \\| 72\\|\\|36\\|\\|36\\|\\|.500\\|\\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|4th in Atlantic\\|\\|5\\|\\|1\\|\\|4\\|\\|.200 \\| style=\"text-align:center;\"\\|Lost in First round \\|- class=\"sortbottom\" \\| style=\"text-align:center;\" colspan=\"2\"\\|Career \\| 636\\|\\|354\\|\\|282\\|\\|.557\\|\\| \\|\\|78\\|\\|38\\|\\|40\\|\\|.487\\|\\|\n\n### Awards and nominations\n\n- Henry Iba Coach of the Year Award finalist (2009)\n- Horizon League Coach of the Year (2009, 2010)\n- Hugh Durham Award for Mid-major Coach of the Year finalist (2008, 2009, 2010)\n- Hugh Durham Award Mid-season honors (2009)\n- Jim Phelan National Coach of the Year Award finalist (2008, 2009, 2010)\n- Skip Prosser Man of the Year Award finalist (2010)\n\n## See also\n\n- List of NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by coach", "revid": "1163696457", "description": "American basketball executive and former coach and player", "categories": ["1976 births", "American men's basketball coaches", "American men's basketball players", "Basketball coaches from Indiana", "Basketball players from Indianapolis", "Boston Celtics executives", "Boston Celtics head coaches", "Butler Bulldogs men's basketball coaches", "College men's basketball head coaches in the United States", "DePauw Tigers men's basketball players", "Eli Lilly and Company people", "Living people", "People from Zionsville, Indiana", "Point guards", "Sportspeople from the Indianapolis metropolitan area"]}
{"id": "31434034", "url": null, "title": "Hair (Lady Gaga song)", "text": "\"Hair\" is a song recorded by American singer Lady Gaga for her second studio album, Born This Way (2011). Written and produced by herself and Nadir \"RedOne\" Khayat, \"Hair\" was released worldwide digitally on May 16, 2011, as a promotional single from the album, as part of the iTunes Store's \"Countdown to Born This Way\" release. This was after the previous promotional release, \"The Edge of Glory\", was made the third single from the album.\n\nAccording to Lady Gaga, the melody of \"Hair\" resembles the work of metal bands Kiss and Iron Maiden, and is also influenced by Bruce Springsteen. The song is an uptempo club record inspired by Gaga's experience as a teenager, when her parents forced her to dress in a certain way. Gaga found that the only way to express herself was through her hair, and she described it as a song about liberation and her ability to change her ways. The lyrics talk about embracing one's hairstyle as their ultimate expression of freedom. \"Hair\" was recorded while Gaga was on tour with The Monster Ball throughout Europe. The song features a saxophone solo performed by saxophonist Clarence Clemons, a prominent member of The E Street Band. She personally wanted Clemons to play saxophone on the song, which he did by recording his part at a Manhattan studio at midnight, after he had just flown there from his home in Florida.\n\n\"Hair\" has been critically appreciated for its message of self-liberation, individualism and empowerment, though some felt that the usage of the term hair to express these messages was not particularly new. \"Hair\" charted in most musical markets, reaching the top-ten in New Zealand and Scotland, while in other nations, it charted within the top-twenty, including the Billboard Hot 100 of the United States. Gaga performed the song on Good Morning America as part of their \"Summer Concert Series\", on Paul O'Grady Live in the United Kingdom, and on The Howard Stern Show. Later the song was added to the set list of Gaga's Born This Way Ball tour (2012–2013).\n\n## Background and release\n\n\"Hair\" was written and produced by Gaga and RedOne, and the name of the song was revealed through an interview with Vogue magazine in February 2011. On The Graham Norton Show, Gaga explained the origin of the song, which involves the analogy of her hair with freedom, and how that is the only part of her body she can change without anyone judging her. According to a press listening in February, \"Hair\" draws inspiration from Pat Benatar's \"We Belong\", while thematically focusing on empowering lyrics similar to those of \"Born This Way\". Gaga elaborated on the song's inspiration further with a video posted on her Twitter account: \"When I was a kid, I used to always come down the stairs of my parents' house, and they would say, 'Go back upstairs and brush your hair, change your clothes, you can't go out wearing that', and I felt like it was stifling my identity... My hair was my glory. It was the only thing that I could change about myself.\"\n\nInitially \"Hair\" was supposed to be released as the second promotional single from Born This Way, following \"The Edge of Glory\", on May 16, 2011. However, after its release to the digital stores, \"The Edge of Glory\" started selling considerable amount of digital downloads, prompting Gaga to make it the third single from Born This Way. Hence, \"Hair\" became the first promotional release from the album. Gaga noted that although \"Hair\" was not planned to be an official single, it could be released as such, if it was to sell well at the digital outlets like \"The Edge of Glory\". Gaga also revealed her artwork for \"Hair\" on May 13, 2011, on her Twitter account. The black and white cover features a pink-haired Gaga lying upside down on the floor in a sharp-edged leather outfit, which features protruding nipple spikes. It was photographed by her longtime collaborator and friend Nick Knight. Later on in the same day, Gaga tweeted the line: \"The Born This Way Itunes Countdown will release my song HAIR 2moro 1pm PST.\"\n\n## Recording and composition\n\nDuring an interview with Ryan Seacrest on his radio program On Air with Ryan Seacrest, Gaga described \"Hair\" as an up-tempo club record, with Bruce Springsteen overtones to it. She also revealed the involvement of Clarence Clemons playing sax on the record. Other influences included metal bands like Kiss and Iron Maiden on the melody. She revealed some of the lines of the song on Seacrest's show, \"This is my prayer, that I'll die living just as free as my hair\", adding that the composition of \"Hair\" was interesting since it was juxtaposing saxophone with a dance record. In an interview with radio station Z-100 she added, \"Some of those themes are explored more on this album. To put my money where my mouth is.\" Gaga's references for the saxophone solo was the music of E Street Band and Bruce Springsteen; to her they represented a different genre of music, at the same time encompassing all the different elements of it. She ultimately decided to ask Clemons from E Street Band to play the instrument.\n\nWith Rolling Stone, Clemons described how he recorded the saxophone solo with Gaga. In January 2011, Clemons was putting together an exercise machine in his Florida house when his wife told him that Gaga's representatives were on the phone, and they wanted him to play on her upcoming album. Since the call was on a Friday, Clemons replied that he would be able to record it on the coming week, but Gaga was adamant to have him at the New York recording studio on that day itself. After accepting her request, Clemons went to New York and reached the recording studio in Manhattan at midnight. Gaga wanted him to play saxophone on multiple tracks, one of them being \"Hair\". Before Clemons started work on the song, she explained the lyrics to him. \"It made so much sense,\" he said. \"It's a story about growing up.\" She gave him few instructions about how to play on the song, saying \"'We'll put the tape on and you just play. Play from your heart. Play what you feel.'\". The recording was finished by 3:00 am, after a few takes. Clemons added that he was surprised for \"getting paid for this. I would have done it for free. I can never believe something that feels so good earns me money.\" According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, the song is written in the time signature of common time. It is composed in the key of F major, with a tempo of 135 beats per minute. Gaga's vocals span from E<sub>3</sub> to D<sub>5</sub>, and the song follows a basic sequence of F–C–Dm–B as its chord progression.\n\n\"Hair\" was recorded mostly while Gaga was on tour in Europe, but the mixing was done by Gene Grimaldi at Oasis Mastering in Burbank, California. It is a disco song that begins with Gaga singing the line \"Whenever I dress cool, my parents put up a fight/ And if I'm a hot shot, Mom will cut my hair at night/ And in the morning I'm short of my identity/ I scream, 'Mom and Dad, why can't I be who I want to be?\" As the music grows louder, Gaga sings the sing along chorus of the song, gradually moving towards the breakdown—which is inspired by retro music—talking about the different hairstyles she has had. Jocelyn Vena from MTV described the track as a \"fist-pumping, defiant disco track all about having a good time.\" Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone called it a mixture of yearning romantic melodrama of \"We Belong\" with the hard industrial metal edge of Broken-era Nine Inch Nails. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt that Gaga's vocals are Auto-Tuned throughout the song. The lyrics of \"Hair\" talk about embracing one's hairstyle as the ultimate expression of their identity, hence it ends with Gaga triumphantly declaring \"I am my hair!\" at the end of the final chorus.\n\n## Critical reception\n\n\"Hair\" has received mostly positive reviews. An hour before starting the final leg of The Monster Ball Tour, Gaga sent four tracks to Rolling Stone, including “Hair”, \"Scheiße\", \"You and I\", and \"The Edge of Glory\", for a preview. Matthew Perpetua wrote a positive review of \"Hair\", describing it as another inspirational song in the mold of \"Born This Way\", but felt that it was a bit weirder. Perpetua concluded the review by jokingly adding that the song will become \"[a]n anthem for salons everywhere.\" Jody Rosen from the same publication felt that \"although Gaga is not the first singer to create a connection between self-esteem and liberation to free-flowing coiffure, she seems to be the most committed to the idea.\" Dan Martin from NME classified \"Hair\" as an empowerment anthem, using the \"simple image of the wind blowing through a person’s hair to illuminate the album’s Love-Yourself-And-Let-It-All-Hang-Out message way more effectively than the title track. It trumps it once again by being quite the gayest thing you will ever hear for a long time.\" Tim Jonze from The Guardian felt that the message of \"Hair\" was not particularly a new one, since the 60's musical Hair also preached the same message. Although he described some of the lyrics as \"trite\", Jonze opined that \"these weaknesses can also be strengths, and there's something admirable about the way the [track] address confused teenagers in search of their identity.\" Writing for The Vancouver Sun, Leah Collins described the song as \"a pumping anthem designed to pump up your follicles with pride.\" She added that the overall feel of the song was that of retro dance music.\n\nNatalie Finn from E! Online was disappointed with the track, feeling that although the releases from Born This Way were not that \"catchy\", all of them were about the same subject of \"the importance of being ourselves. Oh well, maybe we're just waiting for the next 'Bad Romance' to sweep us off our feet. Or the next 'Speechless' to make us cry. Or even the next 'Just Dance' to really make us want to dance.\" Jason Lipshultz from Billboard felt that the track was another anthem for individualism, with Gaga's hair used as a metaphor for her wild personality. Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave a mixed review stating that the song is a \"derivative but perfectly serviceable club track about highlights that's turned into a dumping ground for every bad idea Gaga's had in the last 12 months: schmaltzy piano-woman melodies, overwrought choruses, inexplicable sax solos.\" Rick Fulton, while writing in the Daily Record, called \"Hair\" a \"great tune\" and a \"Europop high-energy epic\", while giving it four out of five points. Ian Hope from BBC Online described \"Hair\" as an \"empowering freeway rocker about self expression.\" The Independent writer Andy Gill compared the song to those by guitarist David Crosby, and described it as a statement of rebellious individuality. According to Los Angeles Times' Randall Roberts, Gaga \"celebrates her follicles\" in the song.\n\n## Chart performance\n\n\"Hair\" charted in most musical markets and its debut became its peak position; the song was present for a maximum of two weeks. In the United Kingdom, \"Hair\" debuted at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. Along with the song, Gaga's other singles—\"The Edge of Glory\", \"Judas\" and \"Born This Way\"—were all within the top twenty on the chart, making Gaga the first female artist since Ruby Murray in 1955, to have four songs simultaneously within the top twenty. As of March 2020, the song has sold 50,000 copies and acquired 2.3 million streams. In Australia, \"Hair\" debuted at number 20 on the ARIA Singles Chart and was present for two weeks in the top-fifty. In the Netherlands, \"Hair\" debuted at number 15 on the Single Top 100 chart, and at number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart.\n\nIn the United States, \"Hair\" debuted at number five on the Hot Digital Songs chart with first-week sales of 147,000 copies. Consequently it entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 12, becoming the highest debuting single of the week. According to Nielsen SoundScan, \"Hair\" has sold 174,000 copies of digital downloads as of January 2012. In Canada, the song sold 15,000 digital downloads, and entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number 11, as the highest debut of the week. \"Hair\" also reached the top ten in the charts of Italy, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland and Spain, and top twenty in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia region) and France. Its lowest position was on the Danish Singles Chart at number 29, and in the Gaon International download chart of South Korea, it reached a peak position of number 21.\n\n## Live performances\n\nOn May 27, 2011, Gaga performed the song on Good Morning America as a part of their \"Summer Concert Series\". She was dressed in purple horns and a black and blond ponytail, and was placed atop a black staircase, with her leg perched on top of a black unicorn shaped piano. Dedicating the song to her mother, Gaga sang an acoustic version of \"Hair\", which Sheila Marikar from ABC News reviewed positively, saying that it \"really brought the house down.\" Christian Blauvelt from Entertainment Weekly was also impressed with the acoustic version, saying that \"at a keyboard, Gaga's never better at injecting enough passion and commitment to sell even the corniest lyrics about follicular empowerment.\"\n\nGaga performed \"Hair\" on The Paul O'Grady Show on June 17, 2011. The song was the first of the four performances planned, and Gaga opened the show with her sitting on the piano. She appeared bald but wore a teal colored fringed dress, and sang an acoustic version of \"Hair\", while staring at a teal colored wig placed in front of her. Halfway through the performance, Gaga took the wig and placed it on her head. Ryan Love of Digital Spy had a preview of the recording of the show, and commented that when \"it's just GaGa  [sic] on the piano, you can't help but be impressed.\" Cynthia Robinson from The Huffington Post theorized that Gaga pretending to be bald was not a \"fashion statement\", instead she was \"saying something about shedding that skin, that costume, that barrier that she created with all of her vaunted costumes—at least so that people know what she is inside before putting it back on.\"\n\nAt French television show Taratata, Gaga performed “Hair” while playing the piano. She appeared in the show in a long turquoise blue wig, that was attached to a replica of the Eiffel Tower, with the word \"Paris\" written on her chest. After performing the song, she improvised part of the track in French. During her promotional performances of the songs from Born This Way in Taiwan, Gaga sang \"Hair\" and played the piano in a black bra, against the backdrop of many red lanterns and a red arch, a set created specially for the Taiwan show. She later explained in a press conference the inspiration behind the performance: \"Like the gentleman [the host] just mentioned, that lantern means prosperity and it's about the future. I'm always thinking about the future of my generation and the voice of my generation when I write music.\"\n\nAt the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas on September 24, 2011, Gaga dedicated a performance of \"Hair\" to deceased teenager Jamey Rodemeyer, who had committed suicide after being constantly bullied by his peers at school for being gay. An image of Rodemeyer was shown on the backdrop as Gaga announced: \"We lost a Little Monster this week. I wrote this record about how your identity is really all you've got when you're in school... so tonight, Jamey, I know you're up there looking at us, and you're not a victim... you're a lesson to all of us. I know it's a bit of a downer, but sometimes the right thing is more important than the music\", after which she sang a piano version of \"Hair\".\n\nThe song was also included in the setlist of her Born This Way Ball tour (2012–2013), where she played the song on a keyboard that was installed on a motorbike. To Kwaak Je-yup of The Korea Times was positive about the performance of the song during the tour saying that, \"The highlight of the night was her first slow jam 'Hair,' which she introduced as her favorite track on the 'Born This Way' album. (...) She flubbed her line once and admitted it right away — 'I'm getting too excited (that) I forgot my lines,' she said — but the moment made the experience personal.\" On the second night of Gaga's show in the Philippines, she addressed the protests by Christian groups against her performances in the country, directly before performing \"Hair\". While playing the piano she stated that she is aware of the issues around her image and music, she emphasized that she respects all kinds of religion, people and culture – including Filipino culture. She also said that she respects that everyone is entitled to their own opinion, but stressed \"What I don’t respect is homophobia and hatred...I reject intolerance to the gay community.\" This drew cheers from the audience. She went on to say that she is aware some are using her name to spread hatred but intended to counter this by continuing to spread \"positivity\" in her own way.\n\n## Credits and personnel\n\nCredits adapted from the liner notes of Born This Way.\n\n- Lady Gaga – vocals, songwriter and producer\n- Nadir \"RedOne\" Khayat – songwriter, producer, vocal editing, vocal arrangement, background vocals, audio engineering, instrumentation, programming and recording at Tour Bus in Europe\n- Trevor Muzzy – guitar, recording, vocal editing, audio engineering, audio mixing at Larrabee, North Hollywood, Los Angeles, California\n- Dave Russell – recording and audio engineering\n- Clarence Clemons – saxophone\n- Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering, Burbank, California\n\n## Charts", "revid": "1164626956", "description": null, "categories": ["2011 singles", "2011 songs", "American disco songs", "LGBT-related songs", "Lady Gaga songs", "Song recordings produced by Lady Gaga", "Song recordings produced by RedOne", "Songs written by Lady Gaga", "Songs written by RedOne"]}
{"id": "55406", "url": null, "title": "Banded iron formation", "text": "Banded iron formations (BIFs; also called banded ironstone formations) are distinctive units of sedimentary rock consisting of alternating layers of iron oxides and iron-poor chert. They can be up to several hundred meters in thickness and extend laterally for several hundred kilometers. Almost all of these formations are of Precambrian age and are thought to record the oxygenation of the Earth's oceans. Some of the Earth's oldest rock formations, which formed about (Ma), are associated with banded iron formations.\n\nBanded iron formations are thought to have formed in sea water as the result of oxygen production by photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The oxygen combined with dissolved iron in Earth's oceans to form insoluble iron oxides, which precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the ocean floor. Each band is similar to a varve, resulting from cyclic variations in oxygen production.\n\nBanded iron formations were first discovered in northern Michigan in 1844. Banded iron formations account for more than 60% of global iron reserves and provide most of the iron ore presently mined. Most formations can be found in Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, Russia, South Africa, Ukraine, and the United States.\n\n## Description\n\nA typical banded iron formation consists of repeated, thin layers (a few millimeters to a few centimeters in thickness) of silver to black iron oxides, either magnetite (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) or hematite (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), alternating with bands of iron-poor chert, often red in color, of similar thickness. A single banded iron formation can be up to several hundred meters in thickness and extend laterally for several hundred kilometers.\n\nBanded iron formation is more precisely defined as chemically precipitated sedimentary rock containing greater than 15% iron. However, most BIFs have a higher content of iron, typically around 30% by mass, so that roughly half the rock is iron oxides and the other half is silica. The iron in BIFs is divided roughly equally between the more oxidized ferric form, Fe(III), and the more reduced ferrous form, Fe(II), so that the ratio Fe(III)/Fe(II+III) typically varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This indicates a predominance of magnetite, in which the ratio is 0.67, over hematite, for which the ratio is 1. In addition to the iron oxides (hematite and magnetite), the iron sediment may contain the iron-rich carbonates siderite and ankerite, or the iron-rich silicates minnesotaite and greenalite. Most BIFs are chemically simple, containing little but iron oxides, silica, and minor carbonate, though some contain significant calcium and magnesium, up to 9% and 6.7% as oxides respectively.\n\nWhen used in the singular, the term banded iron formation refers to the sedimentary lithology just described. The plural form, banded iron formations, is used informally to refer to stratigraphic units that consist primarily of banded iron formation.\n\nA well-preserved banded iron formation typically consists of macrobands several meters thick that are separated by thin shale beds. The macrobands in turn are composed of characteristic alternating layers of chert and iron oxides, called mesobands, that are several millimeters to a few centimeters thick. Many of the chert mesobands contain microbands of iron oxides that are less than a millimeter thick, while the iron mesobands are relatively featureless. BIFs tend to be extremely hard, tough, and dense, making them highly resistant to erosion, and they show fine details of stratification over great distances, suggesting they were deposited in a very low-energy environment; that is, in relatively deep water, undisturbed by wave motion or currents. BIFs only rarely interfinger with other rock types, tending to form sharply bounded discrete units that never grade laterally into other rock types.\n\nBanded iron formations of the Great Lakes region and the Frere Formation of western Australia are somewhat different in character and are sometimes described as granular iron formations or GIFs. Their iron sediments are granular to oolitic in character, forming discrete grains about a millimeter in diameter, and they lack microbanding in their chert mesobands. They also show more irregular mesobanding, with indications of ripples and other sedimentary structures, and their mesobands cannot be traced out any great distance. Though they form well-defined, discrete units, these are commonly interbedded with coarse to medium-grained epiclastic sediments (sediments formed by weathering of rock). These features suggest a higher energy depositional environment, in shallower water disturbed by wave motions. However, they otherwise resemble other banded iron formations.\n\nThe great majority of banded iron formations are Archean or Paleoproterozoic in age. However, a small number of BIFs are Neoproterozoic in age, and are frequently, if not universally, associated with glacial deposits, often containing glacial dropstones. They also tend to show a higher level of oxidation, with hematite prevailing over magnetite, and they typically contain a small amount of phosphate, about 1% by mass. Mesobanding is often poor to nonexistent and soft-sediment deformation structures are common. This suggests very rapid deposition. However, like the granular iron formations of the Great Lakes, the Neoproterozoic occurrences are widely described as banded iron formations.\n\nBanded iron formations are distinct from most Phanerozoic ironstones. Ironstones are relatively rare and are thought to have been deposited in marine anoxic events, in which the depositional basin became depleted in free oxygen. They are composed of iron silicates and oxides without appreciable chert but with significant phosphorus content, which is lacking in BIFs.\n\nNo classification scheme for banded iron formations has gained complete acceptance. In 1954, Harold Lloyd James advocated a classification based on four lithological facies (oxide, carbonate, silicate, and sulfide) assumed to represent different depths of deposition, but this speculative model did not hold up. In 1980, Gordon A. Gross advocated a twofold division of BIFs into an Algoma type and a Lake Superior type, based on the character of the depositional basin. Algoma BIFs are found in relatively small basins in association with greywackes and other volcanic rocks and are assumed to be associated with volcanic centers. Lake Superior BIFs are found in larger basins in association with black shales, quartzites, and dolomites, with relatively minor tuffs or other volcanic rocks, and are assumed to have formed on a continental shelf. This classification has been more widely accepted, but the failure to appreciate that it is strictly based on the characteristics of the depositional basin and not the lithology of the BIF itself has led to confusion, and some geologists have advocated for its abandonment. However, the classification into Algoma versus Lake Superior types continues to be used.\n\n## Occurrence\n\nBanded iron formations are almost exclusively Precambrian in age, with most deposits dating to the late Archean (2800-2500 Ma) with a secondary peak of deposition in the Orosirian period of the Paleoproterozoic (1850 Ma). Minor amounts were deposited in the early Archean and in the Neoproterozoic (750 Ma). The youngest known banded iron formation is an Early Cambrian formation in western China. Because the processes by which BIFs are formed appear to be restricted to early geologic time, and may reflect unique conditions of the Precambrian world, they have been intensively studied by geologists.\n\nBanded iron formations are found worldwide, in every continental shield of every continent. The oldest BIFs are associated with greenstone belts and include the BIFs of the Isua Greenstone Belt, the oldest known, which have an estimated age of 3700 to 3800 Ma. The Temagami banded iron deposits formed over a 50-million-year period, from 2736 to 2687 Ma, and reached a thickness of 60 meters (200 feet). Other examples of early Archean BIFs are found in the Abitibi greenstone belts, the greenstone belts of the Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons, the Baltic shield, and the cratons of the Amazon, north China, and south and west Africa.\n\nThe most extensive banded iron formations belong to what A.F. Trendall calls the Great Gondwana BIFs. These are late Archean in age and are not associated with greenstone belts. They are relatively undeformed and form extensive topographic plateaus, such as the Hamersley Range. The banded iron formations here were deposited from 2470 to 2450 Ma and are the thickest and most extensive in the world, with a maximum thickness in excess of 900 meters (3,000 feet). Similar BIFs are found in the Carajás Formation of the Amazon craton, the Cauê Itabirite of the São Francisco craton, the Kuruman Iron Formation and Penge Iron Formation of South Africa, and the Mulaingiri Formation of India.\n\nPaleoproterozoic banded iron formations are found in the Iron Range and other parts of the Canadian Shield. The Iron Range is a group of four major deposits: the Mesabi Range, the Vermilion Range, the Gunflint Range, and the Cuyuna Range. All are part of the Animikie Group and were deposited between 2500 and 1800 Ma. These BIFs are predominantly granular iron formations.\n\nNeoproterozoic banded iron formations include the Urucum in Brazil, Rapitan in the Yukon, and the Damara Belt in southern Africa. They are relatively limited in size, with horizontal extents not more than a few tens of kilometers and thicknesses not more than about 10 meters (33 feet). These are widely thought to have been deposited under unusual anoxic oceanic conditions associated with the \"Snowball Earth.\"\n\n## Origins\n\nBanded iron formation provided some of the first evidence for the timing of the Great Oxidation Event, 2,400 Ma. With his 1968 paper on the early atmosphere and oceans of the earth, Preston Cloud established the general framework that has been widely, if not universally, accepted for understanding the deposition of BIFs.\n\nCloud postulated that banded iron formations were a consequence of anoxic, iron-rich waters from the deep ocean welling up into a photic zone inhabited by cyanobacteria that had evolved the capacity to carry out oxygen-producing photosynthesis, but which had not yet evolved enzymes (such as superoxide dismutase) for living in an oxygenated environment. Such organisms would have been protected from their own oxygen waste through its rapid removal via the reservoir of reduced ferrous iron, Fe(II), in the early ocean. The oxygen released by photosynthesis oxidized the Fe(II) to ferric iron, Fe(III), which precipitated out of the sea water as insoluble iron oxides that settled to the ocean floor.\n\nCloud suggested that banding resulted from fluctuations in the population of cyanobacteria due to free radical damage by oxygen. This also explained the relatively limited extent of early Archean deposits. The great peak in BIF deposition at the end of the Archean was thought to be the result of the evolution of mechanisms for living with oxygen. This ended self-poisoning and produced a population explosion in the cyanobacteria that rapidly depleted the remaining supply of reduced iron and ended most BIF deposition. Oxygen then began to accumulate in the atmosphere.\n\nSome details of Cloud's original model were abandoned. For example, improved dating of Precambrian strata has shown that the late Archean peak of BIF deposition was spread out over tens of millions of years, rather than taking place in a very short interval of time following the evolution of oxygen-coping mechanisms. However, his general concepts continue to shape thinking about the origins of banded iron formations. In particular, the concept of the upwelling of deep ocean water, rich in reduced iron, into an oxygenated surface layer poor in iron remains a key element of most theories of deposition.\n\nThe few formations deposited after 1,800 Ma may point to intermittent low levels of free atmospheric oxygen, while the small peak at may be associated with the hypothetical Snowball Earth.\n\n### Formation processes\n\nThe microbands within chert layers are most likely varves produced by annual variations in oxygen production. Diurnal microbanding would require a very high rate of deposition of 2 meters per year or 5 km/Ma. Estimates of deposition rate based on various models of deposition and sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) estimates of the age of associated tuff beds suggest a deposition rate in typical BIFs of 19 to 270 m/Ma, which are consistent either with annual varves or rhythmites produced by tidal cycles.\n\nPreston Cloud proposed that mesobanding was a result of self-poisoning by early cyanobacteria as the supply of reduced iron was periodically depleted. Mesobanding has also been interpreted as a secondary structure, not present in the sediments as originally laid down, but produced during compaction of the sediments. Another theory is that mesobands are primary structures resulting from pulses of activity along mid-ocean ridges that change the availability of reduced iron on time scales of decades. In the case of granular iron formations, the mesobands are attributed to winnowing of sediments in shallow water, in which wave action tended to segregate particles of different size and composition.\n\nFor banded iron formations to be deposited, several preconditions must be met.\n\n1. The deposition basin must contain waters that are ferruginous (rich in iron).\n2. This implies they are also anoxic, since ferrous iron oxidizes to ferric iron within hours or days in the presence of dissolved oxygen. This would prevent transport of large quantities of iron from its sources to the deposition basin.\n3. The waters must not be euxinic (rich in hydrogen sulfide), since this would cause the ferrous iron to precipitate out as pyrite.\n4. There must be an oxidation mechanism active within the depositional basin that steadily converts the reservoir of ferrous iron to ferric iron.\n\n#### Source of reduced iron\n\nThere must be an ample source of reduced iron that can circulate freely into the deposition basin. Plausible sources of iron include hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges, windblown dust, rivers, glacial ice, and seepage from continental margins.\n\nThe importance of various sources of reduced iron has likely changed dramatically across geologic time. This is reflected in the division of BIFs into Algoma and Lake Superior-type deposits. Algoma-type BIFs formed primarily in the Archean. These older BIFs tend to show a positive europium anomaly consistent with a hydrothermal source of iron. By contrast, Lake Superior-type banded iron formations primarily formed during the Paleoproterozoic era, and lack the europium anomalies of the older Algoma-type BIFs, suggesting a much greater input of iron weathered from continents.\n\n#### Absence of oxygen or hydrogen sulfide\n\nThe absence of hydrogen sulfide in anoxic ocean water can be explained either by reduced sulfur flux into the deep ocean or a lack of dissimilatory sulfate reduction (DSR), the process by which microorganisms use sulfate in place of oxygen for respiration. The product of DSR is hydrogen sulfide, which readily precipitates iron out of solution as pyrite.\n\nThe requirement of an anoxic, but not euxinic, deep ocean for deposition of banded iron formation suggests two models to explain the end of BIF deposition 1.8 billion years ago. The \"Holland ocean\" model proposes that the deep ocean became sufficiently oxygenated at that time to end transport of reduced iron. Heinrich Holland argues that the absence of manganese deposits during the pause between Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic BIFs is evidence that the deep ocean had become at least slightly oxygenated. The \"Canfield ocean\" model proposes that, to the contrary, the deep ocean became euxinic and transport of reduced iron was blocked by precipitation as pyrite.\n\nBanded iron formations in northern Minnesota are overlain by a thick layer of ejecta from the Sudbury Basin impact. An asteroid (estimated at 10 km across) impacted into waters about 1,000 m deep 1.849 billion years ago, coincident with the pause in BIF deposition. Computer models suggest that the impact would have generated a tsunami at least 1,000 meters high at the point of impact, and 100 meters high about 3,000 kilometers away. It has been suggested that the immense waves and large underwater landslides triggered by the impact caused the mixing of a previously stratified ocean, oxygenated the deep ocean, and ended BIF deposition shortly after the impact.\n\n#### Oxidation\n\nAlthough Cloud argued that microbial activity was a key process in the deposition of banded iron formation, the role of oxygenic versus anoxygenic photosynthesis continues to be debated, and nonbiogenic processes have also been proposed.\n\n##### Oxygenic photosynthesis\n\nCloud's original hypothesis was that ferrous iron was oxidized in a straightforward manner by molecular oxygen present in the water:\n\n4 Fe<sup>2+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub> + 10 H<sub>2</sub>O → 4 Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub> + 8 H<sup>+</sup>\n\nThe oxygen comes from the photosynthetic activities of cyanobacteria. Oxidation of ferrous iron may have been hastened by aerobic iron-oxidizing bacteria, which can increase rates of oxidation by a factor of 50 under conditions of low oxygen.\n\n##### Anoxygenic photosynthesis\n\nOxygenic photosynthesis is not the only biogenic mechanism for deposition of banded iron formations. Some geochemists have suggested that banded iron formations could form by direct oxidation of iron by microbial anoxygenic phototrophs. The concentrations of phosphorus and trace metals in BIFs are consistent with precipitation through the activities of iron-oxidizing bacteria.\n\nIron isotope ratios in the oldest banded iron formations (3700-3800 Ma), at Isua, Greenland, are best explained by assuming extremely low oxygen levels (\\<0.001% of modern O<sub>2</sub> levels in the photic zone) and anoxygenic photosynthetic oxidation of Fe(II):\n\n4 Fe<sup>2+</sup> + 11 H<sub>2</sub>O + CO<sub>2</sub> + hv → CH<sub>2</sub>O + 4 Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub> + 8 H<sup>+</sup>\n\nThis requires that dissimilatory iron reduction, the biological process in which microorganisms substitute Fe(III) for oxygen in respiration, was not yet widespread. By contrast, Lake Superior-type banded iron formations show iron isotope ratios that suggest that dissimilatory iron reduction expanded greatly during this period.\n\nAn alternate route is oxidation by anaerobic denitrifying bacteria. This requires that nitrogen fixation by microorganisms is also active.\n\n10 Fe<sup>2+</sup> + 2 NO−3 + 24 H<sub>2</sub>O → 10 Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub> + N<sub>2</sub> + 18 H<sup>+</sup>\n\n##### Abiogenic mechanisms\n\nThe lack of organic carbon in banded iron formation argues against microbial control of BIF deposition. On the other hand, there is fossil evidence for abundant photosynthesizing cyanobacteria at the start of BIF deposition and of hydrocarbon markers in shales within banded iron formation of the Pilbara craton. The carbon that is present in banded iron formations is enriched in the light isotope, <sup>12</sup>C, an indicator of a biological origin. If a substantial part of the original iron oxides was in the form of hematite, then any carbon in the sediments might have been oxidized by the decarbonization reaction:\n\n6 Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> + C ⇌ 4 Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub>\n\nTrendall and J.G. Blockley proposed, but later rejected, the hypothesis that banded iron formation might be a peculiar kind of Precambrian evaporite. Other proposed abiogenic processes include radiolysis by the radioactive isotope of potassium, <sup>40</sup>K, or annual turnover of basin water combined with upwelling of iron-rich water in a stratified ocean.\n\nAnother abiogenic mechanism is photooxidation of iron by sunlight. Laboratory experiments suggest that this could produce a sufficiently high deposition rate under likely conditions of pH and sunlight. However, if the iron came from a shallow hydrothermal source, other laboratory experiments suggest that precipitation of ferrous iron as carbonates or silicates could seriously compete with photooxidation.\n\n#### Diagenesis\n\nRegardless of the precise mechanism of oxidation, the oxidation of ferrous to ferric iron likely caused the iron to precipitate out as a ferric hydroxide gel. Similarly, the silica component of the banded iron formations likely precipitated as a hydrous silica gel. The conversion of iron hydroxide and silica gels to banded iron formation is an example of diagenesis, the conversion of sediments into solid rock.\n\nThere is evidence that banded iron formations formed from sediments with nearly the same chemical composition as is found in the BIFs today. The BIFs of the Hamersley Range show great chemical homogeneity and lateral uniformity, with no indication of any precursor rock that might have been altered to the current composition. This suggests that, other than dehydration and decarbonization of the original ferric hydroxide and silica gels, diagenesis likely left the composition unaltered and consisted of crystallization of the original gels. Decarbonization may account for the lack of carbon and preponderance of magnetite in older banded iron formations. The relatively high content of hematite in Neoproterozoic BIFs suggests they were deposited very quickly and via a process that did not produce great quantities of biomass, so that little carbon was present to reduce hematite to magnetite.\n\nHowever, it is possible that BIF was altered from carbonate rock or from hydrothermal mud during late stages of diagenesis. A 2018 study found no evidence that magnetite in BIF formed by decarbonization, and suggests that it formed from thermal decomposition of siderite via the reaction\n\n: 3 FeCO<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> + 3 CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>\n\nThe iron may have originally precipitated as greenalite and other iron silicates. Macrobanding is then interpreted as a product of compaction of the original iron silicate mud. This produced siderite-rich bands that served as pathways for fluid flow and formation of magnetite.\n\n### The Great Oxidation Event\n\nThe peak of deposition of banded iron formations in the late Archean, and the end of deposition in the Orosirian, have been interpreted as markers for the Great Oxygenation Event. Prior to 2.45 billion years ago, the high degree of mass-independent fractionation of sulfur (MIF-S) indicates an extremely oxygen-poor atmosphere. The peak of banded iron formation deposition coincides with the disappearance of the MIF-S signal, which is interpreted as the permanent appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere between 2.41 and 2.35 billion years ago. This was accompanied by the development of a stratified ocean with a deep anoxic layer and a shallow oxidized layer. The end of deposition of BIF at 1.85 billion years ago is attributed to the oxidation of the deep ocean.\n\n### Snowball Earth hypothesis\n\nUntil 1992 it was assumed that the rare, later (younger) banded iron deposits represented unusual conditions where oxygen was depleted locally. Iron-rich waters would then form in isolation and subsequently come into contact with oxygenated water. The Snowball Earth hypothesis provided an alternative explanation for these younger deposits. In a Snowball Earth state the continents, and possibly seas at low latitudes, were subject to a severe ice age circa 750 to 580 Ma that nearly or totally depleted free oxygen. Dissolved iron then accumulated in the oxygen-poor oceans (possibly from seafloor hydrothermal vents). Following the thawing of the Earth, the seas became oxygenated once more causing the precipitation of the iron. Banded iron formations of this period are predominantly associated with the Sturtian glaciation.\n\nAn alternative mechanism for banded iron formations in the Snowball Earth era suggests the iron was deposited from metal-rich brines in the vicinity of hydrothermally active rift zones due to glacially-driven thermal overturn. The limited extent of these BIFs compared with the associated glacial deposits, their association with volcanic formations, and variation in thickness and facies favor this hypothesis. Such a mode of formation does not require a global anoxic ocean, but is consistent with either a Snowball Earth or Slushball Earth model.\n\n## Economic geology\n\nBanded iron formations provide most of the iron ore presently mined. More than 60% of global iron reserves are in the form of banded iron formation, most of which can be found in Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, Russia, South Africa, Ukraine, and the United States.\n\nDifferent mining districts coined their own names for BIFs. The term \"banded iron formation\" was coined in the iron districts of Lake Superior, where the ore deposits of the Mesabi, Marquette, Cuyuna, Gogebic, and Menominee iron ranges were also variously known as \"jasper\", \"jaspilite\", \"iron-bearing formation\", or taconite. Banded iron formations were described as \"itabarite\" in Brazil, as \"ironstone\" in South Africa, and as \"BHQ\" (banded hematite quartzite) in India.\n\nBanded iron formation was first discovered in northern Michigan in 1844, and mining of these deposits prompted the earliest studies of BIFs, such as those of Charles R. Van Hise and Charles Kenneth Leith. Iron mining operations on the Mesabi and Cuyuna Ranges evolved into enormous open pit mines, where steam shovels and other industrial machines could remove massive amounts of ore. Initially the mines exploited large beds of hematite and goethite weathered out of the banded iron formations, and some 2.5 billion tons of this \"natural ore\" had been extracted by 1980. By 1956 large-scale commercial production from the BIF itself began at the Peter Mitchell Mine near Babbitt, Minnesota. Production in Minnesota was 40 million tons of ore concentrate per year in 2016, which is about 75% of total U.S. production. Magnetite-rich banded iron formation, known locally as taconite, is ground to a powder, and the magnetite is separated with powerful magnets and pelletized for shipment and smelting.\n\nIron ore became a global commodity after the Second World War, and with the end of the embargo against exporting iron ore from Australia in 1960, the Hamersley Range became a major mining district. The banded iron formations here are the thickest and most extensive in the world, originally covering an area of 150,000 square kilometers (58,000 square miles) and containing about 300 trillion metric tons of iron. The range contains 80 percent of all identified iron ore reserves in Australia. Over 100 million metric tons of iron ore is removed from the range every year.\n\nThe Itabarite banded iron formations of Brazil cover at least 80,000 square kilometers (31,000 square miles) and are up to 600 meters (2,000 feet) thick. These form the Quadrilatero Ferrifero or Iron Quadrangle, which resembles the Iron Range mines of United States in that the favored ore is hematite weathered out of the BIFs. Production from the Iron Quadrangle helps make Brazil the second largest producer of iron ore after Australia, with monthly exports averaging 139,299 metric tons from December 2007 to May 2018.\n\nMining of ore from banded iron formations at Anshan in north China began in 1918. When Japan occupied Northeast China in 1931, these mills were turned into a Japanese-owned monopoly, and the city became a significant strategic industrial hub during the Second World War. Total production of processed iron in Manchuria reached 1,000,000 metric tons in 1931–32. By 1942, Anshan's Shōwa Steel Works total production capacity reached 3,600,000 metric tons per annum, making it one of the major iron and steel centers in the world. Production was severely disrupted during the Soviet occupation of Manchuria in 1945 and the subsequent Chinese Civil War. However, from 1948 to 2001, the steel works produced 290 million tons of steel, 284 million tons of pig iron and 192 million tons of rolled steel. Annual production capacity as of 2006 is 10 million tons of pig iron, 10 million tons of steel and 9.5 million tons of rolled steel. A quarter of China's total iron ore reserves, about 10 billion tons, are located in Anshan.\n\n## See also", "revid": "1167147072", "description": "Distinctive layered units of iron-rich sedimentary rock that are almost always of Precambrian age", "categories": ["Chert", "Economic geology", "Iron ores", "Precambrian", "Sedimentary rocks"]}
{"id": "52199393", "url": null, "title": "Islands (miniseries)", "text": "\"Islands\" is an American animated miniseries comprising eight episodes from the television show Adventure Time, created by Pendleton Ward. It aired as part of the show's eighth season on Cartoon Network from January 30, 2017, to February 2, 2017. Adventure Time follows the adventures of Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada), a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio), a dog with magical powers to change shape, grow and shrink at will. In this limited event series, Finn, Jake, BMO (voiced by Niki Yang) and Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino) leave Ooo and voyage across the ocean to learn about Finn's origin. During their trip, they encounter various creatures, new friends, and several interesting islands. The trip culminates with a visit to Founder's Island, where Finn meets his biological mother, Minerva Campbell (voiced by Sharon Horgan), and discovers what happened to the remainder of the human race.\n\nIslands is the second Adventure Time miniseries to have been produced, following Stakes, which aired in November 2015. Islands was preceded by the release of a graphic novel, which tied into the story and served as a prequel. The miniseries' story was developed by head writer Kent Osborne, series showrunner Adam Muto, story editor Jack Pendarvis, and staff writer Ashly Burch. Storyboard artists who worked on this miniseries include Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Tom Herpich, Steve Wolfhard, Graham Falk, Pendleton Ward, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Kent Osborne, and Adam Muto. Cole Sanchez and Elizabeth Ito served as the miniseries' supervising directors, and Sandra Lee served as art director.\n\nIslands was met with critical acclaim, with many critics applauding how the miniseries further developed the show's characters. Additionally, the episode \"Imaginary Resources\" won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2017. Islands was released on DVD on January 24, 2017.\n\n## Plot\n\nA large robotic craft arrives searching for Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino), but the craft is dispatched by Jake (voiced by John DiMaggio). Princess Bubblegum (voiced by Hynden Walch) examines the wreckage and discovers that it is of human origin, which engenders in Finn the Human (voiced by Jeremy Shada) a desire to travel across the sea from whence the craft came and meet others of his kind; Susan, Jake, and BMO accompany Finn on his voyage. Initially, the journey is easy and uneventful, but after a series of mishaps, the group's boat is destroyed by a mysterious colossus, throwing everyone overboard. Finn subsequently wakes up on an island where the weather drastically fluctuates. After meandering around for awhile, he eventually encounters an old lady named Alva (voiced by Helena Mattsson) who does not speak English. Alva invites Finn to her home and shows her home movies of other humans who have since presumably died. Later, Finn and Alva encounter Jake, who informs the group that he does not know the whereabouts of either BMO and Susan. Finn and Jake eventually head to a futuristic island where all of society has hooked themselves up to a virtual reality simulator. BMO is revealed to have become the heroic leader of the VR people. Jake decides to go and destroy the generator powering the VR after BMO refuses to leave. Feeling bad for BMO, as well as the emaciated humans who emerge from the virtual reality simulator, Finn asks Jake to fix the generator, but BMO fixes it himself. BMO recognizes that if he remains behind, he will lose his friends, and so he, Finn, and Jake take a pod to the next island. It is on this stop that Finn, Jake and BMO find Susan, who begins to recall her long-forgotten past.\n\nAn extended flashback reveals Finn's origin, and what happened to the other humans. Roughly a thousand years prior to the main events of the series, a group of humans fled Ooo on a container ship (as seen in Stakes). They eventually settled on a secluded island chain far from the mainland. Over the next thousand years, the community grew into a veritable utopia. With that said, there were those few who occasionally grew dissatisfied with their rigidly structured lives and attempted to flee the island; these \"hiders\" were in turn hunted down and returned by specially trained \"seekers\". It is revealed that Susan's real name is Kara, and that she was once a seeker in training. Kara was friends with a fellow human, Frieda (voiced by Jasika Nicole), who began expressing a desire to flee the island. This revelation causes Kara some discomfort, so she approaches Dr. Gross (voiced by Lennon Parham), the cybernetic human in charge of training seekers, asking if the humans can live off the island. Dr. Gross convinces her that the outside is dangerous and, to prevent her from fleeing, she controls Kara with a remote control. Now fully under Dr. Gross's control, Kara stops Frieda from leaving and drags her away crying. Back in the present, Susan tells Finn her real name and decides to take Finn to Founders Island so that he can be reunited with his mother, Minerva Campbell (voiced by Sharon Horgan).\n\nThe audience is then presented with a series of flashbacks detailing how Minerva, a doctor, met Finn's father Martin Mertens (voiced by Stephen Root) when he was hospitalized after it was mistakenly believed he was attempting to leave the island with a group of escapees. Martin and Minerva eventually fell in love and had Finn. However, when the group of attempted escapees sought revenge on Martin for a previous betrayal, he fled on a boat with Finn. His escape is thwarted by the colossus—revealed to be a security device that was created to protect Founders Island from outside threats—which attacks the craft. In the chaos, the pair are separated, leaving Finn to drift away. The group is arrested and Minerva is heartbroken over Martin and Finn's disappearance.\n\nBack in the present, the group make it to Founders Island where humans have been living in relative peace. While Kara seeks to make amends with Frieda, Finn and Jake discover that Minerva had digitized her consciousness in the past and now exists only in virtual reality. Minerva reveals that she had Dr. Gross send Kara to retrieve Finn, but years had passed and Dr. Gross had accidentally released a deadly virus that was killing humans. Minerva had her essence uploaded into a computer, and then created the helpers to assist the human race. Now that she is with Finn, she expresses her desire that he stay permanently. Finn tries to convince Minerva that life off the island is not all bad, but Minerva thinks off-island life is dangerous. Finn then tries to convince the humans to leave, and they all rally alongside him. This causes Minerva to attempt to upload the consciousnesses of all the islands' inhabitants. To prevent this, Finn shares with her his memories of helping people, causing her to back down; she realizes that Ooo is not nearly a threat as she before believed. The humans all change their minds about leaving, except for Frieda, who announces to Finn, Jake, and BMO that she and Susan have made amends and are leaving to have their own adventures. While setting sail on a new boat bound for Ooo, Finn has one final talk with Minerva through the VR headset, where the two embrace in the digital realm.\n\n## Production\n\nIn February 2015 at an upfront regarding Cartoon Network's programming for the 2015 to 2016 television season, the network announced that Adventure Time would air a special miniseries entitled Stakes during the show's seventh season. Comprising 8 episodes and airing in November 2015, this miniseries was a \"phenomenal success, ranking as the \\#1 program in its time period with all key kids and boys audiences.\" Prior to the airing of Stakes, head story writer Kent Osborne revealed that the show would likely produce several more miniseries, and when it was announced that the series would end in 2018, the network's official press release stated that prior to the show's conclusion there would be \"new episodes, mini-series, specials and more\".\n\nAccording to TheSlanted, Cartoon Network took to \"teas[ing]\" information about the Islands miniseries immediately prior to its release. For instance, in early November 2016, ComiXology announced that the graphic novel Islands would tie \"into the huge Adventure Time: Islands television event, the mini-series airing on Cartoon Network this winter where Finn meets other humans and an important member of his family for the first time\", and later that month, an Amazon.com page for a pre-order of the Islands DVD was made available. Similarly, on December 9, the official Adventure Time Tumblr account revealed that the miniseries would have a unique title sequence. The announcements concerning the intro sequence, however, did not specifically explain what Islands was or when it would air. Official announcements detailing the miniseries were finally released on December 12, 2016 via a press release distributed to various media outlets.\n\nMuch like Stakes, Islands has a unique title sequence that was designed just for the miniseries. The new intro was storyboarded by Sam Alden and, much like the Stakes intro, was animated by Masaaki Yuasa's company Science SARU. The sequence was previewed via Cartoon Network's Facebook page and the official Adventure Time Tumblr on December 12; at this time, the latter noted: \"We were incredibly fortunate to have the fantastic staff of Science SARU animate [the] intro for [the] Islands miniseries. [Science SARU is] so good it's breathtaking.\" Unlike the usual sequence which begins episodes of Adventure Time, the Islands intro adopts a nautical theme, and highlights the characters Finn, Jake, Susan Strong, and BMO; the theme itself is sung by Jeremy Shada, the voice actor for Finn.\n\nThe miniseries' story was developed by head writer Kent Osborne, series showrunner Adam Muto, Jack Pendarvis, and Ashly Burch. Storyboard artists who worked on this miniseries include Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Tom Herpich, Steve Wolfhard, Graham Falk, Pendleton Ward, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Kent Osborne, and Adam Muto. Cole Sanchez and Elizabeth Ito served as the miniseries' supervising directors, and Sandra Lee served as art director.\n\n## Cast\n\nThe miniseries features vocal performances courtesy of the show's regular crew: Jeremy Shada (who voices Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (who voices Jake the Dog), Hynden Walch (who voices Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (who voices Marceline the Vampire Queen). Niki Yang (who voices the sentient video game console BMO) and Jackie Buscarino (who voices Susan Strong) also play an integral part in the miniseries. The Adventure Time cast records their lines together as opposed to doing it individually. This is to capture more natural sounding dialogue among the characters. Hynden Walch has described these group session as akin to \"doing a play reading—a really, really out there play.\"\n\nThe miniseries also features several guest actors lending their voices to various characters. Josh Fadem voices Whipple the sea-dragon, Helena Mattsson plays Alva, Reggie Watts voices Vinny, Jasika Nicole voices Freida, Livvy Stubenrauch plays young Kara/Susan, Sharon Horgan voices Finn's mother Minerva, and Laraine Newman lends her voice to the Widow. Likewise, Lennon Parham and Stephen Root reprise their roles as Dr. Gross and Finn's father Martin, respectively. Root had previously appeared in a string of sixth-season episodes, beginning with \"Escape from the Citadel\", and Parham had last voiced her character in \"Preboot\".\n\n## Release and reception\n\n### Broadcast\n\nIslands aired as part of the show's eighth season on Cartoon Network from January 30, 2017, to February 2, 2017. The miniseries made its international debut on Cartoon Network Australia on March 13, 2017. In South Korea, Islands was edited into a feature film and then released theatrically on April 13, 2017. Islands premiered on Cartoon Network UK on July 17, 2017 and concluded on July 20, 2017.\n\n### Ratings\n\nThe premiere episodes, \"The Invitation\"/\"Whipple the Happy Dragon\", were collectively watched by 1.20 million viewers and they both scored a 0.3 in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic according to Nielsen (Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States); this means that 0.3 percent of all households with viewers aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episodes' airing. This made the two episodes the most-watched installments of the series, in terms of viewers, since the seventh-season episode \"Five Short Tables\", which was viewed by 1.36 million viewers. The miniseries' final two episodes, \"Helpers\" and \"The Light Cloud\", were collectively viewed by 1 million viewers, and scored a 0.27 in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic.\n\n### Critical reception\n\nPre-release reviews of the miniseries were largely positive. Zack Smith of Newsarama gave the miniseries a largely positive review and called it \"fan service writ large, one that will prove immensely satisfying for long-term fans of the series\". He applauded the way the string of episodes managed to start out with self-contained stories and move into a dense and emotional backstory. Tonally, Smith described the miniseries as possessing \"the feel of an old-school post-apocalyptic SF sagaa journey through a devastated-but-wondrous world, with a sense of danger and mystery detached from the Land of Ooo.\" Smith's only complaint was that \"there's enough rich emotional material once the voyagers reach their destination that it feels like more time could be spent there\". Matthew Jacobson of The Spectrum wrote that \"the story is masterful and imaginative\" and that \"if Islands is a litmus test, then the final season should be one heck of an adventure.\"\n\nPost-release reviews were also positive. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the miniseries an \"A\" and wrote that it \"can be seen as a summary of Adventure Time's growth over seven seasons, beginning with smaller, sillier tales that build to something much deeper.\" He applauded how Islands \"does fantastic work fleshing out supporting characters\", specifically highlighting the show's nuanced and multidimensional portrayal of Martin, Dr. Gross, and Susan Strong. He wrote that the miniseries' main story is \"a powerful thesis statement cementing the show's overall message that adventure is at the core of personal discovery and fulfillment\", and that this same story is \"extremely relevant to the United States' current socio-political climate\". Dave Trumbore of Collider wrote that the string of episodes were \"packed full of emotional resonance and deeply complex character relationships\" and \"dip[ped] into some emotionally difficult territory\". Trumbore was particularly complimentary towards the way the show managed to explicate Susan's character by giving her a compelling backstory. Ultimately, Trumbore wrote that while \"Adventure Time: Islands succeeds in every aspect the series has become known for,\" it also \"comes up short in familiar ways ... Unfortunately, the style (and the duration) of Adventure Time episodes works against ... delving into [the show's] mythology ... so we'll just have to obsess over whatever glimpses we get and settle for watching this series again and again.\"\n\nIn a highly complimentary review for The New Republic, Juliet Kleber wrote that \"Islands does a dizzying amount of plot development in 80-something minutes.\" Furthermore, she argued that \"Finn's coming-of-age story and the exploration of the post-apocalyptic plotline\" as featured in the miniseries \"are handled just as deftly as any other subject—with fun and a tinge of sorrow.\" Zach Blumenfeld of Paste Magazine gave Islands a slightly more mixed, albeit still positive, review. He complimented the philosophical musing of the miniseries, which he argued \"takes on shades of Black Mirror and existentialism to cast a critical eye on technology and the human spirit.\" Blumenfeld wrote:\n\n> Islands [...] [gives] us a world in which incredibly advanced bioengineering and cybernetics have kept humans alive and ensconced in relative comfort. But the twist is that the very scientific drive to innovate and develop these technologies is precisely what damned our species in the first place. [...] What Islands ends up delivering, therefore, is the most harrowing answer to Fermi's famous paradox: Intelligent life will inevitably destroy itself.\n\nWith this being said, he felt that episodes such as \"Whipple the Happy Dragon\" and \"Mysterious Island\" took time away from the main story, compacting Finn's emotional reaction to Founder's Island, which resulted in \"relative emotional emptiness\".\n\n### Accolades\n\nCommon Sense Media awarded the Islands miniseries with \"The Common Sense Seal\", calling it a \"beautiful animated miniseries [that] explores a deep backstory.\" The episode \"Imaginary Resources\" won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2017.\n\n## Episodes\n\n## Home media\n\nWarner Home Video released the entire miniseries digitally and on DVD on January 24, 2017. This marked the second time that Adventure Time episodes had been released on home media before officially airing on Cartoon Network (the first instance being the release of the episode \"Princess Day\" on the DVD of the same name on July 29, 2014).\n\n### DVD release\n\n## Comic book\n\nIn October 2016, it was announced that the stand-alone comic book, Islands, written by series' storyline writer Ashly Burch would function as a prequel to the miniseries. The book was released on December 6, 2016.\n\n## See also\n\n- \"Orb\", which continues from where Islands ends\n- \"Ketchup\", which features a distorted recollection of Islands\n- Elements, the third Adventure Time miniseries, which aired as part of the show's ninth season in April 2017", "revid": "1173878572", "description": "2017 television miniseries", "categories": ["2010s American animated television miniseries", "2017 American television episodes", "Adventure Time (season 8) episodes", "Emmy Award-winning episodes", "Science Saru", "Television shows set on islands"]}
{"id": "43628243", "url": null, "title": "New York Produce Exchange", "text": "The New York Produce Exchange was a commodities exchange headquartered in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It served a network of produce and commodities dealers across the United States. Founded in 1861 as the New York Commercial Association, it was originally headquartered at Whitehall Street in a building owned by the New York Produce Exchange Company. The Association was renamed the New York Produce Exchange in 1868 and took over the original building in 1872.\n\nBetween 1881 and 1884, the Produce Exchange built a new headquarters on 2 Broadway, facing Bowling Green in Lower Manhattan. The structure, designed by George B. Post, was the first in the world to combine wrought iron and masonry in its structural construction. The main feature of the structure was an exchange floor that measured approximately 220 by 144 feet (67 by 44 m). The Produce Exchange was profitable following the building's completion. By the 1880s, it had the largest membership of any exchange in the United States, with a maximum of three thousand members. By 1900, the exchange was doing \\$15 million a day in business.\n\nIn the early 20th century, activity on the Produce Exchange started to decline due to competition from other cities. The Produce Exchange sold off its building for development in the 1950s; the headquarters was demolished to make way for a skyscraper called 2 Broadway. The exchange had its trading floor in the skyscraper from 1959 until 1973, when it was restructured as the Produce Exchange Realty Trust, a real estate investment trust.\n\n## Origins\n\nThe New York Produce Exchange's origins date to the New York Corn Exchange, which had been chartered in 1853. At the time, New York City's flour and grain trades were largely outdoors, centered at the intersection of Broad Street and South Street. The Corn Exchange combined four buildings on Broad and South Streets to make an \"L\"-shaped gathering room. The temporary headquarters had become inadequate for the exchange's needs by the late 1850s, with at least one thousand merchants crowded into the dingy quarters. Furthermore, a neighboring property could not be acquired for expansion. Accordingly, during the early 1860s, members of the Corn Exchange formed two companies: one to build a new headquarters and another to operate the commodities exchange within that building.\n\n### First headquarters\n\nThe New York Produce Exchange Company was founded in 1860 to construct a building on the block bounded by Whitehall, Moore, Pearl, and Water Streets. The company had tried to add stories to the existing structures on the block but were unable to do so because of weak foundations. The first building, later known as the Old New York Produce Exchange, was designed by Leopold Eidlitz as the result of an architectural design competition. The structure was completed in 1861 for \\$95,350. The first headquarters was sold in 1886 to the United States government, which remodeled it as the Army Building on 39 Whitehall Street. The Army Building was itself renovated as an office building called 3 New York Plaza in 1986.\n\nThe building occupied the entire city block, which was irregular in dimension. It contained a brick facade with olive stone trimmings, as well as windows topped by tall arches. Inside was originally a double-height exchange room with an open-timber ceiling supported by four piers of brownstone. The structure used iron only in the floor beams and the clerestory walls. The design of the building, with its top story in a cruciform shape, was described by architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler as \"a very effective transeptual arrangement\".\n\n### Creation of exchange\n\nOn April 22, 1861, seven hundred Corn Exchange merchants formed the New York Commercial Association, which rented out the second floor of the Produce Exchange Building. In theory, the Association was separate from the Corn Exchange, but in practice, all except two merchants from the Corn Exchange had joined the Association as well. The association served a network of produce and commodities dealers across the United States. The organization received a charter from the New York State Legislature in 1862. As part of the charter, the Association was authorized to hold annual elections for a board of managers. At the end of the Association's first year, it had 1,238 members. Annual dues were originally \\$20 per member, rising to \\$25 in 1865. The New York Commercial Association was legally renamed the New York Produce Exchange in 1868.\n\nThe exchange had grown to contain 2,023 members by 1869, but four-fifths of its \\$49,000 annual income was being used to pay rent to the New York Produce Exchange Company. Accordingly, the exchange formed a committee in 1870 to determine how much to pay for the building, though no action was taken at first. In January 1872, the Produce Exchange's members voted to impose a \\$200 fee per member, which would be used to raise funds to buy the building. The Produce Exchange ultimately purchased the building in May 1872 for \\$265,000 after 1,300 members agreed to pay the fee. Afterward, the Produce Exchange renovated the interior, adding space to accommodate the increased membership and converting the basement into a full story. A board room was installed on the fourth floor. The Produce Exchange also created its own membership certificates and official seals, and membership initiation fees were raised to \\$300.\n\nShortly after the Produce Exchange purchased its building, in 1873, the act of incorporation was revised to allow the exchange to hold up to \\$1.5 million in real and personal property. The initiation fee was raised to \\$500 the same year, at which point the exchange had 2,237 members. The initiation fee was raised once again to \\$1,000 in 1874. By 1875, the exchange had started searching for sites for a new building. The exchange had grown to 2,468 members by 1878. At that point, even the expanded building had become too small to accommodate the exchange. The New-York Tribune characterized it the following year as \"insufficiently lighted, poorly ventilated, and generally damp\", with its basement prone to flooding during high tides. In 1880, the Exchange updated its bylaws to limit membership to 2,700 and setting the new-member initiation fee at \\$1,000. Three hundred additional memberships were subsequently issued at \\$2,500 each. The initiation fee system was ultimately abolished in 1882.\n\n## Bowling Green headquarters\n\nThe second headquarters, or the New York Produce Exchange Building, was developed after the Produce Exchange formed a committee to look for a new building site in early 1879. The site-selection committee recommended that the building be south of Exchange Place, east of Broadway, and west of William Street. In June 1879, the members of the Produce Exchange voted to acquire a site and create a committee for a new building. Initially, the Exchange wanted a site immediately north of the location it ultimately selected. The exchange ultimately acquired land along the eastern side of Bowling Green, between Beaver and Stone Streets, in mid-1880 for \\$670,000. A section of Marketfield Street, which ran through the proposed building site, was closed to make way for the building, and New Street was extended south to the truncated connection of Marketfield Street.\n\n### Design\n\nIn October 1880, some members of the exchange formed a new building committee and invited ten architects to an architectural design competition. Seven other architects submitted plans voluntarily. The designs were required to include features such as ground-floor stores and offices, as well as a trading floor with space for 3,000 members. The drawings were to be submitted to the Produce Exchange's building committee, who would exhibit the plans and hold a ballot among the exchange's members. The committee selected four submissions for further review, which were hung on the trading floor's walls without any names. The members of the exchange requested further guidance from the building committee a week before the formal vote was to be held in March 1881. The committee suggested a design entitled In me mea spes omnis, which The New York Times inferred was a submission by George B. Post.\n\nExchange members overwhelmingly voted for Post's plan, with 942 in favor of that design, compared to 249 for the other three proposals combined. Post's design had a frontage of about 312 feet (95 m) to the west on Bowling Green, 150 feet (46 m) to the north on Beaver Street, and 148 feet (45 m) to the south on Stone Street. Overall, the building covered an area of 53,779 square feet (4,996.2 m<sup>2</sup>). The upper floors wrapped around a \"light court\" that was in the center of the building above the third-story trading floor. A clock tower on the southeastern corner of the site, measuring 40 by 70 feet (12 by 21 m), was added as part of a modification to the design. The building was about 120 feet (37 m) tall above its main roof and 225 feet (69 m) above its clock tower. Ultimately, Post devised 4,000 drawings for the exchange's headquarters.\n\n#### Facade\n\nThe facade was largely made of red brick and terracotta, chosen because the materials were seen as fireproof. Granite was used on the ground-floor entrance terrace and the cellar walls. As a whole, the exterior was designed to appear low to the ground, with this quality being emphasized by strong horizontal lines. At ground level on the western, northern, and southern sides, the entrances consisted of triple arches between sets of paired columns. The remainder of the ground story on these sides contained rectangular storefronts. On the eastern side, a projecting terrace on New Street led to an entrance without columns. This terrace covered about 4,128 square feet (383.5 m<sup>2</sup>).\n\nThe northern, western, and southern facades each contained two arcades above the ground level, one on top of the other. The lower arcade rose to the ceiling of the third-story trading floor but, due to the inclusion of three additional stories above the trading floor, was the equivalent of four stories high. There were decorative terracotta details on the lower arcade, including state-seal roundels above the windows atop each arch; ship-prow reliefs in the soffits; and a frieze above the arches with animal heads and cereal grains. The upper arcade, directly above the trading floor, was aligned with the lowest two office levels (seventh and eighth stories overall) and contained arches half as wide as the arcade below it. The ninth story contained rectangular openings that were again half as wide as the upper arcade stories. A heavy cornice ran between the ninth and tenth stories, and there were rectangular openings on the tenth story.\n\nThe clock tower had four clock faces, one on each side. It lacked any windows, except where the interior stairways were placed but had large clock faces on each side with balconies. The clock faces on the tower were 12 feet (3.7 m) across, with numerals 20 inches (510 mm) tall, and weighed 1,500 pounds (680 kg). The tower was topped by a heavy cornice similar to that on the main structure.\n\n#### Structural features\n\nWhen the building was completed, it was described as having \"12,000,000 bricks, 15 miles of iron girders, 1+3⁄4 miles of columns, 2,061 tons of terracotta, 7+1⁄2 of flooring, more than 2,000 windows, and nearly 1,000 doors\". The underlying ground contained several layers of quicksand, requiring the structure to be built upon over 15,000 pilings made of spruce and pine. The pilings extended to the layer of hardpan, which was likely 35 feet (11 m) feet deep, and their tops were cut off at a depth of 16.5 feet (5.0 m), slightly lower than tide level. The basement contained its own coal plant and water pumps, connected by a narrow-gauge railroad track.\n\nThe Bowling Green headquarters was the world's first building with a superstructure combining wrought iron and masonry. The superstructure contained a grid of evenly spaced cast-iron columns, which rested on wrought-iron girders weighing 12 short tons (11 long tons; 11 t) each. The beams, arch ribs, and trusses were also made of metal. The interior light court used a metal skeleton for its walls, which Post stated was the first \"adopting a metal cage for exterior wall construction\". Each of the light court's columns and girders were carried by Pratt trusses down to the columns surrounding the third-story exchange floor.\n\nThe superstructure was close to being a full metal skeleton, except the exterior columns were embedded within masonry piers. Winston Weisman, in an essay about Post's architecture, wrote that this might have been because Post mistrusted skeleton framing. The outer walls were made of load-bearing masonry, consisting of piers that were outwardly clad with granite on the lower stories and brick above. The piers were comparatively thick at the base, being 11 feet (3.4 m) thick at the basement but tapered above ground level to a thickness of 4 feet (1.2 m) at the seventh story, the lowest office level.\n\n#### Interior\n\nThere were ten stories in the main section of the Produce Exchange Building, plus four additional stories in the clock tower. The main section had six full stories: the ground floor; the third story, containing the exchange floor; and the seventh through tenth stories, containing offices. The second, fourth, fifth, and sixth stories were considered intermediate levels. There were nine elevators in total: four near the south end at Stone Street and five near the north end at Beaver Street. Two staircases, one at each end of the building, also connected the floors. The staircase and elevators at the Stone Street end extended into the tower. There was a terrace atop the flat roof adjacent to the clock tower.\n\nThe third-story exchange floor measured approximately 220 by 144 feet (67 by 44 m). The stained-glass skylight above the middle of the exchange floor was about 60 feet (18 m) high and was supported by Warren trusses. The remainder of the ceiling was about 47.5 feet (14.5 m) above the floor. The exchange floor was lit by the 23 large windows on the Bowling Green and Stone Street facades. Hallways leading off the exchange floor were finished in multicolored tile. Overlooking the northern end of the exchange floor were three stories, which contained executive offices, a call room, and a library for exchange members. The Produce Exchange's various departments, such as the board room, arbitration chamber, and board of managers' room were lavishly decorated. The Produce Exchange Building's design also provided for private offices at ground level, as well as 190 offices on the seventh through tenth floors.\n\n### Development\n\nWork on the Bowling Green headquarters officially began on May 1, 1881, with the first foundation pile being driven that July. The exchange's board of managers allotted an additional \\$300,000 toward the building's construction in June 1881. At the time, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Maritime Exchange had rented portions of the planned Produce Exchange building. Numerous engineers and contractors were hired for the building's construction. The exchange also appointed a special committee to investigate expenses related to the building. The committee reported in November 1881 that the structure would cost \\$2.1 million and that the cost of excavation had raised total costs by \\$200,000. The cornerstone-laying ceremony was held on June 6, 1882. For the ceremony, a row of flags from other nations was hung from the framework, which at that point had been completed to the first floor. At the exchange's annual meeting during May 1883, exchange president Lyman F. Holman announced that the new headquarters had already been enclosed and was expected to be opened in ten months. That December, the exchange held an auction for the leases of 178 offices on the building's top floors. Almost all offices on the top floors had been rented by the first week of May 1884, when tenants started moving in. The structure officially opened on May 6, 1884, with a set of speeches attended by 4,000 guests. Unofficially, the building had been opened the preceding day with a ladies' reception.\n\nThe completed design received mixed criticism from historians and architectural critics. After the building's completion, German diplomat Karl Hinckeldeyn wrote that he believed the Produce Exchange to be comparable to the Roman Palazzo Farnese. Christopher Gray, writing for The New York Times, called the structure \"the most impressive exchange structure ever seen in Manhattan\". However, some observers raised objections to the proportions of the designs. Montgomery Schuyler criticized the facade as \"merely an envelope...devoid of an interest property architectural\". An unnamed critic for the Real Estate Record and Guide called the tower was \"purely monumental\" and inappropriately placed at the rear of the building, \"as if one were to lavish all the decoration of his house upon the kitchen door\". Another writer, Mariana Van Rennselaer, had a mixed opinion of the structure, calling the tower \"utterly superfluous and disturbing\" but describing the design beneath the cornice as \"very fine in general proportion\".\n\n## Operation\n\nThe Produce Exchange dealt in commodities futures. The different trades, such as flour, grain, cotton oil, and steamship trades, operated separately from each other but were moderated by a trade committee. Generally, the exchange operated between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. on weekdays and from 9 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. on Saturdays. A five-member arbitration committee was selected to hear any disputes. Absent or sick members could select substitutes to fulfill contracts for them, although both member and substitute could be restricted from the floor if they failed to fulfill a contract. While membership was capped at three thousand, membership certificates could be sold off. Whenever a member died, their families received \\$10,000, with \\$3 coming from each surviving member and the balance from the exchange's surplus fund. Harper's New Monthly Magazine, describing the business of the Produce Exchange in 1886, characterized the trading as \"callithumpian discord\" with \"fiendish screeches\".\n\nAccording to the exchange's president in 1911, the exchange floor handled commodities such as \"wheat, corn, rye, oats, barley and other grains, flour, meal, hops, hay, straw, seeds, pork, lard, all sorts of meat food products, tallow, greases, cotton-seed oil and various other animal and vegetable oils, naval stores of all kinds, butter, [and] cheese\". Warehouse receipts of provisions at the Produce Exchange were typically executed in groups of 250 barrels, each weighing 200 pounds (91 kg). Grains were bought and sold in increments of 8,000 bushels. Many different grades of commodities such as corn, oats, rye, and barley were traded on the Produce Exchange. The commodities were sampled extensively for quality before being traded on the exchange. The Produce Exchange had a clearinghouse that was incorporated separately, one of the first exchanges ever to do so.\n\n### Late 19th century\n\nOne author wrote of the exchange itself in 1884, \"From comparatively small beginnings it has reached a position of prominence, power, and usefulness in the community little dreamt of twenty years ago.\" The New York Produce Exchange, with its three thousand members, had the largest membership of any exchange in the United States at that time. In addition to its business activities, some members formed leisurely clubs, such as a glee club and a baseball team. Another activity popularized by the exchange's members in the 1880s was the informal practice of throwing dough balls, which stemmed from the practice of rolling balls of grain for sampling, although that practice was banned in 1893. The office space was renting for about \\$180,000 per year in 1886, a six percent return on the entire investment of \\$2 million. Seven years later, the annual rental income exceeded \\$260,000.\n\nThe exchange had become large enough that, in 1892, members voted to build an eastward extension of the structure, though no action was taken at the time. After New York City saw a decline in commodities trade during the 1890s, the Produce Exchange filed complaints with the Interstate Commerce Commission, alleging that freight operators were diverting trade to other cities such as Philadelphia and Baltimore. At its peak in 1900, the exchange was performing \\$15 million worth of transactions daily. The exchange was described the next year as one of the city's busiest exchanges, behind only the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and the Consolidated Stock Exchange. In subsequent years, New York City's inadequate freight facilities led to a decrease in business on the Produce Exchange, as new railroads made other cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Chicago more competitive.\n\n### Early and mid-20th century\n\nThe Produce Exchange started trading cottonseed oil in 1902. When the New York Stock Exchange Building was being constructed in the first decade of the 20th century, the Produce Exchange Building served as the NYSE's temporary headquarters. An eastern annex to the Produce Exchange was built on Stone Street around that time, and the Produce Exchange purchased an adjacent building on 76 Broad Street at the end of the decade. After the Panic of 1907, the exchange stopped hosting extravagant New Year's Eve dinners and started distributing dinners for the poor. By then, the Produce Exchange had come to see its headquarters as excessively large, considering the NYSE was easily able to fit within the space. A special committee recommended selling the Produce Exchange Building in 1909 for \\$6 million. The Produce Exchange retained ownership of the building but continued to decline in stature compared to other cities. The exchange stopped trading grain futures in 1907, but the exchange remained influential in other respects since the primary steamship companies and brokerage houses were all members of the exchange. The exchange opened a grain futures market in August 1926 and started trading in oats futures several months later. At the time, the Produce Exchange had around 1,500 members. The exchange's members voted to sell off the building that December. The exchange had difficulty selling its building due to a lack of suitable alternate sites, and the wheat futures market suffered from a lack of speculative interest, although cotton oil futures trading was active. One failed proposal for the site was for a skyscraper of over 100 stories, proposed in 1928. The Produce Exchange started trading securities that December. Two years later, the Produce Exchange appointed a committee to study the possibility of demolishing its headquarters, although nothing occurred at that time.\n\nBy the early 1930s, the Produce Exchange was one of the largest securities trading exchanges in the United States, with over a thousand securities being traded on the exchange. The office and commercial space continued to be rented out for profit, such as in 1934, when part of the ground floor was converted into a restaurant. The Produce Exchange suspended securities trading in 1935 following the implementation of government regulations. With the onset of World War II, business at the Produce Exchange declined because the United States government controlled all cargo, making it unnecessary for steamship lines to have representatives at the exchange. The Produce Exchange started trading refined soybean oil futures in 1946. Around the same time, the Produce Exchange again contemplated redeveloping its building. The Produce Exchange had approximately five hundred members in the 1950s, one-sixth the membership at its 19th-century peak.\n\n### Site redevelopment\n\nThe site was leased in October 1953 to developers Jack D. Weiler and Benjamin H. Swig for up to 100 years. The developers planned to construct a 30-story building at 2 Broadway, on the Produce Exchange Building's site. The exchange would lease about 21,000 square feet (2,000 m<sup>2</sup>) at the building with a trading floor at the ground story and executive offices on the second story. At the time, Talbot Hamlin wrote: \"There seems thus something peculiarly unfortunate in the proposed unnecessary destruction of this building\". After the original plan failed, the Produce Exchange negotiated with the Charles F. Noyes Company, which took over the development project in 1956. As part of an agreement with the Noyes Company, the exchange was allowed to retain ownership of the land under the new building. When the Uris Buildings Corporation subsequently took over the development, the Produce Exchange's land ownership was preserved.\n\nIn January 1957, the Produce Exchange sold the furnishings inside its Bowling Green headquarters and moved to temporary quarters at 42 Broadway. The Produce Exchange Building at Bowling Green was demolished starting the following month. Produce Exchange officials retrieved the old cornerstone that June and found its contents still intact, including coins, jars of commodities, books, and a newspaper. None of the decorative terracotta ornament was preserved, a circumstance characterized by authors Sarah Landau and Carl W. Condit as seemingly \"unforgivably venal\". The Produce Exchange moved to 2 Broadway on November 23, 1959, following the skyscraper's completion. Although the Produce Exchange had to pay \\$100,000 in annual rent for leasing the ground story from the building's owners, it earned \\$275,000 per year from leasing the underlying land to the building's owners.\n\n## Dissolution\n\nThe Produce Exchange explored the feasibility of merging with the New York Cotton Exchange in 1962. These plans were dropped after the salad oil scandal of 1963, which resulted in the bankruptcy of the Allied Crude Vegetable Oil company, which traded on the Produce Exchange. As a result of the scandal, traders had been reluctant to do business with the exchange for some time. The Produce Exchange started trading soybean futures in 1966 and fish meal futures the next year. The Produce Exchange formed the International Commercial Exchange Inc. in 1969 to assume the exchange's contract markets. By the early 1970s, the Commercial Exchange was only dealing in currency futures, and the Produce Exchange no longer dealt in commodities futures.\n\nIn January 1973, the remaining members of the Produce Exchange voted overwhelmingly to convert the exchange into a non-taxable real estate investment trust called the Produce Exchange Realty Trust (PERT). The trust's main property was the land ownership of 2 Broadway. The move allowed the Produce Exchange to issue 1,000 shares in the PERT and \\$1,900 in cash to each of its 473 members. The Produce Exchange became the PERT on May 22, 1973. The PERT's trustees agreed to sell off its ownership in 2 Broadway in 1983 for \\$26 million, liquidating all its assets. The liquidation came following a dispute between the PERT and Olympia and York, which owned 2 Broadway and objected to a proposed raise of the land lease.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of commodities exchanges\n- List of stock exchanges\n- Economy of New York City\n- Produce Exchange Building, produce market in Springfield, Massachusetts", "revid": "1154798140", "description": "Former building and commodities exchange in Manhattan, New York", "categories": ["1861 establishments in New York (state)", "1884 establishments in New York (state)", "1957 disestablishments in New York (state)", "1973 disestablishments in New York (state)", "Bowling Green (New York City)", "Broadway (Manhattan)", "Buildings and structures completed in 1884", "Buildings and structures demolished in 1957", "Commercial buildings in Manhattan", "Companies based in New York City", "Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan", "Economy of New York City", "Financial District, Manhattan", "Former stock exchanges in the United States"]}
{"id": "28048523", "url": null, "title": "2014 Atlantic hurricane season", "text": "The 2014 Atlantic hurricane season was a below-average hurricane season in terms of named storms and major hurricanes, though average in terms of number of hurricanes overall. It produced nine tropical cyclones, eight of which became named storms; six storms became hurricanes and two intensified further into major hurricanes. The season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. These dates historically describe the period each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first storm of the season, Arthur, developed on July 1, while the final storm, Hanna, dissipated on October 28, about a month prior to the end of the season. 2014 is the most recent year with a below average number of named Atlantic storms.\n\nAlthough every named storm impacted land, overall effects were minimal. Arthur caused one indirect fatality and \\$16.8 million (2014 USD) in damage after striking North Carolina and becoming the first Category 2 hurricane to make landfall in the United States since 2008's Hurricane Ike, and its remnants moving across Atlantic Canada. Hurricane Bertha brushed the Lesser Antilles but its impacts were relatively minor. Three deaths occurred offshore the United States and one fatal injury was reported off the coast of the United Kingdom. Hurricane Cristobal caused two deaths each in Haiti and the Dominican Republic and one in Turks and Caicos Islands, all due to flooding. Rip currents affected Maryland and New Jersey, resulting in one fatality in each state. The remnants of Cristobal were responsible for three indirect deaths in the United Kingdom. Tropical Storm Dolly made landfall in eastern Mexico and triggered flooding due to heavy rains, leaving minor impact. Hurricane Edouard caused two deaths near the coast of Maryland due to strong rip currents.\n\nFay caused about \\$3.8 million in damage in Bermuda after striking the island. Hurricane Gonzalo was the most intense hurricane of the season. A powerful Atlantic hurricane, Gonzalo had destructive impacts in the Lesser Antilles and Bermuda, and it was also the first Category 4 hurricane since Ophelia in 2011 and the strongest in the basin since Igor in 2010. It caused three fatalities in the Lesser Antilles and at least \\$200 million in damage in Bermuda. The remnants brought flooding and strong winds in Europe, causing three deaths in the United Kingdom. With two hurricanes striking Bermuda, this was the first season featuring more than one hurricane landfall on the island. The last storm of the season, Tropical Storm Hanna, made landfall over Central America in late October producing minimal impact.\n\nMost major forecasting agencies predicted below-average activity to occur this season due to an expected strong El Niño; but the predictions failed to materialize, though unfavorable conditions still became established across the basin.\n\n## Seasonal forecasts\n\nIn advance of, and during, each hurricane season, several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services, scientific agencies, and noted hurricane experts. These include forecasters from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)'s National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center, Tropical Storm Risk, the United Kingdom's Met Office, and Philip J. Klotzbach, William M. Gray and their associates at Colorado State University (CSU). The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes within a particular year. According to NOAA and CSU, the average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 and 2010 contained roughly 12 tropical storms, six hurricanes, three major hurricanes, and an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index of 66–103 units. Broadly speaking, ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical or subtropical storm multiplied by the length of time it existed. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration or stronger intensity, such as Gonzalo, will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated for full advisories on specific tropical and subtropical systems reaching or exceeding wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h). Accordingly, tropical depressions are not included here. After the storm has dissipated, typically after the end of the season, the NHC reexamines the data, and produces a final report on each storm. These revisions can lead to a revised ACE total either upward or downward compared to the operational value. NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above-average, average, or below-average based on the cumulative ACE Index, but the number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes within a hurricane season are considered occasionally as well.\n\n### Pre-season forecasts\n\nOn December 13, 2013, Tropical Storm Risk (TSR), a public consortium consisting of experts on insurance, risk management, and seasonal climate forecasting at University College London, issued their first outlook on seasonal hurricane activity during the 2014 season. Their report called for a near-normal year, with 14 (±4) tropical storms, 6 (±3) hurricanes, 3 (±2) intense hurricanes, and a cumulative ACE index of 106 (±58) units. The basis for such included slightly stronger than normal trade winds and slightly warmer than normal sea surface temperatures across the Caribbean Sea and tropical North Atlantic. A few months later, on March 24, 2014, Weather Services International (WSI), a subsidiary company of The Weather Channel, released their first outlook, calling for 11 named storms, 5 hurricanes, and 2 major hurricanes. Two factors—cooler-than-average waters in the eastern Atlantic, and the likelihood of an El Niño developing during the summer of 2014—were expected to negate high seasonal activity.\n\nOn April 7, TSR issued their second extended-range forecast for the season, lowering the predicted numbers to 12 (±4) named storms, 5 (±3) hurricanes, 2 (±2) major hurricanes, and an ACE index of 75 (±57) units. Three days later, CSU issued their first outlook for the year, predicting activity below the 1981–2010 average. Citing a likely El Niño of at least moderate intensity and cooler-than-average tropical Atlantic sea surface temperatures, the organization predicted nine named storms, three hurricanes, one major hurricane, and an ACE index of 55 units. The probability of a major hurricane making landfall on the United States or tracking through the Caribbean Sea was expected to be lower than average.\n\nOn May 16, the United Kingdom Met Office (UKMO) issued a forecast of a slightly below-average season. It predicted 10 named storms with a 70% chance that the number would be between 7 and 13 and 6 hurricanes with a 70% chance that the number would be between 3 and 9. It also predicted an ACE index of 84 with a 70% chance that the index would be in the range 47 to 121. NOAA released their pre-season forecasts on May 22 and called for a 70% chance that there would be between 8 and 13 named storms, 3 to 6 hurricanes, and 1 to 2 major hurricanes. On May 29, the Florida State University Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies, FSU COAPS, issued its first and only prediction for the season. The organization called for five to nine named storms, of which two to six would further intensify into hurricanes; one to two of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane intensity. In addition, an ACE index of 60 units was forecast.\n\n### Mid-season predictions\n\nIn July and August, CSU, TSR, and NOAA released similar outlooks for the remainder of the season. CSU increased its prediction on July 31 to ten named storms, four hurricanes, and one major hurricane, which was unchanged from its forecast on May 23. The forecast team noted that conditions for tropical cyclogenesis appeared \"detrimental\", with abnormally cold sea surface temperatures, higher than average sea-level pressures, and strong vertical wind shear. TSR issued another forecast on July 5, indicated that there would be nine to fifteen named storms, four to eight hurricanes, and one to three major hurricanes, citing conditions similar to those forecast by CSU. Two days later, NOAA revised its predictions and called for seven to twelve named storms, three to six hurricanes, and zero to two major hurricanes. NOAA noted similar atmospheric and oceanic conditions, but also indicated a weaker African monsoon, a stable atmosphere, and sinking air.\n\n## Seasonal summary\n\nThe Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 2014. It was a below average season in which nine tropical cyclones formed. Eight of the nine designated cyclones attained tropical storm status, the fewest since the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season. Of the eight tropical storms, six reached at least Category 1 hurricane intensity. The 2014 season extended the period without major hurricane landfalls in the United States to nine years, with the last such system being Hurricane Wilma in 2005. The lack of activity was attributed to an atmospheric circulation that favored dry, sinking air over the Atlantic Ocean and strong wind shear over the Caribbean Sea. Additionally, sea surface temperatures were near-average. A few notable events occurred during the season. Arthur made landfall between Cape Lookout and Cape Hatteras as a Category 2 hurricane, becoming the first U.S. landfalling cyclone of that intensity since Hurricane Ike in 2008. Arthur also became the earliest known hurricane to strike the North Carolina coastline on record, doing so on July 4. In October, Fay became the first hurricane to make landfall on Bermuda since Emily in 1987. With Gonzalo striking the island only four days later, 2014 became the first season on record in which more than one hurricane struck Bermuda. Four hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 21 deaths and at least \\$233 million in damage. Hurricane Cristobal also caused fatalities, though it did not strike land. The Atlantic hurricane season officially ended on November 30, 2014.\n\nTropical cyclogenesis began in early July, with the development of Hurricane Arthur on July 1, ahead of the long-term climatological average of July 9. Early on July 3, the system intensified into a hurricane, preceding the climatological average of August 10. Later that month, a tropical depression developed over the eastern Atlantic, but dissipated after only two days. There were also two tropical cyclones in August, with the development of hurricanes Bertha and Cristobal. Despite being the climatological peak of hurricane season, only two additional systems originated in September – Tropical Storm Dolly and Hurricane Edouard. In October, three storms developed, including hurricane Fay and Gonzalo and Tropical Storm Hanna. The most intense tropical cyclone – Hurricane Gonzalo – peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (235 km/h) on October 16 which is a Category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. It was the first Category 4 hurricane since Hurricane Ophelia in 2011. The final tropical cyclone of the season was Hanna, which dissipated on October 28.\n\nThe season's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) rating of 67. This was nearly double that of the previous season, but still well below the 1981–2010 median of 92. The ACE value in October was higher than August and September combined, which has not occurred since 1963.\n\n## Systems\n\n### Hurricane Arthur\n\nOn June 25, a low-pressure area formed within a mesoscale convective complex over the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. After crossing Georgia and South Carolina, it became absorbed by a weak frontal boundary that drifted south-southeastward. An area of low pressure developed off the Southeast United States by June 28, eventually leading to the formation of a tropical depression by 00:00 UTC on July 1. Amid a generally favorable environment, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Arthur at 12:00 UTC that same day and further to a Category 1 hurricane by 00:00 UTC on July 3. An approaching mid-level trough directed the storm north-northeastward as it continued to intensify, and Arthur reached its peak as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) at 00:00 UTC on July 4. A few hours later, it moved ashore just west of Cape Lookout, North Carolina, becoming the earliest landfalling hurricane on record in the state. Following landfall, Arthur accelerated northeast across the western Atlantic while encountering an increasingly unfavorable environment, weakening to a tropical storm at 06:00 UTC on July 5 and transitioning into an extratropical cyclone six hours later. The post-tropical low eventually dissipated east of Labrador late on July 9.\n\nAs a developing tropical cyclone, Arthur produced light rainfall across the northwestern Bahamas. Maximum sustained winds peaked at 77 mph (124 km/h), with a peak gust of 101 mph (163 km/h), at Cape Lookout, and Oregon Inlet recorded a peak storm surge of 4.5 ft (1.4 m). At its height, Arthur knocked out power to 44,000 people in North Carolina, triggering Duke Energy to deploy over 500 personnel to restore electricity. Widespread rainfall totals of 6–8 in (150–200 mm) led to the inundation of numerous buildings in Manteo. As the storm passed offshore New England, sustained winds of 47 mph (76 km/h) and gusts up to 63 mph (101 km/h) were observed. Observed rainfall totals over a half foot required the issuance of a flash flood emergency for New Bedford, Massachusetts, while several roads were shut down in surrounding locations. After transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, Arthur knocked out power to more than 290,000 individuals across the Maritimes, with damage to the electrical grid considered the worst since Hurricane Juan in Nova Scotia. One person died after his oxygen support was cut off during a power outage. Hurricane-force gusts were observed in Nova Scotia, with tropical storm-force winds observed as far away as Quebec. Overall, Arthur caused at least \\$28.6 million in damage.\n\n### Tropical Depression Two\n\nA tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on July 17. Steered westward, a small area of low pressure developed in association with the wave two days later. Convection steadily increased and organized, leading to the formation of a tropical depression by 12:00 UTC on July 21. The depression failed to intensify into a tropical storm amid an exceptionally dry and stable environment and instead degenerated into a trough by 18:00 UTC on July 23 while located east of the Lesser Antilles.\n\n### Hurricane Bertha\n\nOn August 1, a tropical wave developed into Tropical Storm Bertha while roughly 345 mi (555 km) east-southeast of Barbados. A mostly disorganized cyclone, Bertha quickly moved across the Lesser Antilles, clipping the northern end of Martinique, later that day. During its trek across the eastern Caribbean Sea, its circulation became severely disrupted and it may have degenerated into a tropical wave. On August 3, it traversed the Mona Passage and moved over the Southeastern Bahamas where conditions favored development. Despite an overall ragged appearance on satellite imagery, data from hurricane hunters indicated it intensified to a hurricane on August 4; it acquired peak winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) that day. Turning north, and later northeast, Bertha soon weakened as it began to merge with an approaching trough to the west. This merger ultimately took place on August 6, at which time Bertha was declared extratropical well to the south of Nova Scotia.\n\nAs a tropical cyclone, Bertha's impact was relatively minor. In the Lesser Antilles, widespread power outages occurred along its path but no major damage or loss of life took place. Enhanced swells and rip currents associated with the hurricane resulted in three fatalities and dozens of rescues along the East Coast of the United States. After becoming an extratropical system, it had significant effects in Western Europe, with the United Kingdom being particularly hard hit. Unseasonably heavy rains triggered widespread flooding which shut down roads and prompted evacuations. One fatality took place offshore after a man suffered a fatal head injury on his yacht amid rough seas. On mainland Europe, a small tornado outbreak resulted in scattered structural damage in Belgium, France, and Germany.\n\n### Hurricane Cristobal\n\nA tropical wave and attendant region of convection developed into a tropical depression at 18:00 UTC on August 23 while located near Mayaguana in the Bahamas; twelve hours later, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Cristobal. The newly formed cyclone turned northward following formation, directed toward a break in a subtropical ridge. Although located in an unfavorable environment, Cristobal steadily intensified and was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 00:00 UTC on August 26 despite a partially exposed circulation and disorganized cloud pattern. As the hurricane turned east-northeastward the following day, its cloud pattern became much more symmetric and an eye became evident, yielding peak winds of 85 mph (135 km/h). Thereafter, a frontal boundary wrapped around the storm's circulation, transitioning the system into an extratropical cyclone by 12:00 UTC on August 29. The post-tropical low maintained hurricane-force winds while accelerating across the North Atlantic, finally merging with a second extratropical low north of Iceland by September 2.\n\nThe precursor of Cristobal and the storm itself dropped heavy precipitation on Puerto Rico, with 13.21 in (336 mm) of rain observed in the municipality of Tibes, bring drought relief to the island. The storm downed many trees and power lines and left more than 23,500 people without power and 8,720 without water. In Dominican Republic, large amounts of rainfall left several communities isolated, flooded at least 800 homes, and killed two people. Thousands of people were evacuated from their homes. In Haiti, mudslides and flooding rendered 640 families homeless and destroyed or severely damaged at least 34 homes. Two people who went missing were later presumed to have drowned. In the Turks and Caicos Islands, the storm produced over 10 in (250 mm) of precipitation on various islands. The international airport on Providenciales briefly closed due to flooding, where one drowning death occurred. Portions of North Caicos were inundated with up to 5 ft (1.5 m) of water. Along the East Coast of the United States, rip currents resulted in two deaths, one each in Maryland and New Jersey.\n\n### Tropical Storm Dolly\n\nAn area of low pressure interacted with an atmospheric kelvin wave, leading to the formation of a tropical depression in the Bay of Campeche at 18:00 UTC on August 31. Six hours later, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dolly. Steered generally westward by a mid-level ridge to its north, the cyclone struggled with strong wind shear and reached peak winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) at 12:00 UTC on September 2. At 04:00 UTC the next day, Dolly moved ashore just south of Tampico, Mexico, with winds of 45 mph (70 km/h). Following landfall, the mountainous terrain of eastern Mexico quickly caused the cyclone to degenerate into a remnant low at 12:00 UTC on September 3. The post-tropical low continued westward prior to dissipating the next day.\n\nHeavy rains from the storm triggered flooding that temporarily isolated three communities in Tampico. One fatality was attributed to the storm. The hardest hit area was Cabo Rojo where 210 homes were affected, 80 of which sustained damage. Total losses to the road network in Tamaulipas reached 80 million pesos (US\\$6 million), while structural damage amounted to 7 million pesos (US\\$500,000). In Texas, more than 2 in (51 mm) of rain fell in Brownsville, causing street flooding. Two Mexican fishing vessels ran aground in the Port of Brownsville and a third on South Padre Island. The United States Coast Guard attributed the mishaps to the sudden influx of numerous ships.\n\n### Hurricane Edouard\n\nA tropical wave accompanied by a broad area of low pressure exited the western coast of Africa on September 6, acquiring sufficient organization to be declared a tropical depression by 12:00 UTC on September 11. Twelve hours later, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Edouard. The newly formed cyclone moved northwest, steered around a subtropical ridge to its northeast. The storm intensified in a generally favorable environment and became a hurricane by 12:00 UTC on September 14. With a well-defined eye surrounded by intense eyewall convection, Edouard further strengthened into a major hurricane early on September 16, attaining peak winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) at 12:00 UTC, the first major hurricane in the Atlantic since Hurricane Sandy in 2012. The cyclone abruptly weakened thereafter as it curved northeastward in advance of an upper-level trough, falling below hurricane intensity by 00:00 UTC on September 19 and degenerating into a remnant low eighteen hours later. The remnant low moved generally southward, merging with a frontal boundary well south-southwest of the Azores on September 21.\n\nThough Edouard remained well away from land throughout its existence, large swells and dangerous rip currents affected much of the East Coast of the United States. Rip current warnings were issued on September 17 for Duval, Flagler, Nassau, and St. Johns counties in Florida and Camden and Glynn counties in Georgia. Waves in the area were forecast to reach 3 to 4 ft (0.91 to 1.22 m). On September 17, two men drowned off the coast of Ocean City, Maryland, due to strong rip currents. The Bermuda Weather Service noted the hurricane as a \"potential threat\"; however, Edouard remained several hundred miles away from the islands.\n\nOn September 16, several uncrewed drones designed by NOAA were launched by Hurricane Hunter aircraft while investigating Edouard. This marked the first time that drones were used in such a manner by NOAA. Unlike the crewed aircraft, the drones were able to fly to the lower-levels of hurricanes and investigate the more dangerous areas near the surface. Additionally, a NASA-operated Global Hawk flew into the storm, equipped with two experimental instruments: the Scanning High-resolution Interferometer Sounder (S-HIS) and Cloud Physics Lidar (CPL). The S-HIS provided measurements of temperature and relative humidity while the CPL was for studying aerosols and the structure of cloud layers within hurricanes.\n\n### Hurricane Fay\n\nA low-level disturbance was designated as Subtropical Storm Fay at 06:00 UTC on October 10 while located about 615 mi (990 km) south of Bermuda. Directed north-northwestward around a mid-level ridge across the central Atlantic, the system became dislocated from a cold-core low, allowing for a subsequent transition into a fully tropical storm by early on October 11. Fay continued to strengthen in spite of excessively strong wind shear as it accelerated north-northeast, becoming a hurricane as it approached Bermuda the next morning. With an asymmetric cloud pattern, the hurricane reached peak winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) and made landfall on the island at 08:10 UTC on October 12. An approaching shortwave further turned the system to the east-northeast while also acting to increase wind shear, causing Fay to begin weakening. It fell below hurricane intensity on October 12 and degenerated into an open trough by 06:00 UTC on October 13.\n\nA few tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in anticipation of Fay's impact on Bermuda. Public schools were closed in advance of the storm. Despite its modest strength, Fay produced relatively extensive damage on Bermuda. Winds gusting over 80 mph (130 km/h) clogged roadways with downed trees and power poles, and left a majority of the island's electricity customers without power. The terminal building at L.F. Wade International Airport was severely flooded after the storm compromised its roof and sprinkler system. Immediately after the storm, 200 Bermuda Regiment soldiers were called to clear debris and assist in initial damage repairs. Cleanup efforts overlapped with preparations for the approach of the stronger Hurricane Gonzalo. There were concerns that debris from Fay could become airborne during Gonzalo and exacerbate future destruction. Overall, it is estimated that the hurricane left at least \\$3.8 million in damage.\n\n### Hurricane Gonzalo\n\nA tropical depression formed about 390 mi (630 km) east of the Leeward Islands by 00:00 UTC on October 12 from a tropical wave that emerged off Africa on October 4. Twelve hours later, it intensified into Tropical Storm Gonzalo. Steered west and eventually west-northwest, the cyclone rapidly intensified amid favorable atmospheric dynamics, becoming a minimal hurricane by 12:00 UTC on October 13. After curving northwest and emerging into the southwestern Atlantic, Gonzalo continued its period of rapid intensification, becoming a major hurricane by 18:00 UTC on October 14 and a Category 4 hurricane six hours later. The hurricane underwent an eyewall replacement cycle the next day, but ultimately attained peak winds of 145 mph (235 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 940 mbar (28 inHg) by 12:00 UTC on October 16. Late that afternoon, the effects of a second eyewall replacement cycle, cooler waters, and increased shear caused the storm to begin a steady weakening trend as it accelerated north-northeast ahead of an approaching trough. Gonzalo weakened below major hurricane intensity by 00:00 UTC on October 18 and made landfall on Bermuda with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) six hours later. The cyclone continued north-northeast, transitioning into an extratropical cyclone by 18:00 UTC on October 19 while located roughly 460 mi (740 km) northeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland. The extratropical cyclone turned east-northeast and was absorbed by a cold front early on October 20.\n\nWidespread impact was observed across the northeastern Caribbean Sea as Gonzalo moved through the region. Sustained winds of 67 mph (108 km/h), with gusts to 88 mph (142 km/h), were observed on Antigua, where downed trees blocked roads and damaged houses. Numerous fishing boats were destroyed and the island was subject to a widespread power outage. On Saint Martin, 37 docked boats were destroyed and the airport recorded sustained winds of 55 mph (90 km/h) with gusts to 94 mph (151 km/h). As Gonzalo made landfall on Bermuda, L.F. Wade International Airport recorded sustained winds of 93 mph (150 km/h) and gusts up to 113 mph (182 km/h); an elevated observing station at St. Davids reported a peak gust of 144 mph (232 km/h). At the height of the storm about 86% of electricity customers on the island lost power. Multiple buildings suffered roof damage, and downed trees and power lines prevented travel across the island. On Bermuda alone, the storm left at least \\$200 million in damage. After transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, Gonzalo delivered strong winds to Newfoundland, with gusts peaking at 66 mph (106 km/h) at Cape Pine. Approximately 100 households lost power, while heavy rain caused localized urban flooding in St. Johns.\n\nExtratropical Gonzalo was absorbed by a cold front several hundred nautical miles south-southwest of Iceland on October 20. The storm complex incorporating Gonzalo's remnants generated heavy rain and wind gusts between 50–70 mph (80–113 km/h) in Ireland and the United Kingdom; trees were downed, transportation was disrupted, and one fatality was reported. The storm also produced widespread heavy snow across Germany, France, Switzerland, and Austria. The system later contributed to torrential rains over the Balkans, which resulted in severe flooding in Greece and Bulgaria.\n\n### Tropical Storm Hanna\n\nOn October 19, the remnants of Tropical Storm Trudy emerged over the Bay of Campeche, after losing its low-level circulation over the mountainous terrain of Mexico. Moving slowly eastward, the system redeveloped a new surface circulation on October 21, becoming a tropical depression on the next day about 175 mi (280 km) west of Campeche, Mexico. A reconnaissance aircraft flight measured a central pressure of 1000 mbar (hPa; 29.53 inHg) upon its formation, the lowest in relation to the depression. Increasing wind shear and dry air intrusion soon caused the depression to degrade into a remnant low early on October 23 before moving inland over the southwestern Yucatán Peninsula. After crossing the southern Yucatán and northern Belize, the low emerged over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 24. Hostile conditions from a nearby frontal boundary ultimately caused the system to degrade into a trough and become entangled within the front.\n\nSubsequent weakening of the frontal system on October 26 allowed the depression's remnants to become better defined as they moved southeast and later southward. The system regained a closed circulation by 12:00 UTC that day as it began turning west. Following the development of deep convection the system regenerated into a tropical depression around 00:00 UTC on October 27 roughly 80 mi (130 km) east of the Nicaragua–Honduras border. ASCAT scatterometer data shortly thereafter resulted in the depression being upgraded to Tropical Storm Hanna at 06:00 UTC. Just ten hours later Hanna made landfall over extreme northeastern Nicaragua and quickly weakened back to a depression. The system degraded to a remnant low early on October 28 before turning northwestward and emerging over the Gulf of Honduras. Some signs of redevelopment appeared throughout the day, but the remnants of Hanna soon moved inland over Belize early on October 29. The system finally dissipated over northwest Guatemala on the following day. Hanna and its remnants contributed to an ongoing flood in Nicaragua that was responsible for 28 fatalities, many cattle deaths, and a significant loss of grain.\n\n## Storm names\n\nThe following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2014. This was the same list used in the 2008 season with the exceptions of Gonzalo, Isaias, and Paulette, which replaced Gustav, Ike, and Paloma, respectively. The name Gonzalo was the only new name used for the first time this year. There were no names retired this year; thus, the same list was used again in the 2020 season. This is the only Atlantic hurricane season of the 2010s, and the most recent overall, to not have any name retired.\n\n## Season effects\n\nThis is a table of the tropical cyclones that formed during the 2014 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, intensities, areas affected, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all the damage figures are in 2014 USD.\n\n## See also\n\n- Tropical cyclones in 2014\n- Weather of 2014\n- 2014 Pacific hurricane season\n- 2014 Pacific typhoon season\n- 2014 North Indian Ocean cyclone season\n- South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 2013–14, 2014–15\n- Australian region cyclone seasons: 2013–14, 2014–15\n- South Pacific cyclone seasons: 2013–14, 2014–15\n- South Atlantic tropical cyclone\n- Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone", "revid": "1167111642", "description": "Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean", "categories": ["2014 Atlantic hurricane season", "Articles which contain graphical timelines", "Atlantic hurricane seasons", "Tropical cyclones in 2014"]}
{"id": "33521", "url": null, "title": "William McKinley", "text": "William McKinley (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. A member of the Republican Party, he led a realignment that made Republicans largely dominant in the industrial states and nationwide for decades. He presided over victory in the Spanish–American War of 1898; gained control of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Cuba; restored prosperity after a deep depression; rejected the inflationary monetary policy of free silver, keeping the nation on the gold standard; and raised protective tariffs to boost American industry and keep wages high.\n\nMcKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War; he was the only one to begin his service as an enlisted man, and end as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, McKinley was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial and, together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office, led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. He secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 amid a deep economic depression and defeated his Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan after a front porch campaign in which he advocated \"sound money\" (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Historians regard McKinley's victory as a realigning election in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, beginning with the Progressive Era.\n\nMcKinley's presidency saw rapid economic growth. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and in 1900 secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. He hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed, requested and signed Congress's declaration of war to begin the Spanish-American War of 1898, which the United States saw a quick and decisive victory. As part of the peace settlement, Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines while Cuba was promised independence, but at that time remained under the control of the United States Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a United States territory.\n\nMcKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. His second term ended early when he was shot on September 6, 1901, by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist. McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. As an innovator of American interventionism and pro-business sentiment, McKinley is generally ranked as an above-average president, although his take-over of the Philippines is often criticized as an act of imperialism. His popularity was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt's.\n\n## Early life and family\n\nWilliam McKinley Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, the seventh of nine children of William McKinley Sr. and Nancy (née Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of English and Scots-Irish descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in the 18th century. Their immigrant ancestor was David McKinley, born in Dervock, County Antrim, in present-day Northern Ireland. William McKinley Sr. was born in Pennsylvania, in Pine Township, Mercer County.\n\nThe family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy, settling in New Lisbon (now Lisbon). He met Nancy Allison there and they later married. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvania's earliest settlers. The family trade on both sides was iron making. McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton. The McKinley household was, like many from Ohio's Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, the latter based on the family's staunch Methodist beliefs.\n\nThe younger William also followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist.\n\nIn 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio, so that their children could attend its better schools. Graduating from Poland Seminary in 1859, McKinley enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania. He was an honorary member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. He remained at Allegheny for one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also studied at Mount Union College in Alliance, Ohio, as a board member. Although his health recovered, family finances declined, and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny. He began working as a postal clerk and later took a job teaching at a school near Poland, Ohio.\n\n## Civil War\n\n### Western Virginia and Antietam\n\nWhen the Confederate states seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861, thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service. Among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other small units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry.\n\nThe men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohio's earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers; these would be designated by Ohio's governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, and the men began training on the outskirts of Columbus. McKinley quickly took to the soldier's life: he wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause. Delays in issuance of uniforms and weapons again brought the men into conflict with their officers, but Major Rutherford B. Hayes convinced them to accept what the government had issued them; his style in dealing with the men impressed McKinley, beginning an association and friendship that would last until Hayes's death in 1893.\n\nAfter a month of training, McKinley and the 23rd Ohio, now led by Colonel Eliakim P. Scammon, set out for western Virginia (today part of West Virginia) in July 1861 as a part of the Kanawha Division. McKinley initially thought Scammon was a martinet, but when the regiment entered battle, he came to appreciate the value of their relentless drilling. Their first contact with the enemy came in September when they drove back Confederate troops at Carnifex Ferry in present-day West Virginia. Three days after the battle, McKinley was assigned to duty in the brigade quartermaster office, where he worked both to supply his regiment, and as a clerk. In November, the regiment established winter quarters near Fayetteville (today in West Virginia). McKinley spent the winter substituting for a commissary sergeant who was ill, and in April 1862 he was promoted to that rank. The regiment resumed its advance that spring with Hayes in command (Scammon led the brigade) and fought several minor engagements against the rebel forces.\n\nThat September, McKinley's regiment was called east to reinforce General John Pope's Army of Virginia at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Delayed in passing through Washington, D.C., the 23rd Ohio did not arrive in time for the battle but joined the Army of the Potomac as it hurried north to cut off Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia as it advanced into Maryland. The 23rd was the first regiment to encounter the Confederates at the Battle of South Mountain on September 14. After severe losses, Union forces drove back the Confederates and continued to Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they engaged Lee's army at the Battle of Antietam, one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The 23rd was in the thick of the fighting at Antietam, and McKinley came under heavy fire when bringing rations to the men on the line. McKinley's regiment suffered many casualties, but the Army of the Potomac was victorious, and the Confederates retreated into Virginia. McKinley's regiment was detached from the Army of the Potomac and returned by train to western Virginia.\n\n### Shenandoah Valley and promotion\n\nWhile the regiment went into winter quarters near Charleston, Virginia (present-day West Virginia), McKinley was ordered back to Ohio with some other sergeants to recruit fresh troops. When they arrived in Columbus, Governor David Tod surprised McKinley with a commission as second lieutenant in recognition of his service at Antietam. McKinley and his comrades saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with John Hunt Morgan's cavalry at the Battle of Buffington Island. Early in 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and the division was assigned to George Crook's Army of West Virginia. They soon resumed the offensive, marching into southwestern Virginia to destroy salt and lead mines used by the enemy. On May 9, the army engaged Confederate troops at Cloyd's Mountain, where the men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field. McKinley later said the combat there was \"as desperate as any witnessed during the war\". Following the rout, the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and skirmished with the enemy again successfully.\n\nMcKinley and his regiment moved to the Shenandoah Valley as the armies broke from winter quarters to resume hostilities. Crook's corps was attached to Major General David Hunter's Army of the Shenandoah and soon back in contact with Confederate forces, capturing Lexington, Virginia, on June 11. They continued south toward Lynchburg, tearing up railroad track as they advanced. Hunter believed the troops at Lynchburg were too powerful, however, and the brigade returned to West Virginia. Before the army could make another attempt, Confederate General Jubal Early's raid into Maryland forced their recall to the north.\n\nEarly's army surprised them at Kernstown on July 24, where McKinley came under heavy fire and the army was defeated. Retreating into Maryland, the army was reorganized again: Major General Philip Sheridan replaced Hunter, and McKinley, who had been promoted to captain after the battle, was transferred to General Crook's staff. By August, Early was retreating south in the valley, with Sheridan's army in pursuit. They fended off a Confederate assault at Berryville, where McKinley had a horse shot out from under him, and advanced to Opequon Creek, where they broke the enemy lines and pursued them farther south. They followed up the victory with another at Fisher's Hill on September 22 and were engaged once more at Cedar Creek on October 19. After initially falling back from the Confederate advance, McKinley helped to rally the troops and turn the tide of the battle.\n\nAfter Cedar Creek, the army stayed in the vicinity through election day, when McKinley cast his first presidential ballot, for the incumbent Republican, Abraham Lincoln. The next day, they moved north up the valley into winter quarters near Kernstown. In February 1865, Crook was captured by Confederate raiders. Crook's capture added to the confusion as the army was reorganized for the spring campaign, and McKinley served on the staffs of four different generals over the next fifteen days—Crook, John D. Stevenson, Samuel S. Carroll, and Winfield S. Hancock. Finally assigned to Carroll's staff again, McKinley acted as the general's first and only adjutant.\n\nLee and his army surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant a few days later, effectively ending the war. McKinley joined a Freemason lodge (later renamed after him) in Winchester, Virginia, before he and Carroll were transferred to Hancock's First Veterans Corps in Washington. Just before the war's end, McKinley received his final promotion, a brevet commission as major. In July, the Veterans Corps was mustered out of service, and McKinley and Carroll were relieved of their duties. Carroll and Hancock encouraged McKinley to apply for a place in the peacetime army, but he declined and returned to Ohio the following month.\n\nMcKinley, along with Samuel M. Taylor and James C. Howe, co-authored and published a twelve-volume work, Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1866, published in 1886.\n\n## Legal career and marriage\n\nAfter the war ended in 1865, McKinley decided on a career in the law and began studying in the office of an attorney in Poland, Ohio. The following year, he continued his studies by attending Albany Law School in New York state. After studying there for less than a year, McKinley returned home and was admitted to the bar in Warren, Ohio, in March 1867.\n\nThat same year, he moved to Canton, the county seat of Stark County, and set up a small office. He soon formed a partnership with George W. Belden, an experienced lawyer and former judge. His practice was successful enough for him to buy a block of buildings on Main Street in Canton, which provided him with a small but consistent rental income for decades to come.\n\nWhen his Army friend Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated for governor in 1867, McKinley made speeches on his behalf in Stark County, his first foray into politics. The county was closely divided between Democrats and Republicans, but Hayes carried it that year in his statewide victory. In 1869, McKinley ran for the office of prosecuting attorney of Stark County, an office that had historically been held by Democrats, and was unexpectedly elected. When McKinley ran for re-election in 1871, the Democrats nominated William A. Lynch, a prominent local lawyer, and McKinley was defeated by 143 votes.\n\nAs McKinley's professional career progressed, so too did his social life blossom: he wooed Ida Saxton, the daughter of a prominent Canton family. They were married on January 25, 1871, in the newly built First Presbyterian Church of Canton. Ida soon joined her husband's Methodist church. Their first child, Katherine, was born on Christmas Day 1871. A second daughter, Ida, followed in 1873 but died the same year. McKinley's wife descended into a deep depression at her baby's death and her health, never robust, declined. Two years later, Katherine died of typhoid fever. Ida never recovered from her daughters' deaths, and the McKinleys had no more children. Ida McKinley developed epilepsy around the same time and depended strongly on her husband's presence. He remained a devoted husband and tended to his wife's medical and emotional needs for the rest of his life.\n\nIda insisted that her husband continue his increasingly successful career in law and politics. He attended the state Republican convention that nominated Hayes for a third term as governor in 1875, and campaigned again for his old friend in the election that fall. The next year, McKinley undertook a high-profile case defending a group of striking coal miners, who were arrested for rioting after a clash with strikebreakers. Lynch, McKinley's opponent in the 1871 election, and his partner, William R. Day, were the opposing counsel, and the mine owners included Mark Hanna, a Cleveland businessman. Taking the case pro bono, McKinley was successful in getting all but one of the miners acquitted. The case raised McKinley's standing among laborers, a crucial part of the Stark County electorate, and also introduced him to Hanna, who would become his strongest backer in years to come.\n\nMcKinley's good standing with labor became useful that year as he campaigned for the Republican nomination for Ohio's 17th congressional district. Delegates to the county conventions thought he could attract blue-collar voters, and in August 1876, McKinley was nominated. By that time, Hayes had been nominated for president, and McKinley campaigned for him while running his own congressional campaign. Both were successful. McKinley, campaigning mostly on his support for a protective tariff, defeated the Democratic nominee, Levi L. Lamborn, by 3,300 votes. Hayes won a hotly disputed election to reach the presidency. McKinley's victory came at a personal cost: his income as a congressman would be half of what he earned as a lawyer.\n\n## Rising politician (1877–1895)\n\n### Spokesman for protection\n\nMcKinley took his congressional seat in October 1877, when President Hayes summoned Congress into special session. With the Republicans in the minority, McKinley was given unimportant committee assignments, which he undertook conscientiously. McKinley's friendship with Hayes did McKinley little good on Capitol Hill, as the president was not well regarded by many leaders there. The young congressman broke with Hayes on the question of the currency, but it did not affect their friendship. The United States had effectively been placed on the gold standard by the Coinage Act of 1873; when silver prices dropped significantly, many sought to make silver again a legal tender, equally with gold. Such a course would be inflationary, but advocates argued that the economic benefits of the increased money supply would be worth the inflation; opponents warned that \"free silver\" would not bring the promised benefits and would harm the United States in international trade. McKinley voted for the Bland–Allison Act of 1878, which mandated large government purchases of silver for striking into money, and also joined the large majorities in each house that overrode Hayes's veto of the legislation. In so doing, McKinley voted against the position of the House Republican leader, James Garfield, a fellow Ohioan and his friend.\n\nFrom his first term in Congress, McKinley was a strong advocate of protective tariffs. The primary purposes of such imposts was not to raise revenue, but to allow American manufacturing to develop by giving it a price advantage in the domestic market over foreign competitors. McKinley biographer Margaret Leech noted that Canton had become prosperous as a center for the manufacture of farm equipment because of protection, and that this may have helped form his political views. McKinley introduced and supported bills that raised protective tariffs, and opposed those that lowered them or imposed tariffs simply to raise revenue. Garfield's election as president in 1880 created a vacancy on the House Ways and Means Committee; McKinley was selected to fill it, gaining a spot on the most powerful committee after only two terms.\n\nMcKinley increasingly became a significant figure in national politics. In 1880, he served a brief term as Ohio's representative on the Republican National Committee. In 1884, he was elected a delegate to that year's Republican convention, where he served as chair of the Committee on Resolutions and won plaudits for his handling of the convention when called upon to preside. By 1886, McKinley, Senator John Sherman, and Governor Joseph B. Foraker were considered the leaders of the Republican party in Ohio. Sherman, who had helped to found the Republican Party, ran three times for the Republican nomination for president in the 1880s, each time failing, while Foraker began a meteoric rise in Ohio politics early in the decade. Hanna, once he entered public affairs as a political manager and generous contributor, supported Sherman's ambitions, as well as those of Foraker. The latter relationship broke off at the 1888 Republican National Convention, where McKinley, Foraker, and Hanna were all delegates supporting Sherman. Convinced Sherman could not win, Foraker threw his support to Maine Senator James G. Blaine, the unsuccessful Republican 1884 presidential nominee. When Blaine said he was not a candidate, Foraker returned to Sherman, but the nomination went to former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison, who was elected president. In the bitterness that followed the convention, Hanna abandoned Foraker. For the rest of McKinley's life, the Ohio Republican Party was divided into two factions, one aligned with McKinley, Sherman, and Hanna, and the other with Foraker. Hanna came to admire McKinley and became a friend and close adviser to him. Although Hanna remained active in business and in promoting other Republicans, in the years after 1888, he spent an increasing amount of time boosting McKinley's political career.\n\nIn 1889, with the Republicans in the majority, McKinley sought election as Speaker of the House. He failed to gain the post, which went to Thomas B. Reed of Maine; however, Speaker Reed appointed McKinley chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. The Ohioan guided the McKinley Tariff of 1890 through Congress; although McKinley's work was altered through the influence of special interests in the Senate, it imposed a number of protective tariffs on foreign goods.\n\n### Gerrymandering and defeat for re-election\n\nRecognizing McKinley's potential, the Democrats, whenever they controlled the Ohio legislature, sought to gerrymander or redistrict him out of office. In 1878, McKinley was redistricted to the 16th congressional district; he won anyway, causing Hayes to exult, \"Oh, the good luck of McKinley! He was gerrymandered out and then beat the gerrymander! We enjoyed it as much as he did.\" After the 1882 election, McKinley was unseated on an election contest by a near party-line House vote. Out of office, he was briefly depressed by the setback, but soon vowed to run again. The Democrats again redistricted Stark County for the 1884 election; McKinley was returned to Congress anyway.\n\nFor 1890, the Democrats gerrymandered McKinley one final time, placing Stark County in the same district as one of the strongest pro-Democrat counties, Holmes, populated by solidly Democratic Pennsylvania Dutch. Based on past results, Democrats thought the new boundaries should produce a Democratic majority of 2,000 to 3,000. The Republicans could not reverse the gerrymander, as legislative elections would not be held until 1891, but they could throw all their energies into the district. The McKinley Tariff was a main theme of the Democratic campaign nationwide, and there was considerable attention paid to McKinley's race. The Republican Party sent its leading orators to Canton, including Blaine (then Secretary of State), Speaker Reed, and President Harrison. The Democrats countered with their best spokesmen on tariff issues. McKinley tirelessly stumped his new district, reaching out to its 40,000 voters to explain that his tariff\n\n> was framed for the people ... as a defense to their industries, as a protection to the labor of their hands, as a safeguard to the happy homes of American workingmen, and as a security to their education, their wages, and their investments ... It will bring to this country a prosperity unparalleled in our own history and unrivalled in the history of the world.\"\n\nDemocrats ran a strong candidate in former lieutenant governor John G. Warwick. To drive their point home, they hired young partisans to pretend to be peddlers, who went door to door offering 25-cent tinware to housewives for 50 cents, explaining the rise in prices was due to the McKinley Tariff. In the end, McKinley lost by 300 votes, but the Republicans won a statewide majority and claimed a moral victory.\n\n### Governor of Ohio (1892–1896)\n\nEven before McKinley completed his term in Congress, he met with a delegation of Ohioans urging him to run for governor. Governor James E. Campbell, a Democrat, who had defeated Foraker in 1889, was to seek re-election in 1891. The Ohio Republican party remained divided, but McKinley quietly arranged for Foraker to nominate him at the 1891 state Republican convention, which chose McKinley by acclamation. The former congressman spent much of the second half of 1891 campaigning against Campbell, beginning in his birthplace of Niles. Hanna, however, was little seen in the campaign; he spent much of his time raising funds for the election of legislators pledged to vote for Sherman in the 1892 senatorial election. (State legislators still elected US Senators.) McKinley won the 1891 election by some 20,000 votes; the following January, Sherman, with considerable assistance from Hanna, turned back a challenge by Foraker to win the legislature's vote for another term in the US Senate.\n\nOhio's governor had relatively little power—for example, he could recommend legislation, but not veto it—but with Ohio a key swing state, its governor was a major figure in national politics. Although McKinley believed that the health of the nation depended on that of business, he was evenhanded in dealing with labor. He procured legislation that set up an arbitration board to settle work disputes and obtained passage of a law that fined employers who fired workers for belonging to a union.\n\nPresident Harrison had proven unpopular; there were divisions even within the Republican party as the year 1892 began and Harrison began his re-election drive. Although no declared Republican candidate opposed Harrison, many Republicans were ready to dump the president from the ticket if an alternative emerged. Among the possible candidates spoken of were McKinley, Reed, and the aging Blaine. Fearing that the Ohio governor would emerge as a candidate, Harrison's managers arranged for McKinley to be permanent chairman of the convention in Minneapolis, requiring him to play a public, neutral role. Hanna established an unofficial McKinley headquarters near the convention hall, though no active effort was made to convert delegates to McKinley's cause. McKinley objected to delegate votes being cast for him; nevertheless he finished second, behind the renominated Harrison, but ahead of Blaine, who had sent word he did not want to be considered. Although McKinley campaigned loyally for the Republican ticket, Harrison was defeated by former President Cleveland in the November election. In the wake of Cleveland's victory, McKinley was seen by some as the likely Republican candidate in 1896.\n\nSoon after Cleveland's return to office, hard times struck the nation with the Panic of 1893. A businessman in Youngstown, Robert Walker, had lent money to McKinley in their younger days; in gratitude, McKinley had often guaranteed Walker's borrowings for his business. The governor had never kept track of what he was signing; he believed Walker a sound businessman. In fact, Walker had deceived McKinley, telling him that new notes were actually renewals of matured ones. Walker was ruined by the recession; McKinley was called upon for repayment in February 1893. The total owed was over \\$100,000 (equivalent to \\$ million in ) and a despairing McKinley initially proposed to resign as governor and earn the money as an attorney. Instead, McKinley's wealthy supporters, including Hanna and Chicago publisher H. H. Kohlsaat, became trustees of a fund from which the notes would be paid. Both William and Ida McKinley placed their property in the hands of the fund's trustees (who included Hanna and Kohlsaat), and the supporters raised and contributed a substantial sum of money. All of the couple's property was returned to them by the end of 1893, and when McKinley, who had promised eventual repayment, asked for the list of contributors, it was refused him. Many people who had suffered in the hard times sympathized with McKinley, whose popularity grew. He was easily re-elected in November 1893, receiving the largest percentage of the vote of any Ohio governor since the Civil War.\n\nMcKinley campaigned widely for Republicans in the 1894 midterm congressional elections; many party candidates in districts where he spoke were successful. His political efforts in Ohio were rewarded with the election in November 1895 of a Republican successor as governor, Asa Bushnell, and a Republican legislature that elected Foraker to the Senate. McKinley supported Foraker for the Senate and Bushnell (who was of Foraker's faction) for governor; in return, the new senator-elect agreed to back McKinley's presidential ambitions. With party peace in Ohio assured, McKinley turned to the national arena.\n\n## Election of 1896\n\n### Obtaining the nomination\n\nIt is unclear when William McKinley began to seriously prepare a run for president. As McKinley biographer Kevin Phillips notes, \"No documents, no diaries, no confidential letters to Mark Hanna (or anyone else) contain his secret hopes or veiled stratagems.\" From the beginning, McKinley's preparations had the participation of Hanna, whose biographer William T. Horner noted, \"What is certainly true is that in 1888 the two men began to develop a close working relationship that helped put McKinley in the White House.\" Sherman did not run for president again after 1888, and so Hanna could support McKinley's ambitions for that office wholeheartedly.\n\nBacked by Hanna's money and organizational skills, McKinley quietly built support for a presidential bid through 1895 and early 1896. When other contenders such as Speaker Reed and Iowa Senator William B. Allison sent agents outside their states to organize Republicans in support of their candidacies, they found that Hanna's agents had preceded them. According to historian Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 election,\n\n> Another feature common to the Reed and Allison campaigns was their failure to make headway against the tide which was running toward McKinley. In fact, both campaigns from the moment they were launched were in retreat. The calm confidence with which each candidate claimed the support of his own section [of the country] soon gave way to ... bitter accusations that Hanna by winning support for McKinley in their sections had violated the rules of the game.\n\nHanna, on McKinley's behalf, met with the eastern Republican political bosses, such as Senators Thomas Platt of New York and Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania, who were willing to guarantee McKinley's nomination in exchange for promises regarding patronage and offices. McKinley, however, was determined to obtain the nomination without making deals, and Hanna accepted that decision. Many of their early efforts were focused on the South; Hanna obtained a vacation home in southern Georgia where McKinley visited and met with Republican politicians from the region. McKinley needed 4531⁄2 delegate votes to gain the nomination; he gained nearly half that number from the South and border states. Platt lamented in his memoirs, \"[Hanna] had the South practically solid before some of us awakened.\"\n\nThe bosses still hoped to deny McKinley a first-ballot majority at the convention by boosting support for local favorite son candidates such as Quay, New York Governor (and former vice president) Levi P. Morton, and Illinois Senator Shelby Cullom. Delegate-rich Illinois proved a crucial battleground, as McKinley supporters, such as Chicago businessman (and future vice president) Charles G. Dawes, sought to elect delegates pledged to vote for McKinley at the national convention in St. Louis. Cullom proved unable to stand against McKinley despite the support of local Republican machines; at the state convention at the end of April, McKinley completed a near-sweep of Illinois' delegates. Former president Harrison had been deemed a possible contender if he entered the race; when Harrison made it known he would not seek a third nomination, the McKinley organization took control of Indiana with a speed Harrison privately found unseemly. Morton operatives who journeyed to Indiana sent word back that they had found the state alive for McKinley. Wyoming Senator Francis Warren wrote, \"The politicians are making a hard fight against him, but if the masses could speak, McKinley is the choice of at least 75% of the entire [body of] Republican voters in the Union\".\n\nBy the time the national convention began in St. Louis on June 16, 1896, McKinley had an ample majority of delegates. The former governor, who remained in Canton, followed events at the convention closely by telephone, and was able to hear part of Foraker's speech nominating him over the line. When Ohio was reached in the roll call of states, its votes gave McKinley the nomination, which he celebrated by hugging his wife and mother as his friends fled the house, anticipating the first of many crowds that gathered at the Republican candidate's home. Thousands of partisans came from Canton and surrounding towns that evening to hear McKinley speak from his front porch. The convention nominated Republican National Committee vice chairman Garret Hobart of New Jersey for vice president, a choice actually made, by most accounts, by Hanna. Hobart, a wealthy lawyer, businessman, and former state legislator, was not widely known, but as Hanna biographer Herbert Croly pointed out, \"if he did little to strengthen the ticket he did nothing to weaken it\".\n\n### General election campaign\n\nBefore the Republican convention, McKinley had been a \"straddle bug\" on the currency question, favoring moderate positions on silver such as accomplishing bimetallism by international agreement. In the final days before the convention, McKinley decided, after hearing from politicians and businessmen, that the platform should endorse the gold standard, though it should allow for bimetallism through coordination with other nations. Adoption of the platform caused some western delegates, led by Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller, to walk out of the convention. However, compared with the Democrats, Republican divisions on the issue were small, especially as McKinley promised future concessions to silver advocates.\n\nThe bad economic times had continued and strengthened the hand of forces for free silver. The issue bitterly divided the Democratic Party; President Cleveland firmly supported the gold standard, but an increasing number of rural Democrats wanted silver, especially in the South and West. The silverites took control of the 1896 Democratic National Convention and chose William Jennings Bryan for president; he had electrified the delegates with his Cross of Gold speech. Bryan's financial radicalism shocked bankers—they thought his inflationary program would bankrupt the railroads and ruin the economy. Hanna approached them for support for his strategy to win the election, and they gave \\$3.5 million for speakers and over 200 million pamphlets advocating the Republican position on the money and tariff questions.\n\nBryan's campaign had at most an estimated \\$500,000. With his eloquence and youthful energy his major assets in the race, Bryan decided on a whistle-stop political tour by train on an unprecedented scale. Hanna urged McKinley to match Bryan's tour with one of his own; the candidate declined on the grounds that the Democrat was a better stump speaker: \"I might just as well set up a trapeze on my front lawn and compete with some professional athlete as go out speaking against Bryan. I have to think when I speak.\" Instead of going to the people, McKinley would remain at home in Canton and allow the people to come to him; according to historian R. Hal Williams in his book on the 1896 election, \"it was, as it turned out, a brilliant strategy. McKinley's 'Front Porch Campaign' became a legend in American political history.\"\n\nMcKinley made himself available to the public every day except Sunday, receiving delegations from the front porch of his home. The railroads subsidized the visitors with low excursion rates—the pro-silver Cleveland Plain Dealer disgustedly stated that going to Canton had been made \"cheaper than staying at home\". Delegations marched through the streets from the railroad station to McKinley's home on North Market Street. Once there, they crowded close to the front porch—from which they surreptitiously whittled souvenirs—as their spokesman addressed McKinley. The candidate then responded, speaking on campaign issues in a speech molded to suit the interest of the delegation. The speeches were carefully scripted to avoid extemporaneous remarks; even the spokesman's remarks were approved by McKinley or a representative. This was done as the candidate feared an offhand comment by another that might rebound on him, as had happened to Blaine in 1884.\n\nMost Democratic newspapers refused to support Bryan, the major exception being the New York Journal, controlled by William Randolph Hearst, whose fortune was based on silver mines. In biased reporting and through the sharp cartoons of Homer Davenport, Hanna was viciously characterized as a plutocrat, trampling on labor. McKinley was drawn as a child, easily controlled by big business. Even today, these depictions still color the images of Hanna and McKinley: one as a heartless businessman, the other as a creature of Hanna and others of his ilk.\n\nThe Democrats had pamphlets too, though not as many. Jones analyzed how voters responded to the education campaigns of the two parties:\n\n> For the people it was a campaign of study and analysis, of exhortation and conviction—a campaign of search for economic and political truth. Pamphlets tumbled from the presses, to be read, reread, studied, debated, to become guides to economic thought and political action. They were printed and distributed by the million ... but the people hankered for more. Favorite pamphlets became dog-eared, grimy, fell apart as their owners laboriously restudied their arguments and quoted from them in public and private debate.\n\nMcKinley always thought of himself as a tariff man and expected that the monetary issues would fade away in a month. He was mistaken, silver and gold dominated the campaign.\n\nThe battleground proved to be the Midwest—the South and most of the West were conceded to Bryan—and the Democrat spent much of his time in those crucial states. The Northeast was considered most likely safe for McKinley after the early-voting states of Maine and Vermont supported him in September. By then, it was clear that public support for silver had receded, and McKinley began to emphasize the tariff issue. By the end of September, the Republicans had discontinued printing material on the silver issue and were entirely concentrating on the tariff question. On November 3, 1896, the voters had their say. McKinley won the entire Northeast and Midwest; he won 51% of the vote and an ample majority in the Electoral College. Bryan had concentrated entirely on the silver issue and had not appealed to urban workers. Voters in cities supported McKinley; the only city outside the South of more than 100,000 population carried by Bryan was Denver, Colorado.\n\n### Realignment of 1896\n\nThe 1896 presidential election was a realigning election, in which McKinley's view of a stronger central government building American industry through protective tariffs and a dollar based on gold triumphed. The voting patterns established then displaced the near-deadlock the major parties had seen since the Civil War in the Third Party System. The new Republican dominance began the Fourth Party System that would end in 1932, another realigning election with the ascent of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal coalition. Phillips argues that McKinley was probably the only Republican who could have defeated Bryan—he concludes that Eastern candidates would have done badly against the Illinois-born Bryan in the crucial Midwest. While Bryan was popular among rural voters, \"McKinley appealed to a very different industrialized, urbanized America.\"\n\n## Presidency (1897–1901)\n\n### Inauguration and appointments\n\nMcKinley was sworn in as president on March 4, 1897, as his wife and mother looked on. The new president gave a lengthy inaugural address; he urged tariff reform and stated that the currency issue would have to await tariff legislation. He warned against foreign interventions, \"We want no wars of conquest. We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression.\"\n\nMcKinley's most controversial Cabinet appointment was that of John Sherman as Secretary of State. Sherman had an outstanding reputation, but old age was fast reducing his abilities. McKinley needed to have Hanna appointed to the Senate, so Senator Sherman was moved up. Sherman's mental faculties were decaying even in 1896; this was widely spoken of in political circles, but McKinley did not believe the rumors. Nevertheless, McKinley sent his cousin, William McKinley Osborne, to have dinner with the 73-year-old senator; he reported back that Sherman seemed as lucid as ever. McKinley wrote once the appointment was announced, \"the stories regarding Senator Sherman's 'mental decay' are without foundation ... When I saw him last I was convinced both of his perfect health, physically and mentally, and that the prospects of life were remarkably good.\"\n\nMaine Representative Nelson Dingley Jr. was McKinley's choice for Secretary of the Treasury; he declined it, preferring to remain as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. Charles Dawes, who had been Hanna's lieutenant in Chicago during the campaign, was considered for the Treasury post but by some accounts Dawes considered himself too young. Dawes eventually became Comptroller of the Currency; he recorded in his published diary that he had strongly urged McKinley to appoint as secretary the successful candidate, Lyman J. Gage, president of the First National Bank of Chicago and a Gold Democrat. The Navy Department was offered to former Massachusetts Congressman John Davis Long, an old friend from the House, on January 30, 1897. Although McKinley was initially inclined to allow Long to choose his own assistant, there was considerable pressure on the President-elect to appoint Theodore Roosevelt, head of the New York City Police Commission and a published naval historian. McKinley was reluctant, stating to one Roosevelt booster, \"I want peace and I am told that your friend Theodore is always getting into rows with everybody.\" Nevertheless, he made the appointment.\n\nIn addition to Sherman, McKinley made one other ill-advised Cabinet appointment, that of Secretary of War, which fell to Russell A. Alger, former general and Michigan governor. Competent enough in peacetime, Alger proved inadequate once the conflict with Spain began. With the War Department plagued by scandal, Alger resigned at McKinley's request in mid-1899. Vice President Hobart, as was customary at the time, was not invited to Cabinet meetings. However, he proved a valuable adviser both for McKinley and for his Cabinet members. The wealthy Vice President leased a residence close to the White House; the two families visited each other without formality, and the Vice President's wife, Jennie Tuttle Hobart, sometimes substituted as Executive Mansion hostess when Ida McKinley was unwell. For most of McKinley's administration, George B. Cortelyou served as his personal secretary. Cortelyou, who served in three Cabinet positions under Theodore Roosevelt, became a combination press secretary and chief of staff to McKinley.\n\n### Cuba crisis and war with Spain\n\nFor decades, rebels in Cuba had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence. As war engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew ever harsher. American public opinion favored the rebels, and McKinley shared in their outrage against Spanish policies. However while public opinion called for war to liberate Cuba, McKinley favored a peaceful approach, hoping that through negotiation, Spain might be convinced to grant Cuba independence, or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy. The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.\n\nIn January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana, McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine. On February 15, the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed. Public attention focused on the crisis and the consensus was that regardless of who set the bomb, Spain had lost control over Cuba. McKinley insisted that a court of inquiry first determine whether the explosion was accidental. Negotiations with Spain continued as the court considered the evidence, but on March 20, the court ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine. As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but Congress made the decision and declared war on April 20, with the addition of the Teller Amendment, which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. Nick Kapur says that McKinley's actions were based on his values of arbitrationism, pacifism, humanitarianism, and manly self-restraint, and not on external pressures.\n\nThe expansion of the telegraph and the development of the telephone gave McKinley greater control over the day-to-day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed, and he used the new technologies to direct the army's and navy's movements as far as he was able. McKinley found Alger inadequate as Secretary of War, and did not get along with the Army's commanding general, Nelson A. Miles. Bypassing them, he looked for strategic advice first from Miles's predecessor, General John Schofield, and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin. The war led to a change in McKinley's cabinet, as the president accepted Sherman's resignation as Secretary of State. William R. Day agreed to serve as secretary until the war's end.\n\nWithin a fortnight, the navy had its first victory when Commodore George Dewey, destroyed the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines. Dewey's overwhelming victory expanded the scope of the war from one centered in the Caribbean to one that would determine the fate of all of Spain's Pacific colonies. The next month, McKinley increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force's commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes—necessities for a long occupation. By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898, McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender the archipelago to the United States. He professed to be open to all views on the subject; however, he believed that as the war progressed, the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war.\n\nMeanwhile, in the Caribbean theater, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa, Florida, for an invasion of Cuba. After lengthy delays, the army, led by Major General William Rufus Shafter, on June 22, landed near Santiago de Cuba. Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. The next day, Spain's Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea and was destroyed by the North Atlantic Squadron in the largest naval battle of the war. Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba under effective American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico, which met little resistance when it landed in July. The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war.\n\n### Peace and territorial gain\n\nMcKinley's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico, but they disagreed on the Philippines, with some wishing to annex the entire archipelago and some wishing only to retain a naval base in the area. Although public sentiment seemed to favor annexation of the Philippines, several prominent political leaders—including Democrats Bryan, and Cleveland, and the newly formed American Anti-Imperialist League—made their opposition known.\n\nMcKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion. He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation in Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever. Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued until December 18, when the Treaty of Paris was signed. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba; in exchange, the United States agreed to pay Spain \\$20 million (equivalent to \\$ million in ). McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two-thirds vote, but his lobbying, and that of Vice President Hobart, eventually saw success, as the Senate voted in favor on February 6, 1899, 57 to 27.\n\n#### Hawaii\n\nDuring the war, McKinley also pursued the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii. The new republic, dominated by business interests, had overthrown the Queen in 1893 when she rejected a limited role for herself. There was strong American support for annexation, and the need for Pacific bases in wartime became clear after the Battle of Manila. McKinley came to office as a supporter of annexation, and lobbied Congress to act, warning that to do nothing would invite a royalist counter-revolution or a Japanese takeover. Foreseeing difficulty in getting two-thirds of the Senate to approve a treaty of annexation, McKinley instead supported the effort of Democratic Representative Francis G. Newlands of Nevada to accomplish the result by joint resolution of both houses of Congress. The resulting Newlands Resolution passed both houses by wide margins, and McKinley signed it into law on July 8, 1898. McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan notes, \"McKinley was the guiding spirit behind the annexation of Hawaii, showing ... a firmness in pursuing it\"; the president told Cortelyou, \"We need Hawaii just as much and a good deal more than we did California. It is manifest destiny.\"\n\n### Expanding influence overseas\n\n#### Open door in China\n\nEven before peace negotiations began with Spain, McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in Asia and espoused an \"Open Door Policy\", in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation's territorial integrity.\n\nAmerican missionaries were threatened with death when the Boxer Rebellion menaced foreigners in China. Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and, in cooperation with other western powers, McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition. The westerners were rescued the next month, but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature. McKinley's actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military. After the rebellion ended, the United States reaffirmed its commitment to the Open Door policy, which became the basis of American policy toward China.\n\n#### Panama canal\n\nCloser to home, McKinley and Hay engaged in negotiations with Britain over the possible construction of a canal across Central America. The Clayton–Bulwer Treaty, which the two nations signed in 1850, prohibited either from establishing exclusive control over a canal there. The war had exposed the difficulty of maintaining a two-ocean navy when the Navy had to sail all the way around South America to reach the Pacific. Now, with American business and military interests even more involved in Asia, a canal seemed more essential than ever, and McKinley pressed for a renegotiation of the treaty. Hay and the British ambassador, Julian Pauncefote, agreed that the United States could control a future canal, provided that it was open to all shipping and not fortified. McKinley was satisfied with the terms, but the Senate rejected them, demanding that the United States be allowed to fortify the canal. Hay was embarrassed by the rebuff and offered his resignation, but McKinley refused it and ordered him to continue negotiations to achieve the Senate's demands. He was successful, and a new treaty was drafted and approved, but not before McKinley's assassination in 1901. The result under Roosevelt was the Panama Canal.\n\n### Tariffs and bimetallism\n\nMcKinley had built his reputation in Congress on high tariffs, promising protection for American business and well-paid American factory workers. With the Republicans in control of Congress, Ways and Means chairman Dingley introduced the Dingley Act which would raise rates on wool, sugar, and luxury goods. McKinley supported it and it became law.\n\nAmerican negotiators soon concluded a reciprocity treaty with France, and the two nations approached Britain to gauge British enthusiasm for bimetallism. Prime Minister Lord Salisbury and his government showed some interest in the idea and told American envoy Edward O. Wolcott that he would be amenable to reopening the mints in India to silver coinage if the Viceroy's Executive Council there agreed. News of a possible departure from the gold standard stirred up immediate opposition from its partisans, and misgivings by the Indian administration led Britain to reject the proposal. With the international effort a failure, McKinley turned away from silver coinage and embraced the gold standard. Even without the agreement, agitation for free silver eased as prosperity began to return to the United States and gold from recent strikes in the Yukon and Australia increased the monetary supply even without silver coinage. In the absence of international agreement, McKinley favored legislation to formally affirm the gold standard, but was initially deterred by the silver strength in the Senate. By 1900, with another campaign ahead and good economic conditions, McKinley urged Congress to pass such a law, and signed the Gold Standard Act on March 14, 1900, using a gold pen to do so.\n\n### Civil rights\n\nIn the wake of McKinley's election in 1896, black people were hopeful of progress towards equality. McKinley had spoken out against lynching while governor, and most black people who could still vote supported him in 1896. McKinley's priority, however, was in ending sectionalism, and they were disappointed by his policies and appointments. Although McKinley made some appointments of black people to low-level government posts, and received some praise for that, the appointments were less than they had received under previous Republican administrations.\n\nThe McKinley administration's response to racial violence was minimal, causing him to lose black support. When black postmasters at Hogansville, Georgia, in 1897, and at Lake City, South Carolina, the following year, were assaulted, McKinley issued no statement of condemnation. Although black leaders criticized McKinley for inaction, supporters responded by saying there was little that the president could do to intervene. Critics replied by saying that he could at least publicly condemn such events, as Harrison had done.\n\nWhen a group of white supremacists violently overthrew the duly elected government of Wilmington, North Carolina, on November 10, 1898, in an event that came to be recognized as the Wilmington insurrection of 1898, McKinley refused requests by black leaders to send in federal marshals or federal troops to protect black citizens, and ignored city residents' appeals for help to recover from the widespread destruction of the predominantly black neighborhood of Brooklyn.\n\nAccording to historian Clarence A. Bacote, \"Before the Spanish–American War, the Negroes, in spite of some mistakes, regarded McKinley as the best friend they ever had.\" Under pressure from black leaders, McKinley required the War Department to commission black officers above the rank of lieutenant. McKinley toured the South in late 1898, promoting sectional reconciliation. He visited Tuskegee Institute and the famous black educator Booker T. Washington. He also visited Confederate memorials. In his tour of the South, McKinley did not mention the racial tensions or violence. Although the president received a rapturous reception from Southern whites, many blacks, excluded from official welcoming committees, felt alienated by the president's words and actions. Gould concluded regarding race, \"McKinley lacked the vision to transcend the biases of his day and to point toward a better future for all Americans\".\n\n### 1900 election\n\nRepublicans were generally successful in state and local elections around the country in 1899, and McKinley was optimistic about his chances at re-election in 1900. McKinley's popularity in his first term assured him of renomination for a second. The only question about the Republican ticket concerned the vice presidential nomination; McKinley needed a new running mate as Hobart had died in late 1899. McKinley initially favored Elihu Root, who had succeeded Alger as Secretary of War, but McKinley decided that Root was doing too good a job at the War Department to move him. He considered other prominent candidates, including Allison and Cornelius Newton Bliss, but none were as popular as the Republican party's rising star, Theodore Roosevelt. After a stint as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Roosevelt had resigned and raised a cavalry regiment; they fought bravely in Cuba, and Roosevelt returned home covered in glory. Elected governor of New York on a reform platform in 1898, Roosevelt had his eye on the presidency. Many supporters recommended him to McKinley for the second spot on the ticket, and Roosevelt believed it would be an excellent stepping stone to the presidency in 1904. McKinley remained uncommitted in public, but Hanna was firmly opposed to the New York governor. The Ohio senator considered the New Yorker overly impulsive; his stance was undermined by the efforts of political boss and New York Senator Thomas C. Platt, who, disliking Roosevelt's reform agenda, sought to sideline the governor by making him vice president.\n\nWhen the Republican convention began in Philadelphia that June, no vice presidential candidate had overwhelming support, but Roosevelt had the broadest range of support from around the country. McKinley affirmed that the choice belonged to the convention, not to him. On June 21, McKinley was unanimously renominated and, with Hanna's reluctant acquiescence, Roosevelt was nominated for vice president on the first ballot. The Democratic convention convened the next month in Kansas City and nominated William Jennings Bryan, setting up a rematch of the 1896 contest.\n\nThe candidates were the same, but the issues of the campaign had shifted: free silver was still a question that animated many voters, but the Republicans focused on victory in war and prosperity at home as issues they believed favored their party. Democrats knew the war had been popular, even if the imperialism issue was less sure, so they focused on the issue of trusts and corporate power, painting McKinley as the servant of capital and big business. As in 1896, Bryan embarked on a speaking tour around the country while McKinley stayed at home, this time making only one speech, to accept his nomination. Roosevelt emerged as the campaign's primary speaker and Hanna helped the cause working to settle a coal miners strike in Pennsylvania. Bryan's campaigning failed to excite the voters as it had in 1896, and McKinley never doubted that he would be re-elected. On November 6, 1900, he was proven correct, winning the largest victory for any Republican since 1872. Bryan carried only four states outside the solid South, and McKinley even won Bryan's home state of Nebraska.\n\n### Second term\n\nSoon after his second inauguration on March 4, 1901, William and Ida McKinley undertook a six-week tour of the nation. Traveling mostly by rail, the McKinleys were to travel through the South to the Southwest, and then up the Pacific coast and east again, to conclude with a visit on June 13, 1901, to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. However, the first lady fell ill in California, causing her husband to limit his public events and cancel a series of speeches he had planned to give urging trade reciprocity. He also postponed the visit to the fair until September, planning a month in Washington and two in Canton before the Buffalo visit.\n\n## Assassination\n\nAlthough McKinley enjoyed meeting the public, Cortelyou was concerned with his security because of recent assassinations by anarchists in Europe, such as the assassination of King Umberto I of Italy the previous year. Twice he tried to remove a public reception from the president's rescheduled visit to the exposition. McKinley refused, and Cortelyou arranged for additional security for the trip. On September 5, McKinley delivered his address at the fairgrounds before a crowd of 50,000. In his final speech, McKinley urged reciprocity treaties with other nations to assure American manufacturers access to foreign markets. He intended the speech as a keynote to his plans for a second term.\n\nA man in the crowd named Leon Czolgosz hoped to assassinate McKinley. He had managed to get close to the presidential podium, but did not fire, uncertain of hitting his target. After hearing a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman in Cleveland, Czolgosz had decided to take action that he believed would advance the cause. After his failure to get close enough on September 5, Czolgosz waited until the next day at the Temple of Music on the exposition grounds, where the president was to meet the public. Czolgosz concealed his gun in a handkerchief and, when he reached the head of the line, shot McKinley twice in the abdomen at close range.\n\nMcKinley urged his aides to break the news gently to Ida, and to call off the mob that had set upon Czolgosz, a request that may have saved his assassin's life. McKinley was taken to the exposition aid station, where the doctor was unable to locate the second bullet. Although a primitive X-ray machine was being exhibited on the exposition grounds, it was not used. McKinley was taken to the home of John G. Milburn, president of the Pan-American Exposition Company.\n\nIn the days after the shooting, McKinley appeared to improve and doctors issued increasingly optimistic bulletins. Members of the Cabinet, who had rushed to Buffalo on hearing the news, dispersed, and Vice President Roosevelt departed on a camping trip to the Adirondacks.\n\nLeech wrote:\n\n> It is difficult to interpret the optimism with which the President's physicians looked for his recovery. There was obviously the most serious danger that his wounds would become septic. In that case, he would almost certainly die, since drugs to control infection did not exist ... [Prominent New York City physician] Dr. McBurney was by far the worst offender in showering sanguine assurances on the correspondents. As the only big-city surgeon on the case, he was eagerly questioned and quoted, and his rosy prognostications largely contributed to the delusion of the American public.\n\nOn the morning of September 13, McKinley's condition deteriorated. Specialists were summoned; although at first some doctors hoped that McKinley might survive with a weakened heart, by afternoon they knew that the case was hopeless. Unknown to the doctors, gangrene was growing on the walls of McKinley's stomach and slowly poisoning his blood. McKinley drifted in and out of consciousness all day, but when awake he was a model patient. By evening, McKinley too knew he was dying, \"It is useless, gentlemen. I think we ought to have prayer.\" Relatives and friends gathered around the death bed. The first lady sobbed over him, saying, \"I want to go, too. I want to go, too.\" Her husband replied, \"We are all going, we are all going. God's will be done, not ours\", and with final strength put an arm around her. He may also have sung part of his favorite hymn, \"Nearer, My God, to Thee\", although other accounts have the first lady singing it softly to him.\n\nAt 2:15 a.m. on September 14, 1901, McKinley died. Theodore Roosevelt rushed back to Buffalo and took the oath of office as president. Czolgosz, put on trial for murder nine days after McKinley's death, was found guilty, sentenced to death on September 26 and executed by electric chair on October 29, 1901.\n\n## Funeral, memorials, and legacy\n\n### Funeral and resting place\n\nAccording to Gould, \"The nation experienced a wave of genuine grief at the news of McKinley's passing.\" The stock market, faced with sudden uncertainty, suffered a steep decline that went nearly unnoticed in the mourning. The nation focused its attention on the casket that first lay in the East Room of the Executive Mansion and then laid in state in the Capitol before being transported to Canton by train. Approximately 100,000 people passed by the open casket in the Capitol Rotunda, many having waited hours in the rain. In Canton, an equal number did the same at the Stark County Courthouse on September 18. The following day, a funeral service was held at the First Methodist Church. The casket was next sealed and taken to the McKinley house, where relatives paid their final respects. It was then transported to the receiving vault at West Lawn Cemetery in Canton to await the construction of the memorial to McKinley already being planned.\n\nThere was a widespread expectation that Ida McKinley would not long survive her husband; one family friend stated, as William McKinley lay dying, that they should be prepared for a double funeral. However, this did not occur, and the former first lady accompanied her husband on the funeral train. Leech noted \"the circuitous journey was a cruel ordeal for the woman who huddled in a compartment of the funeral train, praying that the Lord would take her with her Dearest Love.\" She was thought too weak to attend the services in Washington or Canton, although she listened at the door to the service for her husband in her house on North Market Street. She remained in Canton for the remainder of her life, setting up a shrine in her house and often visiting the receiving vault, until her death at age 59 on May 26, 1907. She died only months before the completion of the large marble monument to her husband in Canton, which was dedicated by President Roosevelt on September 30, 1907. William and Ida McKinley are interred there with their daughters atop a hillside overlooking the city of Canton.\n\n### Other memorials\n\nIn addition to the Canton site, many other memorials honor McKinley. The William McKinley Monument stands in front of the Ohio Statehouse in Columbus and a large marble statue of McKinley is situated at his birthplace in Niles. Twenty Ohio schools bear McKinley's name, and several more schools in the United States are named McKinley School. Nearly a million dollars was pledged by contributors or allocated from public funds for the construction of McKinley memorials in the year after his death. McKinley biographer Kevin Phillips suggests that the significant number of major memorials to McKinley in Ohio reflect the expectation among Ohioans in the years after McKinley's death that he would be ranked among the great presidents.\n\nStatues bearing McKinley's image may be found in more than a dozen states, and his name has been bestowed on streets, civic organizations and libraries. In 1896, a gold prospector gave McKinley's name to Denali, the tallest mountain in North America at 20,310 feet (6,190 m). The Alaska Board of Geographic Names reverted the name of the mountain to Denali, its local appellation, in 1975. The Department of the Interior followed suit in August 2015 as a part of a visit to Alaska by President Barack Obama. Similarly, Denali National Park was known as Mount McKinley National Park until December 2, 1980, when it was changed by legislation signed by President Jimmy Carter.\n\n### Legacy and historical image\n\nMcKinley's biographer H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history. However, the young, enthusiastic Roosevelt quickly captured public attention. The new president made little effort to secure the trade reciprocity that McKinley had intended to negotiate with other nations. Controversy and public interest surrounded Roosevelt throughout the seven and a half years of his presidency as memories of McKinley faded; by 1920, according to Gould, McKinley's administration was deemed no more than \"a mediocre prelude to the vigor and energy of Theodore Roosevelt's.\" Beginning in the 1950s, McKinley received more favorable evaluations; nevertheless, in surveys ranking American presidents, he has generally been placed near the middle, often trailing contemporaries such as Hayes and Cleveland. Morgan suggests that this relatively low ranking is the result of a perception among historians that while many decisions during McKinley's presidency profoundly affected the nation's future, he more followed public opinion than led it, and that McKinley's standing has suffered from altered public expectations of the presidency.\n\nThere has been broad agreement among historians that McKinley's election occurred at a time of a transition between two political eras, dubbed the Third and Fourth Party Systems. Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to a pro-business, industrial, and modernizing program represented by McKinley. Historian Daniel P. Klinghard argued that McKinley's personal control of the 1896 campaign gave him the opportunity to reshape the presidency—rather than simply follow the party platform—by representing himself as the voice of the people. Republican Karl Rove exalted McKinley as the model for a sweeping political realignment behind George W. Bush in the 2000s—a realignment that did not happen. Historian Michael J. Korzi argued in 2005 that while it is tempting to see McKinley as the key figure in the transition from congressional domination of government to the modern, powerful president, this change was an incremental process through the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n\nPhillips writes that McKinley's low rating is undeserved, and that he should be ranked just after the great presidents such as Washington and Lincoln. He pointed to McKinley's success at building an electoral coalition that kept the Republicans mostly in power for a generation. Phillips believes that part of McKinley's legacy is the men whom he included in his administration who dominated the Republican Party for a quarter century after his death. These officials included Cortelyou, who served in three Cabinet positions under Roosevelt, and Dawes, who became vice president under Coolidge. Other McKinley appointees who later became major figures include Day, whom Roosevelt elevated to the Supreme Court where he remained nearly 20 years, and William Howard Taft, whom McKinley had made Governor-General of the Philippines and who succeeded Roosevelt as president. After the assassination, the present United States Secret Service came into existence when the Congress deemed it necessary that presidential protection be part of its duties.\n\nA controversial aspect of McKinley's presidency is territorial expansion and the question of imperialism; with the exception of the Philippines, granted independence in 1946, the United States retains the territories taken under McKinley. The territorial expansion of 1898 is often seen by historians as the beginning of American empire. Morgan sees that historical discussion as a subset of the debate over the rise of America as a world power; he expects the debate over McKinley's actions to continue indefinitely without resolution, and notes that however one judges McKinley's actions in American expansion, one of his motivations was to change the lives of Filipinos and Cubans for the better.\n\nMorgan alludes to the rise of interest in McKinley as part of the debate over the more assertive American foreign policy of recent decades:\n\n> McKinley was a major actor in some of the most important events in American history. His decisions shaped future policies and public attitudes. He usually rises in the estimation of scholars who study his life in detail. Even those who disagree with his policies and decisions see him as an active, responsible, informed participant in charge of decision making. His dignified demeanor and subtle operations keep him somewhat remote from public perception. But he is once again at the center of events, where he started.\n\n## See also\n\n- McKinley at Home, Canton, Ohio (1896 film)\n\n## Explanatory notes\n\n## General bibliography\n\n### PhD dissertations\n\nFull text available online through academic libraries.\n\n- Brady, David William. \"A Congressional Response to a Stress Situation: Party Voting in the Mckinley Era\" (The University of Iowa; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1970. 7023867).\n\n- Damiani, Brian Paul. \"Advocates of Empire: William Mckinley, The Senate and American Expansion, 1898-1899\" (University of Delaware; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7816908).\n- Labinski, Nicholas Winter. \"A Transitional Moment: William McKinley's Foreign Policy Rhetoric and America's Outward Turn\" (University of Kansas; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2017. 10687965).\n- Matlosz, Gregory. \"The Political Symbiosis of Rutherford B. Hayes & William McKinley\" (Drew University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2015. 3700842).\n- Ofek, Hillel. \"A Just Peace: Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and the Moral Basis of American Foreign Policy\" (University of Texas at Austin; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2018. 28166006).\n- Waksmundski, John. \"Mckinley Politics and the Changing Attitudes Toward American Labor, 1870-1900\" (The Ohio State University; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7311599).", "revid": "1172852908", "description": "25th President of the United States", "categories": ["1843 births", "1890s in the United States", "1900s assassinated politicians", "1900s in the United States", "1901 deaths", "1901 murders in the United States", "19th-century American politicians", "19th-century Methodists", "19th-century presidents of the United States", "20th-century Methodists", "20th-century assassinated national presidents", "20th-century presidents of the United States", "Albany Law School alumni", "Allegheny College alumni", "American Freemasons", "American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law", "American people of English descent", "American people of Scotch-Irish descent", "Articles containing video clips", "Assassinated presidents of the United States", "Burials in Ohio", "Candidates in the 1892 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1896 United States presidential election", "Candidates in the 1900 United States presidential election", "Deaths by firearm in New York (state)", "Deaths from gangrene", "Lawyers from Canton, Ohio", "Male murder victims", "McKinley family", "Members of the Methodist Episcopal Church", "Members of the Sons of the American Revolution", "Methodists from Ohio", "Ohio lawyers", "People from Niles, Ohio", "People from Poland, Ohio", "People murdered in New York (state)", "People of the Spanish–American War", "Politicians from Canton, Ohio", "Presidents of the United States", "Progressive Era in the United States", "Republican Party governors of Ohio", "Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio", "Republican Party presidents of the United States", "Sigma Alpha Epsilon members", "Union Army officers", "United States Army officers", "University of Mount Union alumni", "William McKinley"]}
{"id": "13255", "url": null, "title": "Hydrogen", "text": "Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula H<sub>2</sub>. It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, and highly combustible. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical substance in the universe, constituting roughly 75% of all normal matter. Stars such as the Sun are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. Most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water and organic compounds. For the most common isotope of hydrogen (symbol <sup>1</sup>H) each atom has one proton, one electron, and no neutrons.\n\nIn the early universe, the formation of protons, the nuclei of hydrogen, occurred during the first second after the Big Bang. The emergence of neutral hydrogen atoms throughout the universe occurred about 370,000 years later during the recombination epoch, when the plasma had cooled enough for electrons to remain bound to protons.\n\nHydrogen is nonmetallic (except when it becomes metallic at extremely high pressures) and readily forms a single covalent bond with most nonmetallic elements, forming compounds such as water and nearly all organic compounds. Hydrogen plays a particularly important role in acid–base reactions because these reactions usually involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a negative charge (i.e., anion) where it is known as a hydride, or as a positively charged (i.e., cation) species denoted by the symbol H<sup>+</sup>. The H<sup>+</sup> cation is simply a proton (symbol p) but its behavior in aqueous solutions and in ionic compounds involves screening of its electric charge by nearby polar molecules or anions. Because hydrogen is the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically, the study of its energetics and chemical bonding has played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics.\n\nHydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. In 1766–1781, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance and that it produces water when burned, the property for which it was later named: in Greek, hydrogen means \"water-former\".\n\nIndustrial production is mainly from steam reforming of natural gas, oil reforming, or coal gasification. A small percentage is also produced using more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydrocracking) and ammonia production. It can be burned to produce heat or combined with oxygen in fuel cells to generate electricity directly, with water being the only emissions at the point of usage. Hydrogen atoms may embrittle metals.\n\n## Properties\n\n### Combustion\n\nHydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen) is highly flammable:\n\n2 H<sub>2</sub>(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g) → 2 H<sub>2</sub>O(l) (572 kJ/2 mol = 286 kJ/mol = 141.865 MJ/kg)\n\nThe enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol.\n\nHydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74% and with chlorine at 5–95%. The explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F).\n\n#### Flame\n\nPure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen mix are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine, compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster, which uses an ammonium perchlorate composite. The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector; such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames. The destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible flames in the photographs were the result of carbon compounds in the airship skin burning.\n\n#### Reactants\n\nH<sub>2</sub> is unreactive compared to diatomic elements such as halogens or oxygen. The thermodynamic basis of this low reactivity is the very strong H–H bond, with a bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. The kinetic basis of the low reactivity is the nonpolar nature of H<sub>2</sub> and its weak polarizability. It spontaneously reacts with chlorine and fluorine to form hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, respectively. The reactivity of H<sub>2</sub> is strongly affected by the presence of metal catalysts. Thus, while mixtures of H<sub>2</sub> with O<sub>2</sub> or air combust readily when heated to at least 500 °C by a spark or flame, they do not react at room temperature in the absence of a catalyst.\n\n### Electron energy levels\n\nThe ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength.\n\nThe energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as \"orbiting\" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.\n\nA more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation, Dirac equation or Feynman path integral formulation to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. The most complicated treatments allow for the small effects of special relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular momentum at all—illustrating how the \"planetary orbit\" differs from electron motion.\n\n### Spin isomers\n\nMolecular H<sub>2</sub> exists as two spin isomers, i.e. compounds that differ only in the spin states of their nuclei. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two nuclei are parallel, forming a spin triplet state having a total molecular spin $S = 1$; in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a spin singlet state having spin $S = 0$. The equilibrium ratio of ortho- to para-hydrogen depends on temperature. At room temperature or warmer, equilibrium hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form. The ortho form is an excited state, having higher energy than the para form by 1.455 kJ/mol, and it converts to the para form over the course of several minutes when cooled to low temperature. The thermal properties of the forms differ because they differ in their allowed rotational quantum states, resulting in different thermal properties such as the heat capacity.\n\nThe ortho-to-para ratio in H<sub>2</sub> is an important consideration in the liquefaction and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate most of the liquid if not converted first to parahydrogen during the cooling process. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as ferric oxide and activated carbon compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling to avoid this loss of liquid.\n\n### Phases\n\n- Gaseous hydrogen\n- Liquid hydrogen\n- Slush hydrogen\n- Solid hydrogen\n- Metallic hydrogen\n- Plasma hydrogen\n\n### Compounds\n\n#### Covalent and organic compounds\n\nWhile H<sub>2</sub> is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygen; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge. When bonded to a more electronegative element, particularly fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with another electronegative element with a lone pair, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as metals and metalloids, where it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides.\n\nHydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons, and an even vaster array with heteroatoms that, because of their general association with living things, are called organic compounds. The study of their properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is known as biochemistry. By some definitions, \"organic\" compounds are only required to contain carbon. However, most of them also contain hydrogen, and because it is the carbon-hydrogen bond that gives this class of compounds most of its particular chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some definitions of the word \"organic\" in chemistry. Millions of hydrocarbons are known, and they are usually formed by complicated pathways that seldom involve elemental hydrogen.\n\nHydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice. These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.\n\n#### Hydrides\n\nCompounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term \"hydride\" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H<sup>−</sup>, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1 and 2 salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides other than group 1 and 2 metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group 2 hydrides is BeH<sub>2</sub>, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride, the [AlH<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup> anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III).\n\nAlthough hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements, the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, more than 100 binary borane hydrides are known, but only one binary aluminium hydride. Binary indium hydride has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist.\n\nIn inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13 elements, especially in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes.\n\n#### Protons and acids\n\nOxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H<sup>+</sup>, which contains no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why H<sup>+</sup> is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors.\n\nA bare proton, H<sup>+</sup>, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted \"H<sup>+</sup>\" without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a species.\n\nTo avoid the implication of the naked \"solvated proton\" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the \"hydronium ion\" ([H<sub>3</sub>O]<sup>+</sup>). However, even in this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer to [H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>]<sup>+</sup>. Other oxonium ions are found when water is in acidic solution with other solvents.\n\nAlthough exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H+3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation.\n\n### Isotopes\n\nHydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted <sup>1</sup>\nH, <sup>2</sup>\nH and <sup>3</sup>\nH. Other, highly unstable nuclei (<sup>4</sup>\nH to <sup>7</sup>\nH) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature.\n\n- <sup>1</sup>\n  H is the most common hydrogen isotope, with an abundance of more than 99.98%. Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton, it is given the descriptive but rarely used formal name protium. It is unique among all stable isotopes in having no neutrons; see diproton for a discussion of why others do not exist.\n- <sup>2</sup>\n  H, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron in the nucleus. All deuterium in the universe is thought to have been produced at the time of the Big Bang, and has endured since that time. Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of normal hydrogen is called heavy water. Deuterium and its compounds are used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for <sup>1</sup>\n  H-NMR spectroscopy. Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion.\n- <sup>3</sup>\n  H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is radioactive, decaying into helium-3 through beta decay with a half-life of 12.32 years. It is so radioactive that it can be used in luminous paint, making it useful in such things as watches. The glass prevents the small amount of radiation from getting out. Small amounts of tritium are produced naturally by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests. It is used in nuclear fusion reactions, as a tracer in isotope geochemistry, and in specialized self-powered lighting devices. Tritium has also been used in chemical and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel.\n\nUnique among the elements, distinct names are assigned to its isotopes in common use today. During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but such names are no longer used, except for deuterium and tritium. The symbols D and T (instead of <sup>2</sup>\nH and <sup>3</sup>\nH) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the symbol P is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium. In its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) allows any of D, T, <sup>2</sup>\nH, and <sup>3</sup>\nH to be used, although <sup>2</sup>\nH and <sup>3</sup>\nH are preferred.\n\nThe exotic atom muonium (symbol Mu), composed of an antimuon and an electron, can also be considered a light radioisotope of hydrogen. Because muons decay with lifetime 2.2 μs, muonium is too unstable to exhibit observable chemistry. Nevertheless, muonium compounds are important test cases for quantum simulation, due to the mass difference between the antimuon and the proton, and IUPAC nomenclature incorporates such hypothetical compounds as muonium chloride (MuCl) and sodium muonide (NaMu), analogous to hydrogen chloride and sodium hydride respectively.\n\n### Thermal and physical properties\n\nTable of thermal and physical properties of hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) at atmospheric pressure:\n\n## History\n\n### Discovery and use\n\nIn 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas.\n\n> Having provided a saline spirit [hydrochloric acid], which by an uncommon way of preparation was made exceeding sharp and piercing, we put into a vial, capable of containing three or four ounces of water, a convenient quantity of filings of steel, which were not such as are commonly sold in shops to Chymists and Apothecaries, (those being usually not free enough from rust) but such as I had a while before caus'd to be purposely fil'd off from a piece of good steel. This metalline powder being moistn'd in the viol with a little of the menstruum, was afterwards drench'd with more; whereupon the mixture grew very hot, and belch'd up copious and stinking fumes; which whether they consisted altogether of the volatile sulfur of the Mars [iron?], or of metalline steams participating of a sulfureous nature, and join'd with the saline exhalations of the menstruum, is not necessary to be here discuss'd. But whencesoever this stinking smoak proceeded, so inflammable it was, that upon the approach of a lighted candle to it, it would readily enough take fire, and burn with a blewish and somewhat greenish flame at the mouth of the viol for a good while together; and that, though with little light, yet with more strength than one would easily suspect.\n\nThe word \"sulfureous\" may be somewhat confusing, especially since Boyle did a similar experiment with iron and sulfuric acid. However, in all likelihood, \"sulfureous\" should here be understood to mean combustible.\n\nIn 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction \"inflammable air\". He speculated that \"inflammable air\" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called \"phlogiston\" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ὑδρο- hydro meaning \"water\" and -γενής genes meaning \"former\") when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.\n\nLavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactions:\n\n1\\) Fe + H<sub>2</sub>O → FeO + H<sub>2</sub>\n\n2\\) Fe + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O → Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>\n\n3\\) Fe + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O → Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>\n\nMany metals such as zirconium undergo a similar reaction with water leading to the production of hydrogen.\n\nHydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask. He produced solid hydrogen the next year. Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey, and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck. Heavy water, which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932. François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine, an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823.\n\nThe first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard. German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900. Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war.\n\nThe first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H<sub>2</sub> was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937. The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done and commercial hydrogen airship travel ceased. Hydrogen is still used, in preference to non-flammable but more expensive helium, as a lifting gas for weather balloons.\n\nIn the same year, the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light Co.; because of the thermal conductivity and very low viscosity of hydrogen gas, thus lower drag than air, this is the most common type in its field today for large generators (typically 60 MW and bigger; smaller generators are usually air-cooled).\n\nThe nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). For example, the ISS, Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteries, which were finally replaced in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch and 13 years beyond their design life.\n\n### Role in quantum theory\n\nBecause of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H+2 brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.\n\nOne of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H<sub>2</sub> unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H<sub>2</sub> because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect.\n\nAntihydrogen () is the antimatter counterpart to hydrogen. It consists of an antiproton with a positron. Antihydrogen is the only type of antimatter atom to have been produced as of 2015.\n\n## Cosmic prevalence and distribution\n\nHydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75 percent of normal matter by mass and more than 90 percent by number of atoms. (Most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy.) This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H<sub>2</sub> are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction in case of stars with very low to approximately 1 mass of the Sun and the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in case of stars more massive than the Sun.\n\n### States\n\nThroughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states, with properties quite distinct from those of molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.\n\nHydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium because the atoms seldom collide and combine. They are the source of the 21-cm hydrogen line at 1420 MHz that is detected in order to probe primordial hydrogen. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the universe up to a redshift of z = 4.\n\nUnder ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H<sub>2</sub>. Hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (around 0.53 ppm on a molar basis) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from the atmosphere more rapidly than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water.\n\nA molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen (H+3) is found in the interstellar medium, where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. This ion has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. The ion is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H+3 is one of the most abundant ions in the universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium. Neutral triatomic hydrogen H<sub>3</sub> can exist only in an excited form and is unstable. By contrast, the positive hydrogen molecular ion (H+2) is a rare molecule in the universe.\n\n## Production\n\nH<sub>2</sub> is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.\n\n### Commercial methods\n\nHydrogen is often produced by reacting water with methane and carbon monoxide, which causes the removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons at very high temperatures, with 48% of hydrogen production coming from steam reforming. The water vapor is then reacted with the carbon monoxide produced by steam reforming to oxidize it to carbon dioxide and turn the water into hydrogen. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas with release of atmospheric greenhouse gas or with capture using CCS and climate change mitigation. Steam reforming is also known as the Bosch process and is widely used for the industrial preparation of hydrogen.\n\nAt high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H<sub>2</sub>.\n\nCH<sub>4</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO + 3 H<sub>2</sub>\n\nThis reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure H<sub>2</sub> is the most marketable product, and pressure swing adsorption (PSA) purification systems work better at higher pressures. The product mixture is known as \"synthesis gas\" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:\n\nCH<sub>4</sub> → C + 2 H<sub>2</sub>\n\nConsequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H<sub>2</sub>O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:\n\nCO + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>\n\nOther important methods for CO and H<sub>2</sub> production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:\n\n2 CH<sub>4</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> → 2 CO + 4 H<sub>2</sub>\n\nand the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:\n\nC + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO + H<sub>2</sub>\n\nHydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas. Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product.\n\nOlefin production units may produce substantial quantities of byproduct hydrogen particularly from cracking light feedstocks like ethane or propane.\n\n### Water electrolysis\n\nThe electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is in the range 88–94%.\n\n2 H<sub>2</sub>O(l) → 2 H<sub>2</sub>(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g)\n\n### Methane pyrolysis\n\nHydrogen production using natural gas methane pyrolysis is a process with a lower carbon footprint than commercial hydrogen production processes. Developing a commercial methane pyrolysis process could expedite the expanded use of hydrogen in industrial and transportation applications. Methane pyrolysis is accomplished by passing methane through a molten metal catalyst containing dissolved nickel. Methane is converted to hydrogen gas and solid carbon.\n\nCH<sub>4</sub>(g) → C(s) + 2 H<sub>2</sub>(g) (ΔH° = 74 kJ/mol)\n\nThe carbon may be sold as a manufacturing feedstock or fuel, or landfilled.\n\nFurther research continues in several laboratories, including at Karlsruhe Liquid-metal Laboratory and at University of California – Santa Barbara. BASF built a methane pyrolysis pilot plant.\n\n### Metal-acid\n\nMany metals react with water to produce H<sub>2</sub>, but the rate of hydrogen evolution depends on the metal, the pH, and the presence of alloying agents. Most commonly, hydrogen evolution is induced by acids. The alkali and alkaline earth metals, aluminium, zinc, manganese, and iron react readily with aqueous acids. This reaction is the basis of the Kipp's apparatus, which once was used as a laboratory gas source:\n\nZn + 2 H<sup>+</sup> → Zn<sup>2+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>\n\nIn the absence of acid, the evolution of H<sub>2</sub> is slower. Because iron is widely used structural material, its anaerobic corrosion is of technological significance:\n\nFe + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O → Fe(OH)<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>\n\nMany metals, such as aluminium, are slow to react with water because they form passivated coatings of oxides. An alloy of aluminium and gallium, however, does react with water. At high pH, aluminium can produce H<sub>2</sub>:\n\n2 Al + 6 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 OH<sup>−</sup> → 2 [Al(OH)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>\n\nSome metal-containing compounds react with acids to evolve H<sub>2</sub>. Under anaerobic conditions, ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)\n<sub>2</sub>) can be oxidized by the protons of water to form magnetite and H<sub>2</sub>. This process is described by the Schikorr reaction:\n\n3 Fe(OH)<sub>2</sub> → Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + H<sub>2</sub>\n\nThis process occurs during the anaerobic corrosion of iron and steel in oxygen-free groundwater and in reducing soils below the water table.\n\n### Thermochemical\n\nMore than 200 thermochemical cycles can be used for water splitting. Many of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle have been evaluated for their commercial potential to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the United States) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water.\n\n## Applications\n\n### Petrochemical industry\n\nLarge quantities of H<sub>2</sub> are used in the \"upgrading\" of fossil fuels. Key consumers of H<sub>2</sub> include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. Many of these reactions can be classified as hydrogenolysis, i.e., the cleavage of bonds to carbon. Illustrative is the separation of sulfur from liquid fossil fuels:\n\nR<sub>2</sub>S + 2 H<sub>2</sub> → H<sub>2</sub>S + 2 RH\n\n### Hydrogenation\n\nHydrogenation, the addition of H<sub>2</sub> to various substrates is conducted on a large scale. The hydrogenation of N<sub>2</sub> to produce ammonia by the Haber–Bosch process consumes a few percent of the energy budget in the entire industry. The resulting ammonia is used to supply the majority of the protein consumed by humans. Hydrogenation is used to convert unsaturated fats and oils to saturated fats and oils. The major application is the production of margarine. Methanol is produced by hydrogenation of carbon dioxide. It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H<sub>2</sub> is also used as a reducing agent for the conversion of some ores to the metals.\n\n### Coolant\n\nHydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators due to a number of favorable properties that are a direct result of its light diatomic molecules. These include low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases.\n\n### Energy carrier\n\nElemental hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible future carrier of energy on an economy-wide scale. Hydrogen is a ''carrier'' of energy rather than an energy resource, because there is no naturally occurring source of hydrogen in useful quantities.\n\nHydrogen can be burned to produce heat or combined with oxygen in fuel cells to generate electricity directly, with water being the only emissions at the point of usage. The overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen depend on how it is produced. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. The main method is steam methane reforming, in which hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and methane, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide. While carbon capture and storage can remove a large fraction of these emissions, the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen from natural gas is difficult to assess as of 2021, in part because of emissions created in the production of the natural gas itself.\n\nElectricity can be used to split water molecules, producing sustainable hydrogen provided the electricity was generated sustainably. However, this electrolysis process is currently more expensive than creating hydrogen from methane and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low. Hydrogen can be produced when there is a surplus of variable renewable electricity, then stored and used to generate heat or to re-generate electricity. Hydrogen created through electrolysis using renewable energy is commonly referred to as \"green hydrogen.\" It can be further transformed into synthetic fuels such as ammonia and methanol.\n\nInnovation in hydrogen electrolysers could make large-scale production of hydrogen from electricity more cost-competitive. There is potential for hydrogen to play a significant role in decarbonising energy systems because in certain sectors, replacing fossil fuels with direct use of electricity would be very difficult. Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals. For steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean energy carrier and simultaneously as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived coke. Hydrogen used in transportation would burn relatively cleanly, with some NO<sub>x</sub> emissions, but without carbon emissions. Disadvantages of hydrogen as an energy carrier include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle. The infrastructure costs associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial.\n\n### Semiconductor industry\n\nHydrogen is employed to saturate broken (\"dangling\") bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties. It is also a potential electron donor in various oxide materials, including ZnO, SnO<sub>2</sub>, CdO, MgO, ZrO<sub>2</sub>, HfO<sub>2</sub>, La<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, TiO<sub>2</sub>, SrTiO<sub>3</sub>, LaAlO<sub>3</sub>, SiO<sub>2</sub>, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>, HfSiO<sub>4</sub>, and SrZrO<sub>3</sub>.\n\n### Aerospace\n\nLiquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen together serve as cryogenic fuel in liquid-propellant rockets, as in the Space Shuttle main engines.\n\n### Niche and evolving uses\n\n- Shielding gas: Hydrogen is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding.\n\n- Cryogenic research: Liquid H<sub>2</sub> is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies.\n\n- Buoyant lifting: Because H<sub>2</sub> is lighter than air, having only 7% of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.\n- Leak detection: Pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes called forming gas), hydrogen is a tracer gas for detection of minute leaks. Applications can be found in the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications industries. Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package leak testing, as well as having anti-oxidizing properties.\n\n- Neutron moderation: Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons.\n- Nuclear fusion fuel: Deuterium is used in nuclear fusion reactions.\n- Isotopic labeling: Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of isotope effects on reaction rates.\n\n- Rocket propellant: NASA has investigated the use of rocket propellant made from atomic hydrogen, boron or carbon that is frozen into solid molecular hydrogen particles that are suspended in liquid helium. Upon warming, the mixture vaporizes to allow the atomic species to recombine, heating the mixture to high temperature.\n- Tritium uses: Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a source of beta radiation in radioluminescent paint for instrument dials and emergency signage.\n\n## Biological reactions\n\nH<sub>2</sub> is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H<sub>2</sub> and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents, produced during pyruvate fermentation, to water. The natural cycle of hydrogen production and consumption by organisms is called the hydrogen cycle. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium smegmatis can utilize the small amount of hydrogen in the atmosphere as a source of energy when other sources are lacking, using a hydrogenase with small channels that exclude oxygen and so permits the reaction to occur even though the hydrogen concentration is very low and the oxygen concentration is as in normal air.\n\nHydrogen is the most abundant element in the human body in terms of numbers of atoms of the element but the third most abundant element by mass. H<sub>2</sub> occurs in the breath of humans due to the metabolic activity of hydrogenase-containing microorganisms in the large intestine and is a natural component of flatus. The concentration in the breath of fasting people at rest is typically less than 5 parts per million (ppm) but can be 50 ppm when people with intestinal disorders consume molecules they cannot absorb during diagnostic hydrogen breath tests.\n\nWater splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms, including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria, have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H<sub>2</sub> gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast. Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H<sub>2</sub> gas even in the presence of oxygen. Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor.\n\n## Safety and precautions\n\nHydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure, oxygen-free form. In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquids. Hydrogen dissolves in many metals and in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement, leading to cracks and explosions. Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns.\n\nEven interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.\n\n## See also\n\n- (for hydrogen)", "revid": "1170606249", "description": null, "categories": ["Airship technology", "Chemical elements", "Diatomic nonmetals", "E-number additives", "Gaseous signaling molecules", "Hydrogen", "Nuclear fusion fuels", "Reactive nonmetals", "Reducing agents", "Refrigerants"]}
{"id": "6446", "url": null, "title": "Camouflage", "text": "Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier, and the leaf-mimic katydid's wings. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern, making the object visible but momentarily harder to locate, as well as making general aiming easier. The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading. In the open ocean, where there is no background, the principal methods of camouflage are transparency, silvering, and countershading, while the ability to produce light is among other things used for counter-illumination on the undersides of cephalopods such as squid. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of actively changing their skin pattern and colours, whether for camouflage or for signalling. It is possible that some plants use camouflage to evade being eaten by herbivores.\n\nMilitary camouflage was spurred by the increasing range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill. In the 20th century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially during the First World War. On land, artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes and observation posts disguised as trees. At sea, merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the target's speed, range, and heading. During and after the Second World War, a variety of camouflage schemes were used for aircraft and for ground vehicles in different theatres of war. The use of radar since the mid-20th century has largely made camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete.\n\nNon-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive and helping hunters to approach wary game animals. Patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism. Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature.\n\n## History\n\nIn ancient Greece, Aristotle (384–322 BC) commented on the colour-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his Historia animalium:\n\n> The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it; it does so also when alarmed.\n\nCamouflage has been a topic of interest and research in zoology for well over a century. According to Charles Darwin's 1859 theory of natural selection, features such as camouflage evolved by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage, enabling them to leave more offspring, on average, than other members of the same species. In his Origin of Species, Darwin wrote:\n\n> When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter, the red-grouse the colour of heather, and the black-grouse that of peaty earth, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey, so much so, that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once acquired, true and constant.\n\nThe English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton studied animal coloration, especially camouflage. In his 1890 book The Colours of Animals, he classified different types such as \"special protective resemblance\" (where an animal looks like another object), or \"general aggressive resemblance\" (where a predator blends in with the background, enabling it to approach prey). His experiments showed that swallow-tailed moth pupae were camouflaged to match the backgrounds on which they were reared as larvae. Poulton's \"general protective resemblance\" was at that time considered to be the main method of camouflage, as when Frank Evers Beddard wrote in 1892 that \"tree-frequenting animals are often green in colour. Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots, iguanas, tree-frogs, and the green tree-snake are examples\". Beddard did however briefly mention other methods, including the \"alluring coloration\" of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly. He wrote that \"the scattered green spots upon the under surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant [an umbellifer], so close is their mutual resemblance.\" He also explained the coloration of sea fish such as the mackerel: \"Among pelagic fish it is common to find the upper surface dark-coloured and the lower surface white, so that the animal is inconspicuous when seen either from above or below.\"\n\nThe artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayer's Law, the principle of countershading. However, he overstated the case in the 1909 book Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, arguing that \"All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever preyed or are preyed on are under certain normal circumstances obliterative\" (that is, cryptic camouflage), and that \"Not one 'mimicry' mark, not one 'warning color'... nor any 'sexually selected' color, exists anywhere in the world where there is not every reason to believe it the very best conceivable device for the concealment of its wearer\", and using paintings such as Peacock in the Woods (1907) to reinforce his argument. Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt.\n\nThe English zoologist Hugh Cott's 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals corrected Thayer's errors, sometimes sharply: \"Thus we find Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme in an endeavour to make it cover almost every type of coloration in the animal kingdom.\" Cott built on Thayer's discoveries, developing a comprehensive view of camouflage based on \"maximum disruptive contrast\", countershading and hundreds of examples. The book explained how disruptive camouflage worked, using streaks of boldly contrasting colour, paradoxically making objects less visible by breaking up their outlines. While Cott was more systematic and balanced in his view than Thayer, and did include some experimental evidence on the effectiveness of camouflage, his 500-page textbook was, like Thayer's, mainly a natural history narrative which illustrated theories with examples.\n\nExperimental evidence that camouflage helps prey avoid being detected by predators was first provided in 2016, when ground-nesting birds (plovers and coursers) were shown to survive according to how well their egg contrast matched the local environment.\n\n## Evolution\n\nAs there is a lack of evidence for camouflage in the fossil record, studying the evolution of camouflage strategies is very difficult. Furthermore, camouflage traits must be both adaptable (provide a fitness gain in a given environment) and heritable (in other words, the trait must undergo positive selection). Thus, studying the evolution of camouflage strategies requires an understanding of the genetic components and various ecological pressures that drive crypsis.\n\n### Fossil history\n\nCamouflage is a soft-tissue feature that is rarely preserved in the fossil record, but rare fossilised skin samples from the Cretaceous period show that some marine reptiles were countershaded. The skins, pigmented with dark-coloured eumelanin, reveal that both leatherback turtles and mosasaurs had dark backs and light bellies. There is fossil evidence of camouflaged insects going back over 100 million years, for example lacewings larvae that stick debris all over their bodies much as their modern descendants do, hiding them from their prey. Dinosaurs appear to have been camouflaged, as a 120 million year old fossil of a Psittacosaurus has been preserved with countershading.\n\n### Genetics\n\nCamouflage does not have a single genetic origin. However, studying the genetic components of camouflage in specific organisms illuminates the various ways that crypsis can evolve among lineages.\n\nMany cephalopods have the ability to actively camouflage themselves, controlling crypsis through neural activity. For example, the genome of the common cuttlefish includes 16 copies of the reflectin gene, which grants the organism remarkable control over coloration and iridescence. The reflectin gene is thought to have originated through transposition from symbiotic Aliivibrio fischeri bacteria, which provide bioluminescence to its hosts. While not all cephalopods use active camouflage, ancient cephalopods may have inherited the gene horizontally from symbiotic A. fischeri, with divergence occurred through subsequent gene duplication (such as in the case of Sepia officinalis) or gene loss (as with cephalopods with no active camouflage capabilities).<sup>[3]</sup> This is unique as an instance of camouflage arising as an instance of horizontal gene transfer from an endosymbiont. However, other methods of horizontal gene transfer are common in the evolution of camouflage strategies in other lineages. Peppered moths and walking stick insects both have camouflage-related genes that stem from transposition events.\n\nThe Agouti genes are orthologous genes involved in camouflage across many lineages. They produce yellow and red coloration (phaeomelanin), and work in competition with other genes that produce black (melanin) and brown (eumelanin) colours. In eastern deer mice, over a period of about 8000 years the single agouti gene developed 9 mutations that each made expression of yellow fur stronger under natural selection, and largely eliminated melanin-coding black fur coloration. On the other hand, all black domesticated cats have deletions of the agouti gene that prevent its expression, meaning no yellow or red color is produced. The evolution, history and widespread scope of the agouti gene shows that different organisms often rely on orthologous or even identical genes to develop a variety of camouflage strategies.\n\n### Ecology\n\nWhile camouflage can increase an organism's fitness, it has genetic and energetic costs. There is a trade-off between detectability and mobility. Species camouflaged to fit a specific microhabitat are less likely to be detected when in that microhabitat, but must spend energy to reach, and sometimes to remain in, such areas. Outside the microhabitat, the organism has a higher chance of detection. Generalized camouflage allows species to avoid predation over a wide range of habitat backgrounds, but is less effective. The development of generalized or specialized camouflage strategies is highly dependent on the biotic and abiotic composition of the surrounding environment.\n\nThere are many examples of the tradeoffs between specific and general cryptic patterning. Phestilla melanocrachia, a species of nudibranch that feeds on stony coral, utilizes specific cryptic patterning in reef ecosystems. The nudibranch syphons pigments from the consumed coral into the epidermis, adopting the same shade as the consumed coral. This allows the nudibranch to change colour (mostly between black and orange) depending on the coral system that it inhabits. However, P. melanocrachia can only feed and lay eggs on the branches of host-coral, Platygyra carnosa, which limits the geographical range and efficacy in nudibranch nutritional crypsis. Furthermore, the nudibranch colour change is not immediate, and switching between coral hosts when in search for new food or shelter can be costly.\n\nThe costs associated with distractive or disruptive crypsis are more complex than the costs associated with background matching. Disruptive patterns distort the body outline, making it harder to precisely identify and locate. However, disruptive patterns result in higher predation. Disruptive patterns that specifically involve visible symmetry (such as in some butterflies) reduce survivability and increase predation. Some researchers argue that because wing-shape and color pattern are genetically linked, it is genetically costly to develop asymmetric wing colorations that would enhance the efficacy of disruptive cryptic patterning. Symmetry does not carry a high survival cost for butterflies and moths that their predators views from above on a homogeneous background, such as the bark of a tree. On the other hand, natural selection drives species with variable backgrounds and habitats to move symmetrical patterns away from the centre of the wing and body, disrupting their predators' symmetry recognition.\n\n## Principles\n\nCamouflage can be achieved by different methods, described below. Most of the methods help to hide against a background; but mimesis and motion dazzle protect without hiding. Methods may be applied on their own or in combination. Many mechanisms are visual, but some research has explored the use of techniques against olfactory (scent) and acoustic (sound) detection. Methods may also apply to military equipment.\n\n### Resemblance to surroundings\n\nSome animals' colours and patterns resemble a particular natural background. This is an important component of camouflage in all environments. For instance, tree-dwelling parakeets are mainly green; woodcocks of the forest floor are brown and speckled; reedbed bitterns are streaked brown and buff; in each case the animal's coloration matches the hues of its habitat. Similarly, desert animals are almost all desert coloured in tones of sand, buff, ochre, and brownish grey, whether they are mammals like the gerbil or fennec fox, birds such as the desert lark or sandgrouse, or reptiles like the skink or horned viper. Military uniforms, too, generally resemble their backgrounds; for example khaki uniforms are a muddy or dusty colour, originally chosen for service in South Asia. Many moths show industrial melanism, including the peppered moth which has coloration that blends in with tree bark. The coloration of these insects evolved between 1860 and 1940 to match the changing colour of the tree trunks on which they rest, from pale and mottled to almost black in polluted areas. This is taken by zoologists as evidence that camouflage is influenced by natural selection, as well as demonstrating that it changes where necessary to resemble the local background.\n\n### Disruptive coloration\n\nDisruptive patterns use strongly contrasting, non-repeating markings such as spots or stripes to break up the outlines of an animal or military vehicle, or to conceal telltale features, especially by masking the eyes, as in the common frog. Disruptive patterns may use more than one method to defeat visual systems such as edge detection. Predators like the leopard use disruptive camouflage to help them approach prey, while potential prey use it to avoid detection by predators. Disruptive patterning is common in military usage, both for uniforms and for military vehicles. Disruptive patterning, however, does not always achieve crypsis on its own, as an animal or a military target may be given away by factors like shape, shine, and shadow.\n\nThe presence of bold skin markings does not in itself prove that an animal relies on camouflage, as that depends on its behaviour. For example, although giraffes have a high contrast pattern that could be disruptive coloration, the adults are very conspicuous when in the open. Some authors have argued that adult giraffes are cryptic, since when standing among trees and bushes they are hard to see at even a few metres' distance. However, adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator, relying on their size and ability to defend themselves, even from lions, rather than on camouflage. A different explanation is implied by young giraffes being far more vulnerable to predation than adults. More than half of all giraffe calves die within a year, and giraffe mothers hide their newly born calves, which spend much of the time lying down in cover while their mothers are away feeding. The mothers return once a day to feed their calves with milk. Since the presence of a mother nearby does not affect survival, it is argued that these juvenile giraffes must be very well camouflaged; this is supported by coat markings being strongly inherited.\n\nThe possibility of camouflage in plants has been little studied until the late 20th century. Leaf variegation with white spots may serve as camouflage in forest understory plants, where there is a dappled background; leaf mottling is correlated with closed habitats. Disruptive camouflage would have a clear evolutionary advantage in plants: they would tend to escape from being eaten by herbivores. Another possibility is that some plants have leaves differently coloured on upper and lower surfaces or on parts such as veins and stalks to make green-camouflaged insects conspicuous, and thus benefit the plants by favouring the removal of herbivores by carnivores. These hypotheses are testable.\n\n### Eliminating shadow\n\nSome animals, such as the horned lizards of North America, have evolved elaborate measures to eliminate shadow. Their bodies are flattened, with the sides thinning to an edge; the animals habitually press their bodies to the ground; and their sides are fringed with white scales which effectively hide and disrupt any remaining areas of shadow there may be under the edge of the body. The theory that the body shape of the horned lizards which live in open desert is adapted to minimise shadow is supported by the one species which lacks fringe scales, the roundtail horned lizard, which lives in rocky areas and resembles a rock. When this species is threatened, it makes itself look as much like a rock as possible by curving its back, emphasizing its three-dimensional shape. Some species of butterflies, such as the speckled wood, Pararge aegeria, minimise their shadows when perched by closing the wings over their backs, aligning their bodies with the sun, and tilting to one side towards the sun, so that the shadow becomes a thin inconspicuous line rather than a broad patch. Similarly, some ground-nesting birds, including the European nightjar, select a resting position facing the sun. Eliminating shadow was identified as a principle of military camouflage during the Second World War.\n\n### Distraction\n\nMany prey animals have conspicuous high-contrast markings which paradoxically attract the predator's gaze. These distractive markings may serve as camouflage by distracting the predator's attention from recognising the prey as a whole, for example by keeping the predator from identifying the prey's outline. Experimentally, search times for blue tits increased when artificial prey had distractive markings.\n\n### Self-decoration\n\nSome animals actively seek to hide by decorating themselves with materials such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell from their environment, to break up their outlines, to conceal the features of their bodies, and to match their backgrounds. For example, a caddisfly larva builds a decorated case and lives almost entirely inside it; a decorator crab covers its back with seaweed, sponges, and stones. The nymph of the predatory masked bug uses its hind legs and a 'tarsal fan' to decorate its body with sand or dust. There are two layers of bristles (trichomes) over the body. On these, the nymph spreads an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles. The camouflage may conceal the bug from both predators and prey.\n\nSimilar principles can be applied for military purposes, for instance when a sniper wears a ghillie suit designed to be further camouflaged by decoration with materials such as tufts of grass from the sniper's immediate environment. Such suits were used as early as 1916, the British army having adopted \"coats of motley hue and stripes of paint\" for snipers. Cott takes the example of the larva of the blotched emerald moth, which fixes a screen of fragments of leaves to its specially hooked bristles, to argue that military camouflage uses the same method, pointing out that the \"device is ... essentially the same as one widely practised during the Great War for the concealment, not of caterpillars, but of caterpillar-tractors, [gun] battery positions, observation posts and so forth.\"\n\n### Cryptic behaviour\n\nMovement catches the eye of prey animals on the lookout for predators, and of predators hunting for prey. Most methods of crypsis therefore also require suitable cryptic behaviour, such as lying down and keeping still to avoid being detected, or in the case of stalking predators such as the tiger, moving with extreme stealth, both slowly and quietly, watching its prey for any sign they are aware of its presence. As an example of the combination of behaviours and other methods of crypsis involved, young giraffes seek cover, lie down, and keep still, often for hours until their mothers return; their skin pattern blends with the pattern of the vegetation, while the chosen cover and lying position together hide the animals' shadows. The flat-tail horned lizard similarly relies on a combination of methods: it is adapted to lie flat in the open desert, relying on stillness, its cryptic coloration, and concealment of its shadow to avoid being noticed by predators. In the ocean, the leafy sea dragon sways mimetically, like the seaweeds amongst which it rests, as if rippled by wind or water currents. Swaying is seen also in some insects, like Macleay's spectre stick insect, Extatosoma tiaratum. The behaviour may be motion crypsis, preventing detection, or motion masquerade, promoting misclassification (as something other than prey), or a combination of the two.\n\n### Motion camouflage\n\nMost forms of camouflage are ineffective when the camouflaged animal or object moves, because the motion is easily seen by the observing predator, prey or enemy. However, insects such as hoverflies and dragonflies use motion camouflage: the hoverflies to approach possible mates, and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories. Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape; the pursuer thus appears not to move, but only to loom larger in the target's field of vision. The same method can be used for military purposes, for example by missiles to minimise their risk of detection by an enemy. However, missile engineers, and animals such as bats, use the method mainly for its efficiency rather than camouflage.\n\n### Changeable skin coloration\n\nAnimals such as chameleon, frog, flatfish such as the peacock flounder, squid, octopus and even the isopod idotea balthica actively change their skin patterns and colours using special chromatophore cells to resemble their current background, or, as in most chameleons, for signalling. However, Smith's dwarf chameleon does use active colour change for camouflage.\n\nEach chromatophore contains pigment of only one colour. In fish and frogs, colour change is mediated by a type of chromatophore known as melanophores that contain dark pigment. A melanophore is star-shaped; it contains many small pigmented organelles which can be dispersed throughout the cell, or aggregated near its centre. When the pigmented organelles are dispersed, the cell makes a patch of the animal's skin appear dark; when they are aggregated, most of the cell, and the animal's skin, appears light. In frogs, the change is controlled relatively slowly, mainly by hormones. In fish, the change is controlled by the brain, which sends signals directly to the chromatophores, as well as producing hormones.\n\nThe skins of cephalopods such as the octopus contain complex units, each consisting of a chromatophore with surrounding muscle and nerve cells. The cephalopod chromatophore has all its pigment grains in a small elastic sac, which can be stretched or allowed to relax under the control of the brain to vary its opacity. By controlling chromatophores of different colours, cephalopods can rapidly change their skin patterns and colours.\n\nOn a longer timescale, animals like the Arctic hare, Arctic fox, stoat, and rock ptarmigan have snow camouflage, changing their coat colour (by moulting and growing new fur or feathers) from brown or grey in the summer to white in the winter; the Arctic fox is the only species in the dog family to do so. However, Arctic hares which live in the far north of Canada, where summer is very short, remain white year-round.\n\nThe principle of varying coloration either rapidly or with the changing seasons has military applications. Active camouflage could in theory make use of both dynamic colour change and counterillumination. Simple methods such as changing uniforms and repainting vehicles for winter have been in use since World War II. In 2011, BAE Systems announced their Adaptiv infrared camouflage technology. It uses about 1,000 hexagonal panels to cover the sides of a tank. The Peltier plate panels are heated and cooled to match either the vehicle's surroundings (crypsis), or an object such as a car (mimesis), when viewed in infrared.\n\n### Countershading\n\nCountershading uses graded colour to counteract the effect of self-shadowing, creating an illusion of flatness. Self-shadowing makes an animal appear darker below than on top, grading from light to dark; countershading 'paints in' tones which are darkest on top, lightest below, making the countershaded animal nearly invisible against a suitable background. Thayer observed that \"Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and vice versa\". Accordingly, the principle of countershading is sometimes called Thayer's Law. Countershading is widely used by terrestrial animals, such as gazelles and grasshoppers; marine animals, such as sharks and dolphins; and birds, such as snipe and dunlin.\n\nCountershading is less often used for military camouflage, despite Second World War experiments that showed its effectiveness. English zoologist Hugh Cott encouraged the use of methods including countershading, but despite his authority on the subject, failed to persuade the British authorities. Soldiers often wrongly viewed camouflage netting as a kind of invisibility cloak, and they had to be taught to look at camouflage practically, from an enemy observer's viewpoint. At the same time in Australia, zoologist William John Dakin advised soldiers to copy animals' methods, using their instincts for wartime camouflage.\n\nThe term countershading has a second meaning unrelated to \"Thayer's Law\". It is that the upper and undersides of animals such as sharks, and of some military aircraft, are different colours to match the different backgrounds when seen from above or from below. Here the camouflage consists of two surfaces, each with the simple function of providing concealment against a specific background, such as a bright water surface or the sky. The body of a shark or the fuselage of an aircraft is not gradated from light to dark to appear flat when seen from the side. The camouflage methods used are the matching of background colour and pattern, and disruption of outlines.\n\n### Counter-illumination\n\nCounter-illumination means producing light to match a background that is brighter than an animal's body or military vehicle; it is a form of active camouflage. It is notably used by some species of squid, such as the firefly squid and the midwater squid. The latter has light-producing organs (photophores) scattered all over its underside; these create a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below. Counterillumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms, though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling.\n\nCounterillumination has rarely been used for military purposes. \"Diffused lighting camouflage\" was trialled by Canada's National Research Council during the Second World War. It involved projecting light on to the sides of ships to match the faint glow of the night sky, requiring awkward external platforms to support the lamps. The Canadian concept was refined in the American Yehudi lights project, and trialled in aircraft including B-24 Liberators and naval Avengers. The planes were fitted with forward-pointing lamps automatically adjusted to match the brightness of the night sky. This enabled them to approach much closer to a target – within 3,000 yards (2,700 m) – before being seen. Counterillumination was made obsolete by radar, and neither diffused lighting camouflage nor Yehudi lights entered active service.\n\n### Transparency\n\nMany marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent, giving them almost perfect camouflage. However, transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater. Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies, composed mainly of water; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent. This conveniently makes them buoyant, but it also makes them large for their muscle mass, so they cannot swim fast, making this form of camouflage a costly trade-off with mobility. Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 percent transparent. A transparency of 50 percent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of 650 metres (2,130 ft); better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water, where the light is brighter and predators can see better. For example, a cod can see prey that are 98 percent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water. Therefore, sufficient transparency for camouflage is more easily achieved in deeper waters.\n\nSome tissues such as muscles can be made transparent, provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light. A familiar example is the transparency of the lens of the vertebrate eye, which is made of the protein crystallin, and the vertebrate cornea which is made of the protein collagen. Other structures cannot be made transparent, notably the retinas or equivalent light-absorbing structures of eyes – they must absorb light to be able to function. The camera-type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque. Finally, some structures are visible for a reason, such as to lure prey. For example, the nematocysts (stinging cells) of the transparent siphonophore Agalma okenii resemble small copepods. Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae, including radiata (coelenterates), siphonophores, salps (floating tunicates), gastropod molluscs, polychaete worms, many shrimplike crustaceans, and fish; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented, resembling the seabed or shores where they live. Adult comb jellies and jellyfish obey the rule, often being mainly transparent. Cott suggests this follows the more general rule that animals resemble their background: in a transparent medium like seawater, that means being transparent. The small Amazon river fish Microphilypnus amazonicus and the shrimps it associates with, Pseudopalaemon gouldingi, are so transparent as to be \"almost invisible\"; further, these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled (disruptively patterned) according to the local background in the environment.\n\n### Silvering\n\nWhere transparency cannot be achieved, it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal's body highly reflective. At medium depths at sea, light comes from above, so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side. Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering.\n\nThe marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally, leaving the body just millimetres thick, and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil. The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration: stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about 1⁄4 of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection. In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage.\n\nIn fish such as the herring which live in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings. A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross-section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin, as they would fail to reflect horizontally. The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors, all oriented vertically. Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish. The cephalopods, including squid, octopus and cuttlefish, have multilayer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine.\n\n### Ultra-blackness\n\nSome deep sea fishes have very black skin, reflecting under 0.5% of ambient light. This can prevent detection by predators or prey fish which use bioluminescence for illumination. Oneirodes had a particularly black skin which reflected only 0.044% of 480 nm wavelength light. The ultra-blackness is achieved with a thin but continuous layer of particles in the dermis, melanosomes. These particles both absorb most of the light, and are sized and shaped so as to scatter rather than reflect most of the rest. Modelling suggests that this camouflage should reduce the distance at which such a fish can be seen by a factor of 6 compared to a fish with a nominal 2% reflectance. Species with this adaptation are widely dispersed in various orders of the phylogenetic tree of bony fishes (Actinopterygii), implying that natural selection has driven the convergent evolution of ultra-blackness camouflage independently many times.\n\n### Mimesis\n\nIn mimesis (also called masquerade), the camouflaged object looks like something else which is of no special interest to the observer. Mimesis is common in prey animals, for example when a peppered moth caterpillar mimics a twig, or a grasshopper mimics a dry leaf. It is also found in nest structures; some eusocial wasps, such as Leipomeles dorsata, build a nest envelope in patterns that mimic the leaves surrounding the nest.\n\nMimesis is also employed by some predators and parasites to lure their prey. For example, a flower mantis mimics a particular kind of flower, such as an orchid. This tactic has occasionally been used in warfare, for example with heavily armed Q-ships disguised as merchant ships.\n\nThe common cuckoo, a brood parasite, provides examples of mimesis both in the adult and in the egg. The female lays her eggs in nests of other, smaller species of bird, one per nest. The female mimics a sparrowhawk. The resemblance is sufficient to make small birds take action to avoid the apparent predator. The female cuckoo then has time to lay her egg in their nest without being seen to do so. The cuckoo's egg itself mimics the eggs of the host species, reducing its chance of being rejected.\n\n### Motion dazzle\n\nMost forms of camouflage are made ineffective by movement: a deer or grasshopper may be highly cryptic when motionless, but instantly seen when it moves. But one method, motion dazzle, requires rapidly moving bold patterns of contrasting stripes. Motion dazzle may degrade predators' ability to estimate the prey's speed and direction accurately, giving the prey an improved chance of escape. Motion dazzle distorts speed perception and is most effective at high speeds; stripes can also distort perception of size (and so, perceived range to the target). As of 2011, motion dazzle had been proposed for military vehicles, but never applied. Since motion dazzle patterns would make animals more difficult to locate accurately when moving, but easier to see when stationary, there would be an evolutionary trade-off between motion dazzle and crypsis.\n\nAn animal that is commonly thought to be dazzle-patterned is the zebra. The bold stripes of the zebra have been claimed to be disruptive camouflage, background-blending and countershading. After many years in which the purpose of the coloration was disputed, an experimental study by Tim Caro suggested in 2012 that the pattern reduces the attractiveness of stationary models to biting flies such as horseflies and tsetse flies. However, a simulation study by Martin How and Johannes Zanker in 2014 suggests that when moving, the stripes may confuse observers, such as mammalian predators and biting insects, by two visual illusions: the wagon-wheel effect, where the perceived motion is inverted, and the barberpole illusion, where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction.\n\n## Applications\n\n### Military\n\n#### Before 1800\n\nShip camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times. Philostratus (c. 172–250 AD) wrote in his Imagines that Mediterranean pirate ships could be painted blue-gray for concealment. Vegetius (c. 360–400 AD) says that \"Venetian blue\" (sea green) was used in the Gallic Wars, when Julius Caesar sent his speculatoria navigia (reconnaissance boats) to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain; the ships were painted entirely in bluish-green wax, with sails, ropes and crew the same colour. There is little evidence of military use of camouflage on land before 1800, but two unusual ceramics show men in Peru's Mochica culture from before 500 AD, hunting birds with blowpipes which are fitted with a kind of shield near the mouth, perhaps to conceal the hunters' hands and faces. Another early source is a 15th-century French manuscript, The Hunting Book of Gaston Phebus, showing a horse pulling a cart which contains a hunter armed with a crossbow under a cover of branches, perhaps serving as a hide for shooting game. Jamaican Maroons are said to have used plant materials as camouflage in the First Maroon War (c. 1655–1740).\n\n#### 19th-century origins\n\nThe development of military camouflage was driven by the increasing range and accuracy of infantry firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with weapons such as the Baker rifle made personal concealment in battle essential. Two Napoleonic War skirmishing units of the British Army, the 95th Rifle Regiment and the 60th Rifle Regiment, were the first to adopt camouflage in the form of a rifle green jacket, while the Line regiments continued to wear scarlet tunics. A contemporary study in 1800 by the English artist and soldier Charles Hamilton Smith provided evidence that grey uniforms were less visible than green ones at a range of 150 yards.\n\nIn the American Civil War, rifle units such as the 1st United States Sharp Shooters (in the Federal army) similarly wore green jackets while other units wore more conspicuous colours. The first British Army unit to adopt khaki uniforms was the Corps of Guides at Peshawar, when Sir Harry Lumsden and his second in command, William Hodson introduced a \"drab\" uniform in 1848. Hodson wrote that it would be more appropriate for the hot climate, and help make his troops \"invisible in a land of dust\". Later they improvised by dyeing cloth locally. Other regiments in India soon adopted the khaki uniform, and by 1896 khaki drill uniform was used everywhere outside Europe; by the Second Boer War six years later it was used throughout the British Army.\n\nDuring the late 19th century camouflage was applied to British coastal fortifications. The fortifications around Plymouth, England were painted in the late 1880s in \"irregular patches of red, brown, yellow and green.\" From 1891 onwards British coastal artillery was permitted to be painted in suitable colours \"to harmonise with the surroundings\" and by 1904 it was standard practice that artillery and mountings should be painted with \"large irregular patches of different colours selected to suit local conditions.\"\n\n#### First World War\n\nIn the First World War, the French army formed a camouflage corps, led by Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola, employing artists known as camoufleurs to create schemes such as tree observation posts and covers for guns. Other armies soon followed them. The term camouflage probably comes from camoufler, a Parisian slang term meaning to disguise, and may have been influenced by camouflet, a French term meaning smoke blown in someone's face. The English zoologist John Graham Kerr, artist Solomon J. Solomon and the American artist Abbott Thayer led attempts to introduce scientific principles of countershading and disruptive patterning into military camouflage, with limited success. In early 1916 the Royal Naval Air Service began to create dummy air fields to draw the attention of enemy planes to empty land. They created decoy homes and lined fake runways with flares, which were meant to help protect real towns from night raids. This strategy was not common practice and did not succeed at first, but in 1918 it caught the Germans off guard multiple times.\n\nShip camouflage was introduced in the early 20th century as the range of naval guns increased, with ships painted grey all over. In April 1917, when German U-boats were sinking many British ships with torpedoes, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson devised dazzle camouflage, which paradoxically made ships more visible but harder to target. In Wilkinson's own words, dazzle was designed \"not for low visibility, but in such a way as to break up her form and thus confuse a submarine officer as to the course on which she was heading\".\n\n#### Second World War\n\nIn the Second World War, the zoologist Hugh Cott, a protégé of Kerr, worked to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage methods, including countershading, but, like Kerr and Thayer in the First World War, with limited success. For example, he painted two rail-mounted coastal guns, one in conventional style, one countershaded. In aerial photographs, the countershaded gun was essentially invisible. The power of aerial observation and attack led every warring nation to camouflage targets of all types. The Soviet Union's Red Army created the comprehensive doctrine of Maskirovka for military deception, including the use of camouflage. For example, during the Battle of Kursk, General Katukov, the commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army, remarked that the enemy \"did not suspect that our well-camouflaged tanks were waiting for him. As we later learned from prisoners, we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed\". The tanks were concealed in previously prepared defensive emplacements, with only their turrets above ground level. In the air, Second World War fighters were often painted in ground colours above and sky colours below, attempting two different camouflage schemes for observers above and below. Bombers and night fighters were often black, while maritime reconnaissance planes were usually white, to avoid appearing as dark shapes against the sky. For ships, dazzle camouflage was mainly replaced with plain grey in the Second World War, though experimentation with colour schemes continued.\n\nAs in the First World War, artists were pressed into service; for example, the surrealist painter Roland Penrose became a lecturer at the newly founded Camouflage Development and Training Centre at Farnham Castle, writing the practical Home Guard Manual of Camouflage. The film-maker Geoffrey Barkas ran the Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate during the 1941–1942 war in the Western Desert, including the successful deception of Operation Bertram. Hugh Cott was chief instructor; the artist camouflage officers, who called themselves camoufleurs, included Steven Sykes and Tony Ayrton. In Australia, artists were also prominent in the Sydney Camouflage Group, formed under the chairmanship of Professor William John Dakin, a zoologist from Sydney University. Max Dupain, Sydney Ure Smith, and William Dobell were among the members of the group, which worked at Bankstown Airport, RAAF Base Richmond and Garden Island Dockyard. In the United States, artists like John Vassos took a certificate course in military and industrial camouflage at the American School of Design with Baron Nicholas Cerkasoff, and went on to create camouflage for the Air Force.\n\n#### After 1945\n\nCamouflage has been used to protect military equipment such as vehicles, guns, ships, aircraft and buildings as well as individual soldiers and their positions. Vehicle camouflage methods begin with paint, which offers at best only limited effectiveness. Other methods for stationary land vehicles include covering with improvised materials such as blankets and vegetation, and erecting nets, screens and soft covers which may suitably reflect, scatter or absorb near infrared and radar waves. Some military textiles and vehicle camouflage paints also reflect infrared to help provide concealment from night vision devices. After the Second World War, radar made camouflage generally less effective, though coastal boats are sometimes painted like land vehicles. Aircraft camouflage too came to be seen as less important because of radar, and aircraft of different air forces, such as the Royal Air Force's Lightning, were often uncamouflaged.\n\nMany camouflaged textile patterns have been developed to suit the need to match combat clothing to different kinds of terrain (such as woodland, snow, and desert). The design of a pattern effective in all terrains has proved elusive. The American Universal Camouflage Pattern of 2004 attempted to suit all environments, but was withdrawn after a few years of service. Terrain-specific patterns have sometimes been developed but are ineffective in other terrains. The problem of making a pattern that works at different ranges has been solved with multiscale designs, often with a pixellated appearance and designed digitally, that provide a fractal-like range of patch sizes so they appear disruptively coloured both at close range and at a distance. The first genuinely digital camouflage pattern was the Canadian Disruptive Pattern (CADPAT), issued to the army in 2002, soon followed by the American Marine pattern (MARPAT). A pixellated appearance is not essential for this effect, though it is simpler to design and to print.\n\n### Hunting\n\nHunters of game have long made use of camouflage in the form of materials such as animal skins, mud, foliage, and green or brown clothing to enable them to approach wary game animals. Field sports such as driven grouse shooting conceal hunters in hides (also called blinds or shooting butts). Modern hunting clothing makes use of fabrics that provide a disruptive camouflage pattern; for example, in 1986 the hunter Bill Jordan created cryptic clothing for hunters, printed with images of specific kinds of vegetation such as grass and branches.\n\n### Civil structures\n\nCamouflage is occasionally used to make built structures less conspicuous: for example, in South Africa, towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches, in response to \"resistance from the community\". Since this method is costly (a figure of three times the normal cost is mentioned), alternative forms of camouflage can include using neutral colours or familiar shapes such as cylinders and flagpoles. Conspicuousness can also be reduced by siting masts near, or on, other structures.\n\nAutomotive manufacturers often use patterns to disguise upcoming products. This camouflage is designed to obfuscate the vehicle's visual lines, and is used along with padding, covers, and decals. The patterns' purpose is to prevent visual observation (and to a lesser degree photography), that would subsequently enable reproduction of the vehicle's form factors.\n\n### Fashion, art and society\n\nMilitary camouflage patterns influenced fashion and art from the time of the First World War onwards. Gertrude Stein recalled the cubist artist Pablo Picasso's reaction in around 1915:\n\n> I very well remember at the beginning of the war being with Picasso on the boulevard Raspail when the first camouflaged truck passed. It was at night, we had heard of camouflage but we had not seen it and Picasso amazed looked at it and then cried out, yes it is we who made it, that is cubism.\n\nIn 1919, the attendants of a \"dazzle ball\", hosted by the Chelsea Arts Club, wore dazzle-patterned black and white clothing. The ball influenced fashion and art via postcards and magazine articles. The Illustrated London News announced:\n\n> The scheme of decoration for the great fancy dress ball given by the Chelsea Arts Club at the Albert Hall, the other day, was based on the principles of \"Dazzle\", the method of \"camouflage\" used during the war in the painting of ships ... The total effect was brilliant and fantastic.\n\nMore recently, fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs, its \"patterned disorder\" and its symbolism. Camouflage clothing can be worn largely for its symbolic significance rather than for fashion, as when, during the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States, anti-war protestors often ironically wore military clothing during demonstrations against the American involvement in the Vietnam War.\n\nModern artists such as Ian Hamilton Finlay have used camouflage to reflect on war. His 1973 screenprint of a tank camouflaged in a leaf pattern, Arcadia, is described by the Tate as drawing \"an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank\". The title refers to the Utopian Arcadia of poetry and art, and the memento mori Latin phrase Et in Arcadia ego which recurs in Hamilton Finlay's work. In science fiction, Camouflage is a novel about shapeshifting alien beings by Joe Haldeman. The word is used more figuratively in works of literature such as Thaisa Frank's collection of stories of love and loss, A Brief History of Camouflage.", "revid": "1171220003", "description": "Concealment in plain sight by any means, e.g. colour, pattern and shape", "categories": ["Antipredator adaptations", "Biological interactions", "Camouflage", "Deception", "Evolutionary ecology", "Hunting", "Mimicry", "Survival skills"]}
{"id": "10373719", "url": null, "title": "Nights: Journey of Dreams", "text": "is an action video game developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for the Wii. The sequel to the 1996 Sega Saturn title Nights into Dreams, it was released in Japan and North America in December 2007, and in Australia and Europe the following month. The story follows two children, William Taylor and Helen Cartwright, who enter a dream world called Nightopia. When their nightmares come to life, they enlist the help of Nights, an exiled \"Nightmaren\", as they journey through Nightopia to stop the evil ruler Wizeman from escaping into the real world.\n\nAs with its predecessor, gameplay is centred around Nights flying through the dreams of the two children. The main objective of the game is to fly through rings while gathering enough keys to proceed to the next level. Development of Journey of Dreams began shortly after the release of Shadow the Hedgehog in 2005, and was headed by Sonic Team veteran Takashi Iizuka. The team took steps to ensure that the game stayed faithful to the original, while incorporating a variety of new mechanics and features. The game's setting was designed to resemble England, especially parts of London.\n\nJourney of Dreams received mixed reviews; critics praised the game's colourful visuals, boss battles, soundtrack, and special effects, but criticised its controls, camera, aesthetics, and aspects of its gameplay. Despite the mixed reception, Iizuka said that he would be interested in making a third Nights game, should Sega commission one.\n\n## Plot\n\n### Setting\n\nEvery night, all human dreams are played out in Nightopia and Nightmare, the two parts of the dream world. In Nightopia, distinct aspects of dreamers' personalities are represented by luminous coloured spheres known as \"Ideya\". The evil ruler of Nightmare, Wizeman the Wicked, is stealing this dream energy from sleeping visitors to gather power and take control of Nightopia and eventually the real world. To achieve this, he creates \"Nightmaren\"—jester-like beings who can fly—including Jackle, Clawz, Gulpo, Gillwing and Puffy, and many minor maren. He also creates two \"Level One\" Nightmaren: Nights and Reala. Nights rebels against Wizeman's plans, and is imprisoned inside an Ideya palace, a gazebo-like container for dreamers' Ideya.\n\n### Synopsis\n\nWilliam Taylor and Helen Cartwright are two children who live in the city of Bellbridge (a fictionalised version of London). Will is an aspiring football player, Helen a prodigy violinist. Over the years, both have grown apart from their respective parents; Helen has chosen to spend more time with her friends rather than practising the violin with her mother, a choice which has begun to fill her with guilt, while Will's father is transferred to another city for work and leaves his son by himself. Both children suffer nightmares and come under attack by the Nightmaren, who chase them into the world of Nightopia. There, the two children meet and free Nights, who has the ability to merge with the children, allowing them to share Nights' body and fly through the skies. Learning that Wizeman is plotting to take over the dream world and consequently enter the real world, the children and Nights resolve to stop Wizeman, but face resistance from the Nightmaren he commands, particularly Nights' sibling, Reala.\n\nThough different, the children's stories share similar structures. The story reaches its climax as a stairway appears at the Dream Gate and Helen and Nights ascend, only to be trapped by Wizeman and pulled into darkness. Will arrives too late and dives in after them, arriving in the night skies above Bellbridge, where he finds that he has the ability to fly without Nights or their Ideya. He rescues Helen, and the two attempt to save Nights, who has been imprisoned at the top of Bellbridge's clock tower. Reala arrives to stop their efforts and accepts Nights' challenge to battle. After defeating Reala, the trio prepare to face Wizeman. Both Will and Helen defeat Wizeman, who is subsequently destroyed. Since Wizeman kept all of his creations alive, Nights vanishes in a white light, bowing as if it were the end of a performance, and the children wake up and cry. That evening, Helen plays her violin for her mother in a crowded hall, while Will celebrates with his father after winning a football game. He then loses the ball and goes after it, only to come upon Helen playing her violin for her mother. The lights suffer a temporary blackout, and when they turn back on, Helen sees Will extending a friendly hand to her. Recognising each other from their adventures in Nightopia, the two reach for each other as it begins to snow. The final scene is of either child sleeping in their rooms at home as the camera pulls back towards Bellbridge's clock tower, atop which Nights is seen to be alive and peacefully watching over the city.\n\n## Gameplay\n\nNights: Journey of Dreams is split into seven levels. The levels are distributed equally between the two children characters: three are unique to Will, three to Helen, and both share a final boss stage. Gameplay is centred around controlling Nights' flight along a predetermined route through each level, resembling that of a 2D platformer or a racing game. In each level, players initially control Will or Helen but will later on assume control of Nights. The player may collect various pick-ups while exploring the level on foot, but will be pursued by \"Awakers\" which will awaken the player-character and end the game, should three of them come into contact at once. The main objective of the game is to fly through rings and capture bird-like Nightmaren, who possess keys that unlock a series of cages. There are three cages in each level, and all must be unlocked within a set time before the player can proceed. Each collision with an enemy subtracts five seconds from the time remaining, and if the time runs out, the game will end prematurely. While flying, Nights can use a boost to travel faster, but the boost meter is slowly depleted while doing this. If it is fully depleted, the player will no longer be able to use boosts.\n\nThe game features items and traps which will either help or impede the player's progress. Collecting blue chips scattered around the levels will increase the player's score; time chips will extend the player's time and slow \"Awakers\" (if collected on foot). Flying through gold rings will replenish the player's boost meter, spiked rings will harm the player if flown through, and green rings will never disappear (unlike ordinary gold rings). The gameplay also involves the use of \"persona masks\", which will transform Nights into a different entity, thus granting new abilities to the player. There are three personas: transforming into a dolphin allows the player to swim underwater, a rocket speeds up Nights' flight, and a dragon will increase resistance to wind. Bosses are encountered twice in each level—an easier version early in a level, and a more difficult one at the end.\n\nThe artificial life system feature from its predecessor returns in Journey of Dreams, known as \"My Dream\". This feature revolves around the player raising entities called Nightopians and keeping track of their moods. \"My Dreams\" connects with the Wii's Forecast Channel, which will change the weather conditions in the player's \"My Dream\" world according to real-world forecasts. Cosmetic changes are visible every month, for example in February Nightopians hold a giant dragon for the Chinese New Year, whereas in December they are dressed as Father Christmas. Players may visit other players' \"My Dreams\" through the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. In order to increase the population in a \"My Dream\", Nightopians must be captured in the game's story mode. If there are more Nightopians than Nightmarens in the player's \"My Dream\", then the environment will look more like Nightopia and if there are more Nightmarens the landscape will change accordingly.\n\nJourney of Dreams features four different control options: the Wii remote as a standalone controller, the Wii remote in combination with the Nunchuk, the Classic Controller, and the GameCube controller. If the Wii remote is used by itself, Nights' flight is controlled by pointing it at the screen. Additionally, the game offers two multiplayer modes: \"Battle Mode\" and \"Speed Mode\", the latter of which is playable only online via Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. \"Battle Mode\" allows two local players to battle each other by using a splitscreen, and \"Speed Mode\" revolves around players competing in races against online opponents.\n\n## Development\n\n### Prelude\n\nA sequel to Nights into Dreams with the working title Air Nights was originally outlined for the Sega Saturn and subsequently developed for the Dreamcast with motion control being a central element of gameplay. In an August 1999 interview, Yuji Naka confirmed that a sequel was in development, but by December 2000 the project had been cancelled. Naka expressed reluctance to develop a sequel after the Dreamcast's discontinuation, but later noted in 2003 that he would be interested in using the licence of Nights into Dreams to reinforce Sega's identity as a video game developer. Around the same time, Nights into Dreams designer Takashi Iizuka said \"as long as I'm with Sega, I will create Nights again\" in an interview concerning Sonic Heroes. Discussion concerning a new game in the series had increased in frequency by 2006. Rumours regarding a Wii version continued to appear when a list of upcoming games was published by Japanese developer G.rev, which included an unspecified Nights title. Before the development of Journey of Dreams, Naka confirmed in retrospective interviews that he had intended to base the next Nights game around a unique motion controller.\n\n### Design\n\nNights: Journey of Dreams was first conceptualised in November 2005 after the release of Sonic Team's Shadow the Hedgehog. Game design was primarily prepared by Iizuka and took around six months to reach the development process. Iizuka wanted to ensure that the next Nights game would stay faithful to the original, and felt the need to keep the game's concept fundamentally the same while incorporating a variety of new mechanics. Despite the cancellation of Air Nights, Iizuka stressed that he had always wanted to make a sequel and asserted that Sega's exit from hardware manufacturing had no effect on the delay. Iizuka felt that it was the appropriate time to release a Nights game—he felt that the industry was dominated by violence and was keen to release a more family-friendly title. The team realised that Nintendo's upcoming Wii was marketed as a family-orientated console, and factored in its online features and user-friendly design.\n\nThe team wanted Journey of Dreams to revolve around a dramatic storyline in the hope that the player would find it more engaging and intuitive, as Iizuka thought the original Nights into Dreams was not user-friendly. Originally, the game had a full free-roaming 3D flight system, but Iizuka thought it was too complex and \"not as fun\" as the core flight element featured in the original game. Iizuka thought the most difficult challenge of the development process was keeping the game's flight mechanics fun while building upon elements of the original game. To recreate the experience, the team tested a variety of controller schemes which included the Wii remote and Nunchuk, the GameCube controller, and the Classic Controller—the latter two left for players who preferred using a traditional controller configuration. Initially, the game used the Wii remote by having the player point it at the screen, but the team discovered that its motion sensors would not pick up small movements, so Iizuka created an alternative hybrid motion-pointer system, which he believed would retain the game's fun-to-fly experience. In a retrospective interview, Iizuka said that the entire game was created from scratch and used a new engine specifically designed for the Wii.\n\nThe original character designer of Nights into Dreams, Naoto Ohshima, had left Sega by the time its sequel was under development, with Kazuyuki Hoshino being placed in charge of character design for Journey of Dreams. Takashi Iizuka, the lead game designer, felt that, with Hoshino, they captured the style used for the character in the original game. Sonic Team decided to give all characters in the game voices as Iizuka believed that full dialogue helps add depth to both the story and gameplay. With Nights already designed as an androgynous character, the team wanted to leave impressions regarding gender up to the player, despite Nights being voiced by actress Julissa Aguirre, who portrayed the character with a British accent. This is because the team designed the Nights franchise to have a distinctly British style, in contrast to Sonic the Hedgehog, which was designed to be more American. Thus, Bellbridge—the game's main setting—closely resembles London, and all of the game's characters have English accents. The development team consisted of 26 members of Sonic Team in the United States, while all sound work and CGI was developed in Japan.\n\n### Audio\n\nTomoko Sasaki reprised her role of lead composer from the original Nights into Dreams, and was rejoined by Sonic Team veterans Naofumi Hataya and Fumie Kumatani. Additionally, series newcomers Tomoya Ohtani, Teruhiko Nakagawa, and Tatsuyuki Maeda each contributed a few musical pieces. The game's sound effects were created primarily by Jun Senoue, better known for his musical compositions in the Sonic the Hedgehog series. According to Iizuka, the team understood that they could not compose the same style of music featured in the original game, owing to the technical revamp of Journey of Dreams. Sasaki elaborated that the original Saturn version used the console's internal music sequencer, which allowed them more control over changing the game's music as the player progressed through the game, whereas the Wii version only played the recorded music directly. Despite the limitations, both Sasaki and Hataya were able to produce a better quality soundtrack by using a wider range of instruments than what was used in the previous game. In addition, Sasaki asked an employee from Delfi Sound Inc. to record an orchestral piece for the game. Since the team were aware that the game's characters would have more dialogue than the original game, they requested that the orchestra perform a dramatic arrangement in order to put more emphasis on the game's storyline.\n\nTo make the development process as smooth as possible, Hataya tried to work in the same environment as Sasaki so that they could exchange data more efficiently. The main tools and software used during development were Digital Performer and Pro Tools, which, according to Hataya, were the standard tools used in music production. In order to stress that the atmosphere of Journey of Dreams was centred around surrealism and dreams themselves, Sasaki discarded tying the game's music down to a single genre and took the approach of not having a clear musical policy. Sasaki also ensured that each theme included the exhilaration of \"flying in the air\", as it was a core element of gameplay. Hataya echoed that the music of the game was produced by focusing on being able to empathise with the feeling of flying, as well as to exemplify the game's atmosphere and characters. Since the team were aware that Journey of Dreams had a greater sense of adventure than the original, the team knew that they could incorporate a larger variety of music into it so that players would enjoy a wider range of emotions. In addition to composing the music itself, Hataya took the responsibility of re-arranging Sasaki's music in different ways so that the theme matched the in-game situation. Hataya said that he and Sasaki produced around 70 percent of the game's music between them; the rest was produced by Sega's sound team.\n\nNights: Journey Of Dreams: Original Soundtrack was released on 26 January 2008 exclusively in Japan and contains three separate CDs with all of the music featured on the Wii version. An unofficial two-CD tribute album, Nights: Lucid Dreaming, was released by OverClocked ReMix in 2011. There are 25 tracks in total, with arrangements of the game's original soundtrack in a variety of styles. In January 2017, over 50 songs from the game and its predecessor, Nights into Dreams, became available to download on Spotify.\n\n## Reception\n\nNights: Journey of Dreams received mixed to positive reviews. As of February 2017 it holds an aggregate score of 69% at Metacritic, based on an average of 47 reviews.\n\nMany critics praised the game's colourful visuals and special effects. Chris Scullion from the Official Nintendo Magazine thought the game design had all the speed and charm of the original, and enjoyed its \"lush\" atmosphere and landscapes. Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot also appreciated the game's artistic design, visual \"dreaminess\" and elegance, and Gerald Villoria of GameSpy liked the game's colourful and vibrant levels. Nintendo Life's Anthony Dickens praised the general visual style of the game, noting that its boss battles in particular \"ooze\" with bright and exotic colours. Despite the general praise of the game's colourful palette, some critics viewed the aesthetics unfavourably. GameZone's Louis Bedigan felt that Nights: Journey of Dreams lacked the \"eye-popping effects\" of other contemporaries such as Super Mario Galaxy (2007) and The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess (2006), and Dickens opined that the game's cutscenes were more akin to PlayStation 2 titles. Tom Bramwell from Eurogamer felt that the environments looked like they were from 1996, despite the attempts made to distract the player from the game's simple premise. Paul Govan of GamesTM found that the game engine struggled to match the cutscene's visual fluidity with its actual gameplay, and expressed disappointment that Wii owners would be unfazed by its graphical prowess, unlike Sega Saturn owners at the time of the original Nights into Dreams release. Dickens thought the game was graphically rushed by Sega, and speculated that it was \"cobbled together quickly\" by artists who had focused too much on designing the game's introduction sequence. Adam Rosenberg from UGO Networks found the graphics to be a disappointment, saying that its environments were \"drab\" considering it was based on the dreams of twelve-year-old children, and also noticed frame rate issues. Likewise, two reviewers from Electronic Gaming Monthly, Shane Bettenhausen and Sam Kennedy, thought the 3D was \"amateurish\" and suffered from basic issues including uneven graphics and unskippable cutscenes.\n\nSome reviewers criticised various aspects of gameplay, in particular the lack of checkpoints. Scullion noted how the game retained its \"old school\" feeling despite being aimed at a new audience, and disliked its \"die, retry\" style of gameplay, which he considered old-fashioned. Mark Bozon from IGN similarly criticised the game's tendencies to make the player restart an entire level upon death, calling it \"a momentum killer\", and Rosenberg said the automatic restarts were the game's \"worst offender\". Most reviewers praised the eccentricity and fun-factor of the boss battles; VanOrd believed they were enjoyable and memorable, and Jeuxvideo.com's reviewer liked the bosses' appearances and originality, but found defeating them more than once in each world repetitive. In contrast, Bramwell thought that the game's boss characters channelled a mix between Tim Burton and CBeebies, and Bozon felt that boss battles did not blend well with the main story since they were in self-contained arenas.\n\nReviewers disliked the game's control scheme, many stating that the use of the Wii remote was awkward and difficult to master. Bozon condemned the lack of refined flight control and noted that it was easier to use either the Classic Controller or the GameCube controller. Similarly, Scullion said that out of the three control schemes, the Wii remote was the least accurate option. VanOrd also criticized the poorly implemented use of the Wii remote, and Rosenberg thought its controls were overly responsive and unpolished; both reviewers recommended using the Classic Controller's analogue stick as an alternative. Dickens recognised that the original Nights into Dreams was one of the first games to benefit from an analogue stick, and was therefore surprised at how the sequel had a \"control scheme crisis\": multiple control schemes might add confusion for new players. Govan suggested that the reason why the game featured alternative control schemes was that Sonic Team wanted to emulate the original Saturn controls. In contrast, the reviewer from Jeuxvideo.com found little fault with any of the game's control schemes, and Bedigan labelled them as \"excellent\". Both reviewers, however, agreed that the Wii remote's motion controls did not work well with the game.\n\n## Legacy\n\nIn 2010, Iizuka expressed his interest in making a third Nights game if Sega were to commission one. Sega Japan filed a trademark in 2019 for Nights: Dream Wheel. On 24 June 2021, it was revealed to be a Slot machine when the Yaamava' Resort & Casino posted a screenshot of the machine on their twitter.", "revid": "1163064378", "description": "2007 video game", "categories": ["2007 video games", "Action games", "Fantasy video games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection games", "Platform games", "Sega Studio USA games", "Video game sequels", "Video games about dreams", "Video games about magic", "Video games about nightmares", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games developed in the United States", "Video games scored by Naofumi Hataya", "Video games scored by Tomoko Sasaki", "Video games set in England", "Video games set in London", "Video games set in the United Kingdom", "Video games with 2.5D graphics", "Wii Wi-Fi games", "Wii games", "Wii-only games"]}
{"id": "33368547", "url": null, "title": "1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season", "text": "The 1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the most active season in the basin since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967, until the record was surpassed 25 years later. Activity lasted from mid-November, when Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina formed, until mid-April, when Tropical Cyclone Odille became extratropical. Four tropical cyclones – Daisy, Geralda, Litanne, and Nadia – struck eastern Madagascar, of which Geralda was the costliest and deadliest. With gusts as strong as 350 km/h (215 mph) accompanied by heavy rainfall, Geralda destroyed more than 40,000 homes and left 356,000 people homeless. Geralda killed 231 people and caused more than \\$10 million in damage. Cyclone Nadia was the second deadliest cyclone, having killed 12 people in northern Madagascar and later severely damaging portions of northeastern Mozambique, killing about 240 people and leaving \\$20 million in damage in the latter country. In February, Cyclone Hollanda struck Mauritius near peak intensity, causing \\$135 million in damage and two deaths.\n\nThree storms – Alexina, Bettina, and Cecilia – formed in late 1993, of which Cecilia affected land; it produced heavy rainfall in Réunion while dissipating. Cyclone Daisy was the first storm in 1994, which struck Madagascar twice and affected many areas that were later struck by Geralda. One cyclone – Farah – previously formed in the Australian basin as Tropical Cyclone Pearl before crossing into the south-west Indian Ocean. Tropical Cyclone Ivy threatened Mauritius just days after Hollanda struck, and Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne in March was the third of the season to hit northeastern Madagascar. The basin is defined as the area west of 90°E and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean, which includes the waters around Madagascar westward to the east coast of Africa. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion (MFR), as well as by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC).\n\n## Seasonal summary\n\nOn July 1, 1993, the Météo-France office in Réunion (MFR) became a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center, as designated by the World Meteorological Organization. In the year, MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90° E. Due to the high activity during the season, MFR issued twice the number of advisories as in the previous year. Every six hours in the season, the agency issued bulletins when there was a tropical system within the basin. Storms were named by advisory centers in Mauritius and Madagascar.\n\nDuring the year, there were neutral El Niño Southern Oscillation conditions, and for several months there was a well-established monsoon trough that extended into the Australian basin. The average storm duration was 9 days, although the final storm, Odille, lasted 16 days, a record at the time. The season was the second-most active on record since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967. Due to the high number of storms, there were a record number of cyclone days – days in which a tropical cyclone is active – as well as intense tropical cyclone days, with a total of 27 days for the latter. The next seasons to approach either total were the 2001–02 and 2018–19 seasons. MFR had an alphabetically prepared list of names for the season, the last seven of which went unused: Pemma, Ronna, Sydna, Telia, Valentina, Williana, and Yvanna.\n\nIn addition to the named storms, MFR tracked three other tropical systems that did not last for more than 24 hours. The first, designated Tropical Depression C1, formed on December 5 near the eastern portion of the basin, and quickly dissipated. The other two, designated E1 and H1, formed in January and February, respectively. In addition, Tropical Cyclone Willy crossed into the basin as a dissipating tropical depression, for which MFR did not issue advisories.\n\n## Systems\n\n### Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina\n\nThe first storm of the season formed from a low-pressure area with associated convection that persisted east of the Chagos Archipelago on November 7. It formed in tandem with two tropical depressions in the North Indian Ocean. The JTWC began tracking the system that day, although MFR did not follow suit until two days later. On November 10, the depression intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina, having developed a central dense overcast. A narrow eastward-moving trough caused the storm to move generally southward for its entire duration, the only such storm of the season to maintain a largely north–south track. On November 11, MFR estimated that Alexina attained peak winds of 85 km/h (55 mph), while JTWC estimated peak winds of 110 km/h (70 mph). Increased wind shear disrupted the convection, while a building ridge to the south caused its movement to slow. By late on November 12, Alexina weakened to tropical depression status, which subsequently drifted to the west until dissipating on November 16.\n\n### Severe Tropical Storm Bettina\n\nOn November 23, the Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned a low-pressure area in the far northeastern portion of the basin, which the JTWC assessed as having formed in the western Australian basin. Located north of a large ridge, the system tracked southwestward initially before turning more to the west. Late on November 25, MFR began classifying the system as a tropical disturbance, and within 12 hours the agency upgraded it to Moderate Tropical Storm Bettina. On November 26, the storm turned to the southwest. The next day, Bettina developed an eye feature, and MFR upgraded it to a severe tropical storm, with winds of 110 km/h (70 mph). By comparison, the JTWC estimated winds of 100 km/h (60 mph). After wind shear increased sharply on November 28, the storm quickly weakened and within 24 hours was devoid of convection. Bettina again turned to the west as a tropical depression, moving around the large ridge. It briefly re-intensified on December 1, but dissipated on December 3 south of the Mascarene Islands.\n\n### Severe Tropical Storm Cecilia\n\nThe Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned a tropical disturbance in the northeast portion of the basin on December 9. Initially the system did not develop, and MFR did not classify it until December 12. The next day, the depression intensified into a moderate tropical storm, and was named Cecilia. The strengthening was short-lived, and the storm quickly weakened to tropical depression status on December 14. After initially tracking to the southwest, Cecilia turned to the west on December 15 due to a strengthening ridge to the south, by which time it had restrengthened and developed a central dense overcast. On December 17, MFR upgraded the storm toa severe tropical storm, with winds of 100 km/h (60 mph) according to MFR. The next day, JTWC estimated that Cecilia intensified to reach winds of 160 km/h (100 mph). While near peak intensity, the storm turned to the southwest and began weakening after wind shear increased. By December 19, Cecilia had weakened to tropical depression status, and dissipated on December 21 after passing west of Réunion. An approaching trough had caused thunderstorms to reform in the eastern portion of the circulation, which resulted in heavy rainfall over Mauritius and later Réunion. In the latter island, the rainfall was heaviest in the northern portion, peaking at 475 mm (18.7 in) in Salazie in 24 hours; the same station recorded 286 mm (11.3 in) in a 6-hour period, including 47 mm (1.9 in) in just 30 minutes.\n\n### Tropical Cyclone Daisy\n\nIn early January, the Intertropical Convergence Zone persisted off the northeast coast of Madagascar, spawning a low-pressure area on January 6. The next day, the system developed into a tropical disturbance, which initially moved to the east due to high pressure to the south. On January 8, the system developed a curved area of convection, which later developed into a central dense overcast. Initially located within a broader trough, the disturbance gradually became better defined as a distinct system. On January 10, it intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Daisy while passing near St. Brandon. A trough to the south weakened the ridge, causing the storm to turn to the southwest toward Madagascar. Daisy intensified into a severe tropical storm on January 11, and later into a tropical cyclone the next day. At around 1200 UTC on January 13, the cyclone made landfall near Brickaville in eastern Madagascar, with MFR estimating winds of about 155 km/h (95 mph); at around the same time, the JTWC estimated peak winds of 175 km/h (110 mph). At landfall, Daisy had a symmetrical cloud pattern 400 km (250 mi) in diameter. The high mountains of Madagascar caused the storm to quickly weaken, although it emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a tropical disturbance on January 15. That day, a trough turned Daisy to the south, and it briefly re-intensified into a tropical storm over warm waters. On January 16, Daisy made a second landfall in southern Madagascar and dissipated the next day.\n\nWhen Daisy struck Madagascar, it produced 200 km/h (120 mph) wind gusts on Île Sainte-Marie, along with heavy rainfall. The storm destroyed over 90 schools and government buildings and damaged the road network. Madagascar's capital Antananarivo was flooded, forcing 6,000 people to evacuate. Many of the same areas affected by Daisy were later affected by Geralda in February.\n\n### Severe Tropical Storm Edmea\n\nThe Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned a low-pressure area south of the Chagos archipelago on January 12, and developed a large area of convection the next day. On January 13, MFR began classifying the system as a tropical depression, and following further intensification, the agency upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Edmea later that day. With a ridge to the southeast, the storm tracked generally to the southwest. Its initial strengthening rate slowed until Edmea reached peak winds of 95 km/h (60 mph) on January 17. An approaching trough turned the storm to the south away from any landmasses, and also increased shear which caused weakening. Turning to the southeast on January 18, Edmea became extratropical the following day and was later absorbed by the trough.\n\n### Tropical Cyclone Pearl–Farah\n\nOn January 11, a tropical low formed northwest of Broome, Western Australia. It was named Pearl a few hours later by the Bureau of Meteorology. The cyclone continued westward and reached a peak intensity of 155 km/h (95 mph). As the system moved west of 90°E, MFR took over warning responsibility on January 18 and renamed the cyclone Farah. At that time, MFR estimated winds of about 120 km/h (75 mph). After having moved westward due to a ridge to the south, Farah turned to the south upon entering the basin due to an approaching trough, which previously absorbed Edmea. High wind shear caused rapid weakening, and by January 19, there was little remaining convection. The next day, Farah weakened to tropical depression status and turned to the southeast. The ridge built behind the trough, causing the depression to stall and drift northward, and by February 22, Farah dissipated.\n\n### Intense Tropical Cyclone Geralda\n\nCyclone Geralda originated from an area of low pressure from the monsoon trough on January 25. Over the following few days, the depression underwent gradual intensification, and MFR estimated peak winds of 200 km/h (125 mph) on January 31. Cyclone Geralda made landfall near Toamasina, Madagascar after weakening from its peak intensity. Within hours of moving onshore, the system had substantially weakened, and by February 5, Geralda had degenerated into a land depression. After briefly emerging into the Mozambique Channel, Geralda crossed southern Madagascar, and it became extratropical on February 8. Geralda was the strongest of the season and the strongest to hit Madagascar since a cyclone in March 1927.\n\nGeralda was the second cyclone in as many months to strike eastern Madagascar, after Daisy in January. Geralda produced wind gusts as strong as 350 km/h (220 mph), which were the highest worldwide for several decades. The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding, particularly in valleys. About 80% of the city of Toamasina was destroyed, including most schools, homes, and churches. The cyclone heavily damaged roads and rail lines, which later disrupted relief efforts. In the capital Antananarivo, Geralda killed 43 people after flooding many houses. Overall, more than 40,000 homes were destroyed, leaving 356,000 people homeless. Nationwide, the cyclone killed 231 people and caused over \\$10 million in damage. Relief work in the storm's aftermath was hampered by lack of coordination, and the Malagasy military were deployed to help storm victims. Few stocks were pre-positioned, causing food prices to rise greatly. Several countries and departments of the United Nations donated money or supplies to the country.\n\n### Tropical Cyclone Hollanda\n\nThe monsoon trough remained active, spawning a tropical depression on February 6 south of the Chagos archipelago. The system moved generally southwestward for much of its duration, steered by a ridge to the south. On February 8, the depression intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Hollanda, and the next day became a tropical cyclone, developing a small 20 km (12 mi) eye. On February 10, the cyclone attained peak winds of 155 km/h (95 mph), as assessed by MFR, and that day Hollanda struck the island of Mauritius at that intensity. Subsequently, the cyclone weakened while turning more to the south. A trough turned Hollanda to the east on February 13, and the next day the storm became extratropical.\n\nWhile moving across the island, Hollanda produced wind gusts of 216 km/h (134 mph) in the capital city of Port Louis, while heavy rainfall reached 711 mm (28.0 in) in Mare aux Vacoas. The cyclone destroyed or severely damaged 450 houses, which left at least 1,500 people homeless. High winds downed about 30% of the island's trees and left half of the island without power. Hollanda also caused severe crop damage; nearly half of the island's sugar crop was destroyed, which necessitated for the government to assist in replanting efforts. Hollanda killed two people and caused \\$135 million in damage on Mauritius. The highest rainfall from the cyclone fell on Réunion, with 741 mm (29.2 in) recorded at Grand Coude. On that island, there was also damage to crops and power lines.\n\n### Tropical Cyclone Ivy\n\nThe origins of Cyclone Ivy were from a disturbance that the JTWC began tracking on February 6 in the Australian basin. The next day, the disturbance crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean, and on February 8, MFR began tracking it. A ridge to the south imparted a general westward movement. With the convection gradually organizing, MFR upgraded the system to a tropical depression on February 9 and later to Moderate Tropical Storm Ivy the next day. A trough associated with the stronger Cyclone Hollanda turned the storm to the southwest. Although the JTWC upgraded Ivy to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on February 12, MFR estimated the storm weakened slightly, due to wind shear obscuring the center. By the following day, convection reorganized and the storm re-strengthened, first to severe tropical storm status on February 15 and then to tropical cyclone status the next day. Around that time, Ivy approached within 100 km (62 mi) of Rodrigues, where gusts reached 130 km/h (81 mph), and there was some damage.\n\nAfter passing near Rodrigues, Ivy strengthened further, developing a well-defined eye 50 km (31 mi) in diameter, while turning more to the south due to a trough associated with the remnants of Hollanda. The JTWC estimated peak winds of 185 km/h (115 mph) on February 17, around the same time MFR estimated peak winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). The strengthening ridge caused Ivy to slow its motion to the southwest while increased shear caused weakening. On February 18, the cyclone weakened to tropical storm status, and by the next day was downgraded to tropical depression status. On February 20, Ivy became extratropical, which dissipated the subsequent day.\n\n### Tropical Depression Julita\n\nIn the middle of February, the monsoon trough persisted over the Mozambique Channel and spawned a circulation on February 15 to the west of Juan de Nova Island. Thunderstorms increased around the circulation, and later that day, MFR began tracking the system as a tropical depression. Despite warm air temperatures, the system did not develop a warm core like most tropical cyclones as it moved to the southeast. On February 16, the storm passed about 40 km (25 mi) south of Juan de Nova Island, producing gusts of 75 km/h (47 mph). The next day, MFR estimated peak winds of about 55 km/h (35 mph); despite that the system did not intensify into a moderate tropical storm, the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the depression Julita on February 17. It weakened as its structure deteriorated, and Julita moved ashore in western Madagascar near Morondava early on February 18. It dissipated shortly thereafter. Julita affected areas impacted by earlier cyclones Daisy and Geralda, but caused minimal damage and no deaths.\n\n### Moderate Tropical Storm Kelvina\n\nThe Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned an area of convection on March 5 off the northeast coast of Madagascar, which was classified by both JTWC and MFR that day. A large anticyclone to the east caused the system to track generally to the south, and initially wind shear prevented significant strengthening. On March 6, the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the system Kelvina, although the depression did not intensify into a moderate tropical storm until the next day. At around that time, the convection became better organized, extending away from the center to the east. On March 8, MFR estimated peak winds of about 85 km/h (55 mph), although further strengthening was prevented by an increase in wind shear. On March 10, Kelvina passed near Reunion, where it dropped heavy rainfall. The next day, the storm became extratropical, which continued south for several days, eventually degenerating into a trough that influenced the tracks of subsequent tropical cyclones.\n\n### Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne\n\nIn late February, a low-pressure area developed near the Cocos Islands, associated with the monsoon trough. After initially moving eastward, a ridge turned it to the west, and on March 7, the system crossed 90° E into the south-west Indian Ocean as a developing tropical depression. The next day, MFR upgraded it to Tropical Storm Litanne. For much of its track, Litanne moved generally to the west-southwest, to the north of a large ridge. The storm quickly intensified, developing an eye feature within its central dense overcast by late on March 8. Late on March 9, MFR upgraded Litanne to a tropical cyclone, after the storm developed a small, well-defined eye 20 km (12 mi) in diameter. With warm sea surface temperatures, Litanne intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by late on March 10, although it subsequently weakened slightly. The cyclone turned to the southwest due to a trough from the remnants of Kelvina. Around 2000 UTC on March 12, Litanne passed near St. Brandon, and the next day the cyclone passed about 300 km (190 mi) north of Réunion island. At the time, the storm's eye was 40 km (25 mi) wide, and the wind radius was about 175 km (109 mi) wide. The islands reported high surf but little effects. Subsequently, the storm turned more to the west, and Litanne restrengthened into an intense tropical cyclone while approaching the eastern coastline of Madagascar. MFR estimated peak winds of 195 km/h (120 mph) on March 14.\n\nWeakening slightly after peaking in intensity, Cyclone Litanne continued to the west, making landfall near Brickaville in east-central Madagascar at 1600 UTC on March 15. This occurred months after cyclones Daisy and Geralda affected the same general area. Four hours before landfall, the storm had peak winds of 165 km/h (105 mph). A strengthening trough turned Litanne southward over the eastern portion of the country, and the storm dropped heavy rainfall. Flooding was limited, although high winds severely damaged the rice crop. Increasing wind shear removed the convection, causing quick weakening. On March 17, Litanne emerged from southeastern Madagascar into the Indian Ocean as a tropical depression, and the next day transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after being absorbed by a nearby trough. Five days later after accelerating to the southeast, the storm dissipated about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) south of where it first developed.\n\n### Severe Tropical Storm Mariola\n\nThe monsoon trough persisted east of the Cocos Islands in early March in the Australian basin, spawning the earlier Cyclone Litanne and the system that would eventually become Mariola. An area of convection developed on March 5, and gradually organized with favorable upper-level winds. The JTWC began tracking it on March 7, and MFR followed suit the next day, when the system was located about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) east of Litanne. On March 10, the MFR estimated the system became a tropical depression once it developed a central dense overcast, and that night the system crossed into the basin as a moderate tropical storm, making it one of three concurrent storms, along with Kelvina and Litanne. With the ridge to the south, the storm tracked generally westward for much of its duration. After MFR named the storm Mariola early on March 11, steady strengthening continued. On March 12, a small eye feature developed, indicating the storm was near tropical cyclone intensity. MFR estimated peak winds of 115 km/h (70 mph), and JTWC estimated peak winds of 165 km/h (105 mph).\n\nDue to Litanne crossing the same path three days earlier, Mariola was unable to intensify further. It began weakening shortly after peak intensity, and the structure gradually deteriorated. The storm turned slightly to the south-west due to the remnants of Kelvina disrupting the ridge, although a west motion resumed after the ridge restrengthened. Cooler and drier air weakened the convection, and Mariola weakened below tropical storm status on March 18. The next day, the depression dissipated north of Reunion.\n\n### Intense Tropical Cyclone Nadia\n\nCyclone Nadia formed on March 16 and moved westward for the first ten days of its duration, due to a ridge to the south. Warm waters and low wind shear allowed for the storm to gradually strengthen, first into a moderate tropical storm on March 19 and later into a tropical cyclone on March 21. After developing a well-defined eye, Nadia intensified to reach winds of 175 km/h (110 mph) early on March 22, according to MFR. The JTWC estimated winds of about 220 km/h (135 mph). On March 23, the cyclone struck northern Madagascar, causing flooding and localized damage where it moved ashore. There were 12 deaths in the country. Nadia emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weakened storm, although it reintensified slightly before making landfall in northeastern Mozambique on March 24. The storm turned southward through the country, emerging over water on March 26. It turned to the northeast and meandered over waters before dissipating on April 1.\n\nDamage was heaviest in Mozambique, estimated at about \\$20 million. Cyclone Nadia severely affected four provinces in the country, primarily Nampula Province where it moved ashore. There, 85% of the houses were destroyed, and across its path, the cyclone left 1.5 million people homeless. High winds caused widespread power outages, left areas without water, and significantly damaged crops, notably the cashew crop. The storm struck before the harvest, and lack of food caused 300 deaths in the months after the storm. Across Mozambique, Nadia directly caused 240 deaths and injured thousands. Effects spread as far inland as Malawi.\n\n### Intense Tropical Cyclone Odille\n\nAround March 26, an area of disturbed weather persisted just east of 90° E, associated with a low-pressure area. That day, the JTWC began tracking the system. Located north of an anticyclone, the system tracked slowly to the south before curving to the west. On March 30, it became a tropical depression, and that day crossed into the basin. The next day, the depression was named Odille after it intensified further. With low wind shear, the storm steadily intensified as it moved to the west, reaching severe tropical cyclone status on April 2 after an eye feature developed. The JTWC estimated winds of 150 km/h (95 mph) on April 3, equivalent to a strong Category 1 hurricane, although subsequently Odille weakened after turning to the northwest and experiencing increased wind shear. By April 6, the system had weakened to a tropical disturbance with a poorly defined center, which was dislocated from the remainder of the convection.\n\nOn April 4, Odille began redeveloping convection and re-intensified into a moderate tropical storm, after entering an area of more favorable conditions. Around that time, it began moving to the southwest due to a break between the ridge. On April 10, Odille intensified into a tropical cyclone while moving slowly around a ridge. The next day, it intensified into an intense tropical cyclone while passing near St. Brandon and turning to the southeast due to an approaching trough. Odille developed a well-defined eye 45 km (28 mi) in diameter, and MFR estimated peak winds of 175 km/h (110 mph), while the JTWC estimated winds of 195 km/h (120 mph). On April 12, the cyclone passed about 150 km (95 mi) west of Rodrigues, where wind gusts reached 125 km/h (78 mph) at Port Mathurin. Steady weakening occurred as Odille accelerated and experienced increasing shear, weakening below tropical cyclone status on April 13. The next day, the storm became extratropical, which lasted three more days until it was absorbed by the cold front.\n\n## Season effects\n\nThis table lists all the cyclones that developed in the Indian Ocean, during the 1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season. It includes their intensity, duration, name, landfalls, deaths, and damages.\n\n\\|- \\| \\|\\| November 9–14 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| 982 hPa (29.00 inHg) \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| November 25 – December 2 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|970 hPa (28.64 inHg) \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| December 12–21 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|972 hPa (28.70 inHg) \\|\\| Mauritius, Reunion \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| January 7 – January 16 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|935 hPa (27.61 inHg) \\|\\| St. Brandon, Madagascar \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| January 13 – January 19 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|976 hPa (28.82 inHg) \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| January 18 (entered basin) – January 21 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|960 hPa (28.35 inHg) \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| January 26 – February 8 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|905 hPa (26.72 inHg) \\|\\| Madagascar \\|\\| \\$10 million \\|\\| 231 \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| February 6 – February 14 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|940 hPa (27.76 inHg) \\|\\| Mauritius, Reunion \\|\\| \\$135 million \\|\\| 2 \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| February 8 – February 20 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|950 hPa (28.05 inHg) \\|\\| Rodrigues \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| February 15 – February 18 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|995 hPa (29.38 inHg) \\|\\| Madagascar \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| March 5 – March 11 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|985 hPa (29.09 inHg) \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| March 7 – March 19 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|910 hPa (26.87 inHg) \\|\\| St. Brandon, Madagascar \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| March 10 – March 19 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|966 hPa (28.53 inHg) \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| March 16 – April 1 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|925 hPa (27.32 inHg) \\|\\| Madagascar, Comoros, Mayotte, Mozambique, Malawi \\|\\| \\$20.2 million \\|\\| 252 \\|\\| \\|- \\| \\|\\| March 29 – April 14 \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\| \\|\\| bgcolor=#\\|925 hPa (27.32 inHg) \\|\\| St. Brandon, Rodrigues \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|\\| \\|-\n\n## See also\n\n- Atlantic hurricane seasons: 1993, 1994\n- Pacific hurricane seasons: 1993, 1994\n- Pacific typhoon seasons: 1993, 1994\n- North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1993, 1994", "revid": "1165436263", "description": "Cyclone season in the Southwest Indian Ocean", "categories": ["1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season", "Articles which contain graphical timelines", "South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons"]}
{"id": "16838680", "url": null, "title": "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams", "text": "\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" (also called \"The Last Lecture\") was a lecture given by Carnegie Mellon University computer science professor Randy Pausch on September 18, 2007, that received widespread media coverage, and was the basis for The Last Lecture, a New York Times best-selling book co-authored with Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow. Pausch had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in September 2006. On September 19, 2006, Pausch underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy to remove the malignant tumor from his pancreas. In August 2007, doctors discovered that the cancer had recurred. Pausch was given a terminal diagnosis and told to expect that three to six months of good health remained.\n\nThe lecture was upbeat and humorous, alternating between wisecracks, insights on computer science and engineering education, advice on building multi-disciplinary collaborations, working together with other people, offering inspirational life lessons, and performing push-ups on stage. Pausch commented on the irony that the \"Last Lecture\" series had recently been renamed \"Journeys\": \"I thought, damn, I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it.\" After Pausch finished his lecture, Steve Seabolt, on behalf of Electronic Arts, which was collaborating with CMU in the development of Alice 3.0, pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science, in recognition of Pausch's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering.\n\nProfessor Pausch's \"Last Lecture\" has received attention and recognition both from American media and news sources worldwide. The video of the speech became an internet sensation, viewed over a million times within its first month on social networking sites such as YouTube, Google video, MySpace, and Facebook. Randy Pausch gave an abridged version of his speech on The Oprah Winfrey Show in October 2007. On April 9, 2008, the ABC network aired an hour-long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch entitled \"The Last Lecture: A Love Story For Your Life\". Four days after his death from pancreatic cancer on July 25, 2008, ABC aired a tribute to Pausch, remembering his life and his famous lecture.\n\n## Background\n\n### Previous lectures\n\nPausch was known for some previous lectures. He had been associate professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Virginia's School of Engineering and Applied Science in 1997 and 1998, and also worked for The Walt Disney Company as an imagineer and for Electronic Arts. At the University of Virginia, he gave a lecture on the importance of making technology more user friendly, in which he made his point by showing a VCR (video cassette recorder) that was hard to program and then smashing it with a sledgehammer. He was also known for a lecture on time management which he delivered in 1998 at the University of Virginia, and again in 2007.\n\n\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" was the first lecture of the nine part \"Journeys\" series presented by Carnegie Mellon, which included speakers Raj Reddy, Jay Apt, and Jared Cohon, the university president. The lecture series focused on university staff member's professional journeys and the decisions and challenges they faced.\n\n### Terminal cancer\n\nPausch was a pancreatic cancer patient when he gave the lecture. In an interview, Pausch stated that he had felt bloated, and discovered that he had a cancerous tumor when doctors performed a CT Scan to check for gallstones. He underwent pancreaticoduodenectomy surgery (the \"Whipple procedure\") to remove the cancerous tumor, which later proved unsuccessful. The doctors removed his gall bladder, parts of his small intestine, a third of his pancreas, and part of his stomach, and then initiated experimental radiation treatment that could possibly increase his chance of surviving 5 years, to 45 percent. Pausch had radiation treatments from November 2006 to May 2007, and felt healthy after finishing. In July and August, tests at Johns Hopkins University found no cancer. However, in late August, Pausch informed readers of his website that his cancer had returned, saying: \"A recent CT scan showed that there are 10 tumors in my liver, and my spleen is also peppered with small tumors. The doctors say that it is one of the most aggressive recurrences they have ever seen.\" The doctors estimated Pausch had three to six months of good health left.\n\nPausch based the lecture on the generic \"Last Lecture\" given by some professors, imagining what one would say and what one would want their legacy to be if they could have one last chance to share their knowledge with the world. Carnegie Mellon had previously had a lecture series titled the \"Last Lecture\", but had renamed it to \"Journeys\", and asked staff to talk about their professional experiences. Pausch was offered the lecture around the time when he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, and had received news that he only had months left to live. Pausch nearly cancelled the lecture due to his disease, but discussed the offer with his wife and decided to accept the opportunity to share his thoughts with the world. Pausch compared it to the final scene of The Natural, in which the character Roy Hobbs overcomes injury and old age to hit one final home run.\n\n### Speech inspiration\n\nBefore Pausch was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, he had planned to base his lecture on the generic academic \"Last Lecture\", but he could not think of a subject. He was constantly being e-mailed by speech and event organizers at Carnegie Mellon. Pausch was told in August, a month before the lecture, that a poster must be printed and he needed to choose a subject immediately. The same week, he was told that the prognosis for his pancreatic cancer was terminal. Pausch nearly canceled the lecture. He had to decide whether to make the speech, or to stay home to prepare his family for life without him. His wife Jai requested that Pausch stay at home. She wanted Pausch to be spending more time with their three children, instead of giving a speech at his workplace. Pausch decided on the speech, explaining that his children would remember him through seeing his lecture.\n\n## Speech\n\n\"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" was delivered on September 18, 2007, at Carnegie Mellon University's McConomy Auditorium. Over 450 Carnegie Mellon students, staff members, and friends of Pausch attended the lecture, leaving standing room only. Pausch later commented in an interview, \"A couple of hundred people in a room, looking and listening and laughing and applauding – hopefully at the appropriate times – that gives a lot of validation to my kids that a lot of people believe in this, and a lot of people who knew me believe that I did my best to try to live this way.\" The introduction to the lecture series was given by Indira Nair, the Vice Provost for Education at Carnegie Mellon. Nair explained the series was called \"Journeys\", in which eight more professors from Carnegie Mellon would share their insights over the years.\n\nPausch was introduced by Steve Seabolt, the Vice President of Worldwide Publishing and Marketing at Electronic Arts, as well as Pausch's close friend and former co-worker. Seabolt began with a joke about Electronic Arts, and another joke about a bet he and Pausch had made about how many people would attend the lecture, saying that \"...depending upon whose version of the story you hear, he either owes me 20 dollars or his new Volkswagen.\" Seabolt next talked about Pausch's academic achievements and previous career with the University of Virginia and Electronic Arts. Seabolt concluded his introduction by describing Pausch, saying that \"Randy's dedication to making the world a better place is self evident to anyone who has crossed paths with him.\" He described how his accomplishments had affected others, as well as his wife and three children. Seabolt then turned the speech over to Pausch, who was greeted with a standing ovation.\n\nAs Pausch walked on, he tried to stop the applause and get the audience to sit down, and begin the speech by commenting \"make me earn it\", to which one member of the audience responded \"you did\". He then commented on the irony of his \"last lecture\" in a series that used to be the \"Last Lecture\" series, but was renamed \"Journeys\": \"It's wonderful to be here. What Indira didn’t tell you is that this lecture series used to be called the 'Last Lecture'. If you had one last lecture to give before you died, what would it be? I thought, damn, I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it.\"\n\nPausch explained having pancreatic cancer and only having 3 to 6 months to live, but joked that he was in the best shape of his life (and \"better than most of you [the audience]\"), proceeding to do a series of push-ups on stage while speaking. Pausch said what he would not cover in the lecture, which included his family and children, religion, spirituality, and his terminal cancer or any other cancer.\n\n### Pausch's childhood dreams\n\nPausch went on to explain his childhood dreams and how he accomplished (or tried to accomplish) them. Pausch described his childhood and family life in the 1960s. Pausch said that he had a \"really good childhood\", and, when going back through his family photographs, had not found a picture of him not smiling. Some of the pictures were projected as slides, including one of him dreaming. He explained how he was inspired by the Apollo 11 lunar landing in 1969. Pausch then transitioned to a slide which contained a list of his childhood dreams. They were: being in zero gravity, playing in the National Football League, being the author of a World Book Encyclopedia article, being Captain Kirk, being \"one of the guys who won the big stuffed animals in the amusement park\", and becoming a Disney Imagineer.\n\nPausch explained his dream of being in zero gravity. As a child, this had been inspired by Apollo 11, and had stayed with him as an adult. When he was the computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon, he learned of a NASA program that allows college students to fly in NASA's vomit comet, which uses parabolic arcs to experience near-weightlessness. Faculty members were not allowed to go (Pausch called this a \"brick wall\" he faced), so he presented himself as a web journalist, because local media were allowed. Pausch proceeded to talk about his second childhood dream, playing in the National Football League. Although Pausch was never a player in the National Football League, he spoke about his childhood experiences with Pop Warner Football and how they had affected his life and taught him lessons. Pausch then moved on to his dream of publishing an article in the World Book Encyclopedia. As a child, Pausch always kept and read a World Book Encyclopedia at home. As he progressed in his career, he became a leading expert in the field of virtual reality. World Book contacted Pausch, interested in him writing for the encyclopedia. , the article \"virtual reality\" in the World Book Encyclopedia is the one authored by Pausch.\n\nNext, Pausch explained his dream of being like Captain Kirk from the Star Trek series, with the slide showing \"Being like Meeting Captain Kirk\". Pausch explained that he realized that there were some things he just could not do, and that was one of them. He eventually changed the goal into meeting William Shatner, the actor who played Captain Kirk. Shatner had written a book on the science of Star Trek, and had gone to Pausch for help with the virtual reality section of the book. Pausch met and worked with Shatner for this purpose. Pausch concluded the section with the story of his becoming an Imagineer at Disney, as well as his achieving the goal of \"being one of those guys who wins stuffed animals\", at a carnival with his wife and children.\n\n### Enabling the dreams of others\n\nAfter relating his childhood dreams, Pausch began the second part of his speech, about how he enabled the dreams of others. He decided to become a professor, and reflected that there was no better job to enable the childhood dreams of others. He mentioned that working for Electronic Arts was \"probably a close second\". Pausch told the audience that he realized he could enable the dreams of others from Tommy Burnett, one of his students at the University of Virginia. Burnett was interested in joining Pausch's research group. Pausch asked Burnett what his childhood dream was, and he responded that his dream was to work on the next Star Wars film. Burnett worked on Pausch's virtual reality team while at the University of Virginia, and Pausch helped Burnett to achieve his dream. When Pausch moved to Carnegie Mellon, his entire team moved with him except Burnett, who had been offered a job by Lucasfilm (the creator of Star Wars). He eventually worked with Lucasfilm on three Star Wars films: The Phantom Menace, Attack of the Clones, and Revenge of the Sith.\n\nThis led Pausch to teach a virtual reality class at Carnegie Mellon, to help them realize their childhood dreams. In the course, 50 students from the university were separated into random teams of four which were each assigned a project to build a virtual world. Each group had two weeks to work on the project, and then presented it to the group. The teams were then reshuffled and a new project began. The project evolved to draw an audience, and helped his students realize their potential. Finally, Pausch gave a few words of advice on how others could achieve their childhood dreams, and who his role models were.\n\n### Conclusion\n\nAfter Pausch finished his lecture, Steve Seabolt, on behalf of Electronic Arts, which collaborated with Carnegie Mellon in the development of Alice 3.0, pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science in recognition of Pausch's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering. University president Jared Cohon called his contributions to the university and to education \"remarkable and stunning\". He then announced that Carnegie Mellon would build a pedestrian bridge named for Pausch in honor of his contributions to the university and to the world. The bridge connected Carnegie Mellon's new Computer Science building and the Center for the Arts, a symbol of the way Pausch linked those two areas. Finally, Brown University professor Andries van Dam followed Pausch's last lecture with a tearful and impassioned speech praising him for his courage and leadership, calling him a role model.\n\n## Post-speech media coverage\n\nPausch was named \"Person of the Week\" on ABC's World News with Charles Gibson on September 21. His \"Last Lecture\" attracted wide attention on international media, became an internet hit, and was viewed over a million times within its first month. On October 22, 2007, Pausch appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show, where he discussed his diagnosis and recapped his \"Last Lecture\" for millions of TV viewers.\n\nOn October 6, 2007, Pausch joined the Pittsburgh Steelers for their regular practice, after the organization learned that one of his childhood dreams mentioned in his \"Last Lecture\" was to play in the National Football League. A devoted Star Trek fan, Pausch was invited by film director J. J. Abrams to film a scene in the latest Star Trek movie. Abrams heard of Pausch's disease and sent a personal e-mail inviting Pausch to the set. Pausch happily accepted and traveled to Los Angeles, California to shoot the scene. In his appearance he was given a line of dialogue and donated his \\$217.06 paycheck to charity. On April 9, 2008, the ABC network aired an hour-long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch entitled \"The Last Lecture: A Love Story For Your Life\". On July 29, 2008, ABC aired a follow-up to the Last Lecture special, memorializing Pausch.\n\n## Book\n\nThe Disney-owned publisher Hyperion paid \\$6.7 million for the rights to publish a book about Pausch called The Last Lecture, co-authored by Pausch and Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow. The Last Lecture explained Pausch's speech, and the events that led up to it. According to Robert Miller, a publisher for Hyperion Books, the book would \"flesh out his speech\" and show others \"how to deal with mortality\" and how to live well while death is imminent. The book was well-received, eventually earning the number one spot on the New York Times bestseller list in the \"Advice\" category during the week of June 22, 2008. The book remained on the New York Times bestseller list for 80 straight weeks.", "revid": "1171612796", "description": "Viral video of a 2007 lecture by Randy Pausch", "categories": ["2007 in Pennsylvania", "2007 speeches", "Carnegie Mellon University", "Internet memes introduced in 2007", "September 2007 events in the United States", "Viral videos"]}
{"id": "96144", "url": null, "title": "Blackford County, Indiana", "text": "Blackford County is located in the east central portion of the U.S. state of Indiana. The county is named for Judge Isaac Blackford, who was the first speaker of the Indiana General Assembly and a long-time chief justice of the Indiana Supreme Court. Created in 1838, Blackford County is divided into four townships, and its county seat is Hartford City. Two incorporated cities and one incorporated town are located within the county. The county is also the site of numerous unincorporated communities and ghost towns. Occupying only 165.58 square miles (428.9 km<sup>2</sup>), Blackford County is the fourth smallest county in Indiana. As of the 2020 census, the county's population was 12,112. Based on population, the county is the 8th smallest county of the 92 in Indiana. Although no interstate highways are located in Blackford County, three Indiana state roads cross the county, and an additional state road is located along the county's southeast border. The county has two railroad lines. A north–south route crosses the county, and intersects with a second railroad line that connects Hartford City with communities to the west.\n\nBefore the arrival of European-American settlers during the 1830s, the northeastern portion of the future Blackford County was briefly the site of an Indian reservation for Chief Francois Godfroy of the Miami tribe. The first European-American pioneers were typically farmers who settled on arable land near rivers. Originally, the county was mostly swampland, but more land became available for farming as the marshes were cleared and drained. Over the next 30 years, small communities developed throughout the county. When the county's rail lines were constructed in the 1860s and 1870s, additional communities evolved around railroad stops.\n\nBeginning in the late 1880s, the discovery of natural gas and crude oil in the county (and surrounding region) caused the area to undergo an economic boom period known as the Indiana Gas Boom. Manufacturers relocated to the area to take advantage of the low-cost energy and railroad facilities. The boom period lasted about 15 years, and is reflected in Blackford County's population, which peaked in 1900 at 17,213. The construction associated with the additional prosperity of the boom period caused a significant upgrade in the county's appearance, as wooden buildings were replaced with masonry structures. Much of the infrastructure built during that time remains today—including Montpelier's historic Carnegie Library and many of Hartford City's buildings in the Courthouse Square Historic District.\n\nAgriculture continues to be important to the county, and became even more important after the loss of several large manufacturers during the 20th century. As of 2010, 72 percent of Blackford County is covered by either corn or soybean fields; additional crops, such as wheat and hay, are also grown.\n\n## History\n\nFollowing thousands of years of varying cultures of indigenous peoples, the historic Miami and Delaware Indians (a.k.a. Lenape) are the first-recorded permanent settlers in the Blackford County area, living on the Godfroy Reserve after an 1818 treaty. The site is located in Blackford County's Harrison Township, east of Montpelier. Although the Godfroy Reserve was allotted to Miami Native Chief Francois (a.k.a. Francis) Godfroy, Delaware Indians were also allowed to stay there. The Miami tribe was the most powerful group of Natives in the region, and Francois Godfroy (who was half French) was one of their chiefs. By 1839, Godfroy had sold the reserve, and the Natives had migrated west. Benjamin Reasoner was the first European–American to enter future Blackford County, and its first land owner. He entered the area on July 9, 1831. Reasoner and his sons built the county's first mill, on their farm.\n\nThe land that would become Blackford County was originally the western part of Jay County. A January 30, 1836 act of the Indiana General Assembly created Jay County, effective March 1, 1836. In December 1836, a motion was made in the Indiana House of Representatives to review dividing Jay County, but that resolution was not adopted. Two Blackford County communities, Matamoras and Montpelier, originally existed as part of Jay County. They lie along the Salamonie River in what became the northeast portion of Blackford County. John Blount founded Matamoras, arriving in 1833. This village is Blackford County's oldest community, and is the site of the county's largest water mill. The mill, constructed around 1843, was considered one of the finest in the state. Blackford County's other former Jay County community is Montpelier, west of Matamoras on the Salamonie River. Led by Abel Baldwin, the community was started in 1836 by groups of migrant settlers from Vermont. They named the settlement after the capital of their previous home state. Blackford County's Montpelier was platted in 1837 (before Matamoras), and is the county's oldest platted community.\n\nSeveral sources list the creation year for Blackford County as 1837. However, the law was not finalized until 1838. Indiana bill of the House No. 152 was originally for the creation of a county named Windsor. The name \"Windsor\" was replaced with the name \"Blackford\" by the House of Representatives in January 1838. An \"act for the formation of the county of Blackford\" was approved on February 15, 1838. This act intended that the county would be \"open for business\" on the first Monday in April 1838, which was April 2. However, the county was not organized. Finally, on January 29, 1839, the original February 15 act was amended, stating that Blackford County shall \"enjoy the rights and privileges\" of an independent county. The act also appointed commissioners, and corrected a misprint that defined the southeast corner of the new county.\n\nOver the next two years, a political struggle continued to determine the location of the county seat. The tiny community of Hartford was repeatedly selected by the commissioners, but those decisions were challenged by individuals favoring Montpelier. While Licking Township (where Hartford lay) was the most populous township in the county, Montpelier was the county's oldest platted community. After a third and fourth act of the Indiana General Assembly, Hartford was finalized as the location of the county seat—and construction of a courthouse began. When it was noted that another Indiana community was also named Hartford, Blackford County's Hartford was renamed Hartford City.\n\nDuring the next 25 years, the county grew slowly. Plans were made for roads and railroads, and swampland was drained. The first railroad line was authorized in 1849. The plan was for the Fort Wayne & Southern Railroad Company to connect the Indiana cities of Fort Wayne and Muncie—running north–south through the Blackford County communities of Montpelier and Hartford City. Although construction began in the 1850s, it was not completed (by connecting Fort Wayne to Muncie) until 1870, and this delay caused it to be the second railroad to operate in Blackford County. By the time the railroad began operations, it was named Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville Railroad. The Lake Erie and Western Railroad acquired this railroad in 1890.\n\nThe first railroad to operate in Blackford County crossed somewhat east–west through the county's southern half. The railroad was named Union and Logansport Railroad Company by the time it entered Blackford County. This line was proposed in 1862, and completed to Hartford City in 1867—running through the Blackford County communities of Dunkirk, Crumley's Crossing, and Hartford City. The small community of Crumley's Crossing was renamed Converse, and two other communities (Millgrove and Renner) became established on this line. The railroad was eventually named Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad. Other names for the railroad since that time include the Panhandle division of the Pennsylvania Railroad, Penn Central Transportation Company, Conrail, and Norfolk Southern Railway. A portion of this line is now abandoned, and the track has been removed between Converse and Hartford City, south of State Road 26.\n\n### Gas boom\n\nIn 1886, natural gas was discovered in two counties adjacent to Blackford County. The discoveries were in the small community of Eaton (south of Hartford City along railroad line) in Delaware County, and in the city of Portland in Jay County (east of Hartford City and Millgrove). The Hartford City Gas & Oil Company was formed in early 1887, and successfully drilled a natural gas well later in the year. The Montpelier Gas & Oil Mining company was organized in 1887. While natural gas was found throughout Blackford County, crude oil was found mostly in the county's Harrison Township (between Montpelier and Mollie). Blackford County's first successful oil well, located south of Montpelier, began producing in 1890. Montpelier was thought to be \"the very heart of the greatest natural gas and oil field in the world\". Oil was also found in parts of Washington Township, including a well that was thought to be \"the most phenomenal well ever drilled in America\". By 1896, Blackford County had 18 natural gas companies, headquartered in all four of the county's townships, including the communities of Hartford City, Montpelier, Roll, Dunkirk, Trenton (Priam Post Office), and Millgrove.\n\nIn June 1880, only 171 people held manufacturing jobs in Blackford County. The Indiana Gas Boom transformed the region, as manufacturers moved to the area to utilize the natural gas and railroad system. During 1901, Indiana state inspectors visited 21 manufacturing facilities in Blackford County, and these companies employed 1,346 people (compare to 171 two decades earlier). Since these inspections were in Hartford City and Montpelier only, additional manufacturing employees from the county's small communities (such as Millgrove's glass factory) could be added to the count of 1,346. The county's two largest employers were glass factories: American Window Glass plant number 3 and Sneath Glass Company. Hartford City's resources (low–cost energy, two railroads, and skilled workforce) were especially favored by glass factories, and a 1904 directory lists 10 of them. In addition to an economic transformation, another byproduct of the gas boom was an upgrade of Blackford County's appearance. Many of the county's landmark buildings were constructed during the gas boom, including the current courthouse and surrounding buildings in Hartford City's Courthouse Square Historic District. The city's water supply system was also built during that period. Additional buildings include the Carnegie Library, and the historic Presbyterian Church. Many of Montpelier's Downtown Historic District structures were built during the gas boom. Montpelier's historic Baptist Church and Montpelier's Carnegie Library were constructed in the early 1900s – near the end of the gas boom.\n\n### Post-gas boom\n\nThe Indiana Gas Boom ended during the first decade of the 20th century, reducing the county's economy. Gas and oil workers left, some manufacturers moved, and service industries were forced to cut back operations. Adding to the county's problems, machines made the labor–intensive method originally used for producing window glass obsolete, causing many of the county's skilled glass workers at the large American Window Glass plant to lose their jobs. By 1932, the window glass plant of the county's former largest employer was closed. According to the United States Census, Blackford County's population peaked at 17,123 in 1900, and it still has not returned to that zenith over 100 years later.\n\nThe end of the gas boom was especially difficult for the smaller communities in the county, since the loss of a single business has more of an impact on small communities. In the case of Millgrove, the community's major manufacturer (a glass factory) closed. For other communities, such as Mollie, the loss of the gas and oil workers meant that the local post office was a \"waste of time\", and consumer demand at the general store was significantly diminished.\n\nImprovements to the automobile and highways, which coincided with the end of the gas boom, also contributed to the decline of the county's smaller communities. The automobile changed \"business and shopping patterns at the expense of the small-town merchant\". Small–town residents began to drive to larger communities to purchase goods, because of the wider selection. The improved quality of automobiles and roads competed with passenger service on the railroads (and interurban lines), causing a decline in passenger traffic on the rails. Small towns associated with railroad stations suffered from the loss in traffic. In Blackford County, passenger service on the Lake Erie and Western Railroad line (owned by the Nickel Plate Road by that time) was discontinued in 1931, and the last interurban train ran on January 18, 1941.\n\nAlthough many workers left the area after the gas and oil bust, Montpelier's population eventually stabilized—and Hartford City's grew. Some manufacturers remained because of a lack of better alternatives. Hartford City's Sneath Glass Company, a major employer, continued operations until the 1950s. Hartford City leaders attracted businesses such as Overhead Door (1923) and 3M (1955) to replace the former companies. Overhead Door was a major employer in Hartford City for over 60 years. In the 1960s, Overhead Door moved its headquarters from Hartford City to Dallas, Texas, although its Hartford City manufacturing plant continued until the 1980s as a major manufacturer, when it began reducing its local presence. It ceased the Indiana operation in 2000. The county lost another 200 jobs in 2011 when Hartford City's Key Plastics plant closed.\n\nAgriculture continues to be an important factor in the county's economy. Over 70 percent of Blackford County's land is occupied by soybean or corn fields. Additional crops and livestock are also raised. Good returns in agriculture are not always reflected in the economy of nearby towns, as industrial agriculture has reduced the number of workers it needs, and family farms have declined. Many small towns in the \"Corn Belt\", such as the communities in Blackford County, continue to decline in size and affluence.\n\n## Geography\n\nAccording to the 2010 census, Blackford County has a total area of 165.58 square miles (428.9 km<sup>2</sup>), of which 165.08 square miles (427.6 km<sup>2</sup>) (or 99.70%) is land and 0.50 square miles (1.3 km<sup>2</sup>) (or 0.30%) is water, making it the fourth smallest county in the state. The county is located in East Central Indiana, about 55 miles (89 km) south of Fort Wayne, Indiana, and about 78 miles (126 km) northeast of Indianapolis.\n\n### Adjacent counties\n\n- Wells County (north)\n- Jay County (east)\n- Delaware County (south)\n- Grant County (west)\n\nThe terrain of Blackford County shows the influence of glacial passage in the distant past. These glaciers were responsible for the rich farmland that became available after the county was cleared and drained. During the early 20th century, the Renner Stock Farm, in Licking Township, was known statewide for its quality cattle, hogs, and horses.\n\n### Waterways\n\nThe county has some small streams, and several man-made lakes. The Salamonie River, flowing out of Jay County (Indiana) from the east, crosses the northeast corner of Blackford County. Big and Little Lick Creek flow westward in Licking and Jackson townships in the southern half of the county. Early settlers were attracted to Lick Creek, and then the Salamonie River, because the nearby land had suitable drainage for farming. The county's lakes include Lake Blue Water in Harrison Township; Cain's Lake, Shamrock Lakes and Lake Mohee in Licking Township; and Lake Placid in Jackson Township. Lake Blue Water is a spring-fed former stone quarry located one mile (1.6 km) east of Montpelier. The Shamrock Lakes (a group of six lakes) were created between 1960 and 1965, and the first lake was originally intended to be a water supply for a farmer's cattle.\n\n### Townships\n\n- Harrison\n- Jackson Township (thought to be named after President Andrew Jackson; created by County Commission September 22, 1839.\n- Licking\n- Washington Township (named after President George Washington; created by County Commission June 29, 1839.\n\n### Communities\n\n### Cities\n\n- Hartford City (county seat)\n- Montpelier\n- Dunkirk (mostly located in adjacent Jay County)\n\n### Towns\n\n- Shamrock Lakes (incorporated May 21, 1973)\n\n### Unincorporated communities\n\n- Converse (formerly named Crumley's Crossing)\n- Matamoras\n- Millgrove\n- Roll (formerly named Dundee)\n- Trenton (former post office named Priam)\n\nThese communities are sometimes listed as ghost towns, most businesses in these communities have closed. However, residences are still maintained in these communities, and they are listed as populated places by the U.S. Geological Survey. Millgrove, Roll, and Trenton all had post offices during the 19th or 20th century.\n\n#### Extinct settlements\n\nBlackford County has over 10 communities that do not exist anymore. In some cases, a church, farm or single residence remains at the extinct community's location. Among these former communities, Bowser Station, Dorsey Station, Mollie, Silas, and Slocum all had post offices during the 19th century. Mollie's post office lasted until 1907.\n\n- Bowser Station—This community was a railroad stop in southern Licking Township, and had a post office during the 1870s.\n- Dorsey Station—This Harrison Township community was a railroad stop, and had a post office during the 1870s.\n- Frog Alley—This Washington Township community had a church and school. \"Frog Alley\" arose because of the swampy condition of the area. The school, which began in 1863, lasted until 1923.\n- Greenland—Located in Harrison Township at 400 North and 600 East.\n- Little Chicago—Located in northwest corner of Harrison Township, and in Wells County.\n- Mollie—This community thrived in the 1890s as a railroad stop with a grain elevator, post office, and general store. The Harrison Township oil fields were located nearby.\n- Pleasantdale—Located in Harrison Township, at 300 North and 600 East.\n- Renner (Licking Township) - a railroad stop at the Renner Stock Farm. Housing for the farm's employees was also located there. It thrived from the 1890s until the 1920s. Renner is still listed as a populated place by the U.S. Geological Survey, but its \"population\" is a farm.\n- Silas— (Washington Township) - the land was purchased in 1848, and the owner established a church and school. By 1880, a general store was established at that location, and its owner was community namesake Silas Rayl. During the first decade of the 20th century, the Silas general store closed, contributing to the demise of the community.\n- Slocum (southeastern Harrison Township, exact location not known) - had a post office 1886–1902.\n- Luck (Harrison Township at 250 North and 800 East)\n- Winterhurst (Licking Township, at 200 South and 0.5 miles (0.80 km) East)\n\n## Demographics\n\nAs of the 2010 United States Census, Blackford County's population density was 77.3 inhabitants per square mile (29.8/km<sup>2</sup>), well below the average for Indiana, which was 180.8 inhabitants per square mile (69.8/km<sup>2</sup>). Blackford County had 12,766 people, 5,236 households, and 3,567 families residing within its borders. The racial makeup of the county was 97.7 percent white, 0.4 percent black or African American, 0.2 percent Native American, 0.1 percent Asian, 0.3 percent from other races, and 1.3 percent from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0.9 percent of the population.\n\nThe average household size was 2.41, and the average family size was 2.88. Families accounted for 68.1 percent of the county's 5,236 households, and 75.5 percent of these families included a husband and wife living together. Children under the age of 18 were living in 38.9 percent of the family households. Non-family households accounted for 31.9 percent of total households, and 86.8 percent of them were occupied by someone living alone. People 65 years and older, living alone, accounted for 40.1 percent of non-family households—or 12.8 percent of all types of households.\n\nIn terms of age distribution, 22.8 percent of the population were under the age of 18, and 21.6 percent were 62 years of age or older. The median age was 42.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males.\n\nAs of the 2000 United States Census, the median income for a household in the county was \\$34,760, and the median income for a family was \\$41,758. Males had a median income of \\$30,172 versus \\$21,386 for females. The per capita income for the county was \\$16,543. About 6.0 percent of families and 8.7 percent of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.3 percent of those under age 18 and 8.6 percent of those age 65 or over. In terms of ancestry, 16.7 percent were German, 15.5 percent were American, 9.3 percent were Irish and 7.8 percent were English.\n\n### 2020 census\n\n## Government\n\nThe county government is a constitutional body granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and the Indiana Code. The county council is the legislative branch of the county government and controls all spending and revenue collection. Representatives are elected from county districts. The council members serve four-year terms and are responsible for setting salaries, the annual budget and special spending. The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes, in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval, excise taxes and service taxes. In 2010, the county budgeted approximately \\$3.95 million for the district's schools and \\$3.18 million for other county operations and services, for a total annual budget of approximately \\$7.1 million.\n\nThe executive body of the county is a board of commissioners. They are elected county-wide, in staggered four–year terms. One commissioner serves as president. The commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council, collecting revenue and managing day-to-day functions of the county government.\n\nThe county maintains a small claims court that can handle some civil cases. The judge on the court is elected to a term of four years and must be a member of the Indiana Bar Association. The judge is assisted by a constable who is elected to a four-year term. In some cases, court decisions can be appealed to the state level circuit court.\n\nThe county has several other elected offices, including sheriff, coroner, auditor, treasurer, recorder, surveyor and circuit court clerk. Each serves a four–year term and oversees a different part of county government. Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and be residents of the county.\n\nEach township has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service, provides poor relief and manages cemetery care, among other duties. The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three-member township board. The trustees and board members are elected to four-year terms.\n\nPrior to 1948, Blackford County favored the Democratic Party in presidential elections, and remained a competitive county as recently as 2008, when Democratic nominee Barack Obama came within less than 15 votes of carrying the county, the closest county in the state and one of the closest in the nation that year. In recent years, the county has followed the trends of most other rural counties in the Midwest, and has become overwhelmingly Republican in response to the increasing social liberalism of the Democratic Party.\n\nBased on the results of the 2020 census, Blackford County lies within Indiana's 3rd congressional district, represented by Republican Jim Banks, as well as District 33 of the Indiana House of Representatives, represented by Republican John Prescott, and District 19 of the Indiana Senate, represented by Republican Travis Holdman.\n\n## Climate and weather\n\nBlackford County has a typical Midwestern humid continental seasonal climate, and its Köppen climate classification is Dfa. There are four distinct seasons, with winters being cold with moderate snowfall, while summers can be warm and humid. In recent years, average temperatures in county seat Hartford City have ranged from a low of 18 °F (−8 °C) in January to a high of 84 °F (29 °C) in July, although a record low of −26 °F (−32 °C) was recorded in January 1994 and a record high of 103 °F (39 °C) was recorded in June 1988. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 1.94 inches (49 mm) in February to 4.33 inches (110 mm) in June.\n\nMarch and April are considered tornado season in Indiana. Blackford County endured an F4 storm on Palm Sunday (April 11) in 1965. This storm was one of many tornadoes that occurred in the Midwest on that day. F4 tornadoes have maximum speeds of 207 to 260 miles per hour (333 to 418 km/h), and this one crossed Blackford County farmland east of Roll. Although there were no fatalities in Blackford County from this tornado, two people were killed in neighboring Wells County. The county has recorded at least five other tornadoes. The most recent tornadoes occurred in Hartford City in 2002. However, those Hartford City tornadoes were rated F1 on the Fujita scale—much less dangerous than an F4 tornado.\n\nBlackford County has a record for hail. Hailstones 4.5 inches (110 mm) in diameter fell in Hartford City on April 9, 2001. In a tie with the city of Cayuga, those hailstones are the largest ever recorded in the state of Indiana.\n\nThe biggest recorded snowstorm was the Great Blizzard of 1978, which occurred on January 26–27, 1978. A federal state of emergency was declared for Indiana at that time. Indiana governor Otis R. Bowen authorized the use of National Guard equipment, facilities, and personnel throughout the state. Low temperatures, high winds, and deep snow caused Hartford City to appear vacant, as schools and businesses closed. Wind gusts to 45 miles per hour (72 km/h) caused snowdrifts 5 feet (1.5 m) high, making travel almost impossible. Snowmobiles were the only viable means of transportation, and volunteers from Hartford City's Snowmobile Club provided emergency assistance.\n\n## Economy\n\n`Blackford County's economy is supported by a labor force of approximately 5,900 workers with an unemployment rate for June 2013 of 9.8 percent. There are industrial parks in Montpelier and Hartford City, and both cities are served by railroad line owned by Norfolk Southern. Over 30 employers of varying size are located in the county. The Blackford County School System has the most employees, with locations in both Hartford City and Montpelier. 3M Company is currently the largest manufacturer in the county, and has been located in Hartford City since its purchase of the Hartford City Paper Mill in 1955. Another business employing more than 100 people is Blackford County Community Hospital, located in Hartford City. Emhart Gripco is Montpelier's leading employer, with over 100 employees.`\n\nFour categories account for over half the county's employment: manufacturing, government, retail trade, and health care. The largest category is manufacturing, with about 19 percent of the county's workforce. In addition to local Blackford County businesses, larger local economies in the more populous counties to the south and west offer employment and commerce, particularly in the city of Muncie in Delaware County, and the city of Marion in Grant County. Both counties employ more workers than their local workforce can provide. Agriculture has a significant impact on the county, although farm workers account for only about 5 percent of the county's workers. In 2007, the county had 250 farms occupying 84,626 acres (34,247 ha), so four-fifths of Blackford County is farmland. Nearly 72,000 acres (29,000 ha) are devoted to soybeans and corn. Wheat, hay, and oats are also grown. Livestock include over 24,000 hogs and pigs.\n\n## Transportation\n\nThere are no interstate highways in Blackford County, although Interstate 69 passes near the county's western border.\n\nState Road 3 enters the county from Delaware County on the south. It runs north through Hartford City and enters Wells County near Roll. State Road 18 runs west–east through the north end of the county, on its way from Marion to the Ohio border; it passes through Montpelier and Matamoras.\n\nState Road 26 also runs from west to east, entering from Upland in Grant County and crossing Hartford City at State Road 3. It continues through Trenton to Jay County.\n\nState Road 167 runs along the eastern border of the county for about 5 miles (8.0 km) as it goes north from Dunkirk; it terminates when it reaches State Road 26.\n\nA Norfolk Southern Railway railroad line enters the county from the south after leaving Eaton; it runs about a mile to the east of State Road 3 until it reaches Hartford City where it veers to the northeast and passes through Montpelier. It continues into Wells County to the north. Norfolk Southern also owns Blackford County's east–west line in southern Blackford county. An 8-mile (13 km) section of this line, between Converse and Hartford City, was abandoned during the last decade, and track has been removed. The line is still in service north of State Road 26, between Hartford City and Upland in Grant County. In October 2009, Central Railroad Company of Indianapolis pursued a leasing agreement to operate the east–west line with Norfolk Southern Railway in Blackford County. However, the line currently does not appear on the Central Railroad Company of Indianapolis system map.\n\n## Education and health care\n\nThe county's five public schools are administered by the Blackford County School Corporation. During the 2010–11 school year, a total of 1,943 students attended these schools. The county school system was reorganized in 1963, after a county-wide vote favored a single school system for the entire county. As a result, Hartford City and Montpelier High Schools graduated their last classes in 1969, and a new high school serving the entire county was constructed in time for the 1969–1970 school year. Like the county, the new high school was named after Isaac Newton Blackford, and is called Blackford High School. The school is located a few miles north of Hartford City, near the center of the county. The school was designed for 1,200 students, and initial enrollment totaled to 1,150 students, serving grades 9 through 12. Current high school enrollment is less than 650. All students in grades 7 and 8 attend Blackford Junior High School. Although the county was served by eight elementary schools during the 1980s, consolidations have decreased the number of elementary schools to three. Montpelier Elementary School serves kindergarten through grade 6. In Hartford City, Southside Elementary School serves kindergarten through grade 3; students in grades 4–6 attend Northside Elementary School.\n\nFour universities are near to Blackford County:\n\n- Ball State University (Muncie)\n- Ivy Tech State College-East Central (Muncie)\n- Indiana Wesleyan University (a private school in Marion)\n- Taylor University (a private school in Upland)\n\nMontpelier and Hartford City both have public libraries. The Public Library of Montpelier and Harrison Township was built in 1907 and 1908. The building is known as the Montpelier Carnegie Library because it was made possible by a grant from philanthropist (and former business magnate) Andrew Carnegie. The library was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007. Hartford City's Public library, built in 1903, was also funded by a grant from Carnegie. The Carnegie Fund required local towns to do fundraising to match the grants, and to commit to operating the libraries after their construction. In many localities, women's groups were instrumental in organizing and doing fundraising for the libraries, both at the time of construction and since. Another library located in Hartford City belongs to the Blackford County Historical Society, and a museum is housed in the same building.\n\nThe Blackford County Health Department is located in Hartford City. The county's hospital is Indiana University Health Blackford Hospital, a 15-bed facility in Hartford City. It opened January 2005.\n\n## Media\n\nThe first newspaper in Blackford County was The Hartford City Times, started by Dr. John Moler in 1852. Moler ran a drug store and print shop, and the Times was mostly an advertiser. At least one source considers The Blackford County News, which was started later in 1852, as the county's first newspaper—possibly because the Times was mostly for advertising. The Montpelier Examiner was first published in 1879, and that newspaper is the predecessor of The Montpelier Herald. The county's first daily newspaper, the Evening News, was started in 1894 by Edward Everett Cox in Hartford City. It was later renamed Hartford City News. After Cox's death in the 1930s, his family sold the Hartford City News to the owners of Hartford City's Times-Gazette, and the combined entity became the Hartford City News-Times. It continued through the years under several owners. In the twenty-first century, the newspaper titled itself News-Times, and calls itself \"Blackford County’s only daily newspaper\".\n\nThe two major television markets that reach Blackford County are Indianapolis and Fort Wayne. Although a few lower-powered stations are located closer to Blackford County in cities such as Muncie, Marion, and Kokomo, these stations typically do not have a broadcast range that covers all of Blackford County. There are no AM radio stations based in Blackford County, although several adjacent AM signals are available, including from Indianapolis, Fort Wayne, Muncie, and Marion. Several adjacent FM radio signals are also available; there are also FM stations in Hartford City and Montpelier. Hartford City, Montpelier, and portions of the county's rural areas have internet access available.\n\n## Notable people\n\nAstronaut Kevin A. Ford lived in Montpelier, Indiana, for several years and graduated from Blackford High School in 1978. He was born in Portland, Indiana, in 1960. Holding four academic degrees, Ford retired from active duty as a colonel in the United States Air Force in 2008. He was the pilot for the Space Shuttle Discovery during its August 2009 flight, and has logged over 332 hours in outer space. On October 23, 2012, Ford returned to the International Space Station aboard a Russian spacecraft.\n\nRadio DJ Larry Monroe was born in Hartford City, Indiana, on August 29, 1942. He graduated from Hartford City High School in 1960. From 1981 until his death in 2014 he was one of the most popular radio personalities in Austin, Texas. His shows are rebroadcast every Monday evening on KDRP-LP.\n\nClarence G. Johnson, who lived in Hartford City from 1923 until he died in 1935, was the first president of Overhead Door Corporation. He was a pioneer in the development of garage doors, and holds numerous patents. One of Johnson's more notable inventions is the first \"electric operator for sectional upward-acting doors\". Johnson's Overhead Door Corporation was a major employer in Blackford County for over 60 years, employing as many as 515 people during its peak years.\n\nFormer Indiana governor Maurice Clifford Townsend was born August 11, 1884, in Blackford County's Licking Township. After graduating from college in Marion, Indiana, Townsend served as superintendent of Blackford County schools, superintendent of Grant County schools, and as a representative of the Blackford-Grant District in the Indiana General Assembly. He was elected as Indiana's lieutenant governor in 1932. He won the 1936 election for governor, and served the single four-year term allowed by law. After his service in his home state, Townsend worked in the federal administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in agriculture–related assignments. One memorable achievement: he directed school buses be painted yellow for safety and identification purposes, an idea that spread nationwide.\n\nGolfer Erika Wicoff, a native of Hartford City, is one of the most decorated female athletes in Indiana University history, earning three Big Ten Player of the Year awards. She was the Big Ten women's golf champion in 1994, 1995 and 1996. She later competed in the Ladies Professional Golf Association. Wicoff was inducted into the Indiana Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006.\n\n## See also\n\n- National Register of Historic Places listings in Blackford County, Indiana", "revid": "1160114374", "description": "County in Indiana, United States", "categories": ["1838 establishments in Indiana", "Blackford County, Indiana", "Indiana counties", "Populated places established in 1838", "Sundown towns in Indiana"]}
{"id": "2500435", "url": null, "title": "Restless Heart", "text": "Restless Heart was an American country music band established in 1984. The band's longest-tenured lineup consisted of Larry Stewart (lead vocals), John Dittrich (drums, vocals), Paul Gregg (bass guitar, vocals), Dave Innis (keyboards, vocals), and Greg Jennings (lead guitar, mandolin, vocals). Record producer Tim DuBois assembled the band to record demos and chose Verlon Thompson as the original lead singer, but Thompson was replaced by Stewart in this role before the band had recorded any material. Between 1984 and 1998, Restless Heart recorded for RCA Records Nashville. They released the albums Restless Heart, Wheels, Big Dreams in a Small Town, and Fast Movin' Train with Stewart on lead vocals.\n\nStewart departed for a solo career in late 1991, shortly before the band's fifth studio album Big Iron Horses, which featured the other four members alternating lead vocals in his absence. Innis also left before 1993's Matters of the Heart, by which point keyboardist Dwain Rowe and guitarist Chris Hicks were briefly added to their touring lineup. Restless Heart announced a hiatus in 1995, with Stewart continuing to record as a solo artist, Jennings joining Vince Gill's touring band, and Dittrich forming The Buffalo Club. Stewart, Jennings, Dittrich, and Gregg briefly reunited for a tour and greatest-hits album in 1998 before disbanding a second time. They and Innis re-established the band's full lineup in 2001, after which they resumed touring and released their final studio album Still Restless in 2004. The band continued to tour and perform until quietly disbanding in 2021, shortly after Stewart began touring as a member of The Frontmen.\n\nRestless Heart has released seven studio albums and two greatest-hits albums. Their second through fifth albums are all certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. 26 of their singles have entered the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts, including six that reached number one: \"That Rock Won't Roll\", \"I'll Still Be Loving You\", \"Why Does It Have to Be (Wrong or Right)\", \"Wheels\", \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\", and \"A Tender Lie\". The band has also had crossover success on the Billboard Hot 100 and Adult Contemporary charts, including a collaboration with saxophonist Warren Hill on \"Tell Me What You Dream\", which was a number one single on the latter. Restless Heart's sound is defined by their country pop arrangements and vocal harmony, with many critics comparing them favorably to the Eagles.\n\n## History\n\n### Formation and early years\n\nTim DuBois, a Nashville, Tennessee-based record producer, songwriter, and industry executive, assembled the band in 1984 to record demos of songs he had written. The members he chose were drummer John Dittrich, bass guitarist Paul Gregg, keyboardist Dave Innis, lead guitarist/mandolinist Greg Jennings, and lead singer Verlon Thompson. All five members had experience as country music session musicians or touring musicians. In particular, Innis had played on various demos for DuBois prior to his decision to create a band, and Dittrich had been a backing musician for Gail Davies. Jennings and DuBois had known each other from attending Oklahoma State University in the 1970s; the two were also classmates of Scott Hendricks, who would serve as the band's sound engineer in addition to co-producing with DuBois.\n\nThompson left before the band had officially been named or released a single because he did not feel comfortable with the country pop style that DuBois wanted the band to pursue. Replacing him on lead vocals was Larry Stewart, a college friend of Innis's. At the time, Stewart was working as a demo vocalist, in addition to working in the stockrooms of the Country Music Hall of Fame and mowing lawns at the Nashville offices of Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI). After leaving the group, Thompson recorded both by himself and in collaboration with Guy Clark, in addition to writing several country hit singles in the 1990s. Stewart initially refused to join the band, as he did not think he was capable of serving as a lead singer; he rejected DuBois's offers to join the band twice before consulting with his mother and then-fiancée, both of whom encouraged him to join. The band then began rehearsing and recording demos with Stewart on lead vocals. As they had not officially selected a name yet, they referred to themselves as The Okie Project, due to three of the members and Hendricks all being natives of Oklahoma. One of the demos they recorded was for \"Love in the First Degree\", later a hit for Alabama. Due to the success of the demos, the members chose to become an official band, and they were signed to RCA Records Nashville in 1984.\n\nDespite being signed, the band had yet to select a name. DuBois insisted the band members come up with a name before they released a single. He asked the members to submit potential names, which resulted in a list with \"about fifty\" entries; after this, he locked all five members in an office for seven hours until they agreed on a name. They narrowed the list down to five entries, on which they then voted by using a five-point scale, with five points for the names they liked most and one point for the ones they liked the least. This initially led to the name Heartbreak Kid getting the most votes, but after DuBois asked the band members if they were certain they liked the name, they voted a second time and chose the name Restless Heart due to it receiving one more point than the others. Once they had assumed the name Restless Heart, the band members began working on recording an album with DuBois and Hendricks as producers.\n\n### 1984–1986: Restless Heart\n\nAfter assuming the name Restless Heart, the band released its self-titled debut album on RCA Nashville in 1985. It charted four singles on Billboard Hot Country Songs: \"Let the Heartache Ride\", \"I Want Everyone to Cry\", \"(Back to the) Heartbreak Kid\" (previously recorded by Kathy Mattea on her self-titled debut album), and \"Til I Loved You.\" DuBois co-wrote \"Let the Heartache Ride\" and \"(Back to the) Heartbreak Kid\" with Van Stephenson. According to Jennings, some stations refused to play \"Let the Heartache Ride\" due to its more country rock sound at a time when neotraditional country was beginning to rise in popularity. John Wooley of the Tulsa World reviewed the album favorably, praising the \"intricate, tight harmonies and crisp instrumentation.\" After \"I Want Everyone to Cry\" became the band's first top-ten hit, DuBois and RCA promoted the band through radio showcases and music video rotation. This included a video for \"(Back to the) Heartbreak Kid\", which aired on VH-1. DuBois felt that touring was not a financial necessity for the band at the time, due to all five members also being session musicians and having songwriting contracts with Warner Music Group at the time. While under such a contract, Innis co-wrote \"Dare Me\", a hit single for The Pointer Sisters.\n\n### 1986–1988: Wheels\n\nDespite DuBois's statements about touring, the band began doing so in 1986. One of their first concerts was with Rita Coolidge in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Also that year, RCA released the band's second album Wheels. All four singles from the album went to number one on the country music charts. First was \"That Rock Won't Roll\", a song which Innis had initially thought was \"too pop\" to be a hit single on country radio until the song reached number one. The follow-up single \"I'll Still Be Loving You\" was a song that had been originally offered to Kenny Rogers, who turned it down. It was band's second number-one country hit and their first song to be successful outside the country music charts. The song peaked at number 33 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it the first country song to be a top 40 pop hit since Willie Nelson and Julio Iglesias' \"To All the Girls I've Loved Before\" in early 1984. Additionally, \"I'll Still Be Loving You\" reached number three on the Adult Contemporary charts.\n\nReleased third and also reaching number one on the Billboard country charts was \"Why Does It Have to Be (Wrong or Right)\", co-written by Randy Sharp. This song had been rejected from the first album and had originally been rejected from Wheels as well, due to the band considering it too similar in sound to Exile. RCA executives insisted that the band record the song anyway in order to provide more up-tempo material for the album, and Gregg threatened to quit unless they recorded it. This song was a minor adult contepmorary hit as well. \"Hummingbird\", the B-side of \"Why Does It Have to Be (Wrong or Right)\", was later recorded by Ricky Skaggs on his 1989 album Kentucky Thunder and was a top 20 country hit for him in 1990. The fourth and final country single from Wheels was the title track, which topped the country charts in 1987. This song was written by Dave Loggins and originally recorded by The Bellamy Brothers on their 1985 album Howard & David. The B-side, \"New York (Hold Her Tight)\", accounted for Restless Heart's third chart entry on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart.\n\nWheels had favorable critical and commercial reception. James M. Tarbox of Knight Ridder thought the songs were stronger than those of the debut album, highlighting \"Victim of the Game\" and \"New York (Hold Her Tight)\" in particular. Tom Roland of AllMusic later wrote that \"[t]he guys found their niche with this project. Big, overpowering sound, heavy backbeats, and very tight harmonies are here.\" In the Virgin Encyclopedia of Country Music, Colin Larkin noted that \"I'll Still Be Loving You\" became a popular song for fans to play at their weddings. The song was nominated at the 30th Annual Grammy Awards in 1988, in the category of Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. This nomination led to the band performing the song on the awards telecast. On March 2, 1988, Wheels was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States. Also during this timespan, the band contributed the song \"Don't Ask the Reason Why\" to the soundtrack of the 1987 movie The Secret of My Success. Restless Heart's tour schedule at this point included concerts with other RCA Nashville artists such as Alabama, Juice Newton, Eddie Rabbitt, and Earl Thomas Conley.\n\n### 1988–1990: Big Dreams in a Small Town and Fast Movin' Train\n\nThe band's third album, Big Dreams in a Small Town, came in 1988. From it came two more number one singles: \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\" and \"A Tender Lie\", as well as top-five hits in its title track and \"Say What's in Your Heart\". This album was also the first to feature members other than Stewart on lead vocals: Gregg sang \"El Dorado\" and shared lead vocals with Stewart on both \"Carved in Stone\" and \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\", while Dittrich sang \"Calm Before the Storm\". The band members wrote some of the songs themselves and played all the instruments except for Fairlight CMI synthesizers, which were programmed by Carl Marsh and David Humphreys. DuBois co-wrote \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\" with Van Stephenson and Dave Robbins, who would later become members of the country band Blackhawk in the early 1990s. The band members agreed to record the song because they had not previously recorded a song about the state of Texas and thought doing so would be appealing to fans from that state. People gave the album a positive review, noting the band's musicianship and prominent vocal harmony, as well as the \"considerable amount of passion\" in their music relative to their contemporaries. Writing for The Miami News, Mario Tarradell praised Stewart's \"conviction\" on the title track and \"gentle delivery\" on \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\", as well as the variety in tempo and arrangement between individual tracks. The band supported this album by touring with Alabama and The Judds, both of whom were also on RCA at the time. The album accounted for the band's second Grammy nomination in the category of Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1989, while its title track was nominated in the same category a year later.\n\nRestless Heart's fourth album, Fast Movin' Train, was released in 1990. Its title track (also written by Loggins) and \"Dancy's Dream\" were top-five hits, while \"When Somebody Loves You\" and \"Long Lost Friend\" were less successful. Robert K. Oermann of The Tennessean found this album superior to the ones before it, praising the \"direct approach\" of the singles' lyrics, while also noting a roots rock influence in the increased use of acoustic instruments over the preceding albums. David J. Remondini, writing for The Indianapolis Star, thought the album's title track had an \"attractive melody and gripping lyrics\", also considering the album to have \"the right balance of tempos\" and influences of bluegrass music in tracks such as \"Dancy's Dream\". Tim Darragh of the Allentown, Pennsylvania, Morning Call was less favorable, criticizing the album for \"prefab harmonies\" and formulaic lyrics. Fast Movin' Train became the band's third gold album in 1991, and the title track accounted for the band's fourth Grammy nomination. During this timespan, Stewart sang backing vocals on \"They Just Don't Make 'em Like You Anymore\", a track from Kenny Rogers' 1991 album Back Home Again. A greatest hits package, The Best of Restless Heart, followed in 1991. It included two new recordings, both of which were released as singles: \"You Can Depend on Me\" was a top-five hit, while \"Familiar Pain\" was less successful. As DuBois had become president of Arista Nashville by this point, his production duties for the new songs were taken over by Josh Leo. The release of this compilation also led to \"Til I Loved You\" being re-issued for adult contemporary, peaking at number 33 on the Billboard chart for that format.\n\n### 1991: Departure of Larry Stewart\n\nLarry Stewart left the band in December 1991 because he wanted to perform as a solo artist with a more neotraditional country style, as opposed to the band's country pop influence. According to the other band members, his decision to leave was \"a surprise at first\", although the departure was amicable. Stewart initially remained with RCA as a solo artist. His debut single \"Alright Already\" reached number five on the country music charts in 1993, and \"I'll Cry Tomorrow\" was also a top-40 country hit. Both of these were included on his solo debut album Down the Road. He recorded two albums for Columbia Records in 1994 and 1996, and while these albums accounted for five more charted singles, none were as successful.\n\nThe remaining four members decided to rotate lead vocal duties amongst themselves instead of hiring a new lead vocalist, as they thought Stewart was the \"most conservative\" member of the group and that alternating the lead vocal would allow the band to become \"more adventurous\". In addition, they thought this arrangement was tenable due to their admiration of other bands with more than one lead vocalist, such as the Eagles, Chicago, and The Beatles. They first performed without Stewart at a concert in Grand Forks, North Dakota, in early 1992, followed by a series of dates throughout Canada. To accommodate for Stewart's departure, the other band members assumed the vocal duties when singing their existing singles in concert. Innis sang \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\" and \"Fast Movin' Train\", Dittrich sang \"Dancy's Dream\" and \"Big Dreams in a Small Town\", Jennings sang \"A Tender Lie\", and Gregg sang everything else. The only song omitted from their set lists was \"Why Does It Have to Be (Wrong or Right)\", due to it having a more complex vocal arrangement which they felt could not be achieved with only four voices.\n\n### 1992–1993: Big Iron Horses\n\nThe rotation of lead vocal duties continued on Restless Heart's next album, 1992's Big Iron Horses. Leo once again served as producer and alternated with Bruce Gaitsch as rhythm guitarist on several songs, while Bernie Leadon contributed on banjo. According to the band, Leo encouraged them to write more songs by themselves than on previous efforts, as he thought both this and the absence of Stewart would allow the other members to have more fully realized musical personalities than before. In particular, Jennings thought that Dittrich, being a drummer who also sang, was favorably comparable to Eagles vocalist and drummer Don Henley. One of the tracks with Dittrich on lead vocals, \"When She Cries\", was the album's first single. It went to number nine on the country charts, number eleven on the Hot 100 (their highest entry on that chart), and number two on the adult contemporary charts. Additionally it accounted for the band's fifth and final Grammy nomination. After it came \"We Got the Love\" and \"Mending Fences\", which both fell short of the country top ten. Dittrich also sang the former, while Gregg sang the latter.\n\nInnis also left the band in January 1993, with the other band members citing \"erratic behavior\" that resulted in the cancellation of five concerts a month prior as the reason behind his departure. Jennings also noted that Innis wanted to \"assume a bigger role\" after Stewart's departure and that there were unsubstantiated rumors among the other band members that Innis was subject to drug and alcohol abuse. In response to Innis's departure, they hired Dwain Rowe as touring keyboardist and Chris Hicks as touring guitarist. Three months later, the band reached the top of the Billboard adult contemporary charts as guest vocalists on Canadian smooth jazz saxophonist Warren Hill's single \"Tell Me What You Dream\".\n\n### 1994–1998: Disbanding and first reunion\n\nThe next album, 1994's Matters of the Heart, included only Gregg, Jennings and Dittrich, along with a number of studio musicians. Among these were keyboardists Bill Cuomo, Carl Marsh, and Hawk Wolinski, as well as upright bass player Roy Huskey Jr. and fiddle player Stuart Duncan. The band intentionally sought to make the album more traditionally country than its predecessors due to increasing competition they had faced following the arrival of several new country bands in the early 1990s. Its only single, \"Baby Needs New Shoes\", fell short of the top 40. Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly rated the album \"C\", as she thought the tracks \"Sweet Whiskey Lies\" and \"Hometown Boy\" were more country-sounding than their previous songs, although she considered the arrangements \"by the book\". Restless Heart was one of several country music artists to make a cameo in the 1994 Mel Gibson film Maverick. They sang the title track to the movie's soundtrack, which also featured both them and Stewart on a multi-artist collaborative rendition of the hymn \"Amazing Grace\" credited to \"The Maverick Choir\".\n\nDue to the commercial failure of Matters of the Heart, Restless Heart was dropped by RCA Nashville at the end of 1994. In response to this, the three remaining band members announced they would go on hiatus in January 1995. Stewart, Jennings, Dittrich, and Gregg reunited for one performance in June 1996 which included acoustic renditions of \"Big Dreams in a Small Town\", \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\", \"Fast Movin' Train\", and \"Amazing Grace\". This was not considered a formal reunion, as the band members had done so to honor the wishes of a terminally ill member of their fan club. At the time, Stewart was continuing to record as a solo artist, Jennings had joined Vince Gill's road band, and Gregg was managing a chain of car washes owned by his family.\n\nIn late 1996, Dittrich founded another band called The Buffalo Club with guitarist Charlie Kelley and lead vocalist Ron Hemby, a former member of The Imperials. The Buffalo Club recorded one album for Rising Tide Records and charted three singles, including the top ten \"If She Don't Love You\" in early 1997. This song had previously been offered to Restless Heart by its co-writer Marc Beeson (who also co-wrote \"When She Cries\"), but they had declined to record it. Dittrich resigned from The Buffalo Club in August 1997, and the other two members separated by year's end. According to a former Rising Tide executive, Dittrich's departure and The Buffalo Club's disbanding were due to Dittrich expressing interest in a Restless Heart reunion tour, which created conflict among him, the other two band members, and label executives.\n\nStewart, Jennings, Dittrich, and Gregg reunited to record three new tracks for their second greatest-hits compilation in 1998, Greatest Hits. According to Stewart, this reunion and album were done at the request of RCA executives. In addition to their previous hit singles, the album included the new songs \"No End to This Road\", \"For Lack of Better Words\", and \"Somebody's Gonna Get That Girl\", the former two of which were issued as singles. The band promoted this project the same year by touring with Gill before disbanding a second time. Following this second disbanding, Stewart released a fourth solo album for Windham Hill Records in 1999.\n\n### 2001-2005: Second reunion and Still Restless\n\nOther than Stewart, the individual members of Restless Heart remained largely inactive until August 2001, when Stewart, Gregg, Jennings, Dittrich, and Innis all officially reunited and began rehearsing together. Stewart told CMT journalist Edward Morris that the impetus for their reunion was a telephone call from Hendricks, who was having lunch with Innis at the time. At this point, Stewart and Innis had not talked to each other for a number of years, owing to the disputes that had led to Innis departing the band several years prior. Stewart then chose to call Innis, at which point the two resolved and suggested re-forming Restless Heart. Immediately after their reunion the band resumed touring, with one of their first reunion concerts taking place at the French Lick Resort in French Lick, Indiana, in January 2002. They also released a single titled \"Torch of Freedom\", which they performed in 2003 at the Larry H. Miller Utah Summer Games.\n\nAfter they had all reunited, the five members decided to record a new album. As both Hendricks and DuBois were involved in other projects at the time, the band selected a different set of producers. One of the producers was Kyle Lehning, best known for his work with Randy Travis. Lehning shared duties with Mac McAnally, a singer-songwriter and producer who is also a member of Jimmy Buffett's Coral Reefer Band. The recordings with Lehning and McAnally became the band's 2004 album Still Restless, released on the Nashville division of Koch Records (now MNRK Music Group). In addition to co-producing, McAnally sang background vocals and played guitar, piano, mandola, and the Papoose, a custom-made guitar created by Tacoma Guitars. He also wrote three of the album's songs including \"Down the Road\", which was previously a single for him in 1990, and would later be re-released in 2008 as a duet between him and Kenny Chesney. Dittrich sang another one of McAnally's compositions, \"Looking Back\", as well as a cover of The Beatles's \"The Night Before\", while Gregg sang \"Yesterday's News\". Lead single \"Feel My Way to You\" peaked at number 29 on the country music charts and was the album's only single before Koch Records closed its Nashville division in 2005.\n\n### 2006-2021: Final years and disbanding\n\nThe band released a live album, 25 and Live, in 2007 through their website. This was later reissued in early 2009 as part of a 25th anniversary package which also included Still Restless and a compilation of music videos. Restless Heart continued touring throughout the first decade of the 21st century, including a number of shows for members of the United States Air Force as well as the Blue Suede Dinner and Auction, a charity event held by the Carl Perkins Center for the Prevention of Child Abuse. By 2011, the band was doing over 100 concerts a year. Restless Heart was still primarily a touring band throughout the 2010s and had not released a new album in several years, although they thought their existing hit singles were \"strong\" enough to be accepted by younger generations of fans as well. In 2015, both they and Becky Hobbs were inducted into the Oklahoma Music Hall of Fame. One of their few releases in the 2010s was a cover of Glen Campbell's \"Wichita Lineman\". According to the band members, they had been encouraged by Campbell to record the song after meeting him thirty years ago, but had not previously found the time to do so.\n\nIn 2018, Stewart began recording with The Frontmen, a group which also includes Richie McDonald of Lonestar and Tim Rushlow of Little Texas. Despite the foundation of this group, Stewart continued to tour with Restless Heart at the time. A year later, Restless Heart joined the Triple Threat Tour, which included Blackhawk and Shenandoah. One of this tour's first stops was at MontanaFair in Billings, Montana.\n\nRestless Heart officially retired in 2021, although little announcement was made of this. Stewart said that factors in their retirement included disagreements over a proposed album to honor the band's 35th anniversary, as well as his own commitments to The Frontmen and the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Following their retirement, Innis moved to Waco, Texas, and began various music projects there. Stewart continued to record with The Frontmen, who signed a recording contract with BBR Music Group in mid-2023 and announced plans to release an album later in the year.\n\n## Musical stylings\n\nDuBois said that he conceived Restless Heart as \"a hot, instrumental band that could really play well on stage—that had great harmony\" and that he had given them songs that he felt were \"natural\" but had been rejected by other artists such as Alabama for being \"too pop\". He noted that during showcases for radio representatives early in the band's career, he was often questioned on the band's ability to \"duplicate their records live\" due to them having been assembled in a studio setting; however, felt that live performances were not an issue due to the band having played and sung everything on their debut album without any additional session musicians or studio vocalists. Although many of the band members had experience writing songs, they allowed songs from DuBois or other writers as well; Jennings said in 1992 that \"when it comes to choosing tunes, the best song wins.\"\n\nRestless Heart's sound draws influences from mainstream country music, as well as from pop and rock. Because of the band's layered harmonies, many critics have drawn comparisons to the Eagles. Sterling Whitaker of Taste of Country describes Stewart as having a \"clear, strong tenor\". Stewart said that his affinity for vocal harmony was influenced by the music he listened to as a child, which included The Jordanaires and various gospel music groups, and that the band cited a variety of musicians from Buck Owens to Eric Clapton as individual influences. He thought that the band members having varied influences outside of country was a factor in their sound. A 1985 article in Billboard wrote that debut single \"Let the Heartache Ride\" \"introduced the band's razor-edged vocal harmonies and scorching instrumentals.\" Writing for Knight Ridder, James M. Tarbox found the band's vocal harmonies comparable to both the Eagles and to Exile. Colin Larkin in the Virgin Encyclopedia of Country Music wrote that the band was \"continuing with the soft rock sounds and harmonies\" of the Eagles. He thought the track \"Wheels\" had a similar sound and concept to the Eagles's 1972 debut single \"Take It Easy\". Mario Tarradell of The Miami News noted the band's ability to record both \"rockers\" and ballads, contrasting the \"heavy guitar and keyboard action\" on tracks such as \"Jenny Come Back\" and \"The Storm\" and the \"up-tempo beat\" of \"Big Dreams in a Small Town\", while noting \"tender\" vocal delivery on tracks such as \"A Tender Lie\" and \"The Bluest Eyes in Texas\". Reviewing their debut album, John Wooley of the Tulsa World thought the band's harmonies and rock influences were comparable to both the Eagles and Poco. He furthered the comparison to the Eagles by noting that both bands performed songs with \"bittersweet imagery about quicksilver women\".\n\nBecause of their pop and rock influences, the band members initially had doubts as to their success at a time when neotraditional country acts such as Randy Travis were beginning to gain in popularity. Stewart later said their doubts about success were assuaged when \"That Rock Won't Roll\" became a number one single. Joe Edwards of the Associated Press noted that the band initially faced resistance due to the lack of traditional country instrumentation such as fiddle and steel guitar, or typical country lyrical content such as heartbreak or consumption of alcohol. In response to this, Stewart said he considered \"lyrics that touch people's heart\" more important by comparison. Gregg stated in June 1994 that, due to the crossover success of \"When She Cries\" and \"Tell Me What You Dream\" in the early 1990s, some radio station executives in the United States thought the band was attempting to abandon the country format and thus refused to play their later singles.\n\nThe band members have noted their influence on subsequent generations of country musicians such as Brad Paisley and Little Big Town, both of whom have covered Restless Heart songs in concert. A cappella country group Home Free has also cited Restless Heart as a major influence on their vocal harmonies, and the group covered \"Why Does It Have to Be (Wrong or Right)\" in 2019.\n\n## Band members\n\n## Discography\n\nAlbums\n\n- Restless Heart (1985)\n- Wheels (1986)\n- Big Dreams in a Small Town (1988)\n- Fast Movin' Train (1990)\n- The Best of Restless Heart (1991)\n- Big Iron Horses (1992)\n- Matters of the Heart (1994)\n- Still Restless (2004)\n\n## Awards and nominations", "revid": "1172526312", "description": "American country music band", "categories": ["1984 establishments in Tennessee", "Country music groups from Oklahoma", "Country music groups from Tennessee", "MNRK Music Group artists", "Musical groups disestablished in 2021", "Musical groups established in 1984", "Musical groups from Nashville, Tennessee", "Musical groups reestablished in 2001", "Musical quintets", "RCA Records Nashville artists", "Restless Heart"]}
{"id": "5910082", "url": null, "title": "Ninja Gaiden (2004 video game)", "text": "is an action adventure hack and slash video game developed by Team Ninja and published by Tecmo for the Xbox. It was released in March 2004. Set in the futuristic version of the 21st century, players control Ryu Hayabusa, a master ninja, in his quest to recover a stolen sword and avenge the slaughter of his clan. It was inspired by Tecmo's Ninja Gaiden series, and is set in the same continuity as Team Ninja's Dead or Alive fighting games.\n\nTecmo developed Ninja Gaiden for five years, targeting a western audience. The game's violence created difficulties obtaining content ratings, and it was censored in some regions. Making use of the Xbox's internet connectivity, Tecmo promoted Ninja Gaiden with a series of international online contests; record-breaking numbers of players competed for places in the live final held at the 2004 Tokyo Game Show.\n\nNinja Gaiden was critically acclaimed and sold 362,441 copies in North America in the first month of release; however, Japanese sales were poor. Team Ninja released two packs of downloadable content, which were also incorporated into a reworked version, Ninja Gaiden Black (2005). In 2007, Ninja Gaiden was ported to PlayStation 3 as Ninja Gaiden Sigma, with extra content and graphical improvements; this was released on the portable PlayStation Vita as Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus. Ninja Gaiden was followed by Ninja Gaiden II (2008) and Ninja Gaiden 3 (2012).\n\nNinja Gaiden Sigma was released for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One as part of the Ninja Gaiden: Master Collection on June 10, 2021.\n\n## Gameplay\n\nNinja Gaiden develops its narrative thread through the actions of its player-controlled protagonist, Ryu Hayabusa. Viewed from a third person over-the-shoulder perspective, in typical action-adventure fashion Ryu starts the game with basic, low-level abilities and weapons that can be upgraded as he progresses, by discovering or buying items. In keeping with his ninja persona, his character can interact with the game environment to perform acrobatic feats, such as running along and jumping off walls, swinging from pole to pole, or running across water. The game world is made up of several distinct regions, most of which are connected via the city of Tairon, which functions as a hub. Access to these regions are obtained by fighting enemies, finding keys, or solving puzzles, inspired by the mechanics of The Legend of Zelda video games. Dragon busts scattered throughout the regions provide the means to save player progress, permitting gameplay to be resumed at a later time.\n\nRyu's movements are directed using the console gamepad. The game's control system, which comprises the left thumbstick, two attack buttons, and a block button, was described as fluid and responsive, and Ninja Gaiden was regarded as having one of the deeper combat engines among Xbox games at the time, comparing well to the action-adventures God of War and Devil May Cry. Eric Williams, the designer of the God of War combat engine, explained that Ninja Gaiden prohibits players from stopping or changing attacks in mid-stroke. In contrast, God of War allows players to do so, and Devil May Cry grants this freedom to certain attacks. Williams said that, compared to those two games, the combat system in Ninja Gaiden was harder to master; however, it lets players fight their computer controlled foes on equal terms.\n\nNinja Gaiden features a large selection of weapons for Ryu to wield, each with advantages and disadvantages that affect the way the player approaches combat. These include one-handed swords, such as the Dragon Sword and Kitetsu, which grant quick attacks, and a move called the \"Flying Swallow\", which allows Ryu to leap and slash through enemies. In addition these light weapons allow Ryu to smash foes into the ground and perform his signature Izuna Drop—a spinning piledriver. Heavy weapons, such as the Dabilahro and the Unlabored Flawlessness, are slow but cause more damage to opponents. With flails and staves, the player can string together long sequences of attacks. To engage distant foes Ryu can throw shuriken and shoot arrows. In addition to using standard melee techniques, Ryu can employ essences—colored globes of energy that are released on the death of enemies and absorbed into Ryu's body when he comes into proximity with them. Essences have an important role in general gameplay, acting to heal Ryu, restore his magic, or increase his cash. However, in combat the player can cause Ryu to deliberately draw in essences, which can then be used to unleash powerful attacks known as Ultimate Techniques that allow Ryu to damage enemies without taking damage himself. These techniques deal heavy damage and make Ryu immune to injury for a short time.\n\nNinja Gaiden also provides Ryu with magical spells in the form of ninpo spells. When activated by the player, these make Ryu cast fireballs, ice storms, or bolts of lightning. Functioning in a similar manner to the bombs or grenades of shooter action games, these spells allow Ryu to inflict heavy damage on enemies while potentially avoiding damage himself. But, dissatisfied with their programmed visual effects, the game's director Tomonobu Itagaki wanted to deter players from using ninpo. He therefore tweaked the game to award bonus points when players cleared stages without employing magic. For Ryu's defense, the player has two options. First, Ryu can stand still and attempt to block attacks. However, certain enemies can break his guard—either through particularly strong attacks or by grappling him. The second option is to make Ryu dodge, by rolling away from the attack in a maneuver called \"reverse wind\".\n\n## Plot\n\nInspired by the 1980s Ninja Gaiden series for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), the 2004 version was originally set in a re-imagined game world based on another Team Ninja creation, the Dead or Alive (DOA) series of fighting games. However, interviews with Tomonobu Itagaki indicate that the Xbox games are prequels to the NES series and that both possibly share a single continuity.\n\nNinja Gaiden is set in the game world of the Dead or Alive series. Located mainly in Japan and the fictional Western Asian nation of the Vigoor Empire, the game draws on Heian period structures for its Japanese locales—a ninja fortress and village set in the mountains. In contrast the Vigoor Empire, with its capital city of Tairon, is a blend of architectural types from around the world. European-style buildings display Arabic lettering, and the monastery in Tairon exhibits Gothic influences with a vaulted hall, pointed arches, and large stained glass windows. A hidden underground level features statues with the heads of cats, walls covered with carvings, hieroglyphics, Aztec pyramid and a labyrinth. This mix of styles was the result of Itagaki's refusal to constrain the game's creative process.\n\n### Characters\n\nRyu Hayabusa, the \"super ninja\", is the protagonist of Ninja Gaiden, and the primary player-controllable character in the game. Itagaki believed that creating extra player characters might distract his team from focusing on Ryu's development, despite this, Rachel is a playable character in the Sigma version of the game. Ryu has a long history with Tecmo; he was the star of the 1990s Ninja Gaiden series and has been part of the DOA roster since 1996. His roles in these games played a part in his popularity among fans and the video game industry. Ninja Gaiden provides a backstory to Ryu's appearance and character as seen in the Dead or Alive series, being set two years before the first DOA game.\n\nRachel is the leading female character, and tragic heroine of the game. She and her twin sister, Alma, are afflicted with a blood curse that turns humans into fiends. Believing that there is no cure for their condition, Rachel seeks to kill Alma to redeem her sister's soul. The relationship between the sisters and the Greater Fiend Doku, who cursed them, serves as a plot device to drive the game forward, with Rachel occasionally needing to be rescued by Ryu. Although not a player-controlled character in Ninja Gaiden, in a few sections of the Ninja Gaiden Sigma remake she is controllable. Two other characters assist the player in the game. Ayane, a young female ninja and one of the DOA regular cast members, acts as a guide throughout Ninja Gaiden by supplying advice and objectives to the player. Muramasa, a bladesmith, has shops scattered throughout the game world where players can purchase useful items and upgrades for Ryu's weapons. Muramasa also gives quests and relates back-stories and other crucial information; for example, he tells Ryu how he can obtain the item required to upgrade his Dragon Sword to its full potential. Players have the option to customize the appearance of player characters, with selectable costumes for Ryu and hairstyles for Rachel.\n\nMost of the enemies are fiends—humans changed into monsters by their blood curse. Three Greater Fiends lead their lesser brethren against Ryu, playing major roles in the game's plot: Alma, Rachel's sister, whose story forms a significant part of the game; Doku, Ryu's main antagonist, whose raid on Hayabusa village and theft of the Dark Dragon Blade comprise the main plot thread; and Marbus, lord of the fiend underworld who is responsible for the final set of challenges Ryu faces in the realm of the fiends before encountering the Vigoor Emperor.\n\n### Story\n\nNinja Gaiden'''s story spans 16 chapters, each beginning and ending with a cutscene. At the start of the game, the player takes control of Ryu as he infiltrates the Shadow clan fortress. Ryu is there to visit his uncle, the clan leader Murai. During their chat, Ayane delivers news of a raid on the Hayabusa village. Fighting his way back to his village, Ryu encounters Doku, who has killed the Hayabusa shrine maiden Kureha and has taken the Dark Dragon Blade. Ryu is cut down by Doku with the stolen Blade, but he is brought back to life as a \"soldier of revenge\" by a falcon, the spiritual animal of the Hayabusa clan.\n\nSeeking vengeance for Kureha's death, Ryu learns from Murai that the raiders were from Vigoor, so he stows away on an airship bound for the empire. Fighting his way through the streets of its capital city, Tairon, Ryu faces several bosses including the three Greater Fiends. He defeats Alma in a battle that wrecks the city but leaves her to Rachel's mercy. Conversely, Rachel cannot bring herself to kill her sister, and instead is taken by Doku, who prepares to sacrifice her in a ritual to enhance Alma's power. With Alma's help Ryu rescues Rachel and destroys Doku's spirit, but with his dying breath Doku casts the blood curse on Ryu. The only way for Ryu to lift the curse is to kill the emperor, so he storms the palace, defeating Marbus who bars his way to the emperor's personal realm. Two successive boss fights must be completed to destroy the emperor and reclaim the Dark Dragon Blade—once this is accomplished his realm starts to destruct. Ryu must then be maneuvered up a series of ledges to escape, but in the process, he loses his grip on the Dark Dragon Blade.\n\nThe fallen Blade lands at the feet of a figure, the Dark Disciple, who has been shadowing Ryu throughout the game. Taking the Blade, the Disciple reveals himself to be the clan leader Murai. He admits that the raid on Hayabusa village was part of his plan to restore the Blade's evil power, using souls harvested by Ryu. Drawing on the Blade, Murai transforms himself, setting the stage for the final boss fight. Ryu defeats Murai and shatters the Blade with the True Dragon Sword. Victorious, Ryu turns himself into a falcon and flies to the Hayabusa village. In the game's final scene, he places the Dragon Eye, used to enhance his sword, on Kureha's tombstone and disappears into the night. The story of Ninja Gaiden is continued in the sequels Ninja Gaiden: Dragon Sword, Ninja Gaiden II and Ninja Gaiden 3.\n\n## Development\n\nIn 1999, Team Ninja started work on the \"Next-Generation Ninja Gaiden Project\". The first stage of development was to create the game on the Sega NAOMI arcade system board. They then planned to move the project to the Dreamcast console for further development and release, but this was abandoned when Sega announced the end of Dreamcast product line in 2001. At this point, Tecmo decided to release Ninja Gaiden as a launch game for the Sony PlayStation 2 in the United States. Itagaki, however, had other plans; the Team Ninja Leader was impressed with the software development kits for the Xbox and pushed for his team to develop for the Microsoft console. The company kept silent on this change in direction, and surprised both the games industry and fans when they announced at E3 2002 that Ninja Gaiden would be released exclusively on the Xbox gaming console. Most fans who voted on Tecmo's poll wanted the game on the Nintendo GameCube.\n\nNinja Gaiden was Team Ninja's first action game. Its initial concept had nothing in common with the original Ninja Gaiden series that was released for the NES. However, for retail reasons Tecmo wanted to retain a link with the previous games, which had many adherents in the West, so Itagaki was asked to rethink his ideas to target the foreign market. Analyzing the earlier games, he concluded that their violence appealed to players, and included gory content, such as beheadings, in the Xbox game to retain that spirit. He also aimed to make his new game hard but alluring; it would challenge players on their reflexes rather than on their memories of layouts and timings. His team made a point of designing smoothly-flowing gameplay with high-quality animations that reacted quickly to the player's input. Itagaki paid homage to the earlier Ninja Gaiden series by including updated versions of foes and special attacks. Team Ninja based their 3D computer models, from the pistols of the henchman upwards, on real world material. Character models were taken from studies of human anatomy, and the team hired martial artists in order to digitally capture their movement. Rather than import the motion captures directly into the game, however, the animators used them as templates to give a sense of realism to the game characters' exaggerated movements. Itagaki found it more interesting to design nonhuman creatures than human enemies.\n\n## Release\n\nIn 2004, Tecmo released a demo disc of Ninja Gaiden in Japan, bundled with the February 26 issue of Famitsu Xbox magazine. The demo let players try the first chapter of the game on two difficulty settings with a few fully upgraded weapons and ninpos. On March 2, 2004, a year later than originally planned, Tecmo released Ninja Gaiden in the United States.\n\n### Regional censorship\n\nAs released, Ninja Gaiden contained bloody acts of violence, decapitations and grotesque monsters. The North American games rating body, the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), rated it as a \"Mature\" game, which prohibits sale to anyone under the age of 17 in several states. The depiction of beheadings, though, attracts stricter ratings in other parts of the world. In Germany, the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (USK) deemed these excessive, and refused to rate the game at all. Since this had the potential to place Ninja Gaiden in Germany's \"List of Media Harmful to Young People\", which would have meant that shops could neither advertise the game nor sell it unless by request to customers of 18 years or older, Tecmo censored the European PAL version to obtain a USK rating. A year later, Tecmo managed to obtain a USK 18+ rating for the uncensored release of Ninja Gaiden Black.\n\nJapan's Computer Entertainment Rating Organization (CERO) rated Ninja Gaiden and Black, on their release, as 18+ games. At the time, CERO ratings acted as guidelines for consumers. However, on March 1, 2006, the Japanese rating system changed. A scale from A to D was introduced, with an additional Z rating for games with large amounts of gore, violence and crime. The Z rating is legally enforced, it being illegal to sell such games to anyone under the age of 18. As a result, Tecmo removed the human beheadings in Sigma to obtain a D rating for the East Asian market. However, CERO reclassified the two previous games as D, despite them also depicting human decapitations.\n\n### Post-release\n\nTeam Ninja kept working on the Ninja Gaiden project after its release, with the aim of pushing the action genre and their first such game as far as they could. To this end, they released downloadable expansions, known as Hurricane Packs, free of charge. Itagaki said that since the packs were born out of his team's interest, they did not care to charge players for their efforts. The two packs were available over Xbox Live in the third quarter of 2004.\n\n- Hurricane Pack 1 was a revamped version of Story Mode; Team Ninja tweaked the encounters and artificial intelligence (AI) of Ryu's foes to increase the difficulty of the game. The pack introduced additional foes such as humanoid cats, giants wearing dinosaur skulls, and cyborgs, and Team Ninja made a key change to the camera system by which the on-screen action is displayed; players could now control the camera and change its viewing angle. Another feature of the pack was to enhance the combat engine; the new \"Intercept\" skill let players counter any enemy attack with the proper timing.\n- Hurricane Pack 2 kept the enhancements of the first but took place in an alternative world comprising only two regions, where players have to fight through several encounters to rescue Rachel from two new bosses (Nicchae and Ishtaros). This expansion introduced fiends who wield giant swords and cast fireballs.\n\nTeam Ninja later compiled both expansion packs, and added new features, to create Ninja Gaiden Black. This game, which Itagaki viewed as the final version of Ninja Gaiden, went on sale on September 20, 2005. A few years later, Team Ninja upgraded the graphics of the game and ported it to the (PS3). This version was released as Ninja Gaiden Sigma on June 14, 2007. Black became an Xbox Original game on February 11, 2008.\n\n### Online competition\n\nThe Master Ninja Tournaments were a series of three online contests held by Microsoft and Tecmo in 2004. They took place over Xbox Live, and were open to participants in Europe, Japan, and North America. Winner selection was based on the scores achieved through playing Ninja Gaiden or its Hurricane Packs. Players had 14 to 24 days to complete the required games and submit their scores to an online scoreboard.\n\nThe first two tournaments formed regional qualification stages for a live Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship, held on September 25 at the TGS 2004. Competition for places was intense, with both tournaments breaking records for online participation in Xbox Live events. Six of the highest scoring players from Europe and North America won bokkens bearing Itagaki's signature, and five regional winners were selected to proceed to the final. Here, the finalists simultaneously played a custom game drawn from Hurricane Pack 2 while commentators called out the action. They had 15 minutes to complete the game and post the highest score; the winner emerged only in the last 20 seconds, when Yasunori Otsuka cleared the game and outscored his rivals. At the award ceremony, the finalists received their prize plaques from Itagaki.\n\nThe tournaments were not without controversy. Players complained about Microsoft's tardiness in posting the official rules for the first playoff, and it was believed that the top posted score was not achievable by fair means. Officials, however, stated that the score was possible, and allowed the results to stand. In the second playoff, Microsoft initially named the runner up as the North American finalist, after disqualifying the winner for no publicly stated reason, but eventually had to send the second runner up to Tokyo when the first was unable to produce a passport in time.\n\nMaster Ninja Tournament 3 started on September 27 and lasted 26 days. Rankings were decided by scores obtained while playing Hurricane Pack 2, and the prizes were Tecmo apparel and Team Ninja games. This marked the end of official tournaments for Ninja Gaiden, although Microsoft have retained the ranking boards for players to upload their scores.\n\n### Merchandise\n\nTecmo has built up a line of merchandise around the Ninja Gaiden name. Its online shop carries apparel and accessories such as caps, wristbands, T-shirts, key holders, and mugs. Most of the merchandise is based on that associated with the various Ninja Gaiden game launches or given as prizes in the Master Ninja Tournaments. Tecmo also published the original soundtrack of the game under their record label Wake Up on March 20, 2004. Kotobukiya, a figurine maker, includes 1/6 scale plastic figurines of Ninja Gaiden characters in their range of products. As of 2007, they have produced figures of Ryu, Ayane, Kureha and Rachel.\n\n## Other versions\n\nTecmo published two additional versions of Ninja Gaiden: Ninja Gaiden Black for Xbox and Ninja Gaiden Sigma for PlayStation 3. Essentially the same game as the original, they tell the same story of Ryu and the Dark Dragon Blade but include additional content and updated game mechanics. Although Itagaki deemed Black to be the final version of Ninja Gaiden, Tecmo subsequently ported the game to the PlayStation 3 as Sigma.\n\nIn addition to the narrative Story Mode, Black and Sigma introduced a gameplay variation called Mission Mode. Focused on action rather than character development, this provides combat-based missions set mainly in small areas, where the player's goal is to \"destroy all enemies\". In both Story and Mission modes, game scoring is based on the player's speed in clearing encounters, the number of kills achieved, the number of unused ninpo spells remaining at the end, and the amount of cash collected. Players can compare their scores on online ranking boards.\n\n### Ninja Gaiden Black\n\nTecmo announced at E3 2005 that Team Ninja was working on Ninja Gaiden Black, and later exhibited a working version of the game at the TGS 2005. Black is a reworked compilation of the original Ninja Gaiden and the two Hurricane Packs. The game features new foes, such as exploding bats and doppelgänger fiends who can imitate Ryu. It contains more costumes than the original, and swaps Ninja Gaiden's unlockable NES games for an arcade version.\n\nOne key feature of this version is its two new difficulty settings—the easy Ninja Dog and the very hard Master Ninja. Itagaki added Ninja Dog after receiving complaints of Ninja Gaiden being too hard in its default incarnation, although he believed that, with persistence, any player was capable of completing the game. Hence he ensured that those players selecting Ninja Dog would be subjected to gentle mockery by the game—players on this difficulty setting receive colored ribbons as accessories, and Ayane treats Ryu as an inferior. In compensation, Itagaki made the other difficulty settings harder than in Ninja Gaiden. Another feature of Black is its Mission Mode, which comprises 50 combat missions, one of which is adapted from the custom game designed for the Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship final. The last five missions are based on those in Hurricane Pack 2 and form a linked series known as \"Eternal Legend\". While most of the improvements made in the Hurricane Packs carried forward through this game, including the camera system tweaks and new boss battles, the Intercept maneuver, introduced in Hurricane Pack 1, was not included in Black, adding to its increased challenge.\n\nNinja Gaiden Black was also available through Xbox's Game Pass for Xbox One S and Xbox One X, but was removed in September 2019. Ninja Gaiden Black is also enhanced for the Xbox One X console, which improves the game's resolution to 4K UHD-levels.\n\n### Ninja Gaiden Sigma\n\nIn 2006, Tecmo and Sony announced the development of Ninja Gaiden Sigma for the PlayStation 3. Eidos obtained the European publishing rights for this game. Itagaki had no direct role in Sigma and judged it a flawed game, although he acknowledged that Sigma gave PlayStation owners a taste of Ninja Gaiden.\n\nThe gameplay for Sigma is very similar to the original version, albeit with some modifications made to the game. Like the original version, the player's movements and combat system are directed using the console gamepad, which comprises the left thumbstick, two attack buttons, and a block button. The game features a large selection of weapons for Ryu to wield each with advantages and disadvantages that affect the way the player approaches combat. A new addition to Ryu's arsenal is a pair of dual-wield swords, Dragon's Claw and Tiger's Fang. It also provides Ryu with magical spells in the form of ninpo, which allows him to inflict heavy damage on enemies while potentially avoiding damage himself. By shaking the Sixaxis controller, players are able to increase the power of their ninpo spells. Rachel, a non-playable character in the 2004 game, became playable in three new chapters, featuring the new bosses, Gamov and Alterator. Some of the design elements of the old levels was also changed and several new enemy types were introduced.\n\nIn addition to the narrative Story Mode, Sigma included a gameplay variation called Mission Mode. Focused on action rather than character development, this provides combat-based missions set mainly in small areas. In both Story and Mission modes, game scoring is based on the player's speed in clearing encounters, the number of kills achieved, the number of unused ninpos remaining at the end, and the amount of cash collected. Players can compare their scores on online ranking boards. In addition, players have the option to customize the appearance of player characters, with selectable costumes for Ryu and hairstyles for Rachel.\n\nThe more powerful hardware of the PlayStation 3 gave Team Ninja the opportunity to overhaul the game graphics to use larger and more detailed textures. Changes were made to the game world, with a few new areas and several additional save points and shops, and alterations to the game engine let players shoot arrows in mid-air, fight on water surfaces, and play as Rachel in some chapters and missions.\n\nIn July 2007, Tecmo released a demo and a new game mode, Survival Mode, for Sigma over the PlayStation Network. The demo limits players to the first chapter of the game, but lets them play as Rachel in a separate mission. Survival Mode comprises missions in which players keep fighting until they have either killed all their opponents, or their character has been defeated.\n\n### Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus\n\nNinja Gaiden Sigma Plus is a port of Ninja Gaiden Sigma for the PlayStation Vita released in North America and Europe on February 22, 2012. Like Ninja Gaiden Black's \"Ninja Dog\" mode, Sigma Plus features an easier difficulty called \"Hero\" mode, making it more accessible to casual gamers. It also takes advantage of the additional features that the Vita offers, including gyroscopic first-person aiming (by tilting the PlayStation Vita, the player can adjust the camera angle in first-person viewing modes), back touchpad controls (tapping symbols using the rear touchpad will allow Ryu to boost the power of his Ninpo), touch screen controls (players can go into first-person mode by tapping the touch screen). In addition, Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus offers new sets of accessories that Ryu and Rachel can equip.\n\n## Reception\n\nNinja Gaiden was released to critical acclaim. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot called it \"one of the best most challenging action adventure games ever made\", and his publication named it the best Xbox game of February 2004. IGN's Erik Brudvig said that it \"sets a new standard for third-person action games in terms of length, depth, speed, and gore\", while Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) called it \"an unmissable instant classic\", and declared that \"no Xbox should go without [Ninja] Gaiden.\" Critics also regarded it to be one of the most difficult games released prior to 2007. The game received a runner-up position in GameSpot's 2004 \"Best Action Adventure Game\" category across all platforms.\n\nIts enhanced version, Ninja Gaiden Black, also impressed reviewers. GameSpot noted that it had the best visual and audio presentation on the Xbox and praised its new Mission Mode for \"[distilling] the game down to its purest essentials.\" IGN called its release \"a rare and welcome day\", which brought their \"excitement levels back to the first time [they] played the game.\"\n\nFrom a technical point of view, critics regarded Ninja Gaiden and Black as the best of the available Xbox software at the time; the console hardware had been pushed to its limits without showing significant drops in performance. Game Spot's Kasavin was impressed with their \"first-rate presentation\" and said that no other games at that time came close in visuals and audio. According to IGN, the games could \"make [them] momentarily forget about the next generation of consoles\". Both Ninja Gaiden and Black were top-sellers, which led to them being compatible with the Xbox 360 for all regions on the new platform's release. Ninja Gaiden attracted criticism for the way on-screen action is framed by the game's camera. The default camera system centers the action on Ryu and his surroundings, but reviewers were frustrated by occasions when the camera locked on to part of the scenery, thus losing track of Ryu. Tecmo attempted to address this with the introduction of manual camera controls in the Hurricane Packs, and most critics judged that either the camera frame was usually acceptable, or that Ninja Gaiden was a good enough game that its flaws could be overlooked.\n\nConsumers purchased 1.5 million copies of Ninja Gaiden and Black by August 2007, with the bulk of these sales going to North America and Europe. According to the NPD Group, in its first month Ninja Gaiden sold 362,441 copies in the United States. By August 2006, Ninja Gaiden had sold 550,000 copies and earned \\$27 million in that country. Between January 2000 and August 2006, it was the 100th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube consoles in the United States. Combined sales of Ninja Gaiden and Black reached 800,000 units in the United States by August 2006. These sales figures reflect Tecmo's decision to target the non-Japanese market. Japanese gamers were not particularly excited—according to Itagaki, only 60,000 copies of Ninja Gaiden were sold in Japan in the four months following its release. The critical and commercial success of Ninja Gaiden have led CNET and GameSpot Asia to induct the game into their halls of fame.\n\nThe Ninja Gaiden games gained a reputation throughout the gaming community for their difficulty and attention to detail. Although they appealed to gamers who, like Pro-G's Struan Robertson, wanted a \"bloody hard, but also bloody good\" challenge, it was feared that casual gamers would find the learning curve daunting. IGN warned that gamers with lesser skills might not \"get as much out of this game as others due to [its] incredible difficulty\", and Edge commented that \"Tecmo's refusal to extend any kind of handhold to less dedicated players is simply a failure of design, not a badge of hardcore honour\", and \"it's impossible to believe they couldn't have found a way to increase the accessibility of the game without undermining the gloriously intractable nature of the challenges it contains.\" EGM found the challenge to be \"rewarding\" as it \"motivates you to actually get better at the game.\" Clive Thompson focused on Ninja Gaiden in his Slate article examining the motivation for playing difficult games. He contends that extreme levels of challenge can be initially very frustrating and may cause a game to be abandoned in disgust. However, where a game also rewards a player's perseverance by teaching the skills required to overcome its challenges, that player will have the motivation to finish the game. Ninja Gaiden, in his opinion, strikes the correct balance between challenge and reward; completion brings \"a sort of exhausted exhilaration, like finally reaching the end of War and Peace.\" In 2012, CraveOnline included it on their list of five \"badass ninja games\", calling it \"the pinnacle of action gaming at the time, holding onto that crown for an entire year until God of War released in 2005\" and \"a true video game classic, and maybe the best ninja game of all time.\" That same year, G4tv ranked it as the 83rd top video game of all time, also calling it \"the best ninja game ever made and one of the all-around hardest.\"\n\nNinja Gaiden Sigma sold 46,307 units in the first week of its release in Japan, making it the third highest selling game during that period. According to the NPD Group, in its first month Sigma sold 63,637 copies in the United States. Next Generation reported that as of April 2008, 470,000 copies of Sigma have been sold in Europe and North America. Tecmo announced that they have sold 500,000 units worldwide.\n\nLike Ninja Gaiden and Ninja Gaiden Black, Ninja Gaiden Sigma has received positive reviews, currently holding an average score of 87% at GameRankings and 88/100 at Metacritic, based on 58 and 46 reviews respectively. Critics varied in their views on the technical aspects of Ninja Gaiden Sigma''. Although the gaming site 1UP.com called the updated graphics \"a gorgeous reworking of the modern ninja classic,\" Pro-G said that they were average by next-generation standards and showed occasional \"tearing, jagged edges, and mismatched collision between bloodstains and walls.\"", "revid": "1173036884", "description": "2004 video game", "categories": ["2004 video games", "Action-adventure games", "Cancelled PlayStation 2 games", "Censored video games", "Hack and slash games", "Ninja Gaiden games", "Nintendo Switch games", "PlayStation 3 games", "PlayStation 4 games", "PlayStation Vita games", "Single-player video games", "Team Ninja games", "Tecmo games", "Video game reboots", "Video game remakes", "Video games about curses", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games set in Japan", "Video games set in a fictional country", "Video games set in the 21st century", "Windows games", "Xbox One games", "Xbox Originals games", "Xbox games"]}
{"id": "172243", "url": null, "title": "Holland Tunnel", "text": "The Holland Tunnel is a vehicular tunnel under the Hudson River that connects Hudson Square and Lower Manhattan in New York City in the east to Jersey City, New Jersey in the west. The tunnel is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and carries Interstate 78. The New Jersey side of the tunnel is the eastern terminus of NJ Route 139. The Holland Tunnel is one of three vehicular crossings between Manhattan and New Jersey; the two others are the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge.\n\nPlans for a fixed vehicular crossing over the Hudson River were first devised in 1906. However, disagreements prolonged the planning process until 1919, when it was decided to build a tunnel under the river. Construction of the Holland Tunnel started in 1920, and it opened in 1927. At the time of its opening, it was the longest continuous underwater tunnel for vehicular traffic in the world.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was the world's first mechanically ventilated tunnel. Its ventilation system was designed by Ole Singstad, who oversaw the tunnel's completion. Original names considered for the tunnel included Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel and Canal Street Tunnel, but it was ultimately named the Holland Tunnel in memory of Clifford Milburn Holland, its initial chief engineer who died suddenly in 1924 prior to the tunnel's opening.\n\n## Description\n\n### Tubes\n\nThe Holland Tunnel is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It consists of a pair of tubes with 29.5-foot (9.0 m) diameters, running roughly parallel to each other and 15 feet (4.6 m) apart underneath the Hudson River. The exteriors of each tube are composed of a series of cast iron rings, each of which comprises 14 curved steel pieces that are each 6 feet (1.8 m) long. The steel rings are covered by a 19-inch-thick (48 cm) layer of concrete.\n\nEach tube provides a 20-foot (6.1 m) roadway with two lanes and 12 feet 6 inches (3.81 m) of vertical clearance. The north tube is 8,558 feet (2,608 m) between portals, while the south tube is slightly shorter, at 8,371 feet (2,551 m). If each tube's immediate approach roads are included, the north tube is 9,210 feet (2,807 m) long and the south tube 9,275 feet (2,827 m) long. Most vehicles carrying hazmats, trucks with more than three axles, and vehicles towing trailers cannot use the tunnel. There is a width limit of 8 feet (2.4 m) for vehicles entering the tunnel.\n\nBoth tubes' underwater sections are 5,410 feet (1,650 m) long and are situated in the silt beneath the river. The lowest point of the roadways is about 93 feet (28.3 m) below mean high water. The lowest point of the tunnel ceiling is about 72 feet (21.9 m) below mean high water. The tubes descend at a maximum grade of 4.06% and ascend at a grade of up to 3.8%. The tubes stretch an additional 1,000 feet (300 m) from the eastern shoreline to the New York portals, and 500 feet (150 m) from the western shoreline to the New Jersey portals.\n\nThese sections of the tunnel are more rectangular in shape, since they were built as open cuts that were later covered over. The walls and ceiling are furnished with glazed ceramic tiles, which were originally engineered to minimize staining. The majority of the tiles are white, but there is a two-tile-high band of yellow-orange tiles at the bottom of each tube's walls, as well as two-tile-high band of blue tiles on the top.\n\nThe northern tube, which carries westbound traffic, originates at Broome Street in Lower Manhattan between Varick and Hudson Streets. It continues to 14th Street east of Marin Boulevard in Jersey City. The southern tube, designed for eastbound traffic, originates at 12th Street east of Marin Boulevard, and surfaces at the Holland Tunnel Rotary in Manhattan. The entrance and exit ramps to and from each portal are lined with granite and are 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. Although the two tubes' underwater sections are parallel and adjacent to each other, the tubes' portals on either side are located two blocks apart in order to reduce congestion on each side.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel's tubes initially contained a road surface made of Belgian blocks and concrete. This was replaced with asphalt in 1955. Each tube contains a catwalk on its left (inner) side, raised 4 feet (1.2 m) above the roadway. Five emergency-exit cross-passages connect the two tubes' inner catwalks. When the Holland Tunnel opened, the catwalk was equipped with police booths and a telephone system, stationed at intervals of 250 feet (76 m).\n\nThe volume of traffic going through the Holland Tunnel has remained steady despite tight restrictions on eastbound traffic in response to the September 11 attacks, including a ban on commercial traffic entering New York City put in place after an August 2004 threat. Aside from a sharp decline immediately following the September 11 attacks, the number of vehicles using the Holland Tunnel in either direction daily steadily declined from a peak of 103,020 daily vehicles in 1999 to 89,792 vehicles in 2016. As of 2017, the eastbound direction of the Holland Tunnel was used by 14,871,543 vehicles annually.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was designed by Clifford Milburn Holland, the project's chief engineer, who died in October 1924, before it was completed. He was succeeded by Milton Harvey Freeman, who died less than a year after Holland did. Ole Singstad then oversaw the completion of the tunnel. The tunnel was designated a National Historic Civil and Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1982 and a National Historic Landmark in 1993.\n\nEmergency services at the Holland Tunnel are provided by the Port Authority's Tunnel and Bridge Agents, who are stationed at the Port Authority's crossings.\n\n#### Ventilation\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was the first mechanically ventilated underwater vehicular tunnel in the world. It contains a system of vents that run transverse, or perpendicular, to the tubes. Each side of the Hudson River has two ventilation shaft buildings: one on land, and one in the river approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) from the respective shoreline. All of the ventilation buildings have buff brick facades with steel and reinforced-concrete frames.\n\nThe shafts within the river rise 107 feet (33 m) above mean high water. Their supporting piers descend 45 feet (14 m), of which 40 feet (12 m) are underwater and 5 feet (1.5 m) are embedded in the riverbed. The river shafts double as emergency exits by way of shipping piers that connected each ventilation shaft to the shoreline. The New York Land Ventilation Tower, a five-story building with a trapezoidal footprint, is 122 feet (37 m) tall. The New Jersey Land Ventilation Tower is a four-story, 84-foot (26 m) building with a rectangular perimeter.\n\nThe four ventilation towers contain a combined 84 fans. Of these, 42 are intake fans with varying capacities from 84,000 to 218,000 cubic feet (2,400 to 6,200 m<sup>3</sup>) per minute. The other 42 are exhaust fans, which can blow between 87,500 and 227,000 cubic feet (2,480 and 6,430 m<sup>3</sup>) per minute. At the time of the tunnel's construction, two-thirds of the 84 fans were being used regularly, while the other fans were reserved for emergency use. The fans blow fresh air into ducts, which provide air intake to the tunnel via openings at the tubes' curbside. The ceiling contains slits, which are used to exhaust air. The fans can replace all of the air inside the tunnel every 90 seconds. A forced ventilation system is essential because of the poisonous carbon monoxide component of automobile exhaust, which constituted a far greater percentage of exhaust gases before catalytic converters became prevalent.\n\n### Boyle Plaza\n\nThe approach to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City begins where the lower level of NJ Route 139 and the Newark Bay Extension merge. On May 6, 1936, the section of what became Route 139/I-78 between Jersey Avenue and Marin Boulevard was named in memory of John F. Boyle, the former interstate tunnel commissioner. Despite being part of the Interstate Highway System, I-78 and Route 139 run concurrently along 12th and 14th Street Streets to reach the Holland Tunnel. Westbound traffic uses 14th Street while eastbound traffic uses 12th Street. The plaza was restored and landscaped by the Jersey City government in 1982.\n\nThere is a nine-lane toll plaza for eastbound traffic only at the eastern end of 12th Street, just west of the tunnel portal. The original toll plaza had eight lanes; it was renovated in 1953–1954, and the current nine-lane tollbooth was constructed in 1988.\n\n### Holland Tunnel Rotary\n\nSoon after construction of the tunnel, and amid rising vehicular traffic in the area, a railroad freight depot, St. John's Park Terminal, was abandoned and later demolished. The depot was located on the city block bounded by Laight, Varick, Beach, and Hudson Streets. The depot's site was used as a storage yard until the 1960s when it became a circular roadway for traffic exiting the eastbound tube in Manhattan.\n\nThe original structure had four exits, but the plaza was renovated in the early 2000s with landscaping by Studio V Architecture and Ives Architecture Studio. A fifth exit was added in 2004.\n\n### Freeman Plaza\n\nOriginally used as the toll plazas for New Jersey-bound traffic, the small triangular patches of land at the mouth of the westbound tube entrance are referred to as Freeman Plaza or Freeman Square. The plaza is named after Milton Freeman, the engineer who took over the Holland Tunnel project after the death of Clifford Milburn Holland. The Freeman Plaza received its name just before the tunnel opened in 1927. The toll plaza was removed circa 1971 when the Port Authority stopped collecting tolls for New Jersey-bound drivers, and the square was later fenced off by the Port Authority. The small maintenance buildings for toll collectors were removed around 1982 or 1983. A bust of Holland sits outside the entrance to the westbound tube in Freeman Plaza.\n\nA business improvement district for the area, the Hudson Square Connection, was founded in 2009 with the goal of repurposing the square for pedestrian use. Hudson Square Connection and the Port Authority collaborated to create a five-year, \\$27 million master plan for Freeman Plaza. In 2013, Freeman Plaza West was opened to the public. Bounded by Hudson, Broome, and Watts Streets, it features umbrellas, bistro tables and chairs, and tree plantings.\n\nIn 2014, Freeman Plaza East and Freeman Plaza North were opened on Varick and Broome Streets, respectively. The plazas contained chaise longues, bistro tables, and umbrellas. In 2016, the Hudson Square Connection added solar powered charging stations to both plazas, and introduced a summer lunchtime music series, called live@lunch. A statue by the artist Isamu Noguchi was also installed within the plaza. To the south of Freeman Plaza, between Varick, Watts, and Canal Streets is One Hudson Square, a New York City designated landmark in 2013.\n\n## History\n\n### Need for vehicular tunnel\n\nUntil the first decade of the 20th century, passage across the lower Hudson River was possible only by ferry. The first tunnels to be bored below the Hudson River were for railroad use. The Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, now PATH, constructed two pairs of tubes to link the major railroad terminals in New Jersey with Manhattan Island: the Uptown Hudson Tubes, which opened in 1908, and the Downtown Hudson Tubes, which opened in 1909. The Pennsylvania Railroad's twin North River Tunnels, constructed to serve the new Pennsylvania Station, opened in 1910. The construction of these three tunnels proved that tunneling under the Hudson River was feasible. However, although train traffic was allowed to use the tunnel crossings, automotive traffic still had to be transported via ferry.\n\nAt the same time, freight traffic in the Port of New York and New Jersey was mostly carried on boats, but traffic had grown to such a point that the boats were at full capacity, and some freight started going to other ports in the United States. To alleviate this, officials proposed building a freight railroad tunnel, but this was blocked by the organized syndicates that held influence over much of the port's freight operations. The public learned of the excessive traffic loads on existing boat routes, as well as the limited capacity of the H&M and North River Tunnels, when the surface of the Hudson River froze in winter 1917, and again when Pennsylvania Railroad workers went on strike in winter 1918. One engineer suggested that three freight railroad tunnels would be cheaper to construct than one bridge.\n\n### Planning\n\n#### Initial plans\n\nIn 1906, the New York and New Jersey Interstate Bridge Commission, a consortium of three groups, was formed to consider the need for a crossing across the Hudson River between New York City and New Jersey. That year, three railroads asked the commission to consider building a railroad bridge over the river. In 1908, the commission considered building three bridges across the Hudson River at 57th, 110th, and 179th Streets in Manhattan. The reasoning was that bridges would be cheaper than tunnels. These three locations were considered to be the only suitable locations for suspension bridges; other sites were rejected on the grounds of aesthetics, geography, or traffic flows. John Vipond Davies, one of the partners for the consulting firm Jacobs and Davies (which had constructed the Uptown Hudson Tubes), wanted to build a vehicular tunnel between Canal Street, Manhattan, and 13th Street, Jersey City. This proposal would compete with the six-lane suspension bridge at 57th Street. Some plans provided for the construction of both the bridge and the tunnel. The ferries could not accommodate all of the 19,600 vehicles per day, as of 1913, that traveled between New York and New Jersey. The Bridge Commission hosted several meetings to tell truck drivers about the details of both the 57th Street Bridge and Canal Street Tunnel plans.\n\nThe United States Department of War brought up concerns about the 57th Street bridge plans: the span would need to be at least 200 feet (61 m) above the mean high water to avoid interfering with shipping. By comparison, the tunnel would be 95 feet (29 m) below mean water level. The Interstate Bridge Commission, which had been renamed the New York State Bridge and Tunnel Commission in April 1913, published a report that same month, stating that the Canal Street tunnel would cost \\$11 million while the 57th Street bridge would cost \\$42 million. In October 1913, Jacobs and Davies stated that a pair of tunnels, with each tube carrying traffic in one direction, would cost only \\$11 million, while a bridge might cost over \\$50 million. The low elevation and deep bedrock of Lower Manhattan was more conducive to a tunnel than to a bridge. By the end of that year, the consulting engineers for both the 57th Street Bridge and the Canal Street Tunnel had submitted their plans to the Bridge and Tunnel Commission. New York City merchants mainly advocated for the tunnel plan, while New Jerseyans and New York automobile drivers mostly supported the bridge plan. Meanwhile, the New York State Bridge and Tunnel Commission indicated that it favored the Canal Street tunnel plan. On the other hand, the 57th Street bridge plan remained largely forgotten.\n\nThe Public Service Commission of New Jersey published a report in April 1917, stating that the construction of a Hudson River vehicle tunnel from Lower Manhattan to Jersey City was feasible. That June, following this report, Walter Evans Edge, then Governor of New Jersey, convened the Hudson River Bridge and Tunnel Commission of New Jersey, which would work with the New York Bridge and Tunnel Commission to construct the new tunnel. In March 1918, a report was sent to the New York State Legislature, advocating for the construction of the tunnel as soon as possible. That year, six million dollars in funding for the Hudson River Tunnel was proposed in two bills presented to subcommittees of the United States Senate and House of Representatives. The bill was voted down by the Interstate Commerce Committee before it could be presented to the full Senate.\n\n#### Plans approved\n\nThe original plans for the Hudson River tunnel were for twin two-lane tubes, with each tube carrying traffic in a single direction. A request for proposals for the tunnel was announced in 1918, and eleven such requests were considered. One of these proposals, authored by engineer George Goethals, was for a bi-level tube. A modification of Jacobs and Davies' 1913 plan, the Goethals proposal specified that each level would carry three lanes of traffic, and that traffic on each level would run in a different direction. Goethals stated that his plan would cost \\$12 million and could be completed in three years. Subsequently, John F. O'Rourke offered to build the tunnel for \\$11.5 million. Goethals cited the area's freight traffic as one of the reasons for constructing the tube. His proposal would use a 42-foot (13 m) diameter shield to dig the tunnel. This large tunnel size was seen as a potential problem, since there were differences in the air pressure at the top and the bottom of each tunnel, and that air pressure difference increased with a larger tunnel diameter. Five engineers were assigned to examine the feasibility of Goethals's design. In July 1919, President Woodrow Wilson ratified a Congressional joint resolution for a trans-Hudson tunnel, and Clifford Milburn Holland was named the project's chief engineer. Holland stated that, based on the construction methods used for both pair of tubes, including the downtown pair, it should be relatively easy to dig through the mud on the bottom of the Hudson River, and that construction should be completed within two years.\n\nThe federal government refused to finance the project, even in part, and so it tell to the states to raise the funds. In June 1919, U.S. Senator and former New Jersey governor Edge presented another iteration of the Hudson River Tunnel bill to the U.S. Senate, where it was approved. The New York and New Jersey governments signed a contract in September 1919, in which the states agreed to build, operate, and maintain the tunnel in partnership. The contract was signed by the states' respective tunnel commissions in January 1920.\n\nUnder Holland's plan, each of the two tubes would have an outside diameter of 29 feet (8.8 m) including exterior linings, and the tubes would contain two-lane roadways with a total width of 20 feet (6.1 m). One lane would be for slower traffic, and the other would be for faster traffic. This contrasted with Goethals's plan, wherein the three roadways would have had a total width of 24.5 feet (7.5 m), only a few feet wider than Holland's two-lane roadways. Additionally, according to Holland, the 42-foot-wide tube would require the excavation of more dirt than both 29-foot tubes combined: two circles with 29-foot diameters would have a combined area of 5,282.2 square feet (490.73 m<sup>2</sup>), while a circle with a 42-foot diameter would have an area of 5,541.8 square feet (514.85 m<sup>2</sup>). The more northerly westbound tube would begin at Broome and Varick Streets on the Manhattan side and end at the now-demolished intersection of 14th and Provost Streets on the New Jersey side. The more southerly eastbound tube would begin at the still-intact intersection of 12th and Provost Streets in Jersey City, and end at the south side of Canal Street near Varick Street. By way of comparison, Goethals's plan would have combined the entrance and exit plazas on each side. The Motor Truck Association of America unsuccessfully advocated for three lanes in each tube.\n\nEven though Goethals's method of digging had not been tested, he refused to concede to Holland's proposal, and demanded to see evidence that Holland's proposal would work. The New York and New Jersey Tunnel Commission subsequently rejected Goethals's plan in favor of a twin-tube proposal that Holland had devised, which was valued at around \\$28.7 million. When Goethals asked why, the commission responded that Goethals's proposal had never been tested; that it was too expensive; and that the tunnel plans had many engineering weaknesses that could cause the tube to flood. Additionally, while a tube with three lanes in each direction would be able to handle more traffic than a tube with two lanes, projections showed that traffic on the tunnel's approach roads could barely handle the amount of traffic going to and from the two-lane tubes, and that widening the approach roads on each side would cost millions of dollars more. The commission then voted to forbid any further consideration of Goethals's plan. Holland defended his own plan by pointing out that the roadways in Goethals's plan would not only feature narrower road lanes, but also would have ventilation ducts that were too small to ventilate the tube efficiently.\n\nIn May 1920, the New Jersey Legislature voted to approve the start of construction, overriding a veto from the New Jersey governor. The same month, the New York governor signed a similar bill that had been passed in the New York legislature. The legislature of New Jersey approved a \\$5 million bond issue for the tunnel in December 1920.\n\n### Construction\n\nThe first bid for constructing the Hudson River Tunnel, a contract for digging two of the tunnel's eight planned shafts, was advertised in September 1920. A groundbreaking for the Hudson River Tunnel's ventilation shaft, which marked the official start of construction on the tunnel, occurred on October 12, 1920, at Canal and Washington Streets on the Manhattan side. However, further construction of the Hudson River Tunnel was soon held up due to concerns over its ventilation system. There was also a dispute over whether the New York City government should pay for street-widening projects on the New Jersey side. Further delays arose when the New York and New Jersey tunnel commissions could not agree over which agency would award the contract to build the construction and ventilation shafts.\n\n#### Ventilation system\n\nThe most significant design aspect of the Holland Tunnel is its ventilation system; it is served by four ventilation towers designed by Norwegian architect Erling Owre. At the time of its construction, underwater tunnels were a well-established part of civil engineering, but no long vehicular tunnels had been built, as all of the existing tunnels under New York City waterways carried only railroads and subways. These tubes did not have as much of a need for ventilation, since the trains that used the tubes were required to be electrically powered, and thus emitted very little pollution. On the other hand, the traffic in the Holland Tunnel consisted mostly of gasoline-driven vehicles, and ventilation was required to evacuate the carbon monoxide emissions, which would otherwise asphyxiate the drivers. There were very few tunnels at that time that were not used by rail traffic; the most notable of these non-rail tunnels, the Blackwall Tunnel and Rotherhithe Tunnel in London, did not need mechanical ventilation. However, a tunnel of the Hudson River Tunnel's length required an efficient method of ventilation, so Chief Engineer Singstad pioneered a system of ventilating the tunnel transversely (perpendicular to the tubes).\n\nIn October 1920, General George R. Dyer, the chairman of the New York Tunnel Commission, published a report in which he wrote that Singstad had devised a feasible ventilation system for the Hudson River Tunnel. Working with Yale University, the University of Illinois, and the United States Bureau of Mines, Singstad built a test tunnel in the bureau's experimental mine at Bruceton, Pennsylvania, measuring over 400 feet (122 m) long, where cars were lined up with engines running. Volunteer students were supervised as they breathed the exhaust in order to confirm air flows and tolerable carbon monoxide levels by simulating different traffic conditions, including backups. The University of Illinois, which had hired the only professors of ventilation in the United States, built an experimental 300-foot-long (91 m) ventilation duct at its Urbana campus to test air flows. In October 1921, Singstad concluded that a conventional, longitudinal ventilation system would have to be pressurized to an air flow rate of 27 cubic meters per second (953 cu ft/s) along the tunnel. On the other hand, the tunnel could be adequately ventilated transversely if the compartment carrying the tube's roadway was placed in between two plenums. A lower plenum below the roadway floor could supply fresh air, and an upper plenum above the ceiling could exhaust fumes at regular intervals.\n\nTwo thousand tests were performed with the ventilation system prototype. The system was determined to be of sufficiently low cost, relative to the safety benefits, that it was ultimately integrated into the tunnel's design. By the time the tunnel was in service, the average carbon monoxide content in both tunnels was 0.69 parts per 10,000 parts of air. The highest recorded carbon monoxide level in the Holland Tunnel was 1.60 parts per 10,000, well below the permissible maximum of 4 parts per 10,000. The public and the press proclaimed air conditions were better in the tubes than in some streets of New York City; after the tunnel opened, Singstad stated that the carbon monoxide content in the tubes were half of those recorded on the streets.\n\n#### Tunnel boring\n\nThe ventilation system and other potential issues had been resolved by December 1921, and officials announced that the tunnel would break ground the following spring. Builders initially considered building a trench at the bottom of the Hudson River and then covering it up, but this was deemed infeasible because of the soft soil that comprised the riverbed, as well as the heavy maritime traffic that used the river. Officials started purchasing the properties in the path of the tunnel's approaches, evicting and compensating the tenants \"without delay\" so that construction could commence promptly. A bid to construct the tubes was advertised, and three firms responded. On March 29, 1922, the contract to dig the tubes was awarded to the lowest bidder, Booth & Flinn Ltd., for \\$19.3 million. The materials that were necessary to furnish the Hudson River Tunnel had already been purchased, so it was decided to start work immediately. Construction on the bores began two days later as workers broke ground for an air compressor to drive the tubes. The ceremony for the air compressor was held at the corner of Canal Street and West Side Highway on the Manhattan side. The workers who were performing the excavations, who were referred to as \"sandhogs\", were to dig each pair of tubes from either bank of the Hudson River, so that the two sides would eventually connect somewhere underneath the riverbed. The tunnel was to be 9,250 feet (2,820 m) long between portals, and the roadway was to descend to a maximum depth of 93 feet (28 m) below mean high water level.\n\nThe start of construction for the tubes from the New Jersey side was delayed because the Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel Commission had not yet acquired some of the land for the project. Although Jersey City officials had insisted that the Tunnel Commission widen 12th and 14th Streets in Jersey City, these officials were involved in a disagreement over sale prices with the Erie Railroad, which owned some of the land that was to be acquired for the street widening. As a result, work on the Hudson River Tunnel was delayed by one year and could not be completed before 1926 at the earliest. Work on the New Jersey side finally started on May 30, 1922, after Jersey City officials continued to refuse to cede public land for the construction of the tunnel's plazas. The Jersey City Chamber of Commerce wrote a letter that denounced this action, since the New Jersey Tunnel Commission's members on the Hudson River Tunnel Commission had not been notified of the groundbreaking until they read about it in the following day's newspapers. In mid-June, a state chancellor made permanent an injunction that banned Jersey City officials from trying to preclude construction on the Hudson River Tunnel. The Hudson River Tunnel Commission ultimately decided that Jersey City would not have its own groundbreaking celebration due to the city's various efforts at blocking the tunnel's construction. However, although Jersey City officials had been primarily accused of delaying construction, officials from both states had wanted the Tunnel Commission to widen the approach streets to the Hudson River Tunnel as part of the construction process.\n\nFor the project, six tunnel digging shields were to be delivered. These shields comprised cylinders whose diameters were wider than the tunnel bores, and these cylinders contained steel plates of various thicknesses on the face that was to be driven under the riverbed. Four of the shields would dig the Hudson River Tunnel under the river, while the remaining two shields would dig from the Hudson River west bank to the Jersey City portals. They could dig through rock at a rate of 2.5 feet (0.76 m) per day, or through mud at a daily rate of 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 m). The air compressors would provide an air pressure of 20 to 45 pounds per square inch (140 to 310 kPa). The shovels used to dig the tunnel were provided by the Marion Power Shovel Company, while the six digging shields were built by the Merchants Shipbuilding Corporation. The air compressor was completed in September 1922, and the first shield was fitted into place in the Manhattan side's construction shaft. By this point, the shafts on the New Jersey side were being excavated, and two watertight caissons were being constructed.\n\nThe shield started boring in late October of that year after the steel plates that were necessary for the shield's operation had been delivered. The first permanent steel-rings lining the tubes were laid a short time afterward. The caissons were completed and launched into the river in December, and after the caissons were outfitted with the requisite equipment such as airlocks, tugboats dropped the caissons into place in January 1923. Officials projected that at this rate of progress, the tunnel would be finished within 36 months, by late 1926 or early 1927.\n\nTunnel construction required the sandhogs to spend large amounts of time in the caisson under high pressure of up to 47.5 pounds per square inch (328 kPa), which was thought to be necessary to prevent river water from entering prior to completion of the tubes. The caissons were massive metal boxes with varying dimensions, but each contained 6-foot-thick (1.8 m) walls. Sandhogs entered the tunnel through a series of airlocks, and could only remain inside of the tunnel for a designated time period. On exiting the tunnel, sandhogs had to undergo controlled decompression to avoid decompression sickness or \"the bends\", a condition in which nitrogen bubbles form in the blood from rapid decompression. The rate of decompression rate for sandhogs working on the Hudson River Tunnel was described as being \"so small as to be negligible\". Sandhogs underwent such decompressions 756,000 times throughout the course of construction. which resulted in 528 cases of the bends, though none were fatal. The tunnel's pressurization caused other problems, including a pressure blowout in April 1924 that flooded the tube.\n\nDue to the geology of the Hudson River, the shields digging from the New Jersey side were mostly being driven through mud, and so could be driven at a faster rate than the shields from the New York side, which were being dug through large rock formations. When workers tried to dig through the Manhattan shoreline, they had encountered several weeks of delay due to the existence of an as-yet-unrecorded granite bulkhead on the shoreline. In September 1923, after having proceeded about 1,100 feet (340 m) from the Manhattan shoreline, workers encountered a sheet of Manhattan schist under the riverbed, forcing them to slow shield digging operations from 12.5 feet per day (3.8 m/d) to less than 1 foot per day (0.30 m/d). This outcropping was fed from a stream in Manhattan that emptied into the Hudson River. The sandhogs planned to use small explosive charges to dig through the rock shelf without damaging the shield. By December 1923, about 4,400 feet (1,300 m) of each tube's total length had been excavated, and the first of the shields had passed through the underwater shafts that had been sunk during construction. Due to these unexpected issues, the cost estimate for the tunnel was increased from \\$28 million to \\$42 million in January 1924. By March 1924, all seven of the ventilation shafts had been dug, and three of the four shields that were digging underwater had passed through their respective underwater construction shafts, with the fourth shield nearing its respective shaft.\n\nWorkers also performed tests to determine whether they could receive radio transmissions while inside the tunnel. They found that they were able to receive transmissions within much of the Hudson River Tunnel. However, a New Jersey radio station later found that there was a spot in the middle of the tunnel that had no reception.\n\nThe cost of the project increased as work progressed. In July 1923, the New York and New Jersey Vehicular Tunnel Commission had revised plans for the entrance and exit plazas on each side to accommodate an increase in traffic along Canal Street on the Manhattan side. The commission had spent \\$2.1 million to acquire land. Further redesigns were made in January 1924 due to a change of major components in the tunnel plan, including tunnel diameters and ventilation systems, which had increased the cost by another \\$14 million.\n\n#### Nearing completion\n\nThe two ends of both tubes were scheduled to be connected to each other at a ceremony on October 29, 1924, in which President Calvin Coolidge would have remotely set off an explosion to connect the tunnel's two sides. However, two days before the ceremony, Holland died of a heart attack at the sanatorium in Battle Creek, Michigan, aged 41. Individuals cited in The New York Times attributed his death to the stress associated with overseeing the tunnel's construction. The ceremony was postponed out of respect for Holland's death.\n\nThe tunnel was ultimately holed through on October 29, but it was a nondescript event without any ceremony. On November 12, 1924, the Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel was renamed the Holland Tunnel by the two states' respective tunnel commissions. Holland was succeeded by Milton Harvey Freeman, who died of pneumonia in March 1925, after several months of overseeing the project. After Freeman's death, the position was occupied by Ole Singstad, who oversaw the tunnel's completion.\n\nAs part of the tunnel project, one block of Watts Street in Manhattan was widened to accommodate traffic heading toward the westbound tube. Sixth Avenue was also widened and extended between Greenwich Village and Church Street. Ten thousand people were evicted to make way for the Sixth Avenue extension. The north-south Church Street was widened and extended southward to Church Street and Trinity Place; West Side Highway was expanded and supplemented with an elevated highway; and the west-east Vestry and Laight Streets were also widened. On the New Jersey side, the Holland Tunnel was to connect a new highway (formerly the Route 1 Extension; now New Jersey Route 139), which extended westward to Newark. This included a 2,100-foot (640 m) viaduct, rising 80 feet (24 m) from 12th and 14th Streets, at the bottom of the Palisades, to the new highway, at the top of the Palisades. The New Jersey highway approach was opened in stages beginning in 1927, and most of that highway was finished in 1930.\n\nThe construction of the tunnel approach roads on the New Jersey side was delayed for months by Erie Railroad, whose Bergen Arches right-of-way ran parallel to and directly south of Route 139, in the right of way of the proposed approach roads. Although the Erie had promised to find another site for its railroad yards, it had refused to respond to the plans that the New Jersey State Highway Commission had sent them. In March 1925, the Highway Commission decided that construction on the approach roads would begin regardless of Erie's response, and so the land would be taken using eminent domain. This led to a legal disagreement between the Erie and the Highway Commission. The Erie maintained that it absolutely needed 30 feet of land along 12th Street, while the Highway Commission stated that the most direct approach to the eastbound Holland Tunnel's 12th Street portal should be made using 12th Street. The commission rejected a suggestion that it should use 13th Street, one block north, because it would cost \\$500,000 more and involve two perpendicular turns. In October 1926, one million dollars was allocated to the completion of the Route 139 approach.\n\nThe contracts for constructing the Holland Tunnel's ventilation systems were awarded in December 1925. Two months later, the New York-New Jersey Vehicular Tunnel Commission asked for \\$3.2 million more in funding. The tunnel was now expected to cost \\$46 million, an increase of \\$17 million over what was originally budgeted. The Holland Tunnel was nearly complete: in March 1926, Singstad stated that the tunnel was expected to be opened by the following February. By May 1926, the tubes had been almost completely furnished: the polished-white tile walls were in place, as were the bright lighting systems and the Belgian-block-and-concrete road surfaces. The north tube's tiles were sourced locally by the Sonzogni Brothers of Union City, New Jersey, while the south tube's tiles were sourced in equal amounts from Czechoslovakia and Germany. The tiles' surfaces were specially engineered so that they could maintain their coloring even after years of use. The lighting systems used in the Holland Tunnel were designed to allow motorists to adjust to a gradual change in lighting levels just before leaving the tubes.\n\nThe ventilation towers were the only major component of the Holland Tunnel that was not completed, but major progress had been made by the end of 1926. Ole Singstad and the two states' tunnel commissions tested the tunnel's ventilation system by releasing gas clouds in one of the tubes in February 1927. Singstad subsequently declared that the ventilation system was well equipped to ventilate the tunnel air. However, the New York Board of Trade and Transportation disagreed, stating that the system would be inadequate if there was a genuine incident within the tunnel. In April 1927, the board had conducted their own tests with two lighted candles, and a cloud of smoke had filled the entire tube before the ventilation system was able to perform a full exhaust. The Chief Surgeon of the U.S. Board of Mines supported Singstad's position that the ventilation system could sufficiently filter the tubes' air. To affirm the ventilation system's efficacy, in November 1927, the New York and New Jersey tunnel commissions burned a car within the tunnel; the ventilation system dissipated the fire within three and a half minutes.\n\nThe governors of New York and New Jersey took ceremonial rides through the tunnel in August 1926, meeting at the tunnel's midpoint. The first unofficial drive through the entirety of the Holland Tunnel was undertaken by a group of British businessmen a year later, in August 1927. The next month, a group from the Buffalo and Niagara Frontier Port Authority Survey Commission also visited the tunnel. In October, a delegation of representatives from Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, toured the nearly complete Holland Tunnel to get ideas for the then-proposed Detroit–Windsor Tunnel. A reporter for The New York Times was able to make a test drive through the tunnel, noting that \"there is no sudden pressure of wind upon the ear-drums\" and that it would reduce the duration of crossing the Hudson River by between 15 and 22 minutes. Three hundred police officers were trained in advance of the Holland Tunnel's opening, and bus companies started receiving franchises to operate buses through the tunnel.\n\n### Opening\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was officially opened at 4:55 p.m. EST on November 12, 1927. President Coolidge ceremonially opened the tunnel from his yacht by turning the same key that had opened the Panama Canal in 1915. Time magazine reported that it Coolidge had used \"the golden lever of the Presidential telegraphic instrument.\" It rang a giant brass bell at the tunnel's entrances that triggered American flags on both sides of the tunnel to separate. The tunnel's opening ceremony was broadcast on local radio stations. Approximately 20,000 people walked the entire length of the Holland Tunnel before it was closed to pedestrians at 7 p.m. The Holland Tunnel officially opened to vehicular traffic at 12:01 a.m. on November 13, the next day; over a thousand vehicles had gathered on the New Jersey side, ready to pay a toll. The first car to pay a toll was driven by the daughter of the chairman of New Jersey's Bridge and Tunnel Commission. The widows of chief engineers Holland and Freeman rode in the second vehicle that paid a toll. At the time, the Holland Tunnel was the world's longest continuous underwater vehicular tunnel, as well as the world's first tunnel designed specifically for vehicular traffic.\n\nEach passenger car paid a 50-cent toll (worth about \\$0.00 in ). Tolls for other vehicular classes ranged from 25 cents for a motorcycle to two dollars for large trucks. Commuter bus routes, which paid a 50-cent-per-vehicle toll, began operating through the tunnel in December 1927. Truckers subsequently objected that these rates were too high, as the Holland Tunnel truck tolls were double the tolls that were charged on the trans-Hudson ferries; by contrast, the tunnel's passenger vehicle, motorcycle, and bus tolls were on par with those charged by the ferries. The toll revenues would be used to pay off the tunnel's cost (which was estimated at \\$48 million in 1927 dollars, or equivalent to \\$ in ). Within ten years of opening, it was expected that all construction costs would be paid off. Horsedrawn vehicles were banned from the tunnel from the start, since it was believed that horses' slow speeds would cause traffic congestion in the tubes. Pedestrian and bicycle traffic was also banned. A few months before the tunnel's opening, there were suggestions that pedestrians would be allowed to cross the tunnel if they paid a toll described as \"not encouraging,\" but the idea was never seriously considered.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was expected to relieve congestion on the vehicular ferries across the Hudson River, since the capacity of the tunnel was similar to that of the vehicular ferries. Upon opening, it had been estimated that up to 15 million vehicles per year could use the tunnel in both directions, equating to a maximum daily capacity of 46,000 vehicles or an hourly capacity of 3,800 vehicles. Singstad stated that increasing freight traffic across the river would result in a corresponding increase in truck traffic, which would then cause the tunnel to reach its maximum traffic capacity shortly after its opening.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was immediately popular. On November 13, a Sunday, 52,285 vehicles passed through the tunnel on its first day of operation, more than its projected maximum capacity. The lines to enter the tunnel stretched for miles on either end, although many of these vehicles were passenger cars who were making a round trip to tour the tunnel. On November 14, the Holland Tunnel's first weekday of operation, the tunnel carried 17,726 cars. Traffic counts in the Holland Tunnel remained relatively steady until the following weekend, when over 40,000 vehicles went through the tunnel. The first holiday rush period for the Holland Tunnel occurred two weeks after the tunnel's opening, when around 30,000 motorists used the tunnel over the Thanksgiving holiday; there were no major traffic disruptions. A half-million vehicles had passed through the Holland Tunnel within three weeks, and a million had used the tubes by New Year's Day. Within the tunnel's first year, 8.5 million vehicles had used it, and the toll revenue had grossed \\$4.7 million in profit; it was estimated that at this rate, the Holland Tunnel's construction costs might be paid off sooner than expected.\n\nTrans-Hudson ferries reported that their traffic counts had been halved in the two weeks since the tunnel opened, and at least one ferry route reduced service within one month of the opening. Another ferry cut its toll rates to half those of the Holland Tunnel in an effort to recover business. The Hudson & Manhattan Railroad (later PATH), which operated rapid transit services across the Hudson River through its Uptown and Downtown Hudson Tubes, also saw a decline in ridership after the Holland Tunnel opened. Even after the start of the Great Depression in 1929, when most transit in New York City saw declines, the Holland Tunnel saw an increase in traffic, as did ferry lines.\n\n### Early years\n\nIn 1930, there was a disagreement between the Hudson River Tunnel Commission and the Port of New York Authority over who would construct the Lincoln Tunnel. The tunnel was to be located further north along the Hudson River, connecting nearby Weehawken to Manhattan. The two agencies merged that April, and the expanded Port Authority of New York and New Jersey took over operations of the Holland Tunnel, a role that it maintains to this day. Real property title was not passed however. A second vehicular link between New Jersey and Manhattan, the George Washington Bridge, opened in October 1931. The Lincoln Tunnel, the third and final vehicular connection between New Jersey and Manhattan, first opened in December 1937. Within the first 25 years of the Holland Tunnel's opening, it had carried 330 million vehicles in total, but a significant portion of Holland Tunnel traffic was diverted to the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge after the opening of the latter two crossings.\n\nIn 1945, the Port Authority approved the extension of a tunnel approach on the New Jersey side. A new viaduct for westbound traffic would connect the intersection of 14th Street and Jersey Avenue, outside the Holland Tunnel's exit portal, to Hoboken Avenue and NJ Route 139, on top of The Palisades. This would supplement an existing bidirectional viaduct, which connected Hoboken Avenue with 12th Street and currently only carries eastbound traffic. The 14th Street viaduct was first opened for vehicular use in January 1951, although the road was not complete; it was officially completed that February. The 12th and 14th Street viaducts were later also connected to the New Jersey Turnpike Extension. The first part of the extension, Newark Bay Bridge, opened between Bayonne and Newark Liberty International Airport in April 1956; the connection between Bayonne and the 12th/14th Street viaducts was completed that September, providing direct highway connection between the Holland Tunnel and Newark Airport. The NJ Turnpike Extension, as well as the Holland Tunnel and the 12th/14th Street approaches, was designated as part of I-78 in 1958.\n\nStarting in the 1940s, New York City officials developed plans to connect the Holland Tunnel's Manhattan end to the Lower Manhattan Expressway, a proposed elevated highway connecting to both the Williamsburg Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge to Brooklyn. This connection would be part of I-78. In 1956, Robert Moses suggested adding a third tube to the Holland Tunnel, similar to the Lincoln Tunnel's third tube, so there would be sufficient capacity for the proposed expressway traffic. The route of the Lower Manhattan Expressway was approved in 1960, but quickly became controversial due to the large number of tenants who would have to be relocated. The Lower Manhattan Expressway project was ultimately canceled in March 1971.\n\nThe Port Authority voted in 1953 to replace the original tollbooths on the New Jersey side, which did not contain canopies, with an updated plaza that contained a canopy. The next year, the Port Authority also voted to refurbish the Holland Tunnel's administration building on the New Jersey side, as well as construct a new service building. The development of a 2-foot-wide (0.61 m) one-man miniature electric car for tunnel police, to be installed on the tubes' catwalks, was announced in August 1954. The Port Authority tested the \"catwalk car\" along a 2,200-foot (670 m) stretch of the Holland Tunnel. After the car had passed its test, policemen could patrol the full length of the tubes using the catwalk car instead of having to walk the tubes' entire length. By use of a swivel seat the policemen could drive the car in either direction.\n\n### Late 20th century\n\nIn 1970, the Port Authority stopped collecting tolls for New Jersey-bound drivers through the Holland Tunnel, who used the westbound tube, while doubling tolls to \\$1 for New York City-bound drivers, who used the eastbound tube. This was done in an effort to speed up traffic, and it was the first toll increase in the tunnel's history. Although westbound drivers initially saved time by not paying tolls, the removal of westbound tolls ultimately had an adverse effect on traffic in the Holland Tunnel. In 1986, the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge, between the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Staten Island, stopped collecting tolls for Brooklyn-bound drivers (who were generally headed eastbound) and doubled its tolls for Staten Island-bound drivers (who were generally headed westbound). This had the effect of increasing congestion along the New Jersey-bound tube of the Holland Tunnel, which drivers could use for free. Drivers would go through New Jersey and use the Bayonne Bridge, paying a lower toll to enter Staten Island. The amount of westbound traffic in the Holland Tunnel increased compared to eastbound traffic: by 1998, there were 50,110 daily westbound trips and 46,688 daily eastbound trips through the tunnel. Simultaneously, there was a decrease in westbound trips on the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge compared to eastbound trips on the bridge. The Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge toll pattern also caused traffic gridlock around the Holland Tunnel, and Canal Street saw the most severe congestion because it served as the main entrance to the tunnel. Fatal accidents involving pedestrians in Lower Manhattan also increased greatly as a result. Rush-hour congestion within the Holland Tunnel has persisted for more than thirty years due to the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge's one-way westbound toll.\n\nA renovation of the Holland Tunnel's tiled ceilings, which were deteriorating due to water damage, started in 1983. The ceilings were replaced at a total cost of \\$78 million, and the south tube's ceiling was renovated first. Since the Holland Tunnel had to remain open during the renovation, 4,000 modular concrete ceiling panels were made offsite, and narrow lift trucks parked in one of the tube's two lanes installed the panels while traffic continued to move through the tube's other lane. The panels were each designed to the specifications of a certain section of tube, such that none of the ceiling panels were identical; the Port Authority stated that the ceiling-replacement project was the first one of its kind in the world. In 1988, after the ceiling renovations had been completed, work started on replacing the 8-lane tollbooth, which consisted of six lanes built in the 1950s and two additional lanes built in the 1980s. The new \\$54 million tollbooth contained 9 lanes and a central control center.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was listed as a National Historic Landmark on June 27, 1993, becoming part of the National Register of Historic Places. With this designation, it became the 92nd National Historic Landmark in New York City and the sixth such landmark nationally that was a tunnel. According to M. Ann Belkov, the National Park Service superintendent for Ellis Island, the tunnel had been granted landmark status because it had been the first \"mechanically ventilated underwater vehicular tunnel\" in the world.\n\n### 21st century\n\nBetween 2003 and 2006, the fire protection system in both tunnels was modernized. Fire extinguishers were placed in alcoves along the tunnel walls. Although the water supply was turned off, it remained in place during the renovation.\n\nThe Holland Tunnel was closed on October 29, 2012, as Hurricane Sandy approached. The tunnel, like many other New York City tunnels, was flooded by the high storm surge. It remained closed for several days, opening for buses only on November 2 and to all traffic on November 7. In February 2018, the PANYNJ approved a \\$364 million project to repair flood damage from the hurricane. The agency closed the Holland Tunnel's eastbound tube during late nights, except on Saturday nights, beginning in April 2020. Though the work was initially supposed to be completed in early 2022, the work was delayed by nearly a year. The PANYNJ then announced that the westbound tube would be closed during late nights, except on Saturdays, between February 2023 and late 2025.\n\n### Accidents and terrorism\n\nThe first fatal vehicular crash in the Holland Tunnel happened in March 1932, four and a half years after it opened. One person died and two others were injured.\n\nThe 1949 Holland Tunnel fire, which started aboard a chemical truck, caused severe damage to the south tube of the tunnel. The fire resulted in 69 injuries and nearly \\$600,000 worth of damage to the structure. In addition, two first responders, a FDNY battalion chief and a Port Authority patrolman, died as a result of injuries sustained in fighting the fire.\n\nDue to its status as one of the few connections between Manhattan and New Jersey, the Holland Tunnel is considered to be one of the most high-risk terrorist target sites in the United States. Other such sites in New Jersey include the Lincoln Tunnel in Weehawken, New Jersey, the PATH station at Exchange Place in Jersey City, and the Port of Newark in Elizabeth.\n\nIn 1995, Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman and nine other men were convicted of a bombing plot in which a radical Islamic group plotted to blow up five or six sites in New York City, including the Holland and Lincoln Tunnels and the George Washington Bridge.\n\nIn 2006, a plot to detonate explosives in a Hudson River tunnel was uncovered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. It was originally reported that the Holland Tunnel was the target, but in a later update of the source, the plot was clarified to be aimed at the PATH's tubes instead of the Holland Tunnel.\n\n#### September 11 attacks\n\nFollowing the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, the Holland Tunnel remained closed to all but emergency traffic for over a month, due to its proximity to the World Trade Center site. When the tunnel reopened on October 15, 2001, strict new regulations were enacted, and single-occupancy vehicles and trucks were banned from entering the tunnel. In March 2002, before all of the post-9/11 restrictions were lifted, a warehouse fire near the eastbound tube's New Jersey portal caused the tunnel to be closed entirely for five days; the fire continued for over a week. That April, all trucks were banned from the westbound tube, and trucks with more than three axles were also banned from the eastbound tube. Single-occupant vehicles were prohibited in the tunnel on weekday mornings between 6:00 am and 10:00 am until November 17, 2003, when the restrictions were lifted.\n\n## Tolls\n\nAs of January 8, 2023, the tolls-by-mail rate going from New Jersey to New York City are \\$17 for cars and motorcycles; there is no toll for passenger vehicles going from New York City to New Jersey. New Jersey and New York–issued E-ZPass users are charged \\$12.75 for cars and \\$11.75 for motorcycles during off-peak hours, and \\$14.75 for cars and \\$13.75 for motorcycles during peak hours. Users with E-ZPass issued from agencies outside of New Jersey and New York are charged the tolls-by-mail rate.\n\nTolls are collected at a tollbooth on the New Jersey side. Originally, tolls were collected in both directions. In August 1970, the toll was abolished for westbound drivers, and at the same time, eastbound drivers saw their tolls doubled. The tolls of eleven other New York City to New Jersey and Hudson River crossings along a 130-mile (210 km) stretch, from the Outerbridge Crossing in the south to the Rip Van Winkle Bridge in the north, were also changed to south- or eastbound-only at that time. E-ZPass was first made available at the Holland Tunnel in October 1997.\n\nIn March 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all-electronic tolling was temporarily placed in effect for all Port Authority crossings, including the Holland Tunnel. Open road tolling began on December 23, 2020. The tollbooths were dismantled, and drivers were no longer able to pay cash at the tunnel. Instead, there will be cameras mounted onto new overhead gantries at the New Jersey side going to New York City. A vehicle without E-ZPass will have a picture taken of its license plate and a bill for the toll will be mailed to its owner. For E-ZPass users, sensors will detect their transponders wirelessly. The carpool discount plan was eliminated because the discount required a manual count of passengers.\n\n## See also\n\n- Albert Capsouto Park, adjacent to St. John's Park\n- List of bridges, tunnels, and cuts in Hudson County, New Jersey\n- List of fixed crossings of the Hudson River\n- List of tunnels documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey\n- List of tunnels documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New York\n- Transportation in New York City", "revid": "1166477838", "description": "Tunnel between New Jersey and New York", "categories": ["1927 establishments in New Jersey", "1927 establishments in New York (state)", "Articles containing video clips", "Crossings of the Hudson River", "Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey", "Historic American Engineering Record in New York City", "Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks", "Historic districts in Hudson County, New Jersey", "Holland Tunnel", "Hudson Square", "Interstate 78", "Lincoln Highway", "National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan", "National Historic Landmarks in New Jersey", "National Register of Historic Places in Hudson County, New Jersey", "New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County", "Port Authority of New York and New Jersey", "Road tunnels in New Jersey", "Road tunnels in New York City", "Road tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places", "Toll tunnels in New Jersey", "Toll tunnels in New York City", "Tolled sections of Interstate Highways", "Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey", "Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City", "Transportation in Jersey City, New Jersey", "Tribeca", "Tunnels completed in 1927", "Tunnels in Hudson County, New Jersey", "Tunnels in Manhattan", "U.S. Route 1"]}
{"id": "28054485", "url": null, "title": "29th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment", "text": "The 29th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union army of the United States during the American Civil War. The regiment was organized in December 1861 when three new companies were attached to a battalion of seven Massachusetts companies that had been in active service since May 1861. These seven companies had been recruited to fill out the 3rd Massachusetts and 4th Massachusetts regiments and had signed on for three years of service. When the 3rd and 4th Massachusetts were mustered out in July 1861, the seven companies that had signed on for three years were grouped together to form a battalion known as the Massachusetts Battalion. Finally, in December 1861, three more companies were added to their roster to form a full regiment and the unit was designated the 29th Massachusetts.\n\nThe regiment took part in 29 battles and four sieges in a variety of theaters of the war. After their early service at Fortress Monroe in Virginia, the 29th was attached, in the spring of 1862, to the Army of the Potomac during the Peninsular Campaign as part of the famed Irish Brigade. The 29th had the distinction of being the only regiment of non-Irish ethnicity to serve in that brigade. In January 1863, the IX Corps (including the 29th Massachusetts) was transferred to Kentucky and engaged in operations against Confederate guerillas. In the summer of 1863, the IX Corps was again transferred and took part in the siege of Vicksburg and the siege of Jackson, Mississippi. In the fall of 1863, IX Corps took part in the Knoxville Campaign which resulted in the defeat of Confederate forces in eastern Tennessee. The spring of 1864 saw the IX Corps and the 29th Massachusetts once again returned to duty with the Army of the Potomac, just in time to take part in the Overland campaign and the siege of Petersburg. During the siege of Petersburg, the unit suffered their worst casualties of the war in the Battle of Fort Stedman on March 25, 1865.\n\nThe 29th was mustered out of service on August 11, 1865. Including the seven months served by most of the regiment before its designation as the 29th, the unit had one of the longest terms of service of any Massachusetts regiment—a total of four years and three months.\n\n## Massachusetts Battalion\n\nOn April 15, 1861, three days after the attack on Fort Sumter, the call went out from Massachusetts Governor John Andrew for the immediate mobilization of the four existing regiments of Massachusetts militia. The 3rd and 4th Massachusetts both left for Washington, D.C., on April 17 to serve a term of 90 days. But in their haste to reach the capital, these regiments had departed without a full complement of ten companies as required by army regulations. In the following weeks, seven additional companies were formed in Massachusetts and assigned to the 3rd and 4th to fill out their rosters. Unlike the majority of companies in the 3rd and 4th regiments, which had enlisted for 90 days, these new companies signed on for three years of service. These seven companies would eventually form the majority of the 29th Massachusetts.\n\nWhile serving with the 3rd and the 4th Massachusetts, these companies were primarily garrisoned at Fortress Monroe at the end of the Virginia Peninsula. This strategically important foothold in Virginia allowed Union forces to control the major waterway of Hampton Roads. In an unsuccessful effort to strengthen their hold on the Peninsula, Union troops marched from Fortress Monroe and attacked the Confederate position at Big Bethel Church, resulting in the Battle of Big Bethel on June 10, 1861. Two of the companies that would eventually become part of the 29th were involved in this action. The expedition was commanded by Colonel Ebenezer W. Peirce.\n\nWhen the 3rd and 4th Massachusetts regiments were mustered out in July 1861, the seven \"three-year\" companies were consolidated on July 16 to form the \"Massachusetts Battalion\" under the command of Captain Joseph H. Barnes. The battalion served relatively light garrison and guard duty at Fortress Monroe, Newport News and Hampton for the remainder of 1861. In December, three more companies were added to the battalion and, with a full complement of ten companies, the unit became known as the 29th Massachusetts Infantry.\n\nPeirce was appointed the first commander of the 29th. The regimental historian recorded that this appointment was \"exceedingly distasteful\" to the 29th as there had been an expectation that Barnes, who had led the Massachusetts Battalion, would command the new regiment. Barnes, however, was placed second in command to Peirce as lieutenant colonel. Further, Peirce was disliked for his failure at Big Bethel. During the winter of 1862, charges were brought against Peirce by officers of the 29th and he was court-martialed for incompetence and improper conduct. His superior officer, Brigadier General John E. Wool, overturned the ruling and Peirce remained in command of the 29th Massachusetts.\n\n## Peninsular campaign\n\nDuring the winter and early spring of 1862, the 29th was deployed on various minor expeditions near Fortress Monroe, Newport News and Norfolk, Virginia. On March 8 and 9, the regiment was present during the Battle of Hampton Roads, a naval engagement fought primarily between the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia. The regiment helped man a land battery during the engagement, and the men of the 29th were amazed by the new ironclad vessels and the changes they brought to naval warfare.\n\nIn the middle of March, once again at Fortress Monroe, the 29th witnessed the arrival of the Army of the Potomac, commanded by Major General George B. McClellan. McClellan intended to use Fortress Monroe as his base of operations for an assault on the Confederate capital of Richmond. The effort would be known as the Peninsular Campaign. Over the course of March 1862, the men of the 29th watched as roughly 100,000 Union soldiers and 15,000 mules and horses debarked from Fortress Monroe. The 29th was to remain at Fortress Monroe as the Army of the Potomac made its way toward Richmond. As the campaign became bogged down outside the Confederate capital, additional troops were called for and the 29th Massachusetts departed Hampton Roads on June 7, 1862.\n\n### Attachment to the Irish Brigade\n\nTraveling by steamboat up the York River, the 29th arrived at White House Landing and marched to the battle front on June 8, 1862. The regiment was attached to the Irish Brigade (2nd Brigade, 1st Division, II Corps). Contemporaries and historians alike have wondered at this unusual assignment. The 29th Massachusetts was made up of men descended, largely, from old-stock English families, some with heritage dating back to the Mayflower. There was, at the time, significant social friction in New England between established Protestant families and Irish immigrants. While the regimental historian observed that the 29th was \"cordially welcomed\" to the Irish Brigade, other historians, such as Marion Armstrong, point out the oddity of the \"aristocratic 29th Massachusetts ... thrown in with three regiments of New York Irishmen.\" Historian Daniel Callaghan quotes period sources describing the \"unlikely matching of ancient political foes,\" and the manner in which the men of the 29th tolerated the Irish-born commander of the Irish Brigade, Brig. Gen. Thomas Francis Meagher, \"coldly, in a pinched and critical silence.\"\n\nDespite these social differences, the 29th Massachusetts fought alongside the Irish regiments through heavy combat (the first the regiment had seen) during the Seven Days Battles. During this series of battles, the Confederates drove McClellan's army away from Richmond, resulting in the failure of the Peninsular Campaign. After the Union retreat, Meagher praised the 29th's actions in battle saying that they \"had proved themselves the equals of any others in the Brigade, and had no superiors in the army.\" Meagher would later call the 29th \"Irishmen in disguise.\" During the Seven Days Battles, the 29th suffered moderate casualties of six killed and 18 wounded. These casualties included Peirce whose right arm was shot off by cannon fire. Command of the regiment then fell to Barnes.\n\n## Maryland campaign\n\nFollowing the failure of the Peninsular campaign, elements of the Army of the Potomac were shipped to northern Virginia to provide assistance to Union Maj. Gen. John Pope. Pope had been attempting to open a second assault on Richmond from the north, but he was defeated during the Second Battle of Bull Run on August 30, 1862. The 29th Massachusetts, along with other elements of the II Corps, arrived too late to take part in the battle.\n\nAfter his victory at Bull Run, Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee invaded Maryland in September 1862. The Army of the Potomac, including the 29th Massachusetts, moved to intercept the Confederate offensive. The two armies clashed at Sharpsburg, Maryland, during the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862.\n\n### Battle of Antietam\n\nThe battle commenced in the early morning with several assaults on the Confederate left flank by the I Corps and the XII Corps. After these failed, the II Corps, including the Irish Brigade, was called upon to assault a position near the Confederate center known as the \"Sunken Road\" or \"Bloody Lane.\" The trench-like road afforded the Confederates a strong defensive position. Just after 9 a.m., Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson's division, with the Irish Brigade in the lead, moved toward the Sunken Road. Meagher envisioned the delivery of a few volleys from the brigade followed by an impetuous charge. As the Irish Brigade advanced up the crest toward the Sunken Road, it took heavy fire from the Confederates. The progress of the brigade was slowed by a sturdy split rail fence. When Meagher asked for volunteers to run forward and take it down, Corporal Samuel C. Wright of the 29th sprang forward with several others. Wright recalled that many were shot down before they reached the fence and, as \"one would grasp a rail, it would be sent flying out of his hands by rifle shots.\" The dash back to the lines was just as dangerous. Cpl. Wright was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his bravery at Antietam. He would, over the course of successive battles, be wounded five times and reported dead twice. Despite his travails, he survived the war.\n\nThe Irish Brigade, though advancing in good order under heavy fire and delivering effective fire in return, did not reach the Sunken Road. The brigade retired, the regimental historian observed, \"as steadily as on drill.\" The 29th has been criticized by some historians, including Marion Armstrong, for not advancing as quickly as the rest of the Irish Brigade. An accident in the terrain, a small rise in front of the 29th's position, afforded them cover, and their casualties were lighter than those of the other regiments of the brigade. Armstrong argues that Barnes was reluctant to leave this advantageous ground, a factor which may have contributed to the failure of the Irish Brigade's charge. The casualties of the 29th were nine killed, 31 wounded and four missing.\n\n## Fredericksburg Campaign\n\nThe Battle of Antietam had been a tactical stalemate. McClellan claimed it as a strategic victory as Lee's army retreated back into Virginia. Despite this, President Lincoln was displeased with McClellan's failure to pursue Lee and replaced him with Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. During November 1862, Burnside proceeded to gather the Army of the Potomac in Falmouth, Virginia, preparing to assault Lee's army across the Rappahannock River in Fredericksburg, Virginia.\n\n### Removal from the Irish Brigade\n\nWhile in camp in Falmouth in late November, the officers of the 29th learned that Meagher had arranged for a green Irish Brigade flag to be presented to the regiment, recognizing their role as \"honorary Irishmen\" and their bravery during the Battle of Antietam. Barnes declined the gift, however. According to the regimental historian, \"While the Colonel would have been proud to receive the flag for the regiment as a token of the respect of their Irish comrades, yet he objected to the flag being carried by the regiment, on the ground that it was not an Irish regiment.\" Irish Brigade historians, including Joseph Bilby, have observed that there may have been some controversy surrounding the issue. According to Bilby, Barnes refused to accept the flag because they believed it \"would brand them as Fenians,\" or Irish revolutionaries.\n\nAs a result of this incident, on November 30, 1862, the 29th was transferred out of the Irish Brigade and into Brig. Gen. Benjamin C. Christ's brigade in the IX Army Corps. It was replaced in the Irish Brigade by the 28th Massachusetts, an Irish regiment.\n\nThe transfer spared the 29th from the Battle of Fredericksburg in which their new brigade played almost no role. Their former comrades in the Irish Brigade, however, made a harrowing charge during the battle and suffered severe casualties.\n\n## Kentucky\n\nFollowing his failure during the Battle of Fredericksburg, Burnside was removed from command of the Army of the Potomac and returned to the command of the IX Corps, to which the 29th Massachusetts now belonged. On February 5, 1863, the IX Corps was detached from the Army of the Potomac and transferred from Virginia to Kentucky where Burnside was to take command of the Department of the Ohio and Union operations in Kentucky and east Tennessee.\n\nThe 29th Massachusetts reached Cincinnati via railroad on March 26, then marched into Kentucky. They were stationed in Paris, Kentucky, during April 1863, conducting light duty in defending against occasional raids by Confederate guerrillas. In late April they marched to Somerset, Kentucky, where they were occupied with similar duty until early June 1863.\n\n## Mississippi\n\nIn early June, most of the IX Corps was transferred to the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant who required reinforcements in the siege of Vicksburg, the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River. The 29th Massachusetts traveled with other elements of the IX Corps via steamship down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. They arrived in the vicinity of Vicksburg in late June and began digging entrenchments. Less than two weeks after the regiment arrived in Mississippi, the city of Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, 1863.\n\nFollowing the surrender of Vicksburg, the remaining Confederate forces in Mississippi concentrated in the state capital of Jackson. Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman took several corps of Unions troops, including the IX Corps, and laid siege to Jackson in mid-July. While digging trenches, the 29th was exposed to heavy artillery and sharpshooter fire from the Confederates, but the regiment suffered only one casualty during the siege. During the night of July 16, the Confederate army in Jackson managed to slip away from the city and the siege was ended.\n\nShortly afterward, the IX Corps was recalled to Kentucky, as Burnside was eager to begin his operations in Tennessee. On the way back to Vicksburg, the 29th acted as provost guard, marching at the rear of the IX Corps to gather stragglers. They missed the first group of steamships to depart for Cincinnati and had to wait three weeks, until August 12, with other regiments at a camp in Milldale, Mississippi, near Vicksburg. Camp conditions were unsanitary and the weather extremely hot. Many of the men suffered from disease during and after this encampment. As the regimental historian wrote, \"Deaths were very frequent among the troops here during this time, burial parties were almost constantly engaged, and the funeral notes of the fife and drum could be heard nearly every hour in the day. None save the strongest came out of that campaign in sound health.\"\n\n## Knoxville Campaign\n\nBurnside gathered his Army of the Ohio in the vicinity of Lexington, Kentucky, in late August 1863 in preparation for an invasion of eastern Tennessee. The region was strategically important as a rail link between Virginia and Chattanooga. The population of eastern Tennessee was also primarily Unionist, so it became a key strategic goal of Lincoln's to force Confederate troops out of the region in the hope that Unionists would gain support and bring the state back into the Union.\n\nPrior to the march, half of the men in the 29th were on the sick list as a result of their service in Mississippi, including Barnes, who took an extended leave and returned for a time to Massachusetts. In his absence, Peirce returned to the 29th to command the unit.\n\nThe march across Kentucky, through the Cumberland Gap and on to Knoxville, Tennessee, was one of the longest marches the 29th ever executed—a distance of more than 200 miles (320 km) covered between September 1 and September 26, 1863.\n\nOn October 21, the IX Corps made camp in and around Lenoir City, Tennessee, and remained there until November 14, 1863. During this time, Confederate Lt. Gen. James Longstreet launched an offensive aimed at the expulsion of Burnside's troops from Knoxville. The IX Corps, including the 29th Massachusetts, moved southwest to meet the Confederates near Loudon, Tennessee. Union forces were rapidly repulsed and retreated to Knoxville. The siege of that city by the Confederates began in mid-November 1863. The 29th's position during the siege was within Fort Sanders. When Longstreet launched his assault on Fort Sanders on November 29, 1863, the 29th saw heavy action in repulsing the Confederates. Two members of the 29th, Sgt. Jeremiah Mahoney and Pvt. Joseph S. Manning, later received the Medal of Honor for their bravery in capturing two Confederate battle flags during the battle. The 29th lost only two killed in the Battle of Fort Sanders owing to the strength of their position on the walls of the fort.\n\nFollowing this Union victory and the retreat of Longstreet's troops to Virginia, the 29th was stationed in mid-December 1863 at Blaine, Tennessee, about 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Knoxville. Camped on an open plain, exposed to wind and snow, and running very low on provisions, the regiment suffered severely during December 1863 and January 1864 and referred to the camp at Blaine as their Valley Forge. At the end of December, Barnes rejoined the 29th as its commander and Peirce was elevated to brigade command.\n\nIn January 1864, with the end of their three-year term of service only four months away, the men of the 29th were given the option to reenlist for another three years. Those men who chose to accept the offer would receive a 30-day furlough, while those that did not would be consolidated with the 36th Massachusetts to serve out their remaining months. A total of 166 men chose to reenlist and approximately 90 did not.\n\nOn March 21, 1864, the 29th and the IX Corps commenced their long march back to Ohio via the Cumberland Gap, reaching Cincinnati on April 1, 1864. From there, the men who had reenlisted were sent back to Boston for the furlough they had been promised and those who had not were sent on to Virginia to join the 36th Massachusetts.\n\n## Overland Campaign\n\nWhile the remaining men of the 29th were on furlough in Massachusetts, Lt. Gen. Ulysses Grant, as general-in-chief of the Union Army, began the Overland Campaign. During the spring of 1864, he would direct the actions of the Army of the Potomac in northern Virginia, aggressively pushing Lee's Confederate army toward Richmond in a series of major battles. The men formerly of the 29th who had been transferred to the 36th Massachusetts took part in the opening battles of the campaign, the Battle of the Wilderness and the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, incurring casualties of seven killed and 30 wounded out of a total of 90 men. This detachment fulfilled their three-year enlistment in mid-May 1864 and returned home.\n\nThe furlough for the newly reenlisted ended on May 16 and the 29th Massachusetts, now a small fraction of its original size, departed for Virginia. They rejoined the Army of the Potomac on May 20, 1864, just in time to take part in the closing battles of the Overland Campaign, particularly the Battle of Cold Harbor. On June 1, 1864, the regiment suffered casualties of one killed, 12 wounded and three captured during Grant's first assault at Cold Harbor. Although the regiment had been temporarily assigned to the V Corps, on June 3 it rejoined the IX Corps. Over the next nine days, the regiment built breastworks and served on picket duty until June 12 when IX Corps rapidly marched to the outskirts of Petersburg, Virginia, in preparation for an assault on that city.\n\n## Siege of Petersburg\n\n### Assault on Petersburg\n\nIn the pre-dawn hours of June 17, the divisions of the IX Corps formed up for an assault on the entrenched Confederate position outside Petersburg. Barnes of the 29th had been elevated to command of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division of the IX Corps, to which the 29th belonged. Major Charles Chipman was placed in command of the 29th in his stead. While other divisions of the IX Corps attacked and were repulsed, the 1st Division moved to its assigned position in the late afternoon and lay down, studying the Confederate breastworks and awaiting orders to advance. At first, the division, to its relief, received orders that the attack had been called off. A short time later, however, came the order to attack. The division, including the 29th, charged from their protected position in a ravine out into an open plain in front of the Confederate entrenchments. According to the regimental historian, \"They had scarcely emerged upon the open plain, when the whole crest of the Confederate works was fringed with fire and smoke; grape, canister, and musketballs filled the air.\"\n\nDuring this charge, the color-bearer of the 29th, Sgt. Silas Grosvenor, was shot through the head. The colors were picked up by Sgt. John A. Tighe who was also killed. Sergeant Major William F. Willis picked up the flag and became the third color-bearer killed in the charge. At this point, the 29th was forced to pause in its advance and retired a short distance. In the confusion, the colors were left on the field. Major Chipman asked for two volunteers to go with him onto the open ground to retrieve the colors. The three found the colors and, according to the regimental historian, the Confederates, admiring the bravery of the trio, did not fire and allowed them to return to their lines.\n\nThe 1st Division of the IX Corps eventually captured the Confederate works in their front, however little had been accomplished by the assault on Petersburg overall. The Confederates remained strongly entrenched and the long siege of Petersburg began. The 29th, numbering just 100 men at this time, lost six killed and 23 wounded.\n\n### Battle of the Crater\n\nThe 29th occupied trenches outside Petersburg with the rest of the Army of the Potomac during the summer of 1864. In July, Union troops dug a mine beneath the Confederate position and, on July 30, 1864, a massive amount of gunpowder was detonated in the mine, blasting a hole in the Confederate position. During the resulting Battle of the Crater, the 1st Division of the IX Corps led a confused and failed attack. The 29th took part, charging into the crater with other regiments and eventually retreating, losing three killed, seven wounded and six captured.\n\n### Battle of Fort Stedman\n\nThe 29th played a minor role in the Battle of Globe Tavern, a movement intended to tighten the siege around Petersburg, on August 18, 1864. The regiment suffered only a few casualties during this engagement. In the fall of 1864, the 29th served uneventful duty along the Petersburg siege lines and was eventually, in November, assigned a garrison post in Battery 11, a small, unfinished ravelin (detached fortification) outside of Fort Stedman. Stedman was one of many earthen fortifications built along Union lines during the siege, and was only 150 yards from the Confederate trenches—the narrowest distance between the two armies. They would remain at this post for the next four months.\n\nOn March 25, 1865, the regiment fought in the Battle of Fort Stedman, the Confederate Army's final offensive during the Siege of Petersburg. Before dawn on March 25, Confederate troops achieved complete surprise and easily occupied Fort Stedman entering the rear sally port almost unchallenged. Major Charles T. Richardson, then in command of the 29th, hearing some light gunfire, ordered the 29th to fall in. No general alarm had yet been raised, but Richardson felt certain that an attack was underway. Within minutes, approximately 500 Confederates, a small part of the overall offensive, swept over Battery 11. The 29th held their ground, however, engaging in heated hand-to-hand combat and eventually capturing 300 Confederates—more than twice their own number. The Confederates still occupied Fort Stedman, however, and soon sent another offensive to occupy Battery 11. This time, the 29th was forced to retreat back to Fort Haskell, the nearest defensible position.\n\nAmong the 29th's casualties in this engagement was Sgt. Calvin F. Harlow who, finding himself surrounded by Confederates, refused to surrender. He and the Confederate officer demanding his surrender shot each other simultaneously. Poet Walt Whitman, learning of Harlow's story, wrote about him in his book Specimen Days.\n\nAfter four hours, the Confederate attack lost momentum, and their forces began to pull back into Fort Stedman. An overwhelming Union counterattack eventually recaptured the fort. The 29th took part in the counterattack, re-capturing Battery 11. Color-bearer Conrad Homan of the 29th was the first to re-enter Battery 11 and was later awarded the Medal of Honor. The regiment lost 10 killed and an unknown number of captured in this engagement.\n\n## Mustering out\n\nThe 29th did not take part in the pursuit of Lee's army during the Appomattox Campaign. The small regiment was instead withdrawn to Washington shortly after Lee's surrender and served as provost guards in the capital. On August 11, 1865, the 29th was mustered out of service. Approximately 173 of its members (roughly 15 percent) were killed in action or died of wounds or disease. Official numbers as to the number of wounded are not available. The unit served in 15 states and traveled more than 4,200 miles (6,800 km). Taking into account the seven months of duty served prior to the official formation of the regiment, plus a term of reenlistment served by many members, the 29th Massachusetts had one of the longest terms of service of any Massachusetts regiment, a total of four years and three months.\n\n## See also\n\n- Massachusetts in the Civil War\n- List of Massachusetts Civil War units\n\n## Notes/References\n\nCitations\n\nReferences", "revid": "1161410904", "description": null, "categories": ["1861 establishments in Massachusetts", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1865", "Military units and formations established in 1861", "Units and formations of the Union Army from Massachusetts"]}
{"id": "2426050", "url": null, "title": "Plesiorycteropus", "text": "Plesiorycteropus, also known as the bibymalagasy or Malagasy aardvark, is a recently extinct genus of mammals from Madagascar. Upon its description in 1895, it was classified with the aardvark, but more recent molecular evidence instead suggests that it is most closely related to the tenrecs (a group extant on the island). Two species are currently recognized, the larger P. madagascariensis and the smaller P. germainepetterae. They probably overlapped in distribution, as subfossil remains of both species have been found in the same site.\n\nKnowledge of the skeletal anatomy is limited, as only limb, partial pelvis, and skull bones have been recovered to date. Plesiorycteropus was probably a digging animal that fed on insects such as termites and ants. It also shows adaptations for climbing and sitting. Estimates of its mass range from 6 to 18 kilograms (13 to 40 lb). When and why it became extinct remains unknown. One bone has been radiocarbon dated to 200 BCE; forest destruction by humans may have contributed to its extinction.\n\n## Taxonomy\n\n### Identification and species\n\nFrench naturalist Henri Filhol first described Plesiorycteropus madagascariensis in 1895 on the basis of a partial skull found at the cave of Belo. His description was vague even by 19th-century standards, but he placed the animal close to the aardvark (Orycteropus). The generic name combines Ancient Greek plesio- \"near\" with Orycteropus, the genus of the aardvark, and the specific name refers to Madagascar. Charles Lamberton, who had access to a larger sample for his 1946 review of the genus, noted substantial variation, but did not attempt to differentiate multiple species. In 1994, Ross MacPhee again reviewed Plesiorycteropus and was able to separate two species, the larger P. madagascariensis and a new, smaller species that he named Plesiorycteropus germainepetterae after scientist Germaine Petter. The two species differ in a number of morphological characters in addition to size.\n\nRemains of Plesiorycteropus have been misidentified as rodents and primates. Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major described Myoryctes rapeto in 1908 as a \"giant subfossil rat\" on the basis of two innominate bones (pelvic bones). The generic name was replaced by Majoria in 1915, because Myoryctes was preoccupied by the name of a nematode worm. However, according to MacPhee, innominates of Majoria are identical to those assigned to Plesiorycteropus. Guillaume Grandidier assigned a well-preserved femur (upper leg bone) to a gigantic relative of the living votsovotsa (Hypogeomys antimena), a large rodent, which he described as Hypogeomys boulei. Lamberton identified this femur as Plesiorycteropus and MacPhee concurred. Remains of both Majoria rapeto and Hypogeomys boulei fall at the upper end of the size range of the genus, indicating that they are referable to P. madagascariensis. Another Plesiorycteropus innominate was mistakenly assigned to Daubentonia robusta, the extinct giant aye-aye, and other material has been misidentified as of a dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus).\n\n### Relationships\n\nFilhol had classified Plesiorycteropus as close to the aardvark on the basis of morphological similarities. In his 1946 review, Charles Lamberton was unable to provide a definitive allocation, confused by the various similarities he saw with aardvarks, pangolins, armadillos, and anteaters. He believed it was most likely a primitive, isolated member of \"Edentata\", a group in which he included aardvarks, pangolins, and Xenarthra (sloths, armadillos, and anteaters). He rejected some alternatives, such as a close affinity to aardvarks or the possibility that the material assigned to Plesiorycteropus did not in fact represent a single animal. Bryan Patterson, who revised tubulidentates (the order of which the aardvark is the only living representative) in the 1970s, accepted Plesiorycteropus as a member of the group, dismissing many similarities with pangolins and other animals as convergent. However, he placed it as the only member of its own subfamily Plesiorycteropodinae in view of its differences from other tubulidentates (subfamily Orycteropodinae), and hypothesized that it arrived on Madagascar in the Eocene, at the same time as the lemurs. Johannes Thewissen, who critiqued some aspects of Patterson's classification in 1985, also accepted Plesiorycteropus as a tubulidentate without comment.\n\nReviewing Patterson's and Thewissen's contributions in 1994, Ross MacPhee found little support for the classification of Plesiorycteropus as a tubulidentate in their data. MacPhee used a cladistic analysis of eutherians to ascertain the relationships of the genus, but found that while different analytic variants supported different affinities—with aardvarks, hyraxes, ungulates (hooved mammals), and even lipotyphlans (shrews, moles, hedgehogs, and allies)—there was no compelling evidence linking it to any other eutherian group. Therefore, he erected a separate order for Plesiorycteropus, named Bibymalagasia, arguing that it would be unacceptable to leave a Recent eutherian unassigned to any order and that discovery of more material, or further analysis, was unlikely to demonstrate close affinities of Plesiorycteropus with any other order. He considered it possible but unlikely that a few fossil taxa, such as Palaeorycteropus and Leptomanis from the Paleogene of France, would eventually be found to be bibymalagasians. Various analyses published by Robert Asher and colleagues in 2003, 2005, and 2007, based on morphology combined with DNA sequence data in some analyses, produced different estimates of the relationships of Plesiorycteropus, some placing it within Afrotheria close to aardvarks or Afrosoricida, but others supporting a relationship with the hedgehog Erinaceus. A 2004 morphological study by Inés Horovitz, focusing on extinct South American ungulates (such as Notoungulata and Litopterna), placed Plesiorycteropus among tubulidentates and closer to the extinct aardvark relative Myorycteropus than to Orycteropus.\n\nA 2013 study by Michael Buckley examined preserved collagen sequences in Plesiorycteropus bones. He found the animal was most closely related to the tenrecs, a family of insectivorous afrotherian mammals endemic to Madagascar. Tenrecs are believed to have diversified from a common ancestor that lived 29–37 million years (Ma) ago after dispersing from Africa via a single rafting event. Buckley's analysis showed that Plesiorycteropus and the two members of subfamily Tenrecinae tested formed a monophyletic group, within a larger clade in which golden moles are the sister group; he suggested that Plesiorycteropus should be placed in the order Tenrecoidea along with tenrecs as well as African otter shrews and golden moles (the latter two diverged from tenrecs about 47–53 Ma ago and 59–69 Ma ago, respectively). He did not test members of the other two Tenrecidae subfamilies or otter shrews, leaving open the possibility that Plesiorycteropus nests within Tenrecidae.\n\n### Common names\n\n\"Madagascar aardvark\" has been used as a common name for Plesiorycteropus, but MacPhee considered it inappropriate because the animal may not be related to aardvarks. Instead, he proposed \"bibymalagasy\" as a common name, a manufactured Malagasy word meaning \"Malagasy animal\".\n\n## Description\n\nPlesiorycteropus is known from a number of subfossil bones, comparable to coverage of some of the poorly known subfossil lemurs, such as Daubentonia robusta. The material includes several skulls, all of which are missing the facial bones, complete long bones such as the femur and humerus (upper arm bone), and other bones, but some elements are still unknown, including most of the skeleton of the hand and foot. There is little reason to assume it was similar in general form to the aardvark. No teeth or jaws referable to Plesiorycteropus have been found, and it is generally assumed that the animal was toothless.\n\nBased on the area of a femur cross-section, MacPhee calculated estimates of body mass. The lowest estimate, based on comparative data from armadillos and pangolins, was 6 kilograms (13 lb) for the smallest femur he had (referable to P. germainepetterae) and the highest estimate, based on comparative data from caviomorph rodents, was 18 kilograms (40 lb) for the largest available femur (P. madagascariensis); estimates from primates fell between those extremes. MacPhee favored the lower estimates, because those were based on armadillos, which have femora similar to those of Plesiorycteropus. On the other hand, the caviomorph model produced a better estimate of brain size in Plesiorycteropus. Any of the estimates makes it considerably larger than the largest living tenrec, Tenrec ecaudatus, at up to 2 kilograms (4.4 lb). The higher estimates would make it larger than any extant native Malagasy mammal. This is consistent with the trend for larger members of the late Pleistocene and Holocene faunas of Madagascar and elsewhere to have been at higher risk of extinction.\n\n### Skull\n\nThere are four known skulls (three of P. madagascariensis and one of P. germainepetterae), each of which is damaged. All are missing the front (rostral) part, and three are broken at about the same place (at the paranasal cavities, at the front of the braincase), suggesting that the front part of the skull was thinner and more fragile than the back part, which consists of thick bones. MacPhee estimated maximum skull length in P. madagascariensis at 101 millimetres (4.0 in). The length of the frontal bone averages 35.4 millimetres (1.39 in) in P. madagascariensis and is 29.4 millimetres (1.16 in) in P. germainepetterae.\n\nThe robust nasal bones, preserved in a single specimen, are widest at the front, a feature unusual among placentals that is also seen in armadillos, and are also unusually flat. The ethmoid labyrinth, in the nasal cavity, was large, suggesting that Plesiorycteropus had a good sense of smell. A much larger part of the nasal septum, which separates the left and right nasal cavities, is ossified than usual in other mammals; MacPhee could find a similar condition only in sloths, which have a very short nose. The lacrimal bone is relatively large. At it is a single lacrimal canal, which opens near the suture between the frontal and lacrimal bones, like in lipotyphlans. There is a small tubercle (absent in aardvarks) near this opening. The orbital cavity, which houses the eyes, is relatively short, similar to the situation in pangolins and armadillos. A distinct tubercle is present on the suture between the frontal and parietal bones in P. germainepetterae, but not P. madagascariensis. P. madagascariensis has a more expansive braincase and a less pronounced narrowing between the orbits. The foramen rotundum, an opening in the bone of the orbit, is present. The optic canal, which houses the nerves leading to the eyes, is narrow, suggesting that the eyes were small, similar to many other tenrecoids. As in pangolins and xenarthrans, little of the squamosal bone can be seen from above. The temporal lines on the braincase, which anchor muscles, are located lower in P. germainepetterae. Like in aardvarks, the parietals are relatively large. An interparietal bone is present. Unlike in anteaters and pangolins, the occiput (the back of the skull) is flat and vertical. Plesiorycteropus lacks notches above the foramen magnum (the opening that connects the brain to the spinal cord), which are present in aardvarks. The nuchal crest, a projection on the occiput, is straight in P. madagascariensis, but in P. germainepetterae it is interrupted in the middle, similar to the situation in armadillos and hyraxes.\n\nIn their descriptions of Plesiorycteropus, Lamberton and Patterson posited different interpretations of the location of the mandibular fossa, where the mandible (lower jaw) articulates with the cranium. MacPhee found problems with either interpretation and suggested that the true mandibular fossa was part of the area Lamberton identified as such, at the side of the braincase. The fossa is small and low, suggesting that the animal was not capable of powerful biting. At the back of this fossa is a pseudoglenoid proces, which is more prominent in P. germainepetterae. In P. germainepetterae but not P. madagascariensis, a small opening, perhaps the vascular foramen, is present next to the foramen ovale. The petrosal bone forms a relatively large portion of the roof of the tympanic cavity, which houses the middle ear; parts of the petrosal are more developed in P. madagascariensis. Endocasts (casts of the inside of the skull) indicate that the neopallium part of the brain was relatively small.\n\n### Postcranium\n\nThere are 34 known vertebrae of Plesiorycteropus. The animal had at least seven sacral and five or six lumbar vertebrae. A find of associated caudal vertebrae from the base of the tail, which diminish in size only slowly from front to back, suggests that the tail was long. There is no evidence for the additional joints between the vertebrae that are characteristic of xenarthrans. In the seven known thoracic (chest) vertebrae, the articulations with the intervertebral disks are bean-shaped and much wider from side to side than from top to bottom. In the back thoracics and all lumbars, a longitudinal transarcual canal is present in the neural arch.\n\nA scapula (shoulder blade), only tentatively assigned to Plesiorycteropus, has the acromion, a process, present, but the structure is probably not as large as in aardvarks or armadillos. Six humeri have been found; the bone is robust and an entepicondylar foramen is present in the distal (far) end. There are three examples of the radius, a compact and massive bone in Plesiorycteropus which resembles the pangolin radius. The three known ulnae show that the olecranon process at the proximal (near) end is well-developed, but the distal end is narrow; the morphology of the bone suggests that the animal was capable of producing much force with its arms.\n\nThe innominate is known from seven examples, but most are quite incomplete. It includes a narrow ilium and long ischium. The ischial tuberosity, a narrow rough piece of bone in most placentals, is broad and smooth in Plesiorycteropus. With 17 specimens, the femur is the best represented long bone. It is distinctive in its long neck, similar only to the gymnure Echinosorex according to MacPhee. A projection known as the third trochanter is larger in P. madagascariensis. The tibia and fibula are extensively fused into a tibiofibula, of which eight examples are known. This bone resembles that of armadillos in the extensive fusion, the compression of the shaft of the tibia, the narrowness of the articulation surface at the distal end, and the broad space between the bones. Unlike in armadillos, the tibia and fibula are not inclined relative to each other, but about parallel. The astragalus, which is known from four examples, is wide and short and contains a uniquely large posteromedial process. Seven metapodials (middle hand or foot bones) are known, rather variable in size, but MacPhee was unable to separate metacarpals (from the hand) and metatarsals (from the foot). All are rather short and are broad proximally and narrow distally. Among the few known phalanges, the proximal phalange is shorter than the middle one and the distal phalanges are narrow and clawlike.\n\n## Ecology, behavior, and extinction\n\nThe forelimbs of Plesiorycteropus show specializations for scratch-digging, in which the forefeet are placed against the substrate, the claws are entered into the substrate, and the forefeet are then drawn back against the body. Other parts of the body also show such specializations, including large hindlimbs and a broad tail. Some aspects of the vertebral column and the pelvis suggest that the animal often assumed an erect, or sitting, posture. The animal may also have been capable of climbing, perhaps in a manner similar to gymnures and shrew tenrecs, which are small-eyed like Plesiorycteropus. It was probably myrmecophagous, eating insects such as ants and termites, but may also have eaten other soft food, and because of its small size probably did not forage in termite mounds, as the aardvark does.\n\nMacPhee had material of Plesiorycteropus from twelve sites in central, western, and southern Madagascar. It and other recently extinct Madagascar mammals may have lived in and near wetlands. P. madagascariensis is known from sites throughout this range, but P. germainepetterae has only been definitely recorded from the center; small bones from southern sites may also belong to it. Thus, the two species apparently had widely overlapping ranges.\n\nLittle is known about the extinction of Plesiorycteropus, but MacPhee assumed it may have happened around 1000 years ago, when the extinction of the rest of the subfossil fauna of Madagascar is thought to have concluded. Nothing like it was reported by 17th-century European explorers of the island, and one bone has been radiocarbon dated to around 2150 Before Present (200 BCE). Its extinction is somewhat anomalous, as other recently extinct Madagascan animals—such as subfossil lemurs, Malagasy hippopotamuses, the giant fossa, and elephant birds—were generally larger and not exclusively insectivorous; also, some species with likely more specialized diets, such as the falanouc (Eupleres goudoti) and aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis), did survive. Early human colonists of Madagascar may have caused the extinction of Plesiorycteropus through the destruction of the forest and other disturbances.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of mammals of Madagascar", "revid": "1169408775", "description": "An extinct genus of eutherian mammals from Madagascar", "categories": ["Endemic fauna of Madagascar", "Enigmatic mammal taxa", "Fossil taxa described in 1895", "Holocene extinctions", "Prehistoric animals of Madagascar", "Prehistoric placental genera", "Taxa named by Henri Filhol"]}
{"id": "350762", "url": null, "title": "Bob Cousy", "text": "Robert Joseph Cousy (/ˈkuːzi/ , born August 9, 1928) is an American former professional basketball player. Cousy played point guard for the Boston Celtics from 1950 to 1963, and briefly with the Cincinnati Royals during the 1969–70 season. A 13-time NBA All-Star and 1957 NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP), he was a core piece during the early half of the Celtics dynasty winning six NBA championships during his 13-year tenure with the Celtics. Nicknamed \"The Houdini of the Hardwood\", Cousy was the NBA assists leader for eight consecutive seasons, introducing a new blend of ball-handling and passing skills to the NBA. He is regarded as the first great point guard of the NBA, and was the first to reach the 4,000, 5,000, and 6,000 career assists milestones.\n\nMaking his high school varsity squad as a junior, Cousy went on to earn a scholarship to the College of the Holy Cross, where he led the Crusaders to berths in the 1948 NCAA Tournament and 1950 NCAA Tournament, while winning NCAA All-American honors for three seasons. Cousy entered the 1950 NBA draft and was initially drafted by the Tri-Cities Blackhawks as the third overall pick in the first round, but after he refused to report he was picked up by Boston. Following his playing career with the Celtics he served as a college basketball coach and an NBA head coach for the Cincinnati Royals.\n\nUpon his election to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1971 the Celtics retired his No. 14 jersey and hung it in the rafters of the Garden. Cousy was named to the NBA 25th Anniversary Team in 1971, the NBA 35th Anniversary Team in 1981, the NBA 50th Anniversary All-Time Team in 1996, and the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021 making him one of only four players that were selected to each of those teams. He is also one of only two of these players who is still alive with Bob Pettit as of 2023 and the older of the two living members. He was also the first president of National Basketball Players Association. On August 22, 2019, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Donald Trump.\n\n## Early life\n\nCousy was the only son of poor French immigrants living in New York City. He grew up in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan's East Side, in the midst of the Great Depression. His father Joseph was a cab driver, who earned extra income by moonlighting. The elder Cousy had served in the German Army during World War I. Shortly after the war, his first wife died of pneumonia, leaving behind a young daughter. He married Julie Corlet, a secretary and French teacher from Dijon. At the time of the 1930 census, the family was renting an apartment in Astoria, Queens, for \\$50 per month. The younger Cousy spoke French for the first 5 years of his life, and started to speak English only after entering primary school. He spent his early days playing stickball in a multicultural environment, regularly playing with Black, Jewish and other ethnic minority children. These experiences ingrained him with a strong anti-racist sentiment, an attitude he prominently promoted during his professional career. When he was 12, his family moved to a rented house in St. Albans, Queens. That summer, the elder Cousy put a \\$500 down payment for a \\$4,500 house four blocks away. He rented out the bottom two floors of the three-story building to tenants to help make his mortgage payments on time.\n\nCousy took up basketball at the age of 13 as a student at St. Pascal's elementary school, and was \"immediately hooked\". The following year, he entered Andrew Jackson High School in St Albans. His basketball success was not immediate, and in fact he was cut from the school team in his first year. Later that year, he joined the St. Albans Lindens of the Press League, a basketball league sponsored by the Long Island Press, where he began to develop his basketball skills and gained much-needed experience. The next year, however, he was again cut during the tryouts for the school basketball team.\n\nThat same year, he fell out of a tree and broke his right hand. The injury forced him to play left-handed until his hand healed, making him effectively ambidextrous. In retrospect, he described this accident as \"a fortunate event\" and cited it as a factor in making him more versatile on the court. During a Press League game, the high school basketball coach saw him play. He was impressed by the budding star's two-handed ability and invited Cousy to come to practice the following day to try out for the junior varsity team. He did well enough to become a permanent member of the JV squad. He continued to practice day and night, and by his junior year was sure he was going to be promoted to the varsity; but failing his citizenship course made him ineligible for the first semester. He joined the varsity squad midway through the season, however, scoring 28 points in his first game. He had no intention of attending college, but after he started to make a name for himself on the basketball court he started to focus on improving in both academics and basketball skills to make it easier for him to get into college.\n\nHe again excelled in basketball his senior year, leading his team to the Queens divisional championship and amassing more points than any other New York City high school basketball player. He was even named captain of the Journal-American All-Scholastic team. He then began to plan for college. His family had wanted him to attend a Catholic school, and he wanted to go somewhere outside New York City. Boston College recruited him, and he considered accepting the BC offer, but it had no dormitories, and he was not interested in being a commuter student. Soon afterward, he received an offer from the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, about forty miles (64 kilometers) west of Boston. He was impressed by the school, and accepted the basketball scholarship it offered him. He spent the summer before matriculating working at Tamarack Lodge in the Catskill Mountains and playing in a local basketball league along with a number of established college players.\n\n## College career\n\nCousy was one of six freshmen on the Holy Cross Crusaders' varsity basketball team in 1946–47. From the start of the season, coach Doggie Julian chose to play the six freshmen off the bench in a two-team system, so that each player would get some time on the court. As members of the \"second team\", they would come off the bench nine and a half minutes into the game, where they would relieve the \"first team\" starters. They would sometimes get to play as much as a third or even half of the game, but even at that Cousy was so disappointed with the lack of playing time that he went to the campus chapel after practice to pray that Julian would give him more of a chance to show off his talents on the court. Early in the season, however, he got into trouble with Julian, who accused him of being a showboater. Even as late as that 1946–47 season, basketball was a static game, depending on slow, deliberate player movement and flat-footed shots. Far different was Cousy's up-tempo, streetball-like game, marked by ambidextrous finesse play and notable for behind-the-back dribbling and no-look, behind-the-back and half-court passing. Even so, he had enough playing time in games to score 227 points for the season, finishing with the third-highest total on the team. Led by stars George Kaftan and Joe Mullaney, the Crusaders finished the 1946–47 basketball season 24–3.\n\nOn the basis of that record, Holy Cross got into the 1947 NCAA Tournament as the last seed in the then only eight-team tournament. In the first game, they defeated Navy 55–47 in front of a sell-out crowd at Madison Square Garden. Mullaney led the team in scoring with 18 points, thanks to Navy coach Ben Carnevale's decision to have his players back off from Mullaney, who was reputed as being more of a playmaker than a shooter. In the semifinal game, the Crusaders faced CCNY, coached by Nat Holman, one of the game's earliest innovators. Led by Kaftan's 30 points, Holy Cross easily defeated the Beavers 60–45. In the championship game, the Crusaders faced Oklahoma, coached by Bruce Drake, in another sold-out game at Madison Square Garden. Kaftan followed up his 30-point semifinal heroics with a mere 18 points in the title game, which was far more than enough for the team to defeat the Sooners 58–47. Cousy played poorly, however, scoring only four points on 2-for-13 shots. Holy Cross became the first New England college to win the NCAA tournament. On their arrival back in Worcester, the team was given a hero's welcome by about 10,000 cheering fans who met their train at Union Station.\n\nThe following season Julian limited Cousy's playing time, to the point that the frustrated sophomore contemplated transferring out of Holy Cross. Cousy wrote a letter to coach Joe Lapchick of St. John's University in New York, informing him that he was considering a transfer there. Lapchick wrote back to Cousy that he considered Julian \"one of the finest basketball coaches in America\" and that he believed Julian had no bad intentions in restricting his playing time. He told Cousy that Julian would use him more often during his later years with the team. Lapchick alerted Cousy that transferring was a very risky move: according to NCAA rules, the player would be required to sit out a year before becoming eligible to play for the school to which he transferred. Cousy still managed to lead the Crusaders in scoring and was an AP Third Team All American. Cousy again led the team in scoring in his junior year, and was named a Second Team All American by multiple services, including the AP.\n\nDuring Cousy's senior year of 1949–1950, with 5 minutes to go and Holy Cross trailing in a game against Loyola of Chicago at Boston Garden, the crowd started to chant \"We want Cousy!\" until coach Julian relented. In these few minutes, Cousy scored 11 points and hit a game-winning buzzer-beater coming off a behind-the-back dribble. The performance established him as a team leader, and he then led Holy Cross to 26 straight wins and a Number 4 national ranking. He was a consensus First Team All-American, and led the team in scoring for the third straight season with 19.4 points per game. A three-time All-American, Cousy ended his college career in the 1950 NCAA Tournament, when Holy Cross fell to North Carolina State in an opening-round game at Madison Square Garden. CCNY would go on to win the tournament.\n\n## Professional career\n\n### Boston Celtics (1950–1963)\n\n#### Early years (1950–1956)\n\nCousy turned pro and made himself available for the 1950 NBA draft. The Boston Celtics had just concluded the 1949–50 NBA season with a poor 22–46 win–loss record and had the first draft pick. It was strongly anticipated that they would draft the highly coveted local favorite Cousy. However, coach Red Auerbach snubbed him for center Charlie Share, saying: \"Am I supposed to win, or please the local yokels?\" The local press strongly criticized Auerbach, but other scouts were also skeptical about Cousy, viewing him as flamboyant but ineffective. One scout wrote in his report: \"The first time he tries that fancy Dan stuff in this league, they'll cram the ball down his throat.\"\n\nAs a result, the Tri-Cities Blackhawks drafted Cousy, but the point guard was unenthusiastic about his new employer. Cousy was trying to establish a driving school in Worcester, Massachusetts and did not want to relocate to the Midwestern triangle of the three small towns of Moline, Rock Island and Davenport. As compensation for having to give up his driving school, Cousy demanded a salary of \\$10,000 from Blackhawks owner Ben Kerner. When Kerner offered him only \\$6,000, Cousy refused to report. Cousy was then picked up by the Chicago Stags, but when they folded, league Commissioner Maurice Podoloff declared three Stags available for a dispersal draft: team scoring leader Max Zaslofsky, Andy Phillip and Cousy. Celtics owner Walter A. Brown was one of the three club bosses invited. He later made it clear that he was hoping for Zaslofsky, would have tolerated Phillip, and did not want Cousy. When the Celtics drew Cousy, Brown confessed: \"I could have fallen to the floor.\" Brown reluctantly gave him a \\$9,000 salary.\n\nIt was not long before both Auerbach and Brown changed their minds. With averages of 15.6 points, 6.9 rebounds and 4.9 assists a game, Cousy received the first of his 13 consecutive NBA All-Star selections and led a Celtics team with future Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Famers Ed Macauley and Bones McKinney to a 39–30 record in the 1950–51 NBA season. However, in the 1951 NBA Playoffs, the Celtics were beaten by the New York Knicks. With future Hall-of-Fame guard Bill Sharman on board the next season, Cousy averaged 21.7 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.7 assists per game en route to his first All-NBA First Team nomination. Nonetheless, the Celtics lost to the Knicks in the 1952 NBA Playoffs.\n\nIn the following season, Cousy made further progress. Averaging 7.7 assists per game, he won the first of his eight consecutive assists titles. These numbers were made despite the fact that the NBA had not yet introduced the shot clock, making the game static and putting prolific assist givers at a disadvantage. Powered by Auerbach's quick fastbreak-dominated tactics, the Celtics won 46 games and beat the Syracuse Nationals 2–0 in the 1953 NBA Playoffs. Game 2 ended 111–105 in a 4-overtime thriller, in which Cousy had a much-lauded game. Despite having an injured leg, he scored 25 points after four quarters, scored 6 of his team's 9 points in the first overtime, hit a clutch free throw in the last seconds, and scored all 4 of Boston's points in the second overtime. He scored 8 more points in the third overtime, among them a 25-ft. buzzer beater. In the fourth overtime, he scored 9 of Boston's 12 points. Cousy played 66 minutes, and scored 50 points after making a still-standing record of 30 free throws in 32 attempts. This game is regarded by the NBA as one of the finest scoring feats ever, in line with Wilt Chamberlain's 100-point game. However, for the third time in a row, the Knicks beat Boston in the next round.\n\nIn the next three years, Cousy firmly established himself as one of the league's best point guards. Leading the league in assists all 3 seasons, and averaging 20 points and 7 rebounds, the versatile Cousy earned himself three more All-NBA First Team and All-Star honors, and was also Most Valuable Player of the 1954 NBA All-Star Game. In terms of playing style, Cousy introduced an array of visually attractive street basketball moves, described by the NBA as a mix of ambidextrous, behind-the-back dribbling and \"no-look passes, behind-the-back feeds or half-court fastbreak launches\". Cousy's modus operandi contrasted with the rest of the NBA, which was dominated by muscular low post scorers and deliberate set shooters. Soon, he was called \"Houdini of the Hardwood\" after the magician Harry Houdini. Cousy's crowd-pleasing and effective play drew the crowd into the Boston Garden and also won over coach Auerbach, who no longer saw him as a liability, but as an essential building block for the future.\n\nThe Celtics eventually added two talented forwards, future Hall-of-Famer Frank Ramsey and defensive specialist Jim Loscutoff. Along with Celtics colleague Bob Brannum, Loscutoff also became Cousy's unofficial bodyguard, retaliating against opposing players who would try to hurt him. The Celtics were unable to make their mark in the 1954 NBA Playoffs, 1955 NBA Playoffs, and 1956 NBA Playoffs, where they lost three times in a row against the Nationals. Cousy attributed the shortcomings to fatigue, stating: \"We would get tired in the end and could not get the ball\". As a result, Auerbach sought a defensive center who could get easy rebounds, initiate fast breaks and close out games.\n\n#### Celtics dynasty years (1957–1963)\n\nBefore the 1956–57 NBA season, Auerbach drafted two future Hall-of-Famers: forward Tom Heinsohn, and defensive center Bill Russell. Powered by these new players, the Celtics went 44–28 in the regular season, and Cousy averaged 20.6 points, 4.8 rebounds and a league-leading 7.5 assists, earning his first NBA Most Valuable Player Award; he also won his second NBA All-Star Game MVP award. The Celtics reached the 1957 NBA Finals, and powered by Cousy on offense and rugged center Russell on defense, they beat the Hawks 4–3, who were noted for future Hall-of-Fame power forward Bob Pettit and former teammates Macauley and Hagan. Cousy finally won his first title.\n\nIn the 1957–58 NBA season, Cousy had yet another highly productive year, with his 20.0 points, 5.5 rebounds and 8.6 assists per game leading to nominations into the All-NBA First Team and the All-Star team. He again led the NBA in assists. The Celtics reached the 1958 NBA Finals against the Hawks, but when Russell succumbed to a foot injury in Game 3, the Celtics faded and bowed out four games to two. This was the last losing NBA playoff series in which Cousy would play.\n\nIn the following 1958–59 NBA season, the Celtics got revenge on their opposition, powered by an inspired Cousy, who averaged 20.0 points, 5.5 rebounds and a league-high 8.6 assists a game, won another assists title and another pair of All-NBA First Team and All-Star team nominations. Late in the season, Cousy reasserted his playmaking dominance by setting an NBA record with 28 assists in a game against the Minneapolis Lakers. While that record was broken 19 years later, Cousy also set a record for 19 assists in a half which has never been broken. The Celtics stormed through the playoffs and, behind Cousy's 51 total assists (still a record for a four-game NBA Finals series), defeated the Minneapolis Lakers in the first 4–0 sweep ever in the 1959 NBA Finals.\n\nIn the 1959–60 NBA season, Cousy was again productive, his 19.4 points, 4.7 rebounds and 9.5 assists per game earning him his eighth consecutive assists title and another joint All-NBA First Team and All-Star team nomination. Again, the Celtics defeated all opposition and won the 1960 NBA Finals 4–3 against the Hawks. A year later, the 32-year-old Cousy scored 18.1 points, 4.4 rebounds and 7.7 assists per game, winning another pair of All-NBA First Team and All-Star nominations, but failing to win the assists crown after eight consecutive seasons. However, the Celtics won the 1961 NBA Finals after convincingly beating the Hawks 4–1.\n\nIn the 1961–62 NBA season, the aging Cousy slowly began to fade statistically, averaging 15.7 points, 3.5 rebounds and 7.8 assists, and was voted into the All-NBA Second Team after ten consecutive First Team nominations. Still, he enjoyed a satisfying postseason, winning the 1962 NBA Finals after 4–3 battles against two upcoming teams, the Philadelphia Warriors and Los Angeles Lakers. The Finals series against the Lakers was especially dramatic, because Lakers guard Frank Selvy failed to make a last-second buzzer beater in Game 7 which would have won the title. Finally, in the 1962–63 NBA season, the last of his career, Cousy averaged 13.2 points, 2.5 rebounds and 6.8 assists, and collected one last All-Star and All-NBA Second Team nomination. In the 1963 NBA Finals, the Celtics again won 4–2 against the Lakers, and Cousy finished his career on a high note: in the fourth quarter of Game 6, Cousy sprained an ankle and had to be helped to the bench. He went back in with Boston up 1. Although he did not score again, he was credited with providing an emotional lift that carried the Celtics to victory, 112–109. The game ended with Cousy throwing the ball into the rafters.\n\n### Retirement\n\nAt age 34, Cousy held his retirement ceremony on March 17, 1963, in a packed Boston Garden. The event became known as the Boston Tear Party, when the crowd's response overwhelmed Cousy, left him speechless, and caused his planned 7-minute farewell to go on for 20. Joe Dillon, a water worker from South Boston, Massachusetts, and a devoted Celtics fan, screamed \"We love ya, Cooz\", breaking the tension and the crowd went into cheers. As a testament to Cousy's legacy, President John F. Kennedy wired to Cousy: \"The game bears the indelible stamp of your rare skills and competitive daring, and it will serve as a living reminder of your long and illustrious career so long as it is played.\"\n\n### Cincinnati Royals (1969–1970)\n\nDuring the 1969–70 NBA season, the then 41-year-old Cousy, who was also the head coach for the Royals, made a late-season comeback as a player for seven games.\n\n## NBA career statistics\n\n### Regular season\n\n### Playoffs\n\n## Coaching career\n\n### College coach\n\nAfter retiring as a player, Cousy published his autobiography Basketball Is My Life in 1963, and in the same year became coach at Boston College. In the 1965 ECAC Holiday Basketball Festival at Madison Square Garden, Providence defeated Boston College 91–86 in the title game, when the Friars were led by Tourney MVP and All-American Jimmy Walker. Providence was coached by Joe Mullaney, who was Cousy's teammate at Holy Cross when the two men were players there in 1947. In his six seasons there, he had a record of 114 wins and 38 losses and was named New England Coach of the Year for 1968 and 1969. Cousy led the Eagles to three NIT appearances, including a berth in the 1969 NIT Championship and two National Collegiate Athletic Association tournaments, including the 1967 Eastern Regional Finals.\n\n### NBA coach\n\nCousy grew bored with college basketball and returned to the NBA as coach of the Cincinnati Royals, team of fellow Hall-of-Fame point guard Oscar Robertson. He later said about this engagement, \"I did it for the money. I was made an offer I couldn't refuse.\" He continued as coach of the team after it moved from Cincinnati to Kansas City/Omaha, but stepped down as the Kings' coach early in the 1973–74 NBA season with a 141–209 record.\n\n## Coaching record\n\n### College coaching record\n\n### NBA coaching record\n\n\\|- \\| align=\"left\" \\|Cincinnati \\| align=\"left\" \\|1969–70 \\|82\\|\\|36\\|\\|46\\|\\|.439\\|\\| align=\"center\" \\|5th in Eastern\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| align=\"center\" \\|Missed playoffs \\|- \\| align=\"left\" \\|Cincinnati \\| align=\"left\" \\|1970–71 \\|82\\|\\|33\\|\\|49\\|\\|.402\\|\\| align=\"center\" \\|3rd in Central\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| align=\"center\" \\|Missed playoffs \\|- \\| align=\"left\" \\|Cincinnati \\| align=\"left\" \\|1971–72 \\|82\\|\\|30\\|\\|52\\|\\|.366\\|\\| align=\"center\" \\|3rd in Central\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| align=\"center\" \\|Missed playoffs \\|- \\| align=\"left\" \\|Kansas City–Omaha \\| align=\"left\" \\|1972–73 \\|82\\|\\|36\\|\\|46\\|\\|.439\\|\\| align=\"center\" \\|4th in Midwest\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| align=\"center\" \\|Missed playoffs \\|- \\| align=\"left\" \\|Kansas City–Omaha \\| align=\"left\" \\|1973–74 \\|20\\|\\|6\\|\\|14\\|\\|.300\\|\\| align=\"center\" \\|(resigned)\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| align=\"center\" \\|— \\|-class=\"sortbottom\" \\| align=\"left\" \\|Career \\| \\|\\|348\\|\\|141\\|\\|207\\|\\|.405\\|\\| \\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|—\\|\\|— \\| align=\"center\" \\|—\n\n## Legacy\n\nIn 1954, the NBA had no health benefits, pension plan, minimum salary, and the average player's salary was \\$8,000 (\\$82,000 in 2021 dollars) a season. To combat this, Cousy organized the National Basketball Players Association, the first trade union among those in the four major North American professional sports leagues. Cousy served as its first president until 1958.\n\nIn his 13-year, 924-game NBA playing career, Cousy finished with 16,960 points, 4,786 rebounds and 6,955 assists, translating to averages of 18.4 points, 5.2 rebounds and 7.5 assists per game. He was regarded as the first great point guard of the NBA, winning eight of the first 11 assist titles in the league, all of them en bloc, and had a highly successful career, winning six NBA titles, one MVP award, 13 All-Star and 12 All-NBA First and Second Team call-ups and two All-Star MVP awards. With his eye-catching dribbling and unorthodox passing, Cousy popularized modern guard play and raised the profile of the Boston Celtics and the entire NBA. His fast-paced playing style was later emulated by the likes of Pete Maravich and Magic Johnson.\n\nIn recognition of his feats, Cousy was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1971 and in 1963, the Celtics retired his uniform number, 14, the first of two numbers retired (the other was Ed Macauley’s number 22). Celtics owner Walter Brown said: \"The Celtics wouldn't be here without him [Cousy]. He made basketball in this town. If he had played in New York he would have been the biggest thing since [New York Yankees baseball legend] Babe Ruth. I think he is anyway.\" In addition, on May 11, 2006, ESPN.com rated Cousy as the fifth-greatest point guard of all time, lauding him as \"ahead of his time with his ballhandling and passing skills\" and pointing out he is one of only seven point guards ever to win an NBA Most Valuable Player award.\n\nOn November 16, 2008, Cousy's college uniform number, 17, was hoisted to the Hart Center rafters. During halftime of a game between the Holy Cross Crusaders and St. Joseph's Hawks, the uniform numbers of Cousy, George Kaftan, Togo Palazzi, and Tommy Heinsohn became the first to hang from the gymnasium's ceiling.\n\nOn July 1, 2019, Cousy advised The Boston Globe that he had received an official letter notifying him that he would receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Donald Trump on August 22, 2019. He received the medal at a ceremony in the Oval Office. A statue of Cousy was installed outside the DCU Center in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 2021.\n\nCousy has been the recipient of several basketball awards being named after him. The Bob Cousy Award has been presented annually since 2004 by the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame to the top men's collegiate point guard. In 2022, the NBA renamed its Eastern Conference championship trophy in honor of Cousy.\n\n## Off the court\n\n### Soccer league commissioner\n\nDespite his unfamiliarity with the sport, Cousy was appointed Commissioner of the American Soccer League on December 19, 1974. His most notable act as commissioner was to declare the New York Apollo and Boston Astros co‐champions after both teams played 67 minutes of extra time without resolution in the second and deciding leg of the league's championship series on September 20, 1975. He was relieved of his duties on December 1, 1979. Pennsylvania Stoners club owner Willie Ehrlich explained the dismissal by stating, \"After five years as commissioner, Cousy still goes around telling people he knows nothing about soccer.\"\n\n### Personal life\n\nCousy married his college sweetheart, Missie Ritterbusch, in December 1950, six months after he graduated from Holy Cross. They lived in Worcester, Massachusetts, and had two daughters. His wife died on September 20, 2013, after suffering from dementia for several years.\n\nCousy was well-known, both on and off the court, for his public stance against racism, a result of his upbringing in a multicultural environment. In 1950, the Celtics played a game in the then-segregated city of Charlotte, North Carolina, and teammate Chuck Cooper—the first African-American in NBA history to be drafted—would have been denied a hotel room. Instead of taking the hotel room, Cousy insisted on travelling with Cooper on an uncomfortable overnight train. He described their visit to a segregated men's toilet—Cooper was prohibited from using the clean \"for whites\" bathroom and had to use the shabby \"for colored\" facility—as one of the most shameful experiences of his life. He also sympathized with the plight of black Celtics star Bill Russell, who was frequently a victim of racism.\n\nHe was close to his Celtics mentor, head coach Red Auerbach, and was one of the few permitted to call him \"Arnold\", his given name, instead of his nickname \"Red\".\n\nHe was a color analyst on Celtics telecasts during the 1980s.\" In addition, he had a role in the 1994 basketball film Blue Chips, in which he played a college athletic director.\n\nHe is currently a marketing consultant for the Celtics, and occasionally makes broadcast appearances with Mike Gorman (and with ex-Celtic teammate Tom Heinsohn prior to Heinsohn's death on November 9, 2020).\n\n## See also\n\n- List of athletes who came out of retirement\n- List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders\n- List of National Basketball Association career triple-double leaders\n- List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders\n- List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game\n- List of National Basketball Association single-game playoff scoring leaders", "revid": "1170851633", "description": "American basketball player and coach (born 1928)", "categories": ["1928 births", "All-American college men's basketball players", "American men's basketball players", "American people of French descent", "American sports announcers", "Andrew Jackson High School (Queens) alumni", "Basketball coaches from New York (state)", "Basketball players from Manhattan", "Basketball players from Worcester, Massachusetts", "Boston Celtics announcers", "Boston Celtics players", "Boston College Eagles men's basketball coaches", "Cincinnati Royals head coaches", "Cincinnati Royals players", "College men's basketball head coaches in the United States", "Holy Cross Crusaders men's basketball players", "Kansas City Kings head coaches", "Kansas City-Omaha Kings head coaches", "Living people", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees", "National Basketball Association All-Stars", "National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award winners", "National Basketball Association broadcasters", "National Basketball Association players with retired numbers", "National Basketball Players Association presidents", "People from St. Albans, Queens", "People from Yorkville, Manhattan", "Player-coaches", "Point guards", "Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients", "Tri-Cities Blackhawks draft picks"]}
{"id": "4681165", "url": null, "title": "Mormon handcart pioneers", "text": "The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the migration of members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) to Salt Lake City, Utah, who used handcarts to transport their belongings. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and continued until 1860.\n\nMotivated to join their fellow church members in Utah, but lacking funds for full teams of oxen or horses, nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England, Wales, Scotland and Scandinavia made the journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies. The trek was disastrous for two of the companies, which started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming. Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way. John Chislett, a survivor, wrote, \"Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death.\"\n\nAlthough only about 5 percent of the 1846–1868 Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day, church pageants, and similar commemorations.\n\n## Background to the migration\n\nThe Latter Day Saints were first organized in 1830. Early members of the church often encountered hostility, primarily due to their practice of withdrawing from secular society and gathering in locales to practice their religious beliefs. Neighbors who were not Mormon felt threatened by the church's rapid growth in numbers, its tendency to vote as a bloc and acquire political power, its claims of divine favor, and the practice of polygamy. Violence against the church and its members caused most church members to move from Ohio to Missouri, then to Illinois. Despite the frequent moves, church members were unable to prevent opposition, culminating in the extermination order against all Mormons living Missouri by the state's governor Lilburn Boggs in 1838 and the murder of their leader Joseph Smith in 1844. After Smith's death, Brigham Young said that he had received divine direction to organize the church members. In early 1846 he began leading them beyond the western frontier of the United States to settle in the Great Basin.\n\n## Need for handcart companies\n\nSoon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847, the church encouraged its converts in Europe to emigrate to Utah. On December 23, 1847, the church leadership sent an epistle to the members in the British Isles saying \"Emigrate as speedily as possible to this vicinity.\" Many British church members were disparaged and ridiculed due to the church's practice of polygamy. From 1849 to 1855, about 16,000 European Latter-day Saints traveled to the United States by ship, through the eastern states by rail, and to Utah by ox and wagon. Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses, the church established the Perpetual Emigrating Fund to provide financial assistance for poor emigrants to trek west, which they would repay as they were able.\n\nWhen contributions and loan repayments decreased in 1855 after a poor harvest in Utah, Young began to use handcarts because the church members who remained in Europe were mostly poor. Young also believed it would speed the emigrants' journey. Young proposed the plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards, president of the European Mission, in September 1855. Young's letter and an editorial endorsing Young's plan by Richards was published in the Millennial Star the church's England-based periodical, on December 22, 1855. The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced by one-third. Poor church members who wanted to emigrate responded enthusiastically to the new plan—in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2,012 European emigrants, compared with 1,161 the year before.\n\n## Outfitting\n\nEmigrants departed from an English port (generally Liverpool) and travelled by ship to New York or Boston. The emigrants who arrived from 1855 to 1857 traveled by railroad to Iowa City, Iowa, the western terminus of the rail line, where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies, while later emigrants traveled by rail and boat up the Missouri River to Florence, Nebraska (now part of Omaha).\n\nBuilt to Young's design, the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow, with two wheels. They were five feet (1.5 metres) in diameter and a single axle four and a half feet (1.4 m) wide, and weighing 60 pounds (27 kg). Running along each side of the bed were seven-foot (2.1 m) pull shafts ending with a three-foot (0.9 m) crossbar at the front. The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled. Cargo was carried in a box about three feet by four feet (0.9 m by 1.2 m), with 8 inches (0.20 m) walls. The handcarts generally carried up to 250 pounds (110 kg) of supplies and luggage, though they were capable of handling loads as heavy as 500 pounds (230 kg). Carts used in the first year's migration were made entirely of wood; in later years a stronger design was substituted, which included metal elements.\n\nThe handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units. Five people were assigned per handcart, with each individual limited to 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of clothing and bedding. Each round tent, supported by a center pole, housed 20 occupants and was supervised by a tent captain. Five tents were supervised by the captain of a hundred (or \"sub-captain\"). Provisions for each group of one hundred emigrants were carried in an ox wagon, and were distributed by the tent captains.\n\n## 1856: First three companies\n\nThe first two ships departed England in late March and mid-April and sailed to Boston. John Taylor was the church's agent in New York, and he arranged train transportation for the emigrants to Iowa City. Unaware of how many emigrants to expect, Taylor ordered the construction of 100 handcarts, but that would be inadequate for the companies. The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City building additional handcarts and obtaining supplies before beginning their trek of about 1,300 miles (2,100 km).\n\nAbout 815 emigrants from the first two ships were organized into the first three handcart companies, headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth, Daniel D. McArthur, and Edward Bunker. The captains were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah and were familiar with the route. Most of the sub-captains were also returning missionaries.\n\nAcross Iowa they followed an existing road about 275 miles (443 km) to Council Bluffs, following a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6. After crossing the Missouri River, they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence, Nebraska for repairs, before beginning the remaining 1,030-mile (1,660 km) journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City.\n\nInitial problems with the carts occurred because the wood used to construct them was said to have been \"green timber\", or wood from trees that were recently chopped down and not given sufficient time to dry, causing an increase in breakdowns. When the first handcart company reached Winter Quarters, Ellsworth had a member of the company \"tin\" the wooden axles and also installed \"thick hoop iron skeins\" which enabled the handcart axles to turn more easily and resist breakage much better.\n\nThe companies made good time, and their trips were largely uneventful. The emigrant companies included many children and elderly individuals, and transporting handcarts was difficult. Journals and recollections describe periods of illness and hunger; the handcart companies were not able to carry enough food to sustain themselves without additional relief supplies sent from Utah. Hafen and Hafen's Handcarts to Zion lists 13 deaths from the first company, seven from the second, and fewer than seven from the third. The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and the third followed less than a week later. The first three companies were regarded as having demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts.\n\n## 1856: Willie and Martin handcart companies\n\nThe last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England. The ship Thornton, carrying the emigrants who became the Willie Company, left England on May 4. The leader of the Latter-day Saints on the ship was James G. Willie. Horizon departed eleven days later, carrying the emigrants who later formed the Martin Company. The late departures may have been the result of difficulties in procuring ships in response to the unexpected demand.\n\nWith slow communications in the era before the transatlantic telegraph, the church's agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and made frantic preparations for their arrival. When the emigrants arrived in Iowa City, no handcarts had been built, and three weeks were spent hastily assembling the carts and outfitting the companies. When the companies reached Florence, additional time was lost making repairs to the poorly built carts. Emigrant John Chislett describes the problems with the carts:\n\n> The axles and boxes being of wood, and being ground out by the dust that found its way there in spite of our efforts to keep it out, together with the extra weight put on the carts, had the effect of breaking the axles at the shoulder. All kinds of expedients were resorted to as remedies for the growing evil, but with variable success. Some wrapped their axles with leather obtained from bootlegs; others with tin, obtained by sacrificing tin-plates, kettles, or buckets from their mess outfit. Besides these inconveniences, there was felt a great lack of a proper lubricator. Of anything suitable for this purpose we had none at all.\n\nPrior to the Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate if they should continue the journey immediately or wait for the spring. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage, urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. He warned them that they could not travel \"with a mixed company of aged people, women, and little children, so late in the season without much suffering, sickness, and death.\" All of the other church elders argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention. Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued the journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company on August 27. Two ox-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed the Martin Company.\n\nNear Wood River, Nebraska, a herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede, and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds (45 kg) of flour. In early September, Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as the church's mission president, passed the emigrant companies. Richards counseled the emigrants to be faithful and obedient to their leaders, and promised that the Lord would open a way for them to \"get to Zion in safety.\" Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants.\n\n### Disaster and rescue\n\nIn early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie, Wyoming. They expected to be restocked with provisions, but they were unavailable. The companies cut back food rations down to 12 oz (340 g) per person, hoping that their supplies would last until help arrived from Utah. To lighten their loads, on October 17 the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per person, discarding clothing and blankets.\n\nOn October 4, the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with Brigham Young and other church leaders. The next morning the church held a general conference, where Young and the other speakers called on church members to provide wagons, mules, supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7, the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagon-loads of food and supplies, pulled by four-mule teams with 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were sent.\n\nThe Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering extremely cold temperatures. On October 19, a blizzard struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide. A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants, gave them a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company. The members of the Willie Company had reached the end of their flour supplies and slaughtered the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained. On October 20, Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening, the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company. On October 23, the second day after the main rescue party had arrived, the Willie Company faced the most difficult section of the trail—the ascent up Rocky Ridge. The climb took place during a howling snowstorm through knee-deep snow. That night 13 emigrants died.\n\nOn October 19, the Martin Company was about 110 miles (180 km) further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming. Shortly after completing the crossing, the blizzard struck. Many members of the company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile, the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate, where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party consisting of Joseph Young, Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones was sent forward. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for nine days until the three scouts arrived on October 28; 56 members of the company had died while they waited. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. During this interval, the party was met by Ephraim Hanks, bringing meat from a recently slaughtered buffalo. The meat likely saved many lives as the nutritive value was much higher than that of the other supplies. He also performed many blessings and helped in some amputations to stop the progression of the frostbite and gangrene that would have otherwise killed more members of the company. Three days later the main rescue party met the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies, and they helped them on to Devil's Gate.\n\nGeorge D. Grant, who headed the rescue party, reported to Young:\n\n> It is not of much use for me to attempt to give a description of the situation of these people, for this you will learn from [others]; but you can imagine between five and six hundred men, women and children, worn down by drawing hand carts through snow and mud; fainting by the wayside; falling, chilled by the cold; children crying, their limbs stiffened by cold, their feet bleeding and some of them bare to snow and frost. The sight is almost too much for the stoutest of us; but we go on doing all we can, not doubting nor despairing.\n\nAt Devil's Gate, the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group, led by Jones, remained at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. The severe weather forced the Martin Company to halt for five days; the company moved into Martin's Cove, a few miles west of Devil's Gate, as it was much more protected than the open plains to the east. During this season, the river, though shallow at about 2 feet (0.61 metres), was also 90 to 120 feet (27 to 37 metres) wide. The stream temperature was frigid and clogged with floating ice. Some of the men of the rescue party spent hours pulling the carts and carrying many of the emigrants across the river, while many members of the company crossed the river themselves, with some pulling their own handcarts. The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through snow and severe weather. When the Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9, 68 members of the company had died from disease and exposure.\n\nMeanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. After passing Fort Bridger, the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company. On November 18, the backup party met the Martin Company with the supplies so they could continue the journey. The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the company had died during the journey. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite. Residents of Utah allowed the companies to stay in their homes during the winter. The emigrants would eventually go to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West.\n\n### Responsibility for the tragedy\n\nAs early as November 2, 1856, while the Willie and Martin companies were still making their way to safety, Young responded to criticism of his own leadership by rebuking Franklin Richards and Daniel Spencer for allowing the companies to leave so late. Many authors argued that Young, as author of the plan, was responsible. Ann Eliza Young, daughter of one of the men in charge of building the carts and a former plural wife of Brigham Young, described her ex-husband's plan as a \"cold-blooded, scheming, blasphemous policy\". Most survivors refused to blame anyone. One traveler, Francis Webster, said it was a privilege to be part of the Martin company. One survivor, John Chislett, wrote bitterly of Richards's promise that \"we should get to Zion in safety.\"\n\nAmerican West historian, Wallace Stegner, described the inadequate planning and improvident decisions of leadership caused the struggles of the companies. He described Richards as a scapegoat for Young's fundamental errors in planning, though Howard Christy, professor emeritus at Brigham Young University, noted that Richards had the authority to halt the companies' late departure because he was the highest-ranking official in the Florence, Nebraska area. Christy also pointed out that Young and the other members of the church's First Presidency had consistently pointed out that departure from what is now Omaha, Nebraska, needed to happen by the end of May to safely make the journey.\n\n## 1857–60: Last five companies\n\nThe church enacted many changes following the journeys of the Willie and Martin companies. Handcart companies were not to depart Florence after July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs, and they would be regularly greased. Arrangements were made to replenish supplies along the route. By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years had to pay their own way. With the increased cost, the number of handcart emigrants dropped from nearly 2,000 in 1856 to about 480 in 1857. In 1857 two companies made the trek, both arriving in Salt Lake City by September 13.\n\nWith the uncertainty caused by the Utah War, the church prevented European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants could travel by rail to Saint Joseph, Missouri, after which they went by riverboat to Florence, where they were outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously low, so they cut back on rations. The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River. Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions arrived to be distributed to the emigrants. The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey proved to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life.\n\nThe outbreak of the American Civil War likely hastened the handcart system's demise by disrupting immigration from Europe and placing severe restrictions on rail travel from the East Coast. At the end of that conflict, the church implemented a new system of emigration in which wagon trains travelled east from Salt Lake City in the spring and returned with emigrants in the summer. The transcontinental railroad was being constructed in the mid-to-late 1860s and was completed in 1869; the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, progressively shortening the trip.\n\n## Legacy\n\nHandcart pioneers and the handcart movement are important parts of LDS culture, music and fiction. Arthur King Peters described these journeys as important parts of Mormon history and stated that these journeys caused the qualities of discipline, devotion, and self-sacrifice to be shown among the Mormon people. Wallace Stegner said the handcart pioneers were one of the greatest stories of the American West.\n\nReenactments, in which a group dressed in 19th-century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts, have become a popular activity among LDS wards, youth groups, and families. The first known modern-era reenactment took place in 1966 from Henefer, Utah, to the mouth of Emigration Canyon by young men from Phoenix, Arizona, using handcarts between metal wheels repurposed from old farm wagons. In 1968, 44 girls from Long Beach, California reenacted that same stretch of the Mormon Trail with homemade handcarts. From the mid-1970s until the early 1990s, participation in handcart reenactments were offered at BYU as a wilderness survival activity for youth conference participants. Beginning in 1977, similar treks were offered as part of Ricks College's outdoor recreation program, on connected jeep trails from Rexburg, Idaho and into Montana.\n\nIn 2006, Harriet Petherick Bushman created a concert opera called \"1856: Long Walk Home.\". A musical called 1856, produced by Cory Ellsworth, a descendant of Edmund Ellsworth, was performed in Mesa, Arizona and Salt Lake City in July 2006. Filmmaker Lee Groberg and historian Heidi Swinton created a documentary for PBS called Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie & Martin Handcart Story and first broadcast on December 18, 2006.\n\n## See also\n\n- History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\n- History of the Latter Day Saint movement\n- History of Utah", "revid": "1172622729", "description": "1856–1860 American religious migrants", "categories": ["History of the American West", "Mormon migration to Utah", "Mormon pioneers", "Pre-statehood history of Utah", "Pre-statehood history of Wyoming"]}
{"id": "22696794", "url": null, "title": "Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania", "text": "The Soviet Union issued an ultimatum to Lithuania before midnight of June 14, 1940. The Soviets, using a formal pretext, demanded that an unspecified number of Soviet soldiers be allowed to enter the Lithuanian territory and that a new pro-Soviet government (later known as the \"People's Government\") be formed. The ultimatum and subsequent incorporation of Lithuania into the Soviet Union stemmed from the division of Eastern Europe into the German and Soviet spheres of influence agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939. Lithuania, along with Latvia and Estonia, fell into the Soviet sphere. According to the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty of October 1939, Lithuania agreed to allow some 20,000 Soviets troops to be stationed at bases within Lithuania in exchange for receiving a portion of the Vilnius Region (previously Polish territory). Further Soviet actions to establish its dominance in its sphere of influence were delayed by the Winter War with Finland and resumed in spring 1940 when Germany was making rapid advances in western Europe. Despite the threat to the country's independence, Lithuanian authorities did little to plan for contingencies and were unprepared for the ultimatum.\n\nWith Soviet troops already stationed in the country in accordance with to the Mutual Assistance Treaty, it was impossible to mount effective military resistance. On the 15th of June, Lithuania unconditionally accepted the ultimatum and lost its independence. The Soviets sought to show the world that this was not a military occupation and annexation, but a socialist revolution initiated by the local population demanding to join the Soviet Union. In conformity with this, the Soviets followed semi-legal procedures: they took control of the governmental institutions, installed a puppet government, and carried out show elections to the People's Seimas. During its first session, the Seimas proclaimed the creation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned to be admitted into the Soviet Union. The petition was officially accepted by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union on 3 August 1940. At the same time, almost identical processes took place in Latvia and Estonia. Lithuania would not regain its independence until the proclamation of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania on 11 March 1990.\n\n## Background\n\nThe Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia were part of the Russian Empire during the 19th century, achieving independence in the aftermath of World War I. The rise of Nazi Germany during the 1930s created Soviet fears of a German invasion, further aggravated by German expansion to the East, such as the ultimatum to Lithuania in March 1939, as a result of which the nation was forced to cede its most industrially developed region, Klaipėda, to the Reich.\n\nThe Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany in August 1939, in part as an attempt to delay the possibility of invasion. Germany shortly initiated World War II by invading Poland on September 1. Lithuania at first was found to be in Nazi Germany's sphere of influence according to the secret protocol of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, but later German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty of September 28, divided large portions of northeastern Europe between the two powers, and assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence. A Lithuanian delegation was invited to Moscow, where it signed the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty on October 10, 1939. According to the treaty, the Soviet Union would cede a portion of the Vilnius Region, including the important city of Vilnius, which it had gained during the invasion of Poland, to Lithuania in exchange for the right to station up to 20,000 (the original bargaining point was 50,000) Soviet troops in Lithuania on a permanent basis. Official Soviet sources claimed that the presence of the Soviet military was necessary to strengthen defenses of a weak nation against possible attacks by Nazi Germany. In reality, it was the first step toward the eventual occupation of Lithuania and was described by The New York Times as a \"virtual sacrifice of independence.\"\n\nDespite the pacts, the Soviet Union's fears continued. In a stance long held by Russian military theorists, control of the Baltic Sea was crucial to the defense of St. Petersburg, the Soviet Union's second-largest city, and the Baltic states offered a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and Germany. Pursuing this strategy, the Soviet Union initiated the Winter War in Finland after that country rejected a similar Moscow-offered mutual assistance treaty. Stalin was unnerved by German successes in Europe, since they had taken Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg by spring of 1940. According to Nikita Khrushchev, after the fall of France in May, Joseph Stalin expressed the concern that Adolf Hitler would 'beat our brains in'.\n\nThe political situation in Lithuania, however, remained stable between October 1939 and March 1940. The Soviets did not interfere with Lithuania's domestic affairs and the Soviet soldiers were well-behaved in their bases. As late as March 29, 1940, Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov delivered a speech before the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union expressing his satisfaction with the execution of the mutual assistance treaties with Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. While Lithuanian politicians publicly praised the Soviet Union for its generosity and touted the \"traditional Soviet–Lithuanian friendship\", in private they understood this treaty was a serious threat to Lithuanian independence. The popular attitude was reflected in the slogan \"Vilnius – mūsų, Lietuva – rusų\" (Vilnius is ours, but Lithuania is Russia's).\n\nThe Lithuanian government had been debating its options and discussing the possibility of occupation since November 1939. At that time, the Lithuanian envoys Stasys Lozoraitis, Petras Klimas, and Bronius Kazys Balutis prepared a memorandum containing contingency plans. They advised strengthening the army, depositing funds abroad, reinforcing the 1934 Baltic Entente alliance with Latvia and Estonia, and investigating the establishment of a government-in-exile. Although various resolutions were forwarded, nothing tangible was accomplished. During winter 1940 the Baltic Entente nations discussed greater cooperation. Mindful of their circumstances, the three governments worded their communications carefully, but the talks would be used as evidence that Lithuania was conspiring with Latvia and Estonia in violation of the mutual assistance treaty.\n\n## Rising tension\n\n### Initial accusations\n\nTensions between the Soviet Union and Lithuania escalated along with Germany's successes. By mid-March 1940, the Winter War with Finland was over and the Soviets could concentrate their attention on gaining control of the Baltic states. In April, after Germany occupied Denmark, a Lithuanian envoy in Moscow reported rising hostility from Soviet diplomats. During May, while the Battle of France was in full swing, the Soviets intensified their rhetoric and diplomatic pressure. On May 16, shortly after the German invasion of Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands, Soviet official newspaper Izvestia published an article warning that it was naive for a small country to attempt neutrality while giants were fighting for survival. Between May 18 and May 25, Soviet soldiers moved some military equipment from Vilnius to Gaižiūnai, a location much closer to the government seat in Kaunas. The action's proximity to the then-capital carried symbolic weight.\n\nOn May 25, the day before the Dunkirk evacuation, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov presented a diplomatic note that accused the Lithuanian government of abducting three Soviet soldiers stationed in Lithuania in accordance with the terms of the mutual assistance treaty. The note alleged that two soldiers had been tortured to obtain Soviet military secrets but managed to escape, and that the third, Butayev, was murdered. Earlier in May, Butayev had deserted his unit and was searched by the Lithuanian police. When found, he committed suicide. The Lithuanian government replied that the accusations were baseless, but promised a full investigation of the incident and convened a special commission. However, the commission's requests for detailed information, including interviews, photographs, physical descriptions, or other data that could further the investigation, went unanswered. The official Soviet stance was that Lithuania needed to carry out the investigation on its own and that its requests were an attempt to shift responsibility to the Soviets.\n\n### Direct negotiations\n\nOn May 30, the accusations were restated, in an official communique, published by TASS, the official Soviet news agency. The same day, Stasys Lozoraitis—the Lithuanian envoy in Rome—was authorized to form a government in exile in case of the Soviet occupation. The Lithuanian police tightened security around Soviet bases and arrested 272 suspicious individuals, but that only drew additional criticism of harassment. Foreign Minister Juozas Urbšys offered to settle the matter in direct negotiations in Moscow. Molotov agreed to talk but only with Prime Minister Antanas Merkys. On June 7, Merkys arrived in Moscow. The Soviets repeated the accusations of kidnapping. Other charges were leveled, including the allegation that Minister of the Interior Kazys Skučas and Director of State Security Department Augustinas Povilaitis had provoked Soviet soldiers. During the second meeting on June 9, Molotov also accused the Lithuanian government of conspiring with Latvia and Estonia to establish a secret military union (in reference to the Baltic Entente), thereby violating the mutual assistance pact.\n\nOn June 10, the Lithuanian government discussed the new developments. It decided that Merkys should return to Kaunas and Urbšys should deliver a note offering withdrawal from the Baltic Entente, a full investigation of the incident, and dismissal of Skučas and Povilaitis. A personal letter from President Antanas Smetona to Chairman of Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Mikhail Kalinin repeated assurances that Lithuania always honored the mutual assistance pact. The third and final meeting between Merkys, Urbšys, and Molotov on June 11 brought no resolution. The Soviets continued to press charges which the Lithuanians could not meaningfully answer and made no more actionable requests. On June 12, Merkys returned to Lithuania and informed the government of the situation. It was decided that Skučas should resign and Povilaitis would be immediately dismissed. The Lithuanian Army was ordered to be alert, but no orders were issued regarding mobilization or preparedness. Lithuanian politicians did not fully understand the gravity of the situation and did not think the results would be catastrophic. Urbšys reported that the Soviets strongly disapproved of Merkys and his cabinet; he suggested that a new government be installed, possibly led by Stasys Raštikis, former Commander-in-Chief of the Lithuanian Army. Such suggestion interfered with Lithuania's domestic affairs.\n\n### Internal crisis\n\nWhile Merkys and Urbšys negotiated in Moscow, the Lithuanian opposition saw an opportunity to unseat the authoritarian regime of Smetona and his Lithuanian Nationalist Union. On June 12, the Christian Democrats and the Peasant Popular Union met and decided to ask Kazys Bizauskas and Juozas Audėnas to resign from the cabinet, expecting that these resignations would trigger a government crisis. The opposition saw Soviet pressure as a means of ousting Smetona's regime, restoring democracy, and preserving some form of autonomy. The opposition also hoped to persuade Merkys, who had just returned from Moscow, to resign along with the rest of the cabinet. However, Merkys could not be found—he was apparently resting at his estate near Kaunas. This episode was harshly criticized afterwards as an illustration of several weaknesses in the Lithuanian government: it underestimated the threat posed by the Soviet Union, it was disoriented during the crisis, and its members focused on party interests rather than national priorities. Algirdas Julien Greimas later described the opposition's actions as a \"joyful dance next to the corpse of the lost state\".\n\n### Military movements\n\nMobilization of the Red Army had begun before the last round of meetings in Moscow. On June 7, the Army was ordered to prepare for an attack against Lithuania. As of June 5, all Soviet forces in the Baltic region were assigned to command of Semyon Timoshenko, People's Commissar for Defense. The Soviets gathered their forces on Lithuania's eastern border in modern-day Belarus; they consisted of five divisions and supporting units from the 3rd and the 11th Armies. The armies included 221,260 soldiers, operating 1,140 airplanes and 1,513 tanks. Lithuania already housed 18,786 Soviet troops within its territory. At the time the Lithuanian Army comprised 28,005 troops and owned 118 planes. The Soviets readied hospitals for the wounded and prisoner-of-war camps. On June 11, under the command of General Dmitry Pavlov, the Soviets finalized their attack plan and assigned specific tasks to all units. The orders were to cross the border silently, use bayonets as gunshots would be noticed, and to maneuver around defensive forces in order to occupy the territory more quickly. The Soviets expected to take control of the entire territory in three to four days.\n\nOn the night of June 14, while the Lithuanian government was discussing the ultimatum, Soviet soldiers began actions at the border. They fired shots at a border post near Alytus and killed policeman Aleksas Barauskas. At other points the Soviets interrogated Lithuanian border guards and harassed civilians, hoping to provoke a retaliation that would serve as a rationale for a full-scale military attack.\n\n## Ultimatum and acceptance\n\nJust before midnight on June 14, while the world was focused on the imminent capitulation of Paris, Molotov presented the ultimatum to Urbšys in Moscow. It reiterated the earlier charges of kidnapping Soviet soldiers and conspiracy with Latvia and Estonia. The ultimatum demanded:\n\n1. That Skučas and Povilaitis be put on trial for ordering the Soviet soldiers to be kidnapped;\n2. That a government, more capable of adhering to the Mutual Assistance Pact, be formed;\n3. That an unspecified, but \"sufficiently large\" number of Soviet troops be allowed to enter Lithuanian territory;\n4. That an answer be given by 10:00 am the next morning.\n\nThe Lithuanian government—given less than 12 hours to respond—debated the ultimatum during the night session. It was clear that no matter how the government responded, the Soviet army would invade Lithuania. President Antanas Smetona agreed only with the demand to form a new government argued for military resistance, even if it were symbolic. Merkys and his deputy Kazys Bizauskas urged acceptance. Soviet troops were stationed in Lithuania since October 1939 and acted honorably – the Soviets would surely continue to be reasonable. Bizauskas, a member of the opposition, saw the ultimatum as an opportunity to get rid of the Smetona regime. Historians cited his attitudes to illustrate his incomprehension of the dire situation. Raštikis, as the potential head of a new government, was invited to the meeting. Both former and current Chief Military Commanders Raštikis and Vincas Vitkauskas reported that mounting an effective armed resistance, when Soviet troops were already in the country and the Lithuanian military was not mobilized, was impossible. The government also rejected a diplomatic protest. In Raštikis' view, such actions were empty and would do no more than anger the Soviets and Urbšys, calling from Moscow, urged not to needlessly antagonize the Soviets. Merkys and his cabinet resigned to make way for a new government led by Raštikis. The session ended at 7 am with a decision to accept all Soviet demands without expressing protest or complaint.\n\nBy noon, the Lithuanians received a reply from Moscow stating that Raštikis was not a suitable candidate for Prime Minister. The selection of another candidate would be supervised by Molotov's deputy Vladimir Dekanozov. Merkys continued to act as Prime Minister. Smetona, who continued to disagree with the majority of his government, decided to leave the country in protest and appointed Merkys as acting president. By late evening on June 15, Smetona and Minister of Defense Kazys Musteikis reached Kybartai and crossed the border into Germany, where they were granted temporary asylum. The Lithuanian guards did not allow them to pass; thus, Smetona had to wade across the shallow Liepona rivulet. Smetona's departure worked to the Soviets′ advantage; its indignity opened him to ridicule and they were able to exploit the sentiments against him without fearing that he would be seen as a martyr. By fleeing, Smetona escaped the fate of Latvian President Kārlis Ulmanis and Estonian President Konstantin Päts, who were manipulated by the Soviets and later arrested. Under the Lithuanian constitution, Merkys became acting president.\n\nThe Red Army was scheduled to enter Lithuanian territory from three separate directions at 3:00 pm and had orders to take control of Vilnius, Kaunas, Raseiniai, Panevėžys, and Šiauliai. The Lithuanian Army was ordered not to resist and to extend friendly greetings; its air force was ordered to remain on the ground. The Soviets came in great numbers clogging Lithuanian roads. They had an obvious intention to show power and intimidate any resistance. Writer Ignas Šeinius claimed that he observed the same squadron of Soviet planes making the same flight over and over again to create an impression of much larger Soviet Air Forces.\n\nOn June 16, nearly identical ultimata were issued to Latvia and Estonia, although they were given only eight hours to respond. With Lithuania already in Soviet hands, armed resistance in Latvia or Estonia was even more futile. All three states were occupied and lost their independence until 1990.\n\n## Aftermath\n\n### Legitimization of the occupation\n\nOne of Dekanozov's primary goals was the organization of a puppet government that would legitimize the occupation. On June 16, the Lithuanian government, exceeding its authority, decided that Smetona's emigration was in effect a resignation and granted Merkys full presidential powers. On June 17, Merkys appointed Justas Paleckis the new Prime Minister and confirmed the new government, known as the People's Government. Merkys and Urbšys then resigned; both would later be arrested and deported to Russia. Paleckis assumed the presidency and appointed writer Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius as Prime Minister. The People's Government included several well-known politicians and public figures to reassure the public that the new government was not a tool of Soviet occupation, but a simple replacement of the authoritarian Smetona regime. Since there had been strong opposition to Smetona's rule, it was interpreted by some Lithuanians as a destruction of presidential power rather than as a loss of independence.\n\nOn July 1, the People's Government dissolved the Fourth Seimas of Lithuania and announced a show election for a \"People's Seimas \"to be held on July 14. A new electoral law was adopted on July 5. The law, in violation of the constitution, specified that only candidate could stand for each seat available in the parliament. It was also worded in such a way to effectively limit the field to the Lithuanian Communist Party and its supporters. The official fraudulent results showed a voter turnout of 95.51% and support of 99.19% to the communist delegates. Officially, however, 39 of the elected delegates were Communists and 40 were independents. During its first session on July 21, the parliament proclaimed the creation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union to accept this new republic into the Union. A 20-member Lithuanian delegation presented the case for incorporation in Moscow on August 1. The petition was accepted on August 3 and Lithuania became the 14th republic of the Soviet Union.\n\n### Sovietization of Lithuania\n\nImmediately after the occupation, the new government began implementing political, economic, and social Sovietization policies. On July 1, all cultural and religious organizations were closed. The Communist Party of Lithuania—with some 1,500 members,—and its youth branch were designated the only legitimate political entities. Before the elections to the People's Seimas, the Soviets arrested about 2,000 of the most prominent political activists. These arrests paralyzed the opposition. The repressions continued and intensified. An estimated 12,000 individuals were imprisoned as \"enemies of the people\" during the year following the annexation. Between June 14 and June 18, 1941, less than a week before the Nazi invasion, some 17,000 Lithuanians were deported to Siberia, where many perished due to inhumane living conditions (see the June deportation).\n\nAll banks (including all accounts holding over 1,000 litas), real estate holdings larger than 170 m<sup>2</sup> (1,800 sq ft), and private enterprises employing over 20 workers or grossing more than 150,000 litas were nationalized. This disruption in management and operations created a sharp drop in production. The Lithuanian litas was artificially depreciated by three to four times less than its actual value and withdrawn by March 1941. The drop in production, combined with massive spending of appreciated roubles by Soviet soldiers and officials, caused widespread shortages. All land was nationalized; the largest farms were reduced to 30 ha (74 acres), and extra land (some 575,000 ha (1,420,000 acres)) was distributed to small farmers. To turn small peasants against large landowners, collectivization was not immediately introduced in Lithuania. In preparation for eventual collectivization, farm taxes were increased by 50–200% and additional heavy in-kind conscriptions were enacted. Some farmers were unable to pay the exorbitant new taxes, and about 1,100 of the larger ones were put on trial.\n\n### Nazi occupation\n\nOn June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union and within a week took control of all Lithuania. At first the Germans were greeted as liberators from the oppressive Soviet regime. The Lithuanians hoped that the Germans would re-establish their independence or at least allow some degree of autonomy (similar to the Slovak Republic). Organized by the Lithuanian Activist Front (LAF), Lithuanians rose in the anti-Soviet and pro-Nazi June Uprising, established the short-lived Provisional Government, and declared independence. However, the Germans did not recognize the Provisional Government and established their own civil administration, the Reichskommissariat Ostland. When the Red Army regained control of Lithuania in summer 1944 – January 1945, the Lithuanian partisans began an armed struggle against the second Soviet occupation. An estimated 30,000 partisans and partisan supporters were killed during the guerrilla warfare between 1944 and 1953.\n\n## Impacts and evaluation\n\nWhile unsuccessful, the June Uprising demonstrated that many Lithuanians were determined to be independent. Lithuania would become disillusioned with the Nazi regime and organize resistance, notably the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, but the Soviet Union remained \"Public Enemy Number One.\" A Lithuanian perception that Jewish Bolshevism was involved in the occupation strengthened antisemitic attitudes and contributed to Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust.\n\nThe acceptance of the ultimatum remains a highly controversial topic in Lithuania. Observers criticize the Lithuanian Army, which had been consuming some 20% of the state budget, for not staging even a symbolic resistance that would have invalidated Soviet claims that the takeover was a \"socialist revolution\" and a legitimate change of government. Others criticize the government of inaction: there were eight months in which to create contingency plans. Barring armed resistance, diplomatic options remained — the Lithuanian government could have rejected the ultimatum, retreated abroad, and formed a recognized government-in-exile. Historian Alfonsas Eidintas points to a lack of public comprehension of the risk. Negative news about the Soviets was censored and even politicians did not believe the ultimatum would mean a complete loss of independence. Another debate centers on the lack of bloodshed. By accepting the ultimatum, the government may have avoided loss of life at the time, but its submission may also have encouraged later Soviet repressions. Russia, the primary successor state of the Soviet Union, continues to dispute whether the events surrounding the ultimatum and the subsequent years that Lithuania spent as a Soviet Socialist Republic constitute an occupation.\n\n## See also\n\n- Vladimir Putin's December 2021 ultimatum", "revid": "1160160254", "description": "1940 demand of the Soviet Union", "categories": ["1940 documents", "1940 in Lithuania", "1940 in the Soviet Union", "Diplomatic incidents", "June 1940 events", "Lithuania–Soviet Union relations", "Occupation of the Baltic states", "People's Government of Lithuania", "Politics of World War II", "Ultimata"]}
{"id": "17384703", "url": null, "title": "Choral symphony", "text": "A choral symphony is a musical composition for orchestra, choir, and sometimes solo vocalists that, in its internal workings and overall musical architecture, adheres broadly to symphonic musical form. The term \"choral symphony\" in this context was coined by Hector Berlioz when he described his Roméo et Juliette as such in his five-paragraph introduction to that work. The direct antecedent for the choral symphony is Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Beethoven's Ninth incorporates part of the Ode an die Freude (\"Ode to Joy\"), a poem by Friedrich Schiller, with text sung by soloists and chorus in the last movement. It is the first example of a major composer's use of the human voice on the same level as instruments in a symphony.\n\nA few 19th-century composers, notably Felix Mendelssohn and Franz Liszt, followed Beethoven in producing choral symphonic works. Notable works in the genre were produced in the 20th century by Gustav Mahler, Igor Stravinsky, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten and Dmitri Shostakovich, among others. The final years of the 20th century and the opening of the 21st century have seen several new works in this genre, among them compositions by Mikis Theodorakis, Peter Maxwell Davies, Tan Dun, Philip Glass, Hans Werner Henze, Krzysztof Penderecki, William Bolcom and Robert Strassburg.\n\nThe term \"choral symphony\" indicates the composer's intention that the work be symphonic, even with its fusion of narrative or dramatic elements that stems from the inclusion of words. To this end, the words are often treated symphonically to pursue non-narrative ends, by use of frequent repetition of important words and phrases, and the transposing, reordering or omission of passages of the set text. The text often determines the basic symphonic outline, while the orchestra's role in conveying the musical ideas is similar in importance to that of the chorus and soloists. Even with a symphonic emphasis, a choral symphony is often influenced in musical form and content by an external narrative, even in parts where there is no singing.\n\n## History\n\nThe symphony had established itself by the end of the 18th century as the most prestigious of instrumental genres. While the genre had been developed with considerable intensity throughout that century and appeared in a wide range of occasions, it was generally used as an opening or closing work; in between would be works that included vocal and instrumental soloists. Because of its lack of written text for focus, it was seen as a vehicle for entertainment rather than for social, moral or intellectual ideas. As the symphony grew in size and artistic significance, thanks in part to efforts in the form by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert it also amassed greater prestige. A concurrent change in attitude toward instrumental music in general also took place, and the lack of text, once seen as a handicap, became considered a virtue.\n\nIn 1824, Beethoven redefined the symphony genre in his Ninth by introducing text and voice into a previously instrumental genre. His doing so sparked a debate on the future of the symphony itself. Beethoven's use of words, according to Richard Wagner, had shown \"the limits of purely instrumental music\" and marked \"the end of the symphony as a vital genre\". Others were not sure how to proceed—whether to emulate the Ninth by writing symphonies with choral finales, or to develop the symphony genre in a purely instrumental fashion. Eventually, musicologist Mark Evan Bonds writes, the symphony was seen \"as an all-embracing, cosmic drama that transcended the realm of sound alone\".\n\nSome composers both emulated and expanded upon Beethoven's model. Berlioz showed in his choral symphony Roméo et Juliette a fresh approach to the epic nature of the symphony as he used voices to blend music and narrative but saved crucial moments of that narrative for the orchestra alone. In doing so, Bonds writes, Berlioz illustrates for subsequent composers \"new approaches for addressing the metaphysical in the realm of the symphony\". Mendelssohn wrote his Lobgesang as a work for chorus, soloists and orchestra. Labeling the work a \"symphony-cantata\", he expanded the choral finale to nine movements by including sections for vocal soloists, recitatives and sections for chorus; this made the vocal part longer than the three purely orchestral sections that preceded it. Liszt wrote two choral symphonies, following in these multi-movement forms the same compositional practices and programmatic goals he had established in his symphonic poems.\n\nAfter Liszt, Mahler took on the legacy of Beethoven in his early symphonies, in what Bonds terms \"their striving for a utopian finale\". Towards this end Mahler used a chorus and soloists in the finale of his Second Symphony, the \"Resurrection\". In his Third, he wrote a purely instrumental finale following two vocal movements, and in his Fourth a vocal finale is sung by a solo soprano. After writing his Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Symphonies as purely instrumental works, Mahler returned to the vein of \"festival-symphonic ceremonial\" in his Eighth Symphony, which integrates text throughout the body of the work. After Mahler, the choral symphony became a more common genre, taking a number of compositional turns in the process. Some composers, such as Britten, Rachmaninoff, Shostakovich and Vaughan Williams, followed symphonic form strictly. Others, such as Havergal Brian, Alfred Schnittke and Karol Szymanowski, chose either to expand symphonic form or to use different symphonic structures altogether.\n\nThroughout the history of the choral symphony, works have been composed for special occasions. One of the earliest was Mendelssohn's Lobgesang, commissioned by the city of Leipzig in 1840 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Johannes Gutenberg's invention of movable type. More than a century later, Henryk Górecki's Second Symphony, subtitled \"Copernican\", was commissioned in 1973 by the Kosciuszko Foundation in New York to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. In between these two works, in 1930, conductor Serge Koussevitzky asked Stravinsky to write the Symphony of Psalms for the 50th anniversary of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and, in 1946, composer Henry Barraud, then head of Radiodiffusion Française, commissioned Darius Milhaud to write his Third Symphony, subtitled \"Te Deum\", to commemorate the end of World War II.\n\nIn the final years of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st, more such choral symphonies were written. Mikis Theodorakis's Symphony No. 4: Of the Chorals Odes was for the 150th anniversary of University of Athens. Krzysztof Penderecki's Seventh Symphony was for the third millennium of the city of Jerusalem. Tan Dun's Symphony 1997: Heaven Earth Mankind commemorated the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong that year to the People's Republic of China. Philip Glass's Fifth Symphony as one of several pieces commissioned to celebrate the beginning of the 21st century.\n\n## General features\n\nLike an oratorio or an opera, a choral symphony is a musical work for orchestra, choir and (often) solo voices, although a few have been written for unaccompanied voices. Berlioz, who in 1858 first coined the term when describing his work Roméo et Juliette, explained the distinctive relationship he envisaged between voice and orchestra:\n\n> Even though voices are often used, it is neither a concert opera nor a cantata, but a choral symphony. If there is singing, almost from the beginning, it is to prepare the listener's mind for the dramatic scenes whose feelings and passions are to be expressed by the orchestra. It is also to introduce the choral masses gradually into the musical development, when their too sudden appearance would have damaged the compositions's unity....\n\nUnlike oratorios or operas, which are generally structured dramaturgically into arias, recitatives and choruses, a choral symphony is structured like a symphony, in movements. It may employ the traditional four-movement scheme of a fast opening movement, slow movement, scherzo and finale, or as with many instrumental symphonies, it may use a different structure of movements. The written text in a choral symphony shares equal standing with the music, as in an oratorio, and the chorus and soloists share equality with the instruments. Over time the use of text allowed the choral symphony to evolve from an instrumental symphony with a choral finale, as in the Beethoven's Ninth, to a composition that can use voices and instruments throughout the entire composition, as in Stravinsky's Symphony of Psalms or Mahler's Eighth Symphony.\n\nSometimes the text can give a basic outline that correlates to the four-movement scheme of a symphony. For instance, the four-part structure of Edgar Allan Poe's The Bells, a progression from youth to marriage, maturity, and death, naturally suggested the four movements of a symphony to Sergei Rachmaninoff, which he followed in his choral symphony of the same name. The text can encourage a composer to expand a choral symphony past the normal bounds of the symphonic genre, as with Berlioz for his Roméo et Juliette, yet stay within the basic structural or aesthetic intent of symphonic form. It can also influence the musical content in parts where there is no singing, as in Roméo et Juliette. There, Berlioz allows the orchestra to express the majority of the drama in instrumental music and saves words for expository and narrative sections of the work.\n\n## Relation of words and music\n\nAs in an oratorio, the written text in a choral symphony can be as important as the music, and the chorus and soloists can participate equally with the instruments in the exposition and development of musical ideas. The text can also help determine whether the composer follows symphonic form strictly, as in the case of Rachmaninoff, Britten and Shostakovich, or whether they expand symphonic form, as in the case of Berlioz, Mahler and Havergal Brian. Sometimes the choice of text has led the composer to different symphonic structures, as with Szymanowski, Schnittke and, again, Havergal Brian. The composer can also choose to treat the text fluidly, in a manner more like music than narrative. Such was the case with Vaughan Williams, Mahler and Philip Glass.\n\n### Musical treatment of text\n\nVaughan Williams' program note for A Sea Symphony discusses how the text was to be treated as music. The composer writes, \"The plan of the work is symphonic rather than narrative or dramatic, and this may be held to justify the frequent repetition of important words and phrases which occur in the poem. The words as well as the music are thus treated symphonically.\" Walt Whitman's poems inspired him to write the symphony, and Whitman's use of free verse became appreciated at a time where fluidity of structure was becoming more attractive than traditional, metrical settings of text. This fluidity helped facilitate the non-narrative, symphonic treatment of text that Vaughan Williams had in mind. In the third movement in particular, the text is loosely descriptive and can be \"pushed about by the music\", some lines being repeated, some not consecutive in the written text immediately following one another in the music, and some left out entirely.\n\nVaughan Williams was not the only composer following a non-narrative approach to his text. Mahler took a similar, perhaps even more radical approach in his Eighth Symphony, presenting many lines of the first part, \"Veni, Creator Spiritus\", in what music writer and critic Michael Steinberg referred to as \"an incredibly dense growth of repetitions, combinations, inversions, transpositions and conflations\". He does the same with Goethe's text in Part Two of the symphony, making two substantial cuts and other changes.\n\nOther works take the use of text as music still further. Vaughan Williams uses a chorus of women's voices wordlessly in his Sinfonia Antartica, based on his music for the film Scott of the Antarctic, to help set the bleakness of the overall atmosphere. While a chorus is used in the second and third movements of Glass's Seventh Symphony, also known as A Toltec Symphony, the text contains no actual words; the composer states that it is instead formed \"from loose syllables that add to the evocative context of the overall orchestral texture\".\n\n### Music and words as equals\n\nStravinsky said about the texts of his Symphony of Psalms that \"it is not a symphony in which I have included Psalms to be sung. On the contrary, it is the singing of the Psalms that I am symphonizing\". This decision was as much musical as it was textual. Stravinsky's counterpoint required several musical voices to function simultaneously, independent melodically and rhythmically, yet interdependent harmonically. They would sound very different when heard separately, yet harmonious when heard together. To facilitate maximum clarity in this interplay of voices, Stravinsky used \"a choral and instrumental ensemble in which the two elements should be on an equal footing, neither of them outweighing the other\".\n\nMahler's intent in writing his Eighth Symphony for exceptionally large forces was a similar balance between vocal and instrumental forces. It was not simply an attempt at grandiose effect, though the composer's use of such forces earned the work the subtitle \"Symphony of a Thousand\" from his press agent (a name still applied to the symphony). Like Stravinsky, Mahler makes extensive and extended use of counterpoint, especially in the first part, \"Veni Creator Spiritus\". Throughout this section, according to music writer Michael Kennedy, Mahler displays considerable mastery in manipulating multiple independent melodic voices. Musicologist Deryck Cooke adds that Mahler handles his huge forces \"with extraordinary clarity\".\n\nVaughan Williams also insisted on a balance between words and music in A Sea Symphony, writing in his program note for the work, \"It is also noticeable that the orchestra has an equal share with the chorus and soloists in carrying out the musical ideas\". Music critic Samuel Langford, writing about the premiere of the work for The Manchester Guardian, concurred with the composer, writing, \"It is the nearest approach we have to a real choral symphony, one in which the voices are used throughout just as freely as the orchestra.\"\n\nIn his Leaves of Grass: A Choral Symphony, Robert Strassburg composed a symphonic \"musical setting\" in ten movements for the poetry of Walt Whitman while balancing the contributions of a narrator, a chorus and an orchestra.\n\n### Words determining symphonic form\n\nRachmaninoff's choral symphony The Bells reflected the four-part progression from youth to marriage, maturity, and death in Poe's poem. Britten reversed the pattern for his Spring Symphony—the four sections of the symphony represent, in its composer's words, \"the progress of Winter to Spring and the reawakening of the earth and life which that means.... It is in the traditional four movement shape of a symphony, but with the movements divided into shorter sections bound together by a similar mood or point of view.\"\n\nThe gestation of Shostakovich's Thirteenth Symphony, Babi Yar, was only slightly less straightforward. He set the poem Babi Yar by Yevgeny Yevtushenko almost immediately upon reading it, initially considering it a single-movement composition. Discovering three other Yevtushenko poems in the poet's collection Vzmakh ruki (A Wave of the Hand) prompted him to proceed to a full-length choral symphony, with \"A Career\" as the closing movement. Musicologist Francis Maes comments that Shostakovich did so by complementing Babi Yar's theme of Jewish suffering with Yevtushenko's verses about other Soviet abuses: \"'At the Store' is a tribute to the women who have to stand in line for hours to buy the most basic foods,... 'Fears' evokes the terror under Stalin. 'A Career' is an attack on bureaucrats and a tribute to genuine creativity\". Music historian Boris Schwarz adds that the poems, in the order Shostakovich places them, form a strongly dramatic opening movement, a scherzo, two slow movements and a finale.\n\nIn other cases, the choice of text has led the composer to different symphonic structures. Havergal Brian allowed the form of his Fourth Symphony, subtitled \"Das Siegeslied\" (Psalm of Victory), to be dictated by the three-part structure of his text, Psalm 68; the setting of Verses 13–18 for soprano solo and orchestra forms a quiet interlude between two wilder, highly chromatic martial ones set for massive choral and orchestral forces. Likewise, Szymanowski allowed the text by 13th-century Persian poet Rumi to dictate what Jim Samson calls the \"single tripartite movement\" and \"overall arch structure\" of his Third Symphony, subtitled \"Song of the Night\".\n\n### Words expanding symphonic form\n\nA composer may also respond to a text by expanding a choral symphony beyond the normal bounds of the symphonic genre. This is evident in the unusual orchestration and stage directions Berlioz prepared for his Roméo et Juliette. This piece is actually in seven movements, and calls for an intermission after the fourth movement – the \"Queen Mab Scherzo\" – to remove the harps from the stage and bring on the chorus of Capulets for the funeral march that follows. Berlioz biographer D. Kern Holoman observed that, \"as Berlioz saw it, the work is simply Beethovenian in design, with the narrative elements overlain. Its core approaches a five-movement symphony with the choral finale and, as in the [Symphonie] Fantastique, both a scherzo and a march.... The 'extra' movements are thus the introduction with its potpourri of subsections and the descriptive tomb scene [at the end of the work].\"\n\nMahler expanded the Beethovenian model for programmatic as well as symphonic reasons in his Second Symphony, the \"Resurrection\", the vocal fourth movement, \"Urlicht\", bridging the childlike faith of the third movement with the ideological tension Mahler seeks to resolve in the finale. He then abandoned this pattern for his Third Symphony, as two movements for voices and orchestra follow three purely instrumental ones before the finale returns to instruments alone. Like Mahler, Havergal Brian expanded the Beethovenian model, but on a much larger scale and with far larger orchestral and choral forces, in his Symphony No. 1 \"The Gothic\". Written between 1919 and 1927, the symphony was inspired by Goethe's Faust and Gothic cathedral architecture. The Brian First is in two parts. The first consists of three instrumental movements; the second, also in three movements and over an hour in length, is a Latin setting of the Te Deum.\n\n## Symphonies for unaccompanied chorus\n\nA few composers have written symphonies for unaccompanied chorus, in which the choir performs both vocal and instrumental functions. Granville Bantock composed three such works—Atalanta in Calydon (1911), Vanity of Vanities (1913) and A Pageant of Human Life (1913). His Atalanta, called by musicologist Herbert Antcliffe \"the most important [work of the three] alike in technical experiment and in inspiration\", was written for a choir of at least 200, the composer specifying \"'not less than 10 voices for each part,'\" a work with 20 separate vocal parts. Using these forces, Bantock formed groups \"of different weights and colors to get something of the varied play of tints and perspective [of an orchestra]\". In addition, the choir is generally divided into three sections, approximating the timbres of woodwinds, brass and strings. Within these divisions, Antcliffe writes,\n\n> Almost every possible means of vocal expression is employed separately or in combination with others. To hear the different parts of the choir describing in word and tone \"laughter\" and \"tears\" respectively at the same time is to realize how little the possibilities of choral singing have as yet been grasped by the ordinary conductor and composer. Such combinations are extremely effective when properly achieved, but they are very difficult to achieve.\n\nRoy Harris wrote his Symphony for Voices in 1935 for a cappella choir split into eight parts. Harris focused on harmony, rhythm and dynamics, allowing the text by Walt Whitman to dictate the choral writing. \"In a real sense, the human strivings so vividly portrayed in Whitman's poetry find a musical analog to the trials to which the singers are subjected\", John Profitt writes both of the music's difficulty for performers and of its highly evocative quality. Malcolm Williamson wrote his Symphony for Voices between 1960 and 1962, setting texts by Australian poet James McAuley. Lewis Mitchell writes that the work is not a symphony in any true sense, but rather a four-movement work preceded by an invocation for solo contralto. The text is a combination of poems celebrating the Australian wilderness and visionary Christianity, its jagged lines and rhythms matched by the music. Mitchell writes, \"Of all his choral works, with the possible exception of the Requiem for a Tribe Brother, the Symphony is the most Australian in feeling\".\n\n## Programmatic intent\n\nSome recent efforts have paid less attention to symphonic form and more to programmatic intent. Hans Werner Henze wrote his 1997 Ninth Symphony in seven movements, basing the structure of the symphony on the novel The Seventh Cross by Anna Seghers. The novel recounts the flight of seven fugitives from a Nazi prison camp, the seven crosses symbolizing the seven death sentences; the ordeal of the one prisoner who makes it to freedom becomes the crux of the text. Penderecki's Seventh Symphony, subtitled \"Seven Gates of Jerusalem\" and originally conceived as an oratorio, is not only written in seven movements but, musicologist Richard Whitehouse writes, is \"pervaded by the number 'seven' at various levels.\" An extensive system of seven-note phrases binds the work together, as well as the frequent use of seven notes repeated at a single pitch. Seven chords played fortissimo bring the work to a close.\n\nPhilip Glass's Fifth Symphony, completed in 1999 and subtitled \"Requiem, Bardo and Nirmanakaya\", is written in 12 movements to fulfill its programmatic intent. Glass writes, \"My plan has been for the symphony to represent a broad spectrum of many of the world's great 'wisdom' traditions\", synthesizing \"a vocal text that begins before the world's creation, passes through earthly life and paradise, and closes with a future dedication\". Glass writes that he considered the millennium at the beginning of the 21st century to be a symbolic bridge between past, present and spiritual rebirth.\n\nMore recently, Glass based the philosophical and musical structure for his Seventh Symphony on the Wirrarika sacred trinity. Glass wrote about the work's respective movement headings and their relation to the overall structure of the symphony, \"'The Corn' represents a direct link between Mother Earth and the well-being of human beings.... 'The Sacred Root' is found in the high deserts of north and central Mexico, and is understood to be the doorway to the world of the Spirit. 'The Blue Deer' is considered the holder of the Book of Knowledge. Any man or woman who aspires to be a 'Person of Knowledge' will, through arduous training and effort, have to encounter the Blue Deer....\"\n\n### Words changing programmatic intent\n\nAddition of a text can effectively change the programmatic intent of a composition, as with the two choral symphonies of Franz Liszt. Both the Faust and Dante symphonies were conceived as purely instrumental works and only later became choral symphonies. However, while Liszt authority Humphrey Searle asserts that Liszt's later inclusion of a chorus effectively sums up Faust and makes it complete, another Liszt expert, Reeves Shulstad, suggests that Liszt changed the work's dramatic focus to the point of meriting a different interpretation of the work itself. According to Shulstad, \"Liszt's original version of 1854 ended with a last fleeting reference to Gretchen and an ... orchestral peroration in C major, based on the most majestic of themes from the opening movement. One might say that this conclusion remains within the persona of Faust and his imagination\". When Liszt rethought the piece three years later, he added a \"Chorus mysticus\", the male chorus singing the final words from Goethe's Faust. The tenor soloist, accompanied by the chorus, sings the last two lines of the text. \"With the addition of the 'Chorus Mysticus' text\", Shulstad writes, \"the Gretchen theme has been transformed and she no longer appears as a masked Faust. With this direct association to the final scene of the drama we have escaped Faust's imaginings and are hearing another voice commenting on his striving and redemption\".\n\nLikewise, Liszt's inclusion of a choral finale in his Dante Symphony changed both the structural and programmatic intent of the work. Liszt's intent was to follow the structure of the Divine Comedy and compose Dante in three movements—one each for the Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradiso. However, Liszt's son-in-law Richard Wagner persuaded him that no earthly composer could faithfully express the joys of Paradise. Liszt dropped the third movement but added a choral element, a Magnificat, at the end of the second. This action, Searle claims, effectively destroyed the work's formal balance and left the listener, like Dante, to gaze upward at the heights of Heaven and hear its music from afar. Shulstad suggests that the choral finale actually helps complete the work's programmatic trajectory from struggle to paradise.\n\nConversely, a text can also spark the birth of a choral symphony, only for that work to become a purely instrumental one when the programmatic focus of the work changes. Shostakovich originally planned his Seventh Symphony as a single-movement choral symphony much like his Second and Third Symphonies. Shostakovich reportedly intended to set a text for the Seventh from the Ninth Psalm, on the theme of vengeance for the shedding of innocent blood. In doing this he was influenced by Stravinsky; he had been deeply impressed with the latter's Symphony of Psalms, which he wanted to emulate in this work. While the Ninth Psalm's theme conveyed Shostakovich's outrage over Stalin's oppression, a public performance of a work with such a text would have been impossible before the German invasion. Hitler's aggression made the performance of such a work feasible, at least in theory; the reference to \"blood\" could then be associated at least officially with Hitler. With Stalin appealing to the Soviets' patriotic and religious sentiments, the authorities were no longer suppressing Orthodox themes or images. Nevertheless, Shostakovich eventually realized that the work encompassed far more than this symbology. He expanded the symphony to the traditional four movements and made it purely instrumental.\n\n### Supplanting text wordlessly\n\nWhile Berlioz allowed the programmatic aspects of his text to shape the symphonic form of Roméo and to guide its content, he also showed how an orchestra could supplant such a text wordlessly to further illustrate it. He wrote in his preface to Roméo:\n\n> If, in the famous garden and cemetery scenes the dialogue of the two lovers, Juliet's asides, and Romeo's passionate outbursts are not sung, if the duets of love and despair are given to the orchestra, the reasons are numerous and easy to comprehend. First, and this alone would be sufficient, it is a symphony and not an opera. Second, since duets of this nature have been handled vocally a thousand times by the greatest masters, it was wise as well as unusual to attempt another means of expression. It is also because the very sublimity of this love made its depiction so dangerous for the musician that he had to give his imagination a latitude that the positive sense of the sung words would not have given him, resorting instead to instrumental language, which is richer, more varied, less precise, and by its very indefiniteness incomparably more powerful in such a case.\n\nAs a manifesto, this paragraph became significant for the amalgamation of symphonic and dramatic elements in the same musical composition. Musicologist Hugh Macdonald writes that as Berlioz kept the idea of symphonic construction closely in mind, he allowed the orchestra to express the majority of the drama in instrumental music and set expository and narrative sections in words. Fellow musicologist Nicholas Temperley suggests that, in Roméo, Berlioz created a model for how a dramatic text could guide the structure of a choral symphony without circumventing that work from being recognizably a symphony. In this sense, musicologist Mark Evans Bonds writes, the symphonies of Liszt and Mahler owe a debt of influence to Berlioz.\n\nMore recently, Alfred Schnittke allowed the programmatic aspects of his texts to dictate the course of both his choral symphonies even when no words were being sung. Schnittke's six-movement Second Symphony, following the Ordinary of the Mass of the Roman Catholic Church, works programmatically on two levels simultaneously. While soloists and chorus briefly perform the mass, set to chorales taken from the Gradual, the orchestra provides an extended running commentary that can continue much longer than the section of the mass being performed. Sometimes the commentary follows a particular chorale but more often is freer and wider ranging in style. Despite the resulting stylistic disparity, biographer Alexander Ivashkin comments, \"musically almost all these sections blend the choral [sic] tune and subsequent extensive orchestral 'commentary.'\" The work becomes what Schnittke called an \"Invisible Mass\", and Alexander Ivashkin termed \"a symphony against a chorale backdrop\".\n\nThe program in Schnittke's Fourth Symphony, reflecting the composer's own religious dilemma at the time it was written, is more complex in execution, with the majority of it expressed wordlessly. In the 22 variations that make up the symphony's single movement, Schnittke enacts the 15 traditional Mysteries of the Rosary, which highlight important moments in the life of Christ. As he did in the Second Symphony, Schnittke simultaneously gives a detailed musical commentary on what is being portrayed. Schnittke does this while using church music from the Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and Orthodox faiths, the orchestral texture becoming extremely dense from the many musical strands progressing at the same time. A tenor and a countertenor also sing wordlessly at two points in the symphony. The composition saves words for a finale that uses all four types of church music contrapuntally as a four-part choir sings the Ave Maria. The choir can choose whether to sing the Ave Maria in Russian or Latin. The programmatic intent of using these different types of music, Ivashkin writes, is an insistence by the composer \"on the idea ... of the unity of humanity, a synthesis and harmony among various manifestations of belief\".\n\n## See also\n\n- List of choral symphonies", "revid": "1167923746", "description": "Musical composition for orchestra and choir", "categories": ["Choral symphonies", "Musical terminology"]}
{"id": "12819758", "url": null, "title": "Xá Lợi Pagoda raids", "text": "The Xá Lợi Pagoda raids ( SAW-LIE) were a series of synchronized attacks on various Buddhist pagodas in the major cities of South Vietnam shortly after midnight on 21 August 1963. The raids were executed by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces under Colonel Lê Quang Tung, and combat police, both of which took their orders directly from Ngô Đình Nhu, younger brother of the Roman Catholic President Ngô Đình Diệm. Xá Lợi Pagoda, the largest pagoda in the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, was the most prominent of the raided temples. Over 1,400 Buddhists were arrested, and estimates of the death toll and missing ranged up to the hundreds. In response to the Huế Vesak shootings and a ban on the Buddhist flag in early May, South Vietnam's Buddhist majority rose in widespread civil disobedience and protest against the religious bias and discrimination of the Catholic-dominated Diệm government. Buddhist temples in major cities, most prominently the Xá Lợi pagoda, became focal points for protesters and assembly points for Buddhist monks from rural areas.\n\nIn August, several Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) generals proposed the imposition of martial law, ostensibly to break up the demonstrations, but in reality to prepare for a military coup. Nhu, already looking to arrest Buddhist leaders and crush the protest movement, used the opportunity to preempt the generals and embarrass them. He disguised Tung's Special Forces in army uniforms and used them to attack the Buddhists, thereby causing the general public and South Vietnam's U.S. allies to blame the army, diminishing the generals' reputations and ability to act as future national leaders.\n\nSoon after midnight on 21 August, Nhu's men attacked the pagodas using automatic firearms, grenades, battering rams and explosives, causing widespread damage. Some religious objects were destroyed, including a statue of Gautama Buddha in the Từ Đàm Pagoda in Huế, which was partially leveled by explosives. Temples were looted and vandalized, with the remains of venerated monks confiscated. In Huế, violent street battles erupted between government forces and rioting pro-Buddhist, anti-government civilians.\n\nThe Ngô family claimed that the army had carried out the raids, something their U.S. allies initially believed. This was later debunked, but the incident prompted the United States to turn against the regime and begin exploring alternative leadership options, eventually leading to Diệm's overthrow in a November coup. In South Vietnam, the raids stoked widespread anger. Several high-ranking public servants resigned, and university and high school students boycotted classes and staged riotous demonstrations, resulting in further mass incarcerations. As most of the students were from middle-class public service and military families, the arrests caused further upset among the Ngô family's power base.\n\n## Background\n\nIn South Vietnam, where the Buddhist majority was estimated to comprise between 70 and 90 percent of the population in 1963, President Ngô Đình Diệm's pro-Catholic policies antagonized many Buddhists. As a member of the Catholic minority, his government was biased towards Catholics in public service, military promotions, the allocation of land, business favors, and tax concessions. Many officers in the ARVN had converted to Catholicism in the belief that their career prospects depended on it, and many were refused promotion if they did not do so. The distribution of firearms to village self-defense militias to repel Việt Cộng guerrillas was done so that weapons were given only to Catholics. Some Catholic priests ran private armies, and in some areas forced conversions; looting, shelling and demolition of pagodas occurred. Some Buddhist villages converted en masse to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diem's regime.\n\nThe Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country, and the \"private\" status that was imposed on Buddhism by the French, which required official permission to conduct public activities, was not repealed by Diệm. The land owned by the church was exempt from land reform, and Catholics were also de facto exempt from the corvée labor that the government obliged all other citizens to perform; public spending was disproportionately distributed to Catholic majority villages. Under Diệm, the Catholic Church enjoyed special exemptions in property acquisition, and in 1959, he dedicated the country to the Virgin Mary.\n\nA rarely enforced 1958 law—known as Decree Number 10—was invoked in May 1963 to prohibit the display of religious flags. This disallowed the flying of the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the birthday of Gautama Buddha. The application of the law caused indignation among Buddhists on the eve of the most important religious festival of the year. This was exacerbated as a week earlier Catholics had been encouraged to display Vatican flags at a government-sponsored celebration for Diem's brother, Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục, the most senior Catholic cleric in the country. On 8 May in Huế, a crowd of Buddhists protested against the ban on the Buddhist flag. The police and army broke up the demonstration by firing guns at and throwing grenades into the gathering, killing nine people.\n\nDiệm's denial of governmental responsibility for the incident—he instead blamed the Việt Cộng—added to the anger and discontent of the Buddhist majority. The incident spurred a protest movement against the religious discrimination of the Roman Catholic–dominated Diệm regime, resulting in widespread large-scale civil disobedience among the South Vietnamese public, persisting throughout May and June. This period of political instability was known as the \"Buddhist crisis\". The objectives of the protests were to have Decree Number 10 repealed and to force implementation of religious equality.\n\nOn 11 June, a Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức, self-immolated in downtown Saigon. Images were shown by news outlets across the world, embarrassing Diệm's government and bringing negative global attention. A few days later, under mounting American pressure, Diệm signed the Joint Communique with senior Buddhist leaders, making various concessions to the Buddhists, who in turn agreed to stop the civil unrest and return to normal life.\n\nNeither the Ngô family nor the Buddhists were happy with the agreement, and it failed to solve the dispute. Both sides accused the other of failing to uphold their obligations; the government accused the Buddhists of continuing to vilify them in demonstrations, while the Buddhists accused Diệm of stalling and not acting on his commitments to religious reform, and continuing to detain arrested Buddhist dissidents. The demonstrations and tension continued throughout July and August, with more self-immolations and an altercation (known as the Double Seven Day scuffle) between secret police and American journalists reporting on a Buddhist protest.\n\n## Xá Lợi\n\nThe hub of Buddhist activism in Saigon was the Xá Lợi Pagoda. Built in the late 1950s, it was the largest Buddhist temple in the capital and was located in the city center. Many monks from outside Saigon—including prominent Buddhist leaders—had congregated at Xá Lợi since the dispute began and it was used as a venue for press conferences, media interviews, publication of pamphlets and to plan and organize mass demonstrations.\n\nAt the time, Ngô Đình Nhu was known to favor an even harder line against the Buddhists. Nhu was the younger brother of President Diệm and his main confidant, and was regarded as the real power behind the Ngô family's rule. There were persistent reports that Nhu was seeking to usurp power from his elder brother and to attack the Buddhists. When interviewed about this, Nhu said that if the Buddhist crisis were not resolved, he would stage a coup and head a new anti-Buddhist government. The news was promptly published, which the American embassy largely disregarded, purportedly unconvinced as to Nhu's seriousness.\n\nNhu prepared the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces commanded by Colonel Lê Quang Tung—who took his orders directly from Nhu and not the senior generals—for the raids. An American-trained outfit created to fight the Việt Cộng, the Special Forces were better-equipped, better-trained and better-paid than the regular army. They were used by the Ngô family as a private army for repressing dissidents and protecting their rule, rather than fighting for the national interest. As such, they spent the majority of their time in Saigon warding off coup attempts. Tung brought more Special Forces into Saigon, bringing the total from two to four battalions in the capital.\n\nOn Sunday, 18 August, the Buddhists staged a mass protest at Xá Lợi, attracting around 15,000 people. The attendance was approximately three times higher than that at the previous Sunday's rally. The event lasted for several hours, as speeches by the monks interspersed religious ceremonies. A Vietnamese journalist said that it was the only emotional public gathering in South Vietnam since Diệm's rise to power almost a decade earlier. David Halberstam of The New York Times speculated that by not exploiting the large crowd by staging a protest march towards Gia Long Palace or other government buildings, the Buddhists were saving their biggest demonstration for the scheduled arrival of new U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. the following week.\n\n## Planning\n\nOn the evening of 18 August, ten senior ARVN generals met to discuss the situation regarding the Buddhist unrest and decided martial law was needed. They wanted to disperse the monks who had gathered in Saigon and other regional cities and return them to their original pagodas in the rural areas.\n\nNhu summoned 7 of the 10 generals to Gia Long Palace on August 20 for consultations. They presented their request for martial law and discussed how to disband the groups of monks and their supporters from the temples in Saigon. Nhu sent the generals to see Diem, and the president listened to the group of seven, led by General Trần Văn Đôn. The group included Army Chief General Trần Thiện Khiêm and General Nguyễn Khánh, commander of the II Corps in the Central Highlands. Also present was Đôn's brother-in-law, General Đỗ Cao Trí, commander of I Corps, which oversaw the northernmost region around Huế, and General Lê Văn Kim, head of the military academy. General Tôn Thất Đính, a brash paratrooper, commanded the III Corps surrounding Saigon. General Huỳnh Văn Cao was the commander of the IV Corps in the Mekong Delta.\n\nTrần Văn Đôn claimed communists had infiltrated the monks at Xá Lợi and warned that ARVN morale was deteriorating because of the civil unrest and consequent disruption of the war effort. He claimed it was possible that the Buddhists could assemble a crowd to march on Gia Long Palace. Diệm agreed to declare martial law effective on the next day, without consulting his cabinet, and troops were ordered into Saigon to occupy strategic points. Don was appointed as the acting Chief of the Armed Forces in place of General Lê Văn Tỵ, who was terminally ill with cancer and receiving medical treatment abroad. Đôn claimed Diệm was concerned for the welfare of the monks, allegedly telling the generals that he did not want any of them hurt. The martial law orders were then signed and authorized by Đôn.\n\nThe real purpose of Đôn asking for martial law was to maneuver troops in readiness for a coup, and he had no concrete plans to send the regular army into the pagodas. Nhu sidestepped him and took the opportunity to discredit the army by using Tung's Special Forces and the combat police to attack the pagodas. Đính, the officer most trusted by the Ngô family, was the only general who was given advance notice of the raids.\n\nWith the approval of Diệm, Nhu used the declaration of martial law to order armed men into the Buddhist pagodas. Nhu chose a time when he knew the American Embassy was leaderless. Frederick Nolting had returned to the United States and his successor Lodge was yet to arrive. As the high command of the ARVN worked closely with American military advisers deployed in the country, Nhu used the combat police and Tung's Special Forces, who took their orders directly from him. The men were dressed in standard army uniforms, such as paratroop attire, to frame the regulars for the raids. Nhu's motive was to avoid responsibility for a violent operation — which would anger the Vietnamese public and the American leadership. In falsely implicating the army in the attacks, Nhu intended to dent the confidence of the Vietnamese populace and the Americans in the senior officers who were plotting against him. Nhu evidently hoped the Buddhist majority and the Americans would blame the army for the raids and become less inclined to support a coup by the generals. In the past, Nhu's tactics in playing the generals against one another had kept conspirators off-balance and thwarted coup attempts. The raids were not unexpected, as the Buddhists had prepared themselves for the attacks, as had journalists, who were watching military installations for signs of movement.\n\n## Raids\n\n### Saigon\n\nThe Buddhists in Saigon were aware that a raid on the pagodas was imminent. Buddhist relatives of Special Forces and combat police personnel had tipped off the monks, and Buddhists who lived near pagodas had observed them move into the region in the lead-up. American journalists were tipped off and traveled through Saigon to visit the pagodas ahead of the raids. The pagodas had been locked by the monks in preparation for the attacks and the doors were barricaded with furniture and reinforced by nailing wooden planks across them. The monks told members of the U.S. press corps in Saigon that the raids were coming, allowing them to be more prepared for the event than the U.S. embassy.\n\nIn the afternoon before the raids, trucks filled with soldiers headed past the offices of media outlets—from where the journalists saw them—destined for the Ấn Quang Pagoda. More troops were seen congregating at police headquarters, ready to board trucks moving towards Xá Lợi. The American-made trucks had been provided as part of the U.S. military aid program for South Vietnam. Late at night, the convoys arrived and surrounded Xá Lợi from several sides, causing a traffic jam in the city center. Several thousand personnel were estimated to have been present. Journalists were informed as soon as the attacks began, even as Nhu's men cut communications lines, and rushed to Xá Lợi.\n\nSquads of Special Forces and combat police flattened the gates and smashed their way into the pagoda at around 00:20 on 21 August as Xá Lợi's brass gong was struck to signal the attack. Nhu's men were armed with pistols, submachine guns, carbines, shotguns, grenades and tear gas. The red-bereted Special Forces were joined by truckloads of steel-helmeted combat police in army camouflage uniforms. Two of Nhu's senior aides were seen outside Xá Lợi directing the operation, while Nhu and his wife, Madame Nhu, watched the action from a nearby tank. Monks and nuns who barricaded themselves behind wooden shields were attacked with rifle butts and bayonets. The sound of the pagoda's gong was largely masked by that of automatic weapons fire, exploding grenades, battering rams, shattering glass and human screaming. The military personnel shouted as they attacked, as did the occupants, in fear.\n\nTung's men charged forward in a V-shaped riot formation. In the end, it took around two hours to complete the raids because many of the occupants had entrenched themselves inside the various rooms in anticipation of the attacks and doors had to be unhinged to reach them. According to journalist Neil Sheehan, who was at the scene, \"The raid on Xá Lợi, like those on the pagodas elsewhere in South Vietnam, was flawlessly executed. It reminded me of a scene from a movie of the French Resistance—the scene when the Gestapo arrive at the Resistance hideout in Paris.\" William Prochnau said that \"Using the elite guard against the Buddhists was analogous to using Green Berets to put down Negro protests at home. It was outrageous.\"\n\nOne monk was thrown from a balcony down to the courtyard six meters below. Nhu's men vandalized the main altar and confiscated the intact charred heart of Thích Quảng Đức, which had failed to burn during his re-cremation. However, some of the Buddhists were able to flee the pagoda with a receptacle containing his ashes. Two monks jumped the back wall of Xá Lợi to enter the grounds of the adjoining United States Agency for International Development (USAID) mission, where they were given asylum, despite the presence of troops behind the pagoda walls who opened fire with automatic weapons on any monks who tried to flee by jumping the fence.\n\nThích Tịnh Khiết, the 80-year-old Buddhist patriarch, was seized and taken to a military hospital on the outskirts of Saigon. As commander of the III Corps, General Đính soon announced military control over Saigon, canceling all commercial flights into the city and instituting press censorship. Later, Thích Quảng Độ, one of the leading arrested monks, explained that the Buddhist leadership did not flee to avoid arrest because they feared it would appear to be an admission of their guilt.\n\n### Huế\n\nThe violence was worse in Huế, where the approach of government forces was met by the beating of Buddhist drums and cymbals to alert the populace. The townsfolk left their homes in the middle of the night in an attempt to defend the city's pagodas. At Từ Đàm, the temple of Buddhist protest leader Thích Trí Quang, monks attempted to burn the coffin of a monk who had self-immolated recently. Government soldiers, firing M1 rifles, overran the pagoda and confiscated the coffin. They demolished a statue of Gautama Buddha and looted and vandalized the pagoda. They then set off an explosion, leveling much of the pagoda. Many Buddhists were shot, beheaded, and clubbed to death.\n\nThe most determined resistance to the Diệm regime occurred outside the Diệu Đế Pagoda. As troops attempted to stretch a barbed wire barricade across a bridge leading to the pagoda, the crowd tore it down with their bare hands. The protesters fought the heavily armed military personnel with rocks, sticks and their bare fists, throwing back the tear gas grenades that were fired at them. After a five-hour battle, the military finally won control of the bridge by driving armored cars through the angry crowd at sunrise. The defense of the bridge and Diệu Đế left an estimated 30 dead and 200 wounded.\n\nTen truckloads of bridge defenders were taken to jail and an estimated 500 people were arrested in the city. Seventeen of the 47 professors at Huế University, who had resigned earlier in the week in protest against the dismissal of the rector Cao Văn Luân, a Catholic priest and opponent of Archbishop Thục (elder brother of Diệm and Nhu), were also arrested. The raids were repeated in cities and towns across the country. The total number of dead and disappeared was never confirmed, but estimates range up to several hundred. At least 1,400 were arrested.\n\n## U.S. reaction and sanctuary for monks\n\nThe United States became immediately embroiled in the attacks following the escape of the two monks over the back wall of the Xá Lợi pagoda into the adjacent USAID compound. Saigon's police chief, disguised as a member of Nhu's Republican Youth, cordoned off the building. He ordered all Vietnamese inside to leave the area and threatened to storm the building when the Americans denied him entry. Foreign Minister Vũ Văn Mẫu rushed to the scene to stop any physical confrontations but demanded the Americans turn over the monks. William Trueheart, the deputy of the recently relieved U.S. Ambassador Nolting, arrived at the building. As the leading American diplomat in Vietnam in the transition period between ambassadors, Trueheart refused to take action until he received instructions from Washington, but warned Mẫu against violating the diplomatic immunity of the USAID offices. Trueheart knew that handing over the monks would imply American approval of the regime's action. The confrontation soon died down, and the U.S. State Department ordered Trueheart not to release the two monks and to regard the USAID building as being equivalent to the embassy. More monks went on to find sanctuary in the U.S. embassy, which became known as the \"Buddhist Hilton\".\n\nLodge was in Honolulu for last minute briefings with Nolting when news filtered through of the pagoda raids. He was given directions to proceed directly to Saigon, and arrived after sunset on 22 August. In the meantime, the State Department denounced the raids as a \"direct violation by the Vietnamese government of assurances that it was pursuing a policy of reconciliation with the Buddhists\". On 23 August, Lodge's first full day in Saigon, he visited the two monks who had taken refuge in the USAID building, and ordered that vegetarian food be made available for them. The meeting was a means of showing that the American government opposed attacks against the Buddhists.\n\n## Diệm reaction\n\nAt 06:00 on 21 August 1963, President Diệm broadcast a statement on Radio Saigon in which he said: \"under Article 44 of the constitution, I declare a state of siege throughout the national territory. I confer upon the Army of the Republic of Vietnam the responsibility to restore security and public order so that the state may be protected, Communism defeated, freedom secured, and democracy achieved.\" Under martial law, the army was given blanket search-and-arrest powers and was empowered to ban all public gatherings, enforce a curfew, restrict press freedom and stop the circulation of all \"printed material and other documents harmful to public order and security\". The military were given orders to shoot anybody who violated the curfew on sight, and the secret police used the increased powers to raid and vandalize the premises of anyone thought to be unfriendly to the regime.\n\nGovernment sources claimed that in Xá Lợi, Ấn Quang, and various Theravada pagodas, soldiers had found machine guns, ammunition, plastic explosives, homemade mines, daggers, and Việt Cộng documents. It was later discovered that they had been planted there by Nhu's men. On 29 August, General Đính held a press conference in which he accused the Americans of trying to launch a coup in South Vietnam and took credit for the raids, despite Tung having been the chief military officer in charge.\n\n## Confusion over culpability and army denials\n\nThe driving force behind the government assault on the Buddhists appeared to have come from senior military commanders acting without consulting the civilian government. Immediately after the attacks, posters were erected across Saigon under the aegis of ARVN, but the language was recognized as that of Nhu.\n\nThe Secretary of State Nguyễn Đình Thuận and Interior Minister Bùi Văn Lương were surprised by the attacks. The initial perception was that the military establishment had suddenly cracked down on the Buddhists because they were deemed to be a threat to the war effort. The government propagated a theory which held that the military felt compelled to take action after pro-Buddhist student unrest on 17–18 August. In Huế, student protestors had turned on an ARVN officer after he fired in their direction. The attacks were preceded by a large rally at Xá Lợi during which some monks had called for the overthrow of the Diệm regime and denounced the anti-Buddhist statements of the de facto first lady Madame Nhu. However, observers dismissed government claims that the raids were spontaneous.\n\nDiệm had long distrusted his generals and frequently played them against each other in a divide and conquer strategy to weaken any chance of a coup attempt. The army also contained substantial numbers of soldiers of Buddhist backgrounds, thus heightening skepticism that they would have attacked the pagodas and monks in such a violent manner. The synchronized military operations throughout the country, the speed at which banners were erected declaring the ARVN resolve to defeat communism, and doctored propaganda photos purporting to show Việt Cộng infiltration of the Buddhists suggested that the actions were long premeditated. In an attempt to maintain secrecy, special printing presses had produced propaganda materials only hours before the raids.\n\nThe initial government line was that the regular army had taken the actions. ARVN radio broadcasts bore the influence of Nhu's abrasive tone in directing the Republican Youth to cooperate with the government. Nhu accused the Buddhists of turning their pagodas into headquarters for plotting anti-government insurrections. He claimed the Buddhist Intersect Committee operated under the control of \"political speculators who exploited religion and terrorism\". Lodge believed Diệm remained in control but that Nhu's influence had risen to unprecedented levels. He thought that Nhu's divide and conquer tactics had split the military into three factions, respectively led by Generals Đôn and Đính, and Colonel Tung. Đôn was believed not to have the allegiance of Đính and Tung, who took their orders directly from Gia Long Palace. The two loyalists had support from various pro-Diệm elements. Lodge predicted that if the army deposed Diệm, fighting could break out within the ARVN.\n\nInitially, the American embassy believed the Ngô family's claims that the regular army was responsible for the raids. Voice of America, which was widely listened to in South Vietnam as the only non-Diệmist news source, initially aired Nhu's version of events, much to the dismay of the generals. The American media thought otherwise and began to debunk this theory, pointing out that the Ngô family constantly sought to undermine the army, and that Madame Nhu's joy over the events suggested the family had neither ceded power nor had their hands forced by the military. Furthermore, they identified Nhu's aides at the site, his idiosyncratic style in the announcements supposedly made by the ARVN, and the fact that the army had little motive to attack the Buddhists.\n\nThe New York Times printed two versions of the raids on its front page, one by David Halberstam implicating Nhu for the attacks, and another with the official government version. Sheehan of United Press International also claimed Nhu was responsible for the attacks. At the time, Sheehan and Halberstam were on a Ngô family hit list along with political dissidents because of their exposés of the regime's human rights abuses, and following the raids, they slept at the home of John Mecklin, a U.S. official. They also received information that the Ngos were going to plant bombs in their offices and blame the deaths on the communists.\n\nThe Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) went on to report that ARVN officers resolutely denied any involvement in the pagoda raids. They held that Tung's Special Forces had disguised themselves in ARVN uniforms before attacking the pagodas. Further unsubstantiated rumors had spread within the army that the Americans, who trained the Special Forces, had helped to plan the attack. The ARVN leaders were unsure of how to proceed and Don called a staff meeting on the morning of 23 August to discuss impending demonstrations against the raids by university students and the anger of junior ARVN officers about the pagoda attacks. General Dương Văn Minh noted that the ongoing presence of armed military personnel had alienated society by creating an \"aura of suppression\".\n\nLater in the day, Đôn privately met with CIA officer Lucien Conein and reiterated that the Americans were mistaken in believing that the ARVN was responsible. Đôn insisted that Diem remained in control although Nhu had to approve all of the generals' meetings with Diệm. Đôn insisted Nhu had orchestrated the raids, fearing that the generals had too much power. He asserted that Nhu used the cover of martial law to discredit the generals by dressing the Special Forces in ARVN uniforms. Đôn insisted that he was unaware of the plans and was at Joint General Staff headquarters with Khiêm when he received a radio message informing him of the assaults. Police Commissioner Trần Văn Tu, supported by Tung's men, were in charge of the operation at ground level, and by the time Don arrived, the mission had been completed.\n\nKhiêm had his own meeting with Rufus Phillips at the U.S. Embassy. He bitterly confided that Nhu had tricked the army into imposing martial law and becoming his \"puppet\". Khiêm asserted that Đính, Đôn and the other generals were not aware of the raids in advance and revealed that the arms and explosives that Nhu claimed were found in the pagodas had been planted. As a result, the Vietnamese people expressed anger at the army and their U.S. backers, strengthening Nhu's position.\n\n## Martial law and riots\n\nFollowing the raids, tensions were high in the streets of the cities. Police were ordered to shoot those who defied the 21:00 to 05:00 curfew, and troops in full camouflage battle dress guarded every major intersection and bridge with automatic weapons bearing fixed bayonets. The empty pagodas were ringed by troops and armored cars. All outgoing news was censored, forcing reporters to smuggle their copy out with travelers flying to foreign countries. The telephone lines in the homes and offices of all U.S. military and embassy staff were disconnected. The head of the USAID mission, Joe Brant, was stopped and searched while commuting to work, and other American officials had their meetings with Vietnamese officials and applications for permits to travel after the curfew hours delayed. The 14,000 U.S. military advisers in the country were given orders to stay in their homes, and all leave was canceled.\n\nThe pagoda raids provoked widespread disquiet among the Saigonese. At midnight on 22 August, Generals Đôn, Đính and Khiêm informed Nhu that student demonstrations were planned for three consecutive days. They recommended that schools be closed, but when Nhu took them to see Diệm, the president refused to close the educational institutions. Diệm decided the students, not usually known for political activism, should be allowed to voice their opinions. Students at Saigon University boycotted classes and rioted, which was met with arrests, imprisonment, and the closure of the campus. These events were repeated at Huế University, which was likewise shut down.\n\nWhen high school students demonstrated, Diệm had them arrested as well. Two of the detained students were paraded at a press conference in which they falsely admitted to being communists who had brainwashed their entire school, having been tortured to force their confession. At Trung Vuong, an elite girls' high school, the students hung up banners attacking Diệm and the Nhus, while students from the corresponding boys' schools became violent, smashing school windows and erecting banners that insulted Madame Nhu in explicit language. More than 1000 students from Saigon's leading high school, most of them children of public servants and military officers, were sent to re-education camps. The result was that many army officers and senior civil servants had to lobby to have their children or younger siblings released from jail, causing a further drop in morale among government and military officials. Brawls broke out between police officers arresting students and the students' parents, many of whom were military officers and/or public servants.\n\nForeign Minister Vũ Văn Mẫu resigned, shaving his head like a Buddhist monk in protest. Mẫu had decided to leave the country for a religious pilgrimage to India, but the Ngô family had him arrested before he could depart. General Đính softened the punishment at the behest of a fellow officer and put the former diplomat under house arrest instead of placing him in jail.\n\nTrần Văn Chương, the ambassador to the United States and father of Madame Nhu, resigned in protest, along with all but one of the staff members at the embassy. Chương charged Diệm with having \"copied the tactics of totalitarian regimes\", and said that as long as Diệm and the Nhus were in power, there was \"not once chance in a hundred for victory\" against the communists. Madame Chương — who was South Vietnam's observer at the United Nations — resigned and spoke of mass executions and a reign of terror under Diệm and Nhu. She predicted that if Diệm and the Nhus did not leave Vietnam then they would be killed in some sort of uprising.\n\nVoice of America announced that Chương had resigned in protest against the Ngô family's policies, but this was denied by the Saigon government, which asserted the Chươngs had been sacked. Diệm bureaucrats claimed Chương's last telegram had been so critical of the regime that it was determined to be \"inadmissible in form and substance\" and that after years of privately complaining about his ambassador, Diệm dismissed him. In the meantime, the brothers made selective payments to some generals, hoping to cause resentment and division within the army. Vietnamese civil servants also became more reluctant to do their jobs, especially in conjunction with American advisers. They reasoned that as the Americans were funding Tung's men, they must have been involved in the attacks.\n\n## Change in U.S. policy\n\nOnce the U.S. government realized the truth about who was behind the raids, they reacted with disapproval towards the Diệm regime. The Americans had pursued a policy of quietly and privately advising the Ngôs to reconcile with the Buddhists while publicly supporting the partnership, but following the attacks, this route was regarded as untenable. Furthermore, the attacks were carried out by American-trained Special Forces personnel funded by the CIA, and presented Lodge with a fait accompli. One Western ambassador thought that the raids signaled \"the end of the gallant American effort here\". The U.S. State Department issued a statement declaring that the raids were a \"direct violation\" of the promise to pursue \"a policy of reconciliation\".\n\nOn 24 August, the Kennedy administration sent Cable 243 to Lodge at the embassy in Saigon, marking a change in American policy. The message advised Lodge to seek the removal of the Nhus from power, and to look for alternative leadership options if Diệm refused to heed American pressure for reform. As the probability of Diệm sidelining the Nhus was seen as virtually nil, the message effectively meant the fomenting of a coup. Voice of America broadcast a statement blaming Nhu for the raids and absolving the army of responsibility. Aware that the Americans would neither oppose a coup nor respond with aid cuts or sanctions, the generals deposed the Ngô brothers, who were arrested and assassinated the next day, 2 November 1963.", "revid": "1172746410", "description": "1963 attacks on Buddhist pagodas in Vietnam", "categories": ["1963 in Vietnam", "August 1963 events", "Buddhist crisis", "Conflicts in 1963", "History of South Vietnam", "Mass murder in 1963", "Persecution of Buddhists", "Political repression in Vietnam", "Saigon"]}
{"id": "13655028", "url": null, "title": "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "text": "Super Smash Bros. Melee is a 2001 crossover fighting video game developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the GameCube. It is the second installment in the Super Smash Bros. series. It features characters from Nintendo video game franchises such as Mario, The Legend of Zelda, Star Fox and Pokémon, and Donkey Kong among others. The stages and gameplay modes reference or take designs from these franchises as well.\n\nMelee includes all playable characters from the first game and also adds characters from additional franchises such as Fire Emblem, of which no games had been released outside Japan at the time, in addition to new stages and gameplay modes. Like other games in the Smash Bros. series, Melee's gameplay system offers an unorthodox approach to the fighting game genre, with a counter that measures damage with increasing percentages, representing the knockback the character will experience, rather than a depleting health bar seen in most fighting games.\n\nMelee was first released in Japan in November 2001, in the Americas in December 2001, and in Europe and Australia in May 2002. The game received widespread acclaim from critics, earning praise for its visuals, simple controls, gameplay, and orchestrated soundtrack, as well as several awards and acknowledgments from various publications; it is now considered one of the greatest video games ever made. It achieved strong sales upon its release, becoming the GameCube's best-selling title, with over seven million copies sold by 2008. Considered one of the most competitively viable Smash Bros. games due to its fast-paced and aggressive gameplay, Melee has been featured in many competitive gaming tournaments, boasting a dedicated grassroots fan community which has kept its competitive scene alive well beyond the game's original lifespan. It was followed by Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii in 2008.\n\n## Gameplay\n\nLike its predecessor, Super Smash Bros. Melee is a platform fighter that differs from traditional fighting games as the objective is to force their opponents beyond the boundaries of the stage. Most attacks inflict damage and can, if enough damage is dealt, knock back the enemy. Each character's health is measured by a meter that represents damage as a percentage. The higher the percentage value, the farther the player gets knocked back, and the easier they are to knock off the stage, which will result in the character's death and the loss of a stock, or life. Unlike other games of the same genre, in which moves are entered by button-input combinations, most moves in Super Smash Bros. Melee can be accessed via one-button presses and a joystick direction. For example, by tilting the joystick to the side and pressing the \"B\" button, the character will use their \"side special\" attack. Tilting the joystick up, down, or not tilting it at all while pressing B will use the up, down, or neutral special, respectively.\n\nDuring battles, items related to Nintendo games or merchandise fall onto the game field. These items have purposes ranging from inflicting damage on the opponent to restoring health to the player. Some items are throwable (ranged items), some do melee damage (battering items), and some have an instant effect on the player (transforming items).\n\nMost stages have a theme relating to a Nintendo franchise or a specific Nintendo game and are interactive to the player. For example, the Mushroom Kingdom stage is from Super Mario Bros, and the Temple stage is from The Legend of Zelda. Although the stages are rendered in three dimensions, players can only move on a two-dimensional plane. Not all stages are available immediately; some stages must be \"unlocked\" by achieving particular requirements. Some stages feature moving elements and platforms and hazards that harm players, while others lack these elements.\n\n### Single-player\n\nSingle-player mode provides the player with a variety of side-scrolling fighting challenges. The applicable modes range from \"Classic Mode\", which involves the player battling multiple opponents and a boss character, to the \"Home Run Contest\", a minigame involving the player trying to launch a sandbag as far as possible with a Home Run Bat for ten seconds. Some of these modes are personalized for the character; for example, the \"Target Test\" sets out a specialized area for a character in which they aim to destroy ten targets in the least amount of time they can. These areas may include references to that particular character's past and legacy. The \"Board the Platforms\" minigame from the first game was not included in Melee. Melee introduced \"Adventure Mode\", which takes the player to several predefined universes of characters in the Nintendo franchise. \"All-Star Mode\" is an unlockable feature that requires the player to defeat every character in the game while having only one stock and three health supplements between battles.\n\n### Multiplayer\n\nIn the multiplayer mode, up to four players or computer-controlled characters may fight in a free-for-all or on separate teams. The central processing unit (CPU) characters' artificial intelligence (AI) difficulty is ranked from one to nine in ascending order of difficulty. Individual players can also be handicapped; the higher the handicap, the stronger the player. Victory is determined in five ways, depending on the game type. The two most common multiplayer modes are “Time mode”, where the player or team with the most KOs and least falls wins after a predetermined amount of time, and \"Stock mode\", a battle in which the last player or team with lives remaining wins. This can be changed to less conventional modes like \"Coin mode\", which rewards the richest player as the victor. Players must collect coins created by hitting enemies and try not to lose them by falling off the stage; harder hits release higher quantities of coins. Other options are available, updating from Super Smash Bros., such as determining the number and type of items that appear during the battle.\n\n### Trophies\n\nTrophies (known as \"Figures\" in the Japanese version) of various Nintendo characters and objects can be collected throughout the game. These trophies include figures of playable characters, accessories, and items associated with them as well as series and characters not otherwise playable in the game. The trophies range from the well-known to the obscure, and even characters or elements only released in Japan. Super Smash Bros. had a similar system of plush dolls; however, it only included the 12 playable characters. One trophy is exclusive to the Japanese version of the game.\n\n## Playable characters\n\nSuper Smash Bros. Melee features 25 (26 if Zelda and Sheik are considered separate) characters, 13 (14 with Zelda and Sheik separate) more than its predecessor. Fourteen are available initially, while the other 11 characters require completing specific tasks to become available. Every character featured in the game is derived from a popular Nintendo franchise. All characters have a symbol that appears behind their damage meter which represents their series, such as a Triforce symbol behind Link's damage meter and a Poké Ball behind a Pokémon species. Some characters represent popular franchises, while others were less-known at the time of the release; Marth and Roy represent the Fire Emblem series, which was not released outside Japan at the time. The characters' appearance in Super Smash Bros. Melee led to a rise in the popularity of the series, including releasing it outside of Japan. References are made throughout the game to the relationship between characters of the same universe; in one of the events from \"Event mode\", Mario must defeat his enemy Bowser to rescue Princess Peach. Furthermore, each character has recognizable moves from their original series, such as Samus's firearms from the Metroid series and Link's arsenal of weapons.\n\n## Development and release\n\nSuper Smash Bros. Melee was developed by HAL Laboratory, with Masahiro Sakurai as the head of production. Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto served as co-producer. The game was one of the first games released on the GameCube and highlighted the advancement in graphics over the Nintendo 64. The project proposal/initial design document for the game was completed on July 5, 1999. Sakurai wanted to make an opening FMV sequence to pay homage to the debut of the GameCube. HAL and Sakurai worked with three separate graphic houses in Tokyo to make the opening sequence. On their official website, the developers posted screenshots and information highlighting and explaining the attention to physics and detail in the game, with references to changes from its predecessor. The game was in development for 13 months, beginning around autumn 2000, and Sakurai called his lifestyle during this period \"destructive\" with no holidays and short weekends. Unlike the experimental first Super Smash Bros., he felt great pressure to deliver a quality sequel, claiming it was the \"biggest project I had ever led up to that point\". Despite the stressful development cycle, in a 2010 interview, Sakurai proudly called Melee \"the sharpest game in the series... it just felt really good to play\", even compared to its successor, Super Smash Bros. Brawl.\n\nOn the game's official Japanese website, Sakurai and the developers explained reasons for making particular characters playable and why some characters were not added. Initially, the development team wanted to replace Ness with Lucas, the main character of Mother 3, but retained Ness in consideration of delays. Video game developer Hideo Kojima originally requested the inclusion of Solid Snake to Sakurai, and according to Yuji Naka of Sonic Team, Miyamoto requested the inclusion of Sonic the Hedgehog to Sakurai, but neither characters were added as the game was too far in development. Additional development time later enabled all three characters to be included in Brawl. Marth and Roy were initially intended to be playable exclusively in the Japanese version of Super Smash Bros. Melee. However, they received favorable attention during the game's North American localization, leading to the decision for the developers to include them in the Western version.\n\nSakurai stated that the development team had suggested characters from four other games to represent the Famicom/NES era, until the developers eventually chose the Ice Climbers to fulfill this role. Additionally, Ayumi Tachibana from Famicom Detective Club was considered as a playable character, but was ultimately relegated to a cameo role as a trophy. The developers have noted characters that have very similar moves to each other on the website; such characters have been referred to as \"clones\" in the media.\n\nNintendo presented the game at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2001 as a playable demonstration. The next major exposition of the game came in August 2001 at Space World, when Nintendo displayed a playable demo that updated from the previous demo displayed at E3. Nintendo offered a playable tournament of the games for fans in which a GameCube and Super Smash Bros. Melee were prizes for the winner. Before the game's release, the Japanese official website included weekly updates, including screenshots and character profiles. Nintendo followed this trend with Super Smash Bros. Brawl, in which there were daily updates by the game's developer, Masahiro Sakurai. Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu reported that Nintendo advertised the game in between showings of Pokémon 4Ever across movie theaters in Japan. In January 2003, Melee was re-released as part of the Player's Choice program, a marketing label used by Nintendo to promote video games that have sold more than a million copies. In August 2005, Nintendo bundled the game with the GameCube for \\$99.99.\n\n### Music\n\nSuper Smash Bros. Melee features both new and re-arranged music from many of Nintendo's popular gaming franchises. In 2002, Enterbrain released a soundtrack in Japan titled Dairantou Smash Brothers DX Orchestra Concert. The same soundtrack was released in 2003 as Smashing... Live! as a bonus for subscribing to Nintendo Power magazine in North America, and also as a free gift in an issue of the British Official Nintendo Magazine. The soundtrack does not include music taken directly from the game, but features many live orchestral arrangements performed by the New Japan Philharmonic. The game contains a number of unlockable tracks that can be obtained after making certain in-game accomplishments. On the same website, the developers have posted discussions about the game's music and voice acting between Masahiro Sakurai and the game's composers.\n\nShogo Sakai took over as the game's composer in place of Hirokazu Ando on February 14, 2001.\n\nDean Harrington is the game's in-game narrator, and also voices Master Hand and Crazy Hand.\n\n## Reception\n\nSuper Smash Bros. Melee received critical acclaim from reviewers, most of whom credited Melee's expansion of gameplay features from Super Smash Bros. Focusing on the additional features, GameSpy commented that \"Melee really scores big in the 'we've added tons of great extra stuff' department\". Reviewers compared the game favorably to Super Smash Bros. IGN's Fran Mirabella III stated that it was \"in an entirely different league than the N64 version\"; GameSpot's Miguel Lopez praised the game for offering a more advanced \"classic-mode\" compared to its predecessor, while detailing the Adventure Mode as \"really a hit-or-miss experience\". Despite a mixed response to the single-player modes, many reviewers expressed the game's multiplayer mode as a strong component of the game. In their review of the game, GameSpy stated that \"you'll have a pretty hard time finding a more enjoyable multiplayer experience on any other console\".\n\nMelee's visuals garnered a positive reaction. GameSpot lauded the game's character and background models, stating that \"the character models are pleasantly full-bodied, and the quality of their textures is amazing\". IGN's Fran Mirabella III praised the game's use of physics, animation and graphics, although his colleague Matt Casamassina thought that \"some of the backgrounds lack the visual polish endowed upon the characters\" when giving a second opinion about the game.\n\nCritics praised the game's orchestrated soundtrack; while GameSpot's Greg Kasavin commented that \"it all sounds brilliant\". GameSpy praised the music for its nostalgic effect, with soundtracks ranging from multiple Nintendo series.\n\nReviewers have welcomed the simplistic controls, but its \"hyper-responsiveness\", with the characters easily dashing and precise movements being difficult to perform, was expressed as a serious flaw of the game by GameSpot. With a milder criticism of controls, Bryn Williams of GameSpy commented that \"movement and navigation seems slightly too sensitive\". The basis of Melee's gameplay system is the battles between Nintendo characters, which has been suggested as being overly hectic; N-Europe questioned whether the gameplay is \"too Frantic?\", even though they enjoyed the variety of modes on offer. Similarly, Nintendo Spin's Clark Nielsen stated that \"Melee was too fast for its own good\", and \"skill was more about just being able to wrap your head around what was happening as opposed to really getting into the combat\". In regards to the pace of the game, Edge commented that it even made gameplay features such as \"blocking\" redundant, as the player is not given enough time to react to an attack.\n\nDespite the new features added to the game, some reviews criticized Melee for a lack of originality and for being too similar to its predecessor, Super Smash Bros. Caleb Hale from GameCritics.com noted that while it was \"every bit as good as its Nintendo 64 predecessor\" he also felt \"the game doesn't expand much past that point\". On a similar note, Edge stated that \"it's not evolution; it's reproduction\", in reference to a perceived lack of innovation. The nostalgic nature of the game received a positive reaction, as well as the accompanying stages and items that allude to past Nintendo games. Gaming journalists have welcomed the roster of 26 Nintendo characters, as well as the trophy system, which Nintendo Spin labeled as \"a great addition to this game\".\n\n### Sales\n\nWhen released in Japan, it became the fastest selling GameCube game with 358,525 units sold in the week ending November 25, 2001. This success continued as the game sold more than a million units only two months after its release, making it the first GameCube title to reach a million copies. The game also sold well in North America, where it sold 250,000-copies in nine days. In the United States, Super Smash Bros. Melee was the 19th best-selling video game in 2001 according to the NPD Group. By July 2006, it had sold 3.2 million copies and earned \\$125 million in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the fifth highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Approximately 4.06 million units have been sold in the country as of December 27, 2007. With a software-to-hardware ratio of 3:4 at one time, some have attributed the increasing sales of the GameCube near the launch date to Melee. As of March 10, 2008, Super Smash Bros. Melee is the best-selling GameCube game, with more than seven million copies sold worldwide. It has been estimated that at one point in time 70% of all GameCube owners also owned Melee.\n\n### Awards and accolades\n\nSeveral publications have acknowledged Super Smash Bros. Melee in competitions and awards. In their \"Best of 2001\" awards, GameSpy chose it as Best Fighting GameCube Game, IGN's reader choice chose it as Game of the Year, Electronic Gaming Monthly chose it as Best Multiplayer and Best GameCube Game, and GameSpot chose it as the Best GameCube Game and tenth best game of the year. During the 5th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Super Smash Bros. Melee for \"Console Fighting Game of the Year\" and \"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\", which were ultimately awarded to Dead or Alive 3 and Oddworld: Munch's Oddysee, respectively. It also received a nomination in GameSpot's \"Best Music\" and \"Best Fighting Game\" categories.\n\nGameFAQs placed it sixth in a poll of the 100 best games ever and was in the final four of the \"Best. Game. Ever.\" contest. In the 200th issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly, the editors selected Melee as the 92nd most influential game in their \"Top 200 Games of Their Time\" list, defining Melee as \"Billions of things to unlock, plus Yoshi pummeling Pikachu with a bat\". In a similar competition, Nintendo Power named Super Smash Bros. Melee the 16th best game ever to appear on a Nintendo console, and selected it as the 2001 \"Game of the Year\". IGN named it the third best GameCube game of all-time in 2007 as a part of a feature reflecting on the GameCube's long lifespan, citing it as \"the grand stage of fighters, much like Mario Kart is for racing fans\". GameSpy chose it as fourth in a similar list, citing that it had \"better graphics, better music, more characters, more gameplay modes, more secrets to discover\" in comparison to its predecessor. The game was ranked 58th in Official Nintendo Magazine's \"100 Greatest Nintendo Games Ever\" feature. In 2019, Game Informer ranked it as the 2nd best fighting game of all time. Edge magazine ranked the game 91st on their 100 best Video Games in 2007.\n\n## Professional competition, metagame and legacy\n\n### Competitive history\n\nSuper Smash Bros. Melee is a widely played competitive video game and has been featured in several high-profile tournaments. Many consider it to be the most competitively viable game in the series. Melee version NTSC was first released on the GameCube in 2001 in Japan and later North America, Nintendo ran the first ever Melee tournament named Premium Fight most likely from August 25 to August 27, 2001. That circuit launched tournaments and competitive Melee on the local level. For competitive \"smashers,\" as they were soon to be called, tournaments at houses, video game stores and internet cafes would become the norm.\n\nThe tournaments increased in popularity, and an echelon of competitively successful top players emerged in each region of the United States and Japan. Professional gaming organizations began to take more notice of Melee and started sponsoring players professionally. Several professional Melee players including Christopher \"KillaOR\" McKenzie, Isai Alvarado, and Ken were seen in the 2005 \"I'm a Professional Gamer\" episode of the MTV reality series True Life. Tournaments became larger, more televised and more professional. Increases in audience and competitor counts, as well as prize pools, were also seen. From 2004 to 2007, Major League Gaming sponsored Melee on its Pro Circuit. Ken Hoang, also known as \"The King of Smash\" was considered to be the game's best player from 2003 to 2006, and has won over \\$50,000 from Smash tournaments. Although dropping Melee from its 2007 Pro Circuit, MLG still sponsored a number of tournaments as part of the Underground Smash Series.\n\nMelee was also included in the Evolution Championship Series (Evo) in 2007, a fighting game tournament held in Las Vegas. Melee was hosted at Evo 2013 after a charity vote to decide the final game to be featured in its tournament lineup. Due to the large turnout and popularity that year, Evo again included Melee at their 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 events. In 2014 Melee was played at MLG Anaheim. Evo 2016 is the largest Melee tournament to date with 2,350 entrants.\n\nThe competitive Smash community was featured in a 2013 crowd-funded documentary called The Smash Brothers. The film detailed the history of the professional scene and profiled seven prominent Melee players including Hoang, Azen, Jason \"Mew2King\" Zimmerman, Isai, PC Chris, KoreanDJ, and Evo 2013 and Evo 2014 champion, Joseph \"Mang0\" Marquez. Commentary footage from a Melee tournament is the origin of the Wombo combo internet meme.\n\nIn 2020, Project Slippi, a fork of the Dolphin emulator for Melee designed to introduce quality-of-life features such as replays and online play, was updated to support rollback netcode and integrated matchmaking, allowing netplay across large distances with little latency. In the same year, an e-sports competition known as \"The Big House\" was sent a cease and desist by Nintendo, due to the usage of Slippi.", "revid": "1169985653", "description": "2001 video game", "categories": ["2.5D fighting games", "2001 video games", "Crossover fighting games", "Crossover video games", "Esports games", "Fighting games", "Fighting games used at the Evolution Championship Series tournament", "GameCube games", "GameCube-only games", "HAL Laboratory games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Platform fighters", "Super Smash Bros.", "Video games developed in Japan", "Video games directed by Masahiro Sakurai", "Video games scored by Hirokazu Ando", "Video games scored by Shogo Sakai", "Video games scored by Tadashi Ikegami", "Video games with 2.5D graphics", "Video games with AI-versus-AI modes"]}
{"id": "402593", "url": null, "title": "Yazid I", "text": "Yazid ibn Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (Arabic: يزيد بن معاوية بن أبي سفيان, romanized: Yazīd ibn Muʿāwiya ibn ʾAbī Sufyān; c. 646 – 11 November 683), commonly known as Yazid I, was the second caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate. He ruled from April 680 until his death in November 683. His appointment was the first hereditary succession to the caliphate in Islamic history. His caliphate was marked by the death of Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali and the start of the crisis known as the Second Fitna.\n\nYazid's nomination as heir apparent in (56 AH) by his father Mu'awiya I was opposed by several Muslim grandees from the Hejaz region, including Husayn and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. The two men refused to recognize Yazid following his accession and took sanctuary in Mecca. When Husayn left for Kufa in Iraq to lead a revolt against Yazid, he was killed with his small band of supporters by Yazid's forces in the Battle of Karbala. Husayn's death caused resentment in the Hejaz, where Ibn al-Zubayr called for a consultative assembly to elect a new caliph. The people of Medina, who supported Ibn al-Zubayr, held other grievances toward the Umayyads. After failing to gain the allegiance of Ibn al-Zubayr and the people of the Hejaz through diplomacy, Yazid sent an army to suppress their rebellion. The army defeated the Medinese in the Battle of al-Harra in August 683 and the city was sacked. Afterward, Mecca was besieged for several weeks until the army withdrew as a result of Yazid's death in November 683. The Caliphate fell into a nearly decade-long civil war, ending with the establishment of the Marwanid dynasty (the Umayyad caliph Marwan I and his descendants).\n\nYazid continued Mu'awiya's decentralized model of governance, relying on his provincial governors and the tribal nobility. He abandoned Mu'awiya's ambitious raids against the Byzantine Empire and strengthened Syria's military defences. No new territories were conquered during his reign. Yazid is considered an illegitimate ruler and a tyrant by many Muslims due to his hereditary succession, the death of Husayn, and his attack on Medina. Modern historians take a milder view, and consider him a capable ruler, albeit less successful than his father.\n\n## Early life\n\nYazid was born in Syria. His year of birth is uncertain, placed between 642 and 649. His father was Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, then governor of Syria under Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656). Mu'awiya and Uthman belonged to the wealthy Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe, a grouping of Meccan clans to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad and all the preceding caliphs belonged. Yazid's mother, Maysun, was the daughter of Bahdal ibn Unayf, a chieftain of the powerful Bedouin tribe of Banu Kalb. She was a Christian, like most of her tribe. Yazid grew up with his maternal Kalbite kin, spending the springs of his youth in the Syrian Desert; for the remainder of the year he was in the company of the Greek and native Syrian courtiers of his father, who became caliph in 661.\n\nDuring his father's caliphate, Yazid led several campaigns against the Byzantine Empire, which the Caliphate had been trying to conquer, including an attack on the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Sources give several dates for this between 49 AH (669–70 CE) and 55 AH (674–5 CE). Muslim sources offer few details of his role in the campaigns, possibly downplaying his involvement due to the controversies of his later career. He is portrayed in these sources as having been unwilling to participate in the expedition to the chagrin of Mu'awiya, who then forced him to comply. However, two eighth-century non-Muslim sources from al-Andalus (Islamic Spain), the Chronicle of 741 and the Chronicle of 754, both of which likely drew their material from an earlier Arabic work, report that Yazid besieged Constantinople with a 100,000-strong army. Unable to conquer the city, the army captured adjacent towns, acquired considerable loot, and retreated after two years. Yazid also led the hajj (the annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca) on several occasions.\n\n## Nomination as caliph\n\nThe third caliph Uthman drew the ire of the Muslim settlers of the conquered lands as a consequence of his controversial policies, which were seen by many as nepotistic and interfering in provincial affairs. In 656 he was killed by the provincial rebels in Medina, then capital of the Caliphate, after which Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was recognized as caliph by the Medinese people and the rebels. In the consequent first Islamic civil war (656–661), Mu'awiya opposed Ali from his stronghold in Syria, fighting him to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657. In January 661 Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite (a faction opposed to Ali and Mu'awiya), after which his son Hasan was recognized as his successor. In August, Mu'awiya, who had already been recognized as caliph by his partisans in Syria, led his army toward Kufa, the capital of Hasan and Ali in Iraq, and gained control over the rest of the Caliphate by securing a peace treaty with Hasan. The terms of the treaty stipulated that Mu'awiya would not nominate a successor. Although the treaty brought a temporary peace, no framework of succession was established.\n\nMu'awiya was determined to install Yazid as his successor. The idea was scandalous to Muslims, as hereditary succession had no precedent in Islamic history—earlier caliphs had been elected either by popular support in Medina or by the consultation of the senior companions of Muhammad—and according to Islamic principles, the position of ruler was not the private property of a ruler to award to his descendants. It was also unacceptable by Arab custom, according to which the rulership should not pass from father to son but within the wider clan. According to the orientalist Bernard Lewis, the \"only precedents available to Mu'āwiya from Islamic history were election and civil war. The former was unworkable; the latter had obvious drawbacks.\" Mu'awiya passed over his eldest son Abd Allah, who was from his Qurayshite wife, perhaps due to the stronger support Yazid had in Syria because of his Kalbite parentage. The Banu Kalb was dominant in southern Syria and led the larger tribal confederation of Quda'a. The Quda'a were established in Syria long before Islam and had acquired significant military experience and familiarity with hierarchical order under the Byzantines, as opposed to the more free-spirited tribesmen of Arabia and Iraq. Northern Syria, on the other hand, was dominated by the tribal confederation of Qays, which had immigrated there during Mu'awiya's reign, and resented the privileged position of the Kalb in the Umayyad court. By appointing Yazid to lead campaigns against the Byzantines, Mu'awiya may have sought to foster support for Yazid from the northern tribesmen. The policy had limited success as the Qays opposed the nomination of Yazid, at least in the beginning, for he was \"the son of a Kalbi woman\". In the Hejaz (western Arabia, where Medina and Mecca are located and where the old Muslim elite resided), Yazid had support among his Umayyad kinsmen, but there were other members of the Hejazi nobility whose approval was important. By appointing Yazid to lead the hajj rituals there, Mu'awiya may have hoped to enlist support for Yazid's succession and elevate his status as a Muslim leader. According to Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967), Mu'awiya had also employed poets to influence public opinion in favour of Yazid's succession.\n\nAccording to the account of Ibn Athir (d. 1233), Mu'awiya summoned a shura (consultative assembly) of influential men from all of the provinces to his capital, Damascus, in 676 and won their support through flattery, bribes, and threats. He then ordered his Umayyad kinsman Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the governor of Medina, to inform its people of his decision. Marwan faced resistance, especially from Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson Husayn, and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Umar, and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, all sons of prominent companions of Muhammad, who, by virtue of their descent, could also lay claim to the caliphal office. Mu'awiya went to Medina and pressed the four dissenters to accede, but they fled to Mecca. He followed and threatened some of them with death, but to no avail. Nonetheless, he was successful in convincing the people of Mecca that the four had pledged their allegiance, and received the Meccans' allegiance for Yazid. On his way back to Damascus, he secured allegiance from the people of Medina. General recognition of the nomination thus forced Yazid's opponents into silence. The orientalist Julius Wellhausen doubted the story, holding that the reports of the nomination's rejection by prominent Medinese were a back-projection of the events that followed Mu'awiya's death. A similar opinion is held by the historian Andrew Marsham. According to the account of al-Tabari (d. 923), Mu'awiya announced the nomination in 676 and only received delegations from the Iraqi garrison town of Basra, which pledged allegiance to Yazid in Damascus in 679 or 680. According to Ya'qubi (d. 898), Mu'awiya demanded allegiance for Yazid on the occasion of the hajj. All, except the four prominent Muslims mentioned above, complied. No force was used against them. In any case, Mu'awiya arranged a general recognition for Yazid's succession before his death.\n\n## Reign\n\nMu'awiya died in April 680. According to al-Tabari, Yazid was at his residence in Huwwarin, located between Damascus and Palmyra, at the time of his father's death. According to verses of Yazid preserved in Isfahani's Kitab al-Aghani, a collection of Arabic poetry, Yazid was away on a summertime expedition against the Byzantines when he received the news of Mu'awiya's final illness. Based on this and the fact that Yazid arrived in Damascus only after Mu'awiya's death, the historian Henri Lammens has rejected the reports of Yazid being in Huwwarin. Mu'awiya entrusted supervision of the government to his most loyal associates, Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri and Muslim ibn Uqba al-Murri, until Yazid's return. He left a will for Yazid, instructing him on matters of governing the Caliphate. He was advised to beware Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr, for they could challenge his rule, and instructed to defeat them if they did. Yazid was further advised to treat Husayn with caution and not to spill his blood, since he was the grandson of Muhammad. Ibn al-Zubayr, on the other hand, was to be treated harshly, unless he came to terms.\n\n### Oaths of allegiance\n\nUpon his accession, Yazid requested and received oaths of allegiance from the governors of the provinces. He wrote to the governor of Medina, his cousin Walid ibn Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, informing him of Mu'awiya's death and instructing him to secure allegiance from Husayn, Ibn al-Zubayr, and Ibn Umar. The instructions contained in the letter were:\n\n> Seize Husayn, Abdullah ibn Umar, and Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr to give the oath of allegiance. Act so fiercely that they have no chance to do anything before giving the oath of allegiance.\n\nWalid sought the advice of Marwan, who suggested that Ibn al-Zubayr and Husayn be forced to pay allegiance as they were dangerous, while Ibn Umar should be left alone as he posed no threat. Husayn answered Walid's summon, meeting Walid and Marwan in a semi-private meeting where he was informed of Mu'awiya's death and Yazid's accession. When asked for his oath of allegiance, Husayn responded that giving his allegiance in private would be insufficient and suggested the oath be made in public. Walid agreed, but Marwan insisted that Husayn be detained until he proffered allegiance. Husayn scolded Marwan and left to join his armed retinue, who were waiting nearby in case the authorities attempted to apprehend him. Immediately following Husayn's exit, Marwan admonished Walid, who in turn justified his refusal to harm Husayn by dint of the latter's close relation to Muhammad. Ibn al-Zubayr did not answer the summons and left for Mecca. Walid sent eighty horsemen after him, but he escaped. Husayn too left for Mecca shortly after, without having sworn allegiance to Yazid. Dissatisfied with this failure, Yazid replaced Walid with his distant Umayyad kinsman Amr ibn Sa'id. Unlike Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr, Ibn Umar, Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, and Abd Allah ibn Abbas, who had also previously denounced Mu'awiya's nomination of Yazid, paid allegiance to him.\n\n### Battle of Karbala\n\nIn Mecca Husayn received letters from pro-Alid Kufans, inviting him to lead them in revolt against Yazid. Husayn subsequently sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil to assess the situation in the city. He also sent letters to Basra, but his messenger was handed over to the governor Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad and killed. Ibn Aqil informed Husayn of the large-scale support he found in Kufa, signalling that the latter should enter the city. Informed by some Kufan tribal chiefs (ashraf) of the goings-on, Yazid replaced the governor of Kufa, Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari, who had been unwilling to take action against pro-Alid activity, with Ibn Ziyad, whom he ordered to execute or imprison Ibn Aqil. As a result of Ibn Ziyad's suppression and political maneuvering, Ibn Aqil's following began to dissipate and he was forced to declare the revolt prematurely. It was suppressed and Ibn Aqil was executed.\n\nEncouraged by Ibn Aqil's letter, Husayn left for Kufa, ignoring warnings from Ibn Umar and Ibn Abbas. The latter reminded him, to no avail, of the Kufans' previous abandonment of his father Ali and his brother Hasan. On the way to the city, he received news of Ibn Aqil's death. Nonetheless, he continued his march towards Kufa. Ibn Ziyad's 4,000-strong army blocked his entry into the city and forced him to camp in the desert of Karbala. Ibn Ziyad would not let Husayn pass without submitting, which Husayn refused to do. Week-long negotiations failed, and in the ensuing hostilities on 10 October 680, Husayn and 72 of his male companions were slain, while his family was taken prisoner. The captives and Husayn's severed head were sent to Yazid. According to the accounts of Abu Mikhnaf (d. 774) and Ammar al-Duhni (d. 750–51), Yazid poked Husayn's head with his staff, although others ascribe this action to Ibn Ziyad. Yazid treated the captives well and sent them back to Medina after a few days.\n\n### Revolt of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr\n\nFollowing Husayn's death, Yazid faced increased opposition to his rule from Ibn al-Zubayr who declared him deposed. Although publicly he called for a shura to elect a new caliph, in secret Ibn al-Zubayr let his partisans pay allegiance to him. At first, Yazid attempted to placate him by sending gifts and delegations in an attempt to reach a settlement. After Ibn al-Zubayr's refusal to recognize him, Yazid sent a force led by Ibn al-Zubayr's estranged brother Amr to arrest him. The force was defeated and Amr was taken captive and executed. As well as Ibn al-Zubayr's growing influence in Medina, the city's inhabitants were disillusioned with Umayyad rule and Mu'awiya's agricultural projects, which included the confiscation of their lands to boost government revenue. Yazid invited the notables of Medina to Damascus and tried to win them over with gifts. They were unpersuaded and on their return to Medina narrated tales of Yazid's lavish lifestyle. Accusations included Yazid drinking wine, hunting with hounds, and his love for music. The Medinese, under the leadership of Abd Allah ibn Hanzala, renounced their allegiance to Yazid and expelled the governor, Yazid's cousin Uthman ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Sufyan, and the Umayyads residing in the city. Yazid dispatched a 12,000-strong army under the command of Muslim ibn Uqba to reconquer the Hejaz. After failed negotiations, the Medinese were defeated in the Battle of al-Harra. According to the accounts of Abu Mikhnaf and al-Samhudi (d. 1533), the city was sacked, whereas per the account of Awana (d. 764) only the ringleaders of the rebellion were executed. Having forced the rebels to renew their allegiance, Yazid's army headed for Mecca to subdue Ibn al-Zubayr. Ibn Uqba died on the way to Mecca and command passed to Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni, who besieged Mecca in September 683. The siege lasted for several weeks, during which the Ka'ba, the sacred Muslim shrine at the center of the Mecca Mosque, caught fire. Yazid's sudden death in November 683 ended the campaign and Ibn Numayr retreated to Syria with his army.\n\n### Domestic affairs and foreign campaigns\n\nThe style of Yazid's governance was, by and large, a continuation of the model developed by Mu'awiya. He continued to rely on the governors of the provinces and ashraf, as Mu'awiya had, instead of relatives. He retained several of Mu'awiya's officials, including Ibn Ziyad, who was Mu'awiya's governor of Basra, and Sarjun ibn Mansur, a native Syrian Christian, who had served as the head of the fiscal administration under Mu'awiya. Like Mu'awiya, Yazid received delegations of tribal notables (wufud) from the provinces to win their support, which would also involve distributing gifts and bribes. The structure of the caliphal administration and military remained decentralised as in Mu'awiya's time. Provinces retained much of their tax revenue and forwarded a small portion to the Caliph. The military units in the provinces were derived from local tribes whose command also fell to the ashraf.\n\nYazid approved a decrease in taxes on the Arab Christian tribe of Najran upon their request, but abolished the special tax exemption of the ethno-religious community of Samaritans, which had been granted to them by previous caliphs as a reward for their aid to the Muslim conquerors. He improved the irrigation system of the fertile lands of the Ghouta near Damascus by digging a canal that became known as Nahr Yazid.\n\nToward the end of his reign, Mu'awiya reached a thirty-year peace agreement with the Byzantines, obliging the Caliphate to pay an annual tribute of 3,000 gold coins, 50 horses, and 50 slaves, and to withdraw Muslim troops from the forward bases they had occupied on the island of Rhodes and the Anatolian coast. Under Yazid, Muslim bases along the Sea of Marmara were abandoned. In contrast to the far-reaching raids against the Byzantine Empire launched under his father, Yazid focused on stabilizing the border with Byzantium. In order to improve Syria's military defences and prevent Byzantine incursions, Yazid established the northern Syrian frontier district of Qinnasrin from what had been a part of Hims, and garrisoned it.\n\nYazid reappointed Uqba ibn Nafi, the conqueror of the central North African region of Ifriqiya whom Mu'awiya had deposed, as governor of Ifriqiya. In 681, Uqba launched a large-scale expedition into western North Africa. Defeating the Berbers and the Byzantines, Uqba reached the Atlantic coast and captured Tangier and Volubilis. He was unable to establish permanent control in these territories. On his return to Ifriqiya, he was ambushed and killed by a Berber–Byzantine force at the Battle of Vescera, resulting in the loss of the conquered territories. In 681 Yazid appointed Ibn Ziyad's brother Salm ibn Ziyad as the governor of the northeastern border province of Khurasan. Salm led several campaigns in Transoxiana (Central Asia) and raided Samarqand and Khwarazm, but without gaining a permanent foothold in any of them. Yazid's death in 683 and the subsequent chaos in the east ended the campaigns.\n\n## Death and succession\n\nYazid died on 11 November 683 in the central Syrian desert town of Huwwarin, his favourite residence, aged between 35 and 43, and was buried there. Early annalists like Abu Ma'shar al-Madani (d. 778) and al-Waqidi (d. 823) do not give any details about his death. This lack of information seems to have inspired fabrication of accounts by authors with anti-Umayyad leanings, which detail several causes of death, including a horse fall, excessive drinking, pleurisy, and burning. According to the verses by a contemporary poet Ibn Arada, who at the time resided in Khurasan, Yazid died in his bed with a wine cup by his side.\n\nIbn al-Zubayr subsequently declared himself caliph and Iraq and Egypt came under his rule. In Syria, Yazid's son Mu'awiya II, whom he had nominated, became caliph. His control was limited to parts of Syria as most of the Syrian districts (Hims, Qinnasrin, and Palestine) were controlled by allies of Ibn al-Zubayr. Mu'awiya II died after a few months from an unknown illness. Several early sources state that he abdicated before his death. Following his death, Yazid's maternal Kalbite tribesmen, seeking to maintain their privileges, sought to install Yazid's son Khalid on the throne, but he was considered too young for the post by the non-Kalbites in the pro-Umayyad coalition. Consequently, Marwan ibn al-Hakam was acknowledged as caliph in a shura of pro-Umayyad tribes in June 684. Shortly after, Marwan and the Kalb routed the pro-Zubayrid forces in Syria led by Dahhak at the Battle of Marj Rahit. Although the pro-Umayyad shura stipulated that Khalid would succeed Marwan, the latter nominated his son Abd al-Malik as his heir. Thus the Sufyanid house, named after Mu'awiya I's father Abu Sufyan, was replaced by the Marwanid house of the Umayyad dynasty. By 692 Abd al-Malik had defeated Ibn al-Zubayr and restored Umayyad authority across the Caliphate.\n\n## Legacy\n\nThe killing of Muhammad's grandson Husayn caused widespread outcry among Muslims and the image of Yazid suffered greatly. It also helped crystallize opposition to Yazid into an anti-Umayyad movement based on Alid aspirations, and contributed to the development of Shi'a identity, whereby the party of Alid partisans was transformed into a religious sect with distinct rituals and memory. After the Battle of Karbala, Shi'a imams from Husayn's line adopted the policy of political quietism.\n\n### Traditional Muslim view\n\nYazid is considered an evil figure by many Muslims to the present day, not only by the Shi'a, who hold that the ruling position rightly belonged to Husayn's father Ali and his descendants, including Husayn, whom Yazid killed to strip him of his right, but also by many Sunnis, to whom he was an affront to Islamic values. For the Shi'a, Yazid is an epitome of evil. He is annually reviled in the Ashura processions and passion plays, and rulers considered tyrannical and oppressive are often equated with him. Before the Iranian Revolution, the Shah of Iran was called the \"Yazid of his time\" by the Iranian cleric Rouhollah Khomeini, as was the Iraqi president Saddam Hussein by the Iraqi Shi'a during the Iran–Iraq War for his ban on pilgrimages to the holy sites of Shi'a Islam. Among the Sunnis, the Hanafi school allows cursing of Yazid, whereas the Hanbali school and many in the Shafi'i school maintain that no judgment should be passed on Yazid, rather tyrants in general should be cursed. However, the Hanbali scholar Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1201) encouraged the cursing. According to al-Ghazali (d. 1111), cursing Yazid is prohibited, for he was a Muslim and his role in the killing of Husayn is unverified.\n\nYazid was the first person in the history of the Caliphate to be nominated as heir based on a blood relationship, and this became a tradition afterwards. As such, his accession is considered by the Muslim historical tradition as the corruption of the caliphate into a kingship. He is depicted as a tyrant who was responsible for three major crimes during his caliphate: the death of Husayn and his followers at Karbala, considered a massacre; the aftermath of the Battle of al-Harra, in which Yazid's troops sacked Medina; and the burning of the Ka'ba during the siege of Mecca, which is blamed on Yazid's commander Husayn ibn Numayr. The tradition stresses his habits of drinking, dancing, hunting, and keeping pet animals such as dogs and monkeys, portraying him as impious and unworthy of leading the Muslim community. Extant contemporary Muslim histories describe Yazid as \"a sinner in respect of his belly and his private parts\", \"an arrogant drunken sot\", and \"motivated by defiance of God, lack of faith in His religion and hostility toward His Messenger\". Al-Baladhuri (d. 892) described him as the \"commander of the sinners\" (amir al-fasiqin), as opposed to the title commander of the faithful (amir al-mu'minin) usually applied to the caliphs. Nevertheless, some historians have argued that there is a tendency in early Muslim sources to exonerate Yazid of blame for Husayn's death, and put the blame squarely on Ibn Ziyad. According to the historian James Lindsay, the Syrian historian Ibn Asakir (d. 1176) attempted to stress Yazid's positive qualities, while accepting the allegations that are generally made against him. Ibn Asakir thus emphasised that Yazid was a transmitter of hadith (the sayings and traditions attributed to Muhammad), a virtuous man \"by reason of his connection to the age of the Prophet\", and worthy of the ruling position.\n\n### Modern scholarly view\n\nDespite his reputation in religious circles, academic historians generally portray a more favourable view of Yazid. According to Wellhausen, Yazid was a mild ruler, who resorted to violence only when necessary, and was not the tyrant that the religious tradition portrays him to be. He further notes that Yazid lacked interest in public affairs as a prince, but as a caliph \"he seems to have pulled himself together, although he did not give up his old predilections,—wine, music, the chase and other sport\". In the view of the historian Hugh N. Kennedy, despite the disasters of Karbala and al-Harra, Yazid's rule was \"not devoid of achievement\". His reputation might have improved had he lived longer, but his early death played a part in sticking of the stigma of \"the shocks of the early part of his reign\". According to the Islamicist G. R. Hawting, Yazid tried to continue the diplomatic policies of his father but, unlike Mu'awiya, he was not successful in winning over the opposition with gifts and bribes. In Hawting's summation, \"the image of Muʿāwiya as operating more like a tribal s̲h̲ayk̲h̲ than a traditional Middle Eastern despot ... also seems applicable to Yazīd\". In the view of Lewis, Yazid was a capable ruler \"with much of the ability of his father\" but was overly criticized by later Arab historians. Expressing a viewpoint similar to Wellhausen's, Lammens remarked, \"a poet himself, and fond of music, he was a Maecenas of poets and artists\".\n\nThe characterization of Yazid in the Muslim sources has been attributed to the hostility of the Abbasid dynasty, during whose rule the histories were written, toward the Umayyads, whom they toppled in 750. Most reports in the traditional Muslim sources focus on the revolts against Yazid, and usually lack detail on his public life in Syria and his activities other than the suppression of the revolts. Lammens has attributed this to the tendency of the Iraq-based, Abbasid-era chroniclers to portray a caliph, under whom Husayn was killed and the holy cities of Islam were attacked, only as an impious drunkard. In contrast, a Syrian source preserved in the Chronicle of 741 describes the Caliph as \"a most pleasant man and deemed highly agreeable by all the peoples subject to his rule. He never, as is the wont of men, sought glory for himself because of his royal rank, but lived as a citizen along with all the common people.\"\n\n### Yazidism\n\nIn the Yazidi religion, practiced by the mainly Iraq-based Kurdish-speaking ethno-religious community of Yazidis, Sultan Ezid is a highly revered divine figure. Most modern historians hold that the name Ezid derives from the name of Caliph Yazid. In Yazidi religious lore, there is no trace of any link between Sultan Ezid and the second Umayyad caliph. A pro-Umayyad movement particularly sympathetic towards Yazid existed in the Kurdish mountains before the 12th century, when Shaykh Adi, a Sufi of Umayyad descent venerated by Yazidis to this day, settled there and attracted a following among the adherents of the movement. The name Yazidi seems to have been applied to the group because of his Umayyad origins.\n\n## Coins\n\nA Sasanian-style silver coin bearing the mint date as \"Year I of Yazid\" has been reported. The obverse side shows the portrait of the Sasanian king Khosrow II (r. 590–628) and his name in the Pahlavi script. The reverse has the usual Zoroastrian fire altar surrounded by attendants. The margins, however, contain the inscription that it was minted during the first year of Yazid's reign. An anonymous coin from the Nishapur mint bearing the mint date 60, which is assumed to be the Hijri year, is also thought to be from Yazid's first regnal year. Other coins from his reign usually have only the name of the governor of the province where the coin originated. Coins bearing the name of the counter-caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr have also been found from the provinces of Fars and Kirman, dated between 61 and 63 (681–683 CE), although Ibn al-Zubayr did not publicly claim the caliphate until after the death of Yazid. This may show that as well as the challenges to his rule in Arabia and Iraq, Yazid's authority was also challenged in southern Persia from roughly the time of his accession. The coins were probably minted in the name of Ibn al-Zubayr to lend legitimacy to the challengers of the Umayyads by using a suitable Qurayshite name.\n\n## Wives and children\n\nYazid married three women and had several concubines. The names of two of his wives are known: Umm Khalid Fakhita bint Abi Hisham and Umm Kulthum, a daughter of the veteran commander and statesman Abd Allah ibn Amir. Fakhita and Umm Kulthum both hailed from the Abd Shams, the parent clan of the Umayyads.\n\nYazid had three sons from his wives. His eldest, Mu'awiya II, was between 17 and 23 years old at the time of Yazid's death. The name of Mu'awiya II's mother is unknown, but she was from the Banu Kalb. Ill health prevented him from carrying out the caliphal duties and he rarely left his residence. He survived his father only by a few months and died without leaving any offspring. Yazid's second son, Khalid, was from Fakhita, and was born circa 668. Marwan married Fakhita after becoming caliph, to foster an alliance with the Sufyanid house and neutralize her son Khalid's claim to the caliphate. He remained quiet about being sidelined from the succession, although a legendary report says that he protested to Marwan, who in turn insulted him. He had friendly relations with Abd al-Malik, whose daughter he married. Several legendary accounts report Khalid being interested in alchemy and having ordered the translation of Greek works on alchemy, astronomy, and medicine into Arabic. Yazid's daughter Atika was the favourite wife of Abd al-Malik. They had several children, including the future Caliph Yazid II (r. 720–724). Yazid's son Abd Allah, from Umm Kulthum, was a famed archer and horseman. Yazid had several other sons from slave women.", "revid": "1172341366", "description": "Second Umayyad caliph (r. 680–683)", "categories": ["646 births", "683 deaths", "7th-century Umayyad caliphs", "7th-century monarchs in Africa", "7th-century monarchs in Asia", "People of the Second Fitna", "Umayyad people of the Arab–Byzantine wars"]}
{"id": "5870424", "url": null, "title": "Crass", "text": "Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the punk subculture, advocating direct action, animal rights, feminism, anti-fascism, and environmentalism. The band used and advocated a DIY ethic approach to its albums, sound collages, leaflets, and films.\n\nCrass spray-painted stencilled graffiti messages in the London Underground system and on advertising billboards, coordinated squats and organised political action. The band expressed its ideals by dressing in black, military-surplus-style clothing and using a stage backdrop amalgamating icons of perceived authority such as the Christian cross, the swastika, the Union Jack, and the ouroboros.\n\nThe band was critical of the punk subculture and youth culture in general; nevertheless, the anarchist ideas that they promoted have maintained a presence in punk. Due to their free experimentation and use of tape collages, graphics, spoken word releases, poetry, and improvisation, they have been associated with avant-punk and art punk.\n\n## History\n\n### 1977: Origins\n\nThe band was based around an anarchist commune in a 16th century cottage, Dial House, near Epping, Essex, and formed when commune founder Penny Rimbaud began jamming with Steve Ignorant (who was staying in the house at the time). Ignorant was inspired to form a band after seeing The Clash perform at Colston Hall in Bristol, whilst Rimbaud, a veteran of avant garde performance art groups such as EXIT and Ceres Confusion, was working on his book Reality Asylum. They produced \"So What?\" and \"Do They Owe Us A Living?\" as a drum-and-vocal duo. They briefly called themselves Stormtrooper before choosing Crass in reference to a line in the David Bowie song \"Ziggy Stardust\" (\"The kids was just crass\").\n\nOther friends and household members joined (including Gee Vaucher, Pete Wright, N. A. Palmer and Steve Herman), and Crass played their first live gig at a squatted street festival in Huntley Street, North London. They planned to play five songs, but a neighbour \"pulled the plug\" after three. Guitarist Steve Herman left the band soon afterwards, and was replaced by Phil Clancey, aka Phil Free. Joy De Vivre and Eve Libertine also joined around this time. Other early Crass performances included a four-date tour of New York City, a festival gig in Covent Garden and regular appearances with the U.K. Subs at The White Lion, Putney and Action Space in central London. The latter performances were often poorly attended: \"The audience consisted mostly of us when the Subs played and the Subs when we played\".\n\nCrass played two gigs at the Roxy Club in Covent Garden, London. According to Rimbaud, the band arrived drunk at the second show and were ejected from the stage; this inspired their song, \"Banned from the Roxy\", and Rimbaud's essay for Crass' self-published magazine International Anthem, \"Crass at the Roxy\". After the incident the band took themselves more seriously, avoiding alcohol and cannabis before shows and wearing black, military surplus-style clothing on and offstage.\n\nThey introduced their stage backdrop, a logo designed by Rimbaud's friend Dave King. This gave the band a militaristic image, which led to accusations of fascism. Crass countered that their uniform appearance was intended to be a statement against the \"cult of personality\", so (in contrast to many rock bands) no member would be identified as the \"leader\".\n\nConceived and intended as cover artwork for a self-published pamphlet version of Rimbaud's Christ's Reality Asylum, the Crass logo was an amalgam of several \"icons of authority\" including the Christian cross, the swastika, the Union Jack and a two-headed Ouroboros (symbolising the idea that power will eventually destroy itself). Using such deliberately mixed messages was part of Crass' strategy of presenting themselves as a \"barrage of contradictions\", challenging audiences to (in Rimbaud's words) \"make your own fucking minds up\". This included using loud, aggressive music to promote a pacifist message, a reference to their Dadaist, performance-art backgrounds and situationist ideas. Meanwhile, Johnny Rotten stated that the band was \"too political for my liking. They preach to themselves with a communist slant.\"\n\nThe band eschewed elaborate stage lighting during live sets, preferring to play under 40-watt household light bulbs; the technical difficulties of filming under such lighting conditions partly explains why there is little live footage of Crass. They pioneered multimedia presentation, using video technology (back-projected films and video collages by Mick Duffield and Gee Vaucher) to enhance their performances, and also distributed leaflets and handouts explaining anarchist ideas to their audiences.\n\n### 1978–1979: The Feeding of the 5000 and Crass Records\n\nCrass' first release was The Feeding of the 5000 (an 18-track, 12\" 45 rpm EP on the Small Wonder label) in 1978. Workers at an Irish record-pressing plant refused to handle it due to the allegedly blasphemous content of the song \"Asylum\", and the record was released without it. In its place were two minutes of silence, entitled \"The Sound of Free Speech\". This incident prompted Crass to set up their own independent record label, Crass Records, to prevent Small Wonder from being placed in a compromising position and to retain editorial control over their material.\n\nA re-recorded, extended version of \"Asylum\", renamed \"Reality Asylum\", was shortly afterwards released on Crass Records as a 7\" single and Crass were investigated by the police due to the song's lyrics. The band were interviewed at their Dial House home by Scotland Yard's vice squad, and threatened with prosecution; however, the case was dropped. \"Reality Asylum\" retailed at 45p (when most other singles cost about 90p), and was the first example of Crass' \"pay no more than...\" policy: issuing records as inexpensively as possible. The band failed to factor value added tax into their expenses, causing them to lose money on every copy sold. A year later Crass Records released new pressings of \"The Feeding of the 5000\" (subtitled \"The Second Sitting\"), restoring the original version of \"Asylum\".\n\n### 1980: Stations of the Crass and Bloody Revolutions\n\nIn 1979 the band released their second album (Stations of the Crass), financed with a loan from Poison Girls, a band with whom they regularly appeared. This was a double album, with three sides of new material and a fourth side recorded live at the Pied Bull in Islington.\n\nThe next Crass single, 1980's \"Bloody Revolutions\", was a benefit release with Poison Girls which raised £20,000 to fund the Wapping Autonomy Centre. The words were a critique (from an anarchist-pacifist perspective) of the traditional Marxist view of revolutionary struggle, and were (in part) a response to violence marring a gig at Conway Hall in London's Red Lion Square at which both bands performed in September 1979. The show was intended as a benefit for the so-called \"Persons Unknown\", a group of anarchists facing conspiracy charges. During the performance Socialist Workers Party supporters and other anti-fascists attacked British Movement neo-Nazis, triggering violence. Crass afterwards argued that the leftists were largely to blame for the fighting, and organizations such as Rock Against Racism were causing audiences to become polarised into left- and right-wing factions. Others (including the anarchist organisation Class War) were critical of Crass's position, stating that \"like Kropotkin, their politics are up shit creek\". Many of the band's punk followers felt that they failed to understand the violence to which they were subjected from the right.\n\n\"Rival Tribal Rebel Revel\", a flexi disc single given away with the Toxic Grafity [sic] fanzine, was also a commentary about the events at Conway Hall attacking the mindless violence and tribalistic aspects of contemporary youth culture. This was followed by the single, \"Nagasaki Nightmare/Big A Little A\". The strongly anti-nuclear lyrics of the first song were reinforced by the fold-out-sleeve artwork. It featured an article by Mike Holderness of Peace News magazine connecting the atomic power industry and the manufacture of nuclear weapons, and a large poster-style map of nuclear installations in the UK. The other side of the record, \"Big A Little A\", was a statement of the band's anti-statist and individualist anarchist philosophy:\n\n\"Be exactly who you want to be, do what you want to do / I am he and she is she but you're the only you.\"\n\n### 1981: Penis Envy\n\nCrass released their third album, Penis Envy, in 1981. This marked a departure from the hardcore-punk image The Feeding of the 5000 and Stations of the Crass had given the group. It featured more-complex musical arrangements and female vocals by Eve Libertine and Joy De Vivre (singer Steve Ignorant was credited as \"not on this recording\"). The album addressed feminist issues, attacking marriage and sexual repression.\n\nThe last track on Penis Envy, a parody of an MOR love song entitled \"Our Wedding\", was made available as a white flexi disc to readers of Loving, a teenage romance magazine. Crass tricked the magazine into offering the disc, posing as \"Creative Recording And Sound Services\". Loving accepted the offer, telling their readers that the free Crass flexi would make \"your wedding day just that bit extra special\". A tabloid controversy resulted when the hoax was exposed, with the News of the World stating that the title of the flexi's originating album was \"too obscene to print\". Despite Loving's annoyance, Crass had broken no laws.\n\nThe album was banned by the retailer HMV, and copies of the album were seized from the Eastern Bloc record shop by Greater Manchester Police under the direction of Chief Constable James Anderton. The shop owners were charged with displaying \"obscene articles for publication for gain\". The judge ruled against Crass in the ensuing court case, although the decision was overturned by the Court of Appeal (except the lyrics to one song, \"Bata Motel\", which were upheld as \"sexually provocative and obscene\").\n\n### 1982–1983: Christ – The Album and strategy change\n\nThe band's fourth LP, 1982's double set Christ - The Album, took almost a year to record, produce and mix (during which the Falklands War broke out and ended). This caused Crass to question their approach to making records. As a group whose primary purpose was political commentary, they felt overtaken and made redundant by world events:\n\n> The speed with which the Falklands War was played out and the devastation that Thatcher was creating both at home and abroad, forced us to respond far faster than we had ever needed to before. Christ – The Album had taken so long to produce that some of the songs in it, songs that warned of the imminence of riots and war, had become almost redundant. Toxteth, Bristol, Brixton and the Falklands were ablaze by the time that we released. We felt embarrassed by our slowness, humbled by our inadequacy.\n\nSubsequent releases (including the singles \"How Does It Feel? (to Be the Mother of a Thousand Dead)\" and \"Sheep Farming in the Falklands\" and the album Yes Sir, I Will) saw the band's sound go back to basics and were issued as \"tactical responses\" to political situations. They anonymously produced 20,000 copies of a flexi-disc with a live recording of \"Sheep Farming...\", copies of which were randomly inserted into the sleeves of other records by sympathetic workers at the Rough Trade Records distribution warehouse to spread their views to those who might not otherwise hear them.\n\n### Direct Action and internal debates\n\nFrom their early days of spraying stencilled anti-war, anarchist, feminist and anti-consumerist graffiti messages in the London Underground and on billboards, Crass was involved in politically motivated direct action and musical activities. On 18 December 1982, the band helped co-ordinate a 24-hour squat in the empty west London Zig Zag club to prove \"that the underground punk scene could handle itself responsibly when it had to and that music really could be enjoyed free of the restraints imposed upon it by corporate industry\".\n\nIn 1983 and 1984, Crass were part of the Stop the City actions co-ordinated by London Greenpeace which foreshadowed the anti-globalisation rallies of the early 21st century. Support for these activities was provided in the lyrics and sleeve notes of the band's last single, \"You're Already Dead\", expressing doubts about their commitment to non-violence. It was also a reflection of disagreements within the group, as explained by Rimbaud; \"Half the band supported the pacifist line and half supported direct and if necessary violent action. It was a confusing time for us, and I think a lot of our records show that, inadvertently\". This led to introspection within the band, with some members becoming embittered and losing sight of their essentially positive stance. Reflecting this debate, the next release under the Crass name was Acts of Love: classical-music settings of 50 poems by Penny Rimbaud, described as \"songs to my other self\" and intended to celebrate \"the profound sense of unity, peace and love that exists within that other self\".\n\n### Thatchergate\n\nAnother Crass hoax was known as the \"Thatchergate tapes\", a recording of an apparently accidentally overheard telephone conversation (due to crossed lines). The tape was constructed by Crass from edited recordings of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. On the 'rather clumsily' forged tape, they appear to discuss the sinking of HMS Sheffield during the Falklands War and agree that Europe would be a target for nuclear weapons in a conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.\n\nCopies were leaked to the press via a Dutch news agency during the 1983 general election campaign. The U.S. State Department and British Government believed the tape to be propaganda produced by the KGB (as reported by the San Francisco Chronicle and The Sunday Times). Although the tape was produced anonymously, The Observer linked the tape with the band. Previously classified government documents made public in January 2014 under the UK's 'Thirty Year Rule' reveal that the prime minister was personally aware of the tape and had discussed it with her cabinet.\n\n### 1984: Breakup\n\n`Questions about the band in Parliament and an attempted prosecution by Conservative Party MP Timothy Eggar under the UK's Obscene Publications Act for their single, \"How Does It Feel...\", made them question their purpose:`\n\n> We found ourselves in a strange and frightening arena. We had wanted to make our views public, had wanted to share them with like minded people, but now those views were being analysed by those dark shadows who inhabited the corridors of power (...) We had gained a form of political power, found a voice, were being treated with a slightly awed respect, but was that really what we wanted? Was that what we had set out to achieve all those years ago?\n\nThe band had also incurred heavy legal expenses for the Penis Envy prosecution; this, combined with exhaustion and the pressures of living and operating together, finally took its toll. On 7 July 1984, the band played a benefit gig at Aberdare, Wales, for striking miners, and on the return trip guitarist N. A. Palmer announced that he intended to leave the group. This confirmed Crass's previous intention to quit in 1984, and the band split up.\n\nThe group's final release as Crass was the \"Ten Notes on a Summer's Day\" 12\" single in 1986. Crass Records was closed down in 1992 - its final release was Christ's Reality Asylum, a 90-minute cassette of Penny Rimbaud reading the essay he had written in early 1977 that gave him the impetus to form Crass.\n\n### Crass Collective, Crass Agenda and Last Amendment\n\nIn November 2002 several former members arranged Your Country Needs You, a concert of \"voices in opposition to war\", as the Crass Collective. At Queen Elizabeth Hall on London's South Bank, Your Country Needs You included Benjamin Britten's War Requiem and performances by Goldblade, Fun-Da-Mental, Ian MacKaye and Pete Wright's post-Crass project, Judas 2. In October 2003 the Crass Collective changed their name to Crass Agenda, with Rimbaud, Libertine and Vaucher working with Matt Black of Coldcut and jazz musicians such as Julian Siegel and Kate Shortt. In 2004 Crass Agenda spearheaded a campaign to save the Vortex Jazz Club in Stoke Newington, north London (where they regularly played). In June 2005 Crass Agenda was declared to be \"no more\", changing its name to the \"more pertinent\" Last Amendment. After a five-year hiatus, Last Amendment performed at the Vortex in June 2012. Rimbaud has also performed and recorded with Japanther and the Charlatans. A \"new\" Crass track (a remix of 1982's \"Major General Despair\" with new lyrics), \"The Unelected President\", is available.\n\n### 2007: Ignorant's The Feeding of the 5000\n\nOn 24 and 25 November 2007, Steve Ignorant performed Crass' The Feeding of the 5000 album live at the Shepherd's Bush Empire with a band of \"selected guests\". Other members of Crass were not involved in these concerts. Initially Rimbaud refused Ignorant permission to perform Crass songs he had written, but later changed his mind: \"I acknowledge and respect Steve's right to do this, but I do regard it as a betrayal of the Crass ethos\". Ignorant had a different view: \"I don't have to justify what I do...Plus, most of the lyrics are still relevant today. And remember that three-letter word, 'fun'?\"\n\n### 2010: Crassical Collection reissues\n\nIn 2010 it was announced that Crass would release The Crassical Collection, remastered reissues of their back catalogue. Three former members objected, threatening legal action. Despite their concerns the project went ahead, and the remasters were eventually released. First in the series was The Feeding of the 5000, released in August 2010. Stations of the Crass followed in October, with new editions of Penis Envy, Christ – The Album, Yes Sir, I Will and Ten Notes on a Summer's Day released in 2011 and 2012. Critics praised the improved sound quality and new packaging of the remastered albums.\n\n### 2011: The Last Supper\n\nIn 2011 Steve Ignorant embarked on an international tour, entitled \"The Last Supper\". He performed Crass material, culminating with a final performance at the Shepherd's Bush Empire on 19 November. Ignorant said that this was the last time he would sing the songs of Crass, with Rimbaud's support; the latter joined him onstage for a drum-and-vocal rendition of \"Do They Owe Us A Living\", bringing the band's career full circle after 34 years: \"And then Penny came on...and we did it, 'Do They Owe Us A Living' as we'd first done it all those years ago. As it started, so it finished\". Ignorant's lineup for the tour were Gizz Butt, Carol Hodge, Pete Wilson and Spike T. Smith, and he was joined by Eve Libertine for a number of songs. The set list included a cover of \"West One (Shine on Me)\" by The Ruts, when Ignorant was joined onstage by the Norfolk-based lifeboat crew with whom he volunteers.\n\n### Artwork and exhibitions\n\nIn February 2011, artist Toby Mott exhibited a portion of his Crass ephemera collection at the Roth Gallery in New York. The exhibit featured artwork, albums (including 12\" LPs and EPs), 7\" singles from Crass Records and a complete set of Crass' self-published zine, Inter-National Anthem.\n\nArtwork by Gee Vaucher and Penny Rimbaud, including a recording of the original 'Thatchergate Tape', featured as part of the 'Peculiar People' show at the Focal Point Gallery in Southend on Sea during the spring of 2016, part of a series of events celebrating the history of 'Radical Essex'. Vaucher's painting 'Oh America', featuring an image of the Statue of Liberty hiding her face with her hands, was used as the front page of the UK Daily Mirror newspaper to mark the election of Donald Trump as US President on 9 November 2016. From November 2016 to February 2017 the Firstsite art gallery in Colchester, hosted a retrospective of Gee Vaucher's artwork.\n\nIn June 2016, \"The Art of Crass\" was the subject of an exhibition at the LightBox Gallery in Leicester curated by artist and technologist Sean Clark. The exhibition featured prints and original artworks by Gee Vaucher, Penny Rimbaud, Eve Libertine, and Dave King. During the exhibition, Penny Rimbaud, Eve Libertine, and Louise Elliot performed \"The Cobblestones of Love\", a lyrical reworking of the Crass album \"Yes Sir, I Will\". On the final day of the exhibition there was a performance by Steve Ignorant's Slice of Life. The exhibition is documented on The Art of Crass website.\n\n## Influences\n\nFor Rimbaud the initial inspiration for founding Crass was the death of his friend Phil 'Wally Hope' Russell, as detailed in his book The Last of the Hippies: An Hysterical Romance. Russell had been placed in a psychiatric hospital after helping to set up the first Stonehenge free festival in 1974, and died shortly afterwards. Rimbaud believed that Russell was murdered by the State for political reasons. Co-founder Ignorant has cited The Clash and David Bowie as major personal influences. Band members have also cited influences ranging from existentialism and Zen to situationism, the poetry of Baudelaire, British working class 'kitchen sink' literature and films such as Kes and the films of Anthony McCall (McCall's Four Projected Movements was shown as part of an early Crass performance).\n\nCrass have said that their musical influences were seldom drawn from rock, but more from classical music (particularly Benjamin Britten, on whose work, Rimbaud states, some of Crass' riffs are based), free jazz, European atonality, and avant-garde composers such as John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen.\n\n## Legacy\n\nCrass influenced the anarchist movement in the UK, the US and beyond. The growth of anarcho-punk spurred interest in anarchist ideas. The band have also claimed credit for revitalising the peace movement and the UK Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Others contend that they overestimated their influence, their radicalising effect on militants notwithstanding. Researcher Richard Cross stated:\n\n> In their own writing, Crass somewhat overstate the contribution that anarcho-punk made to resuscitating the moribund Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) in the early 1980s. The initiation of a new arms race, confirmed by plans to deploy first-strike Cruise and Pershing nuclear missiles across Europe, revived anti-nuclear movements across the continent, and would have arisen with or without the intercession of anarcho-punk. What Crass and anarcho-punk can quite legitimately claim is to have convinced a substantial number of radical youth to commit their energies to the most militant anti-militarist wings of the disarmament movement, which laid siege to nuclear installations across the country and which saw no conflict between its pacifist precepts and its willingness to commit acts of 'criminal damage' on the military property of the nuclear state.\n\nCrass' philosophical and aesthetic influences on 1980s punk bands were far-reaching. A notable example is Washington, D.C.'s Dischord Records co-founder Ian MacKaye, who followed some of Crass' anti-consumerist and DIY principles in his own label and projects, particularly with the post-hardcore band Fugazi. However, few mimicked their later free-form style (heard on Yes Sir, I Will and their final recording, Ten Notes on a Summer's Day). Their painted and collage black-and-white record sleeves (by Gee Vaucher) may have influenced later artists such as Banksy (with whom Vaucher collaborated) and the subvertising movement. Anti-folk artist Jeffrey Lewis's 2007 album, 12 Crass Songs, features acoustic covers of Crass material. Brett Anderson, in his early teens at the time, was a big fan of the band, would play their records at home and much later cited them in a radio interview, when asked about what band or artist had first made him want to get up on stage as a singer: \"Crass! Their energy on stage was incredible, I was very impressed\".\n\nIn an interview with The Guardian in 2016, the band was citied along with a number of other British Anarcho-punk bands of the early 80s as being an influence to the American avant-garde metal group Neurosis.\n\n## Members\n\n- Steve Ignorant (vocals)\n- Eve Libertine (vocals)\n- Joy De Vivre (vocals)\n- N. A. Palmer (guitar)\n- Phil Free (guitar)\n- Pete Wright (bass, vocals)\n- Penny Rimbaud (drums, vocals)\n- Gee Vaucher (artwork, piano, radio)\n- Mick Duffield (films)\n- John Loder, sound engineer and founder of Southern Studios, is sometimes considered the \"ninth member\" of Crass. (died 2005)\n- Steve Herman (guitar; left shortly after their first performance and died on 4 February 1989)\n\n## Discography\n\n(All released on Crass Records unless otherwise stated.)\n\n### LPs\n\n- The Feeding of the 5000 (LP, 1978, 45 rpm, Small Wonder Records – UK Indie – No. 1. Reissued in 1980 as LP 33 rpm as The Feeding of the 5000 – Second Sitting, UK Indie – No. 11)\n- Stations of the Crass (521984, double LP, 1979) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- Penis Envy (321984/1, LP, 1981) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- Christ – The Album (BOLLOX 2U2, double LP, 1982) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- Yes Sir, I Will (121984/2, LP, 1983) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- Ten Notes on a Summer's Day (catalog No. 6, LP, 1986, Crass Records) (UK Indie – No. 6)\n\n### Compilations and remastered editions\n\n- Best Before 1984 (1986 – CATNO5; compilation album of singles) (UK Indie – No. 7)\n- The Feeding of the 5000 (The Crassical Collection) (2010 – CC01CD remastered edition)\n- Stations of the Crass (The Crassical Collection) (2010 – CC02CD remastered edition)\n- Penis Envy (The Crassical Collection) (2010 – CC03CD remastered edition)\n- Christ – The Album (The Crassical Collection) (2011 – CC04CD remastered edition)\n- Yes Sir, I Will (The Crassical Collection) (2011 – CC05CD remastered edition)\n- Ten Notes on a Summer's Day (The Crassical Collection) (2012 – CC06CD remastered edition)\n\n### Singles\n\n- \"Reality Asylum\" / \"Shaved Women\" (CRASS1, 7\", 1979) (UK Indie – No. 9)\n- \"Bloody Revolutions\" / \"Persons Unknown\" (421984/1, 7\" single, joint released with the Poison Girls, 1980) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- \"Rival Tribal Rebel Revel\" (421984/6F, one-sided 7\" flexi disc single given away with Toxic Grafity [sic] fanzine, 1980)\n- \"Nagasaki Nightmare\" / \"Big A Little A\" (421984/5, 7\" single, 1981) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- \"Our Wedding\" (321984/1F, one-sided 7\" flexi-disc single by Creative Recording And Sound Services made available to readers of teenage magazine Loving)\n- \"Merry Crassmas\" (CT1, 7\" single, 1981, Crass' stab at the Christmas novelty market) (UK Indie – No. 2)\n- \"Sheep Farming in the Falklands\" / \"Gotcha\" (121984/3, 7\" single, 1982, originally released anonymously as a flexi-disc) (UK Indie – No. 1 , UK Singles Chart: No 106)\n- \"How Does It Feel To Be The Mother of 1000 Dead?\" / \"The Immortal Death\" (221984/6, 7\" single, 1983) (UK Indie – No. 1)\n- \"Whodunnit?\" (121984/4, 7\" single, 1983, pressed in \"shit-coloured vinyl\") (UK Indie – No. 2, UK Singles Chart - No.119)\n- \"You're Already Dead\" / \"Nagasaki is Yesterday's Dog-End\" / \"Don't Get Caught\" (1984, 7\" single. UK Singles Chart - No.166)\n\n### Other\n\n- Penny Rimbaud Reads From 'Christ's Reality Asylum''' (Cat No. 10C, C90 cassette, 1992)\n- Acts of Love – Fifty Songs to my Other Self by Penny Rimbaud with Paul Ellis, Eve Libertine and Steve Ignorant (Cat No. 1984/4, LP and book, 1984. Reissued as CD and book as Exitstencilisms Cat No. EXT001 2012)\n- EXIT The Mystic Trumpeter – Live at the Roundhouse 1972, The ICES Tapes (pre Crass material featuring Penny Rimbaud, Gee Vaucher, John Loder and others) (Exit Stencil Music Cat No. EXMO2, CD and book, 2013)\n\n### Live recordings\n\n- Christ: The Bootleg (recorded live in Nottingham, 1984, released 1989 on Allied Records)\n- You'll Ruin It For Everyone (recorded live in Perth, Scotland, 1981, released 1993 on Pomona Records)\n\n### Videos\n\nCrass:\n\n- Christ: The Movie (a series of short films by Mick Duffield that were shown at Crass performances, VHS, released 1990)\n- Semi-Detached (video collages by Gee Vaucher, 1978–84, VHS, 2001)\n- Crass: There Is No Authority But Yourself (documentary by Alexander Oey, 2006) documenting the history of Crass and Dial House.\n\nCrass Agenda:\n\n- In the Beginning Was the WORD – Live DVD recorded at the Progress Bar, Tufnell Park, London, 18 November 2004\n\n## See also\n\n- Anarchism and the arts\n- Punk ideologies\n- Animal rights and punk subculture\n\n## Suggested viewing\n\n- The Art of Punk - Crass'' (The Museum of Contemporary Art) (2013) - Documentary featuring the art of Dan King and Gee Vaucher", "revid": "1171685766", "description": "English punk rock band", "categories": ["Anarcho-punk groups", "Anti-consumerist groups", "British critics of Christianity", "British hardcore punk groups", "Crass", "Critics of religions", "DIY culture", "English anti-fascists", "English art rock groups", "English punk rock groups", "Musical groups disestablished in 1984", "Musical groups established in 1977", "Squatters' movements", "Underground punk scene in the United Kingdom"]}
{"id": "138239", "url": null, "title": "Stanwood, Washington", "text": "Stanwood is a city in Snohomish County, Washington, United States. The city is located 50 miles (80 km) north of Seattle, at the mouth of the Stillaguamish River near Camano Island. As of the 2010 census, its population is 6,231.\n\nStanwood was founded in 1866 as Centerville, adopting its current name in 1877 after the arrival of postmaster Daniel O. Pearson. It was platted in 1888 and incorporated as a city in 1903. The city was bypassed by the Great Northern Railway, which built a depot one mile (1.6 km) east that grew into its own separate town, incorporated in 1922 as East Stanwood. The two Stanwoods were civic rivals for several decades, until their governments were consolidated after a 1960 referendum was approved by voters.\n\nThe city was historically home to several food processing plants, which were its largest employers, and was mainly populated by Scandinavians. Since the 1990s, Stanwood has grown into a bedroom community for Seattle and Everett and has annexed uphill areas that were developed into suburban subdivisions. Stanwood is primarily served by State Route 532, which connects Camano Island to Interstate 5, and also has a train station that opened in 2009.\n\n## History\n\nPrior to European exploration and settlement in the 19th century, the Puget Sound region was inhabited by indigenous Coast Salish peoples. The modern-day site of downtown Stanwood was home to a Stillaguamish village named Sŭl-gwähs', with an estimated 250 people and three large potlatch houses. The area's first European Americans, George O. and G. L. Wilson, were led on a guided canoe expedition up the Stillaguamish River in 1851 and reported of its economic potential.\n\nThe first permanent American settlement at the mouth of the Stillaguamish River was Centerville, a trading post established in 1866 by Robert Fulton on the south side of the river. Centerville gained a post office in 1870, and the settlement was moved to the north side of the river three years later. The post office was renamed to Stanwood in 1877 by its sixth postmaster Daniel O. Pearson, after his wife Clara's maiden name; Pearson also ran a general store and built a new steamboat wharf on the Stillaguamish River shortly after arriving. Pearson had arrived from Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1866; two of his sisters were among the original \"Mercer Girls\".\n\nThe surrounding area was cleared by loggers and managed using a series of levees along the Stillaguamish River before being opened for settlement by farmers and ranchers. The establishment of a Norwegian Lutheran church in 1876, the first to be built in the Pacific Northwest, brought the area's first wave of Scandinavian immigrants. The townsite's plat was filed by W. R. Stockbridge in 1888, ahead of a failed attempt to petition the county commission for incorporation as a city. Stanwood suffered from a major fire on June 2, 1892, which destroyed the church and thirteen buildings and caused damages of approximately \\$26,100 ( dollars); several businesses and the town's liquor supply were saved by volunteers from the town's Good Templars lodge, who had been at a regular meeting. By the end of the decade, the town had rebuilt its main street and gained a weekly newspaper, cannery, horse racing track, creamery, and a shingle mill. Stanwood was officially incorporated on October 19, 1903, a month after the town's men voted 74–16 in favor of becoming a city. Stanwood's businesses relocated a block away from the riverfront in the 1920s and 1930s after the main flow of the Stillaguamish River shifted to another slough. The change in the river rendered the wharf too shallow for steamboats and damaged dikes after several major floods.\n\nThe Seattle and Montana Railroad (later absorbed into the Great Northern Railway) was constructed through the Stanwood area in 1891, but bypassed the town one mile (1.6 km) to the east, where it built a depot on ground that was less prone to flooding. Several businesses relocated to the area around the depot, including a bank and Washington state's first cooperative general store. Merchants in the old town boycotted the railroad and acquired a steamboat, the City of Stanwood, in 1893; the ship was lost after catching fire on Port Susan the following year.\n\nA short railroad, known as the Hall and Hall Railway, was constructed in 1904 between the depot and downtown Stanwood and would operate until 1938. The community around the depot was platted in 1906 as \"East Stanwood\", but initially relied on a commercial club to govern in lieu of a formal town government. East Stanwood was incorporated on February 7, 1922, after a series of civic disputes highlighted the need for a city government. East Stanwood was eventually bisected by the Pacific Highway in the 1920s and connected to Stanwood and Camano Island by paved roads constructed a decade earlier.\n\nThe \"Twin City\" maintained separate government facilities, schools, banks, sawmills, creameries, and frozen food plants. The school systems for the two cities were merged in 1944, ending a decades-long football rivalry between the two high schools. By the early 1950s, the competitiveness between merchants and citizens of both Stanwoods had softened and groups cooperated on events and various initiatives. A formal merger of the two cities was proposed in 1954 and placed on the April 30 ballot; Stanwood voted in favor of the merger, but it failed to reach a majority in East Stanwood. The high cost of a modern sewage treatment system, required by the state government before further expansion could occur, spurred leaders in both cities to place a second consolidation referendum before voters on March 8, 1960. The referendum was passed by an overwhelming majority of voters in both cities and the merged government immediately approved a \\$520,000 sewer installation contract.\n\nDevelopment of a new suburban commercial center east of the city began in the 1980s, centered around the relocated Stanwood High School campus. A 55-acre (22 ha) farm at the intersection of State Route 532 and 72nd Avenue Northwest was redeveloped into a \\$50 million shopping and entertainment center. The commercial center opened in 1995 and has 50 businesses, 10 restaurants, office buildings, a movie theater, and an arcade. The development was later expanded to include multi-story condominiums and upscale apartments with ground-floor retail space. The area surrounding the center was developed into suburban subdivisions, contributing to a doubling of the city's population to nearly 4,000 people by 2000. The subdivisions were annexed by the city government in the early 2000s, despite testimony from citizens against further growth. In 2005, the city rejected a bid by Wal-Mart to build a store in Stanwood after public outcry from supporters of downtown businesses.\n\nThe high school campus was replaced with a new building in 2021 that cost \\$147.5 million to construct. At an adjacent 22-acre (8.9 ha) site is planned to be developed into a large residential complex with 444 apartments and 72 townhomes. The complex is also planned to incorporate retail, amenity spaces, and expanded wetlands.\n\n## Geography\n\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Stanwood has a total area of 2.84 square miles (7.36 km<sup>2</sup>), of which 2.82 square miles (7.30 km<sup>2</sup>) is land and 0.02 square miles (0.05 km<sup>2</sup>) is water. The city is at the northwestern corner of Snohomish County, and is considered part of the Seattle metropolitan area. It is 13 miles (21 km) west of its nearest neighboring town, Arlington, and 20 miles (32 km) north of Everett, the county seat. The city is also 50 miles (80 km) north of Seattle and 17 miles (27 km) south of Mount Vernon.\n\nStanwood's city limits are generally defined to the south by the Stillaguamish River; to the west by 104th Drive Northwest; to the north by 276th Street Northwest and 290th Street Northwest; and to the east by 68th Avenue Northwest. Approximately 59 percent of land within Stanwood city limits is used for housing, while 10 percent is zoned for commercial use and 7 percent for industrial uses. The urban growth area of Stanwood consists of an additional 425 acres (172 ha) outside city limits, including the unincorporated area of Northwest Stanwood.\n\nThe city is located at the mouth of the Stillaguamish River, where it flows into Port Susan, an arm of the Puget Sound, and Skagit Bay, the mouth of the Skagit River. To the west is Davis Slough, which separates Stanwood from Camano Island and forms the border between Snohomish and Island counties. Elevations in Stanwood range from 2 feet (0.61 m) above sea level near the Stillaguamish River to 190 feet (58 m) in the northeastern hills. The city is home to five creeks and drainage basins that flow into the Stillaguamish River and Puget Sound: Church Creek, Douglas Creek, Irvine Slough, the Skagit River, and the Stillaguamish River. The Stanwood area was formed during the Pleistocene glaciation and was further shaped through the rise and fall of the sea level as well as sedimentary deposits from the Skagit and Stillaguamish rivers.\n\nMuch of downtown Stanwood is located in a 100-year flood zone and is at risk of flooding from the Stillaguamish River, as well as the Skagit River. Much of the Stillaguamish delta was reclaimed using a series of levees and dikes that were built in the 1870s and improved by the Works Progress Administration in the 1930s and the city government in the 1990s. Some of the failure-prone dikes were later removed in the 2010s to restore habitat areas for native wildlife. Several civic buildings have also been relocated uphill from the downtown area to prevent floods from hampering the city's vital functions. In 2020, the city government began construction of flood controls to redirect stormwater into the Stillaguamish River rather than the sloughs to prevent flooding. The project is expected to cost \\$11 million and take 10 years to complete over six phases.\n\n## Economy\n\nAs of 2015, Stanwood has an estimated workforce population of 4,644 and an unemployment rate of 4.1 percent. The most common occupations for Stanwood residents are in the education and health care sector, which employs 24.1 percent, followed by manufacturing (17.5%), retail (13.3%), and entertainment and food services (11.2%). Only 14 percent of employed residents work within Stanwood city limits, while the rest commute to other cities for work. The most common commuting destinations for Stanwood residents include Everett, with 15 percent of traffic, Seattle (8.5%), Mount Vernon (5%), Arlington (4.6%), and Marysville (4.5%). The average one-way commute for the city's workers was approximately 27.5 minutes; 83.5 percent of commuters drove alone to their workplace, while 7.4 percent carpooled and 2.8 percent used public transit.\n\nThe city's largest employers are the Stanwood-Camano School District and the Josephine Sunset Home, which provide approximately 550 and 303 jobs, respectively. One of the city's other large employers was the Twin City Foods frozen food processing plant, which packaged frozen vegetables and fruits until it ceased operations in 2017. The original plant was destroyed in an accidental fire on April 28, 1996, causing \\$50 million in damage and leaving 111 full-time workers unemployed until a new plant opened the following July.\n\n## Demographics\n\nStanwood is among the smallest cities in Snohomish County, with an estimated population of 7,287 people in 2019. By 2035, the city and its surrounding urban growth area is expected to have a population of 11,085. The greater Stanwood area, which includes Camano Island and other nearby communities, has a total population of 33,000 people.\n\nStanwood was noted for its historically large Scandinavian population, particularly Norwegians, who settled in the region in the early 20th century. As late as 1949, over 60 percent of Stanwood residents were of Norwegian, Swedish, or Danish descent. By 2000, however, only 17.6 percent of residents identified themselves as having Scandinavian ancestry.\n\n### 2010 census\n\nAs of the 2010 U.S. census, there were 6,231 people, 2,388 households, and 1,541 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,209.6 inhabitants per square mile (853.1/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 2,584 housing units at an average density of 916.3 per square mile (353.8/km<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 89.7% White, 1.0% African American, 0.8% Native American, 1.7% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 2.6% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race were 7.0% of the population.\n\nThere were 2,388 households, of which 38.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.7% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.5% were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.18.\n\nThe median age in the city was 35.9 years. 28.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.2% were from 25 to 44; 21.3% were from 45 to 64; and 15.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.3% male and 52.7% female.\n\n### 2000 census\n\nAs of the 2000 census, there were 3,923 people, 1,402 households, and 957 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,995.4 people per square mile (768.9/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 1,508 housing units at an average density of 767.0 per square mile (295.6/km<sup>2</sup>). The racial makeup of the city was 91.56% White, 0.59% African American, 0.94% Native American, 1.10% Asian, 0.23% Pacific Islander, 2.52% from other races, and 3.06% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race were 4.97% of the population.\n\nThere were 1,402 households, out of which 42.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.3% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 26.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.22.\n\nIn the city, the age distribution of the population shows 31.5% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 14.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.2 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was \\$44,512, and the median income for a family was \\$52,996. Males had a median income of \\$40,457 versus \\$26,738 for females. The per capita income for the city was \\$16,775. About 9.0% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.9% of those under age 18 and 23.4% of those age 65 or over.\n\n## Government and politics\n\nStanwood is a non-charter code city that operates under a mayor–council government. The city council's seven members and the mayor are elected to four-year terms in non-partisan elections. City councilmember Sid Roberts was elected mayor in 2021, replacing interim mayor Elizabeth Callaghan. The council conducts regular meetings twice per month at the Stanwood-Camano School District administrative offices. The city hall was built in 1939 and renovated in the 1960s and 2013, but remains too small to host city council meetings. The city has long-term plans to relocate the city hall out of the downtown flood zone to a property near Church Creek Park.\n\nThe city government employs 28 people full-time and operates on a biennial budget with annual expenses of \\$16.2 million. The budget funds various departments run by the government, including water utilities, parks and recreation, development planning, and clerks. Stanwood also outsources its policing services to the county sheriff's office and its fire and emergency services to the North County Regional Fire Authority. The sheriff's office provides several deputies and officers, while the vehicles and uniforms are marked with the city logo.\n\nAt the federal level, Stanwood is part of Washington's 2nd congressional district, which has been represented by Democrat Rick Larsen since 2001. At the state level, the city is part of the 10th legislative district, which also includes all of Island County and part of southwestern Skagit County. Stanwood is wholly part of the Snohomish County Council's 1st district, which also includes Arlington, Marysville, Darrington, and Granite Falls.\n\n## Culture\n\n### Arts and events\n\nStanwood's arts community is centered around the Stanwood–Camano Arts Guild, which organizes an annual spring art show and the Art by the Bay festival in the summer. The guild also programs public art at local businesses and public venues. Stanwood is also a center for glass artwork due to its proximity to the Pilchuck Glass School, founded in 1971 by a group of glassblowing artists led by Dale Chihuly.\n\nStanwood also hosts several annual festivals and events that are organized by community groups and the city government. In February, the area hosts a glass treasure hunt and a birding festival to coincide with the migration of snow geese and other winter flocks. During the summer months, the city organizes weekend concerts at various venues around downtown and hosts a farmers' market on Fridays from June to October. Stanwood's two late summer festivals, the Community Fair and Harvest Jubilee, are focused around the region's agricultural tradition. The Community Fair, held since 1932 in early August and billed as the \"Best Lil' Fair in the West\", draws 12,000 visitors annually and features 4-H presentations, livestock exhibitions, a parade, and carnival rides. The Harvest Jubilee, held since 2007 in late September, includes fine art exhibitions, produce contests, and self-guided tours of local farms.\n\n### Parks and recreation\n\nStanwood has eight public parks that have a combined 86 acres (35 ha) of public open and preserved space. The parks range from nature sanctuaries to neighborhood parks, playgrounds, sports fields, and boat launches. The city's largest park is Heritage Park, located in downtown and covering 44 acres (18 ha); it is shared with the school district and includes sports fields, walking trails, picnic areas, a dog park, and a skate park. Stanwood's nearest regional parks are Kayak Point County Park, which also includes an adjacent golf course, and Wenberg County Park on Lake Goodwin.\n\nIn 2014, the city began development of new multi-million dollar parks at the former Hamilton lumber mill and Ovenell dairy farm, both located along the Stillaguamish River near downtown. The Hamilton site includes an iconic smokestack that is decorated during the holiday season and will be incorporated into the new park, which will include a boat launch and public dock. The 15-acre (6.1 ha) Ovenell site was cleared of its historic barn in 2017 and will include a boat launch, natural habitats, and a demonstration farm when fully completed in the 2020s.\n\n### Media\n\nStanwood has one weekly newspaper, the Stanwood Camano News, which originated in 1903 as the Stanwood Tidings and later ran under the name of the Twin City News. The newspaper was acquired by the Pioneer News Group, publishers of the Mount Vernon-based Skagit Valley Herald, in 2015. At the time, the News had a weekly circulation of 2,200.\n\nStanwood's public library is operated by the countywide Sno-Isle Libraries system and is housed in a 5,400-square-foot (500 m<sup>2</sup>) building. The city's first library was built in 1922 and replaced in 1970 with the modern building, which was expanded in 1986.\n\n### Historic buildings\n\nThe twin downtowns of Stanwood and East Stanwood have several blocks of historic buildings that date back to the early 20th century and were preserved by the city's residents. A portion of the eastern downtown was nearly destroyed in a two-alarm fire on August 27, 1997, which burned through three shops.\n\nStanwood has two buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), which evaluates historic sites under private ownership. The D. O. Pearson House, was built in 1890 as the home of the founding Pearson family and was listed in 1973. It was acquired by the Stanwood Area Historical Society in 1975 and now serves as a pioneer museum. The city's other NRHP listing, the three-story Stanwood IOOF Public Hall, was built in 1903 for use by various fraternal organizations (including the International Order of Odd Fellows) until it was acquired by the historical society in 1996. The IOOF building was reopened in 2003 as the Floyd Norgaard Cultural Center and now serves as a museum, community center, and events venue.\n\n### Notable people\n\n- Nels Bruseth, forest ranger, painter, and naturalist\n- Bundle of Hiss, grunge band\n- Fanny Cory, cartoonist and illustrator\n- Sarah Jones, Olympic rower\n- T. J. Oshie, professional hockey player\n- Eugene H. Peterson, clergyman and author\n- Ted Richards, American football player\n- Zakarias Martin Toftezen, first Norwegian settler on the Puget Sound\n- Zoë Marieh Urness, photographer\n- Francesca Woodman, photographer\n\n## Education\n\nPublic schools in Stanwood are operated by the Stanwood-Camano School District, which covers the city and neighboring communities, including Camano Island, Lake Ketchum, and Warm Beach. The district had an enrollment of approximately 4,554 students in 2014 and has eleven total schools, including one high school, two middle schools, and four elementary schools located in Stanwood. The old high school, opened in 1971, was replaced in 2021 by a new, three-story building on the existing campus to accommodate the area's growing population.\n\nStanwood's nearest post-secondary education institutions are Skagit Valley College, located in Mount Vernon, and Everett Community College, located in northern Everett. In 2006, the city offered 480 acres (190 ha) near Interstate 5 to the state government for a potential four-year university campus. The university project was eventually awarded to other bids in Everett before being cancelled entirely in 2008.\n\n## Infrastructure\n\n### Transportation\n\nStanwood is located on State Route 532, an east–west highway connecting Camano Island to Interstate 5 east of Stanwood. The city is also served by two other major highways: Pioneer Highway, historically part of State Route 530 and the Pacific Highway (U.S. Route 99), which continues north to Conway and east towards Silvana and Arlington; and Marine Drive, which continues south to Florence, Warm Beach, the Tulalip Indian Reservation, and Marysville.\n\nPublic transportation in Stanwood is provided by Community Transit and Island Transit, the transit authorities of Snohomish and Island counties, respectively. Community Transit runs all-day bus service from Stanwood to Warm Beach, North Lakewood, and Smokey Point. During peak hours, it also runs commuter express service to the Boeing Everett Factory and Downtown Seattle from two park and rides in the Stanwood area. Island Transit provides service to Camano Island on two routes, as well as commuter service to Mount Vernon and Everett. A separate service, named Snow Goose Transit, debuted in 2022 and provides minibus service in Stanwood and parts of Camano Island. It is operated by a local retirement home and was funded by the Washington State Department of Transportation.\n\nStanwood is served by a north–south railroad owned by BNSF Railway, which operates freight and passenger rail service to the city. Amtrak's Cascades provides daily passenger rail service at Stanwood station in downtown Stanwood, continuing south to Seattle and north to Vancouver, British Columbia. The train station opened on November 21, 2009, restoring passenger rail service that had been discontinued in 1971.\n\n### Utilities\n\nElectric power in Stanwood is provided by the Snohomish County Public Utility District (PUD), a consumer-owned public utility that serves all of Snohomish County and neighboring Camano Island. Cascade Natural Gas provides natural gas service to the city's residents and businesses, as part of its service area in northwestern Washington. Stanwood has two major broadband internet providers: Frontier and Wave Broadband; the latter also offers cable television.\n\nThe city government provides water and water treatment to residents and businesses within a 10-square-mile (26 km<sup>2</sup>) service area that includes the entire city and some surrounding unincorporated areas. The city's water supply is sourced primarily from several wells that draw from an underground aquifer. Wastewater and stormwater are collected and treated at two treatment plants, built in 1963 and 2004. Solid waste and recycling collection within Stanwood is contracted by the city government to Waste Management.\n\n### Health care\n\nStanwood's nearest general hospital is the Cascade Valley Hospital in Arlington. The city has two medical clinics operated by The Everett Clinic and Skagit Valley Hospital. The Stanwood General Hospital operated until 1943 and a replacement was planned in the late 1950s, but never built.", "revid": "1171922038", "description": null, "categories": ["1866 establishments in Washington Territory", "Cities in Snohomish County, Washington", "Cities in Washington (state)", "Cities in the Seattle metropolitan area"]}
{"id": "8246375", "url": null, "title": "Jennison Myrie-Williams", "text": "Jennison Machisti Myrie-Williams (born 17 May 1988) is an English former professional footballer who played as a winger. He scored 48 goals in 408 league and cup appearances in a 15-year career in British football.\n\nMyrie-Williams began his career at Bristol City, progressing through the club's youth system before making his first-team debut in May 2006. He played regularly for Bristol City during the 2006–07 season as the club were promoted to the Championship. During the 2007–08 season, Myrie-Williams was loaned out to Cheltenham Town and Tranmere Rovers respectively in order to gain more first-team experience. The following season, he was loaned out to Cheltenham Town again, before having further loan spells at Carlisle United and Hereford United.\n\nHe was released by Bristol City in May 2009, and joined Scottish Premier League club Dundee United on a free transfer a month later. After a season at Dundee United, Myrie-Williams moved to St Johnstone on a free transfer, making five appearances, before leaving the club in January 2011. He joined League Two club Oxford United in the same month, but the deal collapsed due to the fact that the player had already played for two clubs during the 2010–11 campaign. In July 2011, Myrie-Williams signed for League One club Stevenage on a free transfer.\n\nMyrie-Williams joined Port Vale on a six-week loan spell in November 2011, and following his release by Stevenage in May 2012, signed for the club on a permanent basis two months later. He helped Port Vale to secure promotion out of League Two during the 2012–13 season, and was also voted onto the PFA Team of the Year. He signed with Scunthorpe United in June 2014, and had a second spell on loan at Tranmere Rovers in January 2015. He joined Irish club Sligo Rovers in August 2015, and then signed for Newport County in June 2016. He signed with National League club Torquay United in September 2017, and then moved on to Hereford five months later. He helped Hereford to win the Southern League Premier Division title at the end of the 2017–18 season. Myrie-Williams left Hereford in October 2018 and spent the remainder of the 2018–19 season at National League South club Weston-super-Mare, before joining Gloucester City in June 2019. He rejoined Weston-super-Mare in March 2020 and signed with Chippenham Town in August 2021.\n\n## Early life\n\nBorn in Lambeth, south London, he always wanted to play professional football, and stated that he never considered any other career path. Myrie-Williams and his family moved to Bristol at the age of 14 in order to make it easier for him to play at Bristol City's academy.\n\n## Club career\n\n### Bristol City\n\nHaving progressed through the youth system at Bristol City, he made his first-team debut for the club on the last day of the 2005–06 season, coming on as a 61st-minute substitute in a 1–0 defeat at Southend United on 6 May 2006. Myrie-Williams made three substitute appearances at the start of Bristol City's 2006–07 campaign, before making his first starting appearance in a 1–0 home victory against Brighton & Hove Albion on 2 September 2006. He scored his first professional goal in a 3–1 home victory against Chesterfield on 16 September 2006, scoring with a chipped shot to give Bristol City a two-goal lead. Myrie-Williams made 35 appearances for the club during the 2006–07 season, scoring twice, as Bristol City earned automatic promotion to the Championship after finishing in second place.\n\n#### Loan moves\n\nAhead of the 2007–08 season, Bristol City manager Gary Johnson stated his intention to send Myrie-Williams out on loan in order to gain first-team experience. Johnson believed that Myrie-Williams would only benefit from a loan move to a League One club, given that he was playing in the third tier of English football prior to Bristol City's promotion to the Championship during the 2006–07 campaign. Two days before the start of the 2007–08 season, Myrie-Williams joined Cheltenham Town on a month's loan. He made his debut for Cheltenham in the club's 1–0 home win against Gillingham on the first day of the season, coming on as a substitute in the 68th minute. After making four first-team appearances for Cheltenham during the month, Myrie-Williams' loan was extended for a further month, running until 6 October 2007. Cheltenham manager John Ward said \"I am really pleased that Jennison will be staying with us. In the last two or three games he has started to show his tremendous pace and ability on the ball\". His loan was extended again in October 2007, taking him into a third month with Cheltenham. He scored his first goal for Cheltenham in a 3–1 away win at Swindon Town in the Football League Trophy, scoring the first goal of the game, \"finishing neatly after a superb through ball from Craig Reid\". He made his final appearance for Cheltenham in a 2–2 home draw with Crewe Alexandra, coming on as a substitute as Cheltenham scored two late goals to salvage a point. After the match, Myrie-Williams suffered a knee injury in training, ruling him out of first-team action for two weeks. He made 13 appearances for Cheltenham during his three-month loan spell, scoring one goal and he returned to his parent club in early November 2007.\n\nAfter his loan spell at Cheltenham, Myrie-Williams joined Tranmere Rovers, also of League One, on a one-month loan agreement. On bringing Myrie-Williams to the club, Tranmere manager Ronnie Moore stated \"He is left footed and will bring balance to our side\". He made his debut for Tranmere two days later, starting in the club's 1–0 home defeat to eventual champions Swansea City. His loan spell was extended for a further month on 19 December 2007, after Myrie-Williams had impressed manager Ronnie Moore during his four weeks with the club. Myrie-Williams scored his first goal for Tranmere on 26 January 2008, scoring the winning goal from the penalty spot in a 2–1 victory against Yeovil Town at Prenton Park. Two days after scoring his first goal for the club, his loan spell was extended until the end of the 2007–08 season. Both managers were \"delighted\" with the progress Myrie-Williams was making at Tranmere, with Bristol City manager Gary Johnson adding \"Jennison's developing well at Tranmere and it would be criminal to bring him back now\". He scored his second goal for Tranmere just five days later in a 2–0 away win at Leeds United; Myrie-Williams scored with an \"angled shot\" in the 61st-minute to give Tranmere their fourth consecutive victory. He scored his third goal of the campaign on 5 April 2008, with a header from Andrew Taylor's cross in the third minute to give Tranmere the lead away at Walsall. He was substituted after 55 minutes with an injury that ruled him out for the rest of the campaign. He returned to Bristol City, having scored three goals in 26 appearances for Tranmere.\n\nAt the start of the 2008–09 season, Myrie-Williams returned to Cheltenham Town, signing on a one-month loan deal on 14 August 2008. On bringing Myrie-Williams back to the club, Cheltenham manager Keith Downing said \"Jennison is an exciting young player who will give us some different options. We've perhaps been lacking a bit of pace and he will give us that as well\". He made his second debut for the club four days later, scoring with a header in the 80th-minute to ensure Cheltenham picked up their first victory of the 2008–09 season with a 2–0 win against Swindon Town. Myrie-Williams made five appearances for Cheltenham during his one-month loan spell, scoring one goal. He returned to Bristol City on 15 September 2008. Shortly after returning to his parent club, Myrie-Williams was loaned out to another League One club, this time in the form of Carlisle United. Myrie-Williams stated that the move appealed to him because of manager John Ward, who he had played under at Cheltenham Town. He made his Carlisle debut on 20 September 2008, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute in a 2–0 home defeat to Leeds United. The loan agreement was extended for another month on 15 October 2008. Myrie-Williams was loaned out for a third time during the 2008–09 season, the fifth loan spell of his career, when he joined Hereford United in January 2009. He scored his first goal for Hereford on 17 February 2009 in the club's 2–0 home victory against Leeds United, scoring with a low shot to give Hereford the lead just before half-time. He returned to Bristol City after Hereford's 1–0 home loss against Peterborough United on 21 February 2009. A month later, Myrie-Williams rejoined Hereford until the end of the season. He made 15 appearances over the period of the two loan spells, scoring twice, as Hereford were relegated back to League Two after finishing bottom of the table.\n\n### Dundee United\n\nAt the end of the 2008–09 season, Myrie-Williams was released by Bristol City. He joined Dundee United on a free transfer on 12 June 2009, signing a two-year contract with the Scottish Premier League club. Myrie-Williams made his Dundee United debut on 22 August 2009, coming on as an 88th-minute substitute in a 0–0 draw at St Mirren. He made his first league start on 17 October 2009, playing 84 minutes in a 1–1 home draw against Hamilton Academical, earning the man of the match award for his performance. He scored his first competitive goal for Dundee United in a 3–2 home win against St Mirren on 5 December 2009, scoring the club's third goal in the match. Myrie-Williams received the first red card of his career when he was sent off for two bookable offences in the club's 2–0 home defeat against Celtic on 25 April 2010. He played in the club's 2–0 victory over Raith Rovers in the Scottish Cup semi-final, but was not selected for the Hampden Park final. He made 27 appearances in his first season at the club, scoring twice.\n\nHe remained at Dundee United ahead of the 2010–11 season, and made his first appearance of the season in a 1–1 draw with St Mirren on 14 August 2010, appearing as a substitute in the 74th-minute. It was to be Myrie-Williams' only appearance for the club at the start of the campaign, and four days later, on 18 August, Dundee United manager Peter Houston told the player he was available for transfer in order to cut the club's wage bill. Shortly before the summer transfer window closed, on 31 August 2010, Myrie-Williams left the club by mutual consent.\n\n### St Johnstone\n\nMyrie-Williams signed for another Scottish Premier League club in the form of St Johnstone on 14 September 2010, joining on a free transfer. Signing for the club on a short-term deal lasting until January 2011, he made his debut for the club in St Johnstone's 2–1 home victory against St Mirren on 18 September 2010. After two appearances in two home defeats in quick succession against Celtic in late October 2010, Myrie-Williams did not feature again for two months. His last appearance for the club was as an 89th-minute substitute in the club's 2–0 away defeat against Celtic at Celtic Park on 26 December 2010. Shortly after the game, he was told by manager Derek McInnes that he was free to find a new club, with his contract expiring at the end of January 2011. Myrie-Williams made eight appearances for St Johnstone during his three-month spell at the club.\n\nShortly after leaving St Johnstone, Myrie-Williams opted for a move back to England, signing for League Two club Oxford United on 27 January 2011 for the rest of the 2010–11 campaign. However, the transfer collapsed as a result of Myrie-Williams having already played for two clubs during the 2010–11 season; playing one game for Dundee United and eight for St Johnstone. Under FIFA regulations, a player cannot play for more than two permanent clubs in a season. The English Football Association could not register Myrie-Williams as they are bound by FIFA regulations. Similarly, the English Football League could not register him to play for Oxford as his international clearance could not be granted.\n\n### Stevenage\n\nMyrie-Williams signed for League One club Stevenage on a free transfer on 8 July 2011. He made his debut for Stevenage in the club's 3–1 away win against AFC Bournemouth on 16 August 2011, coming on as a 74th-minute substitute and helping to create Stevenage's third goal. After making four successive substitute appearances, Myrie-Williams started his first match for the club on 24 September, playing 45 minutes in a 1–0 defeat to Carlisle United at Brunton Park.\n\nMyrie-Williams joined League Two club Port Vale on loan on 24 November 2011, joining on an agreement until January 2012. A day later, he made his debut for Port Vale in a 0–0 home draw against Torquay United, playing the whole match. During the game, he impressed manager Micky Adams — \"He (Myrie-Williams) lifted me, as I'm asking people to be positive and show character, because the fans are disappointed with the way things have gone recently, and we need to give them something to shout about, which I believe he did. I thought he was outstanding, he looked exciting on the ball and he got crosses into the box\". In his next appearance for the club, he scored the equalising goal in a 2–1 win at Dagenham & Redbridge, when he \"blasted in\" a \"25 yards (23 m) blockbuster\" – fellow Stevenage loanee Madjo went on to score the winning goal. Myrie-Williams' effort was Vale's first goal in 502 minutes (more than five games) of football. He returned to Broadhall Way in January having scored one goal in six games for Port Vale, who were unable to extend the loan deal due to an acute lack of funds.\n\nOn his return to Stevenage, Myrie-Williams was made available for transfer by manager Graham Westley, and was told he did not feature in Westley's plans. Both Port Vale and Sheffield United were reportedly interested in signing the player on a permanent basis. League Two club Bradford City also spoke to Stevenage with a view to bringing in Myrie-Williams, although \"the chase was put on hold\" following Westley's departure — with new manager Gary Smith wishing to evaluate the squad. No transfer materialised, and he came on as a late substitute in Stevenage's 2–0 defeat to Charlton Athletic on 25 February 2012, marking his first appearance for Stevenage in five months. Myrie-Williams made 19 appearances for Stevenage in all competitions during the campaign. Despite an increase in first-team involvement under Smith, he was released by Stevenage when his contract expired in May 2012.\n\n### Port Vale\n\nMyrie-Williams joined Port Vale on a free transfer on 2 July 2012, signing a two-year contract after having impressed during his brief loan spell at the club during the 2011–12 season. He hit the ground running at Vale Park, and put in a particularly strong performance against League One leaders Tranmere Rovers in the League Trophy First Round, as he \"tormented\" full-back Zoumana Bakayogo, and claimed both goals of a 2–0 win with a penalty and a 30 yards (27 m) free-kick he described as \"up there with the best goals I've scored\". He was named in the League Two team of the week after converting from the penalty spot in a 3–1 win at Aldershot Town on 26 November. As the 2012–13 season drew to a close, League Two managers voted him the fifth best player of the season at the annual Football League Awards. Vale secured promotion with a third-place finish at the end of the season, and Myrie-Williams finished with nine assists and 11 goals in 50 games. He was voted onto the PFA Team of the Year, alongside teammate Tom Pope.\n\nHe lost his first-team place in mid-October of the 2013–14 season after Adams changed system, before he marked his return to the starting line-up with a brace against Shortwood United in the FA Cup. He ended the campaign with ten goals in 45 appearances, helping the club to secure a ninth-place finish in League One. After a public vote held in February 2020, he was named by The Sentinel as Port Vale's second-best winger of the 2010s with 32% of the vote, behind David Worrall (44%).\n\n> \"I want to thank Jennison for his efforts while he has been at the club. He has been terrific. At times he has been unplayable and at other times he has let himself down slightly, but that is the life of a winger... This is not having a go at Jennison, but I don't see Scunthorpe as a progression in his career. I have to say I think that move is purely a money one.\"\n\n### Scunthorpe United\n\nMyrie-Williams rejected a contract with Port Vale to sign a two-year deal with newly promoted League One club Scunthorpe United on 11 June 2014. He went on loan to League Two club Tranmere Rovers in January 2015, after being signed by his former Port Vale manager Micky Adams. Tranmere were relegated out of the Football League at the end of the 2014–15 season, and Myrie-Williams became a free agent in the summer after his contract with Scunthorpe was cancelled by mutual consent.\n\n### Sligo Rovers\n\nHe had trials with Bristol Rovers and Yeovil Town in summer 2015. At the end of the month, he signed with League of Ireland Premier Division club Sligo Rovers, managed by Adams, who had also signed Myrie-Williams during his time as manager at Port Vale and Tranmere.\n\n### Newport County\n\nMyrie-Williams signed a one-year contract with League Two club Newport County on 16 June 2016. He made his debut for Newport on 6 August 2016 in a 3–2 defeat to Mansfield Town at Rodney Parade. He scored his first competitive goal for Newport ten days later in a 2–1 defeat at Luton Town. He impressed manager Graham Westley after he was \"concentrated and focused, determined and resilient in defence\" filling in at left-back in December 2016. He left Newport after he turned down the offer of a new contract in July 2017.\n\n### Later career\n\nMyrie-Williams joined National League club Torquay United on non-contract terms on 15 September 2017, arriving two days after the appointment of head coach Gary Owers. He made 10 league appearances for Torquay across the 2017–18 season, of which three were starting appearances, before he left Plainmoor on 12 February 2018.\n\nHe joined Southern League Premier Division club Hereford 11 days later; Hereford manager Peter Beadle said that \"it's great to have someone of the calibre of Jennison\". He scored on his Hereford debut on 24 February, to help his new club to record a 2–0 victory over Weymouth at Edgar Street. The goal was named as the club's Goal of the Season. He scored a hat-trick during a 5–1 victory over Gosport Borough on 24 March 2018. He helped Hereford to win the league title at the end of the 2017–18 season. Myrie-Williams left the club on 5 October 2018 after being limited to six National League North appearances at the start of the 2018–19 season. Myrie-Williams joined National League South club Weston-super-Mare on 16 November 2018. He scored two goals in 18 appearances as the Weston-super-Mare were relegated at the end of the 2018–19 season.\n\nMyrie-Williams signed with National League North club Gloucester City on 11 June 2019, following former Weston-Super-Mare teammate Marlon Jackson; upon signing the duo, manager Mike Cook commented that \"this has been a long drawn out process and we are delighted to secure their quality and experience\". He was released by Gloucester in January after nine league appearances. He rejoined Weston-super-Mare, now in the Southern League Premier Division South, in March 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England, the 2019–20 Southern Football League season was formally abandoned on 26 March 2020, with all results from the season being expunged.\n\nMyrie-Williams signed with Chippenham Town of the National League South on 19 August 2021, making two brief substitute appearances during the 2021–22 season.\n\n## International career\n\nMyrie-Williams has represented England at under-18 level.\n\n## Style of play\n\nMyrie-Williams is generally deployed as a winger, and can play on either flank. He is predominantly left-footed, and has been used on the wing for the majority of his career. Despite being left-footed, Myrie-Williams states that he is much more comfortable on the right wing — cutting inside and getting a shot on goal. He has been described as being \"blessed with searing pace and an impressive left foot\", causing defenders \"countless problems\". Myrie-Williams believes that his strongest attribute is that he \"loves running at defenders\", as well as being \"pretty confident with the ball at his feet\" and \"not being afraid to take anyone on due to his pace\". He also states that he can \"spot a good pass\", and gets as much enjoyment assisting goals as he does scoring them. He has been described as a \"direct winger\" with \"a habit of drifting out wide\". Myrie-Williams often takes set-pieces and has been described as a \"dangerous crosser of the ball\".\n\nIn June 2009, former footballer turned pundit Steve Claridge stated that Myrie-Williams was \"an exciting prospect\" due to his style of play. He also claimed Myrie-Williams was a \"priceless asset\" in terms of turning defence into attack and relieving defensive pressure — \"Whenever he was given time and space to run at the opposition he looked dangerous and comfortable with the ball at his feet. This appears to be a side to his game that comes naturally. As the match became stretched he quickly turned defence into attack with lung-bursting 50 yards (46 m) runs\". Claridge did, however, believe that Myrie-Williams often tried to complicate matters too much and needed to work on \"simplifying his game\" in order to be able to \"assess the situation\" better.\n\nMyrie-Williams believes that he needs to work on his heading ability, and despite actively trying to improve it, he states that it still \"needs a bit of work\". He also states that managers often tell him he needs to track back more and do more defensive work in matches — in-turn offering more protection to the full back.\n\n## Personal life\n\nHe states that the biggest influence in his life is his mother, as well as saying that former Bristol City manager Gary Johnson \"really looked after him\" during his time at the club. He supports Manchester United, and \"loves watching the way they play\", in particular the club's treble winning team during the 1998–99 campaign. He has a daughter, born in 2011.\n\n## Career statistics\n\n## Honours\n\nBristol City\n\n- League One second-place promotion: 2006–07\n\nDundee United\n\n- Scottish Cup: 2009–10\n\nPort Vale\n\n- League Two second-place promotion: 2012–13\n\nHereford\n\n- Southern Football League Premier Division: 2017–18\n\nIndividual\n\n- PFA Team of the Year: 2012–13 League Two", "revid": "1170587900", "description": "English association football player", "categories": ["1988 births", "Black British sportsmen", "Bristol City F.C. players", "Carlisle United F.C. players", "Cheltenham Town F.C. players", "Chippenham Town F.C. players", "Dundee United F.C. players", "English Football League players", "English men's footballers", "Footballers from Lambeth", "Gloucester City A.F.C. players", "Hereford F.C. players", "Hereford United F.C. players", "League of Ireland players", "Living people", "Men's association football forwards", "National League (English football) players", "Newport County A.F.C. players", "Port Vale F.C. players", "Scottish Premier League players", "Scunthorpe United F.C. players", "Sligo Rovers F.C. players", "Southern Football League players", "St Johnstone F.C. players", "Stevenage F.C. players", "Torquay United F.C. players", "Tranmere Rovers F.C. players", "Weston-super-Mare A.F.C. players"]}
{"id": "28320", "url": null, "title": "Steve Biko", "text": "Bantu Stephen Biko (18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was a South African anti-apartheid activist. Ideologically an African nationalist and African socialist, he was at the forefront of a grassroots anti-apartheid campaign known as the Black Consciousness Movement during the late 1960s and 1970s. His ideas were articulated in a series of articles published under the pseudonym Frank Talk.\n\nRaised in a poor Xhosa family, Biko grew up in Ginsberg township in the Eastern Cape. In 1966, he began studying medicine at the University of Natal, where he joined the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Strongly opposed to the apartheid system of racial segregation and white-minority rule in South Africa, Biko was frustrated that NUSAS and other anti-apartheid groups were dominated by white liberals, rather than by the blacks who were most affected by apartheid. He believed that well-intentioned white liberals failed to comprehend the black experience and often acted in a paternalistic manner. He developed the view that to avoid white domination, black people had to organise independently, and to this end he became a leading figure in the creation of the South African Students' Organisation (SASO) in 1968. Membership was open only to \"blacks\", a term that Biko used in reference not just to Bantu-speaking Africans but also to Coloureds and Indians. He was careful to keep his movement independent of white liberals, but opposed anti-white hatred and had white friends. The white-minority National Party government were initially supportive, seeing SASO's creation as a victory for apartheid's ethos of racial separatism.\n\nInfluenced by the Martinican philosopher Frantz Fanon and the African-American Black Power movement, Biko and his compatriots developed Black Consciousness as SASO's official ideology. The movement campaigned for an end to apartheid and the transition of South Africa toward universal suffrage and a socialist economy. It organised Black Community Programmes (BCPs) and focused on the psychological empowerment of black people. Biko believed that black people needed to rid themselves of any sense of racial inferiority, an idea he expressed by popularizing the slogan \"black is beautiful\". In 1972, he was involved in founding the Black People's Convention (BPC) to promote Black Consciousness ideas among the wider population. The government came to see Biko as a subversive threat and placed him under a banning order in 1973, severely restricting his activities. He remained politically active, helping organise BCPs such as a healthcare centre and a crèche in the Ginsberg area. During his ban he received repeated anonymous threats, and was detained by state security services on several occasions. Following his arrest in August 1977, Biko was beaten to death by state security officers. Over 20,000 people attended his funeral.\n\nBiko's fame spread posthumously. He became the subject of numerous songs and works of art, while a 1978 biography by his friend Donald Woods formed the basis for the 1987 film Cry Freedom. During Biko's life, the government alleged that he hated whites, various anti-apartheid activists accused him of sexism, and African racial nationalists criticised his united front with Coloureds and Indians. Nonetheless, Biko became one of the earliest icons of the movement against apartheid, and is regarded as a political martyr and the \"Father of Black Consciousness\". His political legacy remains a matter of contention.\n\n## Biography\n\n### Early life: 1946–1966\n\nBantu Stephen Biko was born on 18 December 1946, at his grandmother's house in Tarkastad, Eastern Cape. The third child of Mzingaye Mathew Biko and Alice 'Mamcete' Biko, he had an older sister, Bukelwa, an older brother, Khaya, and a younger sister, Nobandile. His parents had married in Whittlesea, where his father worked as a police officer. Mzingaye was transferred to Queenstown, Port Elizabeth, Fort Cox, and finally King William's Town, where he and Alice settled in Ginsberg township. This was a settlement of around 800 families, with every four families sharing a water supply and toilet. Both Africans and Coloured people lived in the township, where Xhosa, Afrikaans, and English were all spoken. After resigning from the police force, Mzingaye worked as a clerk in the King William's Town Native Affairs Office, while studying for a law degree by correspondence from the University of South Africa. Alice was employed first in domestic work for local white households, then as a cook at Grey Hospital in King William's Town. According to his sister, it was this observation of his mother's difficult working conditions that resulted in Biko's earliest politicisation.\n\nBiko's given name \"Bantu\" means \"people\" in IsiXhosa; Biko interpreted this in terms of the saying \"Umntu ngumntu ngabantu\" (\"a person is a person by means of other people\"). As a child he was nicknamed \"Goofy\" and \"Xwaku-Xwaku\", the latter a reference to his unkempt appearance. He was raised in his family's Anglican Christian faith. In 1950, when Biko was four, his father fell ill, was hospitalised in St. Matthew's Hospital, Keiskammahoek, and died, making the family dependent on his mother's income.\n\nBiko spent two years at St. Andrews Primary School and four at Charles Morgan Higher Primary School, both in Ginsberg. Regarded as a particularly intelligent pupil, he was allowed to skip a year. In 1963 he transferred to the Forbes Grant Secondary School in the township. Biko excelled at maths and English and topped the class in his exams. In 1964 the Ginsberg community offered him a bursary to join his brother Khaya as a student at Lovedale, a prestigious boarding school in Alice, Eastern Cape. Within three months of Steve's arrival, Khaya was accused of having connections to Poqo, the armed wing of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), an African nationalist group which the government had banned. Both Khaya and Steve were arrested and interrogated by the police; the former was convicted, then acquitted on appeal. No clear evidence of Steve's connection to Poqo was presented, but he was expelled from Lovedale. Commenting later on this situation, he stated: \"I began to develop an attitude which was much more directed at authority than at anything else. I hated authority like hell.\"\n\nFrom 1964 to 1965, Biko studied at St. Francis College, a Catholic boarding school in Mariannhill, Natal. The college had a liberal political culture, and Biko developed his political consciousness there. He became particularly interested in the replacement of South Africa's white minority government with an administration that represented the country's black majority. Among the anti-colonialist leaders who became Biko's heroes at this time were Algeria's Ahmed Ben Bella and Kenya's Jaramogi Oginga Odinga. He later said that most of the \"politicos\" in his family were sympathetic to the PAC, which had anti-communist and African racialist ideas. Biko admired what he described as the PAC's \"terribly good organisation\" and the courage of many of its members, but he remained unconvinced by its racially exclusionary approach, believing that members of all racial groups should unite against the government. In December 1964, he travelled to Zwelitsha for the ulwaluko circumcision ceremony, symbolically marking his transition from boyhood to manhood.\n\n### Early student activism: 1966–1968\n\nBiko was initially interested in studying law at university, but many of those around him discouraged this, believing that law was too closely intertwined with political activism. Instead they convinced him to choose medicine, a subject thought to have better career prospects. He secured a scholarship, and in 1966 entered the University of Natal Medical School. There, he joined what his biographer Xolela Mangcu called \"a peculiarly sophisticated and cosmopolitan group of students\" from across South Africa; many of them later held prominent roles in the post-apartheid era. The late 1960s was the heyday of radical student politics across the world, as reflected in the protests of 1968, and Biko was eager to involve himself in this environment. Soon after he arrived at the university, he was elected to the Students' Representative Council (SRC).\n\nThe university's SRC was affiliated with the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). NUSAS had taken pains to cultivate a multi-racial membership but remained white-dominated because the majority of South Africa's students were from the country's white minority. As Clive Nettleton, a white NUSAS leader, put it: \"the essence of the matter is that NUSAS was founded on white initiative, is financed by white money and reflects the opinions of the majority of its members who are white\". NUSAS officially opposed apartheid, but it moderated its opposition in order to maintain the support of conservative white students. Biko and several other black African NUSAS members were frustrated when it organised parties in white dormitories, which black Africans were forbidden to enter. In July 1967, a NUSAS conference was held at Rhodes University in Grahamstown; after the students arrived, they found that dormitory accommodation had been arranged for the white and Indian delegates but not the black Africans, who were told that they could sleep in a local church. Biko and other black African delegates walked out of the conference in anger. Biko later related that this event forced him to rethink his belief in the multi-racial approach to political activism:\n\n> I realized that for a long time I had been holding onto this whole dogma of nonracism almost like a religion ... But in the course of that debate I began to feel there was a lot lacking in the proponents of the nonracist idea ... they had this problem, you know, of superiority, and they tended to take us for granted and wanted us to accept things that were second-class. They could not see why we could not consider staying in that church, and I began to feel that our understanding of our own situation in this country was not coincidental with that of these liberal whites.\n\n### Founding the South African Students' Organisation: 1968–1972\n\n#### Developing SASO\n\nFollowing the 1968 NUSAS conference in Johannesburg, many of its members attended a July 1968 conference of the University Christian Movement at Stutterheim. There, the black African members decided to hold a December conference to discuss the formation of an independent black student group. The South African Students' Organisation (SASO) was officially launched at a July 1969 conference at the University of the North; there, the group's constitution and basic policy platform were adopted. The group's focus was on the need for contact between centres of black student activity, including through sport, cultural activities, and debating competitions. Though Biko played a substantial role in SASO's creation, he sought a low public profile during its early stages, believing that this would strengthen its second level of leadership, such as his ally Barney Pityana. Nonetheless, he was elected as SASO's first president; Pat Matshaka was elected vice president and Wuila Mashalaba elected secretary. Durban became its de facto headquarters.\n\nBiko developed SASO's ideology of \"Black Consciousness\" in conversation with other black student leaders. A SASO policy manifesto produced in July 1971 defined this ideology as \"an attitude of mind, a way of life. The basic tenet of Black Consciousness is that the Blackman must reject all value systems that seek to make him a foreigner in the country of his birth and reduce his basic human dignity.\" Black Consciousness centred on psychological empowerment, through combating the feelings of inferiority that most black South Africans exhibited. Biko believed that, as part of the struggle against apartheid and white-minority rule, blacks should affirm their own humanity by regarding themselves as worthy of freedom and its attendant responsibilities. It applied the term \"black\" not only to Bantu-speaking Africans, but also to Indians and Coloureds. SASO adopted this term over \"non-white\" because its leadership felt that defining themselves in opposition to white people was not a positive self-description. Biko promoted the slogan \"black is beautiful\", explaining that this meant \"Man, you are okay as you are. Begin to look upon yourself as a human being.\"\n\nBiko presented a paper on \"White Racism and Black Consciousness\" at an academic conference in the University of Cape Town's Abe Bailey Centre in January 1971. He also expanded on his ideas in a column written for the SASO Newsletter under the pseudonym \"Frank Talk\". His tenure as president was taken up largely by fundraising activities, and involved travelling around various campuses in South Africa to recruit students and deepen the movement's ideological base. Some of these students censured him for abandoning NUSAS' multi-racial approach; others disapproved of SASO's decision to allow Indian and Coloured students to be members. Biko stepped down from the presidency after a year, insisting that it was necessary for a new leadership to emerge and thus avoid any cult of personality forming around him.\n\nSASO decided after a debate to remain non-affiliated with NUSAS, but would nevertheless recognise the larger organisation as the national student body. One of SASO's founding resolutions was to send a representative to each NUSAS conference. In 1970 SASO withdrew its recognition of NUSAS, accusing it of attempting to hinder SASO's growth on various campuses. SASO's split from NUSAS was a traumatic experience for many white liberal youth who had committed themselves to the idea of a multi-racial organisation and felt that their attempts were being rebuffed. The NUSAS leadership regretted the split, but largely refrained from criticising SASO. The government – which regarded multi-racial liberalism as a threat and had banned multi-racial political parties in 1968 – was pleased with SASO's emergence, regarding it as a victory of apartheid thinking.\n\n#### Attitude to liberalism and personal relations\n\nThe early focus of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) was on criticising anti-racist white liberals and liberalism itself, accusing it of paternalism and being a \"negative influence\" on black Africans. In one of his first published articles, Biko stated that although he was \"not sneering at the [white] liberals and their involvement\" in the anti-apartheid movement, \"one has to come to the painful conclusion that the [white] liberal is in fact appeasing his own conscience, or at best is eager to demonstrate his identification with the black people only insofar as it does not sever all ties with his relatives on his side of the colour line.\"\n\nBiko and SASO were openly critical of NUSAS' protests against government policies. Biko argued that NUSAS merely sought to influence the white electorate; in his opinion, this electorate was not legitimate, and protests targeting a particular policy would be ineffective for the ultimate aim of dismantling the apartheid state. SASO regarded student marches, pickets, and strikes to be ineffective and stated it would withdraw from public forms of protest. It deliberately avoided open confrontation with the state until such a point when it had a sufficiently large institutional structure. Instead, SASO's focus was on establishing community projects and spreading Black Consciousness ideas among other black organisations and the wider black community. Despite this policy, in May 1972 it issued the Alice Declaration, in which it called for students to boycott lectures in response to the expulsion of SASO member Abram Onkgopotse Tiro from the University of the North after he made a speech criticising its administration. The Tiro incident convinced the government that SASO was a threat.\n\nIn Durban, Biko entered a relationship with a nurse, Nontsikelelo \"Ntsiki\" Mashalaba; they married at the King William's Town magistrates court in December 1970. Their first child, Nkosinathi, was born in 1971. Biko initially did well in his university studies, but his grades declined as he devoted increasing time to political activism. Six years after starting his degree, he found himself repeating his third year. In 1972, as a result of his poor academic performance, the University of Natal barred him from further study.\n\n### Black Consciousness activities and Biko's banning: 1971–1977\n\n#### Black People's Convention\n\nIn August 1971, Biko attended a conference on \"The Development of the African Community\" in Edendale. There, a resolution was presented calling for the formation of the Black People's Convention (BPC), a vehicle for the promotion of Black Consciousness among the wider population. Biko voted in favour of the group's creation but expressed reservations about the lack of consultation with South Africa's Coloureds or Indians. A. Mayatula became the BPC's first president; Biko did not stand for any leadership positions. The group was formally launched in July 1972 in Pietermaritzburg. By 1973, it had 41 branches and 4000 members, sharing much of its membership with SASO.\n\nWhile the BPC was primarily political, Black Consciousness activists also established the Black Community Programmes (BCPs) to focus on improving healthcare and education and fostering black economic self-reliance. The BCPs had strong ecumenical links, being part-funded by a program on Christian action, established by the Christian Institute of Southern Africa and the South African Council of Churches. Additional funds came from the Anglo-American Corporation, the International University Exchange Fund, and Scandinavian churches. In 1972, the BCP hired Biko and Bokwe Mafuna, allowing Biko to continue his political and community work. In September 1972, Biko visited Kimberley, where he met the PAC founder and anti-apartheid activist Robert Sobukwe.\n\nBiko's banning order in 1973 prevented him from working officially for the BCPs from which he had previously earned a small stipend, but he helped to set up a new BPC branch in Ginsberg, which held its first meeting in the church of a sympathetic white clergyman, David Russell. Establishing a more permanent headquarters in Leopold Street, the branch served as a base from which to form new BCPs; these included self-help schemes such as classes in literacy, dressmaking and health education. For Biko, community development was part of the process of infusing black people with a sense of pride and dignity. Near King William's Town, a BCP Zanempilo Clinic was established to serve as a healthcare centre catering for rural black people who would not otherwise have access to hospital facilities. He helped to revive the Ginsberg crèche, a daycare for children of working mothers, and establish a Ginsberg education fund to raise bursaries for promising local students. He helped establish Njwaxa Home Industries, a leather goods company providing jobs for local women. In 1975, he co-founded the Zimele Trust, a fund for the families of political prisoners.\n\nBiko endorsed the unification of South Africa's black liberationist groups – among them the BCM, PAC, and African National Congress (ANC) – in order to concentrate their anti-apartheid efforts. To this end, he reached out to leading members of the ANC, PAC, and Unity Movement. His communications with the ANC were largely via Griffiths Mxenge, and plans were being made to smuggle him out of the country to meet Oliver Tambo, a leading ANC figure. Biko's negotiations with the PAC were primarily through intermediaries who exchanged messages between him and Sobukwe; those with the Unity Movement were largely via Fikile Bam.\n\n#### Banning order\n\nBy 1973, the government regarded Black Consciousness as a threat. It sought to disrupt Biko's activities, and in March 1973 placed a banning order on him. This prevented him from leaving the King William's Town magisterial district, prohibited him from speaking either in public or to more than one person at a time, barred his membership of political organisations, and forbade the media from quoting him. As a result, he returned to Ginsberg, living initially in his mother's house and later in his own residence.\n\nIn December 1975, attempting to circumvent the restrictions of the banning order, the BPC declared Biko their honorary president. After Biko and other BCM leaders were banned, a new leadership arose, led by Muntu Myeza and Sathasivian Cooper, who were considered part of the Durban Moment. Myeza and Cooper organised a BCM demonstration to mark Mozambique's independence from Portuguese colonial rule in 1975. Biko disagreed with this action, correctly predicting that the government would use it to crack down on the BCM. The government arrested around 200 BCM activists, nine of whom were brought before the Supreme Court, accused of subversion by intent. The state claimed that Black Consciousness philosophy was likely to cause \"racial confrontation\" and therefore threatened public safety. Biko was called as a witness for the defence; he sought to refute the state's accusations by outlining the movement's aims and development. Ultimately, the accused were convicted and imprisoned on Robben Island.\n\nIn 1973, Biko had enrolled for a law degree by correspondence from the University of South Africa. He passed several exams, but had not completed the degree at his time of death. His performance on the course was poor; he was absent from several exams and failed his Practical Afrikaans module. The state security services repeatedly sought to intimidate him; he received anonymous threatening phone calls, and gun shots were fired at his house. A group of young men calling themselves 'The Cubans' began guarding him from these attacks. The security services detained him four times, once for 101 days. With the ban preventing him from gaining employment, the strained economic situation impacted his marriage.\n\nDuring his ban, Biko asked for a meeting with Donald Woods, the white liberal editor of the Daily Dispatch. Under Woods' editorship, the newspaper had published articles criticising apartheid and the white-minority regime and had also given space to the views of various black groups, but not the BCM. Biko hoped to convince Woods to give the movement greater coverage and an outlet for its views. Woods was initially reticent, believing that Biko and the BCM advocated \"for racial exclusivism in reverse\". When he met Biko for the first time, Woods expressed his concern about the anti-white liberal sentiment of Biko's early writings. Biko acknowledged that his earlier \"antiliberal\" writings were \"overkill\", but said that he remained committed to the basic message contained within them.\n\nOver the coming years the pair became close friends. Woods later related that, although he continued to have concerns about \"the unavoidably racist aspects of Black Consciousness\", it was \"both a revelation and education\" to socialise with blacks who had \"psychologically emancipated attitudes\". Biko also remained friends with another prominent white liberal, Duncan Innes, who served as NUSAS President in 1969; Innes later commented that Biko was \"invaluable in helping me to understand black oppression, not only socially and politically, but also psychologically and intellectually\". Biko's friendship with these white liberals came under criticism from some members of the BCM.\n\n### Death: 1977\n\n#### Arrest and death\n\nIn 1977, Biko broke his banning order by travelling to Cape Town, hoping to meet Unity Movement leader Neville Alexander and deal with growing dissent in the Western Cape branch of the BCM, which was dominated by Marxists like Johnny Issel. Biko drove to the city with his friend Peter Jones on 17 August, but Alexander refused to meet with Biko, fearing that he was being monitored by the police. Biko and Jones drove back toward King William's Town, but on 18 August they were stopped at a police roadblock near Grahamstown. Biko was arrested for having violated the order restricting him to King William's Town. Unsubstantiated claims have been made that the security services were aware of Biko's trip to Cape Town and that the road block had been erected to catch him. Jones was also arrested at the roadblock; he was subsequently held without trial for 533 days, during which time he was interrogated on numerous occasions.\n\nThe security services took Biko to the Walmer police station in Port Elizabeth, where he was held naked in a cell with his legs in shackles. On 6 September, he was transferred from Walmer to room 619 of the security police headquarters in the Sanlam Building in central Port Elizabeth, where he was interrogated for 22 hours, handcuffed and in shackles, and chained to a grille. Exactly what happened has never been ascertained, but during the interrogation he was severely beaten by at least one of the ten security police officers. He suffered three brain lesions that resulted in a massive brain haemorrhage on 6 September. Following this incident, Biko's captors forced him to remain standing and shackled to the wall. The police later said that Biko had attacked one of them with a chair, forcing them to subdue him and place him in handcuffs and leg irons.\n\nBiko was examined by a doctor, Ivor Lang, who stated that there was no evidence of injury on Biko. Later scholarship has suggested Biko's injuries must have been obvious. He was then examined by two other doctors who, after a test showed blood cells to have entered Biko's spinal fluid, agreed that he should be transported to a prison hospital in Pretoria. On 11 September, police loaded him into the back of a Land Rover, naked and manacled, and drove him 740 miles (1,190 km) to the hospital. There, Biko died alone in a cell on 12 September 1977. According to an autopsy, an \"extensive brain injury\" had caused \"centralisation of the blood circulation to such an extent that there had been intravasal blood coagulation, acute kidney failure, and uremia\". He was the twenty-first person to die in a South African prison in twelve months, and the forty-sixth political detainee to die during interrogation since the government introduced laws permitting imprisonment without trial in 1963.\n\n#### Response and investigation\n\nNews of Biko's death spread quickly across the world, and became symbolic of the abuses of the apartheid system. His death attracted more global attention than he had ever attained during his lifetime. Protest meetings were held in several cities; many were shocked that the security authorities would kill such a prominent dissident leader. Biko's Anglican funeral service, held on 25 September 1977 at King William's Town's Victoria Stadium, took five hours and was attended by around 20,000 people. The vast majority were black, but a few hundred whites also attended, including Biko's friends, such as Russell and Woods, and prominent progressive figures like Helen Suzman, Alex Boraine, and Zach de Beer. Foreign diplomats from thirteen nations were present, as was an Anglican delegation headed by Bishop Desmond Tutu. The event was later described as \"the first mass political funeral in the country\". Biko's coffin had been decorated with the motifs of a clenched black fist, the African continent, and the statement \"One Azania, One Nation\"; Azania was the name that many activists wanted South Africa to adopt post-apartheid. Biko was buried in the cemetery at Ginsberg. Two BCM-affiliated artists, Dikobé Ben Martins and Robin Holmes, produced a T-shirt marking the event; the design was banned the following year. Martins also created a commemorative poster for the funeral, the first in a tradition of funeral posters that proved popular throughout the 1980s.\n\nSpeaking publicly about Biko's death, the country's police minister Jimmy Kruger initially implied that it had been the result of a hunger strike, a statement he later denied. His account was challenged by some of Biko's friends, including Woods, who said that Biko had told them that he would never kill himself in prison. Publicly, he stated that Biko had been plotting violence, a claim repeated in the pro-government press. South Africa's attorney general initially stated that no one would be prosecuted for Biko's death. Two weeks after the funeral, the government banned all Black Consciousness organisations, including the BCP, which had its assets seized.\n\nBoth domestic and international pressure called for a public inquest to be held, to which the government agreed. It began in Pretoria's Old Synagogue courthouse in November 1977, and lasted for three weeks. Both the running of the inquest and the quality of evidence submitted came in for extensive criticism. An observer from the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law stated that the affidavit's statements were \"sometimes redundant, sometimes inconsistent, frequently ambiguous\"; David Napley described the police investigation of the incident as \"perfunctory in the extreme\". The security forces alleged that Biko had acted aggressively and had sustained his injuries in a scuffle, in which he had banged his head against the cell wall. The presiding magistrate accepted the security forces' account of events and refused to prosecute any of those involved.\n\nThe verdict was treated with scepticism by much of the international media and the US Government led by President Jimmy Carter. On 2 February 1978, based on the evidence given at the inquest, the attorney general of the Eastern Cape stated that he would not prosecute the officers. After the inquest, Biko's family brought a civil case against the state; at the advice of their lawyers, they agreed to a settlement of R65,000 (US\\$78,000) in July 1979. Shortly after the inquest, the South African Medical and Dental Council initiated proceedings against the medical professionals who had been entrusted with Biko's care; eight years later two of the medics were found guilty of improper conduct. The failure of the government-employed doctors to diagnose or treat Biko's injuries has been frequently cited as an example of a repressive state influencing medical practitioners' decisions, and Biko's death as evidence of the need for doctors to serve the needs of patients before those of the state.\n\nAfter the abolition of apartheid and the establishment of a majority government in 1994, a Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established to investigate past human-rights abuses. The commission made plans to investigate Biko's death, but his family petitioned against this on the grounds that the commission could grant amnesty to those responsible, thereby preventing the family's right to justice and redress. In 1996, the Constitutional Court ruled against the family, allowing the investigation to proceed. Five police officers (Harold Snyman, Gideon Nieuwoudt, Ruben Marx, Daantjie Siebert, and Johan Beneke) appeared before the commission and requested amnesty in return for information about the events surrounding Biko's death. In December 1998, the Commission refused amnesty to the five men; this was because their accounts were conflicting and thus deemed untruthful, and because Biko's killing had no clear political motive, but seemed to have been motivated by \"ill-will or spite\". In October 2003, South Africa's justice ministry announced that the five policemen would not be prosecuted because the statute of limitations had elapsed and there was insufficient evidence to secure a prosecution.\n\n## Ideology\n\nThe ideas of the Black Consciousness Movement were not developed solely by Biko, but through lengthy discussions with other black students who were rejecting white liberalism. Biko was influenced by his reading of authors like Frantz Fanon, Malcolm X, Léopold Sédar Senghor, James Cone, and Paulo Freire. The Martinique-born Fanon, in particular, has been cited as a profound influence over Biko's ideas about liberation. Biko's biographer Xolela Mangcu cautioned that it would be wrong to reduce Biko's thought to an interpretation of Fanon, and that the impact of \"the political and intellectual history of the Eastern Cape\" had to be appreciated too. Additional influences on Black Consciousness were the United States-based Black Power movement, and forms of Christianity like the activist-oriented black theology.\n\n### Black Consciousness and empowerment\n\nBiko rejected the apartheid government's division of South Africa's population into \"whites\" and \"non-whites,\" a distinction that was marked on signs and buildings throughout the country. Building on Fanon's work, Biko regarded \"non-white\" as a negative category, defining people in terms of an absence of whiteness. In response, Biko replaced \"non-white\" with the category \"black,\" which he regarded as being neither derivative nor negative. He defined blackness as a \"mental attitude\" rather than a \"matter of pigmentation\", referring to \"blacks\" as \"those who are by law or tradition politically, economically and socially discriminated against as a group in the South African society\" and who identify \"themselves as a unit in the struggle towards the realization of their aspirations\". In this way, he and the Black Consciousness Movement used \"black\" in reference not only to Bantu-speaking Africans but also to Coloureds and Indians, who together made up almost 90% of South Africa's population in the 1970s. Biko was not a Marxist and believed that it was oppression based on race, rather than class, which would be the main political motivation for change in South Africa. He argued that those on the \"white left\" often promoted a class-based analysis as a \"defence mechanism... primarily because they want to detach us from anything relating to race. In case it has a rebound effect on them because they are white\".\n\nBiko saw white racism in South Africa as the totality of the white power structure. He argued that under apartheid, white people not only participated in the oppression of black people but were also the main voices in opposition to that oppression. He thus argued that in dominating both the apartheid system and the anti-apartheid movement, white people totally controlled the political arena, leaving black people marginalised. He believed white people were able to dominate the anti-apartheid movement because of their access to resources, education, and privilege. He nevertheless thought that white South Africans were poorly suited to this role because they had not personally experienced the oppression that their black counterparts faced.\n\nBiko and his comrades regarded multi-racial anti-apartheid groups as unwittingly replicating the structure of apartheid because they contained whites in dominant positions of control. For this reason, Biko and the others did not participate in these multi-racial organisations. Instead, they called for an anti-apartheid programme that was controlled by black people. Although he called on sympathetic whites to reject any concept that they themselves could be spokespeople for the black majority, Biko nevertheless believed that they had a place in the anti-apartheid struggle, asking them to focus their efforts on convincing the wider white community on the inevitability of apartheid's fall. Biko clarified his position to Woods: \"I don't reject liberalism as such or white liberals as such. I reject only the concept that black liberation can be achieved through the leadership of white liberals.\" He added that \"the [white] liberal is no enemy, he's a friend – but for the moment he holds us back, offering a formula too gentle, too inadequate for our struggle\".\n\nBiko's approach to activism focused on psychological empowerment, and both he and the BCM saw their main purpose as combating the feeling of inferiority that most black South Africans experienced. Biko expressed dismay at how \"the black man has become a shell, a shadow of man ... bearing the yoke of oppression with sheepish timidity\", and stated that \"the most potent weapon in the hands of the oppressor is the mind of the oppressed\". He believed that blacks needed to affirm their own humanity by overcoming their fears and believing themselves worthy of freedom and its attendant responsibilities. He defined Black Consciousness as \"an inward-looking process\" that would \"infuse people with pride and dignity\". To promote this, the BCM adopted the slogan \"Black is Beautiful\".\n\nOne of the ways that Biko and the BCM sought to achieve psychological empowerment was through community development. Community projects were seen not only as a way to alleviate poverty in black communities but also as a means of transforming society psychologically, culturally, and economically. They would also help students to learn about the \"daily struggles\" of ordinary black people and to spread Black Consciousness ideas among the population. Among the projects that SASO set its members to conduct in the holidays were repairs to schools, house-building, and instructions on financial management and agricultural techniques. Healthcare was also a priority, with SASO members focusing on primary and preventative care.\n\n### Foreign and domestic relations\n\nBiko opposed any collaboration with the apartheid government, such as the agreements that the Coloured and Indian communities made with the regime. In his view, the Bantustan system was \"the greatest single fraud ever invented by white politicians\", stating that it was designed to divide the Bantu-speaking African population along tribal lines. He openly criticised the Zulu leader Mangosuthu Buthelezi, stating that the latter's co-operation with the South African government \"[diluted] the cause\" of black liberation. He believed that those fighting apartheid in South Africa should link with anti-colonial struggles elsewhere in the world and with activists in the global African diaspora combating racial prejudice and discrimination. He also hoped that foreign countries would boycott South Africa's economy.\n\nBiko believed that while apartheid and white-minority rule continued, \"sporadic outbursts\" of violence against the white minority were inevitable. He wanted to avoid violence, stating that \"if at all possible, we want the revolution to be peaceful and reconciliatory\". He noted that views on violence differed widely within the BCM – which contained both pacifists and believers in violent revolution – although the group had agreed to operate peacefully, and unlike the PAC and ANC, had no armed wing.\n\nA staunch anti-imperialist, Biko saw the South African situation as a \"microcosm\" of the broader \"black–white power struggle\" which manifests as \"the global confrontation between the Third World and the rich white nations of the world\". He was suspicious of the Soviet Union's motives in supporting African liberation movements, relating that \"Russia is as imperialistic as America\", although he acknowledged that \"in the eyes of the Third World they have a cleaner slate\". He also acknowledged that the material assistance provided by the Soviets was \"more valuable\" to the anti-apartheid cause than the \"speeches and wrist-slapping\" provided by Western governments. He was cautious of the possibility of a post-apartheid South Africa getting caught up in the imperialist Cold War rivalries of the United States and the Soviet Union.\n\n### On a post-apartheid society\n\nBiko hoped that a future socialist South Africa could become a completely non-racial society, with people of all ethnic backgrounds living peacefully together in a \"joint culture\" that combined the best of all communities. He did not support guarantees of minority rights, believing that doing so would continue to recognise divisions along racial lines. Instead he supported a one person, one vote system. Initially arguing that one-party states were appropriate for Africa, he developed a more positive view of multi-party systems after conversations with Woods. He saw individual liberty as desirable, but regarded it as a lesser priority than access to food, employment, and social security.\n\nBiko was neither a communist nor capitalist. Described as a proponent of African socialism, he called for \"a socialist solution that is an authentic expression of black communalism\". This idea was derided by some of his Marxist contemporaries, but later found parallels in the ideas of the Mexican Zapatistas. Noting that there was significant inequality in the distribution of wealth in South Africa, Biko believed that a socialist society was necessary to ensure social justice. In his view, this required a move towards a mixed economy that allowed private enterprise but in which all land was owned by the state and in which state industries played a significant part in forestry, mining, and commerce. He believed that, if post-apartheid South Africa remained capitalist, some black people would join the bourgeoisie but inequality and poverty would remain. As he put it, if South Africa transitioned to proportional democracy without socialist economic reforms, then \"it would not change the position of economic oppression of the blacks\".\n\nIn conversation with Woods, Biko insisted that the BCM would not degenerate into anti-white hatred \"because it isn't a negative, hating thing. It's a positive black self-confidence thing involving no hatred of anyone\". He acknowledged that a \"fringe element\" may retain \"anti-white bitterness\"; he added: \"we'll do what we can to restrain that, but frankly it's not one of our top priorities or one of our major concerns. Our main concern is the liberation of the blacks.\" Elsewhere, Biko argued that it was the responsibility of a vanguard movement to ensure that, in a post-apartheid society, the black majority would not seek vengeance upon the white minority. He stated that this would require an education of the black population in order to teach them how to live in a non-racial society.\n\n## Personal life and personality\n\nTall and slim in his youth, by his twenties Biko was over six feet tall, with the \"bulky build of a heavyweight boxer carrying more weight than when in peak condition\", according to Woods. His friends regarded him as \"handsome, fearless, a brilliant thinker\". Woods saw him as \"unusually gifted ... His quick brain, superb articulation of ideas and sheer mental force were highly impressive.\" According to Biko's friend Trudi Thomas, with Biko \"you had a remarkable sense of being in the presence of a great mind\". Woods felt that Biko \"could enable one to share his vision\" with \"an economy of words\" because \"he seemed to communicate ideas through extraverbal media – almost psychically.\" Biko exhibited what Woods referred to as \"a new style of leadership\", never proclaiming himself to be a leader and discouraging any cult of personality from growing up around him. Other activists did regard him as a leader and often deferred to him at meetings. When engaged in conversations, he displayed an interest in listening and often drew out the thoughts of others.\n\nBiko and many others in his activist circle had an antipathy toward luxury items because most South African blacks could not afford them. He owned few clothes and dressed in a low-key manner. He had a large record collection and particularly liked gumba. He enjoyed parties, and according to his biographer Linda Wilson, he often drank substantial quantities of alcohol. Religion did not play a central role in his life. He was often critical of the established Christian churches, but remained a believer in God and found meaning in the Gospels. Woods described him as \"not conventionally religious, although he had genuine religious feeling in broad terms\". Mangcu noted that Biko was critical of organised religion and denominationalism and that he was \"at best an unconventional Christian\".\n\nThe Nationalist government portrayed Biko as a hater of whites, but he had several close white friends, and both Woods and Wilson insisted that he was not a racist. Woods related that Biko \"simply wasn't a hater of people\", and that he did not even hate prominent National Party politicians like B. J. Vorster and Andries Treurnicht, instead hating their ideas. It was rare and uncharacteristic of him to display any rage, and was rare for him to tell people about his doubts and inner misgivings, reserving those for a small number of confidants.\n\nBiko never addressed questions of gender and sexism in his politics. The sexism was evident in many ways, according to Mamphela Ramphele, a BCM activist and doctor at the Zanempilo Clinic, including that women tended to be given responsibility for the cleaning and catering at functions. \"There was no way you could think of Steve making a cup of tea or whatever for himself\", another activist said. Feminism was viewed as irrelevant \"bra-burning\". Surrounded by women who cared about him, Biko developed a reputation as a womaniser, something that Woods described as \"well earned\". He displayed no racial prejudice, sleeping with both black and white women. At NUSAS, he and his friends competed to see who could have sex with the most female delegates. Responding to this behaviour, the NUSAS general secretary Sheila Lapinsky accused Biko of sexism, to which he responded: \"Don't worry about my sexism. What about your white racist friends in NUSAS?\" Sobukwe also admonished Biko for his womanising, believing that it set a bad example to other activists.\n\nBiko married Ntsiki Mashalaba in December 1970. They had two children together: Nkosinathi, born in 1971, and Samora, born in 1975. Biko's wife chose the name Nkosinathi (\"The Lord is with us\"), and Biko named their second child after the Mozambican revolutionary leader Samora Machel. Angered by her husband's serial adultery, Mashalaba ultimately moved out of their home, and by the time of his death, she had begun divorce proceedings. Biko had also begun an extra-marital relationship with Mamphela Ramphele. In 1974, they had a daughter, Lerato, who died after two months. A son, Hlumelo, was born to Ramphele in 1978, after Biko's death. Biko was also in a relationship with Lorrain Tabane; they had a child named Motlatsi in 1977.\n\n## Legacy\n\n### Influence\n\nBiko is viewed as the \"father\" of the Black Consciousness Movement and the anti-apartheid movement's first icon. Nelson Mandela called him \"the spark that lit a veld fire across South Africa\", adding that the Nationalist government \"had to kill him to prolong the life of apartheid\". Opening an anthology of his work in 2008, Manning Marable and Peniel Joseph wrote that his death had \"created a vivid symbol of black resistance\" to apartheid that \"continues to inspire new black activists\" over a decade after the transition to majority rule. Johann de Wet, a professor of communication studies, described him as \"one of South Africa's most gifted political strategists and communicators\". In 2004 he was elected 13th in SABC 3's Great South Africans public poll.\n\nAlthough Biko's ideas have not received the same attention as Frantz Fanon's, in 2001 Ahluwalia and Zegeye wrote that the men shared \"a highly similar pedigree in their interests in the philosophical psychology of consciousness, their desire for a decolonising of the mind, the liberation of Africa and in the politics of nationalism and socialism for the 'wretched of the earth'\". Some academics argue that Biko's thought remains relevant; for example, in African Identities in 2015, Isaac Kamola wrote that Biko's critique of white liberalism was relevant to situations like the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals and Invisible Children, Inc.'s KONY 2012 campaign.\n\nWoods held the view that Biko had filled the vacuum within the country's African nationalist movement that arose in the late 1960s following the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the banning of Sobukwe. Following Biko's death, the Black Consciousness Movement declined in influence as the ANC emerged as a resurgent force in anti-apartheid politics. This brought about a shift in focus from the BCM's community organising to wider mass mobilisation, including attempts to follow Tambo's call to make South Africa \"ungovernable\", which involved increasing violence and clashes between rival anti-apartheid groups.\n\nFollowers of Biko's ideas re-organised as the Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO), which subsequently split into the Socialist Party of Azania and the Black People's Convention. Several figures associated with the ANC denigrated Biko during the 1980s. For instance, members of the ANC-affiliated United Democratic Front assembled outside Biko's Ginsberg home shouting U-Steve Biko, I-CIA!, an allegation that Biko was a spy for the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). These demonstrations resulted in clashes with Biko supporters from AZAPO.\n\nA year after Biko's death, his \"Frank Talk\" writings were published as an edited collection, I Write What I Like. The defence that Biko provided for arrested SASO activists was used as the basis for the 1978 book The Testimony of Steve Biko, edited by Millard Arnold. Woods fled to England that year, where he campaigned against apartheid and further publicised Biko's life and death, writing many newspaper articles about him, as well as a book, Biko (1978). This was made into the 1987 film Cry Freedom by Richard Attenborough, starring Denzel Washington as Biko. Many film critics and Black Consciousness proponents were concerned that the film foregrounded white characters like Woods over Biko himself, but Cry Freedom brought Biko's life and activism to a wider audience. The state censors initially permitted its release in South Africa, but after it began screening in the country's cinemas, copies were confiscated by police on the order of Police Commissioner General Hendrik de Wit, who claimed that it would inflame tensions and endanger public safety. The South African government banned many books about Biko, including those of Arnold and Woods.\n\n### Commemoration\n\nBiko was commemorated in several artworks after his death. Gerard Sekoto, a South African artist based in France, produced Homage to Steve Biko in 1978, and another South African artist, Peter Stopforth, included a work entitled The Interrogators in his 1979 exhibition. A triptych, it depicted the three police officers implicated in Biko's death. Kenya released a commemorative postage stamp featuring Biko's face.\n\nBiko's death also inspired several songs, including from artists outside South Africa such as Tom Paxton and Peter Hammill. The English singer-songwriter Peter Gabriel released \"Biko\" in tribute to him, which was a hit single in 1980, and was banned in South Africa soon after. Along with other anti-apartheid music, the song helped to integrate anti-apartheid themes into Western popular culture. Biko's life was also commemorated through theatre. The inquest into his death was dramatised as a play, The Biko Inquest, first performed in London in 1978; a 1984 performance was directed by Albert Finney and broadcast on television. Anti-apartheid activists used Biko's name and memory in their protests; in 1979, a mountaineer climbed the spire of Grace Cathedral in San Francisco to unfurl a banner with the names of Biko and imprisoned Black Panther Party leader Geronimo Pratt on it.\n\nFollowing apartheid's collapse, Woods raised funds to commission a bronze statue of Biko from Naomi Jacobson. It was erected outside the front door of city hall in East London on the Eastern cape, opposite a statue commemorating British soldiers killed in the Second Boer War. Over 10,000 people attended the monument's unveiling in September 1997. In the following months it was vandalised several times; in one instance it was daubed with the letters \"AWB\", an acronym of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, a far-right Afrikaner paramilitary group. In 1997, the cemetery where Biko was buried was renamed the Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance. The District Six Museum also held an exhibition of artwork marking the 20th anniversary of his death by examining his legacy.\n\nAlso in September 1997, Biko's family established the Steve Biko Foundation. The Ford Foundation donated money to the group to establish a Steve Biko Centre in Ginsberg, opened in 2012. The Foundation launched its annual Steve Biko Memorial Lecture in 2000, each given by a prominent black intellectual. The first speaker was Njabulo Ndebele; later speakers included Zakes Mda, Chinua Achebe, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, and Mandela.\n\nBuildings, institutes and public spaces around the world have been named after Biko, such as the Steve Bikoplein in Amsterdam. In 2008, the Pretoria Academic Hospital was renamed the Steve Biko Hospital. The University of the Witwatersrand has a Steve Biko Centre for Bioethics. In Salvador, Bahia, a Steve Biko Institute was established to promote educational attainment among poor Afro-Brazilians. In 2012, the Google Cultural Institute published an online archive containing documents and photographs owned by the Steve Biko Foundation. On 18 December 2016, Google marked what would have been Biko's 70th birthday with a Google Doodle.\n\nAmid the dismantling of apartheid in the early 1990s, various political parties competed over Biko's legacy, with several saying they were the party that Biko would support if he were still alive. AZAPO in particular claimed exclusive ownership over Black Consciousness. In 1994, the ANC issued a campaign poster suggesting that Biko had been a member of their party, which was untrue. Following the end of apartheid when the ANC formed the government, they were accused of appropriating his legacy. In 2002, AZAPO issued a statement declaring that \"Biko was not a neutral, apolitical and mythical icon\" and that the ANC was \"scandalously\" using Biko's image to legitimise their \"weak\" government. Members of the ANC have also criticised AZAPO's attitude to Biko; in 1997, Mandela said that \"Biko belongs to us all, not just AZAPO.\" On the anniversary of Biko's death in 2015, delegations from both the ANC and the Economic Freedom Fighters independently visited his grave. In March 2017, the South African President Jacob Zuma laid a wreath at Biko's grave to mark Human Rights Day.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of people subject to banning orders under apartheid", "revid": "1172594855", "description": "South African anti-apartheid activist (1946–1977)", "categories": ["1946 births", "1970s assassinated politicians in Africa", "1977 deaths", "1977 in South Africa", "20th-century Christians", "20th-century South African male writers", "20th-century South African politicians", "Anti-apartheid activists", "Assassinated South African politicians", "Biko family", "Black Consciousness Movement", "Deaths by beating", "Deaths in police custody in South Africa", "Extrajudicial killings in South Africa", "People from Qonce", "Police brutality in Africa", "Prisoners who died in South African detention", "South African Christians", "South African activists", "South African pan-Africanists", "South African people who died in prison custody", "South African prisoners and detainees", "South African revolutionaries", "South African writers", "Steve Biko affair", "University of Natal alumni", "Victims of police brutality", "Xhosa people"]}
{"id": "1299930", "url": null, "title": "21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg", "text": "The 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian) was a German mountain infantry division of the Waffen-SS, the armed wing of the German Nazi Party that served alongside, but was never formally part of, the Wehrmacht during World War II. At the post-war Nuremberg trials, the Waffen-SS was declared to be a criminal organisation due to its major involvement in war crimes and crimes against humanity.\n\nThe division was developed around the nucleus of an ethnic Albanian battalion which had briefly seen combat against the Yugoslav Partisans in eastern Bosnia as part of the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian). Composed of Albanians with mostly German and Yugoslav Volksdeutsche (ethnic German) officers and non-commissioned officers, it was given the title Skanderbeg after medieval Albanian lord George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, who defended the region of Albania against the Ottoman Empire for more than two decades in the 15th century.\n\nSkanderbeg never reached divisional strength, being at most a brigade-sized formation of between 6,000 and 6,500 troops. In May 1944, members of the division arrested 281 Jews in Pristina and handed them over to the Germans, who transported them to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where many were killed. The division itself was better known for this action and for murdering, raping, and looting in predominantly Serb areas than for participating in combat operations on behalf of the German war effort. Its only significant military actions took place during a German anti-Partisan offensive in the German occupied territory of Montenegro in June and July 1944. Following those operations, the unit was deployed as a guard force at the chromium mines in Kosovo, where it was quickly overrun by the Partisans, leading to widespread desertion. Reinforced by German Kriegsmarine personnel and with fewer than 500 Albanians remaining in its ranks, it was disbanded on 1 November 1944. The remaining members were incorporated into the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen. After the war, divisional commander SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen-SS August Schmidhuber was found guilty of war crimes by a court in Belgrade and executed in 1947.\n\n## History\n\n### Background\n\nOn 7 April 1939, five months prior to the outbreak of World War II, the Kingdom of Italy invaded Albania. The country was overrun in five days, and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III accepted the crown offered by the Parliament of Albania. The Royal Albanian Army was incorporated into the Royal Italian Army and a viceroy was appointed to administer the country as a protectorate. Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, Italian Albania was expanded to include adjacent parts of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia incorporated mainly from the Yugoslav banovinas (regional subdivisions) of Vardar and Morava. Most of Kosovo was annexed to Albania, and in the beginning, Albanians living there enthusiastically welcomed the Italian occupation. Some Kosovo Albanians even suggested that Albanians were \"Aryans of Illyrian heritage\". Although officially under Italian rule, the Albanians in Kosovo were given control of the region and encouraged to open Albanian-language schools, which had been banned by the Yugoslav government. The Italians also gave the inhabitants Albanian citizenship and allowed them to fly the flag of Albania. The Royal Italian Army expelled most of the Serbs and Montenegrins that had settled Kosovo during the interwar period. The Kosovo Albanians despised the Serbs for the oppression they had experienced at their hands during the Balkan Wars, World War I, and under Yugoslav rule. They took advantage of their changed circumstances, attacked their Serb neighbours, and burned the homes of as many as 30,000 Serb and Montenegrin settlers.\n\nAlbania remained occupied by Italy until its surrender to the Allies in September 1943. In August of that year, faced with the imminent collapse of the Italian war effort, Germany deployed the 2nd Panzer Army to the Balkans to take over areas previously occupied by Italy. One of the Italian areas seized by the Germans was Albania, where the XXI Mountain Corps of Generaloberst Lothar Rendulic's 2nd Panzer Army had been deployed. A Wehrmacht plenipotentiary general, and a special representative of Heinrich Himmler, SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen-SS und Polizei Josef Fitzthum, were both based in the Albanian capital of Tirana. The Germans took control of all Albanian forces that had been collaborating with the Italians prior to their capitulation, including the Balli Kombëtar, an anti-communist and nationalist militia. The Germans strengthened the Albanian army and gendarmerie, but quickly decided those troops were unreliable. That year, a number of Albanians from Kosovo and the Sandžak region were recruited into the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), a Waffen-SS division composed largely of Bosnian Muslims and Croats with mostly German officers, that operated in the puppet Independent State of Croatia (Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH). A key recruiter amongst Albanians for the Waffen-SS was SS-Standartenführer Karl von Krempler. For about six months the division included about 1,000 ethnic Albanians from Kosovo and the Sandžak who made up the 1st Battalion of the 2nd Regiment (I/2), which later became the 1st Battalion of the 28th Regiment (I/28). The division later recruited a further 500 men from the Sandžak. The Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini assisted in organising and recruiting Muslims into the Waffen-SS and other units. The Mufti also visited in order to bless and inspect the 13th SS Division, during which he used the Nazi salute.\n\nThe formation of an Albanian Waffen-SS division was Fitzthum's idea, initially opposed by the German Foreign Ministry representative for the Balkans Hermann Neubacher, and also by the head of the Reich Security Main Office SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei Ernst Kaltenbrunner, who influenced Himmler to shelve it. But the Albanian government supported the idea; in the face of increasing difficulties Himmler soon changed his mind, and in February 1944 the idea received Adolf Hitler's approval.\n\n### Formation\n\nIn February 1944, Hitler approved the creation of an Albanian Waffen-SS division that was to serve only inside Kosovo, and was intended to protect ethnic Albanians but remain under German control. It was meant to be one of three Muslim Waffen-SS divisions serving in the Balkans, the other two being the 13th SS Division and the 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian). Himmler's goal was to expand Waffen-SS recruiting in the Balkans and form two corps of two divisions each, with one corps to operate in the region of Bosnia in the Independent State of Croatia and the other in Albania. These corps would then be combined with the Volksdeutsche 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen and together would form a Balkan Waffen-SS mountain army of five divisions.\n\nIn March 1944, Bedri Pejani, the chairman of the Second League of Prizren, an organisation created after the Italian surrender to advance the interests of Kosovo Albanians, proposed to Hitler that a force of 120,000–150,000 Kosovo Albanian volunteers be raised to fight the Yugoslav and Albanian partisans. Pejani asked the German leadership to give the Albanians equipment and supplies to fight the communist insurgency, and requested the expansion of the borders of the German puppet state of Albania at the expense of the German occupied territory of Serbia and the German occupied territory of Montenegro. These requests were not fulfilled. Nevertheless, in April 1944, Himmler ordered the establishment of the new Albanian volunteer division that Hitler had authorised. It was subsequently named after the medieval Albanian warrior Skanderbeg. By this point, the Germans and some members of the Albanian puppet government believed that about 50,000 ethnic Albanians could be recruited to join the Waffen-SS. The Germans had initially envisioned a force of 10,000–12,000 men for the Albanian SS division. Himmler saw the Muslim Albanians as a potential source of manpower in Germany's war against the Yugoslav Partisans, who faced significant difficulties in recruiting Kosovo Albanians to join their ranks.\n\nOn 17 April 1944, the Albanian battalion of the 13th SS Division was transferred via rail directly from combat in Bosnia to Kosovo to form part of the new Albanian division. The head of Waffen-SS recruitment, SS-Obergruppenführer Gottlob Berger, reported to Himmler that the Albanians \"... were quite sad about leaving.\" Himmler himself expected \"great usefulness\" from the unit since the Albanians that fought in the 13th SS Division had proven to be \"highly motivated and disciplined\" in the fight against the Partisans in the NDH. After the war, Bosnian Muslim former members of the 13th SS Division stated that while with the division the Albanians had shot unarmed civilians and were \"very brutal\".\n\nOn 23 May, Fitzthum noted the failure of the Albanian units that had been used in operations against the Partisans. He reported that he had dissolved four Albanian battalions organised by the Wehrmacht, describing most Albanian army and gendarmerie officers as \"totally corrupt, unusable, undisciplined and untrainable.\" The Germans found that Kosovo Albanians were more cooperative than Albanians from Albania-proper. This was mainly because they feared a return to Yugoslav rule. Thus, many of the division's recruits were Kosovo Albanians, although some were refugees from Albania-proper. The quality of most of these recruits was poor, and only between 6,000 and 6,500 were considered suitable to receive training. Those that were accepted were a combination of about 1,500 former Royal Yugoslav Army prisoners of war, elements of the failed Albanian army and gendarmerie, volunteers from both pre-war and expanded Albania, and conscripts from families that had more than two sons. Unlike the Albanians in the Handschar division, who received extensive training in France and then Neuhammer training grounds in Germany, the new recruits underwent a very short training period of only six weeks. The Albanians may have joined for a range of reasons, including access to modern weapons and military training, to help revise the borders of Albania, revenge, and even the opportunity for looting.\n\nThe enlistment of Albanian civilians was organised in close cooperation with the Albanian puppet government. In June 1944, Neubacher successfully displaced Pejani, whom he considered \"insane\". The Albanian Minister of the Interior and new chairman of the Second League of Prizren, Xhafer Deva, was a key factor in recruiting Albanians for the new division. Fitzthum, who had developed a close friendship with Deva, noted that the right-wing and anti-Serb politician was vital for German recruitment efforts. In contrast to the 13th SS Division, the use of Islam as an incentive to join the Waffen-SS disappeared completely from the German agenda, while the utilisation of ethnic tensions became much more important. No field imam is documented in the new division and ideological training was avoided entirely, because the Germans feared that such instruction would upset their new recruits. According to Nazi propaganda, the division was to source its manpower exclusively from Muslim Albanians, but the reality was different. While the vast majority of the division's Albanians were Bektashi or Sunni Muslims, \"several hundred\" Albanian Catholics also served in the division.\n\n### Operations\n\n#### May–August 1944\n\nThe division was founded as the 21. Waffen-SS Gebirgsdivision der SS Skanderbeg (albanische Nr.1) on 1 May 1944, as part of the XXI Mountain Corps. Most or all of the division's officers, non-commissioned officers (NCOs), and specialists were German, and were mainly provided by the 7th and 13th SS Divisions, which noticeably weakened those formations. The divisional artillery regiment was formed from the 1st Albanian Artillery Regiment. The division was placed under the command of SS-Standartenführer August Schmidhuber, who was promoted to SS-Oberführer in June. Members took a religious oath using the Quran, pledging \"jihad against unbelievers.\" The division was originally equipped with captured Italian Carro Armato M15/42 tanks, which proved to be unreliable. Its garrison was located in the town of Prizren.\n\nThe division was to be responsible for security in Kosovo, including transport routes, the defence of economically important objects such as the chrome ore mines in Kukës and Đakovica, as well as offensive action against Yugoslav Partisans operating in the region. Men who had already served in the 13th SS Division were also deployed as guards at a concentration camp in Pristina. Early on, it became clear that most of the division's Muslim Albanian members seemed to be interested only in settling scores with their Christian Serb adversaries, who became the target of numerous atrocities. In order to put a stop to the crimes, the Germans had to disarm battalions of the division in the towns of Peć and Prizren and arrest the Albanian officers, with one commanding officer even being sent to prison in Germany. On 14 May 1944, members of the division raided Jewish homes in Pristina, arrested 281 Jews and handed them over to the Germans, who sent them to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where many were killed. The historian Noel Malcolm describes this event as \"the most shameful episode in Kosovo's wartime history.\" The division was later involved in a massacre of Albanian partisans. It was also responsible for the expulsion of up to 10,000 Slavic families from Kosovo as new Albanian settlers arrived from the poor areas of northern Albania. The arrival of these Albanians was encouraged by Italian authorities, and it is estimated that as many as 72,000 Albanians were settled or re-settled in Kosovo during the war. Between 28 May and 5 July 1944, the division apprehended a total of 510 Jews, communists and other anti-fascists and turned them over to the Germans. It also carried out retaliatory hangings of suspected saboteurs.\n\nIn June 1944, Skanderbeg engaged in large-scale field manoeuvres in eastern Montenegro. In Andrijevica, the division summarily executed more than 400 Orthodox Christian civilians. It participated in Operations Endlich (Finally) and Falkenauge (Hawkeye) in June and July, as well as Operation Draufgänger (Daredevil), the first phase of Operation Rübezahl, which ran from 5 to 22 August. During Operation Draufgänger Skanderbeg was the main force used by the Germans. These operations were focused on the destruction of strong Partisan forces in the Đakovica, Peć and Mokra Gora areas. By the end of Operation Draufgänger, more than 400 men of the division had deserted or otherwise gone missing. According to Neubacher, the division was carelessly committed to fighting in the early stages of its training and performed poorly. Between 18 and 27 August, the division fought the Partisans in and around Debar but failed to capture the city. During the summer of 1944, Deva was sidelined within the League. Fitzthum was so concerned about the impact that this would have on the development of the division that he wrote to Himmler. By the end of August 1944, the Germans had decided that the division was only of use for basic guarding duties. Some members were charged with guarding chromium mines near Kosovo before the area was overrun by the Partisans. In the ensuing clashes, one of the division's regiments lost more than 1,000 men and many Albanians deserted. Some of the desertions occurred after a Partisan offensive northeast of Gusinje. Army Group E reported that the division's performance showed that it had \"absolutely no military value.\"\n\n#### September–November 1944\n\nOn 1 September 1944, members of the division stationed in Tetovo and Gostivar mutinied, killing their German officers and NCOs. By this time, the division numbered fewer than 7,000 men, less than one third of its intended strength. Within two months of its initial deployment, 3,500 had deserted. Himmler brought in 3,000–4,000 Kriegsmarine (German navy) personnel from Greece to make up the numbers, but this had little effect on the division's fighting ability. The desertions were mainly caused by Germany's defeats, serious shortfalls in food and equipment, as well as from observing constant overflights by the United States Army Air Force, Allied propaganda, and the approaching end of Germany's military hegemony in the Balkans. Further reasons for the escalating number of desertions included the news that both Bulgaria and Romania had joined the Allies, Josip Broz Tito's amnesty which ended on 15 September, and a demand by Albania's Party of Labour that fighting-age men join the National Liberation Front.\n\nBy the beginning of October 1944, the division's strength had fallen to about 4,900 men, fewer than 1,500 of whom were fit for combat. Between April and October, 3,425 had deserted, constituting over half the division's strength. Schmidhuber reported that even the 697 members of the battalion that had served in the 13th SS Division had deserted. The unit was blighted by shortages of equipment and armaments, and a lack of German staff to train new recruits, as demonstrated by the fact that over the summer and autumn only a single battalion had been readied for combat. Schmidhuber held his men in contempt, and he, his superiors, and Fitzthum attempted to justify their failure to create an effective security force by denigrating the Albanians' culture and military reputation. Schmidhuber also linked the failure of the division to the lack of time for proper military training, ideological training and the absence of suitable instructors. Later, less-involved members of the Wehrmacht stated that the principal issue regarding the unit's reliability may have been that the Germans did not work closely with the Albanians at the local level. In mid-October, the division was engaged in heavy fighting around Đakovica. It also aided the Wehrmacht in its orderly withdrawal from Kosovo, covering the Wehrmacht's flanks and engaging the Partisans. By this time, desertions had significantly affected the division's strength, and its 86 officers and 467 NCOs were left with a force of only 899 men, about half of whom were Albanian. On 24 October, Generaloberst Alexander Löhr, the commander of Army Group E, ordered that all Albanian members of the division be disarmed and released. Between 19 September and 23 October, 131 anti-fascist guerrillas had been shot or hanged by members of the division acting on Schmidhuber's orders.\n\nOn 1 November 1944, the division was disbanded. Kosovo Albanians took up arms against the Partisans upon learning that the region would not be unified with Albania after the war, despite earlier Partisan promises. Atrocities occurred when 30,000 Partisans were sent to Kosovo to quell Albanian resistance in the region. Between 3,000 and 25,000 Kosovo Albanians were killed in the ensuing violence.\n\n## Aftermath and legacy\n\nThe remaining German troops and former naval personnel were reorganised as the regimental Kampfgruppe Skanderbeg under the command of SS-Obersturmbannführer Alfred Graf. The unit withdrew from the Kosovo region in mid-November along with the rest of the German troops in the area. Many Serbs and Montenegrins then took revenge against the region's ethnic Albanians, especially collaborators and those who had been members of the division. In his strongly apologetic history of the 7th SS Division, which he commanded at the time, Otto Kumm wrote that Kampfgruppe Skanderbeg reached Ljubovija on the Drina river, it was placed under the command of the 7th SS Division, which was securing the river crossings in that area. According to Kumm, the Kampfgruppe held the towns of Zvornik and Drinjača during the first half of December 1944 as part of the Ljubovija bridgehead. It withdrew across the Drina and fought its way north, towards Brčko on the Sava river, where it relieved the Wehrmacht forces holding the town. In late December, the Kampfgruppe'''s assault gun battery was committed to the Syrmian Front at Vinkovci. The remainder of the Kampfgruppe was deployed to Bijeljina.\n\nIn January 1945, the handful of naval personnel that survived were transferred to the 32nd SS Volunteer Grenadier Division 30 Januar, and the remnants of the former division were reorganised as II Battalion of the 14th SS Volunteer Mountain Infantry Regiment of the 7th SS Division. On 21 January 1945, Schmidhuber was promoted to SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen-SS and placed in command of the 7th SS Division. After the war, he was found guilty of war crimes and hanged. In February 1945, the battalion was disbanded altogether and its remaining manpower was assigned to the German police regiment near Zagreb.\n\nThe division itself was considered to have been a military failure. Not one of its members was awarded an Iron Cross while serving in it. Schmidhuber and the staff of XXI Mountain Corps blamed the division's failure solely on the Albanian personnel. Schmidhuber claimed that Albanians had stagnated culturally since Skanderbeg's time in the fifteenth century, and both he and the corps staff claimed that the Albanians had not developed national or state traditions. Schmidhuber argued that the legend of Albanian military achievements was just a saga. Further, he claimed that \"[w]ith a light mortar you can basically chase him [the Albanian] around the world. During the attack he goes only as far as he finds something to steal or sack. For him, the war is over when he captures a goat, a ploughshare or the wheel of a sewing machine.\" Fitzthum was one of the harshest critics of their soldiers. Fitzthum complained to Hitler personally: 'For the currently existing Albanian formations an alteration in the future cannot be expected to be brought about even by thorough training. They will never become a serious and employable troop'. Fitzthum went as far as saying that \"the Albanian soldier is undisciplined and cowardly\". Fitzthum additionally angrily wrote to Himmler, that one battalion dissolved after being attacked by a few planes and the rest just disappeared. Professor Paul Mojzes writes that the division was better known for committing atrocities against Serbs than it was for contributing to the German war effort. Its role in deporting Jews from Kosovo has been challenged by the Albanian historian Shaban Sinani, who claims that the division did not participate in any deportations on the Germans' behalf. David Patterson, a historian specializing in anti-Semitism and the Holocaust, writes that the division \"played a major role in rendering the Balkans Judenrein in the winter of 1943–1944.\" It was reported that some soldiers from the division deserted the division to join the partisan unit led by Gani Kryeziu after refusing to fight it.\n\nThe post-war Nuremberg trials made the declaratory judgement that the Waffen-SS was a criminal organisation due to its major involvement in war crimes and crimes against humanity, including the killing of prisoners-of-war and atrocities committed in occupied countries. Excluded from this judgement were those who were conscripted into the Waffen-SS and had not personally committed war crimes and crimes against humanity.\n\nDuring the Kosovo War of 1998–1999, the American journalist Chris Hedges alleged that some Kosovo Liberation Army leaders were directly descended from members of the division and were ideologically influenced by it. Malcolm has challenged this claim.\n\n## Insignia\n\nThe division's identification symbol, used on its vehicles, was a black Albanian double-headed eagle. Despite its short existence, a collar patch depicting the goat-crested helmet of Skanderbeg was designed and manufactured for the division, but it was withdrawn from service after a trial as it was unrecognisable from a distance. As a result, officers of the division wore the collar patch with the SS runes, and enlisted ranks wore a plain black collar patch. Photographs exist of a machine-woven cuff band with the title Skanderbeg, but this was awarded to the 14th SS Volunteer Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the 7th SS Division in the latter part of 1944, and not to this division. Albanian members of the division wore an arm shield on their upper left arm depicting a black Albanian double-headed eagle on a red shield with black backing. Many of the division's Muslim members wore traditional grey-coloured skull caps with the SS eagle and death's head on the front instead of the standard SS field cap. Others wore the traditional Albanian highlander hat, the qeleshe.\n\n## Order of battle\n\nThe principal units of the division and order of battle were:\n\n- 50th Waffen Gebirgsjäger (Mountain Infantry) Regiment of the SS (1st Albanian) (I, II, III battalions)\n- 51st Waffen Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the SS (2nd Albanian) (I, II, III battalions)\n- 21st SS Reconnaissance Battalion (four companies)\n- 21st SS Freiwilligen (Volunteer) Panzerjäger (Anti-tank) Battalion (three companies)\n- 21st SS Gebirgs (Mountain) Artillery Regiment (four battalions)\n- 21st SS Freiwilligen Pioneer Battalion (three companies)\n- 21st SS Feldersatz (Replacement) Battalion\n- 21st SS Freiwilligen'' Signals Battalion (three companies)\n- 21st SS Mountain Supply Troop\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Waffen-SS units\n- Table of ranks and insignia of the Waffen-SS\n- Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts\n- The Holocaust in Albania", "revid": "1173748415", "description": "German mountain division of World War II", "categories": ["Albanian collaborators with Nazi Germany", "Criminal organizations", "Foreign volunteer units of the Waffen-SS", "Military history of Albania during World War II", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1944", "Military units and formations established in 1944", "Military units and formations of Germany in Yugoslavia in World War II", "Modern history of Kosovo", "Mountain divisions of the Waffen-SS", "Mutinies in World War II"]}
{"id": "20395802", "url": null, "title": "Monarchies in the Americas", "text": "There are 12 monarchies in the Americas, being either sovereign states or self-governing territories that have a monarch as head of state. Each is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the monarch inherits his or her office according to law, usually keeping it until death or abdication, and is bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers. Nine of these monarchies are independent states; they equally share, as monarch of each, the person of Charles III, who resides primarily in the United Kingdom, making them part of a global personal union known as the Commonwealth realms. The others are dependencies of three European monarchies. As such, none of the monarchies in the Americas have a permanently residing monarch, though the Commonwealth realms each have a resident governor-general to represent King Charles III and perform most of his constitutional duties in his name and a high commissioner represents the Queen of Denmark and the Danish government in Greenland. Additionally, each of Canada’s 10 provinces functions as a subnational constituent monarchy, with the constitutional powers vested in the King exercised at the provincial level by a lieutenant governor.\n\nThese crowns continue a history of monarchy in the Americas that reaches back to before European colonisation. Both tribal and more complex pre-Columbian societies existed under monarchical forms of government, with some expanding to form vast empires under a central king figure, while others did the same with a decentralised collection of tribal regions under a hereditary chieftain. None of the contemporary monarchies, however, are descended from those pre-colonial royal systems, instead either having their historical roots in, or still being a part of, the current European monarchies that spread their reach across the Atlantic Ocean, beginning in the mid 14th century.\n\nFrom that date on, through the Age of Discovery, European colonization brought extensive American territory under the control of Europe's monarchs; though, the majority of these colonies subsequently gained independence from their rulers. Some did so via armed conflict with their mother countries, as in the American Revolution and the Latin American wars of independence, usually severing all ties to the overseas monarchies in the process (today, none of the Latin American nations that were former Spanish colonies share a personal union with the Spanish monarchy). Others gained full sovereignty by legislative paths, such as Canada's patriation of its constitution from the United Kingdom. A certain number of former colonies became republics immediately upon achieving self-governance. Haiti, Mexico, and Brazil formed constitutional monarchies with their own resident monarch, though all eventually became republics, and, for places such as Canada and some island states in the Caribbean, sharing their monarch with their former colonial power in the aforementioned personal union, the most recently created being that of Saint Kitts and Nevis in 1983.\n\n## Current monarchies\n\n### Independent monarchies\n\nWhile the incumbent of each of the independent monarchies of the Americas is the same person and resides predominantly in Europe, each of the states is sovereign and thus has a distinct local monarchy seated in its respective capital, with the monarch's day-to-day governmental and ceremonial duties generally carried out by an appointed local viceroy.\n\n#### Antigua and Barbuda\n\nThe monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda has the roots in the monarchy of Spain, which initially founded the colony in the late 15th century and later the monarchy of the United Kingdom, of which the islands were later a Crown colony. On 1 November 1981, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly created monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda, Sir Rodney Williams.\n\nElizabeth and her royal consort, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, included Antigua and Barbuda in their 1966 Caribbean tour, and again in the Queen's Silver Jubilee tour of October 1977. Elizabeth returned once more in 1985. For the country's 25th anniversary of independence, on 30 October 2006, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, opened Antigua and Barbuda's new parliament building, reading a message from his mother, the Queen. The Duke of York visited Antigua and Barbuda in January 2001.\n\n#### The Bahamas\n\nThe monarchy of The Bahamas has the roots in the monarchy of Spain, which initially founded the colony in the late 15th century and later the monarchy of the United Kingdom, of which the islands were later a Crown colony after 1717. On 10 July 1973, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly formed monarchy of The Bahamas. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of the Bahamas, currently Cynthia A. Pratt.\n\n#### Belize\n\nBelize was, until the 15th century, a part of the Mayan Empire, containing smaller states headed by a hereditary ruler known as an ajaw (later k’uhul ajaw). The present monarchy of Belize has its roots in the Spanish monarchy, under the authority of which the area was first colonised in the 16th century, and later the British monarchy, as a Crown colony. On 21 September 1981, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly formed monarchy of Belize. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Belize, Her Excellency Froyla Tzalam.\n\n#### Canada\n\nCanada's aboriginal peoples had systems of governance organised in a fashion similar to the Occidental concept of monarchy; European explorers often referred to hereditary leaders of tribes as kings. The present monarchy of Canada has its roots in the French and English monarchies, under the authority of which the area was colonised in the 16th–18th centuries, and, later, the British monarchy. The country became a self-governing confederation on 1 July 1867, recognised as a kingdom in its own right, but did not have full legislative autonomy from the British Parliament until the passage of the Statute of Westminster on 11 December 1931, retaining the then-reigning monarch, George V, as monarch of the newly formed monarchy of Canada. The monarch is represented in the country by the governor general of Canada (Currently Mary Simon) and in each of the provinces by a lieutenant governor.\n\n#### Grenada\n\nThe monarchy of Grenada has its roots in the French monarchy, under the authority of which the islands were first colonised in the mid 17th century, and later the English and then British monarchy, as a Crown colony. On 7 February 1974, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly created monarchy of Grenada. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Grenada, currently Dame Cécile La Grenade.\n\n#### Jamaica\n\nThe monarchy of Jamaica has its roots in the Spanish monarchy, under the authority of which the islands were first colonised in the late 16th century, and later the English and then British monarchy, as a Crown colony. On 6 August 1962, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly created monarchy of Jamaica. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Jamaica, Sir Patrick Allen.\n\nFormer Prime Minister of Jamaica Portia Simpson-Miller had expressed an intention to oversee the process required to change Jamaica to a republic by 2012; she originally stated this would be complete by August of that year. In 2003, former Prime Minister P.J. Patterson, advocated making Jamaica into a republic by 2007.\n\n#### Saint Kitts and Nevis\n\nThe monarchy of Saint Kitts and Nevis has its roots in the English and French monarchies, under the authority of which the islands were first colonised in the early 17th century, and later the British monarchy, as a Crown colony. On 19 September 1983, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly created monarchy of Saint Kitts and Nevis. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis, currently Sir Tapley Seaton.\n\n#### Saint Lucia\n\nThe Caribs who occupied the island of Saint Lucia in pre-Columbian times had a complex society, with hereditary kings and shamans. The present monarchy has its roots in the Dutch, French, and English monarchies, under the authority of which the island was first colonised in 1605, and later the British monarchy, as a Crown colony. On 22 February 1979, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly created monarchy of Saint Lucia. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Saint Lucia, currently Sir Errol Charles.\n\n#### Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\n\nThe present monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines has its roots in the French monarchy, under the authority of which the island was first colonised in 1719, and later the British monarchy, as a Crown colony. On 27 October 1979, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly created monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. The monarch is represented in the country by the Governor-General of Vincent and the Grenadines, currently Dame Susan Dougan.\n\n### European monarchies with territory in the Americas\n\n#### Denmark\n\nGreenland is one of the three constituent countries of the Kingdom of Denmark, with Queen Margrethe II as the reigning sovereign. The territory first came under monarchical rule in 1261 under the King of Norway; by 1380, Norway had entered into a personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark, which became more entrenched with the union of the kingdoms into Denmark–Norway in 1536. After the dissolution of this arrangement in 1814, Greenland remained a Danish colony, and, after its role in World War II, was granted its special status within the Kingdom of Denmark in 1953. The monarch is represented in the territory by the Rigsombudsmand (High Commissioner), Mikaela Engell.\n\n#### Netherlands\n\nAruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and thus have King Willem-Alexander as their sovereign, as do the islands of the Caribbean Netherlands. Aruba was first settled under the authority of the Spanish Crown circa 1499, but was acquired by the Dutch in 1634, under whose control the island has remained, save for an interval between 1805 and 1816, when Aruba was captured by the Royal Navy of King George III. The former Netherlands Antilles were originally discovered by explorers sent in the 1490s by the King of Spain, but were eventually conquered by the Dutch West India Company in the 17th century, whereafter the islands remained under the control of the Dutch Crown as colonial territories. The Netherlands Antilles achieved the status of an autonomous country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1954, from which Aruba was split in 1986 as a separate constituent country of the larger kingdom. The former Netherlands Antilles was dissolved in 2010; two of its islands became constituent countries in their own right (Curaçao and Sint Maarten), while the other three became integral parts of the Netherlands (i.e., the Caribbean Netherlands). The monarch is represented in the constituent countries by the Governor of Aruba, Alfonso Boekhoudt, the Governor of Curaçao, Frits Goedgedrag, and the Governor of Sint Maarten, Eugene Holiday.\n\n#### United Kingdom\n\nThe United Kingdom possesses a number of overseas territories in the Americas, for whom King Charles III is monarch. In North America are Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, and the Turks and Caicos Islands, while the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are located in South America. The Caribbean islands were colonised under the authority or the direct instruction of a number of European monarchs, mostly English, Dutch, or Spanish, throughout the first half of the 17th century. By 1681, however, when the Turks and Caicos Islands were settled by Britons, all of the above-mentioned islands were under the control of Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Colonies were merged and split through various reorganizations of the Crown's Caribbean regions, until 19 December 1980, the date that Anguilla became a British Crown territory in its own right. The monarch is represented in these jurisdictions by: the Governor of Anguilla, Dileeni Daniel-Selvaratnam; the Governor of Bermuda, Rena Lalgie; the Governor of the British Virgin Islands, John Rankin; the Governor of the Cayman Islands, Martyn Roper; the Governor of Montserrat, Sarah Tucker; and the Governor of the Turks and Caicos Islands, Nigel Dakin.\n\nThe Falkland Islands, off the south coast of Argentina, were simultaneously claimed for Louis XV of France, in 1764, and George III of the United Kingdom, in 1765, though the French colony was ceded to Charles III of Spain in 1767. By 1833, however, the islands were under full British control. The South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands were discovered by Captain James Cook for George III in January 1775, and from 1843 were governed by the British Crown-in-Council through the Falkland Islands, an arrangement that stood until the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands were incorporated as a distinct British overseas territory in 1985. The monarch is represented in these regions by Nigel Phillips, who is both the Governor of the Falkland Islands and the Commissioner for South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.\n\n## Succession laws\n\nBefore 28 October 2011, the succession order in the Commonwealth realms, as well as those British overseas territories in the Americas, adhered to male-preference cognatic primogeniture, by which succession passed first to an individual's sons, in order of birth, and subsequently to daughters, again in order of birth. However, following the legislative changes giving effect to the Perth Agreement, succession is by absolute primogeniture for those born after 28 October 2011, whereby the eldest child inherits the throne regardless of gender. As these states share the person of their monarch with other countries, all with legislative independence, the change was implemented only once the necessary legal processes were completed in each realm. Those possessions under the Danish and Dutch crowns already adhere to absolute primogeniture.\n\n## Former monarchies\n\nMost pre-Columbian cultures of the Americas developed and flourished for centuries under monarchical systems of government. By the time Europeans arrived on the continents in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, however, many of these civilizations had ceased to function, due to various natural and artificial causes. Those that remained up to that period were eventually defeated by the agents of European monarchical powers, who, while they remained on the European continent, thereafter established new American administrations overseen by delegated viceroys. Some of these colonies were, in turn, replaced by either republican states or locally founded monarchies, ultimately overtaking the entire American holdings of some European monarchs; those crowns that once held or claim territory in the Americas include the Spanish, Portuguese, French, Swedish, and Russian, and even Baltic Courland, Holy Roman, Prussian and Norwegian. Certain of the locally established monarchies were themselves also overthrown through revolution, leaving five current pretenders to American thrones.\n\n### Barbados\n\nThe monarchy of Barbados had its roots in the English monarchy, under the authority of which the island was claimed in 1625 and colonised in 1627, and later the British monarchy. By the 18th century, Barbados became one of the main seats of the British Crown's authority in the British West Indies, and then, after an attempt in 1958 at a federation with other West Indian colonies, continued as a self-governing colony until, on 30 November 1966, the country gained independence from the United Kingdom, retaining the then reigning monarch, Elizabeth II, as monarch of the newly formed monarchy of Barbados. The monarch was represented in the country by the governor-general of Barbados.\n\nIn 1966, Elizabeth's cousin, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, opened the second session of the first parliament of the newly established country, before the Queen herself, along with Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, toured Barbados. Elizabeth returned for her Silver Jubilee in 1977, and again in 1989, to mark the 350th anniversary of the establishment of the Barbadian Parliament.\n\nFormer Prime Minister Owen Arthur called for a referendum on Barbados becoming a republic to be held in 2005, though, the vote was then pushed back to \"at least 2006\" in order to speed up Barbados' integration in the CARICOM Single Market and Economy. It was announced on 26 November 2007 that the referendum would be held in 2008, together with the general election that year. The vote was, however, postponed again, due to administrative concerns. On 20 September 2021, just over a full year after the announcement for the transition was made, the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill, 2021, was introduced to the Parliament of Barbados. Passed on 6 October, the Bill made amendments to the constitution of Barbados, introducing the office of the president to replace the Barbadian monarch as head of state. The next week, on 12 October 2021, incumbent Governor-General of Barbados Dame Sandra Mason was jointly nominated by the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition as the sole candidate for the first president of Barbados and was subsequently indirectly elected on 20 October. Mason took office on 30 November 2021.\n\n### Endemic monarchies\n\n#### Araucania and Patagonia\n\nThe Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia was a short-lived attempt at establishing a constitutional monarchy, founded by French lawyer and adventurer Orelie-Antoine de Tounens in 1860. Nominally, the \"kingdom\" encompassed the present-day Argentine part of Patagonia and a small segment of Chile, where Mapuche peoples were fighting to maintain their sovereignty against the advancing Chilean and Argentine armed forces. However, Orélie-Antoine never exercised sovereignty over the claimed territory, and his de facto control was limited to nearly fourteen months and to a small territory around a town called Perquenco (at the time mainly a Mapuche tent village), which was also the declared capital of his kingdom.\n\nOrélie-Antoine felt that the indigenous peoples would be better served in negotiations with the surrounding powers by a European leader, and was accordingly elected by a group of Mapuche loncos (chieftains) to be their king. He made efforts to gain international recognition, and attempted to involve the French government in his project, but these efforts proved unsuccessful: the French consul concluded that Tounens was insane, and Araucania and Patagonia was never recognized by any country. The Chileans primarily ignored Orélie-Antoine and his kingdom, at least initially, and simply went on with the occupation of the Araucanía, a historical process which concluded in 1883 with Chile establishing control over the region. In the process, Orélie-Antoine was captured in 1862, and imprisoned in an insane asylum in Chile. After several fruitless attempts to return to his kingdom (thwarted by Chilean and Argentine authorities), Tounens died penniless in 1878 in Tourtoirac, France. A recent pretender, Prince Antoine IV, lived in France until 2017. The previous pretender renounced his claims to the Patagonian throne, even though a few Mapuches continue to recognise the Araucanian monarchy.\n\n#### Aztec\n\nThe Aztec Empire existed in the central Mexican region between c. 1325 and 1521, and was formed by the triple alliance of the tlatoque (the Nahuatl term for \"speaker\", also translated in English as \"king\") of three city-states: Tlacopan, Texcoco, and the capital of the empire, Tenochtitlan. While the lineage of Tenochtitlan's kings continued after the city's fall to the Spanish on 13 August 1521, they reigned as puppet rulers of the King of Spain until the death of the last dynastic tlatoani, Luis de Santa María Nanacacipactzin, on 27 December 1565.\n\n#### Brazil\n\nBrazil was created as a kingdom on 16 December 1815, when Prince João, Prince of Brazil, who was then acting as regent for his ailing mother, Queen Maria, elevated the colony to a constituent country of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. While the royal court was still based in Rio de Janeiro, João ascended as king of the united kingdom the following year, and returned to Portugal in 1821, leaving his son, Prince Pedro, Prince Royal, as his regent in the Kingdom of Brazil. In September of that same year, the Portuguese parliament threatened to diminish Brazil back to the status of a colony, dismantle all the royal agencies in Rio de Janeiro, and demanded Pedro return to Lisbon. The Prince, however, feared these moves would trigger separatist movements and refused to comply; instead, at the urging of his father, he declared Brazil an independent Nation on 7 September 1822, leading to the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a constitutional monarchy.\n\nPrince Pedro became the first Emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822, with the title of Pedro I (on that date, he was formally offered the Throne of the newly created Empire, accepted it, and was acclaimed as monarch), and his coronation took place on 1 December 1822. After Pedro abdicated the throne on 7 April 1831, the Brazilian empire saw only one additional monarch: Pedro II, who reigned for 58 years before a coup d'état overthrew the monarchy on 15 November 1889. There are two pretenders to the defunct Brazilian throne: Bertrand of Orléans-Braganza, head of the Vassouras branch of the Brazilian Imperial Family, and, according to legitimist claims, de jure Emperor of Brazil; and Prince Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza, head of the Petrópolis line of the Brazilian Imperial Family, and heir to the Brazilian throne according to royalists.\n\nThe Brazilian constitution of 1988 called for a general vote on the restoration of the monarchy, which was held in 1993. The royalists went to the polls divided, with the press indicating there were actually two princes aspiring to the Brazilian throne (Dom Luiz de Orleans e Bragança and Dom João Henrique); this created some confusion among the voters.\n\n#### Haiti\n\nThe entire island of Hispaniola was first claimed on 5 December 1492, by Christopher Columbus, for Queen Isabella, and the first Viceroy of the Americas was established along with a number of colonies throughout the Island. With the later discovery of Mexico and Peru many of the early settlers left for the main land, but some twelve cities and a hundred thousand souls remained, mainly in the Eastern part of the Island. Through the Treaty of Riswick in 1697, King Louis XIV received the western third of the Island from Spain as retribution and formalized the first French pirate settlement in existence since the mid-1600s, with the colony administered by a governor-general representing the French crown, an arrangement that stood until the French Revolution toppled the monarchy of France on 21 September 1792. Though the French government retained control over the region of Saint-Domingue, on 22 September 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who had served as Governor-General of Saint-Domingue since 30 November 1803, declared himself as head of an independent Empire of Haiti, with his coronation as Emperor Jacques I taking place on 6 October that year. After his assassination on 17 October 1806, the country was split in half, the northern portion eventually becoming the Kingdom of Haiti on 28 March 1811, with Henri Christophe installed as King Henri I. When King Henri committed suicide on 8 October 1820, and his son, Jacques-Victor Henry, Prince Royal of Haiti, was murdered by revolutionaries ten days later, the kingdom was merged into the southern Republic of Haiti, of which Faustin-Élie Soulouque was elected president on 2 March 1847. Two years later, on 26 August 1849, the Haitian national assembly declared the president as Emperor Faustin I, thereby re-establishing the Empire of Haiti. But this monarchical reincarnation was to be short lived as well, as a revolution broke out in the empire in 1858, resulting in Faustin abdicating the throne on 18 January 1859.\n\n#### Inca\n\nThe Inca Empire spread across the north western parts of South America between 1438 and 1533, ruled over by a monarch addressed as the Sapa Inca, Sapa, or Apu. The Inca civilization emerged in the Kingdom of Cusco, and expanded to become the Ttahuantin-suyu, or \"land of the four sections\", each ruled by a governor or viceroy called Apu-cuna, under the leadership of the central Sapa Inca. The Inca Empire eventually fell to the Spanish in 1533, when the last Sapa Inca of the empire, Atahualpa, was captured and executed on 29 August. The conquerors installed other Sapa Inca beginning with Atahualpa's brother, Túpac Huallpa. Manco Inca Yupanqui, originally also a puppet Inca Emperor installed by the Spaniards, rebelled and founded the small independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, and the line continued until the death of Túpac Amaru in 1572.\n\n#### Maya\n\nThe Maya civilization was located on the Yucatán Peninsula and into the isthmian portion of North America, and the northern portion of Central America (Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras) comprised a number of ajawil, ajawlel, or ajawlil – hierarchical polities headed by an hereditary ruler known as a k’uhul ajaw \"divine lord\" (the Classic Maya term for a sovereign leader).\n\nDespite constant warfare and shifts in regional power, most Maya kingdoms remained a part of the region's landscape, even following subordination to hegemonic rulers through conquest or dynastic union. Nonetheless, the Maya civilization began its decline in the 8th and 9th centuries, and by the time of the arrival of the Spanish, only a few kingdoms remained, such as the Peten Itza kingdom, Mam, Kaqchikel, and the K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj. On 13 March 1697, the last Maya king—Kan Ek’, of the Itza Maya—was defeated at the Itza capital Nojpetén by the forces of King Philip IV of Spain.\n\n#### Mexico\n\nWith the victory of the Mexicans over the Spanish imperial army in 1821, the Viceroyalty of New Spain came to a conclusion. The newly independent Mexican Congress still desired that King Ferdinand VII, or another member of the House of Bourbon, agree to be installed as Emperor of Mexico, thereby forming a type of personal union with Spain. The Spanish monarchy, however, refused to recognise the new state, and decreed that it would allow no other European prince to take the throne of Mexico. Thus, the Mexican Agustín de Iturbide was crowned as Augustine I on 19 May 1822, with an official decree of confirmation issued two days following. Only a few months later, Augustine dissolved a factious congress, thereby prompting an enraged Antonio López de Santa Anna to mount a coup, which led to the declaration of a republic on 1 December 1822. In order to end the unrest, Augustine abdicated on 19 March 1823 and left the country, and the Mexican monarchy was abolished. After hearing that the situation in Mexico had only grown worse since his abdication, Iturbide returned from England on 11 May 1824, but was detained upon setting foot in Mexico and, without trial, was executed.\n\nArchduke Maximilian of Austria, brother of the Emperor of Austria, and descendant of the prior Habsburg rulers of Mexico as New Spain, was elected Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico by the Assembly of Notables in Mexico City, thereby re-establishing the Mexican monarchy.\n\nThe year before, Benito Juárez, the republican President of Mexico, suspended all repayments on Mexico's foreign debts (save those owed to the United States), leading France, the United Kingdom, and Spain to send a joint expeditionary force that took Veracruz in December 1861. Juárez then repaid the debts, after which British and Spanish troops withdrew, but Emperor Napoleon III of France and Mexican monarchists used the opportunity to overthrow the republic and install a Mexican monarch friendly to the interests of France and the Mexican nobility.\n\nThe new Mexican emperor ultimately did not bow to Napoleon's wishes, leading the latter to withdraw the majority of his influence from Mexico. Regardless, Maximilian was still viewed as a French puppet by the liberals. As well, at the end of the American Civil War, US troops moved to the Mexico-US border as part of a planned invasion, seeing the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire as an infringement on their Monroe Doctrine, even though it was a Mexican scheme and was considered an endemic Mexican monarchy. Backed by the Americans, ex-president Juárez mobilised to retake power, and defeated Maximilian at Querétaro on 15 May 1867. The Emperor was arraigned before a military tribunal, sentenced to death, and executed at the Cerro de las Campanas on 19 June 1867.\n\n#### Kingdom of Mosquitia\n\nThe Kingdom of Mosquitia controlled the Atlantic coasts of Nicaragua and Honduras from the seventeenth century to the mid-nineteenth century.\n\nThe Miskitu, Pech, Rama, Garifuna, Mayagna and later Creole people of Central America who inhabited the territory were governed by the authority of the Mosquitian Monarchy. While the kings had authority over the entire territory; there were other important leaders known as \"generals,\" \"governors,\" and \"admirals,\" who controlled different regions within the Kingdom.\n\nThe Kingdom of Mosquitia was similar to that of the Hawaiian kinship system. Many generals tried to become kings, but only Peter, the first known historically, became King Regent, following the death of his brother King Jeremy II. All Miskitu kings, generals, governors and Admirals were close relatives who controlled the kingship for more than 270 years.\n\nAccording to the oral tradition of the Miskitus, centuries ago, a group of people who were led by their warrior leader Miskut, emigrated from northern South America, traveled the Caribbean coast and settled on the continent, in a place where a river, a lagoon and the sea converged. They called this site Sitawala, the river would later be called Wangki (Coco River), and the lagoon Kip Almuk (Old Cape). The villagers called themselves Miskut kiampka (Miskut family) or Miskut uplika nani (people of Miskut).Contacts with pirates (French, Dutch and British) and Africans (seeking refuge to escape slavery) began in the 17th century. In 1629, English Puritans established on Providence Island, what they called New Westminster, the Providence Company. From dealing with British merchants and settlers, the Miskitu people obtain non-traditional products and firearms, which became a new cultural needs. This was also the time when the Kingdom start to gain its popularity.\n\nThe Kingdom of Mosquitia became a stronger force against the Spanish when the Miskitu King Edward I, signed a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with King George II of the United Kingdom, accepting military protection and the English common law except when English law was in conflict with existing Miskitu customs, culture and traditions.\n\nAt the cessation of the American Revolutionary War, King George III of the United Kingdom, via the Convention of London, also known as the Anglo-Spanish Convention, was an agreement negotiated between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Spain concerning the status of British settlements within the territory of Central America. It was signed on 14 July 1786. Britain agreed to evacuate all British settlements from Mosquitia. In exchange, Spain agreed to expand the territory available to British loggers on the Yucatán Peninsula, and allowed them to cut mahogany and other hardwoods. Over the opposition of Mosquitia settler, the agreement was implemented, and the British evacuated more than 2,000 people. Most of them went to Belize, but others were relocated to Jamaica, Grand Cayman and Roatan.\n\nHowever, Great Britain continued their relationship with the Mosquitian Kingdom and its government, whereby they interfered for the next 150 years into Moskitia international affairs at the expense of the sovereignty of the Mosquitian Kingdom.Through the act of what Great Britain called \"indirect rule,\" they concluded the signing of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with the United States. Base on the terms of the treaty, neither Great Britain or the United States would ever \"occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast or any part of Central America\", nor make use of any protectorate or alliance, present or future. This meant giving King George IV (George Augustus Frederic) the full control of his Kingdom and the recognition of the Mosquitian Kingdom as a sovereign nation. However, in 1860, Great Britain, without any International right, entertained the Treaty of Managua, in which Great Britain claim to recognize Mosquitia as being part of the Nicaraguan territory. This treaty however, reserved, on the basis of historical rights, a self governing enclave known as the Mosquito Reserve for the people, citing earlier treaty arrangements and historical circumstances. Subsequently, the king was also forced to change his title to chief.\n\nAfter the chief and the people of the Mosquito Reserve enjoyed 34 years of autonomy, the Nicaraguan government violated the terms of the 1860 Treaty of Managua, and in 1894, sent army troops to the Mosquito Reserve in order to incorporate the region to the rest of the country. In 1905, the Harrison-Altamirano Treaty was signed between Nicaragua and Great Britain which ended the Mosquito Reserve, it's legal and hereditary government, and its Autonomy Statute.\n\nDuring this same historical time, in 1957, the Hereditary Matriarch, Josephenie Hendy Hebbert Twaska, tried to regain the independence of Mosquitia. However, after the execution of some of her family members, in 1960, she was given the option to be exiled permanently or face death or imprisonment. She moved to Costa Rica and now lives the United States where she is still trying to regain Independence for her people.\n\nMosquitia regained its Autonomy Statute after three years of war between the FSLN government and a group of alliance between Indigenous and Afro-descendant people of the Mosquitia, when in 1984, the government proposed negotiations to end the war. The first talks of these negotiations were carried out with the Miskitu leader, Brooklyn Rivera. And on 30 October 1987 the Autonomy Statute was published. The Mosquitian Monarchy have still yet to be restored, still many Miskitu people and others still recognize the Miskitu Royal family.\n\n#### Taíno\n\nThe Taínos were an indigenous civilization spread across those islands today lying within the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. These regions were divided into kingdoms (the island of Hispaniola alone was segmented into five kingdoms), which were themselves sometimes sub-divided into provinces. Each kingdom was led by a cacique, or \"chieftain\", who was advised in his exercise of royal power by a council of priests/healers known as bohiques. The line of succession, however, was matrilineal, whereby if there was no male heir to become cacigue, the title would pass to the eldest child, whether son or daughter, of the deceased's sister. After battling for centuries with the Carib, the Taíno empire finally succumbed to disease and genocide brought by the Spanish colonisers.\n\n### Colonial monarchies\n\n#### Courland\n\nAfter a number of failed attempts at colonising Tobago, Duke Jacob Kettler of Courland and Semigallia, sent one more ship to the island, which landed there on 20 May 1654, carrying soldiers and colonists, who named the island New Courland. At approximately the same time, Dutch colonies were established at other locations on the island, and eventually outgrew those of the Duchy of Courland in population. When the Duke was captured by Swedish forces in 1658, Dutch settlers overtook the Courland colonies, forcing the Governor to surrender. After a return of the territory to Courland through the 1660 Treaty of Oliwa, a number of attempts were made by the next Duke of Courland (Friedrich Casimir Kettler) at re-colonisation, but these met with failure, and he sold New Courland in 1689.\n\n#### France\n\nAfter King Francis I commissioned Jacques Cartier to search out an eastern route to Asia, the city of Port Royal was founded on 27 July 1605 in what was Acadia, today is called Nova Scotia. From there, the French Crown's empire in the Americas grew to include areas of land surrounding the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi River, as well as islands in the Caribbean, and the north eastern shore of South America; the Viceroyalty of New France was eventually made into a royal province of France in 1663 by King Louis XIV. Some regions were lost to the Spanish or British Crowns through conflict and treaties, and those that were still possessions of the French king on 21 December 1792 came under republican rule when the French monarchy was abolished on that day. Upon several restorations of the monarchy, the royal presence in the Americas ended with the collapse of the Second French Empire under Napoleon III in 1870.\n\n#### Russia\n\nThe first permanent Russian settlements in what is today the US state of Alaska were set down in the 1790s, forming Russian Alaska, after Tsar Peter I called for expeditions across the Bering Strait in 1725, with the region administered by the head of the Russian-American Company as the Emperor's representative. Another Russian outpost, Fort Ross, was established in 1812 in what is now California. The colonies, however, were never profitable enough to maintain Russian interest in the area, with the population only ever reaching a maximum of 700. Fort Ross was sold in 1841, and in 1867, a deal was brokered whereby Tsar Alexander II sold his Alaskan territory to the United States of America for \\$7,200,000, and the official transfer took place on 30 October that year.\n\n#### Portugal\n\nThe United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves came into being in the wake of Portugal's war with Napoleonic France. The Portuguese Prince Regent, the future King John VI, with his incapacitated mother, Queen Maria I of Portugal and the Royal Court, escaped to the colony of Brazil in 1808. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there were calls for the return of the Portuguese Monarch to Lisbon; the Portuguese Prince Regent enjoyed life in Rio de Janeiro, where the monarchy was at the time more popular and where he enjoyed more freedom, and he was thus unwilling to return to Europe. However, those advocating the return of the Court to Lisbon argued that Brazil was only a colony and that it was not right for Portugal to be governed from a colony. On the other hand, leading Brazilian courtiers pressed for the elevation of Brazil from the rank of a colony, so that they could enjoy the full status of being nationals of the mother-country. Brazilian nationalists also supported the move, because it indicated that Brazil would no longer be submissive to the interests of Portugal, but would be of equal status within a transatlantic monarchy.\n\n#### Spain\n\nBeginning in 1492 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus under the direction of Isabella I of Castile, the Spanish Crown amassed a large American empire over three centuries, spreading first from the Caribbean to Central America, most of South America, Mexico, what is today the Southwestern United States, and the Pacific coast of North America up to Alaska. These regions formed the majority of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the Viceroyalty of Peru, the Viceroyalty of New Granada, and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in each of which the Spanish monarch was represented by a viceroy. By the early 19th century, however, the Spanish sovereign's possessions in the Americas began a series of independence movements, which culminated in the Crown's loss of all its colonies on the mainland of North and South America by 1825. The remaining colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico were occupied by the United States following the Spanish–American War, ending Spanish rule in the Americas by 1899.\n\n#### Sweden\n\nFor a period of time the French ceded sovereignty of the island of Saint Barthélemy to the Swedes but it was eventually returned. Saint Barthélemy (1784–1878) was operated as a free port. The capital city of Gustavia retains its Swedish name.\n\n### Self-proclaimed monarchies\n\nThese entities were never recognised as de jure or legitimate governments, but still sometimes exercised a degree of local control or influence within their respective locations until the death of their \"monarch\":\n\nJames J. Strang\n\nJames Strang, a would-be successor to the Mormon prophet Joseph Smith, Jr., proclaimed himself \"king\" over his church in 1850, which was then concentrated mostly on Beaver Island in Lake Michigan. On 8 July of that year, he was physically crowned in an elaborate coronation ceremony complete with crown, sceptre, throne, ermine robe and breastplate. Although he never claimed legal sovereignty over Beaver Island or any other geographical entity, Strang managed (as a member of the Michigan State Legislature) to have his \"kingdom\" constituted as a separate county, where his followers held all county offices, and Strang's word was law. U.S. President Millard Fillmore ordered an investigation into Strang's colony, which resulted in Strang's trial in Detroit for treason, trespass, counterfeiting and other crimes, but the jury found the \"king\" innocent of all charges. Strang was eventually assassinated by two disgruntled followers in 1856, and his kingdom—together with his royal regalia—vanished.\n\nJoshua Norton\n\nJoshua Abraham Norton, an Englishman who emigrated to San Francisco, California in 1849, proclaimed himself \"Emperor of These United States\" in 1859, later adding the title \"Protector of Mexico\". Though never recognized by the U.S. or Mexican governments, he was accorded a certain degree of deference within San Francisco itself, including reserved balcony seats (for which he was never charged) at local theatres, and salutes by policemen who passed him on the street. He was active in various civic issues and advocated for the bridging of San Francisco Bay. Specially printed currency authorized by Norton was accepted as legal tender within several businesses in the city. When Norton died in 1880, he was given a lavish funeral attended by over 30,000 persons.\n\nJames Harden-Hickey\n\nJames Harden-Hickey was a self-proclaimed prince, who attempted to establish the so-called Principality of Trinidad on Trindade and the Martim Vaz Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean during the late 19th century. Although initially garnering some newspaper attention, Hickey's claims were ignored or ridiculed by other nations, and the islands eventually were occupied by military forces from nearby Brazil which remain there to the present day.\n\nMatthew Dowdy Shiell\n\nA self-proclaimed monarch of the so-called Kingdom of Redonda, an island in the Caribbean Sea. Whether M. P. Shiel ever actually claimed to be king of this tiny islet is open to debate; however, other individuals later claimed the title of \"King of Redonda,\" without having apparently ever tried to physically establish themselves on the island itself.\n\n## See also\n\n- Afro-Bolivian monarchy\n- Canadian Confederation\n- List of monarchs in the Americas\n- List of the last monarchs in the Americas\n- Monarchies in Africa\n- Monarchies in Europe\n- Monarchies in Oceania\n- Monarchism\n- Monroe Doctrine", "revid": "1173331763", "description": "Countries in the Americas which are monarchies", "categories": ["Americas", "Lists of monarchies", "Monarchies of North America", "Monarchies of South America"]}
{"id": "49386138", "url": null, "title": "Early mainframe games", "text": "Mainframe computers are computers used primarily by businesses and academic institutions for large-scale processes. Before personal computers, first termed microcomputers, became widely available to the general public in the 1970s, the computing industry was composed of mainframe computers and the relatively smaller and cheaper minicomputer variant. During the mid to late 1960s, many early video games were programmed on these computers. Developed prior to the rise of the commercial video game industry in the early 1970s, these early mainframe games were generally written by students or employees at large corporations in a machine or assembly language that could only be understood by the specific machine or computer type they were developed on. While many of these games were lost as older computers were discontinued, some of them were ported to high-level computer languages like BASIC, had expanded versions later released for personal computers, or were recreated for bulletin board systems years later, thus influencing future games and developers.\n\nEarly computer games began to be created in the 1950s, and the steady increase in the number and abilities of computers over time led to the gradual loosening of restrictions on access to mainframe computers at academic and corporate institutions beginning in the 1960s. This in turn led to a modest proliferation of generally small, text-based games on mainframe computers, with increasing complexity towards the end of the decade. While games continued to be developed on mainframes and minicomputers through the 1970s, the rise of personal computers and the spread of high-level programming languages meant that later games were generally intended to or were capable of being run on personal computers, even when developed on a mainframe. These early games include Hamurabi, an antecedent of the strategy and city-building genres; Lunar Lander, which inspired numerous recreations in the 1970s and 1980s; Civil War, an early war simulation game; Star Trek, which was widely ported, expanded, and spread for decades after; Space Travel, which played a role in the creation of the Unix operating system; and Baseball, an early sports game and the first baseball game to allow player control during a game.\n\n## Background\n\nMainframe computers are powerful computers used primarily by large organizations for computational work, especially large-scale, multi-user processes. The term originally referred to the large cabinets called \"main frames\" that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Prior to the rise of personal computers, first termed microcomputers, in the 1970s, they were the primary type of computer in use, and at the beginning of the 1960s they were the only type of computer available for public purchase. Minicomputers were relatively smaller and cheaper mainframe computers prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s, though they were still not intended for personal use. One definition from 1970 required a minicomputer to cost less than US\\$25,000. In contrast, regular mainframes could cost more than US\\$1,000,000.\n\nBy the end of the 1960s, mainframe computers and minicomputers were present in many academic research institutions and large companies such as Bell Labs. While the commercial video game industry did not yet exist at that point in the early history of video games and would not until the early 1970s, programmers at these companies created several small games to be played on their mainframe computers. Most of these spread only to other users of the same type of computer and therefore did not persist as older computer models were discontinued; several, however, inspired future games, or were later released in modified versions on more modern systems or languages. These early mainframe games were largely created between 1968 and 1971; while earlier games were created they were limited to small, academic audiences. Mainframe games also continued to be developed through the 1970s, but the rise of the commercial video game industry, focused on arcade video games and home video game consoles, followed by the rise of personal computers later in the decade, meant that beginning in the 1970s the audience and developers of video games began to shift away from mainframe computers or minicomputers, and the spread of general-purpose programming languages such as the BASIC programming language meant that later mainframe games could generally be run on personal computers with minimal changes, even if initially developed on a mainframe.\n\n## Early games\n\nThe very first computer games began to appear in the 1950s, starting with Bertie the Brain, a computer-based game of tic-tac-toe built by Dr. Josef Kates for the 1950 Canadian National Exhibition. While the status of these games as video games depends on the definition used, the games developed during this time period ran on the large antecedents of mainframe computers and were primarily developed for the purposes of academic research or to showcase the technological development of the computers on which they ran. Access to these computers, located almost exclusively in universities and research institutions, was restricted to academics and researchers, preventing any development of entertainment programs. Over the course of the decade, computer technology improved to include smaller, transistor-based computers on which programs could be created and run in real time, rather than operations run in batches, and computers themselves spread to more locations.\n\nBy the 1960s, improvements in computing technology and the early development of relatively cheaper mainframe computers, which would later be termed minicomputers, led to the loosening of restrictions regarding programming access to the computers. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), access to the TX-0 experimental computer was opened to students and employees of the university. This in turn led to the development of programs that in addition to highlighting the power of the computer also contained an entertainment aspect. The games created for the TX-0 by the small programming community at MIT included Tic-Tac-Toe, which used a light pen to play a simple game of noughts and crosses against the computer, and Mouse in the Maze, which let players set up a maze for a mouse to run through. When the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-1 computer was installed at MIT in 1961, the community built a video game to showcase its abilities, Spacewar!, which then became the first known video game to spread beyond a single computer installation as it was copied and recreated on other PDP-1 systems and later on other mainframe computers.\n\nOver the course of the decade, computers spread to more and more companies and institutions, even as they became more powerful—by 1971, it is estimated that there were over 1000 computers with monitors, rather than the few dozen at the beginning of the 1960s. While different computers could generally not run the same programs without significant changes to the programs' code, due to differences in the physical hardware or machine languages, the expansion of the computing industry led to the creation of catalogs and user groups to share programs between different installations of the same series of computers, such as DEC's PDP line. These catalogs and groups, such as the IBM program catalog and the Digital Equipment Computer Users' Society (DECUS), shared small games as well as programs, including, for example, \"BBC Vik The Baseball Demonstrator\" and \"Three Dimensional Tic-Tack-Toe\" in the April 1962 IBM catalog, and dice games and question and answer games in the DECUS newsletter. The Sumerian Game (1964) for the IBM 7090, a strategy video game of land and resource management, was the first educational game for children. Mainframe games were developed outside of the IBM and DEC communities as well, such as the 1962 Polish Marienbad for the Odra 1003.\n\nBy the latter half of the 1960s, higher-level programming languages such as BASIC which were able to be run on multiple types of computers further increased the reach of games developed at any given location. While most games were limited to text-based designs, rather than visual graphics like Spacewar, these games became more complicated as they reached more players, such as baseball and basketball simulation games. Access to the computers themselves was also extended to more people by systems such as the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS), which connected several thousand users through many remote terminals to a central mainframe computer. By the 1967–68 school year the DTSS library of 500 programs for the system included, John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz wrote, \"many games\". Over a quarter of the system's usage was for casual or entertainment purposes, which Kemeny and Kurtz welcomed as helping users to become familiar with and not fear the computer. They noted that \"we have lost many a distinguished visitor for several hours while he quarterbacked the Dartmouth football team in a highly realistic simulated game\". By 1972 the football simulation had become a multiplayer video game, supporting head-to-head play.\n\n## 101 BASIC Computer Games\n\nIn 1971, DEC employee David H. Ahl converted two games, Hamurabi and Lunar Lander, from the FOCAL language to BASIC, partially as a demonstration of the language on the DEC PDP-8 minicomputer. Their popularity led him to start printing BASIC games in the DEC newsletter he edited, both ones he wrote and reader submissions. In 1973, he published 101 BASIC Computer Games, containing descriptions and the source code for video games written in BASIC. The games included were written by both Ahl and others, and included both games original to the language and ported from other languages such as FOCAL. Many of these ports were originally mainframe computer games. 101 BASIC Computer Games was a best seller with more than 10,000 copies sold, more sales than computers in existence at the time. Its second edition in 1978, BASIC Computer Games, was the first million-selling computer book. As such, the BASIC ports of mainframe computer games included in the book were often more long-lived than their original versions or other mainframe computer games.\n\nHamurabi in particular is mostly known for its appearance in Ahl's book. After hearing of The Sumerian Game, Doug Dyment at DEC created his own The Sumer Game for fellow employee Richard Merrill's newly invented FOCAL programming language. The game consists of ten rounds wherein the player, as the ancient Babylonian king Hammurabi, manages how much of their grain to spend on crops for the next round, feeding their people, and purchasing additional land, while dealing with random variations in crop yields and plagues. Multiple versions of the game were created for the FOCAL and FOCAL-69 languages, but an expanded, uncredited version of the game was included in 101 BASIC Computer Games as Hamurabi, and later versions of the game, even in FOCAL, referenced the new title over the old. Hamurabi influenced many later strategy and simulation games and is an antecedent to the city-building genre.\n\nThe other game Ahl originally ported to BASIC, Lunar Lander, appeared in the book in three different forms. The original version of the game was called Lunar, and was originally written in FOCAL for the PDP-8 by Jim Storer while a high school student in the fall of 1969. A different version called Rocket was written in BASIC by Eric Peters at DEC, and a third version, LEM, was written by William Labaree II in BASIC. Ahl converted Jim Storer's FOCAL version to BASIC, changed some of the text, and published it in his newsletter. A year or so later, all three BASIC versions of the game appeared in 101 BASIC Computer Games, under the names ROCKET (Storer version), ROCKT1 (Peters version), and ROCKT2 (Labaree version). All three text-based games required the player to control a rocket attempting to land on the moon by entering instructions to the rocket in response to the textual summary of its current position and heading relative to the ground. Ahl and Steve North converted all three versions to Microsoft BASIC, changed the collective name to Lunar Lander, and published them in Creative Computing magazine in 1976; that name was used in the 1978 edition of BASIC Computer Games.\n\nAnother game from the book is Civil War, a text-based computer game that puts the player against the computer in a simulation of the American Civil War. Civil War originated on multi-user mainframe computers in 1968, and simulates fourteen major battles of the conflict, with the human player as the South and the computer as the North. The player can control four direct variables which interact to determine a battle's outcome: how much of their money to spend on food, salaries, and ammunition, and which of four offensive or four defensive strategies to use. The side with the fewest casualties wins a battle, and if the player wins eight or more battles they win the game. Ahl credited the game in 101 BASIC Computer Games to L. Cram, L. Goodie, and D. Hibbard, students at Lexington High School, and to G. Paul and R. Hess of \"TIES\" for converting the game into a two-player game. Civil War was later one of a number of text-based games available on early 1980s pay-to-play systems.\n\nPossibly the most popular of the mainframe games that appeared in Ahl's book was Star Trek. The game is a text-based computer game that puts the player in command of the Starship Enterprise on a mission to hunt down and destroy an invading fleet of Klingon warships. Unlike the other text-based games, however, it did not use written responses to player input, but instead had character-based graphics, with different characters used as graphical symbols to represent objects. It was initially developed by Mike Mayfield in 1971 on an SDS Sigma 7 mainframe. The game was also unlike many of the other mainframe games in the book in that it was originally written in BASIC; by the time the book was published, it had been widely copied among minicomputer and mainframe systems and modified into several versions. It was one of these, renamed by Ahl as Space War, that appeared in 101 BASIC Computer Games. The 1978 version of the book contained a Microsoft BASIC port of Super Star Trek, an expanded version of the game first written in 1974, and this version was ported to numerous personal computer systems of the era; Ahl stated in the book that it was difficult to find a computer installation that did not contain a version of Star Trek. Multiple updated versions in a wide variety of languages have been made since. By 1980, Star Trek was described by The Dragon magazine as \"one of the most popular (if not the most popular) computer games around\", with \"literally scores of different versions of this game floating around\".\n\n## Other games\n\nSome mainframe games that did not appear in 101 BASIC Computer Games have still had a lasting impact. One such game was Space Travel, developed by Ken Thompson in 1969, which simulates travel in the Solar System. The player flies their ship around a two-dimensional scale model of the solar system with no objectives other than to attempt to land on various planets and moons. The player can move and turn the ship, and adjust the overall speed by adjusting the scale of the simulation. The ship is affected by the single strongest gravitational pull of the astronomical bodies. The game was developed at Bell Labs, and was ported during 1969 from the Multics operating system to the GECOS operating system on the GE 635 computer, and then to the PDP-7 minicomputer. While porting the game to the PDP-7, Thompson developed ideas for his own operating system, which later formed the core of the Unix operating system. Space Travel never spread beyond Bell Labs or had an effect on future games, leaving its primary legacy as part of the original push for the development of Unix.\n\nAnother influential early mainframe game was Baseball, a sports game that was created on a PDP-10 minicomputer at Pomona College in 1971 by English major Don Daglow. Baseball was the first baseball video game that allowed players to manage the game as it unfolded, rather than just picking players at the beginning of a game. The program is documented at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York. Baseball was continually updated through 1974, and distributed to other PDP-10 installations. The text-based game had each player control the pitcher or the batter; they would enter their intention to, for example, pitch to or walk the batter, or switch hitters. The batting player could direct on-base players to steal, and the batter to hit. The results of the play would be printed out onto paper as a verbose description, like a radio description of the game. Daglow went on to develop more sophisticated baseball games in 1983 with Intellivision World Series Baseball, and 1987 with Earl Weaver Baseball, as well as numerous other games.", "revid": "1147633198", "description": "Early video games on mainframe computers", "categories": ["Early history of video games", "Mainframe games"]}
{"id": "1673302", "url": null, "title": "Kurt Meyer", "text": "Kurt Meyer (23 December 1910 – 23 December 1961) was an SS commander and convicted war criminal of Nazi Germany. He served in the Waffen-SS (the combat branch of the SS) and participated in the Battle of France, Operation Barbarossa, and other engagements during World War II. Meyer commanded the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend during the Allied invasion of Normandy, and was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords.\n\nAfter ordering the mass murder of civilians and prisoners of war (POWs) several times during the conflict, Meyer was convicted of war crimes for his role in the Ardenne Abbey massacre (the murder of Canadian POWs in Normandy). He was sentenced to death, but the sentence was later commuted to life in prison.\n\nHe became active in HIAG, a lobby group organised by former high-ranking Waffen-SS men, after his release. Meyer was a leading Waffen-SS apologist and HIAG's most effective spokesperson, depicting most of the Waffen-SS as apolitical, recklessly brave fighters who were not involved in the crimes of the Nazi regime. These notions have since been debunked by historians.\n\n## Early life and SS career\n\n### Early life\n\nBorn in 1910 in Jerxheim, Meyer came from a lower-class working family. His father, a miner, joined the German Army in 1914 and was an NCO in World War I. Meyer began a business apprenticeship after completing elementary school, but became unemployed in 1928 and was forced to work as a handyman before becoming a policeman in Mecklenburg-Schwerin the following year.\n\nPolitically active at an early age and a fanatical supporter of Nazism, Meyer joined the Hitler Youth when he was fifteen, became a full member of the Nazi Party in September 1930, and joined the SS in October 1931. He was a guest at the marriage of Joseph Goebbels in December of that year. In May 1934, Meyer was transferred to the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (LSSAH). With this unit (which later became part of the Waffen-SS, the combat branch of the SS), Meyer took part in the annexation of Austria in 1938 and the 1939 occupation of Czechoslovakia.\n\n### Early World War II\n\nAt the outbreak of World War II, Meyer participated in the invasion of Poland with the LSSAH, serving as commander for an anti-tank company (namely 14. Panzerabwehrkompanie). He was awarded the Iron Cross, Second Class, on 20 September 1939. In October, Meyer allegedly ordered the shooting of fifty Polish Jews as a reprisal near Modlin and court-martialled a platoon commander who refused to carry out his instructions. He participated in the Battle of France and was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class.\n\nFollowing the Battle of France, Meyer's company was reorganized into the LSSAH's reconnaissance battalion and he was promoted. Benito Mussolini's unsuccessful invasion of Greece prompted Germany to invade Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941. During the invasion, the battalion came under fire from the Greek Army defending the Klisura Pass. After heavy fighting, Meyer's troops broke through the defensive lines; with the road now open, the German forces drove through to the Kastoria area to cut off retreating Greek and British Commonwealth forces. After the campaign, Meyer was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.\n\n### Eastern Front, and massacres of civilians\n\nThe LSSAH Division (including Meyer and his battalion) participated in Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, in June 1941 as part of Army Group South. He and his unit quickly became infamous even among the LSSAH Division for mass-murdering civilians and destroying entire villages, such as when they murdered about 20 women, children, and old men at Rowno. According to historian Jens Westemeier, Meyer was primarily responsible for the brutalization of the troops under his command. His terror tactics were regarded with approval by the Waffen-SS command. In combat against the Red Army, Meyer and his unit also achieved some military successes, while suffering the heaviest casualties among the LSSAH's battalions. He gained a reputation as an \"audacious\" leader during Operation Barbarossa, and was awarded the German Cross in Gold in 1942 while still with the LSSAH.\n\nIn early 1943, Meyer's reconnaissance battalion participated in the Third Battle of Kharkov. He reportedly ordered the destruction of a village during the fighting around Kharkov and the murder of all its inhabitants. Different accounts of the events exist, though they share a general outline. Meyer was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves for a successful attack on the village of Yefremovka (Jefremowka) on 20 February 1943, where his forces took no prisoners and killed about 1500 Soviet soldiers. After the war, a former SS man described an incident which took place on Meyer's orders in Jefremowka in March 1943, following its occupation. Billeted in the village, the eyewitness heard a pistol shot at 10:30 in the morning. He ran to the door and saw an SS commander who demanded to see the company commander. When the latter arrived, the SS commander shouted: \"On the orders of Meyer, this town is to be levelled to the ground, because this morning armed civilians attacked this locality.\" He then shot a 25-year-old woman who was cooking the German's lunch. According to the testimony, the Waffen-SS men killed all the inhabitants of the village and set fire to their homes.\n\nSeparate testimony from a former SS man (given to the Western Allies' interrogators after his capture in France in 1944) substantiates elements of the story:\n\n> The reconnaissance battalion of the LSSAH made an advance at the end of February [1943] towards the East and reached the village of Jefremowka. There they were surrounded by Russian forces. Fuel and ammo ran out and they were supplied by air until they were ordered to break through towards the West. Before trying to do so, the entire civilian population was shot and the village burnt to the ground. The battalion at that time was led by Kurt Meyer.\n\nUkrainian sources, including two surviving witnesses, reported that the killings took place on 17 February 1943. On 12 February, LSSAH troops had occupied two villages: Yefremovka and Semyonovka. Retreating Soviet forces had wounded two SS officers. In retaliation, LSSAH troops killed 872 men, women and children five days later; about 240 were burned alive in the church in Yefremovka. Russian sources reported that the massacre was perpetrated by the \"Blowtorch Battalion\", led by Jochen Peiper. Meyer continued to serve in the LSSAH until the summer of 1943, when he was appointed commander of a regiment of the newly-activated, still-forming SS Division Hitlerjugend stationed in France.\n\n### Battle of Normandy and Falaise pocket\n\nThe Allies launched Operation Overlord, the amphibious invasion of France, on 6 June 1944. After much confusion, SS Division Hitlerjugend got moving at about 14:30; several units advanced towards one of the beaches on which the Allies had landed, until they were halted by naval and anti-tank fire and Allied air interdiction. Meyer, confident that the Allied forces were \"little fishes\", ordered his regiment to counterattack. The attack led to heavy casualties. The division was ordered to break through to the beach on 7 June, but Meyer instructed his regiment to take covering positions and await reinforcements. The Canadian Official History described Meyer's involvement in the battle:\n\n> Although Meyer claimed later that only shortage of petrol and ammunition prevented him from carrying the attack on towards the coast, this need not be taken seriously. Indeed, he himself testified that seeing from his lofty perch \"enemy movements deeper in that area\"—doubtless the advance of the main body of the 9th Brigade—he came down and rode his motorcycle to the 3rd Battalion to order its C.O. \"not to continue the attack north of Buron\". Meyer's 2nd Battalion had been drawn into the fight, north of St. Contest \"in the direction of Galmanche\". Fierce fighting was going on when Meyer visited the battalion in the early evening; just as he arrived the battalion commander's head was taken off by a tank shot ... Meyer ordered both this battalion and the 1st (around Cambes) to go \"over from attack to defense.\"\n\nBy 22:00, Meyer had set up his command post in Ardenne Abbey. That evening, elements of the division under Meyer's command committed the Ardenne Abbey massacre; eleven Canadian prisoners of war, soldiers from the North Nova Scotia Highlanders and the 27th Armoured Regiment were shot in the back of the head.\n\nOn 14 June, divisional commander SS-Brigadeführer Fritz Witt was killed when a naval barrage hit his command post. Meyer, the next-highest-ranking officer, was promoted to divisional commander; at 33 years of age, he was one of the war's youngest German divisional commanders. According to historian Peter Lieb, Meyer's rise to division command was relatively typical for the Waffen-SS, as the latter desired individuals as commanders who were regarded as ruthless, brutal, and ready to serve at the front line. By 4 July, the division had been reduced to a weak battlegroup; six days later, it retreated behind the Orne River. In just over a month of fighting, the division had more than a 60 per cent casualty rate.\n\nThe Canadian forces began their advance on Falaise, planning to meet up with the Americans with the goal of encircling and destroying most of the German forces in Normandy. The Hitlerjugend division was holding the northern point of what became known as the Falaise pocket. After several days of fighting Meyer's unit was reduced to about 1,500 men, whom he led in an attempt to break out of the pocket. Meyer described the conditions in the pocket in his memoirs: \"Concentrated in such a confined space, we offer unique targets for the enemy air power. [...] Death shadows us at every step\". Meyer was wounded during the fight with the 3rd Canadian Division, but escaped from the Falaise pocket with the division's rearguard. The remnants of the division joined the retreat across the Seine and into Belgium. On 27 August, Meyer was awarded the Swords to the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves and promoted to SS-Brigadeführer. He led his retreating unit as far as the Meuse, where he and his headquarters were ambushed by an American armoured column on 6 September. The division's staff fled into a nearby village, where Meyer and his driver hid in a barn. A farmer discovered them, and informed the Belgian resistance. Meyer surrendered to local partisans, who handed him over to the Americans on 7 September.\n\n### Prisoner of war\n\nAfter his surrender, Meyer was initially hospitalized due to injuries he received from his American guards during an altercation. He was transferred to a POW camp near Compiègne in August and attempted to hide his SS affiliation, but his identity as a high-ranking SS officer was discovered in November. Meyer was then interned at Trent Park in England, where his conversations with other high-ranking prisoners of war were covertly tape-recorded by British military intelligence. He was frank about his Nazi-orientated political beliefs in these exchanges; Meyer had dedicated himself to its ideology, saying that a person \"could only give his heart once in life\". One interrogator described him as \"the personification of National Socialism\". Throughout the recordings, Meyer and other SS men confirmed the German armed forces officers' view of them as ideological fanatics with an almost religious belief in Nazism, the Third Reich, and the messianic personality cult of Adolf Hitler.\n\nIn a taped January 1945 conversation, Meyer praised Hitler for having inspired a \"tremendous awakening in the German people\" and for reviving their self-confidence. In a taped conversation the following month, he chided a demoralized Wehrmacht general: \"I wish a lot of the officers here could command my division, so that they might learn some inkling of self-sacrifice and fanaticism\". According to the recordings, Meyer had not just paid lip service to Nazi ideology to further his military career; he saw himself as an ideological racial warrior with a duty to indoctrinate his men with the National Socialist creed. Despite rigorous interrogations by British authorities, Meyer refused to admit any war crimes; his involvement in the Ardenne Abbey massacre was eventually revealed by imprisoned SS deserters.\n\n## War crimes trial\n\nMeyer was held as a prisoner of war until December 1945, when he was tried for war crimes (the murder of unarmed Allied prisoners of war in Normandy) in the German town of Aurich.\n\n### Indictment\n\nMeyer's charges were:\n\n1. Prior to 7 June 1944, Meyer had incited troops under his command to deny quarter to surrendering Allied soldiers.\n2. On or around 7 June 1944, Meyer was responsible for his troops killing twenty-three prisoners of war at Buron and Authie.\n3. On or around 8 June 1944, Meyer ordered his troops to kill seven prisoners of war at his headquarters at the Abbaye Ardenne.\n4. On or around 8 June 1944, Meyer was responsible for his troops killing seven prisoners of war, as above.\n5. On or around 8 June 1944, Meyer was responsible for his troops killing eleven prisoners of war, as above.\n\nThe third and fourth charges referred to the same event; the fourth charge was an alternative to the third, if the killings were found to be a war crime but he was found not to have ordered them. The fifth charge was related to a separate group of prisoners; in this case, the prosecution did not allege that Meyer had directly ordered their deaths. He was charged with responsibility for the deaths of twenty-three prisoners on 7 June, and eighteen more the following day. Meyer pleaded not guilty to all five charges.\n\nA second charge sheet accusing him of responsibility for the deaths of seven Canadian prisoners of war in Mouen on 8 June 1944 was prepared; after the successful conclusion of the first trial, however, it was decided not to try the second set of charges. No charges were laid against him for alleged previous war crimes in Poland or Ukraine; the Canadian court was constituted to deal only with crimes committed against Canadian nationals.\n\n### Proceedings\n\nThe court, the first major Canadian war-crimes trial, faced a number of problems before it could be convened. Chief among them was the fact that since the accused was a general, he had to be tried by soldiers of equal rank; finding enough available Canadian generals was difficult. The court as eventually constituted had four brigadiers – one, Ian Johnston, was a lawyer in civilian life – and was presided over by Major General H. W. Foster, who had commanded the 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade in Normandy.\n\nIn accordance with eyewitness statements by German and Canadian soldiers and French civilians, Meyer was found guilty of the first, fourth and fifth charges and acquitted of the second and third; he was deemed responsible for inciting his troops to give no quarter to the enemy and for his troops' killing of eighteen prisoners at the Abbaye Ardenne, but not responsible for the killings of twenty-three at Buron and Authie. Meyer was found responsible for the deaths at the Abbaye Ardenne, but acquitted of directly ordering the killings. In Meyer's closing statement before sentencing, he did not ask for clemency but defended the record of his unit and the innocence of his soldiers: \"By the Canadian Army I was treated as a soldier and ... the proceedings were fairly conducted\".\n\nMeyer’s case is notable as one of the earliest applications of the legal concept of command responsibility—accountability in personal terms for the actions of subordinates in violating the laws of war. The concept is now codified in the 1977 Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions as well as the Canadian Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act.\n\n### Sentence\n\nAlthough most observers expected a long imprisonment – the court had not found him guilty of directly ordering the murders, but tacitly condoning them – the court sentenced Meyer to death by firing squad. One of the judges, Brigadier Bell-Irving, later said that he believed a guilty sentence required a death sentence and that no lesser sentence was permissible. The sentence was subject to confirmation by higher command; Meyer was originally willing to accept it, but was persuaded by his wife and his defence counsel to appeal. The appeal was reviewed by Canadian headquarters and dismissed by Major-General Christopher Vokes, the official convening authority for the court, who said that he could not see a clear way to mitigate the sentence imposed by the court.\n\nShortly before the sentence was to be carried out, however, the prosecutor realised that the trial regulations contained a section requiring a final review by \"the senior combatant officer in the theatre\" and no-one had completed such a review. The execution was postponed until it could be carried out. The senior officer was the commander of Canadian forces in Europe: Christopher Vokes, who had dismissed Meyer's appeal. Vokes had second thoughts and began a series of meetings with senior officials to discuss how to proceed. Vokes' main concern was the degree to which a commander should be held responsible for the actions of his men. The consensus which emerged from the discussions was that death was an appropriate sentence only when \"the offence was conclusively shown to have resulted from the direct act of the commander or by his omission to act\". Vokes said \"There isn't a general or colonel on the Allied side that I know of who hasn't said, 'Well, this time we don't want any prisoners'\". Vokes had himself ordered the razing of Friesoythe, a German town, in 1945, and had ordered the shooting of two prisoners in 1943 before his divisional commander intervened.\n\nMeyer was scheduled to be shot on 7 January 1946. An execution site was selected and the firing party readied. Meyer initially refused to file for clemency, and he seemed to bitterly accept his upcoming death. \"So, this is how my life will end,\" he said. \"A volley will crack out in a sandpit somewhere and my body will disappear into a nameless grave.\" However, under pressure from his wife and lawyer, Meyer filed for clemency. He won a stay of execution on 5 January. On 14 January 1946, Vokes commuted Meyer's sentence to life imprisonment, saying he felt that Meyer's level of responsibility for the crimes did not warrant execution. After the reprieve, which sparked outrage amongst much of the Canadian public, a Communist-run German newspaper reported that the Soviet Union was considering putting Meyer on trial for war crimes allegedly committed at Kharkov. Nothing came of this, however, and Meyer was transported to Canada to begin his sentence in April 1946. He served five years at the Dorchester Penitentiary in New Brunswick, where he worked in the library and learned English.\n\nMeyer petitioned for clemency in late 1950, offering to serve in a Canadian or United Nations military force if released. At the time, the new West German government was seeking the release of German war criminals incarcerated in Allied prisons, and the Canadian and other western Allied governments were looking to gain West German support for NATO to oppose possible Soviet aggression in Europe. The Canadian government was willing to let him return to a German prison, but not release him outright; he was transferred to a British military prison in Werl, West Germany, in 1951. Meyer was released from prison on 7 September 1954, after the Canadian government approved a reduction of his sentence to fourteen years. When he returned to Germany in 1951, he told a reporter that nationalism was past and that \"a united Europe is now the only answer\".\n\n## HIAG activities and death\n\nMeyer became active in HIAG, the Waffen-SS lobby group formed in 1951 by former high-ranking Waffen-SS men including Paul Hausser, Felix Steiner and Herbert Gille, when he was released from prison. He was a leading Waffen-SS apologist. Meyer announced at a 1957 HIAG rally that although he stood behind his old commanders, Hitler made many mistakes and it was time to look to the future rather than the past. He said to about 8,000 ex-SS men at the 1957 HIAG convention in Karlsberg, Bavaria, \"SS troops committed no crimes, except the massacre at Oradour, and that was the action of a single man\". According to Meyer, the Waffen-SS was \"as much a regular army outfit as any other in the Wehrmacht\".\n\nMeyer's memoirs, Grenadiere (1957), were published as part of this campaign and were a glorification of the SS's part in the war and his role in it. The book, detailing Meyer's exploits at the front, was an element of Waffen-SS rehabilitation efforts. He condemned the \"inhuman suffering\" to which Waffen-SS personnel had been subjected \"for crimes which they neither committed, nor were able to prevent\". Historian Charles W. Sydnor called Grenadiere \"perhaps the boldest and most truculent of the apologist works\". The book was part of HIAG's campaign to promote the perception of the Waffen-SS in popular culture as apolitical, recklessly-brave fighters who were not involved in the war crimes of the Nazi regime, a perception which has since been refuted by historians. In July 1958, Meyer shook hands with SPD politician Ulrich Lamar [de] at a HIAG meeting. The event was widely discussed, with HIAG regarding it as good publicity. Many SPD members criticised Lohmar, saying that Meyer remained unapologetic about SS crimes and was an enemy of democracy despite his claims to the contrary.\n\nOne of HIAG's de facto leaders, Meyer was appointed the organization's spokesperson in 1959. He presented himself in this capacity as pragmatic and loyal to the West German state, and HIAG as an apolitical group. Even though elements of HIAG increasingly aligned with extreme right-wing groups such as the Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP), Meyer continued to push for a more moderate image in the public. In a television interview with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in January 1960, he even claimed that he would order Waffen-SS veterans to protect Jewish synagogues and graveyards if he could do so. This statement was met with severe criticism by many openly antisemitic members of HIAG, resulting in growing tensions in the organization. Meyer responded by dissolving the most extreme chapters of HIAG, and restructuring the group to solidify the control of its central leadership over the members. His tactics met with some success, and he met with numerous politicians to advocate for better treatment of former Waffen-SS members, convincing some that he and HIAG had distanced themselves from far-right extremism. He had less success in his 1959–1961 meetings with prominent SPD politician and former concentration camp inmate Fritz Erler. The latter was supposed to gauge Meyer's supposed conversion to democracy, as the SPD was prepared to support a moderate wing of HIAG to counteract more extreme elements of the group. Erler repeatedly confronted Meyer with the extreme right-wing rhetoric of many HIAG members and outlets, prompting the spokesman to shift all blame to his rivals in the lobby group. Meyer never fully convinced Erler of his position, but his meetings with him and other politicians still enabled HIAG to become more respected in the public and better spread its message. Regardless of his claims, Meyer always remained a covert, steadfast adherent of Nazism.\n\nMeyer experienced poor health later in life, with heart and kidney disease and requiring the use of a cane. After a series of mild strokes, he died of a heart attack in Hagen, Westphalia, on 23 December 1961. Fifteen thousand people attended his funeral in Hagen, with the customary cushion-bearer carrying his medals in the cortege.\n\n## Awards\n\n- Iron Cross (1939)\n  - 2nd Class (20 September 1939)\n  - 1st Class (8 June 1940)\n- German Cross in Gold on 8 February 1942 as SS-Sturmbannführer in SS-Division \"Adolf Hitler\"\n- Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords\n  - Knight's Cross on 18 May 1941 as SS-Sturmbannführer and commander of SS-Aufklärungs-Abteilung \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler\"\n  - 195th Oak Leaves on 23 February 1943 as SS-Obersturmbannführer and commander of the SS-Aufklärungs-Abteilung \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler\"\n  - 91st Swords on 27 August 1944 as SS-Standartenführer and commander of the SS Division Hitlerjugend\n\n## Publications", "revid": "1167748022", "description": "German SS officer (1910–1961)", "categories": ["1910 births", "1961 deaths", "German mass murderers", "German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom", "German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States", "German prisoners sentenced to death", "Hitler Youth members", "Members of HIAG", "Military personnel from Lower Saxony", "Nazi Party members", "Nazis convicted of war crimes", "People from Helmstedt (district)", "Perpetrators of World War II prisoner of war massacres", "Prisoners sentenced to death by Canada", "Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords", "SS-Brigadeführer", "Waffen-SS personnel"]}
{"id": "1786465", "url": null, "title": "Thank God I Found You", "text": "\"Thank God I Found You\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Mariah Carey, featuring guest vocals from R&B singer Joe and American boy band 98 Degrees. It was released on November 15, 1999, through Columbia Records, as the second single from her seventh studio album, Rainbow (1999). Written and produced by Carey alongside Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, the song is a soulful pop power ballad with lyrics depicting a powerful love relationship in which the protagonist tells her lover \"thank God I found you\", that was inspired by a relationship Carey was going through at the time.\n\n\"Thank God I Found You\" received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics; some felt it was a great album closer while others deemed it \"un-listenable\" and \"forgettable\". Nevertheless, the song became Carey's fifteenth number-one single on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and remained her last chart-topping single until her 2005 comeback single \"We Belong Together\"; it remains the only chart-topper to date for 98 Degrees and was the first of only two for Joe. The single was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Aside from its peak of number two in Canada, the song achieved moderate international charting, reaching the top-ten in Spain, Poland and the United Kingdom; and peaking within the top-thirty in Australia, Belgium (Wallonia), France, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland.\n\nA DJ Clue-produced remix titled \"Thank God I Found You (Make It Last Remix)\" uses re-recorded vocals from Carey and features guest vocals from Joe and Carey's label-mate, rapper Nas. The remix is a remake of Keith Sweat's song \"Make It Last Forever\" (1988), transforming it into a slow groove R&B number, while incorporating a few verses from the original version of \"Thank God I Found You\".\n\nA music video for \"Thank God I Found You\", directed by Brett Ratner, features Carey, Joe and 98 Degrees performing the song at an outdoor concert. The Make It Last Remix had its own video commissioned, which was shot in a grainy fashion in Hamburg, Germany, and shows Carey and the song's featured artists performing at a small club. Carey performed the song's original version and accompanying remix live at the 27th Annual American Music Awards. It appeared on the set-lists of the Rainbow World Tour (2000) and The Adventures of Mimi Tour (2006), with Trey Lorenz serving as the male vocalist.\n\nIn September 2000, US songwriters Seth Swirsky and Warryn Campbell filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Carey claiming that \"Thank God I Found You\" borrowed heavily from the song \"One of Those Love Songs\" they composed for R&B group Xscape. Though initially the case was dismissed, in the precedent-setting Swirsky v. Carey decision, which clarified the standard for proving copyright infringement, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit overturned the initial 2002 dismissal of the case. The case was settled out of court in April 2006.\n\n## Background and recording\n\nCarey and her husband, Tommy Mottola, who was a Sony Music executive, separated in 1997. This resulted in a strained relationship with Sony. By the spring of 1999, Carey had begun work on her last album of her contract with Columbia Records, titled Rainbow. Her relationship with Sony had affected her collaboration with writing partner Walter Afanasieff, who had worked with her throughout the first half of her career. As a result, she worked extensively with many other songwriters and producers for the album, including the duo Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis (known for their work with Janet Jackson), with whom Carey co-wrote and co-produced \"Thank God I Found You\". When Jam and Lewis first started working with Carey, they did not have a definite idea of what Carey expected from them. In an interview with Fred Bronson, Jam and Lewis explained:\n\n> It wasn't like Janet [Jackson], where we all grew up together. Mariah had done her own thing and had been very involved with the arranging and production of her records, so we respected that and said, 'What can we do for you?' She would fly into town for five or six hours. She'd get on a plane and fly to whatever was the next thing she was doing.\n\nOne night, Jam and Lewis received a call from Carey's assistant telling them that Carey had an idea for a song. She asked them to meet her at the studio later that night, and when they arrived, Carey sang the song's melody for them. Normally when Carey was composing songs, James \"Big Jim\" Wright would play the chords. He was not present at the studio that night, so Lewis played the chords for Carey. After composing the melody, Carey recorded her vocals. When Carey requested male singers to sing along with her on the track, Jam and Lewis recruited R&B singer Joe. Although Jam and Lewis wanted to feature K-Ci & JoJo on the song, they dropped the idea because they are signed to a different record label. About the recording, Joe said:\n\n> She [Carey] gave me a call, and she was like, \"I would love to do a duet with you. Come by the studio.\" When I got there, she played the song for me. I didn't expect to record the song, but when I heard it, I said, \"Man, there's no way I'm going to leave this studio without my voice being on that record.\" Everything just happened so fast. I didn't expect for it to be a single or a video. Everything was just great.\n\nJam and Lewis also asked the boy band 98 Degrees to join Carey and Joe on the track, as they wanted male harmonies. Carey talked about the collaboration in an interview with MTV. \"It's like when I was writing 'One Sweet Day'. It really cried out for a group to be singing with me and for a strong male-female thing in terms of going back and forth, vocally. So you know, we just naturally came together.\" The vocals were recorded at Capri Digital Studios, Capri, Italy and Avatar Studios, New York City. The track was mixed by Supa Engineer Duo at Right Track Recording and mastered by Herb Powers.\n\n## Composition\n\n\"Thank God I Found You\" was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, and co-produced by Carey. The song is a moderately-paced R&B power ballad. Arion Berger of Rolling Stone noted that the song also exhibits influences of gospel music. The song carries an upbeat tone, backed by slow \"manufactured pop beats\". According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, \"Thank God I Found You\" is written in the key of B major. The beat is set in common time, and is set at a tempo of sixty-five beats per minute. The song follows the sequence of B–F/A–Gm<sub>7</sub>–F–E–F as its chord progression. Carey's and Joe's vocals in the song span over two octaves, from the note of D<sub>4</sub> to the high note of D<sub>6</sub>. Composed in verse–chorus–bridge form, the chorus of \"Thank God I Found You\" is sung in the key of B major; Carey also makes use of melisma in the song. The final chorus is set a minor 3rd higher in the key of D major. The arrangement is similar to Carey's \"One Sweet Day\". Lyrically, the song is an inspirational love song, in which the protagonist thanks God for finding her the perfect partner. According to Carey, it was inspired by the relationship she was in with Latin singer Luis Miguel at that time. She stated that she was telling a story through the song.\n\n### Remixes\n\nCarey re-recorded her vocals for the song's main remix titled \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix). The remix is a remake of Keith Sweat's \"Make It Last Forever\" (1988), and bears few lyrical similarities to the original version of the song. Carey wrote new lyrics for the song, preserving the chorus of the original song. Produced by DJ Clue of Desert Storm Records, the remix is a midtempo tune backed by \"R&B-savvy rhythms\" over a slow groove. It features vocals from Joe and rapped verses by Columbia Records label-mate Nas. The remix is included on Joe's third studio album My Name Is Joe (2000). Jose F. Promis of Allmusic wrote that he felt the remix seemed unfinished. He added that could have \"simply covered the song and kept its integrity intact, instead of meshing it into a sort of half-\"Thank God I Found You\"/\"Make It Last Forever\" creation.\" However, while reviewing My Name Is Joe, Matt Diehl of Entertainment Weekly picked the track as the best from the album. He wrote \"Nas' grit and Carey's expert emoting make Joe sing with unexpected feeling.\" Derek Ali of Dayton Daily News commended the collaboration, saying \"it works out well.\" The \"Make It Last\" remix is featured on Carey's first remix album The Remixes (2003). The Norwegian production team Stargate produced the UK Stargate radio mix.\n\n## Critical response\n\n\"Thank God I Found You\" garnered mixed reviews from music critics. Jose F. Promis of Allmusic wrote that the song is \"[a] lush, classic Carey-styled adult contemporary ballad, with uplifting lyrics and a sea of soaring vocals.\" The Austin American-Statesman viewed the song as a \"dramatic closer\". Arion Berger of Rolling Stone praised the song's production and the harmony that 98 Degrees contributed. Chuck Campbell of The Daily News was also positive stating the song was a \"grandiose\" album-closer. Steve Jones of USA Today wrote that Carey excelled in the song. Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times-Dispatch noted that Carey found solace in the song. Anthony Johnson, also of the Richmond Times-Dispatch wrote that the track is a \"surefire winner\". However, a few other critics deemed the song as forgettable. Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer dismissed the song as a \"colorless quality romance\". Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times was also negative in his review, calling it as an \"overwrought ballad\" and wrote it was un-listenable. Dara Cook of MTV Southeast Asia named the song as \"a big-production tragicomedy of hilarious histrionics and absurdly dramatic lyrics.\" While reviewing Carey's compilation The Ballads (2009), Chuck Campbell of The Press of Atlantic City wrote that at some point in Carey's career, the quality her songs got \"iffier\" and commented that \"Thank God I Found You\" is such an example. He went on to say that the song was a \"trifle\". In 2005 Andrew Unterberger of Stylus gave a negative review, writing the song was \"a sub-par, extremely lazy example of an artist reaching the top spot almost solely on reputation.\" He wrote that the song would have been the end of Carey's career. At the 43rd Grammy Awards held in February 2001, the song was nominated in the category of the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, but lost to B.B. King and Dr. John for \"Is You Is or Is You Ain't My Baby\". At the First BMI Urban Awards, held in 2001, Jam, Lewis, and Carey received BMI's Urban Songwriter Award.\n\n## Commercial performance\n\nIn the United States, Columbia released \"Thank God I Found You\" to radio stations as the second single from Rainbow in November 1999. A physical single was later released on January 25, 2000, in the US and on February 28, 2000, in the United Kingdom. The issue dated December 11, 1999, debuted at number eighty-two on the Billboard Hot 100—Carey's lowest debut at the time. On the week dated February 19, 2000, the song reached number-one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Carey's fifteenth number-one single and marking her eleventh consecutive year with a number-one song. It remained Carey's last number-one hit in the US until 2005's \"We Belong Together\" and, to date, remains 98 Degrees' only number-one song; Joe, meanwhile, would only receive one more number-one hit later in his career: 2001's \"Stutter\". It was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in February 2000. By February 2001 the single had sold 687,000 copies in the US alone. In Canada, the single debuted and peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart.\n\nIn Australia, it entered the Australian Singles Chart at its peak of number twenty-seven, on the week dated March 12, 2000. The next week it dropped to number forty-seven. In New Zealand, it debuted on the singles chart at a position of number thirty-four, the week dated April 2, 2000. The song went down to number thirty-five next week, before dropping to number forty-four. In Europe, \"Thank God I Found You\" charted in a few countries. In the United Kingdom, the single debuted and peaked at number ten on the UK Singles Chart on the week dated March 11, 2000. The single stayed on the chart for ten weeks, including one re-entry at number seventy-one on the week dated May 20, 2000. In the Flanders region of Belgium, the song debuted at number forty-seven and peaked at thirty-six. In the Wallonia region, it debuted at number thirty-five and peaked at number twenty-three three weeks after its debut. In France, the single entered the singles chart at number thirty-one, the week dated March 4, 2000. The next week it ascended to its peak of number twenty-eight. It stayed on the chart for fifteen weeks. In the Netherlands, \"Thank God I Found You\" entered the Single Top 100 at number fifty-five, before peaking at number twenty-three the next week. The song also peaked at number twenty-eight in Germany, forty-three in Sweden, thirty-one in Ireland, and at number seventeen in Switzerland.\n\n## Music video\n\nThe music video for \"Thank God I Found You\" was filmed by Brett Ratner in Minneapolis. The video is a tape of the performance Carey, Joe and 98 Degrees gave at the Last Chance Summer Dance summer music concert, organized by 101.3 KDWB-FM. It premiered on October 14, 1999, on MTV's Total Request Live (TRL). The video opens with scenes of Carey and Joe in the studio. Carey is with her puppy and talking on a mobile phone. The video shows saturated blue skies and behind-the-scenes footage of Carey carousing with her dog Jack and writing lyrics on a notepad. As the song starts, Carey is shown lying on red sofa, writing the lyrics on the notepad. Then she performs the song on the stage, joined by Joe and 98 Degrees. Additionally, there is a video for the \"Make It Last Remix\" that features Carey with braids in a nightclub with Joe and Nas. Directed by Sanaa Hamri. The video is grainy; it was shot at Bar Rosso in Hamburg, Germany on October 16 and 17, 1999.\n\n## Live performances\n\n\"Thank God I Found You\" was performed a number of times between 2000 and 2005. Carey opened the 27th Annual American Music Awards, held at the Shrine Auditorium, with a medley of the original and remix versions of the song. After Carey appeared on stage wearing a black skirt with a high slit and sporting a blond and straightened hairstyle, Joe joined her with several male and female back-up dancers, all of whom who wore black outfits. After performing the first verse and chorus, Nas joined the duo on stage for the Make It Last Remix. Later on in the show, she was honored with the \"Award of Achievement\" for earning a number one single in every year of the 1990s. Vibe commended the performance, writing that it \"offered an insight into how a little girl from Long Island, New York became hip hop's answer to Celine Dion.\" In 2000, Carey performed the song on the Italian television show Quelli che... il Calcio.\n\nAside from the several televised and the award show performance, Carey included the song on the set-list of her concert tours, starting with the Rainbow World Tour. During the tour, Trey Lorenz, her only male background singer, replaced Joe as the song's main male vocalist. At the show at Madison Square Garden on April 11, 2000, Carey wore a long orange cocktail gown with a long cascading neck line. Lorenz, wearing a black leather sports jacket and matching pants, made another featured appearance on the tour, performing his song \"Make You Happy\" during an interval of costume changes following the performance. Following the release of her tenth studio effort The Emancipation of Mimi in 2005, Carey embarked on The Adventures of Mimi Tour in mid 2006. On several stops of the tour, Carey performed the song as part of the set-list, usually towards the end of the show. Similar to the Rainbow World Tour, Lorenz performed the song alongside Carey instead of Joe. Carey, wearing a midsection-baring turquoise evening gown, introduced the song to the audience by telling of its conception, concept and featured artists, followed by a performance of the song's remix.\n\n## Lawsuit\n\nOn September 15, 2000, US songwriters Seth Swirsky and Warren Campbell filed a lawsuit against Carey at the 9th Circuit for copyright infringement, \"reverse passing off\" and false designation, claiming that \"Thank God I Found You\" borrowed heavily from a song they composed called \"One of Those Love Songs\". It was recorded by the R&B group Xscape in 1998 for their album Traces of My Lipstick. The lawsuit claimed that Carey wrongfully gave the songwriting credits to Jam and Lewis. Swirsky and Campbell had sold the rights of the song to So So Def Recordings in 1998. \"I'm a fan of Mariah Carey; this is nothing personal against her. But I really do believe there's accountability, and it's very clear what happened here. I've never sued anybody before\", Swirsky said. According to the district court, an expert witness (chair of the Musicology Department at the University of California at Los Angeles) determined that the songs shared a \"substantially similar chorus\". The expert stated that although the lyrics and verse melodies of the two songs were different, the songs' choruses \"shared a 'basic shape and pitch emphasis' in their melodies, which were played over 'highly similar basslines' and chord changes, at very nearly the same tempo and in the same generic style.\" He noted both the songs had their choruses sung in the key of B. The expert further remarked that \"the emphasis on musical notes\" on the two songs was the same, which \"contribute[d] to the impression of similarity one hears when comparing the two songs.\" He presented a series of visual transcriptions of his observations. The transcriptions contained details about the pitch sequence of both the songs' chorus, melody, and bassline.\n\nThe district court labeled this evidence as insufficient to survive a motion for summary judgment. It noted the expert's methodology to be \"flawed\" and stated that through its own analysis, no instance of substantial similarity was found. The lawsuit was settled in favor of Carey by the US District Judge, who noted that there was no similarity in key, harmonic structure, tempo, or genre between the two songs.\n\nHowever, this judgement was later reversed by a higher court. In the precedent-setting Swirsky v. Carey decision, which clarified the standard for proving copyright infringement, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit overturned the initial 2002 dismissal of the case, finding that Swirsky's expert did in fact adequately define the similarities between the two songs. The lawsuit was reinstated in 2004; Carey and Swirsky settled out of court in 2006.\n\n## Track listing\n\n- European maxi-CD single\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" – 4:17\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Celebratory Mix) – 4:19\n3. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix feat. Joe & Nas) – 5:10\n4. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix Instrumental) – 5:10\n\n- UK 12-inch vinyl\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix feat. Joe & Nas) – 5:10\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix without Rap feat. Joe) – 5:10\n3. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Instrumental) – 5:10\n4. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Celebratory Mix) – 4:19\n\n- UK CD single 1\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Stargate Radio Edit) – 4:20\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix) – 5:10\n3. \"Babydoll\" – 5:06\n\n- UK CD single 2 (limited edition)\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Celebratory Mix) – 4:19\n2. \"One Sweet Day\" – 4:41\n3. \"I'll Be There\" – 4:24\n\n- US CD single and 7-inch vinyl single\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" – 4:17\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Celebratory Mix) – 4:19\n\n- US maxi-CD single\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix Edit feat. Nas & Joe) – 4:13\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix without Rap feat. Joe) – 5:10\n3. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Album Version) – 4:17\n4. \"Babydoll\" – 5:06\n\n- US 12-inch vinyl\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix feat. Nas & Joe) – 5:09\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix Instrumental) – 5:09\n3. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Celebratory Mix feat. Joe & 98o) – 4:19\n4. \"Fantasy\" (feat. O.D.B.) – 4:50\n\n- Digital download (2020)\n\n1. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix) – 5:09\n2. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix Edit) – 4:12\n3. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix w/o Rap) – 5:09\n4. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Make It Last Remix Instrumental) – 5:09\n5. \"Thank God I Found You\" (Celebratory Mix) – 4:16\n6. \"Thank God I Found You\" (StarGate Radio Edit) – 4:19\n\n## Credits and personnel\n\nCredits adapted from Rainbow liner notes.\n\n- Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis – writing, production\n- Mariah Carey – writing, vocals, backing vocals, production\n- Joe – vocals, backing vocals\n- 98 Degrees – vocals, backing vocals\n- Nicki Richards – backing vocals\n- Trey Lorenz – backing vocals\n- Melonie Daniels – backing vocals\n\n- Daryl Skobba – cello\n- Joshua Koestenbaum – cello\n- Mike Scott – guitar\n- Dana Jon Chappelle – engineering\n- Pete Karem – engineering (98 Degrees' vocals)\n- Steve Hodge – mixing\n- Bob Ludwig – mastering\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## Release history\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2000\n- List of number-one R&B singles of 2000 (U.S.)", "revid": "1173175929", "description": "1999 single by Mariah Carey", "categories": ["1990s ballads", "1999 singles", "1999 songs", "2000 singles", "98 Degrees songs", "Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles", "Columbia Records singles", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Joe (singer) songs", "Mariah Carey songs", "Music videos directed by Brett Ratner", "Music videos directed by Sanaa Hamri", "Nas songs", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis", "Songs involved in plagiarism controversies", "Songs written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis", "Songs written by Mariah Carey", "Sony Music singles"]}
{"id": "9915755", "url": null, "title": "Heinrich Rau", "text": "Heinrich Gottlob \"Heiner\" Rau (2 April 1899 – 23 March 1961) was a German communist politician during the time of the Weimar Republic; subsequently, during the Spanish Civil War, he was a leading member of the International Brigades and after World War II a leading East German statesman.\n\nRau grew up in a suburb of Stuttgart, where early on he became active in socialist youth organizations. After military service in World War I, he participated in the German Revolution of 1918–19. From 1920 onward, he was a leading agricultural policy maker of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). This ended in 1933, when Adolf Hitler came to power. Shortly afterward Rau was thrown in jail for two years. As an enemy of the Nazi regime in Germany he was imprisoned, in total, for more than half of the time of Hitler's rule. After his first imprisonment he emigrated in 1935 to the Soviet Union (USSR). From there, in 1937, he went on to Spain, where he participated in the Spanish Civil War as a leader of one of the International Brigades. In 1939, he was arrested in France, and was delivered by the Vichy regime back to Nazi Germany in 1942. After a few months in a Gestapo prison, he was transferred to the Mauthausen Concentration Camp in March 1943. While in the concentration camp he participated in conspiratorial prisoner activities, which led to a camp uprising in the final days before the end of World War II in Europe.\n\nAfter the war he played an important role in the political scene of East Germany. Before the establishment of an East German state he was the chairman of the German Economic Commission, the precursor to the East German government. Subsequently, he became chairman of the National Planning Commission of East Germany and a deputy chairman of the East German Council of Ministers. He was a leading economic politician and diplomat of East Germany and led various ministries at different times. Within East Germany's ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) he was a member of the party's CC Politburo.\n\n## Origins and early political career\n\n### Stuttgart\n\n#### Early years until World War I\n\nRau was born in Feuerbach, now a part of Stuttgart, in the German Kingdom of Württemberg, the son of a peasant who later became a factory worker. He grew up in the adjacent city of Zuffenhausen, now also a part of Stuttgart. After finishing school in spring 1913, he started work as a press operator in a shoe factory. In November 1913 he changed his employer and moved to the Bosch factory works in Feuerbach. There he completed his training as metal presser and remained until autumn 1920, with interruptions due to war service during 1917-1918 and the subsequent German Revolution of 1918–1919.\n\nFrom 1913 Rau also was active in the labour movement. In that year he joined the metal workers' union (Deutscher Metallarbeiterverband) and a social democratic youth group in Zuffenhausen. During the following years, which saw the beginning of World War I, Rau's youth group, whose leader he became in 1916, was significantly influenced by the left wing of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The leftists considered the war a conflict between \"imperialist powers\". A few local members of a far left SPD group, among them Edwin Hoernle and Albert Schreiner, who later became well-known members of the Spartacus League (Spartakusbund), visited the youth group in Zuffenhausen and gave lectures. In 1916, Rau joined the Spartacists as well and became a co-founder of their youth organisation. In accordance with the politics of the Spartacists, in 1917 he joined the left-wing Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) and in 1919 the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), which had been founded mainly by members of the Spartacus League.\n\nIn spring 1917, Rau, by this time an elected trade union official in his firm, participated in the attempt to organise a strike against the war. His action led to a reprimand from his employer, and may have hastened his conscription into the army in August 1917. In the army he was trained in the Zuffenhausen-garrisoned Infantry Regiment 126 and deployed to the Western Front as member of a machine gun company. In September 1918 a shell splinter penetrated his lungs. In the following weeks, he was treated in military hospitals in Weimar and in Stuttgart's neighbouring town Ludwigsburg. While in Ludwigsburg, Rau managed to get leave at short notice on 8 November 1918 and joined the in those days developing revolution in Stuttgart.\n\n#### Revolution\n\nThe revolution in November 1918 led in Württemberg, like everywhere in Germany, to the end of the monarchy. King William II left Stuttgart on 9 November, shortly after a revolutionary crowd had stormed his residence, the Wilhelm Palais and flown a red flag above the building. On the very same day the demonstrators were also able to seize some of Stuttgart's barracks, where parts of the garrisons openly joined them. Rau took active part in the events in Stuttgart's streets on this and the following day.\n\nThese happenings were a first cumulation of a civil commotion, that had started a few days earlier with large strikes and demonstrations. On 4 November 1918, a first workers' council under the leadership of the 23-year-old Spartacist Fritz Rück had been established in Stuttgart. During the following days and weeks more spontaneously elected worker and soldier councils were formed, and took over a large part of Württemberg. Rau was elected leader of the military police in his home city of Zuffenhausen, a part of Stuttgart's urban area.\n\nAs early as 9 November, about 150 councillors gathered for a two-day meeting in Stuttgart. A majority of the councillors entrusted the leaders of the SPD and USPD political parties, who had been invited to the meeting, with the establishment of a provisional government in Württemberg. The Spartacist Albert Schreiner, then chairman of a soldier council, initially assumed the key position of Minister of War in this quickly established first government, which for the time being shared power with the councils. However, he resigned already a few days later, after disputes about the future course of the government. While the Spartacists considered as their ideal aim the kinds of results achieved by the previous year's October Revolution in Russia, the position of the other USPD politicians was unclear and the SPD leaders supported a parliamentary democracy and early elections in Württemberg.\n\nDuring the ensuing months the communists tried repeatedly to seize power in Stuttgart and other cities in Württemberg through armed rebellion, accompanied by large-scale strikes. They seized public buildings and print offices. During one such an attempt - at the beginning of April 1919 when the Bavarian Soviet Republic was formally proclaimed in Munich - a general strike took place in the Stuttgart area. The government in Stuttgart imposed a state of emergency and 16 people died in street fights. At the time of these events, Rau used his position as chief of the military police in Zuffenhausen to shut down companies that remained operational while the strike was ongoing. However, when the strike collapsed, Rau was removed from office by the government.\n\nRau resumed his employment at Bosch in Feuerbach. During another general strike in several Württemberg cities, from 28 August to 4 September 1920, he led the strike committee in his firm, which resulted in his dismissal.\n\n#### Influences\n\nFrom 1919 until 1920 Rau was head of the local KPD group in Zuffenhausen, and chaired the KPD organisation in Stuttgart. The party leader in Württemberg at this time was Edwin Hoernle. Hoernle had visited Rau's youth group in Zuffenhausen and had become a long-standing friend; he was an influential teacher for Rau and made his voluminous library available to Rau to use.\n\nThe most outstanding ideological authority of the movement in Stuttgart, during the time of Rau's political involvement there, was however Clara Zetkin. She was a founding member of the Second International, about whom Friedrich Engels once had written, that he liked her very much, while emperor Wilhelm II is said to have referred to her as the \"worst witch in Germany\". She had been living in a Stuttgart suburb since 1891 and, since then, been gathering a circle of Württemberg Marxists around her, among them Rau's friend Hoernle, who had been editing with her the magazine Die Gleichheit. Her house, built in 1903 in Sillenbuch (now a part of Stuttgart), had become a meeting place of leading national and local left-wing and communist activists. It was also visited by international communist leaders like Vladimir Lenin, who stayed there overnight in 1907. In 1920, when Zetkin was elected to the Reichstag in Berlin, Hoernle and Rau moved to Berlin as well.\n\n### Berlin\n\nIn November 1920 Rau became a full-time party functionary and the secretary of the agricultural division of the Central Committee of the KPD in Berlin. Between 1921 and 1930 he lectured at the Land and Federal schools of the KPD, and edited a few left-wing agricultural journals.\n\nThe head of the Central Committee's Division for Agriculture initially was Edwin Hoernle, with whom Rau had come from Stuttgart. Hoernle had been elected to the Executive Committee of the Comintern (ECCI) in November 1922 and Rau succeeded him as division chief the following year. Afterwards, Rau also became a leading member of various national and international left wing farmer and peasant organisations. From 1923 onward, he was a member of the Secretariat of the International Committee of the Agricultural and Forest Workers and beginning in 1924 of the executive committee of the Reich Peasant Federation (Reichsbauernbund). In 1930 this was followed with a membership on the International Peasants' Council in Moscow and in 1931 he became an office member of the European Peasant Committee. From 1928 to 1933 he was also member of the Preußischer Landtag, the Prussian federal state parliament. There he joined the committee on agricultural affairs of the parliament and became its chairman.\n\n## Imprisonment, International Brigades, World War II\n\nAfter Hitler's rise to power in January 1933 and the subsequent suppression of the KPD, Rau became a Central Committee's party instructor for southwest Germany and was active in building an underground party organisation there. On 23 May 1933 Rau was arrested and on 11 December 1934 convicted, together with Bernhard Bästlein, for \"preparations to commit high treason\" by the People's Court of Germany. He was sentenced to two years imprisonment. After his release from custody, he emigrated to the USSR in August 1935, via Czechoslovakia, and became a deputy chairman of the International Agrarian Institute in Moscow.\n\nAfter the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and following the formation of the International Brigades, Rau attended a school for military commanders in Ryazan (USSR), and subsequently went to Spain. After his arrival in April 1937, he joined the XI International Brigade and participated in the civil war as political commissar, beginning in May 1937, then as chief of staff and finally commander of the brigade, until March 1938, when he was injured. Although the brigade achieved some temporary successes during these months, Francisco Franco's troops were already on the road to victory. Rau's brigade saw combat in the battles of Brunete, Belchite, Teruel and the Aragon Offensive, where Rau was wounded.\n\nWhen Rau took charge of the XI Brigade, he might have been at odds with his predecessor, Richard Staimer, the future son-in-law of KPD leader Wilhelm Pieck. This was the time of the Great Purge which had its echos in Spain, and it could be perilous to have powerful enemies. André Marty, the chief commissar of the International Brigades based at Albacete, was also an executor of the Great Purge in Spain. Following Rau's injury, Marty managed to imprison him under a pretext for a brief time. A report, written in Moscow in 1940, described Rau as a \"political criminal\", who had had contact with the Spanish anarchists and members of the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), which was demonized as \"Trotskyist\". These were serious allegations in this time, when accusations of Trotskyism frequently led to a death sentence if the accused was within reach of the authorities.\n\nIt seems, however, that Rau also had influential friends. He was released from prison and expelled from Spain. He moved to France in May 1938. There, he was in charge of the emergency committee of the German and Austrian Spain fighters and member of the KPD country leadership in Paris until 1939. At the beginning of 1939 Rau crossed the border to Spain again and subsequently led, together with Ludwig Renn, the remainders of the XI Brigade. Together with other remaining international units – now combined in the \"Agrupación Internacional\" – they fought on Spain's northern border after the fall of Barcelona, protecting the stream of refugees escaping to France. Thus the Agrupación enabled the escape of perhaps some 470,000 civilians and soldiers.\n\nRau was arrested by the French authorities in September 1939 and sent to Camp Vernet, an internment centre in France, and in November 1941 to a secret prison in Castres. In June 1942, he was handed over to the Gestapo by the Vichy regime and was held until March 1943 in the Gestapo prison in the Prince Albrecht Street. Afterwards he was sent to the Mauthausen Concentration Camp, where he remained until May 1945, when he participated in a camp rebellion as one of the organisers of a secret military camp organisation.\n\n## East Germany\n\n### 1945–1949\n\n#### New start in Brandenburg\n\nWhen the war was over, Rau went to Vienna for some weeks and helped the KPD representatives in the city gather liberated political prisoners from Germany. He left Vienna in July 1945, when he led a car convoy with 120 former Mauthausen inmates to the Soviet occupied part of Berlin.\n\nIn September 1945, the Soviets appointed Rau a member of the provisional chairmanship of the Province of Brandenburg with the title of a vice-president and responsibility for food, agriculture and forests. Rau succeeded Edwin Hoernle, who had held this position since the end of June and became chairman of the central administration for agriculture and forests in the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ). In his new position, Rau was a member of the commission for the execution of the land reform in the province. In spring 1946 he assumed responsibility for economy and transport in Brandenburg. In this capacity, he was, from June 1946 onwards, chairman of the newly established sequester commission in the province. 1946 was also the year of the forced merger of eastern KPD and eastern SPD into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), resulting in Rau's membership in the SED. Important 1946 events in Brandenburg were in November elections, which preceded an official status change from a province to a federal state in the following year. Afterwards, from 1946 until 1948, Rau was state parliament delegate and Minister for Economic Planning of Brandenburg.\n\n#### German Economic Commission\n\nIn March 1948 Rau became chairman of the German Economic Commission (Deutsche Wirtschaftskommission or DWK), which during this period became the centralised administrative organisation for the Soviet Occupation Zone and the predecessor of the future East German government. The organisation existed during a time of very difficult challenges coming from different sides. A particularly momentous event during this time was the currency reform of 1948. On 20 June 1948 the western German zones introduced a new currency, leaving the eastern zone to use the old common currency. In order to avoid inflation, the DWK under Rau's leadership, was forced to follow quickly with its own reform and issued an own currency too. In doing so, the DWK also exploited the currency reform to redistribute capital by using different exchange rates for private and state-run companies. The disagreement, which of the two new currencies should be used in Berlin, triggered the Berlin Blockade by the USSR and the western airborne supply of West Berlin.\n\nUnder Rau's leadership the DWK, still under supervision of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (German: Sowjetische Militäradministration in Deutschland or SMAD), quickly developed more and more into a partner of the SMAD with its own conceptions and intentions. This policy was also endorsed by the Soviet chief diplomat in Germany, Vladimir Semyonov, the future Chief Commissar of the USSR in Germany, who already in January 1948 correspondingly stated, that SMAD orders, (which accompanied DWK orders,) should have merely the purpose to back the authority of the German orders. One of Rau's aims during the meetings with the SMAD was, to come to agreements, which also obliged the Soviet side, including subordinate Soviet authorities, who still engaged in wild confiscations for reparation purposes. An important success in this direction was a half-year plan for the economic development in the second half of 1948, which was accepted by the SMAD in May 1948. It was followed by a likewise accepted two-year plan for 1949 and 1950.\n\nThe biggest obstacle to the plan's implementation soon proved to be the Berlin Blockade by the USSR, which was followed by a western counter-blockade of the Soviet occupation zone. As there were long-established economic ties between the western zone and the eastern, which was highly dependent on supplies from the West, the blockade was more damaging to the East. The West Berlin SPD newspaper Sozialdemokrat reported in April 1949, how Rau clearly criticized the blockade in a meeting of SED apparatchiks and there is reason to believe that he did the same in the meetings with the SMAD. According to the paper, Rau spoke of a \"bad speculation\" regarding the undervaluation of the dependence on western supplies, stating that the \"broadminded Soviet help\" turned out as insufficient and hinting that the blockade would soon be lifted. Finally the Berlin Blockade was lifted on 12 May 1949.\n\nThe DWK's increasingly centralised administration resulted in a substantial increase in its staffing level, which grew from about 5000 employees in mid-1948 to 10,000 by the beginning of 1949. In March 1949, Rau, like the representative of a state, signed a first treaty with a foreign state, a trade agreement with Poland.\n\n### 1949–1953\n\n#### Establishment and difficult first years of a new state\n\nThe time of Rau's German Economic Commission ended in October 1949 with the establishment of the East German state, the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The GDR was proclaimed on 7 October 1949, at a ceremony in the former Air Ministry Building in Berlin, until then the seat of Rau's organisation. Five days later, the DWK was formally abolished on 12 October 1949. Rau thereupon became a delegate of the People's Chamber, the newly established parliament of the GDR and joined the new government.\n\nLikewise in 1949, the ruling SED implemented traditional leadership structures of communist parties and Rau became a member of the newly established Central Committee of the SED and candidate member of its Politburo; in 1950 he became a full member of the Politburo as well as deputy chairman of the East German Council of Ministers.\n\nBetween 1949 and 1950, Rau was Minister for Planning of the GDR and in 1950–1952 chairman of the National Planning Commission. In this position, as the key figure of the economic development, Rau came into conflict with SED General Secretary Walter Ulbricht. In the face of an imminent economic collapse, Rau blamed the \"Bureau Ulbricht\" for the wrong policy. In response East Germany's old president Wilhelm Pieck renewed the old accusation of Trotskyism against Rau. In a later letter to Pieck of 28 November 1951, Rau protested at the manner in which the Secretariat usurped the Politburo by censoring his speech on economic affairs.\n\nIn 1952–1953, Rau led the newly established Coordination Centre for Industry and Traffic at the East German Council of Ministers. The purpose of this office was effective control of the economy in order to overcome the difficulties, which were caused by a grown bureaucracy and unclear decision paths. Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl described this in a talk with Joseph Stalin.\n\nAfter the death of Stalin in March 1953, the new collective Soviet leadership started to advocate a New Course. Moscow favored replacing East Germany's Stalinist party leader Walter Ulbricht and made inquiries about Rau as a potential candidate. In response, the leading SED party ideologist, Rudolf Herrnstadt, a candidate member of the Poliburo, with assistance from Rau drew up a concept for just such a New Course in East Germany. However, the workers' uprising, which was suppressed by the Soviet army on 17 June led to a backlash. Three weeks later, during a session of the then eight person Politburo (plus six candidate members) on 8 July 1953, Rau made a recommendation that Ulbricht be replaced, while Rau's Spanish Civil War comrade, Stasi chief Wilhelm Zaisser, who in Spain had been known as 'General Gómez', accused Ulbricht of having perverted the party. The majority was against Ulbricht. His only supporters were Hermann Matern and Erich Honecker. At that moment however there was no viable candidate who could replace Ulbricht immediately. Suggested were first Rudolf Herrnstadt and then Heinrich Rau, but both were hesitant, thus a decision was postponed. The very next day after the meeting Ulbricht went by plane to Moscow and the Soviet leadership, who in part also feared that deposing Ulbricht might be construed as a sign of weakness, now secured Ulbricht's position. Subsequently, five members and candidate members of the Politburo lost their positions.\n\n### 1953–1961\n\n#### Competition in the Politburo and economic reform\n\nUnlike some other rebels in the leadership, Rau kept most of his positions. He remained a member of the Politburo and deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers. In the Politburo he continued to be responsible for the industry of the GDR. However, his position had been weakened. Bruno Leuschner, a follower of Ulbricht and Rau's successor as chairman of the National Planning Commission, now became a new candidate member of the Politburo. During the ensuing period, Leuschner, often supported by Ulbricht, gradually superseded Rau as the senior leader for the economy as a whole. The official GDR press never mentioned the dissension between Rau and Leuschner and always described their cooperation as a success story.\n\nConcentrating on his tasks in the SED leadership and as a minister, Rau – despite occasional internal criticism – avoided giving the impression of any disagreement with Ulbricht, at least in public. In 1954, Rau received in the Order of Merit for the Fatherland (Vaterländischer Verdienstorden) in gold. Later, Ulbricht stated in a 1964 interview about the \"introduction of socialism\" in the GDR, that only three people were heavily involved in the economic development during that time, \"namely Heinrich Rau, Bruno Leuschner and me. Others were not consulted!\"\n\nIn 1953–1955 Rau led the new established Ministry for Machine Construction, which combined the responsibilities of three existing ministries. His deputy in this ministry was Erich Apel, who would, in the early 1960s, become an initiator and architect of an economic reform, which became known as the New Economic System (NES). This later reform was presaged by a reform in the middle of the 1950s; the economic historian Jörg Roesler considers the NES in the 1960s as a continuation of this reform. The origin of the reform in the 1950s was a scientific study, commissioned by Rau's ministry in 1953, to assess the need for greater economic efficiency in the factories. The subsequent results from this study promised enhanced economic efficiency by shifting more responsibility from the National Planning Commission to the enterprises themselves. Thenceforward, already in spring 1954, Rau advocated such a planning reform, while planning boss Bruno Leuschner quite consistently opposed it. In August 1954, Rau's ministry sent a concept for such a reform to Leuschner's State Planning Commission. Eventually this reform got under way, after Ulbricht, perhaps under the influence of his new personal economic adviser Wolfgang Berger, had approved such a policy at the end of 1954 too. Subsequently, the reform accelerated until 1956. It found however its early end in the generally aggravated political atmosphere in 1957. Unrests in other Eastern Bloc countries during the previous year 1956, in particular in Hungary, had awoken the desire for more central control again. The subsequent unsatisfying economic development, however, during the following years eventually led in the 1960s to the concept of a new planning reform, the NES.\n\n#### Foreign trade and foreign policy\n\nBetween 1955 and 1961 Rau served as Minister for Foreign Trade and Inter-German Trade. The term \"Inter-German Trade\" meant the trade with West Germany. In this time both German states still saw German reunification as their own aim, but both envisaging different political systems. The West German position was that they, as the only freely elected government, had an exclusive mandate for the entire German people. In consequence of this, the GDR's official diplomatic relationships with other states were narrowed to the states of the Eastern Bloc. Practically no other states recognized the GDR. As a result, Rau's ministry established numerous new \"trade missions\" in other states, which served as a kind of surrogate for nonexistent embassies. It was a corollary, that Rau, in addition to his responsibility for the export-oriented industry, also chaired the Foreign Policy Commission of the SED Politburo (Außenpolitische Kommission beim Politbüro or APK) since 1955, in this period the actual decision-making body for foreign affairs, and visited other states in different parts of the world in this capacity. Among the visited states were, beside the core states of the Soviet Bloc, also then Eastern Bloc peripheral states, like China and Albania and leading states of the crystallizing Non-Aligned Movement like India and Yugoslavia (after the Bandung Conference). Between 1955 and 1957 he visited, as part of a diplomatic advertisement campaign in the Arab world, various Arabic states, among them repeatedly Egypt. One of his last deals, which he closed as minister, was a trade agreement with Cuba, signed by Cuba's minister Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, on 17 December 1960 in East Berlin.\n\nRau, in poor health during his final years, died of a heart attack in East Berlin, in March 1961. He was cremated and honoured with burial at the Memorial to the Socialists (German: Gedenkstätte der Sozialisten) in the Friedrichsfelde Central Cemetery, Berlin.\n\n## Aftermath and legacy\n\nAfter his death, firms, schools, recreation homes, numerous streets, and a fighter squadron were named after him. The GDR issued a stamp with his picture three times.\n\nRau was married twice and had three sons and a daughter. Like the other members of the Politburo, he lived until 1960 in a secured area of East Berlin's district Pankow and moved in 1960 to the Waldsiedlung near Wandlitz. In Pankow he had lived in Majakowskiring no. 50. In 1963, Rau's widow Elisabeth moved to this street again.\n\nWhen the prominent West German SPD politician and future President of Germany Johannes Rau visited an SPD rally in the East German city of Erfurt during the time of German reunification, he was introduced as \"Prime Minister 'Heinrich Rau'\". Thereupon Johannes Rau ironically commented on this lapse by observing that Heinrich Rau was a \"Minister of Trade, a Swabian and a communist\" and he was none of the three.\n\n## See also\n\n- International Brigades order of battle\n- East German mark\n- Hallstein Doctrine\n- History of East Germany\n- Medal for Fighters Against Fascism", "revid": "1173357658", "description": "German Communist politician (1899–1961)", "categories": ["1899 births", "1961 deaths", "Communist Party of Germany politicians", "Communists in the German Resistance", "Deputy Prime Ministers of East Germany", "German Army personnel of World War I", "German atheists", "German people of the Spanish Civil War", "Government ministers of East Germany", "Independent Social Democratic Party politicians", "International Brigades personnel", "Mauthausen concentration camp survivors", "Members of the 1st Volkskammer", "Members of the 2nd Volkskammer", "Members of the 3rd Volkskammer", "Members of the Landtag of Brandenburg", "Members of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany", "Members of the Provisional Volkskammer", "People from the Kingdom of Württemberg", "Politicians from Stuttgart", "Recipients of the Banner of Labor", "Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit in gold", "Refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union"]}
{"id": "9773347", "url": null, "title": "Russian military deception", "text": "Russian military deception, sometimes known as maskirovka (Russian: маскировка, lit. 'disguise'), is a military doctrine developed from the start of the 20th century. The doctrine covers a broad range of measures for military deception, from camouflage to denial and deception.\n\nDeceptive measures include concealment, imitation with decoys and dummies, manoeuvres intended to deceive, denial, and disinformation. The 1944 Soviet Military Encyclopedia refers to \"means of securing combat operations and the daily activities of forces; a complexity of measures, directed to mislead the enemy regarding the presence and disposition of forces...\" Later versions of the doctrine also include strategic, political, and diplomatic means including manipulation of \"the facts\", situation, and perceptions to affect the media and opinion around the world, so as to achieve or facilitate tactical, strategic, national and international goals.\n\nDeception contributed to major Soviet victories including the Battle of Stalingrad, the Battle of Kursk, and Operation Bagration (in Belarus): in these cases, surprise was achieved despite very large concentrations of force, both in attack and in defence. The doctrine has also been put into practice in peacetime, with denial and deception operations in events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Prague Spring, and the annexation of Crimea.\n\n## Development of the doctrine\n\nThe Russian doctrine of military deception has evolved with time, and it encompasses a number of meanings. The Russian term маскировка (maskirovka) literally means masking. An early military meaning was camouflage, soon extended to battlefield masking using smoke and other methods of screening. From there it came to have the broader meaning of military deception, widening to include denial and deception.\n\n### Historical antecedents\n\nThe practice of military deception predates Russia. The Art of War, written in the 5th century BC and attributed to the ancient Chinese military strategist Sun Tsu, describes a strategy of deception: \"I will force the enemy to take our strength for weakness, and our weakness for strength, and thus will turn his strength into weakness\". Early in Russia's history, in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, Prince Dmitry Donskoy defeated the armies of the Mongol Golden Horde using a surprise attack from a regiment hidden in forest. The tactics of that battle are still cited in Russian cadet schools.\n\n### Before World War II\n\nThe Russian Army had a deception school, active in 1904, disbanded in 1929. Meanwhile, military deception was developed as a military doctrine in the 1920s. The 1924 Soviet directive for higher commands stated that operational deception had to be \"based upon the principles of activity, naturalness, diversity, and continuity and includes secrecy, imitation, demonstrative actions, and disinformation.\"\n\nThe 1929 Field Regulations of the Red Army stated that \"surprise has a stunning effect on the enemy. For this reason all troop operations must be accomplished with the greatest concealment and speed.\" Concealment was to be attained by confusing the enemy with movements, camouflage and use of terrain, speed, use of night and fog, and secrecy. \"Thus 'in Soviet military art during the 1920s the theory of operational maskirovka was developed as one of the most important means of achieving surprise in operations.'\"\n\nThe 1935 Instructions on Deep Battle and then the 1936 Field Regulations place increasing stress on battlefield deception. The Instructions define the methods of achieving surprise as air superiority; making forces mobile and manoeuvrable; concealing concentration of forces; keeping fire preparations secret; misleading the enemy; screening with smoke and technical deception; and using the cover of darkness. In the 1939 Russian invasion of Finland, white winter camouflage was worn by Soviet troops.\n\n### 1944 concept\n\nThe 1944 Soviet Military Encyclopedia defines military deception as the means of securing combat operations and the daily activities of forces; misleading the enemy about the presence and disposition of forces, objectives, combat readiness and plans. It asserts that it contributes to achieving surprise, preserving combat readiness and the survivability of objectives.\n\n### 1978 concept\n\nThe 1978 Soviet Military Encyclopedia defines deception similarly, placing additional stress on strategic levels, and explicitly including political, economic and diplomatic measures besides the military ones. It largely repeats the 1944 Encyclopedia's concept, but adds that\n\n> Strategic maskirovka is carried out at national and theater levels to mislead the enemy as to political and military capabilities, intentions and timing of actions. In these spheres, as war is but an extension of politics, it includes political, economic and diplomatic measures as well as military.\n\n### Modern doctrine\n\nRussian military deception is broadly equated with maskirovka, but other Russian terms are also used in the area, including the \"fog of war\", tuman voyny. Khitrost means a commander's personal gift of cunning and guile, part of his military skill, whereas deception is practised by the whole organization and does not carry the sense of personal trickiness; nor need the Russian use of deception be thought of as \"evil\". Indeed, Michael Handel reminds readers, in the preface to the military analyst David Glantz's book, of Sun Tzu's claim in The Art of War that all warfare is based on deception; Handel suggests that deception is a normal and indeed necessary part of warfare. The goal of military deception is however surprise, vnezapnost, so the two are naturally studied together.\n\nHowever, the military analyst William Connor cautioned that in the Soviet sense, the doctrine covered much more than camouflage and deception. It had, he suggested, the connotation of active control of the enemy. By the time of Operation Bagration in 1944, Connor argues, the Russian doctrine of military deception already included all these aspects. The meaning evolved in Soviet practice and doctrine to include strategic, political, and diplomatic objectives, in other words operating at all levels.\n\nThis differs from Western doctrines on deception, and from information warfare doctrines, by its emphasis on pragmatic aspects. According to the analyst James Hansen, deception \"is treated as an operational art to be polished by professors of military science and officers who specialize in this area.\" In 2015, Julian Lindley-French described strategic maskirovka as \"a new level of ambition\" established by Moscow to unbalance the West both politically and militarily.\n\nIn military intelligence, the Russian doctrine roughly corresponds to Western notions of denial and deception. The United States Army's Glossary of Soviet Military Terminology from 1955 defined maskirovka as \"camouflage; concealment; disguise.\" The International Dictionary of Intelligence from 1990 defined it as the Russian military intelligence (GRU) term for deception.\n\nRobert Pringle's 2006 Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Intelligence defined it as strategic deception. Scott Gerwehr's The Art of Darkness summarized it as deception and operational security. The historian Tom Cubbage commented that military deception was enormously successful for the Soviets, and whatever the United States might think, for the Soviet Union it was something to make use of both in war and in peacetime.\n\nAn article in The Moscow Times explained: \"But маскировка has a broader military meaning: strategic, operational, physical and tactical deception. Apparently in U.S. military terminology, this is called either CC&D (camouflage, concealment and deception) or more recently D&D (denial and deception). It is the whole shebang—from guys in ski masks or uniforms with no insignia, to undercover activities, to hidden weapons transfers, to—well, starting a civil war but pretending that you've done nothing of the sort.\"\n\nIn his comprehensive study, Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War, Glantz summarized the Russian doctrine as involving both active and passive deception and surprise. For the Soviets, deception permeated all levels of war. And since they thought of war as just an extension of politics by other means, deception could and should be used and constantly considered in politics before a war began, if it was to work effectively.\n\nThe American defence researcher Charles Smith identified different dimensions of Russian military deception. He divided it into multiple types—optical, thermal, radar, radio, sound/silence; multiple environments—aquatic, space, atmosphere—each involving active or passive measures; and organizational aspects—mobility, level, and organization. The levels are the conventional military ones, strategic, operational, and tactical, while organization refers to the military branch concerned. Finally, Smith identified principles—plausibility, continuity through peace and war, variety, and persistent aggressive activity; and contributing factors, namely technological capability and political strategy.\n\nSmith also analyzed the Soviet doctrine, considering it as \"a set of processes designed to mislead, confuse, and interfere with accurate data collection regarding all areas of Soviet plans, objectives, and strengths or weaknesses\".\n\n## In practice\n\n### Beginnings\n\nThe Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 was cited by Smith as an early example of the successful use of deception; a regiment had hidden in the forest, and the battle is seen as the beginning of the freeing of the Russian lands from Tatar rule.\n\nAt least three elements, namely deception, concealment, and disinformation with false defensive works and false troop concentrations, were used by Georgy Zhukov in the 1939 Battles of Khalkhin Gol against Japan. The deceptions included apparent requests for material for bunkers, the broadcasting of the noise of pile-drivers and wide distribution of a pamphlet What the Soviet Soldier Must Know in Defence. In his memoirs Zhukov described them as such, noting that they were worked out at army group or \"operational-tactical\" level.\n\n### Rzhev-Vyazma, 1942\n\nThe first offensive to have its own deception operation was in Zhukov's part of the attack on the Rzhev-Vyazma salient to the west of Moscow in July and August, 1942. The offensive was conducted by Ivan Konev's Kalinin Front on the north, and Zhukov's Western Front with 31st Army and 20th Army on the south. Zhukov decided to simulate a concentration of forces some 200 kilometres (120 mi) to the south near Yukhnov, in the sector of his 43rd, 49th and 50th Armies.\n\nHe created two deception operation staffs in that sector, and allocated 4 deception (maskirovka) companies, 3 rifle companies, 122 vehicles, 9 tanks and other equipment including radios for the deception. These forces built 833 dummy tanks, guns, vehicles, field kitchens and fuel tanks, and used their real and dummy equipment to simulate the unloading of armies from a railhead at Myatlevo, and the concentration of armour and motorized infantry as if preparing to attack Yukhnov. The radios communicated false traffic between the simulated armies and Front headquarters.\n\nThe real tanks and other vehicles made tracks like those of troop columns. When the Luftwaffe attacked, the deception units returned fire and lit bottles of fuel to simulate fires. The deception had the immediate effect of increasing Luftwaffe air strikes against the railhead and false concentration area, while the two railheads actually in use were not attacked, and the Wehrmacht moved three Panzer divisions and one motorized infantry division of XL Panzer Corps to the Yukhnov area. Meanwhile, the real troop concentration to the north was conducted at night and in thick forests.\n\nZhukov's attack began on 4 August, and the 20th and 31st Armies advanced 40 kilometres (25 mi) in two days. The Russians claimed that surprise had been achieved; this is confirmed by the fact that German intelligence failed to notice Zhukov's concentration of 20th and 31st Armies on Rzhev. Other small offensives on the same front had poorly planned and executed deception measures, but these were largely unsuccessful. The successful deception for the attack on Rzhev showed that military deception could be effective, but that only certain Red Army commanders applied it correctly.\n\n### Battle of Stalingrad, 1942–1943\n\nMilitary deception based on secrecy was critical in hiding Soviet preparations for the decisive Operation Uranus encirclement in the Battle of Stalingrad. In the historian Paul Adair's view, the successful November 1942 Soviet counter-attack at Stalingrad was the first instance of Stavka's newly discovered confidence in large-scale deception. Proof of the success of the Soviet deception came, Adair notes, from the Chief of the German General Staff, General Kurt Zeitzler, who claimed early in November that \"the Russians no longer have any reserves worth mentioning and are not capable of launching a large-scale attack.\" This was two months before the German 6th Army capitulated.\n\nHitler's own self-deception played into this, as he was unwilling to believe that the Red Army had sufficient reserves of armour and men. Further, the many ineffective Red Army attacks to the north of Stalingrad had unintentionally given the impression that it was unable to launch any substantial attack, let alone a rapid army-scale pincer movement. Careful attention was paid to security, with greatly reduced radio traffic. The Germans failed to detect the creation of five new tank armies. Troop movements were successfully concealed by moving the armies up only at night, and camouflaging them by day on the open, treeless steppes.\n\nStrategic deception included increasing military activity far away, near Moscow. At the sites of the planned attack, elaborate disinformation was fed to the enemy. Defence lines were built to deceive German tactical reconnaissance. Civilians within 25 kilometres (16 mi) of the front were evacuated, and trenches were dug around the villages for Luftwaffe reconnaissance to see. Conversely, along the uninvolved Voronezh Front, bridging equipment and boats were prepared to suggest an offensive there. The five real bridges that were built for the attack were masked by the construction of seventeen false bridges over the River Don.\n\nTo the south of Stalingrad, for the southern arm of the pincer movement, 160,000 men with 550 guns, 430 tanks and 14,000 trucks were ferried across the much larger River Volga, which was beginning to freeze over with dangerous ice floes, entirely at night. Overall, Stavka succeeded in moving a million men, 1000 tanks, 14,000 guns and 1400 aircraft into position without alerting their enemy.\n\nDespite the correct appreciation by German air reconnaissance of a major build-up of forces on the River Don, the commander of the 6th Army, Friedrich Paulus took no action. He was caught completely by surprise, failing either to prepare his armour as a mobile reserve with fuel and ammunition, or to move it on the day of the attack. The historian David Glantz considered that the concealment of the scale of the offensive was the Red Army's \"greatest feat\".\n\n### Battle of Kursk, 1943\n\nDeception was put into practice on a large scale in the 1943 Battle of Kursk, especially on the Red Army's Steppe Front commanded by Ivan Konev. This was a deception for a defensive battle, as Hitler was planning to attack the Kursk salient in a pincer movement. The Soviet forces were moved into position at night and carefully concealed, as were the extensively prepared defences-in-depth, with multiple lines of defence, minefields, and as many as 200 anti-tank guns per mile. Soviet defences were quickly built up using deception techniques to conceal the flow of men and equipment.\n\nThis was accompanied by a whole suite of deception measures including feint attacks, false troop and logistics concentrations, radio deception, false airfields and false rumours. In mid-June 1943 German army high command (OKH) had estimated 1500 Soviet tanks in the Kursk salient, against the true figure of over 5100, and underestimated Soviet troop strength by a million. The historian Lloyd Clark observes that while the Wehrmacht was \"feeding on intelligence scraps\", the Soviets were \"mastering maskirovka\".\n\nThe result was that the Germans attacked Russian forces far stronger than those they were expecting. The commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army, Mikhail Katukov, remarked that the enemy \"did not suspect that our well-camouflaged tanks were waiting for him. As we later learned from prisoners, we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed.\" Katukov's tanks were concealed in defensive emplacements prepared before the battle, with only their turrets above ground level. Glantz records that the German general Friedrich von Mellenthin wrote\n\n> The horrible counter-attacks, in which huge masses of manpower and equipment took part, were an unpleasant surprise for us... The most clever camouflage of the Russians should be emphasized again. We did not ... detect even one minefield or anti-tank area until ... the first tank was blown up by a mine or the first Russian anti-tank guns opened fire.\n\n### Operation Bagration, 1944\n\nThe 1944 Operation Bagration in Belarus applied the strategic aims and objectives on a grand scale, to deceive the Germans about the scale and objectives of the offensive. The historian Paul Adair commented that \"Once the Stavka had decided upon the strategic plan for their 1944 summer offensive [Bagration], they began to consider how the Germans could be deceived about the aims and scale of the offensive... the key to the maskirovka operation was to reinforce the German conviction that operations would continue along this [southern] axis\".\n\nIn particular, the Stavka needed to be certain that the Germans believed the main Soviet attack would be in the south. The Soviet plan successfully kept the German reserves doing nothing south of the Pripyat marshes until the battle to the north in Belorussia had already been decided. Stavka succeeded in concealing the size and position of very large movements of supplies, as well as of forces including seven armies, eleven aviation corps and over 200,000 troop replacements. As for the strategic offensive itself, its location, strength and timing were effectively concealed. Stavka and the Red Army applied the doctrine of military deception at three levels:\n\n- Strategic (theatre-wide): Stavka hid the location, strength, and timing of the attack, with dummy troop concentrations on the flanks displayed to the enemy before the battle, other offensives timed to work as diversions, and forces left where the enemy expected an attack (three tank armies in Ukraine), away from the true location of the attack (Belarus)\n- Operational: the Red Army hid the locations, strengths and objectives of each force\n- Tactical: each unit hid its concentrations of troops, armour and guns\n\nThe German Army Group Centre (where the main attack fell) underestimated Soviet infantry by 40%, mechanised forces by 300% and the number of tanks as 400 to 1800, instead of the 4000 to 5200 in fact arrayed against them. The German high command (OKH) and Adolf Hitler grossly underestimated the threat to Army Group Centre, confidently redeploying a third of its artillery, half its tank destroyers and 88% of its tanks to the Southern front where OKH expected the Soviet attack. Only 580 German armoured vehicles were in place for the battle.\n\nIn the battle, Army Group Centre was almost totally destroyed, losing its Fourth Army encircled east of Minsk, its 3rd Panzer Army (LIII Corps encircled in Vitebsk), and its Ninth Army encircled east of Bobruisk. In military historian Bruce Pirnie's view, \"the Germans were more completely fooled prior to Operation Bagration than they had been prior to Operation Uranus [at Stalingrad]\". Pirnie concluded, based largely on Bagration and Uranus with a look at other Second World War operations, that the Soviet military deception in Bagration was unsophisticated, but \"clever and effective\".\n\nThe Soviets succeeded in distorting OKH's intelligence picture, given that German intelligence had to rely mainly on radio intercept, aerial photography and agents left behind in the territory they had once held. Stavka deceived OKH by playing to their three sources of information; Stavka systematically denied the Germans real intelligence on Red Army forces as they concentrated for the attack, and revealed other real and simulated forces in other places. However Stavka may have come to do this, it \"played well to the Germans' mental attitude\".\n\nHitler's own reckless optimism and determination to hold on to captured territory at all costs encouraged him to believe the picture suggested by the Russians. Meanwhile, his advisors believed the Soviet Union was running out of men and materiel, with much less industrial production than it in fact had. Thus they underestimated the forces ranged against them, a belief encouraged by continued deception operations. Pirnie points out that it did not have to succeed in every aspect to be successful. In Belarus, the German armies involved had a good idea of the locations and approximate timing of Operation Bagration, but the higher levels, Army Group Centre and OKH failed to appreciate how strong the attacks would be, or the intention to encircle the Army Group. The \"combination of display and concealment, directed at the highest command levels, typified their most successful deception.\"\n\n### Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962\n\nThe Soviet intelligence services and the Soviet military used deceptive measures to conceal from the United States their intentions in Operation Anadyr, which led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. According to CIA analyst James Hansen, the Soviet Army most likely used large-scale battlefield deception before the Cuban Missile Crisis \"more frequently and with more consistent success than any other army.\"\n\nThe soldiers involved in Anadyr were provided with winter clothing and informed they would be going to the east of the Soviet Union. On board ship, intelligence officers allowed the 40,000 soldiers involved on deck only during the hours of darkness. The force, including missiles, reached Cuba before US intelligence became aware of it.\n\nAnadyr was planned from the start with elaborate denial and deception, ranging from the soldiers' ski boots and fleece-lined parkas to the name of the operation, a river and town in the chilly far east. Once America had become aware of Soviet intentions, deception continued in the form of outright denial, as when, on 17 October 1962, the embassy official Georgy Bolshakov gave President John F. Kennedy a \"personal message\" from the Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev reassuring him that \"under no circumstances would surface-to-surface missiles be sent to Cuba.\"\n\nHansen's analysis ends with a recognition of the Soviet advantage in deception in 1962. In Hansen's view, the fact that the Killian Report did not even mention adversarial denial and deception was an indication that American intelligence had not begun to study foreign D&D; it did not do so for another 20 years. Hansen considered it likely that with a properly-prepared \"deception-aware analytic corps\", America could have seen through Khrushchev's plan long before Maj. Heyser's revealing U-2 mission. In Hansen's view, it would take four decades before American intelligence fully understood the extent of Soviet deception before the Cuban Missile Crisis, especially the way the Soviets hid the truth of its strategic missile deployment behind a mass of lies, on \"a scale that most US planners could not comprehend\".\n\n### Czechoslovakia, 1968\n\nThe Soviet Union made substantial use of deception while preparing for their military intervention of Czechoslovakia in 1968. The historian Mark Lloyd called the effect on the Prague Spring \"devastating\". When the Kremlin had failed to reverse the Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubček's liberal reforms with threats, it decided to use force, masked by deception. The measures taken included transferring fuel and ammunition out of Czechoslovakia on a supposed logistics exercise; and confining most of their soldiers to barracks across the northern Warsaw Pact area. The Czechoslovak authorities thus did not suspect anything when two Aeroflot airliners made unscheduled landings at night, full of \"fit young men\".\n\nThe men cleared customs and travelled to the Soviet Embassy in the centre of Prague. There they picked up weapons and returned to the airport, taking over the main buildings. They at once allowed further aircraft to land uniformed Spetsnaz and airborne troops, who took over key buildings across Prague before dawn. Reinforcements were then brought in by road, in complete radio silence, leaving NATO electronic warfare units \"confused and frustrated\".\n\n### Ukraine, 2014\n\nThe 2014 annexation of Crimea was described in the West as maskirovka. As the BBC writer, Lucy Ash put it: \"Five weeks later, once the annexation had been rubber-stamped by the Parliament in Moscow, Putin admitted Russian troops had been deployed in Crimea after all. But the lie had served its purpose. Maskirovka is used to wrong-foot your enemies, to keep them guessing.\" The area was swiftly occupied by so-called little green men, armed men in military trucks who came at night, with no insignia, so that even pro-Russian activists did not understand what was happening.\n\nThey were later revealed as Russian special forces, but at the time Vladimir Putin denied this. Time magazine reported in April 2014 that the troops in eastern Ukraine described themselves as Cossacks, whereas analysts in Ukraine and the West considered at least some of them to be Russian special forces. Their obscure origins made them seem more menacing and harder to deal with.\n\nThe article observed that the wearing of face masks (actually, balaclavas) was typical of the Russian tradition of military deception, making asking why they were worn, as one masked separatist remarked, \"a stupid question\". In April 2014, the Huffington Post asserted that \"President Putin's game plan in Ukraine becomes clearer day by day despite Russia's excellent, even brilliant, use of its traditional maskirovka\".\n\nThe subsequent war in the Donbas region of Ukraine has also been described as a Russian maskirovka campaign. As with Crimea, the conflict began when armed 'rebel' forces without military insignia began seizing government infrastructure. Unlike the action in Crimea, there were no Russian military bases to deploy soldiers from. Support for Russia amongst the local population was not as high, and Donbas was larger and less isolated than the peninsula.\n\nA variety of deceptions were practised. Russia sent \"humanitarian\" convoys to Donbas; the first, of military trucks painted white, attracted much media attention, and was described as \"a wonderful example of maskirovka\" by a US Air Force General. Regular Russian troops were captured by Ukraine numerous times, making denial of their involvement increasingly implausible.\n\n## See also\n\n- Active measures\n- Fear, uncertainty and doubt\n- Maneuver warfare\n- Operational art\n- Proxy war\n- Salami tactics\n- Soviet deep battle", "revid": "1170641084", "description": "Russian military doctrine", "categories": ["Camouflage", "Cold War history of the Soviet Union", "Deception operations", "Military deception", "Military history of the Soviet Union", "Military intelligence", "Military of Russia"]}
{"id": "27810630", "url": null, "title": "2010 Sylvania 300", "text": "The 2010 Sylvania 300 was a stock car racing competition that took place on September 19, 2010. Held at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon, New Hampshire, the 300-lap race was the twenty-seventh in the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, as well as the first in the ten-race Chase for the Sprint Cup, which ended the season. Clint Bowyer of the Richard Childress Racing team won the race; Denny Hamlin finished second and Jamie McMurray came in third.\n\nBrad Keselowski won the pole position, although he was almost immediately passed by Tony Stewart at the start of the race. Many Chase for the Sprint Cup participants, including Jimmie Johnson, Kurt Busch, and Hamlin, were in the top ten for most of the race, although some encountered problems in the closing laps. Stewart was leading the race with two laps remaining but ran out of fuel, giving the lead, and the win, to Bowyer. There were twenty-one lead changes among eight different drivers, as well as eight cautions during the race.\n\nThe race was Bowyer's first win in the 2010 season, and the third of his career. The result advanced Bowyer to second in the Drivers' Championship, thirty-five points behind Hamlin and ten ahead of Kevin Harvick, although he fell to twelfth in the standings after receiving a post-race penalty. Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, thirty-two points ahead of Toyota and seventy-four ahead of Ford, with nine races remaining in the season. Attendance was 95,000, while 3.68 million watched it on television.\n\n## Report\n\n### Background\n\nNew Hampshire Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks that hold NASCAR races. The standard track at New Hampshire Motor Speedway is a four-turn oval track, 1.058 miles (1.703 km) long. Its banking in the turns varies from two to seven degrees, while the front stretch, the finish line, and the back stretch are all banked at one degree.\n\nBefore the race, Denny Hamlin led the Drivers' Championship with 5,060 points, followed by Jimmie Johnson with 5,050. Kevin Harvick and Kyle Busch were tied for third place with 5,030 points, and Kyle's older brother Kurt Busch had 5,020 points. Tony Stewart, with 5,010 points, was tied with Greg Biffle, and Jeff Gordon, Carl Edwards, Jeff Burton, Matt Kenseth and Clint Bowyer rounded out the top twelve with 5,000 points each. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet was leading with 188 points, twenty-nine points ahead of their rival Toyota. Ford, with 120 points, was fifteen points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third place. Mark Martin was the race's defending champion.\n\nA number of drivers competing in the 2010 Chase for the Sprint Cup entered the race optimistic about their chances of winning the championship. Biffle argued that he, Burton, or Stewart were \"capable of winning it\". Johnson, who already had eighteen previous wins in the Chase, observed that \"those 10 races in the Chase is its own world. The people act and react differently under pressure, and for the last four years we have done a great job in that environment.\" Hamlin commented, \"Reliability is the only thing we need to work on. It's taken us out of the last three Chases, not being reliable. You have to have it to be the champion.\" Ray Evernham also opined on Hamlin, \"I think Denny knows that he has the talent to win the championship. I think that he's got focus right now and a good, veteran crew chief in Mike Ford. If Toyota gives him the speed, he could be a threat.\"\n\n### Practice and qualifying\n\nThree practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—one on Friday, and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes, and the second 50 minutes. The final session lasted 60 minutes. During the first practice session, Stewart was fastest, placing ahead of Edwards in second and Marcos Ambrose in third. A. J. Allmendinger was scored fourth, and Kyle Busch placed fifth. David Ragan, Johnson, Brad Keselowski, Biffle, and Hamlin rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session.\n\nForty-five drivers attempted to qualify; due to NASCAR's qualifying procedure, only forty-three could race. Keselowski clinched his first pole position in the Sprint Cup Series, with a time of 28.515. He was joined on the front row of the grid by Bowyer. Stewart qualified third, Jamie McMurray took fourth, and Juan Pablo Montoya started fifth. Johnson, one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup, qualified twenty-fifth, while Harvick was scored in twenty-seventh. The two drivers who failed to qualify for the race were Jeff Green and Johnny Sauter. Once qualifying concluded Keselowski said, \"I felt I got a shot at the pole before I qualified but you never really know. When I ran the lap I knew I gave up a little bit of time right in the middle of both corners but I had a plan going into it and stuck to it and it worked. I’m really proud of that lap.\"\n\nOn Saturday morning, Stewart was fastest in the second practice session, ahead of Sam Hornish Jr. in second, and McMurray in third. Ryan Newman was fourth quickest, and Bowyer took fifth. Kurt Busch, who ended up receiving a penalty for using extra tires, managed sixth. Mark Martin, Johnson, Kasey Kahne, and Montoya followed in the top ten. Of the other drivers in the Chase, Hamlin was scored sixteenth fastest, while Harvick was scored in twenty-fourth. McMurray paced the final practice session, with Jeff Gordon and Johnson following in second and third respectively. Stewart was fourth fastest, ahead of Montoya and Bowyer. Hamlin was scored seventh, Kahne eighth, Dale Earnhardt Jr. ninth, and David Reutimann tenth. Other Chase drivers included Kyle Busch in twenty-first and Kenseth in thirtieth.\n\n### Race\n\nThe race, the twenty-seventh of a total of thirty-six in the 2010 season, began at 1:00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN. Around the start of the race, weather conditions were partly cloudy with an air temperature around 70 °F (21 °C). Jonathan DeFelice, president of St. Anselm College in Goffstown, New Hampshire, began pre-race ceremonies with the invocation. Anthony Gargiula performed the national anthem, and Mark Corcoran, VP of Industrial and Commercial Sales for Sylvania, gave the command for drivers to start their engines. During the pace laps, two drivers had to move to the rear of the grid due to unapproved changes: David Gilliland because of an engine change, and Andy Lally because of a transmission change.\n\nKeselowski retained his pole position lead into the first corner, with Bowyer behind him. One lap later, Stewart passed Keselowski to become the new race leader; Montoya passed Keselowski for the second position on the next lap. By lap eight, Stewart had a lead of over one second. After starting the race in twelfth, Kurt Busch moved up to ninth position by lap nine. Paul Menard, who started in eighth, fell to eleventh position by lap twelve. After losing two positions early, Bowyer moved back up into third position by passing Keselowski. By the nineteenth lap, Johnson had moved up eight positions to seventeenth, and Harvick had moved up seven positions to twentieth.\n\nEarnhardt, who began the race in thirty-second, had moved up ten positions to twenty-second by lap 22. Two laps later, Bowyer passed Montoya for second position. Scott Speed spun sideways and collided with the wall four laps later, causing the first caution of the race. On lap 28, Robby Gordon moved into the lead for one lap, delaying his pit stop until lap 29. Once the race resumed, Bowyer regained the lead followed by McMurray in second. McMurray led the next lap, but Bowyer reclaimed the lead on lap 32. Three laps later, Kyle Busch, in seventh place, collided with the wall, but escaped with minor damage. A collision involving Ambrose and Menard occurred on lap 39 and prompted the second caution.\n\nMost drivers stayed on the track during the caution, allowing Bowyer to remain the leader on the restart. On lap 48, Michael McDowell drove to the garage because of engine problems. Five laps later, Bowyer led the race, with McMurray 1.3 seconds behind him. Landon Cassill went to the garage due to failing brakes on lap 56. Johnson moved into sixth, as Edwards passed McMurray five laps later for second. By lap 64, Bowyer's lead was over 3.5 seconds.\n\nFour laps later, Johnson passed Keselowski to claim fifth position. On the 81st lap, Earnhardt Jr. moved into seventh after passing David Reutimann and Stewart. Two laps later, Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton passed Reutimann for ninth and tenth respectively. During lap 90, Earnhardt passed Keselowski for sixth, as Johnson claimed fourth from McMurray. After 93 laps, Bowyer's lead was over five seconds. Two laps later, green flag pit stops began, as Montoya was the first to pit. On lap 98, Edwards became the new leader after Bowyer came into the pits. One lap later, Kurt Busch became the new leader, followed by Jeff Gordon and Robby Gordon. On lap 102, Bowyer reclaimed the lead as the previous leaders made their stops. Bobby Labonte and Casey Mears were unable to continue the race after their pit stops.\n\nOn lap 113, Burton moved up to sixth, while Jeff Gordon passed Earnhardt for eleventh. Allmendinger fell to twenty-fifth after pit stops due to having run out of fuel on his way onto pit road. Three laps later, both Jeff Gordon and Earnhardt had passed Reutimann for tenth and eleventh respectively. By lap 120, Bowyer had a lead of about four seconds over Edwards. Four laps later, Harvick passed Montoya for fourteenth. On lap 132, Keselowski fell to ninth after being passed by Kurt Busch and Hamlin. On lap 147, Bowyer's lead of over seven seconds was reduced to nothing when the pace car moved on track. During the caution, which was caused by debris, most of the leaders made pit stops.\n\nBowyer maintained his lead on the restart. On lap 153, Kyle Busch moved into tenth position by passing Jeff Gordon. Seven laps later, Burton claimed fourth. On the 162nd lap, Ryan Newman moved up to eleventh, as Keselowski fell to twelfth. Two laps later, Jeff Gordon passed Kyle Busch to move into ninth, while Stewart passed Burton for fourth. On lap 177, Montoya passed Kyle Busch for tenth position. Afterward, Kyle Busch fell to twelfth after being passed by Newman. By lap 192, Bowyer had a 3.5 second lead over McMurray. One lap later, Montoya passed Kurt Busch for ninth. On lap 199, Harvick moved into fifteenth position. Two laps later, Hamlin passed Jeff Burton to claim fifth.\n\nOn lap 206, Martin's car suffered a flat tire and the fourth caution was given as a result. Bowyer led on the restart, although he was passed by Stewart within one lap. On lap 213, Hamlin spun sideways, prompting the fifth caution. Despite remaining undamaged, Hamlin fell from fourth to twenty-second position. Stewart led on the restart, as Jeff Gordon claimed second from Bowyer. By lap 221, a sixth caution came out as Kurt Busch, Johnson, and Kyle Busch all spun sideways. After the accident, Johnson fell to twenty-fourth; Stewart maintained his lead on the restart. Five laps later, Matt Kenseth spun out, causing the seventh caution. Stewart led the drivers back to the green flag, but was overtaken by McMurray one lap later.\n\nOn lap 241, the pace car came out for the eighth and final caution, after Joey Logano collided with the outside wall. McMurray led on the restart, but Stewart reclaimed the lead on lap 247. Seven laps later, Johnson was forced to pit due to a loose wheel. By lap 257, Stewart had a lead of over one second. Five laps later, Hamlin claimed sixth from Harvick. During the 263rd lap, Bowyer passed McMurray for second. Four laps later, Newman passed Kyle Busch for tenth position. After 269 laps, Stewart's lead over Bowyer was 1.6 seconds. Six laps later, Hamlin moved into fifth position after passing Earnhardt. During lap 290, Hamlin passed McMurray for third. With two laps remaining, Stewart and Burton both ran out of fuel, handing the lead back to Bowyer. Bowyer maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2010 season. Hamlin finished second, ahead of McMurray in third, Earnhardt in fourth, and Harvick in fifth.\n\n### Post-race comments\n\nBowyer appeared in Victory Lane to celebrate his first win of the season in front of 95,000 people who attended the race. Bowyer also earned \\$248,250 in race winnings. Stewart took his last-minute loss of the race with good humor, saying, \"We went down swinging. I think I ran me out of fuel.\" In the subsequent post-race press conference, Hamlin said, \"First thing I asked is how many cars on the lead lap, because I wanted to see how bad our day was going to be. I set a goal (of) top 15, and then it was top eight and then top six and, 'Holy cow, we can win this thing.' We just made a heck of a charge at the end.\" Bowyer was delighted with his victory: \"[Crew chief] Shane [Wilson] built a brand new race car and we came here and we were fast right off the truck, and everybody had a lot of confidence, a pep in their step. And we showed it from the time we unloaded to qualifying, practice, we were one of the fastest cars here. That’s what it takes to run at this level, to be a part of that Chase, if we can go and continue to have as much fun as we did this weekend. I know it’s the key, I know it is to my success.\"\n\nJohnson was candid about his performance: \"We had a decent car and ran in the top five and top 10 but just didn't end up finishing there.\" Harvick was somewhat more upbeat, saying, \"We didn't have a great day. We didn't have a great weekend, honestly, and (fifth) says a lot about this team. If we keep doing that on our bad days, we will be in good shape.\" The race result left Hamlin leading the Drivers' Championship with 5,230 points. Bowyer, who finished first, moved to second on 5,195, ten points ahead of Harvick and twenty-seven ahead of Kyle Busch. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet maintained the lead with 197 points. Toyota remained second with 165 points. Ford followed with 123 points, fourteen points ahead of Dodge in fourth. 3.68 million people watched the race on television. The race took two hours, fifty-eight minutes and twenty-two seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 0.477 seconds.\n\nAlthough Bowyer's car passed initial inspection, NASCAR announced that they had \"discovered issues with the car in a more thorough inspection at its research and development center\". Three days after the race, two teams were given penalties: Richard Childress Racing for Bowyer's car, and Whitney Motorsports for McDowell's car. Richard Childress Racing's penalty, for unauthorized alterations to the rear bodywork of Bowyer's car, included a \\$150,000 fine and a six race suspension for Wilson, and the loss of 150 owner and driver points for Richard Childress and Bowyer respectively. RCR's car chief, Chad Haney, was placed on probation until December 31, 2010, and suspended from NASCAR until November 3, 2010. Whitney Motorsports' penalty was for engine exhaust valves that did not meet NASCAR's weight requirements. The penalties for that included a \\$50,000 fine and six race suspension for Jeremy Lafaver, while both McDowell and owner Dusty Whitney lost 50 driver and owner points respectively.\n\nChildress and Bowyer were both upset with the penalties and almost immediately announced plans to appeal. Bowyer argued the penalties to be too severe, saying, \"I don't think the penalty fits the crime. Sixty-thousandths of an inch, folks. Grab a quarter out of your pocket. Less than the thickness of that quarter right there is worth a 150-point fine?\" He also argued that his car could have been damaged slightly after the race as his car was pushed by a wrecker after it ran out of gas on its way to victory lane. \"Is it possible that a two-ton wrecker could bend the quarter-panel 60-thousandths of an inch? You have to ask yourself that.\" The team lost the initial appeal, forcing them to make a final appeal to NASCAR National Commissioner John Middlebrook. As a result of the final appeal, Wilson's fine was reduced to \\$100,000 while he and Haney's suspensions were reduced from six to four races (they were allowed to work with the team during the appeal process); however, the points penalty administered to Bowyer and his team was upheld.\n\nAsked if he thought Bowyer could still win the championship after this setback, Stewart argued, \"It's possible for sure. The biggest thing is going to be going to the race track and having that stress of not having his crew chief, not having his car chief and those are two key people on a race weekend ... I can promise you that Childress has the resources to cover this ... it's definitely possible, but everyone else is going to have to have trouble.\" Bowyer did not lose the victory title for the race itself; NASCAR vice president of competition Robin Pemberton commented, \"We don't consider taking away the win. If you ask some, they would consider a 150-point penalty with only nine races to go in the Chase a pretty hefty penalty.\"\n\n## Results\n\n### Qualifying\n\n### Race results\n\n## Standings after the race\n\n- Note: Only the top twelve positions are included for the driver standings. These drivers qualified for the Chase for the Sprint Cup.", "revid": "1106347875", "description": "Stock car race", "categories": ["2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series", "2010 in sports in New Hampshire", "NASCAR races at New Hampshire Motor Speedway"]}
{"id": "68064", "url": null, "title": "Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia", "text": "Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia (Tatiana Nikolaevna Romanova; Russian: Великая Княжна Татьяна Николаевна; – 17 July 1918) was the second daughter of Tsar Nicholas II, the last monarch of Russia, and of Tsarina Alexandra. She was born at Peterhof Palace, near Saint Petersburg.\n\nTatiana was the younger sister of Grand Duchess Olga and the elder sister of Grand Duchess Maria, Grand Duchess Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei. She was considered to be the most beautiful of all her sisters and the most aristocratic in appearance. She was known amongst her siblings as \"the governess\" for her domineering but also maternal ways. Tatiana was the closest of all the children to her mother (Tsarina Alexandra), often spending many hours reading to her. During World War I, she chaired many charitable committees and (along with her older sister, Grand Duchess Olga) trained to become a nurse. She tended to wounded soldiers on the grounds of Tsarskoye Selo from 1914 to 1917. Her time as a nurse came to an end with her family's arrest in 1917 after the first Russian Revolution.\n\nHer murder by Communist revolutionaries on 17 July 1918 resulted in her canonization as a passion bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church. Tatiana and all her siblings were soon rumored to have survived the murder, and dozens of impostors claimed to be surviving Romanovs; author Michael Occleshaw speculated that a woman named Larissa Tudor might have been Tatiana. However, the deaths of all the last Tsar's family, including Tatiana, at the hands of Bolsheviks have since been established by scientific evidence.\n\n## Appearance and personality\n\nTatiana was a famous beauty. She was tall, slender, and elegant. She had dark auburn hair, gray eyes, and fine features. Many viewed her as the most beautiful of the four grand duchesses and the one who resembled their mother most. Her mother's lady-in-waiting Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden reflected that \"Tatiana was, to my mind, prettier than her sisters. She was taller than her mother, but so thin and so well built that her height was not a hindrance to her attractiveness. She had beautiful, regular features, and resembled some of the famous beauties among her royal relatives, whose family portraits decorated the walls of the palace.. She had dark hair, a rather pale complexion, and wide-apart eyes, that gave her a poetic far-away look.\" General Count Alexander Grabbe, Major-General of His Imperial Majesty's Own Convoy, wrote that \"the prettiest of the Grand Duchesses was Tatiana, the Tsar's second daughter. In her physical appearance and her serious and ardent nature, she most resembled her mother. Slender with auburn hair and clear gray eyes, she was strikingly good looking and enjoyed the attention her beauty commanded.\" According to Anna Vyrubova, \"when Tatiana grew up, she was the tallest and most graceful of all the Grand Duchesses, beautiful and romantic. Many officers fell in love with Tatiana, but there were no appropriate suitors for her.\" Meriel Buchanan described her beauty as \"almost mystical.\" Alexander Mossolov, head of the Imperial Chancellery, wrote that Tatiana was \"the best-looking of all the sisters.\" Her paternal aunt Xenia said that \"Tatiana and her mother are like as two peas in a pod!.... so pretty.\" Her nanny Margaretta Eagar wrote that she was \"a very pretty child, remarkably like her mother, but delicate in appearance.\" In 1900, the British magazine, Woman at Home, wrote that \"the flower of the flock, as far as looks are concerned ... is Grand Duchess Tatiana.\" Nicholas wrote that Tatiana was \"a very beautiful child\" and he often remarked that she reminded him of Alexandra. When she was 8, her tutor Pierre Gilliard said that she \"was prettier than her sister.\"\n\nDespite her high status, Tatiana did not use her Imperial title and her friends, family, and servants called her by her first name and patronym, Tatiana Nikolaevna. The only nicknames that can be found for her using primary sources are 'Tanechka' in a postcard from her cousin Princess Irina Alexandrovna, and 'Tan'ka' in some notes from her sister, Anastasia Nikolaevna. According to one story, Tatiana kicked her lady-in-waiting Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden for addressing her as \"Your Imperial Highness\" during a committee meeting, and she hissed, \"Are you crazy to speak to me like that?\" When she was 14, Tatiana called Chebotareva at her home on the telephone, and she spoke first to Chebotareva's 16-year-old son. Unaware of her identity, Gregory asked her to identify herself. She replied, \"Tatiana Nikolaevna\". He could not believe that he was speaking to a grand duchess, and he repeated his question. Again, Tatiana did not claim the imperial title of Grand Duchess and replied that she was \"Sister Romanova the Second\".\n\nTatiana was a practical, nurturing leader. Her sisters gave her the nickname \"The Governess\" and sent her as their group representative when they wanted their parents to grant a favour. Olga was 18 months older than Tatiana, but she uncomplainingly allowed Tatiana to be the leader of their group. Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden recalled that \"It was Tatiana Nicolaevna who took care of the little ones, and who was a constant help to the Household, always willing to help them in arranging that their official duties should not clash with their private engagements.\"\n\nGilliard wrote that Tatiana was reserved and \"well balanced\" but less open and spontaneous than Olga. She was less naturally intelligent than Olga, but she was more hard-working and dedicated. Colonel Eugene Kobylinsky, the family's guard at Tsarskoye Selo and Tobolsk, claimed that Tatiana \"had no liking for art\" and that \"it would have been better for her had she been a man.\"\n\nTatiana was interested in fashion. According to Sophie Buxhoeveden, \"Tatiana Nicolaevna loved dress. Any frock, no matter how old, looked well on her. She knew how to put on her clothes, was admired and liked admiration.\" Her mother's friend Anna Vyrubova wrote that Tatiana was talented in embroidery and crocheting and that she could dress her mother's hair as well as a professional hair stylist. Sophie Buxhoeveden remembered that Tatiana once dressed her hair when her hairdresser was unavailable.\n\nTatiana was the most sociable of the four sisters. According to Sophie Buxhoeveden, \"friends would have been welcome, but no young girls were ever asked to the Palace.\" Vyrubova noted that Tatiana was the most famous of the sisters in their lifetimes because of her vivacious personality and sense of duty. Vyrubova and Lili Dehn claimed that Tatiana longed for friends of her own age but that her high rank and her mother's distaste for society restricted her social life.\n\nLike her mother, Tatiana was deeply religious. She read her Bible frequently, studied theology, and struggled with the meaning of \"good and evil, sorrow and forgiveness, and man's destiny on earth\". She decided that \"one has to struggle much because the return for good is evil, and evil reigns.\" A.A. Mosolov claimed that Tatiana's reserved nature gave her a \"difficult\" character with more spiritual depth than that of her sister, Olga. Her English tutor, Sydney Gibbes, claimed that Tatiana viewed religion as a duty rather than a passion.\n\nOnly her closest friends and family were aware of her introspective side. \"With her, as with her mother, shyness and reserve were accounted as pride, but, once you knew her and had gained her affection, this reserve disappeared and the real Tatiana became apparent,\" Dehn recalled. \"She was a poetical creature, always yearning for the ideal, and dreaming of great friendships which might be hers.\" Chebotareva loved the \"sweet\" Tatiana as if she were her daughter, and she claimed that Tatiana would hold her hand when she was nervous. \"I am so terribly embarrassed and frightened – I do not know whom I greeted and whom not,\" Tatiana told Chebotareva.\n\nLike her sisters, Tatiana was unworldly and naive. When she was young, she was shocked to learn that her governess Margaretta Eagar was paid for taking care of her. When Eagar told her that \"you have seen me get my money every month,\" Tatiana replied that \"I always thought it was a present to you.\" When her lady-in-waiting sent a carriage without an attendant, Tatiana and Olga decided to go shopping for the first time. They ordered the carriage to stop near a group of shops and went into one of the stores. The shopkeepers did not recognize them because they wore nurses' uniforms. They left the shop without buying anything, because they didn't carry money with them and had no idea how to use it. The next day, they asked Chebotareva how to use money.\n\nFrench tutor Pierre Gilliard wrote that Tatiana and Olga were \"passionately devoted to one another.\"\n\nTatiana was closer to her mother than any of her sisters, and many considered her to be Alexandra's favorite daughter. \"It was not that her sisters loved their mother any less,\" recalled her French tutor Pierre Gilliard, \"but Tatiana knew how to surround her with unwearying attentions and never gave way to her own capricious impulses.\" On 13 March 1916, Alexandra wrote to Nicholas that Tatiana was the only one of their four daughters who \"grasped it\" when she explained her way of looking at things. Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden wrote that Tatiana \"was closest in sympathy to her mother\" and \"the definite favorite of both her parents.\"\n\nTatiana was close to her father. Lili Dehn wrote that \"the Emperor loved her devotedly [and] they had much in common.\" She recalled that \"the sisters used to laugh, and say that, if a favour were required, \"Tatiana must ask Papa to grant it.\"\"\n\n## Early life\n\nTatiana was born on 10 June 1897. She was the second child and daughter of Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra. She weighed 3.9 kg at birth, and Dr. Ott used forceps in her birth. When she regained consciousness from the chloroform used during the delivery, Alexandra saw the \"anxious and troubled faces\" around her and wept: \"My God, it is again a daughter. What will the nation say, what will the nation say?\" Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich wrote that \"everyone was very disappointed as they had been hoping for a son.\" Grand Duke George Alexandrovich, Nicholas' younger brother, told Nicholas \"I was already preparing to go into retirement, but it was not to be.\" Under the Pauline Laws, the Imperial throne of Russia could not pass to a woman unless all legitimate male lines died out. As such, Nicholas' heir was his brother George unless he had a son. Grand Duchess Tatiana's siblings were Grand Duchesses Olga, Maria, Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei of Russia. All of the children were close to one another and to their parents up until the end of their lives.\n\nOn 29 May 1897, Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia recorded in his diary that Nicholas II had named Tatiana as an homage to the heroine in Alexander Pushkin's novel in verse Eugene Onegin. According to him, he wanted to name his daughter after Olga and Tatiana, the sisters in the famous poem.\n\nTatiana's title was \"Grand Princess\", but it was translated from Russian into English as \"Grand Duchess\". As an \"imperial highness\", she outranked the other European princesses, who were merely \"royal highnesses\".\n\nLike the other Romanov children, Tatiana was raised with austerity. She and her sisters slept on camp beds without pillows, took cold baths in the morning, and embroidered and knitted projects to be given as gifts or sold at charity bazaars.\n\nIn their household, Tatiana and Olga were known as \"The Big Pair\". They shared a bedroom and were very close to each another from early childhood. In the spring of 1901, Olga had typhoid fever and was confined to the nursery for several weeks. When she began to recover, Tatiana was permitted to see her older sister for five minutes but didn't recognize her. When her governess, Margaretta Eagar, told her that the sickly child was Olga, four-year-old Tatiana cried bitterly and protested that the pale, thin child couldn't be her beloved older sister. Eagar had difficulty persuading Tatiana that Olga would recover.\n\n## Relationship with Grigori Rasputin\n\nTatiana doted on her younger brother, Tsarevich Alexei. However, the long-awaited heir had frequent, severe attacks of hemophilia. Tatiana, her mother, and her three sisters were all potential carriers of the hemophilia gene; the Tsarina was a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, who had passed down the hemophilia gene to her descendants. Tatiana's paternal aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia reported that Maria, Tatiana's younger sister, hemorrhaged during an operation to remove her tonsils in December 1914. The operating doctor was so alarmed that the Tsarina needed to urge him to continue. Olga Alexandrovna claimed that all four of her nieces bled more than was normal and that they were carriers of the hemophilia gene. Symptomatic carriers of the gene are not hemophiliacs, but they can have symptoms of hemophilia, including an abnormally low blood clotting factor that can lead to heavy bleeding.\n\nThe Tsarina relied on the counsel of Grigori Rasputin, a Russian peasant and wandering starets or \"holy man\", and she credited his prayers with saving the ailing Tsarevich. Tatiana and her siblings viewed Rasputin as \"Our Friend\" and confided in him. In the autumn of 1907, Tatiana's father escorted his sister, Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia, to the nursery so that she could too meet Rasputin. Tatiana and her siblings all wore their long white nightgowns, and they were comfortable in Rasputin's presence. In February 1909, Rasputin sent the Imperial children a telegram, advising them to \"Love the whole of God's nature, the whole of His creation in particular this earth. The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework.\" In one letter, 11-year-old Tatiana asked Rasputin to visit her and lamented that she found it difficult to see her mother ill. \"But you know because you know everything,\" she wrote.\n\nSofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva, one of the sisters' governesses, was horrified that Rasputin was permitted access to the nursery when they were in their nightgowns and requested that he be banned from the household. She told Grand Duchess Xenia that he visited Olga and Tatiana before them, spoke to them, and \"caressed\" them. The sisters hid Rasputin's presence from Tyutcheva, and they were afraid to talk to their governess about him. Tatiana was aware of the tension and feared her mother's reaction to Tyutcheva's actions. On 8 March 1910, the 12-year-old Tatiana wrote to her mother, \"I am so afr(aid) that S.I. can speak ... about our friend something bad. I hope our nurse will be nice to our friend now.\" Alexandra dismissed Tyutcheva.\n\nAll accounts agree that Rasputin had an innocent relationship with the children, but Nicholas did ask Rasputin to avoid going to the nurseries in the future. Grand Duchess Xenia was horrified by Tyutcheva's story. On 15 March 1910, she wrote in her diary that she could not understand why her brother and his family regarded Rasputin, whom she saw as only a \"khlyst\", as \"almost a saint\".\n\nMaria Ivanovna Vishnyakova, another nurse for the royal children, initially thought well of Rasputin, but she became disillusioned with him. In the spring of 1910, she claimed that Rasputin raped her, but the Tsarina refused to believe her because she saw Rasputin as holy. The Tsarina insisted to Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna that she had investigated Vishnyakova's claim but that \"they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard.\" In 1913, the Tsarina dismissed Vishnyakova.\n\nThere were malicious rumors that Rasputin had seduced the Tsarina and the four grand duchesses. Rasputin had released the letters that the Tsarina and the grand duchesses had sent to him; although they were innocent in nature, they fueled the rumors about his alleged affairs. Pornographic cartoons depicted Rasputin having sexual relations with the Tsarina and her four daughters as Anna Vyrubova stood nude in the background. Much to the Tsarina's displeasure, Nicholas ordered Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg, and Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The Imperial family's association with Rasputin continued until his murder in 1916. On 6 December 1916, the Tsarina wrote to Nicholas that \"Our Friend is so contented with our girlies, says they have gone through heavy 'courses' for their age and their souls have much developed.\"\n\nAllegedly, Tatiana was present at the site of Rasputin's murder, \"disguised as a lieutenant of the Chevaliers-Gardes, so that she could revenge herself on Rasputin who had tried to violate her\". Maurice Paléologue, the French ambassador to Russia, wrote that Tatiana had witnessed Rasputin's castration, but he doubted the credibility of the rumor.\n\nIn his memoirs, A.A. Mordvinov reported that all four grand duchesses were \"cold and visibly terribly upset\" by Rasputin's death. According to him, they sat \"huddled up closely together\" on a sofa when they received the news. He wrote that they seemed to sense the political upheaval that was about to be unleashed. On 21 December 1916, Tatiana attended Rasputin's funeral. Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on its reverse side by Tatiana, her mother and her sisters.\n\nTatiana kept a notebook in which she recorded Rasputin's sayings: \"Love is Light and it has no end. Love is great suffering. It cannot eat, it cannot sleep. It is mixed with sin in equal parts. And yet it is better to love. In love one can be mistaken, and through suffering he expiates for his mistakes. If love is strong—the lovers happy. Nature herself and the Lord give them happiness. One must ask the Lord that he teach to love the luminous, bright, so that love be not torment, but joy. Love pure, Love luminous is the Sun. The Sun makes us warm, and Love caresses. All is in Love, and even a bullet cannot strike Love down.\"\n\n## Young adulthood and World War I\n\nAs a young teenager, Tatiana was given the rank of honorary colonel and assigned a regiment of soldiers, the Vosnesensky (Ascension) Lancers. She and Olga inspected the soldiers regularly.\n\nTatiana enjoyed the company of soldiers, but she was often shocked by their behavior. On 11 July 1911, a group of officers aboard the Imperial yacht gave Olga a portrait of Michelangelo's nude David, cut out from a newspaper. Indignant, the 14-year-old Tatiana wrote to her aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia, \"Olga laughed at it long and hard. And not one of the officers wishes to confess that he has done it. Such swine, aren't they?\"\n\nOn 14 July 1911, Tatiana laughed at her distant cousin Prince Ioann Konstantinovich of Russia's engagement to Helen of Serbia. On 14 July 1911, she wrote to Olga, \"How funny if they might have children, can (she) be kissing him? What foul, fie!\"\n\nIn 1911, Tatiana and Olga witnessed the assassination of the government minister Pyotr Stolypin during a performance at the Kiev Opera House. On 10 September 1911, Nicholas later wrote to his mother, Dowager Empress Maria, that the event had upset both girls. Tatiana sobbed and both of them had trouble sleeping that night.\n\nWhen World War I broke out, Tatiana became a Red Cross nurse with her mother and Olga. They cared for wounded soldiers in a private hospital on the grounds of Tsarskoye Selo. According to Vyrubova, \"Tatiana was almost as skillful and devoted as her mother, and complained only that on account of her youth she was spared some of the more trying cases.\" Valentina Ivanovna Chebotareva, who worked with her at the hospital, described in her journal how she planned to boil silk while Tatiana was otherwise occupied, fearing that Tatiana would be too tired to help her. But Tatiana guessed what Chebotareva was doing. \"Why can you breathe carbolic acid and I can't?\" she asked Chebotareva and insisted on helping her with the work. In September 1914, she was named patron of a war aid committee called the Tatiana Committee. Tatiana was fiercely patriotic. On 29 October 1914, she apologized to her mother for disparaging the German in her presence; she explained that she thought of her mother as only Russian and that she had forgotten that the Tsarina was born in Germany. The Tsarina responded that she was offended by the Russian people's gossip about her German connections because she considered herself as completely Russian.\n\nOn 15 August 1915, Tatiana wrote to her mother that she wished she could do more to support Russia during the war: \"I simply can't tell you how awfully sorry I am for you, my beloved ones. I am so sorry I can in no way help you or be useful. In such moments I am sorry I'm not a man.\" As Tatiana grew into adulthood, she undertook more public appearances than her sisters and headed committees.\n\n### Romances with soldiers\n\nWhen she was 13, an ill Tatiana begged her mother to permit her to leave her bed so that she could watch a soldier, with whom she was infatuated. On 20 April 1911, she wrote to the Tsarina, \"I would like so much to go the review of the second division as I am also the second daughter and Olga was at the first so now it is my turn...Yes, Mama, and at the second division I will see whom I must see ... you know whom ...\".\n\nIn the December 2004 edition of the magazine Royalty Digest: A Journal of Record, Peter de Malama wrote that his cousin, Dmitri Yakovlevich Malama, an officer in the Imperial Russian Cavalry, met Tatiana when he was wounded in 1914. De Malama claimed that Dmitri was appointed an equerry to the court of the Tsar at Tsarskoye Selo, where he developed a romantic relationship with Tatiana. In September 1914, Dmitri gave Tatiana a French bulldog, which she named \"Ortipo\". On 30 September 1914, she wrote to her mother, \"Forgive me about the little dog. To say the truth, when he asked should I like to have it if he gave it to me, I at once said yes. You remember, I always wanted to have one, and only afterwards when we came home I thought that suddenly you might not like me having one. But I really was so pleased at the idea that I forgot about everything.\" When Ortipo died, Dmitri gave her another puppy. Tatiana took it with her to Yekaterinburg, where it died with the rest of the family. Eighteen months after he gave Ortipo to Tatiana, Dmitri paid the Imperial family a visit. On 17 March 1916, the Tsarina wrote to Nicholas that \"my little Malama came for an hour yesterday evening...Looks flourishing more of a man now, an adorable boy still. I must say a perfect son in law he w(ou)ld have been – why are foreign P(rin)ces not as nice!\" In August 1919, Malama was killed while commanding a unit of the White Russians fighting the civil war against the Bolsheviks in Ukraine, according to Peter de Malama.\n\nAccording to the diary of Valentina Ivanovna Chebotareva, Tatiana was fond of an officer named Vladimir Kiknadze, whom she cared for when he was wounded in 1915 and 1916. She claimed that Tatiana sat beside \"Volodia\" at the piano as he played a tune with one finger and talked to her in a low voice. She claimed that Tatiana and Olga made excuses to come to the hospital to see Volodia. She feared that the grand duchesses' flirtations with the wounded officers would damage their reputations.\n\n### Negotiations for marriage\n\nAllegedly, the Serbian king Peter I wanted Tatiana as a bride for his younger son, Prince Alexander. In January 1914, the Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić delivered a letter to Tsar Nicholas in which King Peter expressed a desire for his son to marry one of the Grand Duchesses.\n\n## Captivity\n\nThe family was arrested during the Russian Revolution of 1917 and imprisoned first at Tsarskoye Selo and later at private residences in Tobolsk and Yekaterinburg, Siberia. The drastic change in circumstances and the uncertainty of captivity took its toll on Tatiana as well as on the rest of her family. \"She pines without work,\" wrote her fellow nurse Valentina Chebotareva after receiving a letter from Tatiana on 16 April 1917. \"It is strange to sit in the morning at home, to be in good health and not to go to the change of bandages!\" Tatiana wrote Chebotareva. Tatiana, apparently trying to advocate for her mother, asked her friend Margarita Khitrovo in a letter on 8 May 1917 why their fellow nurses did not write to Tsarina Alexandra directly. Chebotareva wrote in her journal that, while she pitied the family, she could not write directly to the Tsarina because she blamed her for the Revolution. \"If anyone wishes to write us, let them write directly,\" Tatiana wrote to \"my dear dove\" Chebotareva on 9 December 1917, after expressing concern for fellow nurses and a patient they had once treated together. Chebotareva's son, Gregory P. Tschebotarioff, noted the grand duchess's \"firm, energetic handwriting\" and how the letter \"reflected the nature which endeared her so much to my mother.\"\n\nTatiana's English tutor, Sydney Gibbes, recalled that Tatiana had grown razor thin in captivity and seemed \"haughtier\" and more inscrutable to him than ever. In April 1918 the Bolsheviks moved Nicholas, Alexandra and Maria to Yekaterinburg. The remaining children remained behind in Tobolsk because Alexei, who had had another attack of haemophilia, could not be moved. It was Tatiana who persuaded her mother to \"stop tormenting herself\" and make a decision to go with her father and leave Alexei behind. Alexandra decided that level-headed Tatiana must be left behind to manage the household and look after Alexei.\n\nDuring the month of separation from their parents and sister, Tatiana, Olga, Anastasia, and ladies in waiting busied themselves sewing precious stones and jewelry into their clothing, hoping to hide them from their captors, since Alexandra had written she, Nicholas and Maria had been heavily searched upon arrival in Yekaterinburg, and items confiscated. A letter from Anna Demidova to Alexandra Tegleva gave the instructions on how to deal with the 'medicines', a predetermined code name for the jewels. The concealments were successful, as the Bolsheviks were never aware of the jewels in the clothes until after the executions.\n\nPierre Gilliard later recalled his last sight of the imperial children at Yekaterinburg. \"The sailor Nagorny, who attended to Alexei Nikolaevitch, passed my window carrying the sick boy in his arms, behind him came the Grand Duchesses loaded with valises and small personal belongings. I tried to get out, but was roughly pushed back into the carriage by the sentry. I came back to the window. Tatiana Nikolayevna came last carrying her little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise. It was raining and I saw her feet sink into the mud at every step. Nagorny tried to come to her assistance; he was roughly pushed back by one of the commisars ...\"\n\n## Death\n\nAt Yekaterinburg, Tatiana occasionally joined her younger sisters in chatting with some of the guards over tea, asking them questions about their families and talking about her hopes for a new life in England when they were released. On one occasion one of the guards forgot himself and told the grand duchesses an off-color joke. The shocked Tatiana ran from the room, \"pale as death\", and her younger sister Maria scolded the guards for their bad language. She \"would be pleasant to the guards if she thought they were behaving in an acceptable and decorous manner,\" recalled another of the guards in his memoirs. Later, when a new commander was placed in charge of the Ipatiev House, the family was forbidden from fraternizing with the guards and the rules of their confinement became more strict. Tatiana, still the family leader, was often sent by her parents to question the guards about rules or what would happen next to the family. She also spent a great deal of time sitting with her mother and ill brother, reading to her mother or playing games to occupy the time. At the Ipatiev House, Tatiana and her sisters were required to do their own laundry and make bread. Her nursing skills were called upon at the end of June 1918 when she gave an injection of morphine to Dr. Eugene Botkin to ease his kidney pain.\n\nOn 14 July 1918, local priests at Yekaterinburg conducted a private church service for the family and reported that Tatiana and her family, contrary to custom, fell on their knees during the prayer for the dead. The final entry in Tatiana's final notebook at Yekaterinburg was a saying she had copied from the words of a well-known Russian Orthodox holy man, Father Ioann of Kronstadt: \"Your grief is indescribable, the Savior's grief in the Gardens of Gethsemane for the world's sins is immeasurable, join your grief to his, in it you will find consolation.\" The following day, on 15 July, Tatiana and her sisters appeared in good spirits as they joked with one another and moved the beds in their room so visiting cleaning women could scrub the floor. They got down on their hands and knees to help the women and whispered to them when the guards weren't looking. All four young women wore long black skirts and white silk blouses, the same clothing they had worn the previous day. Their short hair was \"tumbled and disorderly\". They told the women how much they enjoyed physical exertion and wished there was more of it for them to do in the Ipatiev House. On the afternoon of 16 July 1918, the last full day of her life, Tatiana sat with her mother and read from the Biblical Books of Amos and Obadiah, Alexandra noted in her diary. Later, mother and daughter sat and just talked. As the family was having dinner that night, Yakov Yurovsky, the head of the detachment, came in and announced that the family's kitchen boy and Alexei's playmate, 14-year-old Leonid Sednev, must gather his things and go to a family member. The boy had actually been sent to a hotel across the street because the guards did not want to kill him along with the rest of the Romanov party. The family, unaware of the plan to kill them, was upset and unsettled by Sednev's absence. Tatiana went that evening to Yurovsky's office, for what was to be the last time, to ask for the return of the kitchen boy who kept Alexei amused during the long hours of captivity. Yurovsky placated her by telling her the boy would return soon, but the family was unconvinced.\n\nLate that night, on the night of 16 July, the family was awakened and told to come down to the lower level of the house because there was unrest in the town at large and they would have to be moved for their own safety. The family emerged from their rooms carrying pillows, bags, and other items to make Alexandra and Alexei comfortable. The family paused and crossed themselves when they saw the stuffed mother bear and cubs that stood on the landing, perhaps as a sign of respect for the dead. Nicholas told the servants and family \"Well, we're going to get out of this place.\" They asked questions of the guards but did not appear to suspect they were going to be killed. Yurovsky, who had been a professional photographer, directed the family to take different positions as a photographer might. Alexandra, who had requested chairs for herself and Alexei, sat to her son's left. The Tsar stood behind Alexei, Dr. Botkin stood to the Tsar's right, Tatiana and her sisters stood behind Alexandra along with the servants. They were left for approximately half an hour while further preparations were made. The group said little during this time, but Alexandra whispered to the girls in English, violating the guard's rules that they must speak in Russian. Yurovsky came in, ordered them to stand, and read the sentence of execution. Tatiana and her family had time only to utter a few incoherent sounds of shock or protest before the death squad under Yurovsky's command began shooting. It was the early hours of 17 July 1918.\n\nThe initial round of gunfire killed only the Emperor, the Empress and two male servants, and wounded Grand Duchess Maria, Dr Botkin and the Empress' maidservant, Demidova. At that point the gunmen had to leave the room because of smoke and toxic fumes from their guns and plaster dust their bullets had released from the walls. After allowing the haze to clear for several minutes, the gunmen returned. Dr Botkin was killed, and a gunman named Ermakov repeatedly tried to shoot Tsarevich Alexei, but failed because jewels sewn into the boy's clothes shielded him. Ermakov tried to stab Alexei with a bayonet but failed again, and finally Yurovsky fired two shots into the boy's head. Yurovsky and Ermakov approached Olga and Tatiana, who were crouched against the room's rear wall, clinging to each other and screaming for their mother. Ermakov stabbed both young women with his 8-inch bayonet, but had difficulty penetrating their torsos because of the jewels that had been sewn into their chemises. The sisters tried to stand, but Tatiana was killed instantly when Yurovsky shot her in the back of her head. A moment later, Olga too died when Ermakov shot her in the head.\n\n## Romanov graves and DNA proof\n\nFor decades, conspiracy theorists suggested that one or more of the family somehow survived the slaughter. The theories were reduced in scale, but still persisted, when the bodies of most of the family were found and identified from a mass grave discovered in the forest outside Yekaterinburg and exhumed in 1991. The remaining conspiracies hinged on the fact that two bodies were missing, Tsarevich Alexei and one of the four grand duchesses, generally thought by Russians to be Grand Duchess Maria and by Americans to be Grand Duchess Anastasia. For example, author Michael Occleshaw made the claim in his 1995 book The Romanov Conspiracies: The Romanovs and the House of Windsor that Tatiana might have been rescued and transported to England, where she married a British officer and lived under the name Larissa Tudor. Occleshaw based this claim on studying the diaries of the British agent Richard Meinertzhagen, who hinted at the successful liberation of a Grand Duchess, allegedly Tatiana. However, historians discounted this claim and continued to say that all of the Romanovs, including Tatiana, were assassinated at Yekaterinburg.\n\nOn 23 August 2007, a Russian archaeologist announced the discovery of two burned, partial skeletons at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg that appeared to match the site described in Yurovsky's memoirs. The archaeologists said the bones are from a boy who was roughly between the ages of twelve and fifteen years at the time of his death and of a young woman who was roughly between the ages of fifteen and nineteen years old. Anastasia was seventeen years, one month old at the time of the assassination, while her sister Maria was nineteen years, one month old and their brother Alexei was two weeks shy of his fourteenth birthday. Olga and Tatiana were twenty-two and twenty-one years old at the time of the assassinations. Along with the remains of the two bodies, archaeologists found \"shards of a container of sulfuric acid, nails, metal strips from a wooden box, and bullets of various caliber.\" The bones were found using metal detectors and metal rods as probes.\n\nPreliminary testing indicated a \"high degree of probability\" that the remains belonged to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters, Russian forensic scientists announced on 22 January 2008. On 30 April 2008, Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing proved that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters. With this result, all of the Tsar's family are accounted for.\n\n## Sainthood\n\nIn 1981 Tatiana and her family were canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad as holy martyrs. In 2000, Tatiana and her family were canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a passion bearer.\n\nThe bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, and three of their daughters were finally interred at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 17 July 1998, eighty years to the day after they were murdered.\n\n## Ancestry\n\n## See also\n\n\n## Books\n\n- Bokhanov, Alexander and Dr. Knodt, Manfred and Oustimenko, Vladimir and Peregudova, Zinaida and Tyutyunnik, Lyubov; Xenofontova, Lyudmila (translator); The Romanovs: Love, Power, and Tragedy. Leppi Publications, 1993.\n- Christopher, Peter, Kurth, Peter, and Radzinsky, Edvard. Tsar: The Lost World of Nicholas and Alexandra\n- Dehn, Lili. The Real Tsaritsa. 1922.\n- De Malama, Peter. \"The Romanovs: The Forgotten Romance\" in Royalty Digest. December 2004, p. 184.\n- Eagar, Margaret. Six Years at the Russian Court, 1906.\n- Fuhrmann, Joseph T. The Complete Wartime Correspondence of Nicholas and Alexandra: April 1914 – March 1917. Greenwood Press, 1999.\n- Gilliard, Pierre. Thirteen Years at the Russian Court.\n- Hawkins, George. Correspondence of the Russian Grand Duchesses: Letters of the Daughters of the Last Tsar Amazon 2020.\n- King, Greg and Wilson, Penny. The Fate of the Romanovs, 2003.\n- Kurth, Peter, Anastasia: The Riddle of Anna Anderson, Back Bay Books, 1983,\n- \"Tanya's Diary\", Livadia.org\n- Mager, Hugo. Elizabeth: Grand Duchess of Russia. Carroll and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1998,\n- Massie, Robert K. Nicholas and Alexandra. 1967.\n- Massie, Robert K. The Romanovs: The Final Chapter. 1995.\n- Maylunas, Andrei and Mironenko, Sergei, Galy (editors); Darya (translator). A Lifelong Passion: Nicholas and Alexandra: Their Own Story. 1997, Doubleday, .\n- Occleshaw, Michael, The Romanov Conspiracies: The Romanovs and the House of Windsor, Orion, 1993,\n- Rappaport, Helen. The Last Days of the Romanovs. 2008. St. Martin's Griffin. 2008. .\n- Rappaport, Helen. \"The Romanov Sisters: The Lost Lives of the Daughters of Nicholas and Alexandra.\" St. Martin's Griffin, 2014.\n- Radzinsky, Edvard. The Rasputin File. Doubleday. 2000,\n- Shevchenko, Maxim. \"The Glorification of the Royal Family\", a 31 May 2000 article in the Nezavisemaya Gazeta.\n- Tschebotarioff, Gregory P., Russia: My Native Land: A U.S. engineer reminisces and looks at the present, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964, ASIN B00005XTZJ\n- Vorres, Ian. The Last Grand Duchess. 1965.\n- Vyrubova, Anna. Memories of the Russian Court.\n- Zeepvat, Charlotte. The Camera and the Tsars: A Romanov Family Album. 2004.", "revid": "1173807250", "description": "Second daughter of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia", "categories": ["1897 births", "1918 deaths", "19th-century women from the Russian Empire", "20th-century Christian saints", "20th-century Russian women", "20th-century executions by Russia", "Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg", "Children of Nicholas II of Russia", "Christian female saints of the Late Modern era", "Daughters of Russian emperors", "Eastern Catholic saints", "Eastern Orthodox people executed by the Soviet Union", "Eastern Orthodox royal saints", "Executed Russian people", "Executed Russian women", "Executed people from Saint Petersburg", "Executed royalty", "Female wartime nurses", "House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov", "Murdered Russian royalty", "Nurses from the Russian Empire", "Passion bearers", "People executed by Russia by firing squad", "People from Petergof", "People from Petergofsky Uyezd", "Royal reburials", "Russian grand duchesses", "Russian people of Danish descent", "Russian people of German descent", "Russian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church", "Russian women of World War I", "Victims of Red Terror in Soviet Russia", "World War I nurses"]}
{"id": "50106813", "url": null, "title": "Linda Sarsour", "text": "Linda Sarsour (born 1980) is an American political activist. She was co-chair of the 2017 Women's March, the 2017 Day Without a Woman, and the 2019 Women's March. She is also a former executive director of the Arab American Association of New York. She and her Women's March co-chairs were profiled in Time magazine's \"100 Most Influential People\" in 2017.\n\nA Muslim of Palestinian descent, Sarsour first gained attention for protesting police surveillance of American Muslims, later becoming involved in other civil rights issues such as police brutality, feminism, immigration policy, and mass incarceration. She has also organized Black Lives Matter demonstrations and was the lead plaintiff in a suit challenging the legality of the Trump travel ban.\n\nHer political activism has been praised by some liberals and progressives, while her stance and remarks on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have been criticized by some conservatives and Jewish leaders and organizations. Sarsour has advocated for Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied territories and expressed support for the Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions (BDS) campaign against Israel. Sarsour, Bob Bland, and Tamika Mallory stepped down from the Women's March organization in September 2019 following a controversy over the organization's handling of accusations of antisemitism.\n\n## Early life\n\nSarsour was born in Brooklyn, New York, the eldest of seven children of Palestinian immigrants. Her father owned a small market in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, called Linda's. She was raised in Sunset Park, Brooklyn, and attended John Jay High School in Park Slope. After high school, she took courses at Kingsborough Community College and Brooklyn College with the goal of becoming an English teacher.\n\n## Political activism\n\n### Arab American Association of New York\n\nSarsour's early activism included advocating for the civil rights of American Muslims following the September 11 attacks. Shortly before 9/11, Basemah Atweh, a relative and founder of the Arab American Association of New York, asked Sarsour to volunteer for the organization. Atweh, who held a prominent political role uncommon for a Muslim woman, became Sarsour's mentor.\n\nWhen Sarsour and Atweh were returning from the 2005 gala opening of the Arab American National Museum in Dearborn, Michigan, their car was struck by a tractor-trailer. Atweh died of her injuries, and two other passengers suffered from broken bones. Sarsour, who was driving, was not seriously injured. She returned to work immediately, saying of Atweh, \"This is where she wanted me to be\". She was named to succeed Atweh as executive director of the association at age 25. Over the next several years she expanded the scope of the organization, building its budget from \\$50,000 to \\$700,000 annually.\n\nSarsour initially gained attention for protesting police surveillance of American Muslims. As director of the Arab American Association of New York, she advocated for passage of the Community Safety Act in New York, which created an independent office to review police policy and widen the definition of bias-based profiling in the state. She and the organization pressed for the law after instances of what they saw as biased policing in local neighborhoods, and it passed over the objections of then-Mayor Michael Bloomberg and then-Police Chief Raymond W. Kelly. Sarsour also played a part in the successful campaign to have Islamic holidays recognized in New York City's public schools, which started observing Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr in 2015.\n\nAccording to a 2017 article in The New York Times, Sarsour \"has tackled issues like immigration policy, mass incarceration, stop-and-frisk and the New York City Police Department's spying operations on Muslims — all of which have largely inured her to hate-tinged criticism\".\n\nSarsour has been hailed by some as a symbol of empowerment and \"shattering stereotypes of Muslim women\". In a dual interview with Iranian feminist activist Masih Alinejad about the practice of veiling, Sarsour elaborated on her views that the hijab is a spiritual act and not a symbol of oppression, and stressed the Islamophobia experienced by hijabi women in the West. Alinejad accused Sarsour of double standards, saying that Western Muslims in general, and Sarsour in particular, often fail to condemn compulsory hijab in the Middle East. Alinejad also said that if Sarsour is concerned with women's rights, she can not use the hijab \"which is the most visible symbol of oppression in the Middle East\" as a symbol of resistance.\n\n### Black Lives Matter\n\nFollowing the shooting of Michael Brown, Sarsour helped to organize Black Lives Matter protests. Sarsour helped form \"Muslims for Ferguson\", and she traveled to Ferguson with other activists in 2014. She has continued to work extensively with BLM ever since. Sarsour became a regular attendee at Black Lives Matter demonstrations as well as a frequent television commentator on feminism.\n\n### Political party involvement\n\nSarsour is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America. In 2016, she ran for a position as a County Committee member with the Democratic Party of Kings County, New York. She placed third. She has spoken about her activism in the context of building a progressive movement in the United States, and has been praised by liberal politicians and activists. In 2012, during the presidency of Barack Obama, the White House recognized Sarsour as a Champion of Change. Sarsour was a surrogate for U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders during his 2016 presidential campaign.\n\n### Women's March leadership\n\n#### 2017 Women's March\n\nTeresa Shook and Bob Bland, organizers of the 2017 Women's March, recruited Sarsour as co-chair of the event, to be held one day after Donald Trump's inauguration. According to Taylor Gee of Politico, Sarsour had by then become the controversial \"face of the resistance\" to Trump, adding \"For Sarsour, Trump's election came after years of standing up for people he had maligned—not just women, but Muslims, immigrants and black Americans, too. Her ties with activists from around the country helped her galvanize different groups during the disorienting period following the election\". Sarsour actively opposed the Trump administration's ban on travelers from several Muslim-majority countries and was named lead plaintiff in a legal challenge brought by the Council on American–Islamic Relations. In Sarsour v. Trump, the plaintiffs argued that the travel ban must be suspended because it existed only to keep Muslims out of the United States.\n\nMelissa Harris-Perry writes that Sarsour was \"the most reliable target of public vitriol\" of the 2017 Women's March leaders over the following year. Following her leadership role in the Women's March, Sarsour was targeted by violent threats on social media, some from organizations with links to the Russian government, and personal attacks by conservative media outlets, including false reports that she supported the militant Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and advocated imposing Islamic law in the United States. She stated that, while the march was a high point in her career, the media attacks that followed caused her to fear for her safety. Supporters used the Twitter hashtag \\#IMarchWithLinda, including Sharon Brous of the National Council of Jewish Women, who worked with Sarsour in organizing the 2017 Women's March, and U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders. Sarsour, along with her three co-chairs, was named as one of Time magazine's \"100 Most Influential People\" after the January march.\n\nSarsour was a co-chairwoman of the 2017 Day Without a Woman strike and protest, organized to mark International Women's Day. During a demonstration outside Trump International Hotel and Tower in Manhattan, she was arrested along with other leaders of the January Women's March, including Bland, Tamika Mallory, and Carmen Perez. She has organized and participated in other acts of civil disobedience in protest of the Trump administration's actions, such as ending the DACA program shielding young immigrants from deportation, the Trump administration family separation policy for immigrants, and the nomination of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court.\n\nIn a 2017 speech before the Islamic Society of North America, Sarsour said that people should \"stand up\" to Trump, as she deemed his administration oppressive, and that such actions would constitute a jihad. She recounted a story from Islamic scripture in which Muhammad says, \"A word of truth in front of a tyrant ruler or leader, that is the best form of jihad.\" Several conservative media outlets and personalities accused her of calling for violence against the president by using the word jihad. Sarsour and other commentators rejected this interpretation, citing her commitment to nonviolent activism and the fact that \"jihad\" does not inherently refer to violent action. Sarsour also said that she is not the sort of person who would call for violence against the president. In a Washington Post op-ed she wrote that the term jihad has been misused by both right-wing and Muslim extremists and called her use of the term \"legitimate yet widely misunderstood.\" Some on social media criticized Sarsour for using the term jihad since the general public associates it with violence, while others defended her choice of words.\n\n#### 2019 Women's March\n\nIn September 2018, Sarsour announced that she would lead the 2019 Women's March on Washington along with Tamika Mallory, Bob Bland, and Carmen Perez. Later that year, Sarsour and Mallory became the focus of a controversy over their perceived refusal to clearly condemn Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan, whose rhetoric has been deemed antisemitic and homophobic by the Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League. In November 2018, Teresa Shook, the march's founder, called for Sarsour and her fellow co-chairs to step down, accusing them of having \"allowed anti-Semitism, anti-LBGTQIA sentiment and hateful, racist rhetoric to become a part of the platform by their refusal to separate themselves from groups that espouse these racist, hateful beliefs.\" Sarsour refused, suggesting the criticism of her was due to her support for BDS and that criticism of Mallory was due to racism. She later apologized to supporters of the march, expressing regret that she and Mallory did not \"make their commitment to combating antisemitism clear.\" She also apologized to the March's LGBTQ and Jewish members, saying that she valued them and would \"fight\" for them. Sarsour stepped down from the Women's March organization in September 2019 along with Bob Bland and Tamika Mallory.\n\n### Stance on Israeli–Palestinian conflict\n\nHaaretz has called Sarsour one of the most widely known Palestinian American women for her advocacy on behalf of Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied territories, noting that some on the center and right consider her a polarizing figure due to her anti-Zionist activism. She has said she supports a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict but believes in Israel's right to exist and does not support either Hamas or the Palestinian Authority. She has dismissed smears circulated on social media and conservative websites that she has ties to Hamas, calling them \"fake news\". Sarsour has said members of her extended family in the Israeli-occupied territories have been arrested and jailed on accusations of supporting Hamas, but denied having contact with any radical Muslim groups. She has said she would like Israelis and Palestinians to coexist peacefully and justly. According to the Brooklyn Eagle, Sarsour's support for the presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders, who is Jewish, her view that Israel has a right to exist, and her relationship with Bill de Blasio have garnered her criticism from some Islamists.\n\nSarsour told Haaretz that she is and always will be a critic of Israel and fully supports BDS. Sunaina Maira has described Sarsour's advocacy for BDS as an element of her feminist politics. In a March 2017 interview with The Nation, Sarsour opined that those who support and do not criticize the state of Israel cannot be part of the feminist movement; she believes such people ignore the rights of Palestinian women.\n\n#### Relations with Jewish-American advocacy groups\n\nSarsour has been criticized by American conservatives and pro-Israel Democrats, along with some Zionist activists for her stance on Middle Eastern politics, including her support for BDS against Israel. The Guardian wrote that Sarsour \"has been a frequent target of pro-Israel pressure organisations\". According to an investigation by Haaretz, a private Israeli intelligence firm spied on Sarsour and her family in an attempt to collect damaging information. A dossier was shared with the Act.IL group, which used the material to dissuade U.S. universities from allowing Sarsour to speak on campus.\n\nSarsour has worked with left-wing Jewish groups including Jewish Voice for Peace and Jews for Racial and Economic Justice. According to Haaretz, mainstream Jewish organizations \"long held her at arms' length\" due to her criticism of Israel and her support for the BDS movement. According to the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, progressive Jews are willing to ignore her anti-Zionism whereas right-wing Jews and some centrist Jews are not. Two directors of the U.S.-based Jewish NGO the Anti-Defamation League, along with the president of the Zionist Organization of America, have criticized her stance on Israel; the ADL's director, Jonathan Greenblatt, has said that Sarsour's support of BDS inspires and increases antisemitism. A Facebook post in which she defended Representative-elect Ilhan Omar by attributing criticism of her support for BDS to \"folks who masquerade as progressives but always choose their allegiance to Israel over their commitment to democracy and free speech\" led to the American Jewish Committee accusing Sarsour of drawing on antisemitic tropes. Sarsour has disputed accusations of antisemitism and says that her criticism of the state of Israel has been wrongly conflated with antipathy for Jews. In late January 2019, Sarsour drew criticism for not mentioning Jews in her International Holocaust Remembrance Day statement, with some commentators noting that in 2017 she had called President Trump antisemitic for not mentioning Jews in his own Holocaust Remembrance Day statement.\n\n#### CUNY commencement speech\n\nWhen Sarsour was selected to deliver a commencement speech at the City University of New York (CUNY) in June 2017, there was strong opposition from some conservatives. Dov Hikind, then a Democratic Party state assemblyman in New York, sent then-Governor Andrew Cuomo a letter objecting to the choice, signed by 100 Holocaust survivors. His objection was based on Sarsour's previously having spoken alongside Rasmea Odeh, who was convicted by an Israeli court for taking part in a bombing that killed two civilians in 1969.\n\nSarsour said that she had nothing to apologize for and questioned the integrity of Odeh's conviction. She ascribed the critical reaction to her speech to her prominent role as an organizer for the 2017 Women's March. The university chancellor, the dean of the college, and a group of professors defended Sarsour's right to speak, as did some Jewish groups, including Jews for Racial and Economic Justice. A group of prominent left-leaning Jews signed an open letter condemning attacks on her and promising to work alongside her for the sake of justice. Jonathan Greenblatt of the Anti-Defamation League defended Sarsour's First Amendment right despite opposing her views on Israel. A rally in support of Sarsour took place in front of New York City Hall. Constitutional scholar Fred Smith Jr. tied the controversy to broader disputes over freedom of speech in the United States. Sarsour delivered the speech on June 2, 2017.\n\n### Comments about Ayaan Hirsi Ali\n\nIn 2011, in reference to Somali-born activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a noted critic of Islam, and Brigitte Gabriel, a conservative activist and leader of the lobbying group ACT! for America, Sarsour tweeted, \"She's asking 4 an a\\$\\$ whippin'. I wish I could take their vaginas away - they don't deserve to be women.\" She had debated both women on radio or television and said the dispute centered on Ali and Gabriel's promotion of the idea that Islam is misogynistic. In response, Ali called Sarsour a \"fake feminist\" and criticized her for defending sharia. In 2017, Sarsour told The Washington Post that the tweet (then already deleted) was \"stupid\" and that she did not remember writing it. Later that year, an exchange between Sarsour and a student activist at Dartmouth College in which she was asked about the tweet circulated widely on social media. Sarsour noted that the question had been posed by a \"white man\" at an event celebrating Asian Pacific American Heritage Month and her words garnered criticism.\n\n### Fundraising efforts\n\nAfter a Jewish cemetery in St. Louis was vandalized in an apparent anti-Semitic incident in February 2017, Sarsour worked with other Muslim activists to launch a crowdfunding campaign to raise money for repair and restoration work. Among other recipients of funds from the effort was a Colorado Jewish cemetery listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The project generated some controversy after New York assemblyman Dov Hikind accused Sarsour of withholding the funds. Sarsour characterized the controversy as the work of \"alt-right Zionists.\"\n\nSarsour's request for donations to Hurricane Harvey relief efforts was criticized by her conservative opponents; according to Alexander Nazaryan of Newsweek, this was indicative of the right wing's increasing antipathy for Sarsour. MPower Change, a group Sarsour co-founded, has also worked to raise money for the victims of the 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, which some progressive supporters of Sarsour have pointed to along with the St. Louis cemetery fundraising campaign in defending her against accusations of anti-Semitism.\n\n## Personal life\n\nAs of 2011, Sarsour lives in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn. At 17, she entered into an arranged marriage and had three children by her mid-20s. Both Sarsour's family and her husband are from the Palestinian city of Al-Bireh in the West Bank, and about 9 miles (14 km) north of Jerusalem.\n\nSarsour is a Muslim. On the subject of women in Islam, she told The Washington Post, \"There are Muslims and regimes that oppress women, but I believe that my religion is an empowering religion.\" She chooses to wear a hijab. Sarsour argues that the Islamic religious laws and principles known as sharia do not impose on non-Muslims and that Muslims must also follow civil laws.", "revid": "1165699719", "description": "American Muslim feminist activist", "categories": ["1980 births", "21st-century American women", "Activists from New York City", "American Muslim activists", "American people of Palestinian descent", "Black Lives Matter people", "Brooklyn College alumni", "Living people", "Members of the Democratic Socialists of America", "New York (state) Democrats", "People from Sunset Park, Brooklyn", "Proponents of Islamic feminism", "Women civil rights activists", "Women's March"]}
{"id": "2733733", "url": null, "title": "Delayed gratification", "text": "Delayed gratification, or deferred gratification, is the resistance to the temptation of an immediate pleasure in the hope of obtaining a valuable and long-lasting reward in the long-term. In other words, delayed gratification describes the process that the subject undergoes when the subject resists the temptation of an immediate reward in preference for a later reward. Generally, delayed gratification is associated with resisting a smaller but more immediate reward in order to receive a larger or more enduring reward later. A growing body of literature has linked the ability to delay gratification to a host of other positive outcomes, including academic success, physical health, psychological health, and social competence.\n\nA person's ability to delay gratification relates to other similar skills such as patience, impulse control, self-control and willpower, all of which are involved in self-regulation. Broadly, self-regulation encompasses a person's capacity to adapt the self as necessary to meet demands of the environment. Delaying gratification is the reverse of delay discounting, which is \"the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger but delayed rewards\" and refers to the \"fact that the subjective value of reward decreases with increasing delay to its receipt\". It is theorized that the ability to choose delayed rewards is under the control of the cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS).\n\nSeveral factors can affect a person's ability to delay gratification. Cognitive strategies, such as the use of distracting or \"cool\" thoughts, can increase delay ability, as can neurological factors, such as strength of connections in the frontal-striatal pathway. Behavioral researchers have focused on the contingencies that govern choices to delay reinforcement, and have studied how to manipulate those contingencies in order to lengthen delay. Age plays a role too; children under five years old demonstrate a marked lack of delayed gratification ability and most commonly seek immediate gratification. A very small difference between males and females suggest that females may be better at delaying rewards. The inability to choose to wait rather than seek immediate reinforcement is related to avoidance-related behaviors such as procrastination, and to other clinical diagnoses such as anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression.\n\nSigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalytic theory, discussed the ego's role in balancing the immediate pleasure-driven desires of the id with the morality-driven choices of the superego. Funder and Block expanded psychoanalytic research on the topic, and found that impulsivity, or a lack of ego-control, has a stronger effect on one's ability to choose delayed rewards if a reward is more desirable. Finally, environmental and social factors play a role; for example, delay is affected by the self-imposed or external nature of a reward contingency, by the degree of task engagement required during the delay, by early mother-child relationship characteristics, by a person's previous experiences with unreliable promises of rewards (e.g., in poverty), and by contemporary sociocultural expectations and paradigms. Research on animals comprises another body of literature describing delayed gratification characteristics that are not as easily tested in human samples, such as ecological factors affecting the skill.\n\n## Background\n\n### Cognitive-affective processing system\n\nOne well-supported theory of self-regulation, called the Cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS), suggests that delaying gratification results from an ability to use \"cool\" regulatory strategies (i.e., calm, controlled and cognitive strategies) over \"hot regulatory strategies (i.e., emotional, impulsive, automatic reactions), when faced with provocation. In \"hot\" processing, a person thinks intently about the object causing temptation, and especially about its most appealing elements, and is subsequently less able to resist the immediate reward. The use of cool strategies can translate to more control over behavior. Effective \"cool\" strategies involve distraction and restructuring the perception of the tempting stimulus to make it seem less appealing. For example, in one study of pre-adolescent boys with behavioral problems, the boys showed a reduction in verbal and physical aggression when they used \"cool\" strategies, such as looking away or distracting themselves. The most effective type of distraction seems to be imagining another desirable reward, which takes attention away from the immediate temptations.\n\n### Stanford marshmallow experiment\n\nThe seminal research on delayed gratification – the now-famous \"marshmallow experiment\" – was conducted by Walter Mischel in the 1960s and 1970s at Stanford University. Mischel and his colleagues were interested in strategies that preschool children used to resist temptation. They presented four-year-olds with a marshmallow and told the children that they had two options: (1) ring a bell at any point to summon the experimenter and eat the marshmallow, or (2) wait until the experimenter returned (about 15 minutes later), and earn two marshmallows. The message was: \"small reward now, bigger reward later.\" Some children broke down and ate the marshmallow, whereas others were able to delay gratification and earn the coveted two marshmallows. In follow-up experiments, Mischel found that children were able to wait longer if they used certain \"cool\" distraction techniques (covering their eyes, hiding under the desk, singing songs, or imagining pretzels instead of the marshmallow in front of them), or if they changed the way they thought about the marshmallow (focusing on its similarity to a cotton ball, rather than on its gooey, delectable taste).\n\nThe children who waited longer, when re-evaluated as teenagers and adults, demonstrated a striking array of advantages over their peers. As teenagers, they had higher SAT scores, social competence, self-assuredness and self-worth, and were rated by their parents as more mature, better able to cope with stress, more likely to plan ahead, and more likely to use reason. They were less likely to have conduct disorders or high levels of impulsivity, aggressiveness and hyperactivity. As adults, the high delayers were less likely to have drug problems or other addictive behaviors, get divorced, or be overweight. Each minute that a preschooler was able to delay gratification translated to a .2% reduction in Body Mass Index 30 years later.\n\nEach of these positive outcomes requires some ability to forgo short-term reward in favor of a higher payoff in the future. The ability to delay gratification also appears to be a buffer against rejection sensitivity (the tendency to be anxious when anticipating interpersonal rejection). In a 20-year follow-up of the marshmallow experiment, individuals with vulnerability to high rejection sensitivity who had shown strong delay of gratification abilities as preschoolers had higher self-esteem and self-worth and more adaptive coping skills, in comparison to the individuals who had high rejection sensitivity but low delay of gratification as four-year-olds. These compelling longitudinal findings converge with other studies showing a similar pattern: The ability to resist temptation early in life translates to persistent benefits across settings.\n\nForty years after the first marshmallow test studies, neuroimaging data has shed light on the neural correlates of delayed gratification. A team led by B. J. Casey, of Cornell University, recruited 59 of the original participants – who are now in their mid-40s – and gave them a delayed gratification task. Instead of resisting marshmallows, these adults were instructed to suppress responses to images of happy faces, but not to neutral or fearful faces. Those who had been high delayers as pre-schoolers were more successful at controlling their impulses in response to the emotional faces (i.e., not pressing the button in response to happy faces), suggesting that the high delayers continued to show better ability to dampen or resist impulses. Casey and colleagues also scanned the brains of 26 participants using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as they completed the task. The researchers hypothesized that high delayers would be more likely to use \"cool\" regulation strategies to control their responses, which would manifest as activation of the right prefrontal cortex, whereas low delayers would use \"hot\" strategies, which would activate the ventral striatum, an area also linked to addiction. Indeed, results showed this differential brain activity. This mirrors other fMRI research of delayed gratification conducted by Noah Shamosh and Jeremy Gray, of Yale University, demonstrating that individuals who chose larger delayed rewards over smaller immediate rewards (in hypothetical situations) showed greater brain activation in the anterior prefrontal cortex.\n\n## Factors affecting one's ability\n\n### Neurocognitive factors\n\nThe way that a person frames a situation heavily influences a decision's outcome. Research on \"hot\" and \"cool\" strategies suggests that when children cognitively represent what they are waiting for as a real reward by focusing on the reward's arousing, \"hot\" qualities (taste, smell, sound, feel, etc.) their self-control and delay of gratification decreases, while directing attention to a symbol of the reward by focusing on its abstract, \"cool\" qualities (shape, color, number, etc.), can enhance self-control and increase the delay. Optimal self-control and the longest delay to gratification can be achieved by directing attention to a competing item, especially the arousing, \"hot\" qualities of a competing item. For example, delays are increased when thinking about the taste and smell of popcorn while waiting to eat candy. This illustrates an individual's ability to manipulate their cognitive representation of external stimuli for goal-directed purposes.\n\nDelaying gratification is the same as controlling the impulse for immediate gratification, which requires cognitive control. The ventral striatum, located in the midbrain, is the part of the limbic system that is the reward center as well as a pleasure center. The limbic system will always react to the potential for instant pleasure. To override this instinct, the prefrontal cortex, which is also associated with reasoning and rational thought, must be active. The prefrontal cortex is also the part of the brain that determines the focus of a person's attention, which enables a better framing that facilitates delayed gratification. During adolescence and early adulthood, the prefrontal cortex develops and matures to become more complicated and connected with the rest of the brain. Older children and adults find the deferment-of-gratification tasks easier than do young children for this reason. However, the relative ability to defer gratification remains stable throughout development. Children who can better control impulses grow up to be adults who also have better control. Practicing deferred gratification is quite beneficial to cognitive abilities throughout life.\n\n### Behavioral factors\n\nBehaviorists focus on the acquisition and teaching of delayed gratification, and have developed therapeutic techniques for increasing ability to delay. Behavior analysts capitalize on the effective principles of reinforcement when shaping behavior by making rewards contingent on the person's current behavior, which promotes learning a delay of gratification. It is important to note that for a behavior modification regimen to succeed, the reward must have some value to the participant. Without a reward that is meaningful, providing delayed or immediate gratification serves little purpose, as the reward is not a strong reinforcer of the desired behavior.\n\nBehavior theorists see delaying gratification as an adaptive skill. It has been shown that learning to delay gratification promotes positive social behavior, such as sharing and positive peer interactions. For example, students who learn to delay gratification are better able to complete their assigned activities. To put it simply, if someone undertakes an activity with the promise of a delayed reward after, the task's completion becomes more likely.\n\nBehavioral researchers have found that a choice for instant versus delayed gratification is influenced by several factors including whether the reward is negative or positive reinforcement. A past study by Solnick et al., focused on an experiment where the main concentrations were time added to both conditions and the preference of the participants with experiencing a loud noise for variable amounts of time: 15, 30, 60, and 90 seconds. The buttons to turn off the noise were manipulated by one button turning off the noise for a short amount of time and the other turning the noise off for an extended time. The participants were found to be more willing to turn off the noise immediately for 90 seconds rather than turning it off for the 120 seconds after a 60-second delay was issued. Findings illustrate that participants chose not to delay their gratification for the relief of noise but rather instantly silence it for a shorter amount of time.\n\n#### Individual thresholds for delay\n\nIn a 2011 study, researchers tested to see if people would willingly choose between instant and delayed gratification by offering them a set amount of (hypothetical) money that they could receive presently, or telling them they could wait a month for more money. Results suggested that willingness to delay gratification depended on the amount of money being offered, but also showed wide individual variation in the threshold of later reward that was motivating enough to forgo the immediate reward. The subjective value of a reward can also stem from the way one describes the potential reward. As prospect theory states, people are heavily loss-averse. People tend to value a commodity more when it is considered to be something that can be lost or given up than when it is evaluated as a potential gain.\n\n#### Duration of time delay\n\nThe duration of time until an eventual reward also affects participants' choice of immediate or delayed gratification. A 2001 study demonstrated that if a reward will not be granted for an extensive amount of time, such as 180–300 months (15–25 years), the monetary amount of the reward is inconsequential; instead, the bulk of the participants choose the immediate reward, even if their delayed reward would be quite large. Delayed gratification has its limits, and a delay can only be so long before it is judged to be not worth the effort it takes to wait.\n\n#### Behavioral training\n\n##### Applications in classroom settings\n\nIn a Year 3 elementary classroom in South Wales a teacher was having difficulty keeping three girls on task during designated private study times. The teacher reached for aid from behavior analysts, and a delayed gratification behavior modification plan was put into place. The study gave limits on the numbers of questions the children could ask, and if they did not exceed the limit, they were given tokens for rewards. The token economy for rewards is an example of delayed gratification, by way of cool processing. Instead of having the girls focus on attention-seeking behaviors that distracted the teacher and the students, the teacher had them focus on how many questions they had, and if they needed to ask for help from the teacher. They also focused on gaining tokens rather than focusing on the final reward, which increased their delays. By giving the children this goal and the promise of positive reinforcement for good behavior, the girls dropped their rate of question-asking and attention-seeking.\n\n##### Applications to ADHD\n\nCompared to neurotypical children, those with ADHD generally demonstrate greater impulsivity by being influenced by reward immediacy and quality more than by the frequency of reward and effort to obtain it. However, researchers have empirically shown that these impulsive behavior patterns can be changed through the implementation of a simple self-control training procedure in which reinforcer immediacy competes with the frequency, quantity or saliency of the reward. One study demonstrated that any verbal activity while waiting for reinforcement increases delay to gratification in participants with ADHD. In another study, three children diagnosed with ADHD and demonstrating impulsivity were trained to prefer reward rate and saliency more than immediacy through manipulation of the quality of the reinforcers and by systematically increasing the delay with a changing-criterion design. Post-assessment of the children illustrated that self-control can transfer to untrained dimensions of reinforcement.\n\n### Across the lifespan\n\nAt birth, infants are unable to wait for their wants and needs to be met and exhibit a defining lack of impulse control. With age, developing children are able to retain impulsivity but also gain control over their immediate desires and are increasingly able to prolong gratification. Developmental psychologists study the progression of impulse control and delay of gratification over the lifespan, including deficiencies in development that are closely related to attention deficits and behavior problems.\n\nChildren under five years old display the least effective strategies for delaying gratification, such as looking at the reward and thinking about its arousing features. By 5 years old, most children are able to demonstrate better self-control by recognizing the counter-productivity of focusing on the reward. Five-year-olds often choose instead to actively distract themselves or even use self-instructions to remind themselves of the contingency that waiting produces a reward of a greater value. Between 8 and 13 years old, children develop the cognitive ability to differentiate and employ abstract versus arousing thoughts in order to distract their minds from the reward and thereby increase the delay. Once delaying strategies are developed, the capacity to resist temptation is relatively stable throughout adulthood. Preschoolers' performance on delayed gratification tasks correlates with their adolescent performance on tasks designed to measure similar constructs and processing, which parallels the corresponding development of willpower and the fronto-striatal circuit (neural pathways that connect the frontal lobe to other brain regions). Declines in self-regulation and impulse control in old age predict corresponding declines in reward-delaying strategies, specifically reduced temporal discounting due to a decrease in cooling strategies.\n\n#### Effects of gender\n\nThroughout 33 studies on gender differences, a small significant effect (r = .06) has been found indicating that a base-rate of 10% more females are able to choose delayed rewards than males, which is the typical percentage of difference found between the sexes on measures such as personality or social behavior. This effect may be related to the slight gender differences found in delay discounting (i.e., minimizing the value of a delayed reward) and higher levels of impulsivity and inattention in boys. Further studies are needed to analyze if this minute difference begins at a certain age (e.g., puberty) or if it has a stable magnitude throughout the lifespan. Some researchers suggest this gender difference may correspond with a mother's tendency to sacrifice her wants and needs in order to meet those of her child more frequently than a father does.\n\n### Clinical factors\n\n#### Contemporary clinical psychology perspectives\n\nSelf-control has been called the \"master virtue\" by clinical and social psychologists, suggesting that the ability to delay gratification plays a critical role in a person's overall psychological adjustment. People with better ability to delay gratification report higher wellbeing, self-esteem and openness to experience, as well as more productive ways of responding to anger and other provocations. Early delay ability has been shown to protect against the development of a variety of emotional vulnerabilities later in life, such as aggression and features of borderline personality disorder. Meanwhile, many maladaptive coping skills that characterize mental illness entail a difficulty delaying gratification. The tendency to choose short-term rewards at the expense of longer-term benefits permeates many forms of psychopathology.\n\nA growing body of research suggests that self-control is akin to a muscle that can be strengthened through practice. In other words, self-control abilities are malleable, a fact that can be a source of hope for those who struggle with this skill. In psychotherapy, treatment for impulse-control issues often involves teaching individuals to realize the downsides of acting on immediate urges and in turn to practice delaying gratification. In anxiety disorders, this process occurs through exposure to a feared situation – which is very uncomfortable at first, but eventually becomes tolerable and even trains a person's mind and body that these situations are less threatening than originally feared. Exposure therapy is only effective if an individual can delay gratification and resist the urge to escape the situation early on. To shed insight on the tradeoff between short- and long-term gains, therapists might also help individuals construct a pro-con list of a certain behavior, with sections for short-term and long-term outcomes. For maladaptive coping behaviors such as self-injury, substance use or avoidance, there are generally no long-term pros. Meanwhile, abstinence from acting on a harmful urge (i.e., delayed gratification) generally results in long-term benefits. This realization can be a powerful impetus for change.\n\n##### Externalizing disorders\n\nExternalizing disorders (i.e., acting-out disorders) show a clearer link to delayed gratification, since they more directly involve deficits in impulse control. For example, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and aggressive behavior are associated with difficulty delaying gratification in children and adolescents, as are substance abuse, gambling, and other addictive behaviors in adolescents and adults. In a 2010 study, teenagers and young adults with stronger abilities to delay gratification were less likely to drink alcohol, or to smoke cigarettes or cannabis. A 2011 study found that the contrast in delayed gratification between children with and without ADHD was no longer significant after statistically controlling for IQ (in other words, ADHD was not associated with delayed gratification above and beyond the influence of IQ). This may stem from the high correlation between intelligence and delayed gratification, and suggests that the tie between delayed gratification and ADHD could benefit from more investigation.\n\n##### Internalizing disorders\n\nDifficulty delaying gratification also plays a role in internalizing disorders like anxiety and depression. A hallmark behavior in anxiety is avoidance of feared or anxiety-provoking situations. By seeking the immediate relief that comes with avoidance, a person is succumbing to the pull of instant gratification over the larger reward from overcoming the fear and anxiety that caused the avoidance. Procrastination, which is often a reflection of anxiety, is a clear example: a person avoids a dreaded task by engaging in a more enjoyable immediate activity instead. Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a more jarring case of this anxiety-related struggle to delay gratification; someone with OCD is unable to resist compulsions that temporarily mitigate the torture of obsessive thoughts, even though these compulsions do not banish the obsessions in the long run. One experiment, however, did not find any significant differences between samples with OCD and healthy controls in delayed gratification, while finding substantially improved delayed gratification among those with obsessive–compulsive personality disorder. Depression is also associated with lower capacity to delay gratification, though the direction of cause and effect is not clear. A depressed person who has difficulty pushing themself to engage in previously enjoyed activities is (deliberately or not) prioritizing short-term comfort and is demonstrating an impaired ability to delay gratification. There is evidence that individuals who engage in deliberate self-harm (e.g. cut themselves) are less able to tolerate emotional distress but are more able to tolerate physical pain. Thus it is argued that they injure themselves because they cannot delay gratification and need a way to end emotional pain quickly.\n\n#### Psychoanalytic drives and impulses\n\nSigmund Freud viewed the struggle to delay gratification as a person's efforts to overcome the instinctive, libidinal drive of the id. According to classic psychoanalytic theory, a person's psyche is composed of the id, ego and superego. The id is driven by the pleasure principle: it wants physical pleasure, and it wants it now. The ego, operating under the reality principle, serves to moderate the id's desire for instant gratification against the superego, which is guided by a person's internalized sense of morality. According to psychoanalytic theory, a person with difficulty delaying gratification is plagued by intrapsychic conflict – the ego cannot adequately regulate the battle between the id and the superego – and experiences psychological distress, often in the form of anxiety or \"neurosis\".\n\nOther psychoanalytic researchers describe a more nuanced, and less universally positive, view of delayed gratification. David C. Funder and Jack Block theorized that a person's tendency to delay, or not delay, gratification is just one element of a broader construct called ego control, defined as a person's ability to modulate or control impulses. Ego control \"ranges from ego undercontrol at one end to ego overcontrol at the other\", according to Funder. These tendencies are thought to be relatively stable in each individual, such that someone who tends toward undercontrol will \"grab whatever rewards are immediately available even at the cost of long-term gain\" and someone who tends toward overcontrol will \"delay or even forgo pleasures even when they can be had without cost\". By this view, delay of gratification may be adaptive in certain settings, but inappropriate or even costly in other settings.\n\nFunder and Block draw a distinction between the ego-control model, in which delayed gratification is seen as a general tendency to contain motivational impulses (whether or not it is adaptive in a specific instance), and the ego-resiliency model (supported by Mischel's research), in which delayed gratification is seen as a skill that arises only when it is adaptive. To tease apart these models, Funder and Block explored the association between ego control, ego resiliency, IQ and delayed gratification in adolescents. The adolescents had the choice between being paid \\$4 at each of six study sessions or delaying their payment until the last session, in which case they would also earn an additional \\$4 of \"interest\".\n\nThe results supported both models of delayed gratification. The teens' tendency to delay gratification was indeed associated with IQ and with ego resiliency (e.g., higher delayers were rated as more responsible, consistent, likable, sympathetic, generous; less hostile, moody, self-indulgent, rebellious), but was also independently associated with ego control (e.g., higher delayers were rated as \"tends toward over-control of needs and impulses\" and \"favors conservative values in a number of areas\"). The researchers noted that individual differences in ego control (i.e., overall impulsivity) may play a larger role in delayed gratification when the incentives are larger and more motivating.\n\nWriting in 1998, Funder described delayed gratification as a \"mixed bag\". He concluded: \"Participants who exhibited the most delay were not just 'better' at self-control, but in a sense they seemed unable to avoid it. ... Delayers are in general smart and well-adjusted, but they also tend to be somewhat overcontrolled and unnecessarily inhibited.\"\n\n### Environmental and social factors\n\n#### Who is in control\n\nFactors affecting one's ability to delay gratification depend on whether the delay contingency is self-imposed (delay can be terminated at the will of the person waiting) or externally imposed by another person, institution or circumstance. When the contingency is self-imposed, the physical presence of the reward seems to aid in delaying gratification. On the other hand, when the delay is externally imposed, children are not able to wait as long when the reward is present, suggesting greater frustration under these circumstances.\n\n#### Task engagement\n\nEngaging in work or an assigned task can generate an effective distraction from a reward and enable a person to wait for a longer delay, as long as the reward is not being flaunted. Having the reward present during work (and easily accessible) creates a negative frustration—akin to teasing—rather than providing motivation. For example, a child who can see other children playing outside while the child is finishing their homework will be less motivated to wait for their turn for recess. Another factor work and task engagement adds to the delay of gratification is that if the work is interesting and has some reinforcing quality inherent to it, then attention to the reward will reduce work productivity since it becomes a distraction to the work rather than a motivation to finish it.\n\n#### Mother–child relationship\n\nThe more positive emotions and behavior that a 12- to 24-month-old toddler displays when coping with separation from a parent, the better they are 3.5 years later at using cooling strategies in order to defer gratification. This suggests that the emotional skills and processes required for coping with social and interpersonal frustrations are similar to those utilized for coping with the aggravation of goal-directed delay of gratification. Maternal attachment also influences the development of a child's ability to delay gratification. An interaction has been found between a mother's level of control and how close a child stays to the mother while exploring the environment.\n\nChildren who have controlling mothers and explore their environment at a far distance from her are able to employ more cooling strategies and prefer rewards that come later. Similarly, children who stay close to a non-controlling mothers also use more cool strategies and demonstrate longer delays. This suggests that some children of controlling mothers have better learned how to distract themselves from or effectively avoid intrusive stimuli, although additional effects on their emotional competency are speculated but unknown. A greater capacity to delay gratification by using effective attentional strategies is also seen in preschoolers whose mothers had been responsive and supportive during particularly stressful times of self-regulation when the child was a toddler, indicating that maternal responsiveness during highly demanding times is crucial for the development of self-regulation, self-control and emotional competency.\n\n#### Reliability of gratification\n\nResearchers have investigated whether the reliability of the reward affects one's ability to delay gratification. Reliability of the reward refers to how well the reward received matches what the person was expecting or promised in terms of quality and quantity. For example, researchers told children that they would receive better art supplies if they waited. After the children successfully waited for the reward, better supplies could not be \"found\" and so they had to use the crayons and stickers that were in poor shape. Comparing these children to ones who received their promised rewards reliably revealed different results on subsequent Marshmallow tests measuring delayed gratification. Children who had learned that the researcher's promise was unreliable quickly succumbed to eating the marshmallow, waiting only an average of three minutes. Conversely, children who had learned that the researcher was reliable were able to wait an average of 12 minutes, with many of them waiting the full 15 minutes for the researcher to return in order to double the reward to two marshmallows.\n\n### Genetics and evolution\n\nEvolutionary theory can argue against the selection of the deferred gratification trait since there are both costs and risks associated with delaying gratification behavior. One such cost is the basic opportunity cost associated with time spent waiting. While waiting, individuals lose time that could be used to find other food. Seeking high calorie food conveys a clear evolutionary advantage. There are also two risks associated with being patient. First, there is a risk that another animal might get to the food first, also known as an interruption risk. Second, there is the risk that the chance to get the reward will be cut short, perhaps by a predator, also known as a termination risk. These costs and risks create situations in which the fitness of the individual is threatened. There are several examples that show how reward delay occurs in the real world. For example, animals that eat fruit have the option of eating unripe fruit right away, or waiting, delaying gratification, until it becomes ripe. The interruption risk plays a part here, because if the individual forgoes the unripe fruit, there is a chance that another individual may come along and get to it first. Also, in extractive foraging, such as with nuts and shellfish, the outer shell creates a delay. However, animals that can store food and defer eating are more likely to survive during harsh conditions, and thus delaying gratification may also incur an evolutionary advantage.\n\nIt is likely that there is a strong genetic component to deferred gratification, though no direct link has been established. Since many complex genetic interactions are necessary for neurons to perform the simplest tasks, it is hard to isolate one gene to study this behavior. For this same reason, multiple genes are likely responsible for deferred gratification. Further research is necessary to discover the genetic corollaries to delayed gratification.\n\n## Animal studies\n\nDelayed gratification or deferred gratification is an animal behavior that can be linked to delay discounting, ecological factors, individual fitness, and neurobiological mechanisms. Research for this behavior has been conducted with animals such as capuchin monkeys, tamarins, marmosets, rats, and pigeons.\n\n### Delay discounting\n\nWhen animals are faced with a choice to either wait for a reward, or receive a reward right away, the discounting of the reward is hyperbolic. As the length of time of waiting for a reward increases, the reward is discounted at a gradual rate. Empirical data have suggested that exponential discounting, rewards discounting at a constant rate per unit of waiting time, only occurs when there are random interruptions in foraging. Discounting can also be related to the risk sensitivity of animals. Rather than relating risk to delay, risk sensitivity acts as a function of delay discounting.\n\nIn a study conducted by Haden and Platt, macaque monkeys were given the choice of a medium reward that they knew they would receive, versus a more risky choice. The riskier choice would reward the monkey with a large reward fifty percent of the time, and a small reward the other fifty percent. The ultimate payoff was the same, but the monkeys preferred the riskier choice. They speculated that the monkeys did not see their action as risky, but rather as a large, delayed reward. They reasoned that the monkeys viewed the large reward as certain: if they did not get the large reward the first time around, they would eventually get it, but at a longer delay.\n\nTo test for this theory, they gave the same test while varying the time between the opportunities to choose a reward. They found that as the interval increased, the number of times that the monkeys chose the more risky reward decreased. While this occurred in macaque monkeys, the varying interval time did not affect pigeons' choices in another study. This suggests that research looking into varying risk sensitivity of different species is needed. When provided a choice between a small, short delay reward, and a large, long delay reward, there is an impulsive preference for the former. Additionally, as the delay time for the small/short and large/long reward increases, there is a shift in preference toward the larger, delayed reward. This evidence only supports hyperbolic discounting, not exponential.\n\n### Ecological factors\n\nAlthough predicting reward preference seems simple when using empirical models, there are a number of ecological factors that seem to affect the delayed gratification behavior of animals. In real world situations, \"discounting makes sense because of the inherent uncertainty of future payoffs\".\n\nOne study looked at how reward discounting is context specific. By differing the time and space between small and large rewards, they were able to test how these factors affected the decision making in tamarins and marmosets. They showed that tamarins will travel longer distances for larger food rewards, but will not wait as long as marmosets. Conversely, marmosets will wait longer, but will not travel as far. They then concluded that this discounting behavior directly correlates to the normal feeding behavior of species. The tamarins feed over large distances, looking for insects. Capturing and eating insects requires a quick and impulsive decision and action. The marmosets, on the other hand, eat tree sap, which takes more time to secrete, but does not require that the marmosets to cover large distances.\n\nThe physiological similarities between humans and other animals, especially primates, have led to more comparative research between the two groups. Future research with animal models then can expand our own understanding of how people make decisions about instant versus delayed gratification in the real world.\n\n## See also\n\n- Time preference – the economic analysis of delayed gratification preferences", "revid": "1162434205", "description": "Resistance of an immediate reward in return for a later reward", "categories": ["Consumer behaviour", "Motivation", "Psychoanalytic terminology", "Psychological adjustment"]}
{"id": "12139040", "url": null, "title": "The Orphanage (2007 film)", "text": "The Orphanage (Spanish: El orfanato) is a 2007 gothic supernatural horror film and the debut feature of J. A. Bayona. The film stars Belén Rueda as Laura, Fernando Cayo as her husband, Carlos, and Roger Príncep as their adopted son Simón. The plot centers on Laura, who returns to her childhood home, an orphanage. Laura plans to turn the house into a home for disabled children, but after an argument with Simón, he goes missing.\n\nThe film's script was written by Sergio G. Sánchez in 1996 and brought to the attention of Bayona in 2004. Bayona asked his long-time friend, director Guillermo del Toro, to help produce the film and to double its budget and filming time. The Orphanage is an international co-production between Spain and Mexico. Bayona wanted the film to capture the feel of 1970s Spanish cinema; he cast Geraldine Chaplin and Belén Rueda, who were later praised for their roles in the film.\n\nThe film opened at the Cannes Film Festival on 20 May 2007, where it received a standing ovation lasting more than 10 minutes. It received domestic critical acclaim in Spain, and won seven Goya awards, including Original Screenplay and New Director. On its North American release, The Orphanage was praised by English-speaking critics, who described the film as well directed and well acted, and noted the film's lack of \"cheap scares\"; subsequently, New Line Cinema bought the rights to the film for an American remake.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn Spain, a young girl named Laura García Rodríguez is adopted from an orphanage. 30 years later, adult Laura returns to the closed orphanage, accompanied by her husband, Carlos Sánchez Rivera, and their seven-year-old son, Simón. She plans to reopen the orphanage as a facility for disabled children. Simón claims to have befriended a boy named Tomás, and draws pictures of him as a child wearing a sack mask. Social worker Benigna Escobedo visits the house to inquire after Simón, and it is revealed that Laura and Carlos adopted Simón and that he is HIV positive. Incensed at Benigna's intrusion, Laura asks her to leave. Later that night, Laura finds Benigna in the orphanage's coal shed, but Benigna flees the scene. Later, Simón teaches Laura a game which grants its winner a wish. Clues lead the two to Simón's adoption file. Simón becomes angry, and says that his new friend told him that Laura is not his biological mother and that he is going to die soon.\n\nDuring a party for the orphanage's opening, Laura and Simón argue, and Simón hides from her after she slaps him across the face in a fit of frustration, which she immediately regrets. While looking for him, she encounters a child wearing a sack mask who shoves her into a bathroom and locks her inside. When Laura escapes, she realizes that Simón is missing and is unable to find him. That night, Laura hears several loud crashes within the walls of the orphanage. Police psychologist Pilar suggests to Laura and Carlos that Benigna may have abducted Simón.\n\nSix months later, Simón is still missing. While searching for him, Laura spots Benigna, who is then struck and killed by an ambulance. The police find evidence that Benigna worked at the orphanage, and that she had a son named Tomás, who also lived there but was kept hidden due to his facial deformity. A few weeks after Laura was adopted, the orphans stole the mask that Tomás wore to conceal his deformed face. Embarrassed, Tomás refused to leave his hiding place in a nearby sea cave, and the rising tide drowned him.\n\nLaura asks for the assistance of a medium named Aurora in the search for Simón. Aurora conducts a seance during which she claims to see the ghosts of the orphans crying for help. Laura discovers the remains of the orphans she grew up with in the orphanage. Benigna poisoned their meals and killed them for having caused Tomás's death and hid their remains in the orphanage's coal shed. Unable to cope with the situation, Carlos leaves the orphanage.\n\nLaura makes the orphanage look as it did thirty years ago and attempts to contact the children's spirits by playing one of their old games. The spirits lead her to the door of a hidden underground room. Inside is Simón's corpse, wearing Tomás's mask. Laura finally realizes what happened: while searching for Simón the night he disappeared, Laura moved pieces of construction scaffolding, blocking the entrance to the secret room. The crashes that night were caused by Simón trying to get out. He fell and fatally broke his neck.\n\nLaura appears to take an overdose of sleeping pills. Then, apparently dying, she begs to be with Simón again and the children's spirits appear, with Simón among them. Simón tells Laura that his wish was for her to stay and take care of the orphans, she then happily tells them a story. Sometime later, Carlos visits a memorial to Laura, Simón and the orphans. Carlos returns to the orphans' old bedroom and finds a medallion that he had given to Laura. He turns to look as the door opens, and he smiles.\n\n## Cast\n\n- Belén Rueda as Laura García Rodríguez, the wife of Carlos and adoptive mother of Simón. Laura returns to the orphanage where she spent some of her youth to turn it into a home for disabled children. Mireia Renau portrays the younger Laura.\n- Fernando Cayo as Carlos Sánchez Rivera, the husband of Laura and adoptive father of Simón.\n- Roger Príncep as Simón Sánchez Rivera, the young adopted son of Laura and Carlos. Simón meets new imaginary friends in the orphanage and eventually threatens to run away with them.\n- Mabel Rivera as Pilar, the head police psychologist who eventually discovers the truth of who Benigna really is.\n- Montserrat Carulla as Benigna Escobedo, a former worker at the orphanage who identifies herself as a social worker. When she is seen young in the film, she is portrayed by Carol Suárez. Production companies working with Bayona tried to urge him to keep this character alive until the end of the film.\n- Geraldine Chaplin as Aurora, the medium brought in to help find Simón when the police can't find him.\n- Andrés Gertrúdix as Enrique, Aurora's sound technician.\n- Edgar Vivar as Professor Leo Balabán, a parapsychology expert who puts Laura in contact with Aurora and directs the spirit session in her house.\n- Óscar Casas as Tomás, the deformed son of Benigna who Simón claims to have befriended.\n\n## Production\n\n### Development\n\nThis was an international co-production film between Spain and Mexico. The first draft of the script of The Orphanage was written by Sergio G. Sánchez in 1996. Sánchez was not sure why he chose to write a genre film for the screenplay, as he explains, \"I ended up writing a film in the style of those I liked as a kid, movies like Poltergeist, The Omen, and Rosemary's Baby which I ruined on the first VCR we owned at home.\" Sánchez revealed the literary influences underlying his writing of the script, such as The Turn of the Screw and Peter Pan. Sánchez originally wanted to direct the script but he was repeatedly turned down by various Spanish production companies. While Sánchez was working on the short film 7337 in 2004, he met with director Juan Antonio Bayona and offered him the script to direct. Bayona accepted the opportunity because he felt that a fantasy themed script like that of The Orphanage would allow him freedom as a director, saying the fantasy genre was a great tool for learning as it \"allows manipulation of space and time as we wish or the use of certain camera moves with an immediate efficiency\".\n\nBayona cut parts of the script, including the outcome of the other orphanage children, because he wanted to focus on the character of Laura and what happens to her. To create the film as he wanted, Bayona had to double both the film's budget and the amount of filming time. To accomplish this, Bayona received help from fellow film director Guillermo del Toro, whom he had met at Festival de Cine de Sitges when del Toro was presenting his film Cronos (1993). Del Toro offered to co-produce the film as soon as he learned about it. For the rest of his crew, Bayona worked with his regular team that he worked with on commercials and music videos.\n\n### Casting\n\nDuring casting discussions between Bayona and del Toro, Bayona expressed a desire to see Belén Rueda in the lead. Bayona admired her after seeing her performance as Julia in Alejandro Amenabar's The Sea Inside. Del Toro appreciated this choice, as he admired her as an actress and liked that Bayona was casting her against type. Bayona asked Rueda to watch The Innocents and Close Encounters of the Third Kind to prepare for the role. Another actress Bayona desired for the film was Geraldine Chaplin in the role of Aurora, the medium. Bayona stated that he wanted the film to have \"the mood of 70s Spanish cinema and Geraldine starred in one of the best movies of that decade, Carlos Saura's The Secret of Anna, as the ghost of the mother. It made sense to have her play the medium.\" Bayona was nervous about filming with Chaplin. To break that tension, on the first day of shooting with her Bayona hid under a bed during a scene which required Chaplin to portray Aurora kneeling down near it in the dark, and he grabbed Chaplin's leg when she did so. Aurora's scream in the film is Chaplin's actual frightened scream as Bayona grabbed her. Roger Príncep's test-screening was one of the first for the role of Simón. Bayona test-screened over four-hundred children during two months before making his choice to cast Princep. Edgar Vivar was cast in role of Balabán; Bayona knew him through his work on the Mexican television series El Chavo and sent him an invitation for the role through e-mail.\n\n### Filming\n\nProduction on The Orphanage began on May 15, 2006 in Llanes, Asturias. This location was chosen due to the area's diverse natural settings that include beaches, caves, cliffs, forests, a small village, and the Partarríu Manor where the orphanage scenes take place. The orphanage was an old colonial house from the end of the nineteenth century. Bayona wanted to use certain cinematographic techniques that were impossible to achieve in the house, so several parts of the house were reconstructed in sound stages. After four weeks in Llanes, the team moved to Barcelona to finish up the last ten weeks of filming in sound stages, making over 80% of the film there. Bayona showed the films La residencia and The Innocents to his director of photography on the film, to make special notice of the Scope lensing used in both films.\n\n## Release\n\nThe Orphanage premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on May 20, 2007. The film was positively received with a ten-minute ovation from the audience. The film's Spanish debut took place at the Sitges Film Festival on October 4, 2007 where it opened the festival. The Orphanage premiered in Spain on September 10, 2007. The Orphanage was released in Spain on September 10, 2007 and was immensely successful in Spain after an \\$8.3 million four-day launch from 350 screens. The film was the second highest-grossing debut ever for a Spanish film and was the biggest opening of the year, making it even larger than the worldwide success of the Spanish-Mexican film Pan's Labyrinth. It opened in limited release in the United States on December 28, 2007 and had a wide release on January 11, 2008. It opened in Mexico on January 25, 2008 and earned over \\$11,000,000 at the box office.\n\nIn Spain, the film was nominated for 14 Goya Awards, including Best Picture and ended up winning awards for Best Art Direction, Best Director of Production, Best Makeup and Hair, Best New Director, Best Screenplay – Original, Best Sound Mixing, and Best Special Effects. The Orphanage was chosen by the Spanish Academy of Films as Spain's nominee for the 2007 Academy Award for Best Foreign Film, but ultimately did not end up as one of the five final nominees in that category. The Orphanage was picked up by Picturehouse at the Berlin Film Festival for American distribution.\n\nIn Iran, the film won Crystal Simorgh for Best Director at the \"Seeking the Truth\" section of the 27th Fajr International Film Festival.\n\n### Home media\n\nThe Orphanage was released on DVD and Blu-ray on April 22, 2008 for a Region 1 release by New Line Cinema. Both discs featured the same bonus features. A Region 2 version was released on DVD by Optimum Releasing on July 21, 2008.\n\n### Remake\n\nIn 2007, New Line Cinema bought the rights to produce an English-language remake with Guillermo del Toro as producer. On remakes, director Bayona noted that \"The Americans have all the money in the world but can't do anything, while we can do whatever we want but don't have the money\" and \"The American industry doesn't take chances, that's why they make remakes of movies that were already big hits\". On August 4, 2009, Larry Fessenden was announced as the director of the American remake. Fessenden later announced that he would not be involved with directing the remake, stating \"Working on the script with Guillermo was a very exciting experience, but then I got into a casting miasma and that's where the thing is; I think they're gonna do it another way, actually. So I think I'm out of it. Hopefully they'll still use my script, but I'm not sure I'm directing it anymore\". In January 2010, Mark Pellington replaced Larry Fessenden as director of the project.\n\nOn August 5, 2011, Guillermo del Toro stated that the remake would reflect his original vision for the film, and that it had been planned even when the first version was in production. \"Even when we produced the Spanish movie, I had intended to remake it because we had a very different screenplay that, because of money and time, got turned into the movie you saw – which is great, but there was this other structure for the original script that I wanted to try. So even before we shot the first film it was an economic decision, a pre-existing creative decision, to change it.\" Del Toro also praised the new film's director. \"We have Mark Pellington attached as director – I'm a big fan of his The Mothman Prophecies and his video work – and we are out to actors, so we're hoping to get things going soon.\" On August 30, 2011, it was reported that American actress Amy Adams was in talks to star as Laura, the main character, who was played by Belén Rueda in the original film. It was also stated that the current incarnation of the remake screenplay had been written by Larry Fessenden and Sergio G. Sánchez, the sole writer of the original film.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Critical response\n\nThe Orphanage was received very well by American critics on its original release. The film has an 87% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 178 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The critical consensus reads, \"Deeply unnerving and surprisingly poignant, The Orphanage is an atmospheric, beautifully crafted haunted house horror film that earns scares with a minimum of blood.\" At Metacritic, the film has received an average score of 74 out of 100, based on 33 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\n\nCritics praised the film for its lack of cheap scares. Film critic for the Chicago Sun Times Roger Ebert approved of the film claiming it to be \"deliberately aimed at viewers with developed attention spans. It lingers to create atmosphere, a sense of place, a sympathy with the characters, instead of rushing into cheap thrills\". Bill Goodykoontz of the Arizona Republic echoed this statement noting, \"Bayona never lets The Orphanage descend into cheap horror. The scares here are expertly done and, placed in the context of Laura's state of mind, well-earned, perhaps even explainable (or not).\" Peter Howell of the Toronto Star wrote, \"The year's best horror picture is also one of the simplest. The Orphanage makes little if any use of digital tricks to present its numerous terrors.\" The casting of Chaplin and Rueda was praised while the role of Carlos was called dull. Goodykoontz noted the role of Carlos, saying \"Cayo is rather pedestrian as Carlos, but he isn't given that much to do\". Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune shared this opinion saying, \"Rueda has a great pair of peepers for this assignment. When she looks one way and then the other, while skulking through the hallways of her childhood home, every nerve-wracking whatwasthat? registers, and how. Cayo is pretty dull by comparison, but Chaplin certainly is not.\" Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail praised Rueda stating, \"The strongest appeal of the film is the brooding, intense performance by Spanish actress, Belen Rueda.\"\n\nA negative review came from Lacey of The Globe and Mail, who felt that at \"[the film's] core, it seems intended as a sympathetic drama of a bereaved mother, who may have slipped into madness. What's even more disquieting is the persistent undercurrent of exploitation – the mixture of grief and jarring shock effects and the pitiless use of a disfigured child as a source of horror.\" A.O. Scott of The New York Times claimed the film to be a \"diverting, overwrought ghost story\" and that it \"relies on basic and durable horror movie techniques\". Jack Matthews of New York Daily News found the ending of the film to be one of the worst of the season, but praised the acting of Belén Rueda.\n\nThe Orphanage listed as one of the top 10 best films of 2007 by several critics, including Lawrence Toppman of the Charlotte Observer, Marc Doyle of Metacritic and Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club. Anthony Lane of The New Yorker included the film on his top ten list of 2008. In the early 2010s, Time Out conducted a poll with several authors, directors, actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films. The Orphanage placed at number 76 on their top 100 list.\n\n### Accolades\n\n\\|- \\| rowspan = \"21\" align = \"center\" \\| 2008 \\|\\| rowspan = \"14\" \\| 22nd Goya Awards \\|\\| colspan = \"2\" \\| Best Film \\|\\| \\|\\| rowspan = \"14\" \\| \\|- \\| Best Actress \\|\\| Belén Rueda \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Supporting Actress \\|\\| Geraldine Chaplin \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Original Screenplay \\|\\| Sergio G. Sánchez \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best New Actor \\|\\| Roger Príncep \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best New Director \\|\\| J. A. Bayona \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Editing \\|\\| Elena Ruiz \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Art Direction \\|\\| Josep Rosell \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Production Supervision \\|\\| Sandra Hermida \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Sound \\|\\| Xavi Mas, Marc Orts, Oriol Tarragó \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Special Effects \\|\\| David Martí, Montse Ribé, Pau Costa, Enric Masip, Lluís Castells, Jordi San Agustín \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Costume Design \\|\\| María Reyes \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Makeup and Hairstyles \\|\\| Lola López, Itziar Arrieta \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best Original Score \\|\\| Fernando Velázquez \\|\\| \\|- \\| rowspan = \"2\" \\| 17th Actors and Actresses Union Awards \\|\\| Best Film Actress in a Leading Role \\|\\| Belén Rueda \\|\\| \\|\\| rowspan = \"2\" \\| \\|- \\| Best Film Actress in a Minor Role \\|\\| Geraldine Chaplin \\|\\| \\|- \\| 13rd Forqué Awards \\|\\| colspan = \"2\" \\| Best Film \\|\\| \\|\\| align = \"center\" \\| \\|- \\| rowspan = \"4\" \\| 21st European Film Awards \\|\\| colspan = \"2\" \\| Best European Film \\|\\| \\|\\| rowspan = \"4\" \\| \\|- \\| Best European Actress \\|\\| Belén Rueda \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best European Cinematographer \\|\\| Óscar Faura \\|\\| \\|- \\| Best European Composer \\|\\| Fernando Velázquez \\|\\| \\|- \\| align = \"center\" \\| 2009 \\|\\| 57th Silver Condor Awards \\|\\| colspan = \"2\" \\| Best Ibero-American Film \\|\\| \\|\\| align = \"center\" \\|\n\n## Soundtrack\n\nIn 2007, the film score was composed by Fernando Velázquez and released on compact disc by Rhino Records in Spain. The score for the film was nominated for film awards including the Goya Award for Best Score. The soundtrack has not been released locally in North America or the United Kingdom and is only available by import.\n\n### Track listing\n\n## See also\n\n- List of ghost films\n- List of horror films of 2007\n- List of Spanish films of 2007\n- List of submissions to the 80th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film\n- List of Spanish submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film", "revid": "1171736936", "description": "2007 supernatural horror film", "categories": ["2000s Mexican films", "2000s Spanish films", "2000s Spanish-language films", "2000s supernatural horror films", "2007 directorial debut films", "2007 drama films", "2007 films", "2007 horror films", "Films about missing people", "Films about orphans", "Films directed by J. A. Bayona", "Films produced by Álvaro Augustin", "Films scored by Fernando Velázquez", "Films set in Spain", "Films shot in Asturias", "Films shot in Barcelona", "Gothic horror films", "Mexican ghost films", "Mexican supernatural horror films", "Picturehouse films", "Rodar y Rodar films", "Spanish ghost films", "Spanish haunted house films", "Spanish supernatural horror films", "Telecinco Cinema films", "Warner Bros. films"]}
{"id": "54112223", "url": null, "title": "Transcriptomics technologies", "text": "Transcriptomics technologies are the techniques used to study an organism's transcriptome, the sum of all of its RNA transcripts. The information content of an organism is recorded in the DNA of its genome and expressed through transcription. Here, mRNA serves as a transient intermediary molecule in the information network, whilst non-coding RNAs perform additional diverse functions. A transcriptome captures a snapshot in time of the total transcripts present in a cell. Transcriptomics technologies provide a broad account of which cellular processes are active and which are dormant. A major challenge in molecular biology is to understand how a single genome gives rise to a variety of cells. Another is how gene expression is regulated.\n\nThe first attempts to study whole transcriptomes began in the early 1990s. Subsequent technological advances since the late 1990s have repeatedly transformed the field and made transcriptomics a widespread discipline in biological sciences. There are two key contemporary techniques in the field: microarrays, which quantify a set of predetermined sequences, and RNA-Seq, which uses high-throughput sequencing to record all transcripts. As the technology improved, the volume of data produced by each transcriptome experiment increased. As a result, data analysis methods have steadily been adapted to more accurately and efficiently analyse increasingly large volumes of data. Transcriptome databases getting bigger and more useful as transcriptomes continue to be collected and shared by researchers. It would be almost impossible to interpret the information contained in a transcriptome without the knowledge of previous experiments.\n\nMeasuring the expression of an organism's genes in different tissues or conditions, or at different times, gives information on how genes are regulated and reveals details of an organism's biology. It can also be used to infer the functions of previously unannotated genes. Transcriptome analysis has enabled the study of how gene expression changes in different organisms and has been instrumental in the understanding of human disease. An analysis of gene expression in its entirety allows detection of broad coordinated trends which cannot be discerned by more targeted assays.\n\n## History\n\nTranscriptomics has been characterised by the development of new techniques which have redefined what is possible every decade or so and rendered previous technologies obsolete. The first attempt at capturing a partial human transcriptome was published in 1991 and reported 609 mRNA sequences from the human brain. In 2008, two human transcriptomes, composed of millions of transcript-derived sequences covering 16,000 genes, were published, and by 2015 transcriptomes had been published for hundreds of individuals. Transcriptomes of different disease states, tissues, or even single cells are now routinely generated. This explosion in transcriptomics has been driven by the rapid development of new technologies with improved sensitivity and economy.\n\n### Before transcriptomics\n\nStudies of individual transcripts were being performed several decades before any transcriptomics approaches were available. Libraries of silkmoth mRNA transcripts were collected and converted to complementary DNA (cDNA) for storage using reverse transcriptase in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, low-throughput sequencing using the Sanger method was used to sequence random transcripts, producing expressed sequence tags (ESTs). The Sanger method of sequencing was predominant until the advent of high-throughput methods such as sequencing by synthesis (Solexa/Illumina). ESTs came to prominence during the 1990s as an efficient method to determine the gene content of an organism without sequencing the entire genome. Amounts of individual transcripts were quantified using Northern blotting, nylon membrane arrays, and later reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) methods, but these methods are laborious and can only capture a tiny subsection of a transcriptome. Consequently, the manner in which a transcriptome as a whole is expressed and regulated remained unknown until higher-throughput techniques were developed.\n\n### Early attempts\n\nThe word \"transcriptome\" was first used in the 1990s. In 1995, one of the earliest sequencing-based transcriptomic methods was developed, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), which worked by Sanger sequencing of concatenated random transcript fragments. Transcripts were quantified by matching the fragments to known genes. A variant of SAGE using high-throughput sequencing techniques, called digital gene expression analysis, was also briefly used. However, these methods were largely overtaken by high throughput sequencing of entire transcripts, which provided additional information on transcript structure such as splice variants.\n\n### Development of contemporary techniques\n\nThe dominant contemporary techniques, microarrays and RNA-Seq, were developed in the mid-1990s and 2000s. Microarrays that measure the abundances of a defined set of transcripts via their hybridisation to an array of complementary probes were first published in 1995. Microarray technology allowed the assay of thousands of transcripts simultaneously and at a greatly reduced cost per gene and labour saving. Both spotted oligonucleotide arrays and Affymetrix high-density arrays were the method of choice for transcriptional profiling until the late 2000s. Over this period, a range of microarrays were produced to cover known genes in model or economically important organisms. Advances in design and manufacture of arrays improved the specificity of probes and allowed more genes to be tested on a single array. Advances in fluorescence detection increased the sensitivity and measurement accuracy for low abundance transcripts.\n\nRNA-Seq is accomplished by reverse transcribing RNA in vitro and sequencing the resulting cDNAs. Transcript abundance is derived from the number of counts from each transcript. The technique has therefore been heavily influenced by the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies. Massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) was an early example based on generating 16–20 bp sequences via a complex series of hybridisations, and was used in 2004 to validate the expression of ten thousand genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. The earliest RNA-Seq work was published in 2006 with one hundred thousand transcripts sequenced using 454 technology. This was sufficient coverage to quantify relative transcript abundance. RNA-Seq began to increase in popularity after 2008 when new Solexa/Illumina technologies allowed one billion transcript sequences to be recorded. This yield now allows for the quantification and comparison of human transcriptomes.\n\n## Data gathering\n\nGenerating data on RNA transcripts can be achieved via either of two main principles: sequencing of individual transcripts (ESTs, or RNA-Seq) or hybridisation of transcripts to an ordered array of nucleotide probes (microarrays).\n\n### Isolation of RNA\n\nAll transcriptomic methods require RNA to first be isolated from the experimental organism before transcripts can be recorded. Although biological systems are incredibly diverse, RNA extraction techniques are broadly similar and involve mechanical disruption of cells or tissues, disruption of RNase with chaotropic salts, disruption of macromolecules and nucleotide complexes, separation of RNA from undesired biomolecules including DNA, and concentration of the RNA via precipitation from solution or elution from a solid matrix. Isolated RNA may additionally be treated with DNase to digest any traces of DNA. It is necessary to enrich messenger RNA as total RNA extracts are typically 98% ribosomal RNA. Enrichment for transcripts can be performed by poly-A affinity methods or by depletion of ribosomal RNA using sequence-specific probes. Degraded RNA may affect downstream results; for example, mRNA enrichment from degraded samples will result in the depletion of 5’ mRNA ends and an uneven signal across the length of a transcript. Snap-freezing of tissue prior to RNA isolation is typical, and care is taken to reduce exposure to RNase enzymes once isolation is complete.\n\n### Expressed sequence tags\n\nAn expressed sequence tag (EST) is a short nucleotide sequence generated from a single RNA transcript. RNA is first copied as complementary DNA (cDNA) by a reverse transcriptase enzyme before the resultant cDNA is sequenced. Because ESTs can be collected without prior knowledge of the organism from which they come, they can be made from mixtures of organisms or environmental samples. Although higher-throughput methods are now used, EST libraries commonly provided sequence information for early microarray designs; for example, a barley microarray was designed from 350,000 previously sequenced ESTs.\n\n### Serial and cap analysis of gene expression (SAGE/CAGE)\n\nSerial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) was a development of EST methodology to increase the throughput of the tags generated and allow some quantitation of transcript abundance. cDNA is generated from the RNA but is then digested into 11 bp \"tag\" fragments using restriction enzymes that cut DNA at a specific sequence, and 11 base pairs along from that sequence. These cDNA tags are then joined head-to-tail into long strands (\\>500 bp) and sequenced using low-throughput, but long read-length methods such as Sanger sequencing. The sequences are then divided back into their original 11 bp tags using computer software in a process called deconvolution. If a high-quality reference genome is available, these tags may be matched to their corresponding gene in the genome. If a reference genome is unavailable, the tags can be directly used as diagnostic markers if found to be differentially expressed in a disease state.\n\nThe cap analysis gene expression (CAGE) method is a variant of SAGE that sequences tags from the 5’ end of an mRNA transcript only. Therefore, the transcriptional start site of genes can be identified when the tags are aligned to a reference genome. Identifying gene start sites is of use for promoter analysis and for the cloning of full-length cDNAs.\n\nSAGE and CAGE methods produce information on more genes than was possible when sequencing single ESTs, but sample preparation and data analysis are typically more labour-intensive.\n\n### Microarrays\n\n#### Principles and advances\n\nMicroarrays usually consist of a grid of short nucleotide oligomers, known as \"probes\", typically arranged on a glass slide. Transcript abundance is determined by hybridisation of fluorescently labelled transcripts to these probes. The fluorescence intensity at each probe location on the array indicates the transcript abundance for that probe sequence. Groups of probes designed to measure the same transcript (i.e., hybridizing a specific transcript in different positions) are usually referred to as \"probesets\".\n\nMicroarrays require some genomic knowledge from the organism of interest, for example, in the form of an annotated genome sequence, or a library of ESTs that can be used to generate the probes for the array.\n\n#### Methods\n\nMicroarrays for transcriptomics typically fall into one of two broad categories: low-density spotted arrays or high-density short probe arrays. Transcript abundance is inferred from the intensity of fluorescence derived from fluorophore-tagged transcripts that bind to the array.\n\nSpotted low-density arrays typically feature picolitre drops of a range of purified cDNAs arrayed on the surface of a glass slide. These probes are longer than those of high-density arrays and cannot identify alternative splicing events. Spotted arrays use two different fluorophores to label the test and control samples, and the ratio of fluorescence is used to calculate a relative measure of abundance. High-density arrays use a single fluorescent label, and each sample is hybridised and detected individually. High-density arrays were popularised by the Affymetrix GeneChip array, where each transcript is quantified by several short 25-mer probes that together assay one gene.\n\nNimbleGen arrays were a high-density array produced by a maskless-photochemistry method, which permitted flexible manufacture of arrays in small or large numbers. These arrays had 100,000s of 45 to 85-mer probes and were hybridised with a one-colour labelled sample for expression analysis. Some designs incorporated up to 12 independent arrays per slide.\n\n### RNA-Seq\n\n#### Principles and advances\n\nRNA-Seq refers to the combination of a high-throughput sequencing methodology with computational methods to capture and quantify transcripts present in an RNA extract. The nucleotide sequences generated are typically around 100 bp in length, but can range from 30 bp to over 10,000 bp depending on the sequencing method used. RNA-Seq leverages deep sampling of the transcriptome with many short fragments from a transcriptome to allow computational reconstruction of the original RNA transcript by aligning reads to a reference genome or to each other (de novo assembly). Both low-abundance and high-abundance RNAs can be quantified in an RNA-Seq experiment (dynamic range of 5 orders of magnitude)—a key advantage over microarray transcriptomes. In addition, input RNA amounts are much lower for RNA-Seq (nanogram quantity) compared to microarrays (microgram quantity), which allows finer examination of cellular structures down to the single-cell level when combined with linear amplification of cDNA. Theoretically, there is no upper limit of quantification in RNA-Seq, and background noise is very low for 100 bp reads in non-repetitive regions.\n\nRNA-Seq may be used to identify genes within a genome, or identify which genes are active at a particular point in time, and read counts can be used to accurately model the relative gene expression level. RNA-Seq methodology has constantly improved, primarily through the development of DNA sequencing technologies to increase throughput, accuracy, and read length. Since the first descriptions in 2006 and 2008, RNA-Seq has been rapidly adopted and overtook microarrays as the dominant transcriptomics technique in 2015.\n\nThe quest for transcriptome data at the level of individual cells has driven advances in RNA-Seq library preparation methods, resulting in dramatic advances in sensitivity. Single-cell transcriptomes are now well described and have even been extended to in situ RNA-Seq where transcriptomes of individual cells are directly interrogated in fixed tissues.\n\n#### Methods\n\nRNA-Seq was established in concert with the rapid development of a range of high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies. However, before the extracted RNA transcripts are sequenced, several key processing steps are performed. Methods differ in the use of transcript enrichment, fragmentation, amplification, single or paired-end sequencing, and whether to preserve strand information.\n\nThe sensitivity of an RNA-Seq experiment can be increased by enriching classes of RNA that are of interest and depleting known abundant RNAs. The mRNA molecules can be separated using oligonucleotides probes which bind their poly-A tails. Alternatively, ribo-depletion can be used to specifically remove abundant but uninformative ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) by hybridisation to probes tailored to the taxon's specific rRNA sequences (e.g. mammal rRNA, plant rRNA). However, ribo-depletion can also introduce some bias via non-specific depletion of off-target transcripts. Small RNAs, such as micro RNAs, can be purified based on their size by gel electrophoresis and extraction.\n\nSince mRNAs are longer than the read-lengths of typical high-throughput sequencing methods, transcripts are usually fragmented prior to sequencing. The fragmentation method is a key aspect of sequencing library construction. Fragmentation may be achieved by chemical hydrolysis, nebulisation, sonication, or reverse transcription with chain-terminating nucleotides. Alternatively, fragmentation and cDNA tagging may be done simultaneously by using transposase enzymes.\n\nDuring preparation for sequencing, cDNA copies of transcripts may be amplified by PCR to enrich for fragments that contain the expected 5’ and 3’ adapter sequences. Amplification is also used to allow sequencing of very low input amounts of RNA, down to as little as 50 pg in extreme applications. Spike-in controls of known RNAs can be used for quality control assessment to check library preparation and sequencing, in terms of GC-content, fragment length, as well as the bias due to fragment position within a transcript. Unique molecular identifiers (UMIs) are short random sequences that are used to individually tag sequence fragments during library preparation so that every tagged fragment is unique. UMIs provide an absolute scale for quantification, the opportunity to correct for subsequent amplification bias introduced during library construction, and accurately estimate the initial sample size. UMIs are particularly well-suited to single-cell RNA-Seq transcriptomics, where the amount of input RNA is restricted and extended amplification of the sample is required.\n\nOnce the transcript molecules have been prepared they can be sequenced in just one direction (single-end) or both directions (paired-end). A single-end sequence is usually quicker to produce, cheaper than paired-end sequencing and sufficient for quantification of gene expression levels. Paired-end sequencing produces more robust alignments/assemblies, which is beneficial for gene annotation and transcript isoform discovery. Strand-specific RNA-Seq methods preserve the strand information of a sequenced transcript. Without strand information, reads can be aligned to a gene locus but do not inform in which direction the gene is transcribed. Stranded-RNA-Seq is useful for deciphering transcription for genes that overlap in different directions and to make more robust gene predictions in non-model organisms.\n\nLegend: NCBI SRA – National center for biotechnology information sequence read archive.\n\nCurrently RNA-Seq relies on copying RNA molecules into cDNA molecules prior to sequencing; therefore, the subsequent platforms are the same for transcriptomic and genomic data. Consequently, the development of DNA sequencing technologies has been a defining feature of RNA-Seq. Direct sequencing of RNA using nanopore sequencing represents a current state-of-the-art RNA-Seq technique. Nanopore sequencing of RNA can detect modified bases that would be otherwise masked when sequencing cDNA and also eliminates amplification steps that can otherwise introduce bias.\n\nThe sensitivity and accuracy of an RNA-Seq experiment are dependent on the number of reads obtained from each sample. A large number of reads are needed to ensure sufficient coverage of the transcriptome, enabling detection of low abundance transcripts. Experimental design is further complicated by sequencing technologies with a limited output range, the variable efficiency of sequence creation, and variable sequence quality. Added to those considerations is that every species has a different number of genes and therefore requires a tailored sequence yield for an effective transcriptome. Early studies determined suitable thresholds empirically, but as the technology matured suitable coverage was predicted computationally by transcriptome saturation. Somewhat counter-intuitively, the most effective way to improve detection of differential expression in low expression genes is to add more biological replicates rather than adding more reads. The current benchmarks recommended by the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Project are for 70-fold exome coverage for standard RNA-Seq and up to 500-fold exome coverage to detect rare transcripts and isoforms.\n\n## Data analysis\n\nTranscriptomics methods are highly parallel and require significant computation to produce meaningful data for both microarray and RNA-Seq experiments. Microarray data is recorded as high-resolution images, requiring feature detection and spectral analysis. Microarray raw image files are each about 750 MB in size, while the processed intensities are around 60 MB in size. Multiple short probes matching a single transcript can reveal details about the intron-exon structure, requiring statistical models to determine the authenticity of the resulting signal. RNA-Seq studies produce billions of short DNA sequences, which must be aligned to reference genomes composed of millions to billions of base pairs. De novo assembly of reads within a dataset requires the construction of highly complex sequence graphs. RNA-Seq operations are highly repetitious and benefit from parallelised computation but modern algorithms mean consumer computing hardware is sufficient for simple transcriptomics experiments that do not require de novo assembly of reads. A human transcriptome could be accurately captured using RNA-Seq with 30 million 100 bp sequences per sample. This example would require approximately 1.8 gigabytes of disk space per sample when stored in a compressed fastq format. Processed count data for each gene would be much smaller, equivalent to processed microarray intensities. Sequence data may be stored in public repositories, such as the Sequence Read Archive (SRA). RNA-Seq datasets can be uploaded via the Gene Expression Omnibus.\n\n### Image processing\n\nMicroarray image processing must correctly identify the regular grid of features within an image and independently quantify the fluorescence intensity for each feature. Image artefacts must be additionally identified and removed from the overall analysis. Fluorescence intensities directly indicate the abundance of each sequence, since the sequence of each probe on the array is already known.\n\nThe first steps of RNA-seq also include similar image processing; however, conversion of images to sequence data is typically handled automatically by the instrument software. The Illumina sequencing-by-synthesis method results in an array of clusters distributed over the surface of a flow cell. The flow cell is imaged up to four times during each sequencing cycle, with tens to hundreds of cycles in total. Flow cell clusters are analogous to microarray spots and must be correctly identified during the early stages of the sequencing process. In Roche’s pyrosequencing method, the intensity of emitted light determines the number of consecutive nucleotides in a homopolymer repeat. There are many variants on these methods, each with a different error profile for the resulting data.\n\n### RNA-Seq data analysis\n\nRNA-Seq experiments generate a large volume of raw sequence reads which have to be processed to yield useful information. Data analysis usually requires a combination of bioinformatics software tools (see also List of RNA-Seq bioinformatics tools) that vary according to the experimental design and goals. The process can be broken down into four stages: quality control, alignment, quantification, and differential expression. Most popular RNA-Seq programs are run from a command-line interface, either in a Unix environment or within the R/Bioconductor statistical environment.\n\n#### Quality control\n\nSequence reads are not perfect, so the accuracy of each base in the sequence needs to be estimated for downstream analyses. Raw data is examined to ensure: quality scores for base calls are high, the GC content matches the expected distribution, short sequence motifs (k-mers) are not over-represented, and the read duplication rate is acceptably low. Several software options exist for sequence quality analysis, including FastQC and FaQCs. Abnormalities may be removed (trimming) or tagged for special treatment during later processes.\n\n#### Alignment\n\nIn order to link sequence read abundance to the expression of a particular gene, transcript sequences are aligned to a reference genome or de novo aligned to one another if no reference is available. The key challenges for alignment software include sufficient speed to permit billions of short sequences to be aligned in a meaningful timeframe, flexibility to recognise and deal with intron splicing of eukaryotic mRNA, and correct assignment of reads that map to multiple locations. Software advances have greatly addressed these issues, and increases in sequencing read length reduce the chance of ambiguous read alignments. A list of currently available high-throughput sequence aligners is maintained by the EBI.\n\nAlignment of primary transcript mRNA sequences derived from eukaryotes to a reference genome requires specialised handling of intron sequences, which are absent from mature mRNA. Short read aligners perform an additional round of alignments specifically designed to identify splice junctions, informed by canonical splice site sequences and known intron splice site information. Identification of intron splice junctions prevents reads from being misaligned across splice junctions or erroneously discarded, allowing more reads to be aligned to the reference genome and improving the accuracy of gene expression estimates. Since gene regulation may occur at the mRNA isoform level, splice-aware alignments also permit detection of isoform abundance changes that would otherwise be lost in a bulked analysis.\n\nDe novo assembly can be used to align reads to one another to construct full-length transcript sequences without use of a reference genome. Challenges particular to de novo assembly include larger computational requirements compared to a reference-based transcriptome, additional validation of gene variants or fragments, and additional annotation of assembled transcripts. The first metrics used to describe transcriptome assemblies, such as N50, have been shown to be misleading and improved evaluation methods are now available. Annotation-based metrics are better assessments of assembly completeness, such as contig reciprocal best hit count. Once assembled de novo, the assembly can be used as a reference for subsequent sequence alignment methods and quantitative gene expression analysis.\n\nLegend: RAM – random access memory; MPI – message passing interface; EST – expressed sequence tag.\n\n#### Quantification\n\nQuantification of sequence alignments may be performed at the gene, exon, or transcript level. Typical outputs include a table of read counts for each feature supplied to the software; for example, for genes in a general feature format file. Gene and exon read counts may be calculated quite easily using HTSeq, for example. Quantitation at the transcript level is more complicated and requires probabilistic methods to estimate transcript isoform abundance from short read information; for example, using cufflinks software. Reads that align equally well to multiple locations must be identified and either removed, aligned to one of the possible locations, or aligned to the most probable location.\n\nSome quantification methods can circumvent the need for an exact alignment of a read to a reference sequence altogether. The kallisto software method combines pseudoalignment and quantification into a single step that runs 2 orders of magnitude faster than contemporary methods such as those used by tophat/cufflinks software, with less computational burden.\n\n#### Differential expression\n\nOnce quantitative counts of each transcript are available, differential gene expression is measured by normalising, modelling, and statistically analysing the data. Most tools will read a table of genes and read counts as their input, but some programs, such as cuffdiff, will accept binary alignment map format read alignments as input. The final outputs of these analyses are gene lists with associated pair-wise tests for differential expression between treatments and the probability estimates of those differences.\n\nLegend: mRNA - messenger RNA.\n\n### Validation\n\nTranscriptomic analyses may be validated using an independent technique, for example, quantitative PCR (qPCR), which is recognisable and statistically assessable. Gene expression is measured against defined standards both for the gene of interest and control genes. The measurement by qPCR is similar to that obtained by RNA-Seq wherein a value can be calculated for the concentration of a target region in a given sample. qPCR is, however, restricted to amplicons smaller than 300 bp, usually toward the 3’ end of the coding region, avoiding the 3’UTR. If validation of transcript isoforms is required, an inspection of RNA-Seq read alignments should indicate where qPCR primers might be placed for maximum discrimination. The measurement of multiple control genes along with the genes of interest produces a stable reference within a biological context. qPCR validation of RNA-Seq data has generally shown that different RNA-Seq methods are highly correlated.\n\nFunctional validation of key genes is an important consideration for post transcriptome planning. Observed gene expression patterns may be functionally linked to a phenotype by an independent knock-down/rescue study in the organism of interest.\n\n## Applications\n\n### Diagnostics and disease profiling\n\nTranscriptomic strategies have seen broad application across diverse areas of biomedical research, including disease diagnosis and profiling. RNA-Seq approaches have allowed for the large-scale identification of transcriptional start sites, uncovered alternative promoter usage, and novel splicing alterations. These regulatory elements are important in human disease and, therefore, defining such variants is crucial to the interpretation of disease-association studies. RNA-Seq can also identify disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), allele-specific expression, and gene fusions, which contributes to the understanding of disease causal variants.\n\nRetrotransposons are transposable elements which proliferate within eukaryotic genomes through a process involving reverse transcription. RNA-Seq can provide information about the transcription of endogenous retrotransposons that may influence the transcription of neighboring genes by various epigenetic mechanisms that lead to disease. Similarly, the potential for using RNA-Seq to understand immune-related disease is expanding rapidly due to the ability to dissect immune cell populations and to sequence T cell and B cell receptor repertoires from patients.\n\n### Human and pathogen transcriptomes\n\nRNA-Seq of human pathogens has become an established method for quantifying gene expression changes, identifying novel virulence factors, predicting antibiotic resistance, and unveiling host-pathogen immune interactions. A primary aim of this technology is to develop optimised infection control measures and targeted individualised treatment.\n\nTranscriptomic analysis has predominantly focused on either the host or the pathogen. Dual RNA-Seq has been applied to simultaneously profile RNA expression in both the pathogen and host throughout the infection process. This technique enables the study of the dynamic response and interspecies gene regulatory networks in both interaction partners from initial contact through to invasion and the final persistence of the pathogen or clearance by the host immune system.\n\n### Responses to environment\n\nTranscriptomics allows identification of genes and pathways that respond to and counteract biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. The non-targeted nature of transcriptomics allows the identification of novel transcriptional networks in complex systems. For example, comparative analysis of a range of chickpea lines at different developmental stages identified distinct transcriptional profiles associated with drought and salinity stresses, including identifying the role of transcript isoforms of AP2-EREBP. Investigation of gene expression during biofilm formation by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans revealed a co-regulated set of genes critical for biofilm establishment and maintenance.\n\nTranscriptomic profiling also provides crucial information on mechanisms of drug resistance. Analysis of over 1000 isolates of Plasmodium falciparum, a virulent parasite responsible for malaria in humans, identified that upregulation of the unfolded protein response and slower progression through the early stages of the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle were associated with artemisinin resistance in isolates from Southeast Asia.\n\nThe use of transcriptomics is also important to investigate responses in the marine environment. In marine ecology, \"stress\" and \"adaptation\" have been among the most common research topics, especially related to anthropogenic stress, such as global change and pollution. Most of the studies in this area have been done in animals, although invertebrates have been underrepresented. One issue still is a deficiency in functional genetic studies, which hamper gene annotations, especially for non-model species, and can lead to vague conclusions on the effects of responses studied.\n\n### Gene function annotation\n\nAll transcriptomic techniques have been particularly useful in identifying the functions of genes and identifying those responsible for particular phenotypes. Transcriptomics of Arabidopsis ecotypes that hyperaccumulate metals correlated genes involved in metal uptake, tolerance, and homeostasis with the phenotype. Integration of RNA-Seq datasets across different tissues has been used to improve annotation of gene functions in commercially important organisms (e.g. cucumber) or threatened species (e.g. koala).\n\nAssembly of RNA-Seq reads is not dependent on a reference genome and so is ideal for gene expression studies of non-model organisms with non-existing or poorly developed genomic resources. For example, a database of SNPs used in Douglas fir breeding programs was created by de novo transcriptome analysis in the absence of a sequenced genome. Similarly, genes that function in the development of cardiac, muscle, and nervous tissue in lobsters were identified by comparing the transcriptomes of the various tissue types without use of a genome sequence. RNA-Seq can also be used to identify previously unknown protein coding regions in existing sequenced genomes.\n\n#### A transcriptome based aging clock\n\nAging-related preventive interventions are not possible without personal aging speed measurement. The most up to date and complex way to measure aging rate is by using varying biomarkers of human aging is based on the utilization of deep neural networks which may be trained on any type of omics biological data to predict the subject's age. Aging has been shown to be a strong driver of transcriptome changes. Aging clocks based on transcriptomes have suffered from considerable variation in the data and relatively low accuracy. However an approach that uses temporal scaling and binarization of transcriptomes to define a gene set that predicts biological age with an accuracy allowed to reach an assessment close to the theoretical limit.\n\n### Non-coding RNA\n\nTranscriptomics is most commonly applied to the mRNA content of the cell. However, the same techniques are equally applicable to non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that are not translated into a protein, but instead have direct functions (e.g. roles in protein translation, DNA replication, RNA splicing, and transcriptional regulation). Many of these ncRNAs affect disease states, including cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases.\n\n## Transcriptome databases\n\nTranscriptomics studies generate large amounts of data that have potential applications far beyond the original aims of an experiment. As such, raw or processed data may be deposited in public databases to ensure their utility for the broader scientific community. For example, as of 2018, the Gene Expression Omnibus contained millions of experiments.\n\nLegend: NCBI – National Center for Biotechnology Information; EBI – European Bioinformatics Institute; DDBJ – DNA Data Bank of Japan; ENA – European Nucleotide Archive; MIAME – Minimum Information About a Microarray Experiment; MINSEQE – Minimum Information about a high-throughput nucleotide SEQuencing Experiment.\n\n## See also\n\n- omics\n  - Genomics\n  - Proteomics\n  - Metabolomics\n  - Venomics", "revid": "1172214984", "description": "Study of RNA transcripts", "categories": ["Molecular biology", "Omics"]}
{"id": "28017", "url": null, "title": "Sirius", "text": "Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky. Its name is derived from the Greek word Σείριος, or Seirios, meaning lit. 'glowing' or 'scorching'. The star is designated α Canis Majoris, Latinized to Alpha Canis Majoris, and abbreviated α CMa or Alpha CMa. With a visual apparent magnitude of −1.46, Sirius is almost twice as bright as Canopus, the next brightest star. Sirius is a binary star consisting of a main-sequence star of spectral type A0 or A1, termed Sirius A, and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA2, termed Sirius B. The distance between the two varies between 8.2 and 31.5 astronomical units as they orbit every 50 years.\n\nSirius appears bright because of its intrinsic luminosity and its proximity to the Solar System. At a distance of 2.64 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system is one of Earth's nearest neighbours. Sirius is gradually moving closer to the Solar System; it is expected to increase in brightness slightly over the next 60,000 years to reach a peak magnitude of −1.68. Coincidentally, at about the same time, Sirius will take its turn as the southern Pole Star, around the year 66270. In that year, Sirius will come to within 1.6 degrees of the south celestial pole. This is due to precession and proper motion of Sirius itself which moves slowly in the SSW direction. So it will be visible from the southern hemisphere only.\n\nAfter that time, its distance will begin to increase, and it will become fainter, but it will continue to be the brightest star in the Earth's night sky for approximately the next 210,000 years, at which point Vega, another A-type star that is intrinsically more luminous than Sirius, becomes the brightest star.\n\nSirius A is about twice as massive as the Sun () and has an absolute visual magnitude of +1.43. It is 25 times as luminous as the Sun, but has a significantly lower luminosity than other bright stars such as Canopus, Betelgeuse, or Rigel. The system is between 200 and 300 million years old. It was originally composed of two bright bluish stars. The initially more massive of these, Sirius B, consumed its hydrogen fuel and became a red giant before shedding its outer layers and collapsing into its current state as a white dwarf around 120 million years ago.\n\nSirius is colloquially known as the \"Dog Star\", reflecting its prominence in its constellation, Canis Major (the Greater Dog). The heliacal rising of Sirius marked the flooding of the Nile in Ancient Egypt and the \"dog days\" of summer for the ancient Greeks, while to the Polynesians, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, the star marked winter and was an important reference for their navigation around the Pacific Ocean.\n\n## Observational history\n\nThe brightest star seen from Earth, Sirius is recorded in some of the earliest astronomical records. Its displacement from the ecliptic causes its heliacal rising to be remarkably regular compared to other stars, with a period of almost exactly 365.25 days holding it constant relative to the solar year. This rising occurs at Cairo on 19 July (Julian), placing it just before the onset of the annual flooding of the Nile during antiquity. Owing to the flood's own irregularity, the extreme precision of the star's return made it important to the ancient Egyptians, who worshipped it as the goddess Sopdet (Ancient Egyptian: Spdt, \"Triangle\"; Greek: }, Sō̂this), guarantor of the fertility of their land.\n\nThe ancient Greeks observed that the appearance of Sirius as the morning star heralded the hot and dry summer and feared that the star caused plants to wilt, men to weaken, and women to become aroused. Owing to its brightness, Sirius would have been seen to twinkle more in the unsettled weather conditions of early summer. To Greek observers, this signified emanations that caused its malignant influence. Anyone suffering its effects was said to be \"star-struck\" (ἀστροβόλητος, astrobólētos). It was described as \"burning\" or \"flaming\" in literature. The season following the star's reappearance came to be known as the \"dog days\". The inhabitants of the island of Ceos in the Aegean Sea would offer sacrifices to Sirius and Zeus to bring cooling breezes and would await the reappearance of the star in summer. If it rose clear, it would portend good fortune; if it was misty or faint then it foretold (or emanated) pestilence. Coins retrieved from the island from the 3rd century BC feature dogs or stars with emanating rays, highlighting Sirius's importance.\n\nThe Romans celebrated the heliacal setting of Sirius around 25 April, sacrificing a dog, along with incense, wine, and a sheep, to the goddess Robigo so that the star's emanations would not cause wheat rust on wheat crops that year.\n\nBright stars were important to the ancient Polynesians for navigation of the Pacific Ocean. They also served as latitude markers; the declination of Sirius matches the latitude of the archipelago of Fiji at 17°S and thus passes directly over the islands each sidereal day. Sirius served as the body of a \"Great Bird\" constellation called Manu, with Canopus as the southern wingtip and Procyon the northern wingtip, which divided the Polynesian night sky into two hemispheres. Just as the appearance of Sirius in the morning sky marked summer in Greece, it marked the onset of winter for the Māori, whose name Takurua described both the star and the season. Its culmination at the winter solstice was marked by celebration in Hawaii, where it was known as Ka'ulua, \"Queen of Heaven\". Many other Polynesian names have been recorded, including Tau-ua in the Marquesas Islands, Rehua in New Zealand, and Ta'urua-fau-papa \"Festivity of original high chiefs\" and Ta'urua-e-hiti-i-te-tara-te-feiai \"Festivity who rises with prayers and religious ceremonies\" in Tahiti.\n\n### Kinematics\n\nIn 1717, Edmond Halley discovered the proper motion of the hitherto presumed fixed stars after comparing contemporary astrometric measurements with those from the second century AD given in Ptolemy's Almagest. The bright stars Aldebaran, Arcturus and Sirius were noted to have moved significantly; Sirius had progressed about 30 arcminutes (about the diameter of the Moon) to the southwest.\n\nIn 1868, Sirius became the first star to have its velocity measured, the beginning of the study of celestial radial velocities. Sir William Huggins examined the spectrum of the star and observed a red shift. He concluded that Sirius was receding from the Solar System at about 40 km/s. Compared to the modern value of −5.5 km/s, this was an overestimate and had the wrong sign; the minus sign (−) means that it is approaching the Sun.\n\n### Distance\n\nIn his 1698 book, Cosmotheoros, Christiaan Huygens estimated the distance to Sirius at 27,664 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun (about 0.437 light-year, translating to a parallax of roughly 7.5 arcseconds). There were several unsuccessful attempts to measure the parallax of Sirius: by Jacques Cassini (6 seconds); by some astronomers (including Nevil Maskelyne) using Lacaille's observations made at the Cape of Good Hope (4 seconds); by Piazzi (the same amount); using Lacaille's observations made at Paris, more numerous and certain than those made at the Cape (no sensible parallax); by Bessel (no sensible parallax).\n\nScottish astronomer Thomas Henderson used his observations made in 1832–1833 and South African astronomer Thomas Maclear's observations made in 1836–1837, to determine that the value of the parallax was 0.23 arcsecond, and error of the parallax was estimated not to exceed a quarter of a second, or as Henderson wrote in 1839, \"On the whole we may conclude that the parallax of Sirius is not greater than half a second in space; and that it is probably much less.\" Astronomers adopted a value of 0.25 arcsecond for much of the 19th century. It is now known to have a parallax of nearly 0.4 arcseconds.\n\nThe Hipparcos parallax for Sirius is only accurate to about  light years, giving a distance of 8.6 light years. Sirius B is generally assumed to be at the same distance. Sirius B has a Gaia Data Release 3 parallax with a much smaller statistical margin of error, giving a distance of 8.709±0.005 light years, but it is flagged as having a very large value for astrometric excess noise, which indicates that the parallax value may be unreliable.\n\n### Discovery of Sirius B\n\nIn a letter dated 10 August 1844, the German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel deduced from changes in the proper motion of Sirius that it had an unseen companion. On 31 January 1862, American telescope-maker and astronomer Alvan Graham Clark first observed the faint companion, which is now called Sirius B, or affectionately \"the Pup\". This happened during testing of an 18.5-inch (470 mm) aperture great refractor telescope for Dearborn Observatory, which was one of the largest refracting telescope lenses in existence at the time, and the largest telescope in the United States. Sirius B's sighting was confirmed on 8 March with smaller telescopes.\n\nThe visible star is now sometimes known as Sirius A. Since 1894, some apparent orbital irregularities in the Sirius system have been observed, suggesting a third very small companion star, but this has never been confirmed. The best fit to the data indicates a six-year orbit around Sirius A and a mass of . This star would be five to ten magnitudes fainter than the white dwarf Sirius B, which would make it difficult to observe. Observations published in 2008 were unable to detect either a third star or a planet. An apparent \"third star\" observed in the 1920s is now believed to be a background object.\n\nIn 1915, Walter Sydney Adams, using a 60-inch (1.5 m) reflector at Mount Wilson Observatory, observed the spectrum of Sirius B and determined that it was a faint whitish star. This led astronomers to conclude that it was a white dwarf—the second to be discovered. The diameter of Sirius A was first measured by Robert Hanbury Brown and Richard Q. Twiss in 1959 at Jodrell Bank using their stellar intensity interferometer. In 2005, using the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers determined that Sirius B has nearly the diameter of the Earth, 12,000 kilometres (7,500 mi), with a mass 102% of the Sun's.\n\n### Colour controversy\n\nAround the year 150 AD, Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria, an ethnic Greek Egyptian astronomer of the Roman period, mapped the stars in Books VII and VIII of his Almagest, in which he used Sirius as the location for the globe's central meridian. He described Sirius as reddish, along with five other stars, Betelgeuse, Antares, Aldebaran, Arcturus, and Pollux, all of which are at present observed to be of orange or red hue. The discrepancy was first noted by amateur astronomer Thomas Barker, squire of Lyndon Hall in Rutland, who prepared a paper and spoke at a meeting of the Royal Society in London in 1760. The existence of other stars changing in brightness gave credibility to the idea that some may change in colour too; Sir John Herschel noted this in 1839, possibly influenced by witnessing Eta Carinae two years earlier. Thomas J.J. See resurrected discussion on red Sirius with the publication of several papers in 1892, and a final summary in 1926. He cited not only Ptolemy but also the poet Aratus, the orator Cicero, and general Germanicus all calling the star red, though acknowledging that none of the latter three authors were astronomers, the last two merely translating Aratus's poem Phaenomena. Seneca had described Sirius as being of a deeper red than Mars. Not all ancient observers saw Sirius as red. The 1st-century poet Marcus Manilius described it as \"sea-blue\", as did the 4th-century Avienius. It was the standard white star in ancient China, and multiple records from the 2nd century BC up to the 7th century AD all describe Sirius as white.\n\nIn 1985, German astronomers Wolfhard Schlosser and Werner Bergmann published an account of an 8th-century Lombardic manuscript, which contains De cursu stellarum ratio by St. Gregory of Tours. The Latin text taught readers how to determine the times of nighttime prayers from positions of the stars, and a bright star described as rubeola (\"reddish\") was claimed to be Sirius. The authors proposed this was further evidence Sirius B had been a red giant at the time. Other scholars replied that it was likely St. Gregory had been referring to Arcturus.\n\nThe possibility that stellar evolution of either Sirius A or Sirius B could be responsible for this discrepancy has been rejected by astronomers on the grounds that the timescale of thousands of years is much too short and that there is no sign of the nebulosity in the system that would be expected had such a change taken place. An interaction with a third star, to date undiscovered, has also been proposed as a possibility for a red appearance. Alternative explanations are either that the description as red is a poetic metaphor for ill fortune, or that the dramatic scintillations of the star when rising left the viewer with the impression that it was red. To the naked eye, it often appears to be flashing with red, white, and blue hues when near the horizon.\n\n## Observation\n\nWith an apparent magnitude of −1.46, Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky, almost twice as bright as the second-brightest star, Canopus. From Earth, Sirius always appears dimmer than Jupiter and Venus, and at certain times also dimmer than Mercury and Mars. Sirius is visible from almost everywhere on Earth, except latitudes north of 73° N, and it does not rise very high when viewed from some northern cities (reaching only 13° above the horizon from Saint Petersburg). Because of its declination of roughly −17°, Sirius is a circumpolar star from latitudes south of 73° S. From the Southern Hemisphere in early July, Sirius can be seen in both the evening where it sets after the Sun and in the morning where it rises before the Sun. Along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, Sirius forms one of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle to observers in the Northern Hemisphere.\n\nSirius can be observed in daylight with the naked eye under the right conditions. Ideally, the sky should be very clear, with the observer at a high altitude, the star passing overhead, and the Sun low on the horizon. These observing conditions are more easily met in the Southern Hemisphere, owing to the southerly declination of Sirius.\n\nThe orbital motion of the Sirius binary system brings the two stars to a minimum angular separation of 3 arcseconds and a maximum of 11 arcseconds. At the closest approach, it is an observational challenge to distinguish the white dwarf from its more luminous companion, requiring a telescope with at least 300 mm (12 in) aperture and excellent seeing conditions. After a periastron occurred in 1994, the pair moved apart, making them easier to separate with a telescope. Apoastron occurred in 2019, but from the Earth's vantage point, the greatest observational separation will occur in 2023, with an angular separation of 11.333′′.\n\nAt a distance of 2.6 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system contains two of the eight nearest stars to the Sun, and it is the fifth closest stellar system to the Sun. This proximity is the main reason for its brightness, as with other near stars such as Alpha Centauri, Procyon and Vega and in contrast to distant, highly luminous supergiants such as Canopus, Rigel or Betelgeuse.(Note that Canopus may be a bright giant) It is still around 25 times more luminous than the Sun. The closest large neighbouring star to Sirius is Procyon, 1.61 parsecs (5.24 ly) away. The Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977 to study the four giant planets in the Solar System, is expected to pass within 4.3 light-years (1.3 pc) of Sirius in approximately 296,000 years.\n\n## Stellar system\n\nSirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU (roughly the distance between the Sun and Uranus) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a main-sequence star of spectral type early A, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940 K. Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two. The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early in its life, it is thought to have been two bluish-white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years. The system emits a higher than expected level of infrared radiation, as measured by IRAS space-based observatory. This might be an indication of dust in the system, which is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star. The Chandra X-ray Observatory image shows Sirius B outshining its partner as an X-ray source.\n\nIn 2015, Vigan and colleagues used the VLT Survey Telescope to search for evidence of substellar companions, and were able to rule out the presence of giant planets 11 times more massive than Jupiter at 0.5 AU distance from Sirius A, 6–7 times the mass of Jupiter at 1–2 AU distance, and down to around 4 times the mass of Jupiter at 10 AU distance. Similarly, Lucas and colleagues did not detect any companions around Sirius B.\n\n### Sirius A\n\nSirius A, also known as the Dog Star, has a mass of . The radius of this star has been measured by an astronomical interferometer, giving an estimated angular diameter of 5.936±0.016 mas. The projected rotational velocity is a relatively low 16 km/s, which does not produce any significant flattening of its disk. This is at marked variance with the similar-sized Vega, which rotates at a much faster 274 km/s and bulges prominently around its equator. A weak magnetic field has been detected on the surface of Sirius A.\n\nStellar models suggest that the star formed during the collapsing of a molecular cloud and that, after 10 million years, its internal energy generation was derived entirely from nuclear reactions. The core became convective and used the CNO cycle for energy generation. It is calculated that Sirius A will have completely exhausted the store of hydrogen at its core within a billion (10<sup>9</sup>) years of its formation, and will then evolve away from the main sequence. It will pass through a red giant stage and eventually become a white dwarf.\n\nSirius A is classed as a type Am star, because the spectrum shows deep metallic absorption lines, indicating an enhancement of its surface layers in elements heavier than helium, such as iron. The spectral type has been reported as A0mA1 Va, which indicates that it would be classified as A1 from hydrogen and helium lines, but A0 from the metallic lines that cause it to be grouped with the Am stars. When compared to the Sun, the proportion of iron in the atmosphere of Sirius A relative to hydrogen is given by $\\textstyle\\ \\left[\\frac{\\ce{Fe}}{\\ce{H}}\\right] = 0.5\\ ,$ meaning iron is 316% as abundant as in the Sun's atmosphere. The high surface content of metallic elements is unlikely to be true of the entire star; rather the iron-peak and heavy metals are radiatively levitated towards the surface.\n\n### Sirius B\n\nSirius B, also known as the Pup Star, is one of the most massive white dwarfs known. With a mass of , it is almost double the average. This mass is packed into a volume roughly equal to the Earth's. The current surface temperature is 25,200 K. Because there is no internal heat source, Sirius B will steadily cool as the remaining heat is radiated into space over the next two billion years or so.\n\nA white dwarf forms after a star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a red giant stage. This occurred when Sirius B was less than half its current age, around 120 million years ago. The original star had an estimated and was a B-type star (most likely B5V for ) when it was still on the main sequence, potentially burning around 600-1200 times more luminous than the sun. While it passed through the red giant stage, Sirius B may have enriched the metallicity of its companion, explaining the very high metallicity of Sirius A.\n\nThis star is primarily composed of a carbon–oxygen mixture that was generated by helium fusion in the progenitor star. This is overlaid by an envelope of lighter elements, with the materials segregated by mass because of the high surface gravity. The outer atmosphere of Sirius B is now almost pure hydrogen—the element with the lowest mass—and no other elements are seen in its spectrum.\n\n### Apparent third star\n\nSince 1894, irregularities have been tentatively observed in the orbits of Sirius A and B with an apparent periodicity of 6–6.4 years. A 1995 study concluded that such a companion likely exists, with a mass of roughly 0.05 solar mass—a small red dwarf or large brown dwarf, with an apparent magnitude of more than 15, and less than 3 arcseconds from Sirius A.\n\nMore recent (and accurate) astrometric observations by the Hubble Space Telescope ruled out the existence of such a Sirius C entirely. The 1995 study predicted an astrometric movement of roughly 90 mas (0.09 arcsecond), but Hubble was unable to detect any location anomaly to an accuracy of 5 mas (0.005 arcsec). This ruled out any objects orbiting Sirius A with more than 0.033 solar mass (35 Jupiter masses) orbiting in 0.5 years, and 0.014 (15 Jupiter masses) in 2 years. The study was also able to rule out any companions to Sirius B with more than 0.024 solar mass (25 Jupiter masses) orbiting in 0.5 year, and 0.0095 (10 Jupiter masses) orbiting in 1.8 years. Effectively, there are almost certainly no additional bodies in the Sirius system larger than a small brown dwarf or large exoplanet.\n\n### Star cluster membership\n\nIn 1909, Ejnar Hertzsprung was the first to suggest that Sirius was a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group, based on his observations of the system's movements across the sky. The Ursa Major Group is a set of 220 stars that share a common motion through space. It was once a member of an open cluster, but has since become gravitationally unbound from the cluster. Analyses in 2003 and 2005 found Sirius's membership in the group to be questionable: the Ursa Major Group has an estimated age of 500 ± 100 million years, whereas Sirius, with metallicity similar to the Sun's, has an age that is only half this, making it too young to belong to the group. Sirius may instead be a member of the proposed Sirius Supercluster, along with other scattered stars such as Beta Aurigae, Alpha Coronae Borealis, Beta Crateris, Beta Eridani and Beta Serpentis. This would be one of three large clusters located within 500 light-years (150 pc) of the Sun. The other two are the Hyades and the Pleiades, and each of these clusters consists of hundreds of stars.\n\n### Distant star cluster\n\nIn 2017, a massive star cluster was discovered only 10 arcminutes from Sirius, making the two appear to be visually close to one other when viewed from the point of view of the Earth. It was discovered during a statistical analysis of Gaia data. The cluster is over a thousand times further away from us than the star system, but given its size it still appears at magnitude 8.3 .\n\n## Etymology\n\nThe proper name \"Sirius\" comes from the Latin Sīrius, from the Ancient Greek Σείριος (Seirios, \"glowing\" or \"scorcher\"). The Greek word itself may have been imported from elsewhere before the Archaic period, one authority suggesting a link with the Egyptian god Osiris. The name's earliest recorded use dates from the 7th century BC in Hesiod's poetic work Works and Days. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Sirius for the star α Canis Majoris A. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n\nSirius has over 50 other designations and names attached to it. In Geoffrey Chaucer's essay Treatise on the Astrolabe, it bears the name Alhabor and is depicted by a hound's head. This name is widely used on medieval astrolabes from Western Europe. In Sanskrit it is known as Mrgavyadha \"deer hunter\", or Lubdhaka \"hunter\". As Mrgavyadha, the star represents Rudra (Shiva). The star is referred to as Makarajyoti in Malayalam and has religious significance to the pilgrim center Sabarimala. In Scandinavia, the star has been known as Lokabrenna (\"burning done by Loki\", or \"Loki's torch\"). In the astrology of the Middle Ages, Sirius was a Behenian fixed star, associated with beryl and juniper. Its astrological symbol was listed by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa.\n\n## Cultural significance\n\nMany cultures have historically attached special significance to Sirius, particularly in relation to dogs. It is often colloquially called the \"Dog Star\" as the brightest star of Canis Major, the \"Great Dog\" constellation. Canis Major was classically depicted as Orion's dog. The Ancient Greeks thought that Sirius's emanations could affect dogs adversely, making them behave abnormally during the \"dog days\", the hottest days of the summer. The Romans knew these days as dies caniculares, and the star Sirius was called Canicula, \"little dog\". The excessive panting of dogs in hot weather was thought to place them at risk of desiccation and disease. In extreme cases, a foaming dog might have rabies, which could infect and kill humans they had bitten. Homer, in the Iliad, describes the approach of Achilles toward Troy in these words:\n\n> > Sirius rises late in the dark, liquid sky On summer nights, star of stars, Orion's Dog they call it, brightest Of all, but an evil portent, bringing heat And fevers to suffering humanity.\n\nIn a little-attested Greek myth, the star-god that personified Sirius fell in love with a fertility goddess named Opora, but he was unable to have her. Thus he began to burn hot, making humans suffer, who prayed to the gods. The god of the north wind, Boreas, solved the problem by ordering his sons to deliver Opora to Sirius, while he cooled down the earth with blasts of his own cold wind.\n\nIn Iranian mythology, especially in Persian mythology and in Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Persia, Sirius appears as Tishtrya and is revered as the rain-maker divinity (Tishtar of New Persian poetry). Beside passages in the sacred texts of the Avesta, the Avestan language Tishtrya followed by the version Tir in Middle and New Persian is also depicted in the Persian epic Shahnameh of Ferdowsi. Because of the concept of the yazatas, powers which are \"worthy of worship\", Tishtrya is a divinity of rain and fertility and an antagonist of apaosha, the demon of drought. In this struggle, Tishtrya is depicted as a white horse.\n\nIn Chinese astronomy Sirius is known as the star of the \"celestial wolf\" ( Chinese romanization: Tiānláng; Japanese romanization: Tenrō; Korean and romanization: 천랑 /Cheonrang) in the Mansion of Jǐng (井宿). Many nations among the indigenous peoples of North America also associated Sirius with canines; the Seri and Tohono Oʼodham of the southwest note the star as a dog that follows mountain sheep, while the Blackfoot called it \"Dog-face\". The Cherokee paired Sirius with Antares as a dog-star guardian of either end of the \"Path of Souls\". The Pawnee of Nebraska had several associations; the Wolf (Skidi) tribe knew it as the \"Wolf Star\", while other branches knew it as the \"Coyote Star\". Further north, the Alaskan Inuit of the Bering Strait called it \"Moon Dog\".\n\nSeveral cultures also associated the star with a bow and arrows. The ancient Chinese visualized a large bow and arrow across the southern sky, formed by the constellations of Puppis and Canis Major. In this, the arrow tip is pointed at the wolf Sirius. A similar association is depicted at the Temple of Hathor in Dendera, where the goddess Satet has drawn her arrow at Hathor (Sirius). Known as \"Tir\", the star was portrayed as the arrow itself in later Persian culture.\n\nSirius is mentioned in Surah, An-Najm (\"The Star\"), of the Qur'an, where it is given the name الشِّعْرَى (transliteration: aš-ši'rā or ash-shira; the leader). The verse is: \"وأنَّهُ هُوَ رَبُّ الشِّعْرَى\", \"That He is the Lord of Sirius (the Mighty Star).\" (An-Najm:49) Ibn Kathir said in his commentary \"that it is the bright star, named Mirzam Al-Jawza' (Sirius), which a group of Arabs used to worship\". The alternate name Aschere, used by Johann Bayer, is derived from this.\n\nIn theosophy, it is believed the Seven Stars of the Pleiades transmit the spiritual energy of the Seven Rays from the Galactic Logos to the Seven Stars of the Great Bear, then to Sirius. From there is it sent via the Sun to the god of Earth (Sanat Kumara), and finally through the seven Masters of the Seven Rays to the human race.\n\nThe midnight culmination of Sirius in the northern hemisphere coincides with the beginning of the New Year of the Gregorian Calendar during the decades around the year 2000. Over the years, its midnight culmination moves slowly, owing to the combination of the star's proper motion and the precession of the equinoxes. At the time of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in the year 1582, its culmination occurred 17 minutes before midnight into the new year under the assumption of a constant motion. According to Richard Hinckley Allen its mightnight culmination was celebrated at the Temple of Demeter at Eleusis.\n\n### Dogon\n\nThe Dogon people are an ethnic group in Mali, West Africa, reported by some researchers to have traditional astronomical knowledge about Sirius that would normally be considered impossible without the use of telescopes. According to Marcel Griaule, they knew about the fifty-year orbital period of Sirius and its companion prior to western astronomers.\n\nDoubts have been raised about the validity of Griaule and Dieterlein's work. In 1991, anthropologist Walter van Beek concluded about the Dogon, \"Though they do speak about sigu tolo [which is what Griaule claimed the Dogon called Sirius] they disagree completely with each other as to which star is meant; for some it is an invisible star that should rise to announce the sigu [festival], for another it is Venus that, through a different position, appears as sigu tolo. All agree, however, that they learned about the star from Griaule.\" According to Noah Brosch cultural transfer of relatively modern astronomical information could have taken place in 1893, when a French expedition arrived in Central West Africa to observe the total eclipse on 16 April.\n\n### Serer religion\n\nIn the religion of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gambia and Mauritania, Sirius is called Yoonir from the Serer language (and some of the Cangin language speakers, who are all ethnically Serers). The star Sirius is one of the most important and sacred stars in Serer religious cosmology and symbolism. The Serer high priests and priestesses (Saltigues, the hereditary \"rain priests\") chart Yoonir in order to forecast rainfall and enable Serer farmers to start planting seeds. In Serer religious cosmology, it is the symbol of the universe.\n\n### Modern significance\n\nSirius features on the coat of arms of Macquarie University, and is the name of its alumnae journal. Seven ships of the Royal Navy have been called HMS Sirius since the 18th century, with the first being the flagship of the First Fleet to Australia in 1788. The Royal Australian Navy subsequently named a vessel in honor of the flagship. American vessels include the USNS Sirius (T-AFS-8) as well as a monoplane model—the Lockheed Sirius, the first of which was flown by Charles Lindbergh. The name was also adopted by Mitsubishi Motors as the Mitsubishi Sirius engine in 1980. The name of the North American satellite radio company CD Radio was changed to Sirius Satellite Radio in November 1999, being named after \"the brightest star in the night sky\". Sirius is one of the 27 stars on the flag of Brazil, where it represents the state of Mato Grosso.\n\nComposer Karlheinz Stockhausen, who wrote a piece called Sirius, is claimed to have said on several occasions that he came from a planet in the Sirius system. To Stockhausen, Sirius stood for \"the place where music is the highest of vibrations\" and where music had been developed in the most perfect way.\n\nSirius has been the subject of poetry. Dante and John Milton reference the star, and it is the \"powerful western fallen star\" of Walt Whitman's \"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd\", while Tennyson's poem The Princess describes the star's scintillation:\n\n> > ...the fiery Sirius alters hue And bickers into red and emerald.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of stars in Canis Major\n- List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs\n  - Historical brightest stars\n- Sirius in fiction", "revid": "1173801085", "description": "Brightest star in the night sky, in the constellation Canis Major", "categories": ["A-type main-sequence stars", "Am stars", "Articles containing video clips", "Astronomical X-ray sources", "Astronomical objects known since antiquity", "Bayer objects", "Binary stars", "Bright Star Catalogue objects", "Canis Major", "Durchmusterung objects", "Flamsteed objects", "Gliese and GJ objects", "Henry Draper Catalogue objects", "Hipparcos objects", "TIC objects", "White dwarfs"]}
{"id": "2273901", "url": null, "title": "Barrio Fino", "text": "Barrio Fino (; English: \"Fine 'Hood\") is the third studio album by Puerto Rican rapper Daddy Yankee, released on July 13, 2004, in the United States by VI Music and El Cartel Records and internationally by Machete Music and Polydor Records. Released two years after his previous studio album, El Cangri.com (2002), the album was recorded in Puerto Rico between 2003 and 2004. It explores themes ranging from dance, sex, romance, introspection, and protest against political corruption and violence against women. Barrio Fino was instrumental in popularizing reggaeton in the mainstream market, enhancing Daddy Yankee's career, as well as cementing his status as one of the most successful Latin artists of the 2000s. [^1] The album is reported to have sold over 8 million copies in the world.\n\nDaddy Yankee wrote all the tracks, with co-writing credits on seven, and is credited as executive producer. Four of the 21 songs were released as singles. The first single, \"Gasolina\", charted within the top 10 in Denmark, Italy, Norway, Ireland, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Austria, while \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" peaked at number two on the US Hot Latin Songs chart. Barrio Fino reached number one on the US Tropical Albums and the Top Latin Albums charts. It became the first reggaeton recording to debut and peak atop the latter chart. It ranked within the top 30 in the United States, Portugal, Switzerland and Spain.\n\nThe album was Daddy Yankee's first international commercial success, and garnered a Latin Grammy Award for Best Urban Music Album, while \"Gasolina\" became the first reggaeton song to receive a nomination for a Latin Grammy Award for Record of the Year. Barrio Fino produced two Billboard Hot 100 entries, but despite the album's success, none of its four Billboard Hot Latin Songs entries reached number one. Barrio Fino was ranked number 44 in the \"Top 50 Records of 2005\" list by Rolling Stone and was included in Billboard's \"50 Greatest Latin Albums of the Past 50 Years\" in 2015. The album received a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting shipments of over one million copies in the United States, where it became the top-selling Latin album of 2005 and the 2000s decade and is the seventh best-selling Latin album of all time in the country. In 2020, Rolling Stone updated their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list placing Barrio Fino at number 473.\n\nDaddy Yankee appeared at the Billboard Latin Music Awards performing the \"Gasolina\" with a guest appearance from Sean Combs in 2005; it was recognized by Billboard as one the best performances of the night.\n\n## Background\n\nIn 1991, Daddy Yankee began his musical career on a collaborative project with Puerto Rican disc jockey and producer DJ Playero. Daddy Yankee was later featured on Playero's 37 and 38 studio albums, before releasing his first solo record titled No Mercy in 1995. At the age of 17, while taking a break from a recording session, Ayala was shot in the leg after being caught inadvertently in the middle of a shootout, ending his aspirations of becoming a professional baseball player. Following his injuries, Daddy Yankee continued working on underground reggaeton records, and released his first album as a producer, El Cartel de Yankee (1997). After the release of his 2001 independent album El Cartel II: Los Cangris, Daddy Yankee released his second studio album El Cangri.com (2002), which is cited as the record that made him well known outside his natal Puerto Rico. Prior to Barrio Fino, Daddy Yankee released a compilation album titled Los Homerun-es, which became his first record to chart within the top 10 on the US Top Latin Albums, reaching number seven. Later that year, he was featured on Dominican duo Luny Tunes' debut studio album, Mas Flow, on the track \"Cógela Que Van Sin Jockey\", whose outro included Daddy Yankee promoting Barrio Fino. At first, the album was supposed to be titled El Cangri.com 2: Barrio Fino with a August 2003 release; however, those plans were scrapped. By 2004, Yankee caught on and established a steady career on his home island. His previous four albums had each sold more than 100,000 copies in Puerto Rico.\n\n## Composition\n\nThe album's lyrics explore themes ranging from dance, sex, romance, introspection, and social issues, which are recurring themes in the rapper's repertoire. The intro, performed by ex-convict poet Gavilán, is a poetic piece focusing on the humble side of Puerto Rico's poor neighborhoods or barrios. On the next track, \"King Daddy\", the rapper describes his career and predicts how Barrio Fino will revolutionize reggaeton music and validate his stage name as a successful Latin artist in the United States. \"Dale Caliente\" is a reggaeton dance song inspired by dancehall and Jamaican music, featuring backing vocals by Puerto Rican singer Glory and Jamaican artist Blacka-Nice. \"No Me Dejes Solo\" features lead vocals by Puerto Rican duo Wisin & Yandel and backing vocals by Glory. Its sexually suggestive lyrics are about the fears of losing a girlfriend.\n\n\"Gasolina\", the album's lead single, was inspired by a Puerto Rican phrase about having a good time partying. Before the release of Barrio Fino, Daddy Yankee shared an apartment with his wife and three children in the Villa Kennedy housing project, where he occasionally heard people in the streets shouting \"¡Cómo le gusta la gasolina!\" (\"How she likes gasoline!\") at women who accepted rides from men with fancy cars. The hook \"a mí me gusta la gasolina, dame más gasolina\" (\"I like gasoline, give me more gasoline\") was born after he chanted rhythmically what he was hearing outside. He contacted his colleague and friend Eddie Dee to work with him on the song's lyrics.\n\n\"Like You\" is Daddy Yankee's first Spanglish song. Musically, it is a fusion of reggaeton and rhythm and blues, featuring backing vocals by May-Be and Raymond Acosta and guitars by Puerto Rican producer Arnaldo \"Naldo\" Santos. Daddy Yankee decided to write a song with English-language lyrics, so he \"could be understood by people who liked reggaeton but did not speak Spanish.\" \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\", the album's second single, fuses reggaeton and merengue music, giving it \"a Caribbean tropical sound\", with lyrics about a man who breaks up with a girl he was seeing after finding out she has a boyfriend. \"Tu Príncipe\" is a romantic track that features Puerto Rican duo Zion & Lennox, with lyrics describing the dilemmas of falling in love with a best friend and the fears following a revelation of one's feelings. \"Cuéntame\" is another romantic reggaeton song recorded in order to \"balance the production\" by creating a similar track to \"Tu Príncipe\".\n\n\"Santifica tus Escapularios\" is a rap recording that allowed Daddy Yankee to \"vent against all spiritual evil.\" \"Sabor a Melao\" fuses reggaeton and salsa music and features Puerto Rican singer-songwriter Andy Montañez, using a chorus from his Batacumbele orchestra. \"El Muro\" and \"El Empuje\" are \"classic hardcore reggaeton\" tracks that were recorded in order to balance the variety of the recording's offerings. The reggaeton and R&B-blended track, \"¿Qué Vas a Hacer?\", features vocals from May-Be and guitars by Jeorge Salgado and focuses on violence against women. The song was written as a conversation between a man and a woman. \"Salud y Vida\" is a hip hop track with Mexican banda influences with lyrics that suggest that people value materialistic objects more than their own well-being. Latin music journalist Ramiro Burr wrote that on this track, Daddy Yankee reflected on his neighborhood questioning \"society's endless pursuit of material things.\" The song features backing vocals by American artist Norman \"Notch\" Howell and Marcelo Castro performing trumpet.\n\nThe interlude, performed by Gavilán, is another poem about the roughness of the barrio, serving as a prelude to the next track. \"Corazones\" is a socially conscious rap song that \"describes how every heart in the world is different and feels different things. So intentions, emotions and even the most similar of situations are always unique to each individual.\" Daddy Yankee wrote the lyrics because he believes that the mass media focuses more on reporting negative news rather than positive ones. He also took notice about the needs of poor people and barrios. The track mentions politics, crime, hope and Christian spirituality. \"Golpe de Estado\" is a personal song featuring novice rapper Tommy Viera whose lyrics are about Daddy Yankee's, and Barrio Fino's role in the reggaeton music movement. \"Dos Mujeres\", performed humorously, takes the point of view of a man who secretly maintains a relationship with two women. \"Saber Su Nombre\" fuses reggaeton and dancehall music, and tells the story of a man who shows interest in a woman he met at a nightclub. The album's outro, titled \"Historia\", was written to represent the people of Puerto Rican neighborhoods. Daddy Yankee stated that he wanted to \"bring them to life in a story that's very humble but full of pride.\"\n\n## Production and packaging\n\nLuny Tunes produced nine of the 21 tracks on Barrio Fino, including the singles \"Gasolina\", \"Like You\", and \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\". Puerto Rican production duo Monserrate & DJ Urba produced three songs, including the single \"No Me Dejes Solo\". Puerto Rican singer and producer Fido, one half of Alexis & Fido, and Puerto Rican pianist Eliel each produced two tracks. Puerto Rican producers Naldo, DJ Nelson, Echo, Diesel, Nely, Edgardo Matta, and Salvadoran production duo Crooked Stilo produced or co-produced one track on the album. The intro, interlude and outro were produced by Ramsis.\n\nBarrio Fino was recorded between 2003 and 2004 at Daddy Yankee's El Cartel Studios in Villa Kennedy, San Juan, Puerto Rico and Luny Tunes' Mas Flow Studios in Carolina, Puerto Rico. The album was mixed by Luny Tunes, Paul \"Echo\" Irizarry and Jose \"Hyde\" Cotto at Mas Flow Studios and The Lab Studios. The mastering by Nestor Salomon at Digital Recording Services. The cover art features Daddy Yankee in a black-and-white aesthetic. He hired Elastic People music video director and designer Carlos Perez, who wanted to \"position him as one of the founders of the movement and portray him on a sophisticated note.\" Daddy Yankee suggested a \"monumental\" black-and-white cover inspired from historical photographs involving American professional boxer and activist Muhammad Ali.\n\n## Release\n\nBarrio Fino was released on July 13, 2004. In the week ending on July 31, the record debuted at number one on the US Top Latin Albums, becoming the first reggaeton album to peak and debut at the top of that chart. It also debuted at number one on the US Tropical Albums and at number 67 on the Billboard 200, selling almost 18,000 copies in it first week. The release of \"Gasolina\" as the album's lead single enhanced its chart performance and it topped the Top Latin Albums chart for a second week in 2005, remaining there for another 22 non-consecutive weeks, for a total of 24 weeks at number one. It also re-entered the Billboard 200 in the week ending on December 18, 2004, and peaked at number 26 on the April 16, 2005, issue. It topped the Tropical Albums chart for 28 non-consecutive weeks. It also charted for 54 weeks on the Billboard 200, and 42 weeks on Tropical Albums. A bonus track version of Barrio Fino, which includes a salsa remix of \"Sabor a Melao\" and a bachata remix for \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\", was released on May 23, 2005.\n\nIn 2005, the album became the first reggaeton record to chart in Europe, peaking at number 26 in Portugal and Spain, at number 28 in Switzerland, at number 46 in Italy, at number 51 in Austria, and at number 67 in France. On May 17, 2005, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified Barrio Fino platinum for having shipped one million copies in the United States. On March 3, 2006, it was also certified platinum by the Mexican Association of Producers of Phonograms and Videograms (AMPROFON) for sales of 100,000 units in Mexico. The album also received a platinum certification by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF) on March 22, 2005, for sales of over 40,000 units. Barrio Fino was the fourth and 10th best selling album of 2005 in Venezuela and Chile, respectively, and was certified gold for selling 10,000 units across Central America.\n\nIn Canada, sales for Barrio Fino were considerably lower. Despite Daddy Yankee being one of the first reggaeton artists to receive airplay there, the album had sold only 9,300 units as of September 2005, according to Nielsen SoundScan. According to The Record, Barrio Fino shipped five million copies worldwide as of June 2006. In the United States, Barrio Fino became the best-selling reggaeton album of 2004, the best- selling tropical recording of 2004, and the best-selling Latin album of 2005 and the 2000s decade. As of October 2017, the record has sold 1,083,000 copies in the United States, making it the seventh best-selling Latin album in the country according to Nielsen SoundScan. As of August 2005, Barrio Fino has sold three million of copies.\n\nThe bonus track version was re-released for digital stores and streaming platforms on July 21, 2017, under El Cartel Records and The Orchard, celebrating the album's 13th anniversary. It subsequently re-entered the US Top Latin Albums chart at number 13 on August 12, 2017. On the US Top Latin Albums chart, Barrio Fino charted for 262 non-consecutive weeks from July 31, 2004, to July 22, 2006, and from August 12, 2017, onwards.\n\n### Singles\n\n\"Gasolina\" became the first of the album's singles to enter the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 32 on the week ending January 29, 2005. It also reached number 10 and 17 on the US Hot Rap Songs and Hot Latin Songs charts, respectively. Leila Cobo of Billboard stated that it could not pass its number 17 peak on the Hot Latin Songs chart because of the lack of urban music played on US Spanish-language radio stations at the time. Internationally, the song ranked within the top five in Denmark, Italy, Norway, Ireland and the United Kingdom. \"Gasolina\" did not chart in Japan, despite the track having shipped 100,000 units in the country as of September 2005.\n\nThe album's second single, \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\", peaked at number two on Hot Latin Songs and number six on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles list, where it charted for 18 weeks without entering the Hot 100. It also became Daddy Yankee's first number one on the US Tropical Airplay chart on March 12, 2005. Internationally, \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" peaked at number 35 in Switzerland. The third single, \"No Me Dejes Solo\", peaked at number 32 on Hot Latin Songs and at number eight on Tropical Airplay. The fourth and final single from Barrio Fino, \"Like You\", peaked at number 78 on the Billboard Hot 100. \"Tu Príncipe\" peaked at number 35 on the US Hot Latin Songs chart on the issue dated April 8, 2006. Daddy Yankee stated in October 2014 that \"Tu Príncipe\" was not released as a single nor a promotional song, and that it charted \"on its own, because of the fans.\"\n\n## Critical reception\n\nJason Birchmeier of AllMusic gave the album a 4.5 out of 5 score, praising its first half as \"remarkably solid\" but commenting that its final quarter \"begins to grow tiresome\" because of the record's length. He states that Daddy Yankee \"deserves a lot of credit for the success of Barrio Fino, for his charisma, energy level, and command of the proceedings are well evident and often infectious.\" Birchmeier selected \"Gasolina\" and \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" as the album's highlights, with minor highlights including \"Dale Caliente,\" \"No Me Dejes Solo,\" \"Tu Príncipe,\" and \"¿Qué Vas a Hacer?\". He ended the review by saying that Barrio Fino is \"a milestone reggaetón release for its time\" alongside Don Omar's The Last Don.\n\nRolling Stone magazine's Christian Hoard gave it a 3.5 out of 5, stating that Barrio Fino is \"the blingiest and most modern disc in current reggaeton\" and highlighted the track \"Gasolina\" for its \"slinky hook.\" The album was later ranked by the magazine as the 44th best record of 2005. On the 2005 year-end ranking of Rolling Stone Argentina, the album was ranked as the 47th best record of 2005, with the comment that \"Daddy Yankee exploits a boricua version of 50 Cent's style.\" The magazine praised the album for its \"elegant and fabulous rhythms\" and ended the review by adding that \"Barrio Fino is an agitated excursion to reggaeton's most rough pleasures.\"\n\nAdam Webb of the BBC stated in his review that Daddy Yankee's \"sheer energy\" is where he \"reigns supreme over the majority of his hip hop peers.\" He felt that the fusion of salsa, dancehall and hip hop on \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\", \"Sabor a Melao\" and \"Gasolina\" \"is like being strapped to a particularly lascivious booty.\" Journalist Ramiro Burr gave a positive review of the album. He said that \"Gasolina\" is \"the engine driving this collection,\" describing the song as a basic reggae beat with a catchy chorus, and highlighted the dance tracks \"No Me Dejes Solo\" and \"Like You\". He also gave credit to Andy Montañez's vocals on \"Sabor a Melao\", which added \"a soulful flavor to the track.\"\n\nKitty Empire of The Guardian wrote about \"Gasolina\" as a song that has \"a spendidly infectious lurch.\" She also stated that the rest of the album \"doesn't let up\" by \"updating the subgenre of Spanish-language hip-hop with a new swagger.\" An editor of the Indian music magazine The Record wrote a mixed review of Barrio Fino, stating that anyone who is not intimidated by the Spanish language barrier \"will find this to be a good album,\" praising his \"strong rhyming skills.\" The reviewer criticized the record because it \"is not nearly as catchy or accessible as you might have expected it to be\" but says that Daddy Yankee almost \"lives up to the promise of the hype surrounding him.\" The album received a score of 3 out of 5.\n\n### Accolades\n\nBarrio Fino received a Latin Grammy Award for Best Urban Music Album at the 6th Annual Latin Grammy Awards. The lead single, \"Gasolina\", was nominated for Record of the Year, becoming the first reggaeton song to be so honored. The album also received a Billboard Music Award for Latin Album of the Year at the 16th Billboard Music Awards, ceremony where \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" was nominated for Top Latin Song and Daddy Yankee was awarded Latin Albums Artist of the Year. Barrio Fino also received a Billboard Latin Music Award for Reggaeton Album of the Year, a Lo Nuestro Award for Urban Album of the Year, and a Latin Music Fan Award for Album of the Year.\n\n\"Gasolina\" also received the Catchiest Tune award at the 2nd Premios Juventud. Its music video received a Latin Music Fan Award for Music Video of the Year and was nominated for a MTV2 Award at the 22nd MTV Video Music Awards and a MTV Video Music Awards Japan for Best Reggae Video. \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" won an Urban Song of the Year award at the 18th Lo Nuestro Awards.\n\nIn 2006, Daddy Yankee received an ASCAP Award for Latin Songwriter of the Year for his work on \"Gasolina\", \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" and \"No Me Dejes Solo\", among other songs. He was also awarded Artist of the Year at the 13th Billboard Latin Music Awards, and Urban Artist of the Year at the 18th Lo Nuestro Awards. He received the Premios Juventud award for Voice of the Moment and Favorite Urban Artist at the 2nd Premios Juventud awards show, and was also nominated for a Favorite Latin Artist award at the 33rd American Music Awards.\n\nIn 2015, Billboard included Barrio Fino on their unranked \"50 Greatest Latin Albums of the Past 50 Years\" list and, in 2017, named \"Gasolina\" the 10th best Latin song of all-time and the eighth best reggaeton chorus of the 21st century. On September 22, 2020, Rolling Stone updated their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list placing Barrio Fino on the 473rd position. In 2022, Rolling Stone ranked \"Gasolina\" as the greatest reggaeton song of all time, while \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" was placed at number 16.\n\n## Legacy\n\nThe success of the album brought wealth to Daddy Yankee, who became the \"messiah of reggaeton\" according to Billboard, and inked a multi-year deal with the global athletic footwear company Reebok, launching a signature sport collection called DY in 2006. In August 2005, he signed a five-year contract with American record label Interscope Records, which distributed his subsequent albums Barrio Fino en Directo (2005), El Cartel: The Big Boss (2007) and Talento de Barrio (2008). That year, he produced and starred in his own semi-autobiographical feature film, Talento de Barrio, distributed by Paramount Pictures. The film, released in 2008, grossed \\$1.6 million at the box office in the United States as of November 2008.\n\nBarrio Fino made history as the first reggaeton record to peak at number one on the US Top Latin Albums chart, as well as becoming the best-selling Latin album in the United States in 2005 and the 2000s decade. According to Billboard magazine, the commercial success of Barrio Fino \"introduced Daddy Yankee to the mainstream market and made reggaeton an international [music] genre.\" In 2015, the magazine included the recording on its list of \"50 Essential Latin Albums of the Last 50 years\" (1965–2015). That same year, \"Gasolina\" was ranked ninth on Billboard's 50 Greatest Latin Songs of All Time, described as \"the track that internationalized reggaeton\" by making the genre a global phenomenon. Billboard included Daddy Yankee on its list of \"The 30 Most Influential Latin Artists of All Time\", citing \"Gasolina\" as the song that \"brought the underground urban sound of the [Puerto Rican hoods] to the world.\"\n\nIn the United States, Latin album sales grew a startling 17.6% in the first half of 2005 in comparison to the previous year. Billboard's Leila Cobo cited that one of the reasons for this was the emergence of reggaeton and the commercial success of Barrio Fino. The commercial success of \"Gasolina\" in the country led to the creation of a new radio format and a Billboard chart, Latin Rhythm Airplay, in which Daddy Yankee eventually became the artist with the most total entries.\n\nThe album also enhanced Luny Tunes' production career. They were later recognized as the genre's hit-makers following the release of their studio albums Mas Flow 2 in 2005 and Mas Flow: Los Benjamins in 2006. Daddy Yankee credited Wisin & Yandel's collaboration on the track \"No Me Dejes Solo\" as the boost they needed to be internationally recognized. He considers \"No Me Dejes Solo\" as a \"nightclub anthem\" and \"Lo Que Pasó, Pasó\" a \"Latin anthem\" saying that both are contemporary and well received by fans. According to Leila Cobo of Billboard, the success of Barrio Fino \"detonated a global reggaeton explosion that irrevocably altered the business, sound and aesthetic of Latin music.\"\n\nAccording to Nestor Casonu, CEO of Casonu Strategic Management, \"Daddy Yankee and 'Gasolina' triggered the explosion of urban Latin music worldwide.\" Daddy Yankee has claimed that the album's success gave impoverished children from barrios the hope of fame through a music career. Rachel Grace Amelda of Vice stated that \"Daddy Yankee transcended being reduced to a one-hit wonder and started a movement that sent one resounding message to barrio kids: if Yankee can, I can too.\" On \"I'm the Boss\", a track from his 2013 mixtape King Daddy, Daddy Yankee revealed that \"he is still spending his Barrio Fino'' money.\" In 2019, he celebrated the 15th anniversary of the album by posting on social media that it \"changed the culture around the world, broke frontiers, and opened the doors for reggaeton music and the [urban movement around the globe\".\n\n## Track listing\n\n## Personnel\n\nCredits adapted from AllMusic and Discogs.\n\n- Raymond Acosta – back vocals (6)\n- Mark Allen – typography\n- James Begera – design\n- Martin Betz – photography\n- Marcelo Castro – trumpet (15)\n- Eddie Dee – songwriting (5)\n- Diesel – producer (17)\n- Echo – producer (17), mixing (all)\n- Eliel – producer (8)\n- Fido – producer (3, 4, 7, 14)\n- Nestor Salomón - mastering\n- Gavilán – lead vocals (1, 16)\n- Glory – back vocals (3–5, 13)\n- Hyde – mixing (all)\n- Edgardo Matta – producer (20)\n- May-Be – lead vocals (14), back vocals (6)\n- Monserrate & DJ Urba – producer (3, 4, 7, 13, 14)\n- Andy Montañez – lead vocals, songwriting (12)\n- Naldo – producer (14), guitar (6)\n- Notch – back vocals (15)\n- DJ Nelson – producer (12)\n- Nely – producer (18)\n- Blacka-Nice – back vocals (3)\n- Dino Olavarrias – songwriting (18)\n- Joan Ortíz – songwriting (8)\n- Carlos Perez – design, art direction\n- Janice Quijano – wardrobe stylist\n- Ramsis – producer (1, 16, 21)\n- Jeorge Salgado – guitar (14)\n- Sosa – producer (13)\n- Crooked Stilo – producer (15)\n- Luny Tunes – producer (2, 5, 6, 8–11, 19), mixing (all)\n- Tommy Viera – lead vocals (18)\n- Wisin & Yandel – lead vocals, songwriting (4)\n- Daddy Yankee – lead vocals (all), songwriting (all), executive producer\n- Zion & Lennox – lead vocals, songwriting (9)\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n### Decade-end charts\n\n## Certifications and sales\n\n## See also\n\n- 2004 in Latin music\n- List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums of 2004\n- List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums of 2005\n- List of number-one Billboard Tropical Albums from the 2000s\n- List of best-selling Latin albums in the United States\n- List of best-selling Latin albums\n\n[^1]: Carney Smith, Jessie. of African American Popular Culture] . ABC-CLIO, 2010, p. 1199.", "revid": "1161750588", "description": null, "categories": ["2004 albums", "Albums produced by Luny Tunes", "Albums produced by Nely", "Daddy Yankee albums", "Latin Grammy Award for Best Urban Music Album"]}
{"id": "44961573", "url": null, "title": "Waldorf-Astoria (1893–1929)", "text": "The Waldorf-Astoria originated as two hotels, built side by side by feuding relatives, on Fifth Avenue in New York, New York, United States. Built in 1893 and expanded in 1897, the hotels were razed in 1929 to make way for construction of the Empire State Building. Their successor, the current Waldorf Astoria New York, was built on Park Avenue in 1931.\n\nThe original Waldorf Hotel opened on March 13, 1893, at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 33rd Street, on the site where millionaire developer William Waldorf Astor had previously built his mansion. Constructed in the German Renaissance style by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, it stood 225 feet (69 m) high, with fifteen public rooms and 450 guest rooms, and a further 100 rooms allocated to servants, with laundry facilities on the upper floors. It was heavily furnished with antiques purchased by founding manager and president George Boldt and his wife during an 1892 visit to Europe. The Empire Room was the largest and most lavishly adorned room in the Waldorf, and soon after opening it became one of the best restaurants in New York, rivaling Delmonico's and Sherry's.\n\nThe Astoria Hotel opened in 1897 on the southwest corner of Fifth Avenue and 34th Street, next door to the Waldorf. It was also designed in the German Renaissance style by Hardenbergh, at a height of about 270 feet (82 m), with sixteen stories, twenty-five public rooms and 550 guest rooms. The ballroom, in the Louis XIV style, has been described as the \"pièce de résistance\" of the hotel, with a capacity to seat 700 at banquets and 1,200 at concerts. The Astor Dining Room was faithfully reproduced from the original dining room of the mansion which once stood on the site.\n\nConnected by the 300 metres (980 ft) long corridor, known as \"Peacock Alley\" after the merger in 1897, the hotel had 1,300 bedrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time. It was designed specifically to cater to the needs of socially prominent \"wealthy upper crust\" of New York and distinguished foreign visitors to the city. It was the first hotel to offer electricity and private bathrooms throughout. The Waldorf gained world renown for its fundraising dinners and balls, as did its celebrity maître d'hôtel, Oscar Tschirky, known as \"Oscar of the Waldorf\". Tschirky authored The Cookbook by Oscar of The Waldorf (1896), a 900-page book featuring recipes that remain popular worldwide today.\n\n## Background\n\n### Opening and early years of the Waldorf\n\nIn 1799, John Thompson bought a 20-acre (8 ha) tract of land roughly bounded by Madison Avenue, 36th Street, Sixth Avenue, and 33rd Street, immediately north of the Caspar Samler farm, for (US\\$2400) £482 10s. In 1826, John Jacob Astor purchased Thompson's parcel, as well as one from Mary and John Murray who owned a farm on Murray Hill, in the area which is now Madison Avenue to Lexington Avenue, between 34th and 38th streets. In 1827, William B. Astor, Sr. bought a half interest, including Fifth Avenue from 32nd to 35th streets, for \\$20,500. He built an unpretentious square red brick house on the southwest corner of 34th Street and Fifth Avenue, while John Jacob Astor erected a home at the northwest corner of 33rd Street.\n\nWilliam Waldorf Astor, motivated in part by a dispute with his aunt Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor, built the Waldorf Hotel next door to her house, on the site of his father's mansion at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 33rd Street. After Astor's decision to leave the United States, he also decided to demolish his father's home and build a hotel on the property. When the 1870 Astor home was demolished, there was no idea that Astor would build a hotel on the property. Astor did not stay in his own hotel when visiting the U.S., preferring to stay elsewhere; he is known to have visited the Waldorf-Astoria only once.\n\nThe hotel was built to the specifications of the founding proprietor George Boldt, who owned and operated the elite Bellevue-Stratford Hotel in Philadelphia with his wife, Louisa Augusta Kehrer Boldt (1860–1904). The original plans for the Waldorf were for a hotel with eleven stories; Louise believed that thirteen was a lucky number and persuaded her husband to add two floors to the construction. William Astor's construction of a hotel next to his aunt's house worsened his feud with her, but, with Boldt's assistance, John Astor persuaded his mother to move uptown. The Waldorf Hotel, named after the Astor family's ancestral hometown of Walldorf, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, was opened for business March 13, 1893.\n\nEarly on, the Waldorf was regarded with mockery over its large number of bathrooms and was known briefly as \"Boldt's Folly\" after Boldt, or \"Astor's Folly\", with the general perception of the palatial hotel being that it had no place in New York. It appeared destined for failure. Wealthy New Yorkers were angry because they viewed the construction of the hotel as the ruination of a good neighborhood. Business travelers found it too expensive and too far uptown for their needs. In the face of all of this, Boldt decided that the hotel would host a benefit concert for St. Mary's Hospital for Children the day after its opening. The hospital was the favorite charity of those on the Social Register. Despite the rain the night of the ball, the ballroom filled with many of New York's First Families, who had paid \\$5.00 (\\$ in ) for the concert and dinner. Mrs. William K. Vanderbilt donated the services of the New York Symphony Orchestra led by Walter Damrosch to provide the music for the event. Even with a proper escort, women of the times generally did not venture into hotels, but those attending also toured the facilities. While Boldt made news by insisting the Waldorf's waiters be clean-shaven even though he wore a beard, his decision to hire young Oscar Tschirky was one of the key factors in the hotel's success. Oscar was personable, humble and very willing to tend to patrons' needs on an individual basis. More than thirty years later, Tschirky was able to recall the Waldorf's opening day and the names of many of the Social Register guests who made the hotel successful when it hosted the charity concert and dinner. Business soon picked up and the hotel earned \\$4.5 million (\\$ in ) in its first year, exorbitant for that period. By 1895, the Waldorf added a five-story addition. This brought the hotel's ballroom down to the main floor; the move brought many parties and dinners which were formerly held in private homes, into the Waldorf. Adjacent to the new ballroom was the Oak Room, where one could sit by large fireplaces where there were always logs on the hearth. In winter, waiters would offer patrons complimentary baked potatoes with butter.\n\n### Opening of the Astoria and consolidation\n\nWhen a decision was made to build a second hotel next to the Waldorf, truce provisions were developed between the Astors which reserved some proprietary rights. The plan design used corridors to join the two buildings and there was even a bond provision for bricking up the corridors should the need arise. On November 1, 1897, Waldorf's cousin, John Jacob Astor IV, opened the 16 story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site. The Astoria, named after Astoria, Oregon which was founded by John Jacob Astor in 1811, stood on the site of William B. Astor's house, and was leased to Boldt.\n\nThe two hotels, under one management, were renamed the Waldorf-Astoria. Situated on Fifth Avenue in what is now Midtown Manhattan, it was surrounded by streets on all sides. The Waldorf-Astoria had a frontage of 200 feet (61 m) on Fifth Avenue, 350 feet (110 m) on 33rd Street, 350 feet (110 m) on 34th Street, and 200 feet (61 m) on Astor Court, with 13 entrances opening directly from these thoroughfares. Below, extending to a depth 42 feet (13 m) beneath the sidewalk, and occupying an additional area of 75 by 242 feet (23 m × 74 m) running toward Broadway, were the basements, which contained the engine room, laundries, and kitchens. From the sidewalk to the observatory roof was a height of 250 feet (76 m). It was the largest hotel in the world at the time. The cost of the two buildings, exclusive of the furnishings but including the land, was about \\$15 million (\\$ in ). The assessed value in 1897 was \\$12.125 million (\\$ in ) making it the next most valuable parcel on Fifth Avenue, after the B. Altman and Company Building site immediately northeast. The hotel became, according to author Sean Dennis Cashman, \"a successful symbol of the opulence and achievement of the Astor family\".\n\nThe hotel faced stiff competition from the early 20th century, with a range of new hotels springing up in New York City such as the Hotel Astor (1904), perceived as a successor to the Waldorf-Astoria; The St. Regis (1904), built by John Jacob Astor IV as a companion to the Waldorf-Astoria; The Knickerbocker (1906); and the Savoy-Plaza Hotel (1927). By the 1920s, the hotel was becoming dated, and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north than 34th Street. The Astor family sold the hotel to the developers of the Empire State Building and closed the hotel on May 3, 1929; it was demolished soon afterward. The Waldorf-Astoria Hotel records of 1893–1929 are held by the New York Public Library's Archives & Manuscripts division.\n\n## Society\n\nFrom its inception, the Waldorf was always a \"must stay\" hotel for foreign dignitaries. The viceroy of China, Li Hung-Chang stayed at the hotel in 1896 and feasted on 100-year-old eggs which he brought with him. Li also brought his own stoves, chefs and servants with him to prepare and serve his meals. Upon his departure from the Waldorf, he ordered a basket of roses to be sent to every female guest at the hotel, and was very generous in the gifts and gratuities he provided for the hotel's staff. In 1902, a lavish dinner was organized for Prince Henry of Prussia; in addition, the hotel built a private door on its 33rd Street side and installed a private elevator. The staff was also called upon to form a \"bucket brigade\" for the prince's bath when there was a problem with the plumbing in the royal suite. One early wealthy resident was Chicago businessman J. W. Gates who would gamble on stocks on Wall Street and play poker at the hotel. He paid up to \\$50,000 a year to hire suites at the hotel, where he had his own private entrance and elevator. Grand Duchess Viktoria Feodorovna of Russia was invited by Waldorf president Lucius Bloomer to stay at the hotel in the 1920s.\n\nThe Waldorf-Astoria gained significant renown for its fundraising dinners and balls, regularly attracting notables of the day such as Andrew Carnegie who became a fixture. Banquets were often held in the ballroom for esteemed figures and international royalty. On February 11, 1899, Oscar of the Waldorf hosted a lavish dinner reception which the New York Herald Tribune cited as the city's costliest dinner at the time. Some \\$250 (\\$ in ) was spent per guest, with bluepoint oysters, green turtle soup, lobster, ruddy duck and blue raspberries. Two months later, 120 sailors of the cruiser Raleigh were given a banquet, during which the gallery was decorated with silk banners and flags. One article that year claimed that at any one time the hotel had \\$7 million (\\$ in ) worth of valuables locked in the safe, testament to the wealth of its guests. In 1909, banquets, attended by hundreds, were organized for Arctic explorer Frederick Cook in September and Elbert Henry Gary, a founder of US Steel, the following month.\n\nThe hotel was also influential in advancing the status of women, who were admitted singly without escorts. Boldt's wife, Louise, was influential in evolving the idea of the grand urban hotel as a social center, particularly in making it appealing to women as a venue for social events, or just to be seen in the Peacock Alley. The combined hotel was the first to do away with a ladies-only parlor and provided women with a place to play billiards and ping-pong. It was the first New York hotel to allocate an entire room for afternoon tea. The teas began in the Waldorf Garden with attendance eventually being so large, both the Empire Room and at times, the Rose Room, had to be opened during the hours of four and six pm to accommodate the number of guests. Men were admitted to the teas only if they were in the company of a woman.\n\nThe United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic was opened at the hotel on April 19, 1912, and continued there for some time in the Myrtle Room, before moving on to Washington, D.C. John Jacob Astor IV was one of the people who perished on its ill-fated journey.\n\nThe Waldorf-Astoria Orchestra included several conductors over the years. In the early 1900s, it was under the direction of Carlo Curti, who spent his career between the United States and Mexico. Later he was replaced by Joseph Knecht, who was formerly assistant concertmaster of the Metropolitan Opera House. Consisting of fifty musicians, it was maintained by Boldt at an annual expense of \\$100,000. The orchestra performed regular Sunday night concerts in the grand ballroom.\n\nThe Waldorf-Astoria Bar was a favorite haunt of many of the financial elite of the city from the hotel's inception in 1893, and colorful characters who adopted the venue such as Diamond Jim Brady, Buffalo Bill Cody and Bat Masterson. A number of cocktails were invented at the bar, including the Rob Roy (1894) and the Bobbie Burns.\n\n## Architecture\n\nOn the exterior, the two and three lower stories in the respective buildings were of red sandstone, while the balance of the work to the roof-line was red brick and red terracotta. The building rested on solid rock and contained a fireproof steel frame. The first and second floors contained public spaces.\n\nThe combined hotel, after merging in 1897, had 1,300 bedrooms and 178 bathrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time. With a telephone in every room and first-class room service, the hotel featured numerous Turkish and Russian baths for the gentlemen of the day to relax in. Many of the floors were arranged as separate hotels to further the comfort of the guests. Each of these floors had its own team of assistants—clerks, maids, page boys, waiters—as well as telephone and dumbwaiter service, and refrigerators. The bedrooms and corridors were heated by direct radiation. The family included a stained glass picture of the town of Walldorf in the design of the hotel; it was located on the 33rd Street side over the main entrance to the South Palm Garden.\n\n### Waldorf Hotel\n\nThe Waldorf Hotel, built at a reported cost of about \\$5 million (\\$ in ), opened on March 13, 1893, at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 33rd Street, on the site where millionaire developer William Waldorf Astor had previously built his mansion. The hotel stood 225 feet (69 m) high, about 50 feet (15 m) lower than the Astoria, with a frontage of about 100 feet (30 m) on Fifth Avenue, and a total area of 69,475 square feet (6,454.4 m<sup>2</sup>). It was a German Renaissance structure, designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, with 15 public rooms and 450 guest rooms, and a further 100 rooms allocated to servants, with laundry facilities on the upper floors. The New York Times proclaimed the hotel a palace after it opened in 1893.\n\nThe exterior featured loggias, balconies, gables, groups of chimneys, and tiled roofs. One of the chief features was the interior garden court, with fountains and flowers, walls of white terracotta, frescoes and stained glass. The main entrance to the hotel was \"sheltered by an elaborate frosted-glass-and-wrought-iron marquee\", and the entrance hall was built in Sienna marble, with a mosaic title floor and a coffered ceiling. The original reception desk of the Waldorf Hotel became a registration desk when it merged with the Astoria Hotel in 1897.\n\nBeyond the lobby was the main corridor leading to the Empire Room, with an alcove containing elevators and a grand staircase. Near this was the Marie Antoinette parlor, which was used as a reception room for women. It contained 18th century antiques brought back by Boldt and his wife from an 1892 visit to Europe, including a bust of Marie Antoinette, and an antique clock which was once owned by the queen. The ceiling featured frescoes by Will Hicok Low, the central of which was called The Birth of Venus. The Gentleman's Cafe was furnished with \"robust black oak paneling, hunting murals, and stag-horn chandaliers\".\n\nThe Empire Room was the largest and most lavishly adorned room in the Waldorf, and soon after opening it became one of the best restaurants in New York City, rivaling Delmonico's and Sherry's. It was modelled after the grand salon in King Ludwig's palace at Munich, with satin hangings, upholstery and marble pillars, all of pale green, and Crowninshield's frescoes. Empire in style, the Waldorf's restaurant featured feathered columns of dark-green marble, and the pilasters that were opposite were of mahogany, with ormolu work in the panels. The caps and bases of both columns and pilasters were gilded. This treatment occupied most of the wall space. The ceiling was divided by heavy beams running from column to column, and between these the flat space was divided into oval and other shaped panels with light mouldings. The color scheme was in tints of pale-green and cream. The panels of the ceiling were frescoed with figures in pinkish-red on a blue sky or field. The walls were principally mahogany and gold, with a little color in the comparatively small wall-spaces left between openings. Among the other rooms were the Turkish smoking room, with low divans and ancient Moorish armor, and the ballroom, in white and gold, with Louis XIV decorations.\n\nThe Waldorf State Apartments, consisting of nine suites, were located on the second floor. The apartments, including the Henry IV Drawing Room, featured 16th and 17th century French and Italian antiques which Boldt and his wife had brought back from Europe. Francois V Bedroom was a reproduction of the room at the Palais de Fontainebleau, and over the years was occupied by the likes of Li Hung-Chang of China, Chowfa Maha Rajiravuth, Prince of Siam, and Albert of Saxe-Coburg. The apartments had their own music room and a banquet hall to seat 20, with a handsome china collection including 48 Sevres plates with European portraits. There were about 6,000 lights in the hotel, with as many as 1,000 small candelabra lamps mounted in specially designed fixtures. The electric fixtures were all furnished by the Archer & Pancoast Manufacturing Company, of New York, while the contract for the general installation work was carried out by the Edison Electric Illuminating Company, of New York, the actual work of wiring being done by the Eastern District of the General Electric Company. The building was wired throughout on the system of the Interior Conduit and Insulation Company.\n\n### Astoria Hotel\n\nThe Astoria Hotel, opened in 1897, was situated on the southwest corner of Fifth Avenue and 34th Street. Like the Waldorf, it was designed in the German Renaissance style by Henry J. Hardenbergh, the same architect who designed the Waldorf. With dimensions of 99 by 350 feet (30 m × 107 m), its height, from the floor of the sub-basement, which was 33 feet (10 m) below the street level, to the roof-line, was about 270 feet (82 m), or about 240 feet (73 m) above the street-level. It was 16 stories in height, including the four stories in the roof. The building was constructed of stone, marble and brick, with a steel skeleton frame and modern fireproof interior construction, and was embellished with \"French Second Empire Mansard-roofed towers with iron-work cresting as well as Austrian Baroque onion-domes over corners turrets\". There were 25 public rooms and 550 guest rooms, with miles of corridors, vestibules and balls. The entrance featured a double set of plate glass doors to give protection in cold weather, and a U-shaped driveway for horse and carriages.\n\nThe main corridor was nicknamed \"Peacock Alley\" by the New York press. The corridor and foyer were treated with pilasters and columns of Sienna marble and a color scheme on the walls and ceilings of salmon-pink, with cream-color and pale-green. The capitals of the columns and pilasters were gilded of solid brass or lacquered. The main corridor ran the entire length of the building from east to west. To the left of it was the Astor Dining Room, fronting on Fifth Avenue, which measured 50 by 92 feet (15 m × 28 m). Great care was taken with it to faithfully reproduce the original dining room of the mansion, three floors above where the original dining room had stood, including all of the original dining room's paneling, carpeting, drapery and fireplace mantel; Italian Renaissance pilasters and columns, carved of marble from northern Russia. The panels of silk hangings were of rose pompadour, and a series of Charles Yardley Turner mural paintings filled arches and panels at the south end of the room. On the right of the main corridor was the Garden Court of Palms, 88 by 57 feet (27 m × 17 m), rising three stories to a dome-like roof of amber glass 56 feet (17 m) above the floor. This, too, was used as a dining room. It was decorated in the Italian style, finished in gray, terracotta and Pavonazzo marble. On the 34th Street side of the corridor was the cafe, 40 by 95 feet (12 m × 29 m), finished in English oak in the style of the German Renaissance, with Flemish decoration. The bar formed another room 40 by 50 feet (12 m × 15 m).\n\nOn the first floor, at the head-of the east main staircase, was the Astor Gallery, 87 by 102 feet (27 m × 31 m), looking out on 34th Street. The gallery, with seven French windows reaching 26 feet (7.9 m) from floor to ceiling, opened onto a terrace over the entrance to the hotel. The interior was finished in the style of the Hôtel de Soubise, with a blue, gray and gold color scheme. There was a parquet floor, and on the south side, opposite the street windows, were other windows which opened into the main corridor on the second floor. The musicians' balcony, upheld by two caryatids, was at the east end. All the balcony railings were of gilded metal work. The mural paintings were notable: four panels, two at either end of the room, and twelve pendentive panels, six on either side and painted by Edward Simmons depicted the four seasons and the twelve months of the year. The \"Colonial Room\" was decorated in red, contrasting with white woodwork. The second floor contained a private suite of apartments at the northeast corner, with large drawing rooms, dining room, butler's pantry, hallway, three bedrooms, three maids' bedrooms and five bathrooms, all finished in old English oak. All the floors above the third were given up to suites and bedrooms up to the 14th floor. There was a bath for nearly every room, and every bathroom had windows opening to the air, not into shafts. In every room, there was a large trunk closet.\n\nThe ballroom, in the Louis XIV style, has been described as the \"pièce de résistance\" of the hotel, measuring 65 feet (20 m) by 95 feet (29 m) and 40 feet (12 m) (three stories) in height. It had a capacity to seat 700 at banquets and 1,200 at concerts, and featured tints of ivory-gray and cream in its design. Noted vocalists such as Enrico Caruso and Nellie Melba performed in the ballroom, with conductor Anton Seidl leading a series of concerts there in the year the combined hotels opened for business. It was possible to buy season tickets for the musical offerings; a box for a season was US\\$350 and a seat for a season on the ballroom floor was priced at US\\$60.\n\nOn the hotel's top floor was the roof-garden, enclosed on all sides by glass, with a glass roof over. It was furnished with rattan chairs and lounges in pale-green and pink, hung across with gauzy fabric. On the roof on the 34th Street side was the grand promenade, 90 by 200 feet (27 m × 61 m), on solid footing high in the air, with a band stand, fountains, and trellises of columns. The roof garden restaurant occupied a space 75 by 84 feet (23 m × 26 m), and was roofed in. The ceiling was 24 feet (7.3 m) high. At the northeast and northwest corners of the roof garden were towers, with spiral stairways within, leading up to the copper covered roofs of the pavilions, which were 250 feet (76 m) above the sidewalk. The palm gardens, used as cafes, rose to a height of two and three stories respectively and were roofed-over with domes of tinted glass. Balconies at the various floor levels opened on to these courts to overlook them. The materials used were cream-colored brick and terracotta, and were Italian Renaissance in style.\n\nIn the sub-basement were the Sprague screw machines for the electric elevators, the fire pumps, the house pumps, the ice plant, and the six Babcock & Wilcox water tube boilers. The elevator system, which served the house from subbasement to roof, was electric, taking its power from the generating plant within the building. There were 18 elevators. The machinery was located in the sub-basement. The boilers aggregated about 3,000 horse power, the electric generators taking 2,200 horse-power of the total energy. The elevators were run by it, as were the 15,000 incandescent lamps, branching from 7,500 outlets. The system of heating and ventilating the public rooms was that of forced draught by means of powerful blowers situated in the sub-basement that forced the fresh air between steam-coils, where it became moderately heated before entering the ducts that lead it to the various rooms. This heat was further augmented by direct radiators placed behind screens in the recesses of the windows and elsewhere.\n\n## Notable people\n\nWilliam Waldorf Astor (1848–1919) was a wealthy American attorney, politician, businessman, and newspaper publisher of the Astor family. He was the only child of financier/philanthropist John Jacob Astor III (1822–1890) and Charlotte Augusta Gibbes (1825–1887). Described as being a \"very prickly sort of person\", he had a background in Europe and earned wealth buying and selling country estates in England including Cliveden and Hever Castle. In his early adult years, Astor returned to the United States and began studies at Columbia Law School. He was called to the United States Bar in 1875. He worked for a short time in law practice and in the management of his father's estate of financial and real estate holdings. On his death in 1919, he was reputed to have been worth £200 million, which he left in trust for his two sons Waldorf and John Jacob. His half share of the Waldorf Astoria and the Astor Hotel at the time were reported to have been worth £10 million.\n\nGeorge Boldt (1851–1916), the founding proprietor, was a Prussian-born American hotelier and self-made millionaire who influenced the development of the urban hotel as a civic social center and luxury destination. His motto was \"the guest is always right\", and he became a wealthy and prominent figure internationally. The hotel was built to his specifications. He served as president and director of the Waldorf Astoria Hotel Company, as well as the Waldorf-Astoria Segar Company and the Waldorf Importation Company. He also owned and operated the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, an elite boutique hotel on Broad Street in Philadelphia, with his wife, Louise. Boldt was described as \"Mild mannered, undignified, unassuming\", resembling \"a typical German professor with his close-cropped beard which he kept fastidiously trimmed... and his pince-nez glasses on a black silk cord\". Boldt retained his contacts with the European elite and he and his wife made frequent trips to Europe, bringing back with them many antiques, a characteristic of the Waldorf Astoria. Boldt continued to own the Bellevue even after his relationship with the Astors blossomed.\n\nLucius M. Boomer (1878–1947) was an American hotelier and businessman, responsible for the general management of the hotel for many years. Physically impressive and brassy, he displayed total dedication to his job and great discipline and care towards his staff, becoming one of the most famous hoteliers of his time. Boomer became interested in the hotel after the death of Boldt in 1916 and purchased it, before buying the Bellevue-Stratford two years later. Following the retirement of Louis Sherry in 1920, he became directing head of the Louis Sherry Ice Cream and Chocolate Company, and was later president of restaurant chain Savarin, Inc. Boomer was primarily responsible for the decision to demolish the hotel and build the new one on Park Avenue in 1931. He continued to manage the hotel until his death in Norway in July 1947.\n\nHenry J. Hardenbergh (1847–1918) was an American architect who designed both hotels in the German Renaissance style. Apprenticed in New York from 1865 to 1870 under Detlef Lienau, in 1870, opened his own practice there. He obtained his first contracts for three buildings at Rutgers College in New Brunswick, New Jersey—the expansion of Alexander Johnston Hall (1871), designing and building Geology Hall (1872) and the Kirkpatrick Chapel (1873)—through family connections. Hardenbergh designed the Dakota Apartments in 1884, and after building the Waldorf he went on to have an illustrious career as \"America's premiere architect of grand hotels\", designing the Manhattan Hotel (1896), the Plaza Hotel (1907), the Martinique Hotel (1911) and numerous other hotels in cities such as Boston and Washington, D.C.\n\nLouis Sherry (1855–1926) was an American restaurateur, caterer, confectioner and hotelier during the Gilded Age and early 20th century, who was of considerable renown in the business. His name is typically associated with an upscale brand of candy and ice cream, and The Sherry-Netherland hotel in New York City. In 1919, Sherry announced an \"alliance\" with the Waldorf-Astoria that involved both his candies and catering services. Although it was not disclosed at that time, at some point ownership of Louis Sherry Inc. was significantly vested in \"Boomer-duPont interests\", a reference to Lucius M. Boomer, then chairman of the Waldorf-Astoria, and T. Coleman du Pont.\n\nOscar Tschirky (1866–1950), known as \"Oscar of the Waldorf\", was a Swiss chef, maître d'hôtel from the hotel's inauguration in 1893 until his retirement in 1943. Tschirky had arrived in the United States from Switzerland ten years prior to applying for the position at the new Waldorf and over the years grew to possess an encyclopedic-like knowledge of cuisine and the special trimmings and preferences that the regular diners desired. He authored The Cookbook by Oscar of The Waldorf (1896), a 900-page book featuring recipes such as Waldorf salad, which remain popular worldwide. James Remington McCarthy wrote in his book Peacock Alley that Oscar gained renown among the general public as an artist who \"composed sonatas in soups, symphonies in salads, minuets in sauces, lyrics in entrees\". In 1902 Tschirky published Serving a Course Dinner by Oscar of the Waldorf-Astoria, a booklet which explains the intricacies of being a caterer to the American and international elite. Tschirky continued to work for the Waldorf Astoria after the original hotel was demolished until his retirement in 1943.", "revid": "1168599328", "description": "Former hotel in Manhattan, New York", "categories": ["1893 establishments in New York (state)", "1929 disestablishments in New York (state)", "34th Street (Manhattan)", "Astor family", "Buildings and structures demolished in 1929", "Defunct hotels in Manhattan", "Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan", "Demolished hotels in New York City", "Fifth Avenue", "Hotels established in 1893", "Midtown Manhattan", "Upper class culture in New York City", "Waldorf Astoria New York"]}
{"id": "18118937", "url": null, "title": "Sergio Romo", "text": "Sergio Francisco Romo (born March 4, 1983) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the San Francisco Giants, Los Angeles Dodgers, Tampa Bay Rays, Miami Marlins, Minnesota Twins, Oakland Athletics, Seattle Mariners, and Toronto Blue Jays. A right-hander who served as a closer during his career, his main pitch was his slider.\n\nBorn in Brawley, California, Romo grew up a Dodgers fan. He attended four colleges, getting drafted in the 28th round of the 2005 draft by the Giants. He reached the major leagues in 2008 and appeared in 45 games for the Giants in 2009. In 2010, he became the setup man for Giants closer Brian Wilson as the Giants won the 2010 World Series. He posted a 1.50 earned run average (ERA) in 2011, then became the closer for the Giants in 2012, recording three saves during the 2012 World Series as the Giants won the title. He was an All-Star in 2013, and though he lost the closer role the next year, he won his third World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in the 2014 World Series.\n\nAfter two more seasons with the Giants, Romo signed with the Dodgers for 2017. He was designated for assignment in 2018 and traded to the Rays. In 2018, he was the first pitcher used by Rays manager Kevin Cash as part of Tampa's opener strategy. Later that year, he became Tampa Bay's closer. A free agent after the season, he signed with the Marlins and served as Miami's closer until getting traded to the Twins halfway through the year. He reached the playoffs with Minnesota in 2019 and 2020 before becoming a free agent once again.\n\n## Early life\n\nRomo was born in Brawley, California to parents of Mexican heritage. He grew up a Los Angeles Dodgers fan. His grandfather and father both played baseball; his grandfather was a member of the Mexico City Diablos Rojos. Work responsibilities kept Frank, a semipro player, from being able to play Minor League Baseball, and he wanted to make sure his son got the opportunity. He built Sergio a pitching mound in the backyard and taught him how to throw. Romo played shortstop and third base on the baseball team at Brawley Union High School, graduating in 2001. With no scholarship offers from four-year colleges, Romo nearly signed enlistment papers to follow his father in the United States Navy, but he opted to play baseball at junior college instead.\n\n## College career\n\nRomo went to Orange Coast College before transferring to Arizona Western College. Romo was named to the All-Region I second team of the Arizona Community College Athletic Conference in 2002 and 2003. In 159 innings, Romo earned a 16-4 overall record with a 2.79 earned run average (ERA).\n\nFor his junior and senior years, Romo played NCAA Division II baseball at two colleges: the University of North Alabama (2004) and Mesa State College (2005). He was named First-Team All-Gulf South Conference in 2004 while playing for North Alabama and was 10–3 with a 3.69 ERA in 97.1 innings. In his senior year with Mesa State, he was the Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference Pitcher of the Year.\n\n## Professional career\n\n### Draft and minor leagues\n\nRomo was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the 28th round (852nd overall) of the 2005 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft. He began his professional career with the Salem-Keizer Volcanoes of the Single-A short season Northwest League. Used as a starter, he had a 7–1 record and a 2.75 ERA in 68+2⁄3 innings. His seven wins led the Northwest League, while his 65 strikeouts ranked ninth.\n\nThe following year, Romo was assigned to the Augusta GreenJackets of the Single-A South Atlantic League. In 31 games (10 starts) he had a 10–2 record, a 2.53 ERA, 95 strikeouts, and four saves in 103+1⁄3 innings. He made 41 relief appearances for the San Jose Giants of the Single-A advanced California League in 2007, compiling a 6–2 record, a 1.36 ERA, 106 strikeouts, and nine saves in 66+1⁄3 innings of work. Romo's 14.38 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched was the fourth-best mark in the minors, and milb.com named Romo the Class A Advanced Relief Pitcher of the Year. Aided by his contributions, San Jose won the California League championship.\n\nRomo began the 2008 season with the Double-A Connecticut Defenders of the Eastern League. Used as the closer, he had 11 saves in 27 games, and his ERA was 4.00.\n\n### San Francisco Giants (2008–2016)\n\n#### 2008\n\nRomo had his contract purchased by the San Francisco Giants on June 24, 2008, when Vinnie Chulk was designated for assignment. He made his big league debut on June 26, 2008, in a 4–1 loss to the Cleveland Indians, striking out two in an inning pitched. Romo posted a 2.35 ERA in his first 15 games but was designated for assignment on August 6, because the Giants were adding up two relief pitchers. Romo was on trade waivers at the time and thus could not be optioned to the minors. He was eventually sent to the minors, but was recalled on August 16, when Jonathan Sánchez was placed on the disabled list. Romo replaced Matt Palmer in the bullpen as Palmer took Sánchez's rotation spot. In 29 games as a rookie, Romo had a 3–1 record, a 2.12 ERA, 33 strikeouts, and eight walks in 34 innings. He played winter baseball with the Águilas de Mexicali of the Mexican Pacific League. In 15 relief appearances, Romo made six saves and posted a 2.70 ERA.\n\n#### 2009\n\nA right elbow sprain caused Romo to start the 2009 season on the disabled list, but he was activated on May 30, 2009. From June 5 through June 20, he threw 7+2⁄3 scoreless innings, allowing just two hits. He picked up wins on both June 19 and 20, against the Texas Rangers. He completed his first major league save on July 7 against the Florida Marlins. He got the last two outs of the game, both of which were via the strikeout. Romo had a 2.31 ERA through July 11, but in four games between July 11 and 20, he gave up seven runs in two innings, raising his ERA to 6.59. He then had a 2.21 ERA in his final 27 games, which brought his ERA down to 3.97 at the end of the year. In 45 games, he had a 5–2 record, 41 strikeouts, and 11 walks in 34 innings. He was one of eight NL relievers to allow one or fewer home runs. Romo also stranded 92.9% of inherited runners, second in the NL to Juan Rincón's 95%.\n\n#### 2010\n\nRomo got off to a tough start to the 2010 season, posting a 4.50 ERA through his first 14 games and losing three of them. Starting May 9, he posted a 1.50 ERA in his final 54 games of the year. In mid-June, Giants' manager Bruce Bochy removed the struggling Guillermo Mota from the setup role and replaced him with Romo, who held it for the rest of the regular season. Romo gained notoriety for being one of the team's relief pitchers with a prominent beard, along with LHP Jeremy Affeldt and closer Brian Wilson. In 68 games (second to Wilson on the Giants), Romo had a 5–3 record, a 2.18 ERA, 70 strikeouts, and 14 walks in 62 innings. This year, he held right-handed batters to a .185 average. His 5.00 strikeout-to-walk ratio ranked sixth among NL relievers, and his 2.18 ERA ranked 10th.\n\nIn Game 2 of the National League Division Series (NLDS) against the Atlanta Braves, Romo gave up two hits without recording an out; both runners scored as the Giants went on to blow a three-run lead and lose 5–4 in 11 innings. Romo replaced Sánchez in the eighth inning of Game 3 and allowed a go-ahead two-run home run to Eric Hinske but was charged with the win as the Giants rallied in the ninth to win 3–2. The Giants won the series in four games. In Game 4 of the NL Championship Series (NLCS) against the Philadelphia Phillies, Romo gave up an RBI double to Jayson Werth and was charged with a blown save, but the Giants won 6–5. He held the Phillies scoreless in his other two outings of the series (losses in Games 2 and 5), and the Giants won the series in six games. Romo made one appearance in the World Series against the Texas Rangers, throwing 2⁄3 of a scoreless eighth inning in the Giants' 11–7 victory. Romo earned his first World Series ring as the Giants won the series in five games to win their first title since 1954.\n\n#### 2011\n\nIn 2011, Romo became the fifth reliever in MLB history to throw nine or more consecutive perfect innings, retiring thirty straight batters in 10 innings over a span of fourteen games from July 4 through August 6. From August 16 through August 28, he was on the disabled list with right elbow inflammation. From June 30 through September 23, he had the longest scoreless streak of his career, throwing 21+2⁄3 scoreless innings. Romo appeared in 65 games in 2011; his stat line for the year was: 3–1 record, 1.50 ERA, 70 strikeouts, five walks, 13.1 K/9, and .9 BB/9 in 48 innings. His ERA was the third-lowest among NL relievers, and his strikeout-to-walk ratio of 14:1 was the best in MLB and the best ever since Dennis Eckersley's 18.25:1 ratio in 1990. He stranded 81.8% of runners (fifth in the NL) and trailed only Kris Medlen in strike percentage (71%) among NL pitchers with at least 20 innings pitched.\n\n#### 2012\n\nRomo performed very well to begin the 2012 season and did not allow an earned run until May 17, 2012. After Brian Wilson underwent Tommy John surgery in April, Santiago Casilla was given the closer role. Casilla converted 20 of his first 21 save opportunities but blew five of his next nine save situations, posting a 7.71 ERA from June 23 through August 7. Bochy announced on August 7 that the Giants would use a \"bullpen by committee\" strategy, with Romo, Javier López, and Jeremy Affeldt pitching the final two innings of close games, depending on which hitters they would be facing. Romo and López received most of the save opportunities; Affeldt only had one save after that point. From then through the end of the season, Romo converted nine out of nine save opportunities and posted a 1.33 ERA. Romo appeared in 69 games of the 2012 season, earning 14 saves with a 1.79 ERA, which was fourth among NL relievers and trailed only Craig Kimbrel (1.01), Aroldis Chapman (1.51) and Eric O'Flaherty (1.73). Though he had become the closer by the end of the year, he won the Gibby Award for being MLB's Setup Man of the Year. The Giants won the NL West; in the NLDS against the Cincinnati Reds, Romo appeared in three games, winning Game 3 and saving Game 5. He pitched in all four of the Giants' wins in the NLCS against the St. Louis Cardinals but did not get a single save opportunity. However, in the World Series against the Detroit Tigers, he made three appearances and recorded the save in each of them. He pitched the final inning of the deciding Game 4 and struck out three straight, including Miguel Cabrera for the last out and the Giants' win. In the World Series, Romo pitched three perfect innings and had five strikeouts.\n\n#### 2013\n\nIn February 2013, Romo and the Giants agreed to a two-year, \\$9 million contract. Romo began the 2013 season as the Giants' closer. He had 10 saves in April, second in Giants' history for the month to Rod Beck (11). On July 14, he was added to the NL All Star Game roster after Jeff Locke and Jordan Zimmermann made starts on Sunday and became ineligible to pitch. It was the first All-Star selection of his career. However, Romo was not used in the All-Star Game. In August, Romo converted all nine of his save opportunities. Romo finished the 2013 season with a 2.54 earned run average and 38 saves in 43 chances, appearing in 65 games. He had a career-high five wins but also a career-high eight losses. His 38 saves made him the sixth Giant to achieve 30 saves in a season and tied him for third in the league with Chapman, behind Kimbrel's 50 and Rafael Soriano's 43.\n\n#### 2014\n\nRomo began the 2014 season well, with a 1.65 ERA and 12 saves through May 9. However, Romo struggled after that, recording five blown saves and a 9.00 ERA from May 9 to June 30. Romo was removed from the closer role on that date, with the Giants announcing their intention to go to a closer-by-committee. Used as the eighth inning setup man for the remainder of the season, Romo appeared 30 times after July 1 and had a 2.10 ERA over 25+2⁄3 innings with 32 strikeouts and 5 walks. He finished the year 6–4 with a 3.72 ERA, 59 strikeouts in 58 innings, and 12 walks over 64 games. In save opportunities, he was 23 for 28. In the 2014 NLDS against the Washington Nationals, Romo pitched three scoreless innings over three games. He took the loss in Game 2 of the NLCS against the Cardinals after allowing a game-ending home run to Kolten Wong. He recovered to earn the win in Game 3 by retiring Matt Holliday as the Giants won in extra innings. In the 2014 World Series, Romo appeared in two games, pitching 21⁄3 innings with four strikeouts and no runs allowed, earning his third World Series championship with the Giants. On December 22, 2014, Romo and the Giants finalized a two-year contract worth \\$15 million.\n\n#### 2015\n\nHe spent the 2015 season serving as the eighth-inning setup man for Casilla, who had reclaimed the closer role. After posting a 5.19 ERA before the All-Star break, Romo posted a 1.15 ERA in the second half of the season. He did not allow a run over 14 innings between July 11 and August 21. On August 18, he struck out all three batters he faced in the eighth inning of a 2–0 win over the Cardinals. In 70 games, he had an 0–5 record, two saves, a 2.98 ERA, and 71 strikeouts in 57+1⁄3 innings pitched.\n\n#### 2016\n\nRomo pitched in a mere four games in 2016 before being placed on the disabled list on April 15 (retroactive to April 11) with a strained right flexor tendon. Though he went on a rehab assignment in late May, there were setbacks in his recovery, and he was not activated from the disabled list until July 4. On August 30, at AT&T Park, Romo pitched in his 500th career game, a 4–3 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks. On September 19, Bochy removed the struggling Casilla from the closer role. Though he listed Hunter Strickland and Derek Law as the pitchers most likely to get save opportunities, Romo would be the one picking up the save in four of the Giants final 12 games. In 40 games, he had a 1–0 record, four saves, a 2.64 ERA, and 33 strikeouts in 30+2⁄3 innings. The Giants reached the playoffs for the fourth time in Romo's tenure with them, winning the NL Wild Card Game against the New York Mets. With the Giants leading Game 3 of the NLDS against the Chicago Cubs by a score of 5–3, Romo was called on to get the save in the ninth inning. He walked Dexter Fowler to lead off the inning, then gave up a game-tying home run to Kris Bryant. However, the Giants ultimately won 6–5 in 13 innings. In Game 4, he relieved López with two runners on in the ninth and nobody out. Ben Zobrist had an RBI double against him, and Romo was replaced on the mound by Will Smith. Zobrist later scored, and the Cubs rallied from three runs down to win 6–5, eliminating the Giants from the playoffs. After the season, Romo became a free agent.\n\n### Los Angeles Dodgers (2017)\n\nRomo signed a one-year, \\$3 million, contract with the Dodgers on February 15, 2017. \"In talking to Sergio, last year we had one of best bullpens in baseball and that lends itself to unselfishness,\" manager Dave Roberts said of the signing. \"Sergio definitely is up for that. A lot of times the eighth inning, but he's up for anything.\" In 30 games for the Dodgers, he posted a 6.12 ERA in 25 innings before getting designated for assignment on July 20.\n\n### Tampa Bay Rays (2017–2018)\n\nOn July 22, 2017, the Dodgers traded Romo to the Tampa Bay Rays for cash considerations or a player to be named later (PTBNL). He spent the rest of the season in Tampa Bay's bullpen, posting a 2–0 record and a 1.47 ERA in 25 games. In 55 games combined between Los Angeles and Tampa Bay, he had a 3–1 record, no saves, a 3.56 ERA, and 59 strikeouts in 55+2⁄3 innings pitched. After the season, he became a free agent.\n\nRomo re-signed with the Rays on a one-year, \\$2.5 million, contract on February 13, 2018. That season, Rays manager Kevin Cash decided to experiment with using an opener, a pitcher designated to pitch the first one to three innings at the beginning of a ballgame. The rationale for the move was that starting pitchers tend to be less effective the third time they face batters. Instead, having a relief pitcher start the game will allow the regular starter (or \"bulk guy\") to enter later and reach later innings without having to face as many hitters. After 588 major league relief appearances, Romo was the first pitcher utilized in this role, as he made his first career start on May 19, 2018. He pitched one scoreless inning against the Los Angeles Angels, striking out the side before getting replaced by Ryan Yarbrough in an eventual 5–3 victory. He started again the next day, pitching 11⁄3 scoreless innings in a 5–2 loss. This made Romo the first pitcher since Zack Greinke in 2012 to start on consecutive games. He went on to make three more starts on May 25, May 27, and June 1, reaching the second inning in only the last of those three. However, in June, the Rays began using him as their closer, as Álex Colomé, who had started the year in that role, had been traded on May 25. Romo would serve as the closer the rest of the year. On July 25, after he recorded the last two outs of the eighth inning, he was moved to third base to start the ninth so left-hander Jonny Venters could pitch to left-hander Greg Bird. After Venters retired Bird, Romo returned to the mound, retiring the last two hitters to record the save. During a 13-game stretch from August 9 through September 17, he converted nine consecutive save opportunities and posted a 1.54 ERA. In the midst of that stretch, on August 19, Romo recorded his 100th career save in a 2–0 victory over the Boston Red Sox. For the season, Romo appeared in a career-high 73 games, fourth in the American League (AL), while making a career-high five starts. He had a 3–4 record, a 4.14 ERA, and 25 saves over 33 opportunities. In 67+1⁄3 innings, he struck out 75. After the season, he became a free agent.\n\n### Miami Marlins (2019)\n\nOn February 12, 2019, Romo signed a one-year, \\$2.5 million deal with the Miami Marlins. He served as the closer up until late July, recording 17 saves in 38 appearances. Romo only blew one save for the Marlins all season, converting his first seven chances and his last 10 chances with the team. On May 17, he entered a game against the Mets with the bases loaded, no outs in the eighth, and the Marlins up 8–4. He allowed two inherited runners to score that inning but did not allow a run himself. Then, he pitched a scoreless ninth, earning the save in the 8–6 victory. Through July 27, he had a 2–0 record, a 3.58 ERA, and 33 strikeouts in 37+2⁄3 innings pitched for Miami. That day, the Marlins traded Romo, Chris Vallimont, and a PTBNL to the Minnesota Twins for Lewin Díaz.\n\n### Minnesota Twins (2019–2020)\n\nUpon joining the Twins, Romo became the setup man for Twins closer Taylor Rogers. On August 27, he struck out all three men he faced in the eighth inning of a 3–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox. In 27 games for Minnesota, he had an 0–1 record, three saves in five chances, a 3.18 ERA, and 27 strikeouts in 22+2⁄3 innings. He appeared in a total of 65 games between Miami and Minnesota, compiling a 2–1 record, a 3.43 ERA, 20 saves in 23 chances, and 60 strikeouts in 60+1⁄3 innings.\n\nRomo helped the Twins reach the playoffs as they won the AL Central title in 2019. In Game 2 of the ALDS, he got the first two outs of the eighth inning without surrendering a run; however, the Twins lost to the New York Yankees by a score of 8–2. Entering Game 3 with the Twins down 3–1 in the eighth inning, he threw a scoreless eighth but allowed two runs in the ninth as the Yankees won 5–1, completing a series sweep of the Twins. After the season, Romo became a free agent.\n\nOn December 16, 2019, Romo elected to return to the Twins for the 2020 season, signing a 1-year, \\$5 million deal with a team option for 2021. The 2020 MLB season did not start until July 24 due to the COVID-19 situation. He again served as the setup man for Rogers, though Twins manager Rocco Baldelli occasionally used him in the ninth instead, as Rogers struggled to repeat his success from 2019. In a 3–1 win over the Cleveland Indians on September 11, Romo retired Francisco Lindor on a fly ball to end the eighth inning. As he walked back towards his dugout, he and Lindor began yelling at each other. The benches cleared, though no punches were thrown, and Romo was suspended one game by MLB the next day for his role in the incident. \"This is a situation that’s been brewing for a while,\" Sandy Alomar Jr., the Indians manager, told reporters. \"I mean, Romo likes to dish it. Our guys dish it back. The whole thing about this situation -- Romo’s been animated all his career and he’s been in the National League. We don’t know much about him. That’s all it is. If he’s gonna dish it, we dish it back and you have to take it. That’s the bottom line.\" In 2020, Romo appeared in 24 games, compiling a 1–2 record with 4.05 ERA and 23 strikeouts in 20 innings pitched. He recorded five saves in six opportunities.\n\nFor the second year in a row, Romo reached the playoffs as the Twins clinched the AL Central title. In Game 1 of the AL Wild Card Series against the Houston Astros, he relieved Rogers to start the ninth inning with the game tied by a score of 1–1. He gave up two hits before retiring the next two batters. Then, George Springer hit into what should have been a force play at second base, but Jorge Polanco's throw to second base was too far off the bag, and the error allowed Springer to reach safely. Romo then walked José Altuve to force in a run before getting replaced on the mound by Caleb Thielbar, who gave up a two-run single to Michael Brantley. None of the runs were earned, but Romo was charged with the loss in the 4–1 defeat. The Astros eliminated the Twins with a win in Game 2. On October 28, the Twins declined to exercise their \\$5 million option on Romo's contract for the 2021 season, giving him a \\$250,000 buyout and making him a free agent.\n\n### Oakland Athletics (2021)\n\nOn February 14, 2021, Romo signed a one-year, \\$2.25 million contract with the Oakland Athletics. Romo made 66 appearances throughout the 2021 season for Oakland. Romo went 1–1 with a 4.67 ERA and 60 strikeouts. Romo elected free agency following the season.\n\n### Seattle Mariners (2022)\n\nOn March 24, 2022, Romo signed a one-year, \\$2 million contract with the Seattle Mariners. Romo made 17 appearances for Seattle, struggling to a 8.16 ERA with 11 strikeouts in 14.1 innings pitched. He was designated for assignment on June 20, and released on June 22.\n\n### Toronto Blue Jays (2022)\n\nOn June 29, 2022, Romo signed a one-year, \\$700K contract with the Toronto Blue Jays. Romo appeared in 6 games for Toronto, surrendering 3 runs (2 earned) on 1 hit and 2 walks in 3.2 innings pitched. He was designated for assignment on July 16. On July 20, Romo cleared waivers and was sent outright to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons, but rejected the assignment and elected free agency that same day.\n\n### Acereros de Monclova (2022)\n\nOn August 1, 2022, Romo signed with the Acereros de Monclova of the Mexican League. He made two appearances for Monclova down the stretch, posting two scoreless innings of work.\n\n### San Francisco Giants (second stint) (2023)\n\nOn March 16, 2023, Romo signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants organization, with the intention to retire as a Giant after pitching one final time in the March 27 Bay Bridge exhibition game against the Oakland Athletics.\n\n## International play\n\nBy virtue of his Mexican heritage, Romo has represented Mexico in international play. In the 2013 World Baseball Classic, he posted a 9.00 ERA, losing a game but also earning a save. Mexico failed to advance past the first round. In 2017, Romo was excited about Mexico's chances in the classic. \"This team is well put together. I do honestly believe that this is one of the strongest teams that Mexico has ever put forth in any kind of tournament and any kind of situation. Not just from a pitching standpoint, but our lineup has a lot of power and guys that can run a little bit. I see us playing a more well-rounded brand of baseball. With all due respect to all of the other teams, don't sleep on us.\" However, Mexico again failed to advance past the first round. Romo posted a 20.25 ERA in that tournament.\n\nRomo also represented Mexico in the 2017 Caribbean Series, appearing in one game. Next season, he appeared in three games for Mexico in the 2018 Caribbean Series. Following the 2016, 2017, and 2018 MLB seasons, Romo played for the Charros de Jalisco of the Mexican Pacific League.\n\n## Pitches\n\nWith a low-three quarters delivery, Romo features four pitches: an unusual \"No Dot\" slider, a fastball, a sinkerball, and a changeup. Before 2011, the fastball was his main pitch, as is the case with most pitchers. However, ex-teammate Bengie Molina encouraged Romo to have more confidence in his slider after facing him in the 2010 World Series. Romo began to throw the slider a majority of the time, and since 2011, fastballs have been less than 40 percent of his pitches. The pitch is called a \"No Dot\" slider, because, unlike most pitchers' sliders, it does not spin on an axis centered on the seams. This means that it creates no red dot at its center for hitters to track as it comes to the plate. Its sweep motion makes it particularly tricky for right-handed hitters to hit. In 2017, he threw a slider 58.4% of the time, the most among major league pitchers. The fastball, never harder than 93 mph, averaged closer to 87 mph as of 2015. Meanwhile, the slider averages 78 mph.\n\nFor most of his career, Romo has struggled against left-handed batters. After experimenting with using his changeup on them in 2014, he decided to try throwing a harder, faster slider to them in 2015. Since then, he has returned to trying to get them out with the changeup.\n\n## Personal life\n\nRomo married his now ex-wife Chelsea before he reached the major leagues. The couple had their first child, a boy named Rilen, in January 2006. Their second son, Rex was born in September 2011 and their third son Rhys in August 2015.\n\nRomo has a number of tattoos and estimates that he has spent approximately 60 hours in tattoo parlors in his life.", "revid": "1173035768", "description": "American baseball player (born 1983)", "categories": ["1983 births", "2013 World Baseball Classic players", "2017 World Baseball Classic players", "Acereros de Monclova players", "American baseball players of Mexican descent", "American expatriate baseball players in Mexico", "Arizona League Giants players", "Arizona Western Matadors baseball players", "Augusta GreenJackets players", "Baseball players from Imperial County, California", "Brawley Union High School alumni", "Charros de Jalisco players", "Colorado Mesa Mavericks baseball players", "Connecticut Defenders players", "Fresno Grizzlies players", "Living people", "Los Angeles Dodgers players", "Major League Baseball pitchers", "Miami Marlins players", "Minnesota Twins players", "National League All-Stars", "North Alabama Lions baseball players", "Oakland Athletics players", "Orange Coast Pirates baseball players", "People from Brawley, California", "Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players", "Sacramento River Cats players", "Salem-Keizer Volcanoes players", "San Francisco Giants players", "San Jose Giants players", "Scottsdale Scorpions players", "Seattle Mariners players", "Tacoma Rainiers players", "Tampa Bay Rays players", "Toronto Blue Jays players", "Águilas de Mexicali players"]}
{"id": "57377087", "url": null, "title": "Action at Sihayo's Kraal", "text": "The 12 January 1879 action at Sihayo's Kraal was an early skirmish in the Anglo-Zulu War. The day after launching an invasion of Zululand, the British Lieutenant-General Lord Chelmsford led a reconnaissance in force against the kraal of Zulu Chief Sihayo kaXongo. This was intended to secure his left flank for an advance on the Zulu capital at Ulundi and as retribution against Sihayo for the incursion of his sons into the neighbouring British Colony of Natal.\n\nEn-route to the kraal the British force found a small party of Zulus in a horseshoe-shaped gorge. A frontal assault was launched by auxiliary troops from the Natal Native Contingent (NNC), supported by British regulars, while a mixed unit of mounted infantry moved onto the high ground to the rear of the Zulus. After the NNC attack faltered the regulars reinvigorated the attack and defeated the Zulus in the gorge. The mounted force engaged around sixty Zulus on the high ground and drove them off. The Zulu force suffered losses of 40 killed, 4 wounded and at least 3 captured. The British lost 2 members of the NNC killed and 22 wounded.\n\nAfter their victory the British moved on Sihayo's Kraal, which they found to be undefended. After burning it down they returned to their camp. The action is believed to have led Cetshwayo to attack Chelmsford's force in preference to the two other British columns operating in Zululand. Much of Chelmford's column was destroyed at the Battle of Isandlwana ten days later.\n\n## Background\n\nIn the 1870s the British government sought to extend its control over Southern Africa. Apart from the valuable naval base at the Cape of Good Hope they had previously shown little interest in the region but this changed with the discovery of valuable mineral deposits. In 1877 Sir Henry Bartle Frere was dispatched as High Commissioner for Southern Africa with a mandate to bring the existing colonies, indigenous African groups and the Boer republics under British authority. Frere viewed the independent Zulu Kingdom as a possible threat to this plan and sought an excuse to declare war and annex it. He established a boundary commission to look into a dispute between Zululand and the Boer Transvaal, which had been recently annexed by the British, hoping for an outcome that would enrage the Zulu king, Cetshwayo. However, when the report was produced it largely backed the Zulu claim.\n\nFrere instead seized on an incident in July 1878. Two wives of Zulu chief Sihayo kaXongo fled from his kraal (homestead) into the British colony of Natal. Two of Sihayo's sons crossed into Natal with an armed band, seized the women and returned them to Zululand where they were executed. Frere mobilised British troops on the border and requested a meeting with Cetshwayo's representatives in December, ostensibly to discuss the report of the boundary commission. Frere instead presented them with an ultimatum. Cetshwayo was required to turn over Sihayo's sons to face British justice and turn over the chief Mbilini waMswati to the Transvaal courts for raiding as well as paying a fine of cattle for these offenses and the 1878 Natal–Zululand border incident. Frere also demanded wholesale changes to the Zulu system of government including limits on the use of the death penalty, the requirement for judicial trials, supervision by a British official, admission of Christian missionaries and the abolition of the Zulu social/army system and the associated restrictions on marriage. The ultimatum was harsh, demanding radical change in the Zulu way of life, and it was intended by Frere that Cetshwayo would reject it. Emissaries sent by Cetshwayo requesting an extension to the ultimatum deadline were ignored.\n\nOn 11 January 1879 the ultimatum expired and British forces, under Lieutenant-General Lord Chelmsford entered Zululand in three columns. One column operated close to the eastern coastline and one advanced from Transvaal in the west. The main force, the Centre Column under Chelmsford, crossed the Buffalo River into Zulu territory at Rorke's Drift and made camp on the far side. On 6 January Chelmsford had written to Frere that he had received reports that Sihayo had assembled 8,000 men to attack the British when they made their crossing, but it was unopposed.\n\nChelmsford determined to attack Sihayo's Kraal which lay some 8 km (5.0 mi) from his camp. He intended this to secure his left flank for the advance upon the Zulu capital of Ulundi and as a punitive measure against Sihayo. Chelmsford thought that an attack on Sihayo would show the British government that he was acting against the Zulu leadership, particularly those mentioned in the ultimatum, and not against the Zulu people in general. A reconnaissance party of the Natal Mounted Police under Major John Dartnell were dispatched on the first day of the invasion. Dartnell's force approached Sihayo's Kraal along the Bashee River valley and returned to Chelmsford's camp by that evening, he reported hearing war songs being sung by a large party of Zulu in the valley but could not locate them. Other scouting parties sent out in other directions captured a large number of Zulu cattle.\n\n## Advance\n\nChelmsford ordered a force, commanded by Colonel Richard Thomas Glyn of the 24th Regiment of Foot, to leave the camp at 3:30 a.m. on 12 January; this was later described as a reconnaissance in force. Glyn's command was a mixed force of men from his regiment; auxiliary troops of the 3rd Regiment Natal Native Contingent (NNC), commanded by Major Wilsone Black; and some irregular mounted infantry, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel John Cecil Russell. Chelmsford accompanied the force. Glyn was in formal command but Chelmsford was prone to interfere in tactical matters and helped direct the movement of the column. This practice led to uncertainty over the division of responsibility in the column, not helped by a personal rift between Glyn's chief of staff Major Francis Clery and Chelmsford's, Lieutenant-Colonel John North Crealock.\n\nThe British troops proceeded north-east from the camp keeping to a track on the west side of the Bashee River. After around 8 km (5.0 mi) a quantity of cattle and other livestock were observed on the far side with a number of Zulus to the hills above them. Chelmsford ordered the force to cross the river and prepare for action. Whilst Glyn and Chelmsford consulted on their battle plan, the Zulus taunted the British, shouting \"Why are you waiting there? Are you looking to build kraals? Why don't you come on up?\".\n\n## Action\n\nThe Zulu defenders were commanded by Mkumbikazulu kaSihayo, one of Sihayo's sons involved in the Natal raid. They held a horseshoe-shaped gorge on a steep hillside, part of Ngedla Hill. The open end of the gorge faced towards the Bashee River and the base of the cliffs were covered with boulders and scrub. Sihayo's kraal lay further to the north on a more gently sloping part of the Ngedla.\n\nChelmsford and Glyn determined to clear the Zulu from the gorge before proceeding to the kraal to burn it. Chelmsford ordered Russell's mounted infantry to move to the south where the slope was climbable and to sweep around behind the Zulus on the heights to threaten them and cut off any retreat. In the meantime the entire 1st battalion of the 3rd regiment of the Natal Native Contingent (under Commandant George Hamilton-Browne) were to assault the Zulus on the lower ground and attempt to seize the cattle, they would be supported by three companies of the 1st battalion of the 24th Regiment (commanded by Captain William Degacher). The 2nd battalion of the 3rd regiment of the Natal Native Contingent (commanded by Commandant Edward Russell Cooper) and additional men from the 24th Regiment of Foot, including four companies of the 2nd battalion, were held in reserve.\n\nThe NNC, under Hamilton-Browne, led the attack, beginning probably a little after 8.00 am. He had been ordered by Chelmsford not to open fire before the Zulu did and to avoid harming any Zulu women or children. Hamilton-Browne was worried about the prospect of friendly fire from his poorly trained men and ordered them not to use their firearms at all. The NNC had received little training in military drill and Hamilton-Browne's non-commissioned officers soon gave up attempts to keep the NNC in line during their advance.\n\nAs the British column approached the Zulu herdsmen drove the livestock deeper into the gorge and raised the alarm. The NNC were in good spirits until they came within gunshot of the \"several score\" Zulu warriors who were hiding among boulders, shrubs and caves at the edges of the gorge. At this point they were challenged by a Zulu shouting \"By whose orders do you come to the land of the Zulus?\". A newspaper reporter with the British, Charles Norris-Newman, recorded that no reply was made but Hamilton-Browne claimed that his interpreter, Lieutenant R. Duncombe, replied \"By the orders of the Great White Queen\". The Zulus then opened fire on the British right flank, their first shot striking an NNC man and breaking his thigh bone.\n\nThe NNC became pinned down but Hamilton-Browne led one company, to assault the Zulus in the rough ground. The assault was successful in clearing the base of the gorge, and capturing a number of women and children, who were sent to the rear. The Zulu warriors retreated up steep path leading to the top of the cliffs.\n\nThe path was barricaded and covered by concealed marksmen and, seeing the NNC falter, Black and a staff officer, Captain Henry Harford moved forward to support Hamilton-Browne. On the way Harford spotted a Zulu taking aim at Glyn, who was observing from open ground, and shouted a warning, preventing his injury or death. Black moved between parties of the NNC trying, largely in vain, to encourage them forwards. Attempts by the NNC non-commissioned officers to force their men forwards by clubbing them with rifle butts also failed. Harford rallied a group of NNC men and made some forward progress, clearing caves in the cliff face. The men of the 24th also advanced, their rifles with fixed-bayonets proving an encouragement to the NNC.\n\nThe men of the NNC with rifles opened fire, causing the company under Hamilton-Browne at the foot of the cliffs, who were also under fire from the Zulus, to take cover. Black once more tried to lead the NNC in an attack; waving his hat over his head in one hand and brandishing his sword in the other. Black's hat was shot out of his hand and he was struck \"below the belt\" by a boulder thrown from the cliffs, causing pain but no injury and halting his advance.\n\nPart of the 2nd Battalion of the NNC was also brought up in support but the action on the low ground was over by 9:00 a.m., as the NNC and men from the 24th Regiment climbed the cliffs elsewhere and outflanked the Zulus holding the path. At least a dozen Zulus were killed in action in the gorge along with two NNC men; around twenty NNC men and three of their European officers and non-commissioned officers were wounded.\n\nIn the meantime Russell's mounted contingent had also reached the heights. His force was split in two with the Natal Mounted Police and Natal Carbineers on the left and the other men on the right, out of sight on one another. The left unit came under fire from a party of 60 Zulus in rocky ground. They dismounted and advanced in skirmish order, returning fire. The Zulus were driven off by 10.00 am, with losses of 10-18 dead and no British casualties. The right-hand party captured a number of Zulu horses but otherwise had an uneventful day, except for narrowly avoiding a friendly fire incident with a party of the NNC who had removed their distinguishing red headbands to avoid attack by the Zulus.\n\n## Burning of the kraal\n\nAfter the action a force of four companies of the 2/24th and part of the 2nd Battalion of the 3rd NNC, under the overall command of Colonel Henry Degacher of the 24th Regiment was sent to Sihayo's kraal with orders to raze it. The kraal was located further up the Bashee valley and 60 metres (200 ft) above it. Degacher led a cautious advance in skirmish order. This was witnessed by men of the 1st battalion who, being on higher ground could see that the kraal was unoccupied and good humouredly mocked their comrades. Degacher's men then marched into the kraal and burnt it to the ground. Three old women and a young girl were found nearby but no male Zulu. The British soldiers recovered a number of Sihayo's carved prestige staffs from the kraal.\n\nThe entire force marched back to its camp by the Buffalo River, reaching it by 4:00 p.m. The march was affected by a heavy thunderstorm and Chelmsford allowed the force a day off on 13 January to rest and dry their equipment. The force was afterwards engaged in guard duties, reconnaissance and preparing the roadway into Zululand. The force left camp early on 20 January and reached the next camp, at Isandlwana, by noon.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nThe British commanders were reasonably pleased with the day's events and considered that the NNC had performed well in their first action. The total Zulu casualties were estimated at thirty killed, including Mkumbikazulu kaSihayo, and four wounded who were captured. At least three unwounded Zulus were taken prisoner by an NNC officer. The prisoners were interrogated with physical violence but did not reveal the presence of the Zulu field army, 25,000 warriors and 10,000 followers and reserves, which was then at a position just over 20 miles (32 km) from the Centre Column. The able-bodied prisoners were released on 13 January and took refuge at Sotondose's Drift. Chelmsford's orders were to release the wounded prisoners once they had recovered. One of the prisoners received treatment at the British hospital at Rorke's Drift and was killed by the Zulu when they stormed the hospital during the Battle of Rorke's Drift on 22/23 January.\n\nThe British captured 13 horses, 413 cattle, 332 goats and 235 sheep with some of these being driven into Natal. The British soldiers were pleased with this as they anticipated payment of prize money for the livestock. They were left disappointed when the animals were sold to army contractors at a low price. A number of obsolete firearms and a brand-new wagon were also recovered from Sihayo's Kraal.\n\nChelmsford wrote to Frere:\n\n> I am in great hope that the news of the storming of Sihayo's stronghold and the capture of so many of his cattle ... may have the salutary effect in Zululand and either bring down a large force to attack us or else produce a revolution in the country. Sihayo's men have I am told always been looked upon as the bravest in the country and certainly those who were killed today fought with great courage.\n\nThe engagement was reported in the Natal Times of 16 January as a victory over a Zulu attack. The newspaper mistakenly reported that one NNC officer was killed and two Natal Mounted Police members killed or wounded. It noted \"the prediction of those best acquainted with the Zulus, that they would never stand the fire of regular forces, has been abundantly verified\".\n\nSihayo and his senior son, Mehlokazulu, missed the action, having left the day before with the bulk of his fighting men to answer Cetshwayo's call to arms at Ulundi. He had left just 200-300 men to defend his kraal. News of the attack reached the Zulu king whilst he was considering which of the three British columns to engage with his main force. The action seems to have convinced him to attack the Centre Column. Cetshwayo may have been persuaded that the Centre Column was the most important of the British forces by the presence of Chelmsford directing the attack. Cetshwayo sent the bulk of his army against it and part of Chelmsford's force was subsequently annihilated at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January. The prisoners released by Chelmsford on 13 January may have helped the inhabitants of Sotondose's Drift attack British survivors of the battle. The survivors of Sihayo's Kraal were certainly present, harassing the fleeing men and killing stragglers. The dead included Lieutenants Teignmouth Melvill and Nevill Coghill who were killed while trying to save the Queen's colour of the 1/24th and the drift afterwards became known as Fugitive's Drift.\n\n## Interpretation\n\nThe action at Sihayo's Kraal was the first of the war. Anglo-Zulu War historian Adrian Greaves, writing in 2012, regards the action at Sihayo's Kraal as a token victory against a small Zulu force consisting of old men and boys. He considers there was no military value to the engagement as Sihayo's warriors had already left the kraal to assemble with the main army and could not threaten Chelmsford's supply lines. Greaves thinks the action may have given Chelmsford false confidence that the Zulu would run from future engagements. Ian Knight considers that Chelmsford took the wrong lesson from the action, rather than noting the determination of the Zulu to hold their ground and the courage of their leaders (Mkumbikazulu having been killed leading his men), he focussed on the ease with which the Zulu had been defeated in a one-sided engagement. Knight thinks this led to a sense of complacency in the column, which may have had been a factor in their subsequent defeat at Isandlwana.\n\nThe location of the action and Sihayo's Kraal is not certain as records kept by the British were vague and no battlefield relics have been recovered. The historian Keith Smith places Sihayo's Kraal at Sokhexe, a settlement still occupied by Sihayo's descendants and the earlier action at a location somewhat to the south near Ngedla hill.", "revid": "1150615816", "description": "Early skirmish in the Anglo-Zulu War, 1879", "categories": ["1879 in the Zulu Kingdom", "Battles involving the United Kingdom", "Battles of the Anglo-Zulu War", "Conflicts in 1879", "History of KwaZulu-Natal", "January 1879 events"]}
{"id": "29162", "url": null, "title": "Saluki", "text": "The Saluki is a standardised breed developed from sighthounds – dogs that hunt primarily by sight rather than strong scent – that was once used by nomadic tribes to run down game animals. The dog was originally bred in the Fertile Crescent. The modern breed is typically deep-chested and long-legged, and similar dogs appear in medieval and ancient art. The breed is most closely related to the Afghan hound, a basal breed that predates the emergence of modern breeds in the 19th century, and the Saluki has been purebred both in the Middle East, including by royalty, since at least that era, and in the West (especially in Britain and Germany) since the 1840s (with breed standards established in the West and the Middle East around the 1920s–1930s), though as a free-breeding landrace, similar dogs are common as feral animals in the Middle East. A related standardised breed is the north African Sloughi.\n\n## Name\n\nThe origins of the name of the breed are not clear. The Saluki has also been called the gazelle hound, Arabian hound, and the Persian greyhound. One suggested origin of the breed's name is ancient Sumerian salu-ki translating to 'plunge-earth'. However, there is no evidence a breed existed then or was referred to by the Sumerians with this name, nor is it certain what \"plunge [to/into] earth\" might have meant in reference to dogs. It is suggestive of digging for burrowing prey animals, but there is also a story of dogs being thrown toward quarry animals by a camel-mounted hunter.\n\nThe name used for the modern breed could be derived from Saluqiyyah (Arabic for \"Seleucia\", a city of Mesopotamia now in Iraq), appearing in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. However, this is disputed. British diplomat Terence Clark wrote that the Arabic word saluqi indicates 'person or thing from a place named Saluq'. Arab tradition states that Saluq was an ancient town in Yemen not far from modern Ta'izz, and the Arabs associate this town with the origin of the breed. However, the word saluqi might have been derived from reference to several other places: Saluq in Armenia, and three towns called Saluqiyah. One has become modern Silifke, Turkey; another is near Antioch (modern Antakya), Turkey; and third is located near Baghdad, Iraq. Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian Empire, which was located some 30 km (20 mi) to the southeast. Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia, the first capital of the Seleucid Empire (312 BC – 65 AD).\n\nRegardless, the adjective saluqi may have been derived by the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula from the similar-sounding word for Seleucid used in the Aramaic and Syriac languages spoken there by the Assyrians of that part of Mesopotamia, but there is no irrefutable evidence.\n\n## Description\n\nSalukis are sighthounds – hunting by sight more than scent or sound – and run their quarry down to kill or retrieve it. The normal size range for the modern breed is 58–71 centimetres (23–28 in) high at the withers and 16–32 kilograms (35–70 lb) in weight. Female Salukis are slightly smaller than males. The head is long and narrow with large eyes and drop ears. The tail of the breed is long and curved. It has the typical deep-chested, long-legged body of sighthounds. The coat comes in a variety of colors including white, cream, fawn, red, grizzle/tan, black/tan, and tri-color (white, black and tan).\n\nThe overall appearance of the Saluki is grace and symmetry. Two coat types – smooth and \"feathered\" – are evident in the breed's gene pool. The latter variety has light fluffing on the back of the legs, thighs, ears, and sometimes the throat. The fur on both types is silky and is low-shedding when compared to other breeds. Salukis bred in the Middle East most commonly have short hair.\n\nThere is a type called \"desert Saluki\", which descends from bloodlines brought directly from the original region of the breed. It exists in the entire Middle Eastern region. In Israel the type is known as the \"Negev Saluki\". The desert Saluki does not have influence of western lines and it tends to have a more primitive appearance. It often has a broader skull, shorter muzzle, shorter and more compact body, broader chest, less angulations, and shorter tail than the western equivalent. Some desert Salukis imported from the original region have cropped ears because this is a common tradition in countries such as Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Syria. However, it is difficult to strictly determine what desert Salukis are because even when the dogs with \"original\" bloodlines have been bred in the western world for 4 to 5 generations, many people start to call them \"western\". The type existed in the US already in the 1980s and there has been breeding in France in the 1990s. The first desert Salukis in Finland were imported from Israel in February 2000. After that, more have been imported from countries such as Syria, Oman, Qatar, Turkey. In addition to their countries of birth, they have for example Iranian, Moroccan, Bahraini, and Saudi Arabian \"Bedouin Saluki\" dogs in their background.\n\n## Swiftness and physical capacity\n\nWhile the Greyhound is credited as being the fastest dog breed up to distances of around 800 metres (2,600 ft), the Saluki is thought to be faster over longer distances. In 1996, The Guinness Book of Records listed a Saluki as being the fastest dog, capable of reaching a speed of 68.8 km/h (42.8 mph). Due to its heavily padded feet being able to absorb the impact on its body, the Saluki has remarkable stamina when running.\n\nHistorically, the ancestors of the modern Saluki breed were used for hunting by nomadic tribes. Typical quarry included the gazelle, hare, fox and jackal. While hunting hares, Bedouin hunters would sometimes ride close to their quarry on a camel holding such a dog, which would be thrown towards the prey while at speed to give the dog a running start. Gazelle hunters have also used hawks or falcons to attack the head of the prey so that the dogs could then bring down the distracted animal.\n\n## Temperament\n\nThe modern Saluki has retained qualities of hunting hounds and may seem reserved to strangers. The often independent and aloof breed may be difficult to train, and they generally cannot be trusted to return to their owner when off-leash. Training methods have been recommended to be always gentle and patient. Salukis may bore easily and are not an ideal breed to leave unattended for long periods; however, they are well-suited to life in apartments, since they are generally quiet and calm as adults. The saluki does not typically enjoy rough games or activities such as retrieving balls, but does enjoy soft toys. Early socialisation will help prevent timidity and shyness in later life. Given its hunting instincts, the dog is prone to chasing moving objects, such as cats, birds, squirrels, and bugs.\n\n## Health\n\nSalukis have an average lifespan of 12 to 14 years, which is similar to other breeds of their size.\n\nIn a 2006 breed-specific survey conducted by The Kennel Club and the British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee, responses highlighted several health issues. The primary cause of death identified was cancer, being responsible for 35.6% of deaths, with the most common forms being liver cancer or lymphoma. The second most common cause was related to cardiac conditions, including heart failure and unspecified heart defects. Cardiomyopathy, heart murmur, and other cardiac issues were present in 17.2% of responses while dermatolic conditions such as dermatitis or alopecia were reported by 10.8% of responses. Old age is listed as the third most frequent cause of death.\n\nHip dysplasia is uncommon in Salukis, with the breed ranking joint lowest in a survey by the British Veterinary Association in 2003. The breed scored an average of 5 points, with a score of 0 being low, while 106 is high.\n\n## History\n\nThe Saluki's ancestors were historically bred in the Fertile Crescent, where agriculture originated. Images of running dogs with long, narrow bodies adorn pottery found in Susa, southwest Iran that dates back to 6,000 years ago, despite the depictions bearing erect, pointed ears. Dogs looking similar to Salukis are shown on wall carvings of the Sumerian empire (now Iraq), dating from 6,000 to 7,000 BC. The ancient skeletal remains of a dog identified as being of the greyhound/saluki form was excavated at Tell Brak in modern Syria, and dated to approximately 4,000 years before present. Dogs that look similar to Salukis and Greyhounds were increasingly depicted on Egyptian tombs from the Middle Kingdom (2134 BC–1785 BC) onward, however it was during the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt that Saluki-like dogs rose to prominence, replacing hunting dogs called tesem (thought to be similar to modern pariah dogs or a generic term for a dog) in ancient Egyptian art. The variety spread southward into the Sudan.\n\nFrom Iran, such dogs are mentioned in the poetry of Khaghani (1121–1190), depicted in miniature paintings of hunting scenes along with horseback archers by Master Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād (1450–1535), depicted in book illustrations by 'Abd al-Wahhab ibn 'Abd al-Fattah ibn 'Ali (1516).\n\nThe Silk Road was a trading route that stretched from ancient Iran to China. Examples of dogs that look like Salukis were painted by the Chinese, fifth Ming Emperor Zhū Zhānjī, known more commonly as the Xuande Emperor during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). The inscription on the painting reads \"playfully painted [by the] imperial brush\" in 1427; additional red seals were added in later years by owners of the painting, which also reveals that the painting was in the Imperial Chinese collection in the 18th century. Other earlier artifacts place similar Saluki-like dogs further back in Chinese history to the 7th Century Tang dynasty or even before that.\n\nThe contemporary Chinese sighthound, the Xigou, is considered to have an ancient history which may be linked to historic Silk Road Saluki imports, but it is notable that in a recent genomic comparison of existing dogs, the Xigou was separated from both groups of sighthounds, the Western, as well Eastern (which includes the Saluki).\n\nFrom Europe, the legend maintains that the returning crusaders brought Saluki-type dogs from the Middle East. The painting of Henry IV, Duke of Saxony with his hunting dog, painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1514, shows a dog thought by some to represent an ancestral Saluki. The dog wears a collar decorated with a scallop shell, which is the badge of a pilgrim who has traveled the Way of Saint James in Spain. Saluki-type dogs appear in Paolo Veronese's 1573 work The Adoration of the Magi (also known as the Adoration of the Kings), currently located at the National Gallery, London. Veronese painted such dogs in another two of his religious paintings: The Marriage at Cana and The Finding of Moses.\n\nSheik Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa, King of Bahrain during the 1930s, was known for a pack of Salukis that accompanied him throughout the Arab world on hunting trips. Following his death, his son Salman ibn Hamad Al Khalifa attempted to keep the lines pure-bred but they became interbred with other breeds. However, the pure-bred lines of the royal kennel were saved by the efforts of Dana Al Khalifa who was given two pure-bred puppies by the King, and about a decade later had pure-bred Salukis registered with the Kennel Club of Bahrain. Today, the breed is still held in high regard throughout the Middle East and were hunting dogs for nobles and rulers around the region. Although Muslims traditionally regarded dogs as unclean, they made an exception for the Saluki to live in the family tent. Salukis were typically never sold, but could be presented as a mark of honor to people. They are considered clean by the Bedouins, and are allowed to be in women's quarters, while other dogs must be kept outside.\n\nIn 2014, a DNA study compared dogs and wolves for AMY2B (alpha amylase 2B), which is a gene and enzyme that assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary starch and glycogen. An expansion of this gene in dogs would enable early dogs to exploit a starch-rich diet as they fed on refuse from agriculture. Data indicated that the wolves and dingo had just two copies of the gene and the Siberian husky that is associated with hunter-gatherers had just 3–4 copies, \"whereas the saluki, which was historically bred in the Fertile Crescent where agriculture originated, has 29 copies\".\n\n### Breeding in the West\n\nIt was not until 1840 that Salukis were first brought to England. Referred to as a \"slughi shami\", they and the modern Sloughi were treated as the same breed; however, recent genetic tests have shown that the two breeds are genetically separate. The first successful modern breeding line of Salukis began in 1895, with Florence Amherst (daughter of the 1st Baron Amherst of Hackney). Having seen salukis on a Nile tour in that year, she imported a breeding pair from the Al Salihah area of Lower Egypt. A champion of breed purity, she struggled alone for nearly three decades, and real popularity of the Saluki in Europe did not take hold until the early 1920s, when officers returning from the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I and from the Arab Revolt brought their pet Salukis home with them.\n\nOne of these was Brigadier General Frederick Lance of the 19th Lancers, and his wife, Gladys, who returned to Britain with two Salukis from Sarona, Palestine, where he had been stationed during the post-war occupation. The Lances were both keen hunters, and rode with their pack of dogs, including both Salukis and terriers, to course jackal and Dorcas gazelle whilst stationed in the desert. They imported a male, named Sarona Kelb, who became an influence on the breed in the West.\n\nTogether, the Lances with Florence Amherst mounted a campaign for recognition of the Middle Eastern breed, that coincided with the phenomenon of \"Tutmania\" caused by Howard Carter's discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb in late 1922. In 1923, the Saluki or Gazelle Hound Club was formed, and the Kennel Club granted official recognition to the breed. The first registered Salukis in the Western studbook were Cyrus and Slongha Peri, imported from Iran and registered with the German kennel club Deutscher Windhundzucht- und Rennverband (DWZRV). DWZRV also recorded the first litter born in the West in 1922.\n\nImports to England during the interwar years were chiefly from areas of British military influence and commerce: Bahrain, Egypt, Transjordan, and Iraq. Both Florence Amherst and the Lances imported breeding stock from the latter two countries. Despite substantial populations of Salukis in Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden, none of these were imported to England.\n\nEnglish Salukis (chiefly descendants of Sarona Kelb) were exported to many countries, but by the mid-1930s, interest slackened, and with the outbreak of World War II, breeding and show activities almost entirely stopped. The number of litters was minimal – just enough to keep the breed alive. Food rationing reserved all edible meat for humans, and to prevent the Salukis from dying from starvation or being killed by bombs, some owners euthanised entire kennels. A small number of Saluki kennels in the West survived the war, and along with fresh imports belonging to a second wave of soldiers returning from the Middle East, the slow process of re-establishing the breed began.\n\nPopularity of Salukis dramatically increased, and the Saluki Club of America was founded in 1927. Salukis were recognised by the Kennel Club (UK) in 1923, and by the American Kennel Club in 1929. The breed is also the mascot of Southern Illinois University Carbondale.\n\nThe popularity of the Saluki in the United States, according to the American Kennel Club, has remained relatively stable in the 2000s, with the breed ranked 107th in 1999, had decreased to 118th in 2008, but by 2008 had increased once again to 112th. Between 2000 and 2009, 1215 salukis were registered with The Kennel Club in the UK, while this does not approach the numbers of the more popular breeds, it is in line with similar breeds in the hound group such as the Borzoi, which had 1399 puppies registered in the same period. In September 2007, the Kennel Club Art Gallery's 12th exhibition, \"The Saluki in Art\", celebrated the breed, showing a range of exhibits including terracotta and bronze works, along with contemporary artists and a range of trophies from Saluki breed clubs.\n\n### Rescue\n\nSalukis (or landrace dogs similar to them) are common throughout the Middle East, and are sometimes abandoned. Rescue organisations work with shelters in Qatar, Bahrain, and elsewhere, and directly with a network of rescuers in Kuwait, and Oman, to find the dogs adoptive homes in Europe and North America.", "revid": "1171543650", "description": null, "categories": ["Animal breeds originating in Egypt", "Animal breeds originating in Iraq", "Arabic words and phrases", "Dog breeds originating in Asia", "FCI breeds", "Sighthounds"]}
{"id": "5624949", "url": null, "title": "Cardiff City F.C.", "text": "Cardiff City Football Club (Welsh: Clwb Pêl-droed Dinas Caerdydd) is a professional association football club based in Cardiff, Wales. It competes in the Championship, the second tier of the English football league system. Founded in 1899 as Riverside A.F.C., the club changed its name to Cardiff City in 1908 and entered the Southern Football League in 1910 before joining the English Football League in 1920. The team has spent 17 seasons in the top tier of English football, the longest period being between 1921 and 1929. Their most recent season in the top flight was the 2018–19 Premier League season.\n\nCardiff is the only team from outside England to have won the FA Cup, doing so in 1927. They have also reached three other cup finals in English competitions, the 1925 FA Cup Final against Sheffield United, the 2008 FA Cup Final against Portsmouth and the 2012 Football League Cup Final against Liverpool, suffering defeat on each occasion. They have won the Welsh Cup on 22 occasions, making them the second-most successful team in the competition's history behind Wrexham.\n\nWith the exception of a short period this century, the team has played in home colours of blue and white since 1908, from which their nickname \"The Bluebirds\" derives. Cardiff's first permanent ground was Ninian Park, which opened in 1910; it remained in use for 99 years until the club moved into the Cardiff City Stadium in 2009. Cardiff has long-standing rivalries with nearby clubs Swansea City, with whom they contest the South Wales derby, and Bristol City, with whom they contest the Severnside derby. The club's record appearance holder is Billy Hardy, who made 590 appearances in a 20-year playing spell with Cardiff, and their record goalscorer is Len Davies with 179 goals.\n\n## History\n\n### Early years (1899–1920)\n\nFollowing a meeting at the home of lithographic artist Bartley Wilson in Cardiff, the club was founded in 1899 as Riverside A.F.C. as a way of keeping players from the Riverside Cricket Club together and in shape during the winter months. In their first season, they played friendlies against local sides at their Sophia Gardens ground. In 1900 they joined the Cardiff & District League for their first competitive season. When King Edward VII granted Cardiff city status in 1905, the club put in a request to the South Wales and Monmouthshire Football Association to change their name to Cardiff City. The request was turned down as they were deemed not to be playing at a high enough level. To enhance their standing, the team arranged to join the South Wales League in 1907. The following year they were granted permission to change the name of the club to Cardiff City.\n\nAlthough growing in stature, the club was forced to turn down the opportunity to join the newly formed Second Division of the Southern Football League due to a lack of facilities at their Sophia Gardens ground. Over the next two years, Cardiff played friendlies against some of Britain's top professional sides, including Middlesbrough, Bristol City, and Crystal Palace. The matches were played at grounds in Cardiff and nearby towns so as to gauge the level of public interest in the team. The club eventually secured land to build their own stadium, Ninian Park, which was completed in 1910. The club turned professional the same year. They made their first signing the following year with the acquisition of Jack Evans from fellow Welsh side Cwmparc.\n\nWith the new ground in place, Cardiff joined the Southern Football League Second Division and appointed their first manager, Davy McDougall, who became player-manager. They went on to finish in fourth place in their first year in the league. The board decided to replace McDougall with Fred Stewart, who had previous managerial experience with Stockport County. He set about adopting a more professional approach, signing several players with Football League experience, including brothers John and George Burton and Billy Hardy. Stewart led the team to promotion in his second season by winning the Second Division title. They remained in the First Division for the next decade, and finished in the top four on two occasions.\n\n### 1920s success and later decline (1920–1945)\n\nIn 1920, the club submitted a successful application to join the Football League and were placed into the Second Division for the 1920–21 season. Stewart brought in several players with Football League experience, breaking the club's transfer record on two occasions to sign Jimmy Gill and later Jimmy Blair from The Wednesday. They played their first match in the Football League on 28 August 1920, defeating Stockport County 5–2. The side finished the season in second place to win promotion to the First Division. They finished behind Birmingham City on goal average, and reached the semi-final of the FA Cup. In their third season in the top-tier, the team finished runners-up to Huddersfield Town because of a goal average difference of 0.024. Cardiff drew their final match 0–0 as club record goalscorer Len Davies missed a penalty.\n\nThe following season was the first time Cardiff appeared at Wembley Stadium, having reached their first FA Cup final. The team lost 1–0 to Sheffield United following a goal from England international Fred Tunstall. The 1926–27 season, when they finished in 14th position, was Cardiff's worst performance in the top tier of English Football since winning promotion six seasons before. However, they reached their second FA Cup final in the space of two years. On St George's Day, 23 April 1927, at Wembley Stadium in London, Cardiff became the only non-English side to win the FA Cup by defeating Arsenal 1–0 in the final; Hughie Ferguson scored the only goal of the game in the 74th minute. He received the ball from Ernie Curtis and hurried a tame shot toward the goal; Dan Lewis, the Arsenal goalkeeper, allowed the shot to slip through his grasp and knocked the ball into the net with his elbow. Captain Fred Keenor received the FA Cup trophy at the end of the match from King George V only seven years after Cardiff City had entered the Football League. When the team returned to Cardiff the next day, a crowd of around 150,000 people lined the streets to welcome them.\n\nThe side also won the Welsh Cup in 1927, defeating Rhyl 2–0. They went on to win the FA Charity Shield after beating amateur side the Corinthians 2–1 at Stamford Bridge. The club entered a period of decline after their cup success. They were relegated from the First Division in the 1928–29 season, despite conceding fewer goals than any other side in the division. They suffered a second relegation two years later, dropping into the Third Division South for the first time since they joined the Football League. During their first season in the division, Cardiff recorded their biggest-ever win when they beat Thames by a scoreline of 9–2. They finished the 1932–33 season in 19th place, resulting in manager Fred Stewart tendering his resignation from his post after 22 years in charge. Club founder Bartley Wilson stepped in to replace Stewart. Results continued to be disappointing, and in March 1934, Ben Watts-Jones was given the opportunity to manage the club he had supported as a youngster. He was unable to turn the team's fortunes around; they finished the season at the bottom of the table, and had to apply for re-election to the league. Watts-Jones remained in charge for another three years until Bill Jennings replaced him. Cardiff remained in the Third Division South until the Football League was suspended following the outbreak of World War II.\n\n### Post war and European competition (1945–2000)\n\nIn their first season since the resumption of the Football League, under new manager Billy McCandless, Cardiff finished the 1946–47 season as champions of the Third Division South and returned to the Second Division. McCandless left the club soon after and was replaced by Cyril Spiers who led the side to promotion in the 1951–52 season. Cardiff returned to the top tier of English football for the first time in 23 years and stayed there for five seasons. They were relegated after in 1957, after struggling in the bottom half of the table for three seasons. They returned to the First Division for two seasons between 1960 and 1962 before they were again relegated.\n\nDuring the 1960s, Cardiff participated in European competition for the first time as a result of winning the Welsh Cup, which granted qualification to the newly created European Cup Winners Cup. Their first ever match in European competition was in the tournament during the 1964–65 season against Danish side Esbjerg fB. The team won 1–0 on aggregate over two legs, the only goal being scored by Peter King. They went on to reach the quarter-finals before being knocked out by Real Zaragoza. Despite their exploits in Europe, the team were still struggling in league competition under the stewardship of Jimmy Scoular, finishing in 20th position in the Second Division. Two years later the team reached the semi-final of the Cup Winners Cup after victories over Shamrock Rovers, NAC Breda, and Torpedo Moscow set up a tie with German side Hamburg, whose squad contained several German internationals. This remains the furthest any Welsh side has advanced in European competition. After a 1–1 draw in the first leg, over 43,000 fans turned out at Ninian Park to watch Hamburg win 3–2. During the 1970–71 season, Cardiff reached the quarter-finals of the Cup Winners Cup where they faced Spanish side Real Madrid. The first leg of the tie was held at Ninian Park where 47,000 fans watched one of the most significant victories in Cardiff's history when Brian Clark headed in to give Cardiff a 1–0 win. They were later eliminated after losing the second leg 2–0. The team remained in the Second Division for 19 of the 20 seasons between 1962 and 1982, having been relegated to the Third Division for the 1975–76 season.\n\nCardiff were continuously in the lower two divisions of the Football League between 1985 and 1993. The club appointed several managers in attempts to turn the team's performances around with limited success. They were relegated to the Fourth Division once in the 1985–86 season and, despite returning to the Third Division on two occasions, they finished in their lowest-ever league position in 1996—22nd of 24 in Division Three. In 1995, Cardiff and other Welsh clubs competing in English leagues were banned from entering the Welsh Cup by the Football Association of Wales after pressure from UEFA, who did not want teams playing in two national cup competitions. Their final match in the competition was a 2–1 defeat to Wrexham in the 1995 final.\n\n### Foreign investment (2000–present)\n\nIn August 2000, Lebanese businessman Sam Hammam purchased control of the club and replaced Steve Borley as chairman. Shortly after taking over, he controversially pledged to get the entire Welsh nation to support Cardiff by renaming the club \"The Cardiff Celts\" and changing the club colours to green, red and white. After lengthy talks with senior players and fans, he decided the best policy was not to change the name of the club. The club crest was redesigned; the new design incorporated the Cardiff City bluebird in front of the Flag of Saint David and featured the club's nickname superimposed at the top of the crest. Hammam funded the transfers of several new players to the club, and new manager Lennie Lawrence guided Cardiff to promotion when they won the Second Division play-off in 2003 against Queens Park Rangers. Substitute Andy Campbell came off the bench to score the only goal in extra time and ensure Cardiff's return to Division One after an 18-year absence.\n\nThe club experienced increasing financial difficulties over the next few years and plans for a new stadium failed to gain approval from Cardiff Council because of concerns over financial security in 2006. Hammam then agreed to a takeover by a consortium led by new chairman Peter Ridsdale and the lead developer of the new stadium, Paul Guy. During the 2007–08 season, Cardiff reached the semi-final of the FA Cup for the first time in 81 years after beating Middlesbrough 2–0 on 9 March 2008. After coming through their semi-final against Barnsley with a 1–0 win at Wembley Stadium on 6April with a goal from Joe Ledley, they eventually lost 1–0 to Portsmouth in the final, thanks to a goal from Nwankwo Kanu in the 37th minute.\n\nIn May 2010, Datuk Chan Tien Ghee took over as club chairman following a takeover bid by a Malaysian consortium; Vincent Tan also invested and joined the board. Tan later became the Cardiff's majority shareholder after buying out several other directors and acquired around 82% of the club's shares. In 2011, the club appointed Malky Mackay as manager. He took the side to the League Cup final for the first time in the club's history during his first season. The following season, Cardiff won the 2012–13 Championship title and with it gained promotion to the top tier of English football for the first time after 52 years. On 18 August 2013, Cardiff played their first ever away Premier League match against West Ham United, losing 2–0. Cardiff won only three games in the first half of the season and, on 27 December 2013, Mackay was sacked by Vincent Tan and replaced by Ole Gunnar Solskjær. Despite the change in management, Cardiff were relegated to the Championship after a single season following a 3–0 away defeat to Newcastle United. Solskjær himself was sacked on 18 September 2014 after a disappointing start to the following Championship season, and replaced by Leyton Orient manager Russell Slade.\n\nIn October 2016, Neil Warnock was appointed first team manager of Cardiff. Warnock took over the team with Cardiff second from the bottom of the table after two wins from eleven games, and guided the side to a 12th-placed finish after a good run of form. The start of the 2017–18 season saw Cardiff break a club record by winning their opening three league games of a season, the first time in the club's 107-year professional history. They proceeded to clinch promotion to the Premier League after finishing second in the table. However, they were relegated back to the Championship after a single season.\n\nWarnock resigned as manager in November 2019 following a poor start to the season and was replaced by Neil Harris. Harris guided Cardiff to a 5th-placed finish before suffering defeat in the Championship playoff semi-final. After a run of six straight defeats, Harris was sacked on 21 January 2021, beginning a chain of short-term hirings. His replacement, Mick McCarthy, was appointed the following day, but was relieved of his duties less than a year later with the side 2 points above relegation. The club's under–23 manager Steve Morison was appointed as caretaker manager before signing an 18 month contract after guiding the Bluebirds to safety. Morrison was sacked in September 2022 and replaced by Mark Hudson, who lasted only 4 months in the role before he too was dismissed in January 2023.\n\nIn December 2022, Cardiff City were issued a transfer embargo by FIFA, which was lifted in January 2023. The club are also appealing against an embargo from the English Football League which prevents them paying fees for players until May 2024.\n\nIn March 2023, Cardiff City reported an operating loss of £29 million for the 2021-22 season.\n\n## Support\n\nCardiff has a large catchment area from which to draw its supporter base. With only two professional teams (Swansea City and Newport County) sharing the South Wales region, the club enjoys considerable support from both the city of Cardiff and the surrounding South Wales Valleys. As a Welsh club playing in the English football league system, national identity is believed to be a major factor in fan support, and some of the club's matches are considered to be Welsh cross-border rivalries with England. During the 1980s, as the club struggled in the lower divisions of English football, crowds dropped to an average of 3,000 per match. An increase in the club's fortunes saw a steady improvement in crowd numbers. The average attendance at home matches rose from 3,594 to 12,522 between 1997 and 2002. Promotion to the second tier in 2003 brought further increases in numbers. The opening of the Cardiff City Stadium led to average attendances reaching 20,000 fans, culminating with highs of between 28,000 and 31,000 during two seasons in the Premier League. Despite this increase, the club has often been regarded as attracting fewer spectators than similarly placed teams. This has been attributed to several factors such as the club's controversial change to red shirts between 2012 and 2015—some supporters being perceived as fairweather fans, and a lack of atmosphere.\n\nWelsh national identity also contributes to the supporter culture of the club. \"Men of Harlech\", a song largely made famous by the 1964 film Zulu, which depicted a battle involving a Welsh regiment, and \"I'll Be There\", a take on a miner's song that was popular during the 1926 United Kingdom general strike, are both frequently sung before and during matches. The Ayatollah, an act involving raising both arms up and down above the head in a patting motion, has become synonymous with the club and its supporters as a celebratory gesture since its adoption in the early 1990s. The action has become popular with Cardiff fans outside football to show support for the club with boxer Nathan Cleverly, Olympic swimmer David Davies and rugby player Gareth Thomas all having performed the action at some points of their careers.\n\n### Rivalry\n\nKnown as the South Wales derby, Cardiff City's most significant rivalry is with nearby neighbours Swansea City, and over 100 games have been played in all competitions between the sides. Swansea's first competitive match following their founding in 1912 was against Cardiff in the Southern Football League. The rivalry had been relatively friendly until the 1970s and 1980s. Economic issues, such as the UK miners' strike, rivalry between the two cities and an increase in football hooliganism led to numerous violent clashes between fans at the matches. One game in 1993 was dubbed \"The Battle of Ninian Park\" for its particularly severe violence and resulted in away fans being banned from attending any matches between the sides for four years. Cardiff player Jason Perry described the period as \"the dark, dark days of the derby\". When the ban was dropped, \"bubble trips\" were introduced for away fans who could only attend matches via police-escorted convoys to and from the stadium.\n\nFurther political divide between the two cities was caused by the Welsh devolution referendum in 1997 when Cardiff was chosen as the site for the newly created Senedd, despite the majority of the city voting against devolution. Swansea, which largely voted in favour of devolution, received funding for a national swimming pool instead. Alan Curtis, who played for both sides, commented, \"I think Cardiff has always been perceived [...] to receive whatever funding is going around. It seems to me that everything gets channelled in that direction\". Further afield, the club has a rivalry with Bristol City, known as the Severnside derby, and to a lesser extent, Bristol Rovers. There is also a lesser rivalry with Welsh neighbours Newport County due to the proximity of the two Welsh cities; they have rarely played against each other since the 1980s due to Cardiff being in higher leagues. In total, they have only ever played 20 Football League games against each other. A survey by Football Fans Census in 2003 saw Swansea, Bristol City, and Newport listed as Cardiff's main three rivalries, with Stoke City matching Newport in third.\n\nIn the 1980s, a hooligan group known as the Soul Crew emerged from within the club's fanbase. The group became notorious for their violent clashes with rival supporters and brawls between sets of supporters at football matches and other events.\n\n## Stadium\n\n### Ninian Park\n\nCardiff's first ground was at Sophia Gardens recreational park, where the team played from their founding in 1899 until 1910. With increasing support for the club, Bartley Wilson contacted Bute Estate, who owned large amounts of Cardiff at the time, in an attempt to find land suitable for building a stadium. They eventually agreed on an area of waste ground on Sloper Road. The land was a former rubbish tip and required extensive work to get a playable surface, but with the assistance of Cardiff Corporation and volunteers, the work was completed. The original intention was to name the ground Sloper Park, but Ninian Park was chosen instead after Lord Ninian Crichton-Stuart, who was a driving force behind the ground's construction. The ground hosted its first match on 1 September 1910 with a friendly against Aston Villa; Lord Crichton-Stuart ceremonially kicked off the game.\n\nThe stadium was built with one stand. A second, which replaced an earth embankment and could hold 18,000 people, was opened in 1928. It hosted its first international match in March 1911 with a Welsh match against Scotland. Towards the end of its lifespan, the ground was replaced for international fixtures by Cardiff Arms Park as doubts mounted over the safety of the aging ground. The club's record attendance in the ground is 57,893 which was achieved during a league match against Arsenal on 22 April 1953. The scaling down of grounds throughout the 1970s and 1980s due to safety fears, which saw the ground capacity fall to 22,000, meant that the record stood until the ground's closure. In its final years of use, the club was forced to seek special dispensation from authorities to keep the remaining standing areas of the ground open beyond the three-year period given to clubs at Championship level or above to remove them.\n\n### Cardiff City Stadium\n\nIn June 2009, the club completed construction of a 26,828-seat stadium on the site of the now-demolished old Cardiff Athletics Stadium at a cost of £48 million. The ground was named the \"Cardiff City Stadium\". Three of the four stands retained the names used at Ninian Park—the Grange End, the Canton Stand and the Grandstand—and the fourth stand was named the Ninian Stand. The ground's naming rights were expected to be sold, the club hoping to generate up to £9 million income; they remain unsold. Although a pre-season friendly against Chasetown was played at the ground with limited capacity to test safety features, the stadium was officially opened with a friendly against Scottish side Celtic on 22 July 2009. The first competitive match played at the ground was on 8 August 2009, the opening day of the 2009–10 season, as Cardiff won 4–0 over Scunthorpe United. When it opened, the Cardiff Blues rugby union club left their Cardiff Arms Park home to share the new stadium with Cardiff City. The move proved unpopular among fans of the rugby club, which returned to Cardiff Arms Park in 2012.\n\nA few years after the stadium was built, plans to upgrade and expand the stadium were initiated. The expansion plans were completed in August 2014, and the seating capacity was raised to 33,316. In March 2015, it was announced that the Ninian Stand extension was to be shut for the 2015–16 season due to poor ticket sales, dropping the capacity to 27,978. It was reopened the following year due to an increase in demand.\n\nIn February 2023, the stadium was awarded the Level Playing Field's Centre of Excellence Award in recognition of its accessible facilities and services.\n\n## Colours, kit and crest\n\n### Colours\n\nWhen Riverside A.F.C. was formed in 1899, the club used a chocolate-brown and amber checkered shirt. Following the club's name change to Cardiff City in 1908, they adopted a blue shirt and white or blue shorts and socks, although for the first nine years black socks were used. Kit changes over the club's history have included all blue kits, the introduction of a yellow vertical stripe during the 1970s, and alternating blue stripes.\n\nIn 2012, Cardiff controversially changed their home kit colours from the traditional blue, white and yellow to red and black, the first time the club had not worn blue as its primary colour since 1908. The crest was also changed to one in which the Welsh Dragon was more prominent than the traditional bluebird. These changes were made to \"appeal in 'international markets'\" as part of a \"major investment plan\" unveiled by chairman Vincent Tan. The rebranding provoked strong opposition from the fans, who organised protest marches and demonstrations to voice their displeasure at the changes. Despite Tan previously stating that the club would only return to wearing blue if another owner was found, on 9 January 2015, after three seasons playing in the red kit, the club reverted their home kit back to blue with a red away kit in a bid to \"unite\" the club.\n\n### Crest history\n\nFrom 1908 Cardiff played in unadorned shirts. This changed in 1959 when they played in shirts with a simple crest featuring an image of a bluebird. The following season their shirts were plain and unadorned and remained so until 1965 when they played in shirts with the word \"Bluebirds\" embroidered. A new crest, similar to the one used previously, and again featuring a bluebird, was introduced in 1969. Variations of this crest have been used over the years. In the 1980s, extra features including words and motifs were added. A major change was made in 2012, when owner Vincent Tan attempted to rebrand the club to expand its appeal outside Wales. This change gave large prominence to the Welsh Dragon, reducing the bluebird to a minor feature. In March 2015, Cardiff announced a new crest which would once again feature the Bluebird predominantly with a Chinese dragon replacing the standard Welsh dragon.\n\n### Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors\n\n## Players\n\n### First-team squad\n\n### Out on loan\n\n### Retired numbers\n\n### Under-23 and Academy\n\nCardiff runs a youth academy catering to groups from ages seven to eighteen years. Recent players to come through the youth system include Wales internationals: Joe Ledley, Chris Gunter, Aaron Ramsey, Adam Matthews, Darcy Blake, Declan John, Rabbi Matondo, Mark Harris and Rubin Colwill prior to the youth system being granted academy status, Robert Earnshaw and James Collins.\n\n### Notable former players\n\n### Backroom staff\n\nSource:\n\n## Manager history\n\nSource:\n\n## Records\n\nThe record for the most appearances in all competitions is currently held by Billy Hardy who appeared in 590 matches for the club between 1911 and 1932, including in the Southern Football League. Phil Dwyer has made the most appearances in the Football League era, having played in 575 matches. Len Davies is the club's top goalscorer with 179 goals in all competitions. Seven other players, Peter King, Robert Earnshaw, Brian Clark, Carl Dale, Derek Tapscott, Jimmy Gill and John Toshack have also scored 100 or more goals for the club.\n\nJack Evans became the first Cardiff City player to win an international cap on 13 April 1912 when he represented Wales in a 3–2 defeat of Ireland. The player who has won the most caps as a Cardiff player is Aron Gunnarsson, who won 62 caps for Iceland during his spell with the club. The highest transfer fee the club has paid for a player is £15 million for Emiliano Sala from Nantes in January 2019. Two days after signing, Sala died in a plane crash in the English Channel. Gary Medel became the most expensive player sold by the club when he joined Inter Milan for £10 million in August 2014.\n\nCardiff's largest victory was a 16–0 victory over Knighton Town in the fifth round of the Welsh Cup in 1962. Their biggest league victory was a 9–2 victory over Thames on 6 February 1932; their biggest FA Cup victory was an 8–0 victory over Enfield on 28 November 1931.\n\n## Honours\n\nCardiff City's honours include the following:\n\nLeague\n\n- First Division (level 1)\n  - Runners-up: 1923–24\n\n- Second Division / Championship (level 2)\n  - Champions: 2012–13\n  - Runners-up: 1920–21, 1951–52, 1959–60, 2017–18\n\n- Third Division (level 3)\n  - Champions: 1946–47\n  - Runners-up: 1975–76, 1982–83\n  - Play-off winners: 2003\n\n- Fourth Division / League Two (level 4)\n  - Champions: 1992–93\n  - Runners-up: 1987–88, 2000–01\n\n- Southern League Second Division\n  - Champions: 1912–13\n\nCup\n\n- FA Cup\n  - Winners: 1926–27\n  - Runners-up: 1924–25, 2007–08\n\n- Football League Cup\n  - Runners-up: 2011–12\n\n- FA Charity Shield\n  - Winners: 1927\n\n- Welsh Cup\n  - Winners (22): 1911–12, 1919–20, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1926–27, 1927–28, 1929–30, 1955–56, 1958–59, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1975–76, 1987–88, 1991–92, 1992–93\n\n- FAW Premier Cup\n  - Winners: 2001–02", "revid": "1173411426", "description": "Association football club in Cardiff, Wales", "categories": ["1899 establishments in Wales", "Association football clubs established in 1899", "Cardiff & District League clubs", "Cardiff City F.C.", "English Football League clubs", "FA Cup winners", "Football clubs in Cardiff", "Football clubs in Wales", "Premier League clubs", "South Wales League clubs", "Southern Football League clubs", "Welsh Cup winners", "Welsh football clubs in English leagues"]}
{"id": "63390", "url": null, "title": "Meryl Streep", "text": "Mary Louise Streep (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress. Often described as \"the best actress of her generation\", Streep is particularly known for her versatility and accent adaptability. She has received numerous accolades throughout her career spanning over six decades, including a record 21 Academy Award nominations, winning three, and a record 32 Golden Globe Award nominations, winning eight.\n\nStreep made her stage debut in 1975 Trelawny of the Wells and received a Tony Award nomination the following year for a double-bill production of 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and A Memory of Two Mondays. In 1977, she made her film debut in Julia. In 1978, she won her first Primetime Emmy Award for a leading role in the mini-series Holocaust, and received her first Oscar nomination for The Deer Hunter. She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing a troubled wife in Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) and went on to establish herself as a film actor in the 1980s. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for starring as a Holocaust survivor in Sophie's Choice (1982) and had her biggest commercial success to that point in Out of Africa (1985). She continued to gain awards, and critical praise, for her work in the late 1980s and 1990s, but commercial success was varied, with the comedy Death Becomes Her (1992) and the drama The Bridges of Madison County (1995), her biggest earners in that period.\n\nStreep reclaimed her stardom in the 2000s and 2010s with starring roles in Adaptation (2002), The Hours (2002), The Devil Wears Prada (2006), Doubt (2008), Mamma Mia! (2008), Julie & Julia (2009), It's Complicated (2009), Into the Woods (2014), The Post (2017) and Little Women (2019). She also won her third Academy Award for her portrayal of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in The Iron Lady (2011). Her stage roles include The Public Theater's 2001 revival of The Seagull, and her television roles include two projects for HBO, the miniseries Angels in America (2003), for which she won another Primetime Emmy Award, and the drama series Big Little Lies (2019).\n\nStreep has been the recipient of many honorary awards. She was awarded the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2004, Gala Tribute from the Film Society of Lincoln Center in 2008, and Kennedy Center Honor in 2011 for her contribution to American culture, through performing arts. President Barack Obama awarded her the National Medal of Arts in 2010, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2014. In 2003, the French government made her a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters. She was awarded the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2017.\n\n## Early life and education\n\nMary Louise Streep was born on June 22, 1949, in Summit, New Jersey. She is the daughter of artist Mary Wilkinson Streep and pharmaceutical executive Harry William Streep, Jr. She has two younger brothers, Harry William Streep III and Dana David Streep, both actors. Her father was of German and Swiss descent; his lineage traced back to Loffenau, from where Streep's great-great-grandfather, Gottfried Streeb, immigrated to the United States and where one of her ancestors served as mayor (the surname was later changed to \"Streep\"). Another line of her father's family was from Giswil. Her mother had English, German, and Irish ancestry. Some of Streep's maternal ancestors lived in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, and were descended from 17th-century English immigrants. Her maternal great-great-grandparents, Manus McFadden and Grace Strain, were natives of the Horn Head district of Dunfanaghy in Ireland.\n\nStreep's mother, whom she has compared in both appearance and manner to Dame Judi Dench, strongly encouraged her daughter and instilled confidence in her from a very young age. Streep said, \"She was a mentor because she said to me, 'Meryl, you're capable. You're so great.' She was saying, 'You can do whatever you put your mind to. If you're lazy, you're not going to get it done. But if you put your mind to it, you can do anything.' And I believed her.\" Although she was naturally more introverted than her mother, when she later needed an injection of confidence in adulthood, she would consult her mother at times for advice. Streep was raised as a Presbyterian in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, and attended Cedar Hill Elementary School and the Oak Street School, which was a junior high school at that time. In her junior high debut, she starred as Louise Heller in the play The Family Upstairs. In 1963, the family moved to Bernardsville, New Jersey, where she attended Bernards High School. Author Karina Longworth described her as a \"gawky kid with glasses and frizzy hair\", yet noted that she liked to show off in front of the camera in family home movies from a young age. At age 12, Streep was selected to sing at a school recital, leading to her having opera lessons from Estelle Liebling. Despite her talent, she later remarked, \"I was singing something I didn't feel and understand. That was an important lesson—not to do that. To find the thing that I could feel through.\" She quit after four years. Streep had many Catholic school friends, and regularly attended Mass. She was a high school cheerleader for the Bernards High School Mountaineers. She was also chosen as the homecoming queen her senior year. Her family lived on Old Fort Road.\n\nAlthough Streep appeared in numerous school plays during her high school years, she was uninterested in serious theater until acting in the play Miss Julie at Vassar College in 1969, in which she gained attention across the campus. Vassar drama professor Clinton J. Atkinson noted, \"I don't think anyone ever taught Meryl acting. She really taught herself.\" Streep demonstrated an early ability to mimic accents and to quickly memorize her lines. She received her BA cum laude in 1971, before applying for an MFA from the Yale School of Drama. At Yale, she supplemented her course fees by working as a waitress and typist, and appeared in over a dozen stage productions per year; at one point, she became overworked and developed ulcers, so she contemplated quitting acting and switching to study law. Streep played a variety of roles on stage, from Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream to an 80-year-old woman in a wheelchair in a comedy written by then-unknown playwrights Christopher Durang and Albert Innaurato. She was a student of choreographer Carmen de Lavallade, whom she introduced at the 2017 Kennedy Center Honors. Another of her teachers was Robert Lewis, a co-founder of the Actors Studio. Streep disapproved of some of the acting exercises she was asked to do, remarking that one professor taught the emotional recall technique by delving into personal lives in a way she found \"obnoxious\". She received her MFA from Yale in 1975. She also enrolled as a visiting student at Dartmouth College in 1970, and received an honorary Doctor of Arts degree from the college in 1981.\n\n## Career\n\n### 1970s: Early work and breakthrough\n\nOne of Streep's first professional jobs in 1975 was at the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center's National Playwrights Conference, during which she acted in five plays over six weeks. She moved to New York City in 1975, and was cast by Joseph Papp in a production of Trelawny of the Wells at the Vivian Beaumont Theater, opposite Mandy Patinkin and John Lithgow. She went on to appear in five more roles in her first year in New York, including in Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival productions of Henry V, The Taming of the Shrew with Raul Julia, and Measure for Measure opposite Sam Waterston and John Cazale. She entered into a relationship with Cazale at this time, and resided with him until his death three years later. She starred in the musical Happy End on Broadway, and won an Obie for her performance in the off-Broadway play Alice at the Palace.\n\nAlthough Streep had not aspired to become a film actor, Robert De Niro's performance in Taxi Driver (1976) had a profound impact on her; she said to herself, 'That's the kind of actor I want to be when I grow up.' Streep began auditioning for film roles, and underwent an unsuccessful audition for the lead role in Dino De Laurentiis's King Kong. De Laurentiis, referring to Streep as she stood before him, said in Italian to his son: \"This is so ugly. Why did you bring me this?\" Unknown to Laurentiis, Streep understood Italian, and she remarked, \"I'm very sorry that I'm not as beautiful as I should be, but, you know – this is it. This is what you get.\" She continued to work on Broadway, appearing in the 1976 double bill of Tennessee Williams' 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Arthur Miller's A Memory of Two Mondays. She received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Play. Streep's other Broadway credits include Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard and the Bertolt Brecht-Kurt Weill musical Happy End, in which she had originally appeared off-Broadway at the Chelsea Theater Center. She received Drama Desk Award nominations for both productions.\n\nStreep's first feature film role came opposite Jane Fonda in the 1977 film Julia, in which she had a small role during a flashback sequence. Most of her scenes were edited out, but the brief time on screen horrified the actress:\n\n> I had a bad wig and they took the words from the scene I shot with Jane and put them in my mouth in a different scene. I thought, I've made a terrible mistake, no more movies. I hate this business.\n\nHowever, Streep cites Fonda as having a lasting influence on her as an actress, and has credited her as \"open[ing] probably more doors than I probably even know about\".\n\nRobert De Niro, who had spotted Streep in her stage production of The Cherry Orchard, suggested that she play the role of his girlfriend in the war film The Deer Hunter (1978). Cazale, who had been diagnosed with lung cancer, was also cast in the film, and Streep took on the role of a \"vague, stock girlfriend\" to remain with Cazale for the duration of filming. Longworth notes that Streep:\n\n> Made a case for female empowerment by playing a woman to whom empowerment was a foreign concept–a normal lady from an average American small town, for whom subservience was the only thing she knew.\n\nPauline Kael, who later became a strong critic of Streep, remarked that she was a \"real beauty\" who brought much freshness to the film with her performance. The film's success exposed Streep to a wider audience and earned her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.\n\nIn the 1978 miniseries Holocaust, Streep played the leading role of a German woman married to a Jewish artist played by James Woods in Nazi era Germany. She found the material to be \"unrelentingly noble\" and professed to have taken on the role for financial gain. Streep travelled to Germany and Austria for filming while Cazale remained in New York. Upon her return, Streep found that Cazale's illness had progressed, and she nursed him until his death on March 12, 1978. With an estimated audience of 109 million, Holocaust brought a wider degree of public recognition to Streep, who found herself \"on the verge of national visibility\". She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her performance. Despite the awards success, Streep was still not enthusiastic towards her film career and preferred acting on stage.\n\nShe played the supporting role of Leilah in Wendy Wasserstein's Uncommon Women and Others in a May 1978 \"Theater in America\" television production for PBS's Great Performances. She replaced Glenn Close, who played the role in the Off-Broadway production at the Phoenix Theatre.\n\nHoping to divert herself from the grief of Cazale's death, Streep accepted a role in The Seduction of Joe Tynan (1979) as the chirpy love interest of Alan Alda, later commenting that she played it on \"automatic pilot\". She performed the role of Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew for Shakespeare in the Park, and also played a supporting role in Manhattan (1979) for Woody Allen. Streep later said that Allen did not provide her with a complete script, giving her only the six pages of her own scenes, and did not permit her to improvise a word of her dialogue.\n\nIn the drama Kramer vs. Kramer, Streep was cast opposite Dustin Hoffman as an unhappily married woman who abandons her husband and child. Streep thought that the script portrayed the female character as \"too evil\" and insisted that it was not representative of real women who faced marriage breakdown and child custody battles. The makers agreed with her, and the script was revised. In preparing for the part, Streep spoke to her own mother about her life as a wife with a career, and frequented the Upper East Side neighborhood in which the film was set, watching the interactions between parents and children. The director Robert Benton allowed Streep to write her own dialogue in two key scenes, despite some objection from Hoffman, who \"hated her guts\" at first. Hoffman and producer Stanley R. Jaffe later spoke of Streep's tirelessness, with Hoffman commenting: \"She's extraordinarily hard-working, to the extent that she's obsessive. I think that she thinks about nothing else, but what she's doing.\" The film was controversial among feminists, but it was a role which film critic Stephen Farber believed displayed Streep's \"own emotional intensity\", writing that she was one of the \"rare performers who can imbue the most routine moments with a hint of mystery\".\n\nFor Kramer vs. Kramer, Streep won both the Golden Globe Award and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, which she famously left in the ladies' room after giving her speech. She was also awarded the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress, National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress and National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress for her collective work in her three film releases of 1979. Both The Deer Hunter and Kramer vs. Kramer were major commercial successes and were consecutive winners of the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n\n### 1980s: Rise to prominence\n\nIn 1979, Streep began workshopping Alice in Concert, a musical version of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, with writer and composer Elizabeth Swados and director Joseph Papp; the show was put on at New York's Public Theater from December 1980. Frank Rich of The New York Times referred to Streep as the production's \"one wonder\", but questioned why she devoted so much energy to it. By 1980, Streep had progressed to leading roles in films. She was featured on the cover of Newsweek magazine with the headline \"A Star for the 80s\"; Jack Kroll commented,\n\n> There's a sense of mystery in her acting; she doesn't simply imitate (although she's a great mimic in private). She transmits a sense of danger, a primal unease lying just below the surface of normal behavior.\n\nStreep denounced her fervent media coverage at the time as \"excessive hype\".\n\nThe story within a story drama The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981) was Streep's first leading role. The film paired Streep with Jeremy Irons as contemporary actors, telling their modern story, as well as the Victorian era drama they were performing. Streep developed an English accent for the part, but considered herself a misfit for the role: \"I couldn't help wishing that I was more beautiful\". A New York magazine article commented that, while many female stars of the past had cultivated a singular identity in their films, Streep was a \"chameleon\", willing to play any type of role. Streep was awarded a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her work. The following year, she re-united with Robert Benton for the psychological thriller, Still of the Night (1982), co-starring Roy Scheider and Jessica Tandy. Vincent Canby, writing for The New York Times, noted that the film was an homage to the works of Alfred Hitchcock, but that one of its main weaknesses was a lack of chemistry between Streep and Scheider, concluding that Streep \"is stunning, but she's not on screen anywhere near long enough\".\n\nGreater success came later in the year when Streep starred in the drama Sophie's Choice (also 1982), portraying a Polish survivor of Auschwitz caught in a love triangle between a young naïve writer (Peter MacNicol) and a Jewish intellectual (Kevin Kline). Streep's emotional dramatic performance and her apparent mastery of a Polish accent drew praise. William Styron wrote the novel with Ursula Andress in mind for the role of Sophie, but Streep was determined to get the role. Streep filmed the \"choice\" scene in one take and refused to do it again, finding it extremely painful and emotionally exhausting. That scene, in which Streep is ordered by an SS guard at Auschwitz to choose which of her two children would be gassed and which would proceed to the labor camp, is her most famous scene, according to Emma Brockes of The Guardian who wrote in 2006: \"It's classic Streep, the kind of scene that makes your scalp tighten, but defter in a way is her handling of smaller, harder-to-grasp emotions\". Among several acting awards, Streep won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance, and her characterization was voted the third greatest movie performance of all time by Premiere magazine. Roger Ebert said of her delivery:\n\n> Streep plays the Brooklyn scenes with an enchanting Polish-American accent (she has the first accent I've ever wanted to hug), and she plays the flashbacks in subtitled German and Polish. There is hardly an emotion that Streep doesn't touch in this movie, and yet we're never aware of her straining. This is one of the most astonishing and yet one of the most unaffected and natural performances I can imagine.\n\nPauline Kael, on the contrary, called the film an \"infuriatingly bad movie\", and thought that Streep \"decorporealizes\" herself, which she believed explained why her movie heroines \"don't seem to be full characters, and why there are no incidental joys to be had from watching her\".\n\nIn 1983, Streep played her first non-fictional character, the nuclear whistleblower and labor union activist Karen Silkwood, who died in a suspicious car accident while investigating alleged wrongdoing at the Kerr-McGee plutonium plant, in Mike Nichols' biographical film Silkwood. Streep felt a personal connection to Silkwood, and in preparation, she met with people close to the woman, and in doing so realized that each person saw a different aspect of her personality. She said:\n\n> I didn't try to turn myself into Karen. I just tried to look at what she did. I put together every piece of information I could find about her ... What I finally did was look at the events in her life, and try to understand her from the inside.\n\nJack Kroll of Newsweek considered Streep's characterization to have been \"brilliant\", while Silkwood's boyfriend Drew Stephens expressed approval in that Streep had played Karen as a human being rather than a myth, despite Karen's father Bill thinking that Streep and the film had dumbed his daughter down. Pauline Kael believed that Streep had been miscast. Streep next played opposite Robert De Niro in the romance Falling in Love (1984), which was poorly received, and portrayed a fighter for the French Resistance during World War II in the British drama Plenty (1985), adapted from the play by David Hare. For the latter, Roger Ebert wrote that she conveyed \"great subtlety; it is hard to play an unbalanced, neurotic, self-destructive woman, and do it with such gentleness and charm ... Streep creates a whole character around a woman who could have simply been a catalogue of symptoms.\" In 2008, Molly Haskell praised Streep's performance in Plenty, believing it to be \"one of Streep's most difficult and ambiguous\" films and \"most feminist\" role.\n\nLongworth considers Streep's next release, Out of Africa (1985), to have established her as a Hollywood superstar. In the film, Streep starred as the Danish writer Karen Blixen, opposite Robert Redford's Denys Finch Hatton. Director Sydney Pollack was initially dubious about Streep in the role, as he did not think she was sexy enough, and had considered Jane Seymour for the part. Pollack recalls that Streep impressed him in a different way: \"She was so direct, so honest, so without bullshit. There was no shielding between her and me.\" Streep and Pollack often clashed during the 101-day shoot in Kenya, particularly over Blixen's voice. Streep had spent much time listening to tapes of Blixen, and began speaking in an old-fashioned and aristocratic fashion, which Pollack thought excessive. A significant commercial success, the film won a Golden Globe for Best Picture. It also earned Streep another Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, and the film ultimately won Best Picture. Film critic Stanley Kauffmann praised her performance, writing \"Meryl Streep is back in top form. This means her performance in Out of Africa is at the highest level of acting in film today.\"\n\nLongworth notes that the dramatic success of Out of Africa led to a backlash of critical opinion against Streep in the years that followed, especially as she was now demanding \\$4 million a picture. Unlike other stars at the time, such as Sylvester Stallone and Tom Cruise, Streep \"never seemed to play herself\", and certain critics felt her technical finesse led people to literally see her acting. Her next films did not appeal to a wide audience; she co-starred with Jack Nicholson in the dramas Heartburn (1986) and Ironweed (1987), in which she sang onscreen for the first time since the \"Great Performances\" telecast of the Phoenix Theater production of Secret Service (1977). In Evil Angels (1988), she played Lindy Chamberlain, an Australian woman who had been convicted of the murder of her infant daughter despite claiming that the baby had been taken by a dingo. Filmed in Australia, Streep won the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, a Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress. Streep has said of developing the Australian accent in the film: \"I had to study a little bit for Australian because it's not dissimilar [to American], so it's like coming from Italian to Spanish. You get a little mixed up.\" Vincent Canby of The New York Times referred to her performance as \"another stunning performance\", played with \"the kind of virtuosity that seems to re-define the possibilities of screen acting\".\n\nIn 1989, Streep lobbied to play the lead role in Oliver Stone's adaption of the play Evita, but two months before filming was due to commence, she dropped out, citing \"exhaustion\" initially, although it was later revealed that there was a dispute over her salary. By the end of the decade, Streep actively looked to star in a comedy. She found the role in She-Devil (1989), a satire that parodied societal obsession with beauty and cosmetic surgery, in which she played a glamorous writer. Though the film was not a success, Richard Corliss of Time wrote that Streep was the \"one reason\" to see it, and observed that it marked a departure from the dramatic roles she was known to play. Reacting to her string of poorly received films, Streep said: \"Audiences are shrinking; as the marketing strategy defines more and more narrowly who they want to reach males from 16 to 25 – it's become a chicken-and-egg syndrome. Which came first? First, they release all these summer movies, then do a demographic survey of who's going to see them.\"\n\n### 1990s: Commercial fluctuations\n\nBiographer Karen Hollinger described the early 1990s as a downturn in the popularity of Streep's films, attributing this partly to a critical perception that her comedies had been an attempt to convey a lighter image following several serious, but commercially unsuccessful, dramas, and, more significantly, to the lack of options available to an actress in her forties. Streep commented that she had limited her options by her preference to work in Los Angeles, close to her family, a situation that she had anticipated in a 1981 interview when she commented, \"By the time an actress hits her mid-forties, no one's interested in her anymore. And if you want to fit a couple of babies into that schedule as well, you've got to pick your parts with great care.\" At the Screen Actor's Guild National Women's Conference in 1990, Streep keynoted the first national event, emphasizing the decline in women's work opportunities, pay parity, and role models within the film industry. She criticized the film industry for downplaying the importance of women both on screen and off.\n\nAfter roles in the comedy-drama Postcards from the Edge (1990), and the comedy-fantasy Defending Your Life (1991), Streep starred with Goldie Hawn in the farcical black comedy, Death Becomes Her (1992), with Bruce Willis as their co-star. Streep persuaded writer David Koepp to re-write several of the scenes, particularly the one in which her character has an affair with a younger man, which she believed was \"unrealistically male\" in its conception. The seven-month shoot was the longest of Streep's career, during which she got into character by \"thinking about being slightly pissed off all of the time\". Due to Streep's allergies to numerous cosmetics, special prosthetics had to be designed to age her by ten years to look 54, although Streep believed that they made her look nearer 70. Longworth considers Death Becomes Her to have been \"the most physical performance Streep had yet committed to screen, all broad weeping, smirking, and eye-rolling\". Although it was a commercial success, earning \\$15.1 million in just five days, Streep's contribution to comedy was generally not taken well by critics. Time's Richard Corliss wrote approvingly of Streep's \"wicked-witch routine\" but dismissed the film as \"She-Devil with a make-over\" and one which \"hates women\". Streep later admitted to having disliked filming the scenes involving heavy special effects, and vowed never to work again on a film with heavy special effects.\n\nStreep appeared with Jeremy Irons, Glenn Close and Winona Ryder in The House of the Spirits (1993), set in Chile during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship. The film was not well received by critics. Anthony Lane of The New Yorker wrote: \"This is really quite an achievement. It brings together Jeremy Irons, Meryl Streep, Winona Ryder, Antonio Banderas, and Vanessa Redgrave and insures that, without exception, they all give their worst performances ever\". The following year, Streep starred in The River Wild, as the mother of children on a whitewater rafting trip who encounter two violent criminals (Kevin Bacon and John C. Reilly) in the wilderness. Though critical reaction was generally mixed, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone found her to be \"strong, sassy and looser than she has ever been onscreen\".\n\nStreep's most successful film of the decade was the romantic drama The Bridges of Madison County (1995) directed by Clint Eastwood, who adapted the film from Robert James Waller's novel of the same name. It relates the story of Robert Kincaid (Eastwood), a photographer working for National Geographic, who has a love affair with a middle-aged Italian farm wife Francesca (Streep). Though Streep disliked the novel it was based on, she found the script to be a special opportunity for an actress her age. She gained weight for the part and dressed differently from the character in the book to emulate voluptuous Italian film stars such as Sophia Loren. Both Loren and Anna Magnani were an influence in her portrayal, and Streep viewed Pier Paolo Pasolini's Mamma Roma (1962) prior to filming. The film was a box office hit and grossed over \\$70 million in the United States. The film, unlike the novel, was warmly received by critics. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that Eastwood had managed to create \"a moving, elegiac love story at the heart of Mr. Waller's self-congratulatory overkill\", while Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal described it as \"one of the most pleasurable films in recent memory\". Longworth believes that Streep's performance was \"crucial to transforming what could have been a weak soap opera into a vibrant work of historical fiction implicitly critiquing postwar America's stifling culture of domesticity\". She considers it to have been the role in which Streep became \"arguably the first middle-aged actress to be taken seriously by Hollywood as a romantic heroine\".\n\nStreep played the estranged sister of Bessie (Diane Keaton), a woman battling leukemia, in Marvin's Room (1996), an adaptation of the play by Scott McPherson. Streep recommended Keaton for the role. The film also featured Leonardo DiCaprio as the rebellious son of Streep's character. Roger Ebert stated that, \"Streep and Keaton, in their different styles, find ways to make Lee and Bessie into much more than the expression of their problems.\" The film was well received, and Streep earned another Golden Globe nomination for her performance.\n\nStreep's performance in ...First Do No Harm (1997) garnered her a second Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress – Miniseries or a Movie. In 1998, Streep first appeared opposite Michael Gambon and Catherine McCormack in Pat O'Connor's Dancing at Lughnasa, another Broadway adaptation, which was entered into the Venice Film Festival in its year of release. Janet Maslin of The New York Times remarked that \"Meryl Streep has made many a grand acting gesture in her career, but the way she simply peers out a window in Dancing at Lughnasa ranks with the best. Everything the viewer need know about Kate Mundy, the woman she plays here, is written on that prim, lonely face and its flabbergasted gaze.\" Later that year, she played a housewife dying of cancer in One True Thing. The film met with positive reviews. Mick LaSalle in the San Francisco Chronicle declared, \"After One True Thing, critics who persist in the fiction that Streep is a cold and technical actress will need to get their heads examined. She is so instinctive and natural – so thoroughly in the moment and operating on flights of inspiration – that she's able to give us a woman who's at once wildly idiosyncratic and utterly believable.\" Los Angeles Times film critic Kenneth Turan noted that her role \"is one of the least self-consciously dramatic and surface showy of her career,\" but she \"adds a level of honesty and reality that makes [her performance] one of her most moving\".\n\nStreep portrayed Roberta Guaspari, a real-life New Yorker who found passion and enlightenment teaching violin to the inner-city kids of East Harlem, in the music drama Music of the Heart (1999). Streep replaced Madonna, who dropped out of the project before filming began due to creative differences with director Wes Craven. Required to play the violin, Streep underwent two months of intense training, five to six hours a day. Streep received nominations for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance. Roger Ebert wrote that \"Meryl Streep is known for her mastery of accents; she may be the most versatile speaker in the movies. Here you might think she has no accent, unless you've heard her real speaking voice; then you realize that Guaspari's speaking style is no less a particular achievement than Streep's other accents. This is not Streep's voice, but someone else's – with a certain flat quality, as if later education and refinement came after a somewhat unsophisticated childhood.\"\n\n### 2000s: Career resurgence and stage work\n\nStreep entered the 2000s with a voice cameo in Steven Spielberg's A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001), a science fiction film about a childlike android, played by Haley Joel Osment. The same year, Streep co-hosted the annual Nobel Peace Prize Concert with Liam Neeson which was held in Oslo, Norway, on December 11, 2001, in honour of the Nobel Peace Prize laureate, the United Nations and Kofi Annan. In 2001, Streep returned to the stage for the first time in more than twenty years, playing Arkadina in The Public Theater's revival of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull, directed by Mike Nichols and co-starring Kevin Kline, Natalie Portman, John Goodman, Marcia Gay Harden, Stephen Spinella, Debra Monk, Larry Pine and Philip Seymour Hoffman. Streep's son, Henry Gummer, later to be known as musician Henry Wolfe, was also featured in the play in the role of Yakov, a hired workman.\n\nThe same year, Streep began work on Spike Jonze's comedy-drama Adaptation. (2002), in which she portrayed real-life journalist Susan Orlean. Lauded by critics and viewers alike, the film won Streep her fourth Golden Globe in the Best Supporting Actress category. A. O. Scott in The New York Times considered Streep's portrayal of Orlean to have been \"played with impish composure\", noting the contrast in her \"wittily realized\" character with love interest Chris Cooper's \"lank-haired, toothless charisma\" as the autodidact arrested for poaching rare orchids. Streep appeared alongside Nicole Kidman and Julianne Moore in Stephen Daldry's The Hours (2002), based on the 1999 novel by Michael Cunningham. Focusing on three women of different generations whose lives are interconnected by the novel Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf, the film was generally well received and won all three leading actresses a Silver Bear for Best Actress.\n\nIn 2003, Streep re-united with Mike Nichols to star with Al Pacino and Emma Thompson in the HBO's adaptation of Tony Kushner's six-hour play Angels in America, the story of two couples whose relationships dissolve amidst the backdrop of Reagan era politics. Streep, who was cast in four roles in the miniseries, received her second Emmy Award and fifth Golden Globe for her performance. She appeared in Jonathan Demme's moderately successful remake of The Manchurian Candidate in 2004, co-starring Denzel Washington, playing the role of a woman who is both a U.S. senator and the manipulative, ruthless mother of a vice-presidential candidate. The same year, she played the supporting role of Aunt Josephine in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events alongside Jim Carrey, based on the first three novels in Snicket's book series. The black comedy received generally favorable reviews from critics, and won the Academy Award for Best Makeup. Streep also narrated the film Monet's Palate. Streep was next cast in the comedy film Prime (2005), directed by Ben Younger. In the film, she played Lisa Metzger, the Jewish psychoanalyst of a divorced and lonesome business-woman, played by Uma Thurman, who enters a relationship with Metzger's 23-year-old son (Bryan Greenberg). A modest mainstream success, it eventually grossed US\\$67.9 million internationally. Roger Ebert noted how Streep had \"that ability to cut through the solemnity of a scene with a zinger that reveals how all human effort is, after all, comic at some level\".\n\nIn August and September 2006, Streep starred onstage at The Public Theater's production of Mother Courage and Her Children at the Delacorte Theatre in Central Park. The Public Theater production was a new translation by playwright Tony Kushner, with songs in the Weill/Brecht style written by composer Jeanine Tesori; veteran director George C. Wolfe was at the helm. Streep starred alongside Kevin Kline and Austin Pendleton in this three-and-a-half-hour play. Around the same time, Streep, along with Lily Tomlin, portrayed the last two members of what was once a popular family country music act in Robert Altman's final film A Prairie Home Companion (2006). A comedic ensemble piece featuring Lindsay Lohan, Tommy Lee Jones, Kevin Kline and Woody Harrelson, the film revolves around the behind-the-scenes activities at the long-running public radio show of the same name. The film grossed more than US\\$26 million, the majority of which came from domestic markets.\n\nCommercially, Streep fared better with a role in The Devil Wears Prada (also 2006), a loose screen adaptation of Lauren Weisberger's 2003 novel of the same name. Streep portrayed the powerful and demanding Miranda Priestly, fashion magazine editor (and boss of a recent college graduate played by Anne Hathaway). Though the overall film received mixed reviews, her portrayal, of what Ebert calls the \"poised and imperious Miranda\", drew rave reviews from critics, and earned her many award nominations, including her record-setting 14th Oscar bid, as well as another Golden Globe. On its commercial release, the film became Streep's biggest commercial success to this point, grossing more than US\\$326.5 million worldwide.\n\nShe portrayed a wealthy university patron in Chen Shi-zheng's much-delayed feature drama Dark Matter, a film about a Chinese science graduate student who becomes violent after dealing with academic politics at a U.S. university. Inspired by the events of the 1991 University of Iowa shooting, and initially scheduled for a 2007 release, producers and investors decided to shelve Dark Matter out of respect for the victims of the Virginia Tech shooting in April 2007. The drama received negative to mixed reviews upon its limited 2008 release. Streep played a U.S. government official who investigates an Egyptian foreign national suspected of terrorism in the political thriller Rendition (2007), directed by Gavin Hood. Keen to get involved in a thriller film, Streep welcomed the opportunity to star in a film genre for which she was not usually offered scripts, and immediately signed on to the project. Upon its release, Rendition was less commercially successful, and received mixed reviews.\n\nIn this period, Streep had a short role alongside Vanessa Redgrave, Glenn Close, and her eldest daughter Mamie Gummer in Lajos Koltai's drama film Evening (2007), based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Susan Minot. Switching between the present and the past, it tells the story of a bedridden woman, who remembers her tumultuous life in the mid-1950s. The film was released to a lukewarm reaction from critics, who called it \"beautifully filmed, but decidedly dull [and] a colossal waste of a talented cast\". She had a role in Robert Redford's Lions for Lambs (also 2007), a film about the connection between a platoon of United States soldiers in Afghanistan, a U.S. senator, a reporter, and a California college professor. Like Evening, critics felt that the talent of the cast was wasted, and that it suffered from slow pacing, although one critic announced that Streep positively stood out, being \"natural, unforced, quietly powerful\", in comparison to Redford's forced performance.\n\nStreep found major commercial success when she starred in Phyllida Lloyd's Mamma Mia! (2008), a film adaptation of the musical of the same name, based on the songs of Swedish pop group ABBA. Co-starring Amanda Seyfried, Pierce Brosnan, Stellan Skarsgård, Colin Firth, Julie Walters, and Christine Baranski, Streep played a single mother and a former girl-group singer, whose daughter (Seyfried), a bride-to-be who never met her father, invites three likely paternal candidates to her wedding on the idyllic Greek island of Skopelos known in the film as Kalokairi. An instant box office success, Mamma Mia! became Streep's highest-grossing film to date, with box office receipts of US\\$602.6 million, also ranking it first among the highest-grossing musical films. Nominated for another Golden Globe, Streep's performance was generally well received by critics, with Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe commenting: \"The greatest actor in American movies has finally become a movie star.\"\n\nDoubt (also 2008) features Streep with Philip Seymour Hoffman, Amy Adams, and Viola Davis. A drama revolving around the stern principal nun (Streep) of a Bronx Catholic school in 1964 who brings accusations of pedophilia against a popular priest (Hoffman), the film became a moderate box office success, and was hailed by many critics as one of the best films of 2008. The film received five Academy Awards nominations, for its four lead actors and for John Patrick Shanley's script. Ebert, who awarded the film the full four stars, highlighted Streep's caricature of a nun, who \"hates all inroads of the modern world\", while Kelly Vance of The East Bay Express remarked: \"It's thrilling to see a pro like Streep step into an already wildly exaggerated role, and then ramp it up a few notches just for the sheer hell of it. Grim, red-eyed, deathly pale Sister Aloysius may be the scariest nun of all time.\"\n\nIn 2009, Streep played chef Julia Child in Nora Ephron's Julie & Julia, co-starring with Stanley Tucci, and again with Amy Adams. (Tucci and Streep had worked together earlier in Devil Wears Prada.) The first major motion picture based on a blog, Julie and Julia contrasts the life of Child in the early years of her culinary career with the life of young New Yorker Julie Powell (Adams), who aspires to cook all 524 recipes in Child's cookbook Mastering the Art of French Cooking. Longworth believes her caricature of Julia Child was \"quite possibly the biggest performance of her career, while also drawing on her own experience to bring lived-in truth to the story of a late bloomer\". In Nancy Meyers' romantic comedy It's Complicated (also 2009), Streep starred with Alec Baldwin and Steve Martin. She received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for both Julie & Julia and It's Complicated; she won the award for Julie & Julia, and later received her 16th Oscar nomination for it. She also lent her voice to Mrs. Felicity Fox in Wes Anderson's stop-motion film Fantastic Mr. Fox.\n\n### 2010s: Further critical and commercial success\n\nStreep re-teamed with Mamma Mia director Phyllida Lloyd on The Iron Lady (2011), a British biographical film about Margaret Thatcher, which takes a look at the Prime Minister during the Falklands War and her years in retirement. Streep, who attended a session of the House of Commons to see British Members of Parliament (MPs) in action in preparation for her role as Thatcher, called her casting \"a daunting and exciting challenge\". While the film had a mixed reception, Streep's performance gained rave reviews, earning her Best Actress awards at the Golden Globes and the BAFTAs, as well as her third win at the 84th Academy Awards. Former advisers, friends, and family of Thatcher criticized Streep's portrayal of her as \"inaccurate\" and \"biased\". The following year, after Thatcher's death, Streep issued a formal statement describing Thatcher's \"hard-nosed fiscal measures\" and \"hands-off approach to financial regulation\", while praising her \"personal strength and grit\".\n\nStreep re-united with Prada director David Frankel on the set of the romantic comedy-drama film Hope Springs (2012), co-starring Tommy Lee Jones and Steve Carell. Streep and Jones play a middle-aged couple, who attend a week of intensive marriage counseling to try to bring back the intimacy missing in their relationship. Reviews for the film were mostly positive, with critics praising the \"mesmerizing performances ... which offer filmgoers some grown-up laughs – and a thoughtful look at mature relationships\". In 2013, Streep starred alongside Julia Roberts and Ewan McGregor in the black comedy drama August: Osage County (2013) about a dysfunctional family that re-unites into the familial house when their patriarch suddenly disappears. Based on Tracy Letts's Pulitzer Prize-winning eponymous play, Streep received positive reviews for her portrayal of the family's strong-willed and contentious matriarch, who is suffering from oral cancer and an addiction to narcotics. She was subsequently nominated for another Golden Globe, SAG, and Academy Award.\n\nIn 2014's The Giver, a motion picture adaptation of the young adult novel, Streep played a community leader. Set in 2048, the social science fiction film recounts the story of a post-apocalyptic community without war, pain, suffering, differences or choice, where a young boy is chosen to learn the real world. Streep was aware of the book before being offered the role by co-star and producer Jeff Bridges. Upon its release, The Giver was met with generally mixed to negative reviews from critics. Streep also had a small role in the period drama film The Homesman (2014). Set in the 1850s midwest, the film stars Hilary Swank and Tommy Lee Jones as an unusual pair who help three women driven to madness by the frontier to get back East. Streep does not appear until near the end of the film, playing a preacher's wife, who takes the women into care. The Homesman premiered at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival where it garnered largely positive reviews from critics.\n\nDirected by Rob Marshall, Into the Woods (also 2014) is a Disney film adaptation of the Broadway musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim in which Streep plays a witch. A fantasy genre crossover inspired by the Grimm Brothers' fairy tales, it centers on a childless couple who set out to end a curse placed on them by Streep's vengeful witch. Though the film was dismissed by some critics such as Mark Kermode as \"irritating naffness\", Streep's performance earned her Academy Award, Golden Globe, SAG, and Critic's Choice Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In July 2014, it was announced that Streep would portray Maria Callas in Master Class, but the project was pulled after director Mike Nichols's death in November of the same year.\n\nIn 2015, Streep starred in Jonathan Demme's Ricki and the Flash, playing a grocery store checkout worker by day who is a rock musician at night, and who has one last chance to reconnect with her estranged family. Streep learned to play the guitar for the semi-autobiographical drama-comedy film, which again featured Streep with her eldest daughter Mamie Gummer. Reviews of the film were generally mixed. Streep's other film of this time was director Sarah Gavron's period drama Suffragette (also 2015), co-starring Carey Mulligan and Helena Bonham Carter. In the film, she played the small, but pivotal, role of Emmeline Pankhurst, a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. The film received mostly positive reviews, particularly for the performances of the cast, though its distributor earned criticism that Streep's prominent position within the marketing was misleading.\n\nFollowing the duties of the president at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival in 2016, Streep starred in the Stephen Frears-directed comedy Florence Foster Jenkins (2016), an eponymous biopic about a blithely unaware tone-deaf opera singer who insists upon public performance. Other cast members were Hugh Grant and Simon Helberg. Robbie Collin considered it to be one of her most \"human performance\" and felt that it was \"full of warmth that gives way to heart-pinching pathos\". She won the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy, and received Academy Award, Golden Globe, SAG, and BAFTA nominations.\n\nStreep next starred as the first American female newspaper publisher, Katharine Graham, to Tom Hanks' Ben Bradlee, in Steven Spielberg's political drama The Post (2017), which centers on The Washington Post's publication of the 1971 Pentagon Papers. The film received positive reviews with praise directed to the performances of the two leads. Manohla Dargis wrote that \"Streep creates an acutely moving portrait of a woman who in liberating herself helps instigate a revolution\". It earned over \\$177 million against a budget of \\$50 million. Streep received her 31st Golden Globe nomination and 21st Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.\n\nIn 2018, Streep briefly reprised her role in the musical sequel Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again. She also played a supporting part in Rob Marshall's Mary Poppins Returns, a musical sequel to the 1964 film Mary Poppins starring Emily Blunt in the titular role. Streep next featured in her first main role in a television series by starring in the second season of the HBO drama series Big Little Lies in 2019. She took on the part of Mary Louise Wright, the mother-in-law of Nicole Kidman's character. Liane Moriarty, author of the novel of the same name, on which the first season is based, wrote a 200-page novella that served as the basis for the second season. Moriarty decided to name the new character Mary Louise, after Streep's legal name. Streep subsequently agreed to the part without reading a script for the first time in her career. Writing for the BBC, Caryn James labeled her performance \"delicious and wily\" and found her to be the \"embodiment of a passive-aggressive granny\". The same year, Streep then starred in the Steven Soderbergh-directed biographical comedy The Laundromat, about the Panama Papers, opposite Gary Oldman and Antonio Banderas. It was the first movie distributed by Netflix in which Streep starred. She also played Aunt March in Greta Gerwig's Little Women, co-starring with Saoirse Ronan, Emma Watson, Florence Pugh, Timothée Chalamet, and Laura Dern. David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter praised Streep's performance writing, \"Streep is clearly having a ball as the imperious snob who snorts with disapproval...[and] does her best to hide her affection for her nieces behind her narrowed gaze and all-purpose disdain\". The film received critical acclaim and grossed over \\$218 million against its \\$40 million budget.\n\n### 2020s: Streaming projects\n\nIn 2020, she voiced a role in the Apple TV+ animated short film Here We Are: Notes for Living on Planet Earth. Streep had leading roles in two films, both released by streaming services. She reunited with Nicole Kidman for Netflix, in Ryan Murphy's The Prom (2020), a film adaptation of the Broadway musical of the same name. That same year she also reunited with director Steven Soderbergh for his HBO Max comedy film Let Them All Talk (2020). Streep starred alongside Dianne Wiest, Candice Bergen, Lucas Hedges, and Gemma Chan. Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair noted, \"Streep could, in some senses, be approaching the film as a meta commentary on her own ivied stature as the world’s greatest living actor (in some people’s estimation, anyway). If that is what’s happening, she never betrays her motivations with a wink. It’s all played pretty earnestly\".\n\nThe following year Streep starred opposite Leonardo DiCaprio and Jennifer Lawrence in Don't Look Up (2021), directed by Adam McKay for Netflix. Streep played a comical role as the fictional President of the United States who waves off the fears of climate change. In his mixed review, Peter DeBruge of Variety compared her performance of that of Donald Trump, adding \"[She's] clearly having more fun than we are\". She served as an executive producer on Sell/Buy/Date (2022), directed by Sarah Jones. She acted in the Apple TV+ anthology series Extrapolations (2023). Later that year, she played Loretta, a struggling actress, in the third season of the Hulu comedy series Only Murders in the Building, starring Steve Martin, Martin Short and Selena Gomez. Leila Latif of The Guardian wrote, \"Streep, unsurprisingly, plays Loretta beautifully, truly tapping into the agony of a woman who’s faced a lifetime of rejection but somehow kept her dream alive\".\n\n## Other ventures\n\nAfter Streep starred in Mamma Mia!, her rendition of the titular song rose to popularity on the Portuguese music charts, where it peaked at number eight in October 2008. At the 35th People's Choice Awards, her version of \"Mamma Mia\" won an award for \"Favorite Song From A Soundtrack\". In 2008, Streep was nominated for a Grammy Award (her fifth nomination) for her work on the Mamma Mia! soundtrack. Streep has narrated numerous audio books, including three by children's book author William Steig: Brae Irene, Spinky Sulks, and The One and Only Shrek!.\n\nStreep is the spokesperson for the National Women's History Museum, to which she has made significant donations (including her fee for The Iron Lady, which was \\$1 million), and hosted numerous events. On October 4, 2012, Streep donated \\$1 million to The Public Theater in honor of both its late founder, Joseph Papp, and her friend, the author Nora Ephron. She also supports Gucci's \"Chime for Change\" campaign that aims to spread female empowerment.\n\nIn 2014, Streep established two scholarships for students at the University of Massachusetts Lowell – the Meryl Streep Endowed Scholarship for English majors, and the Joan Hertzberg Endowed Scholarship (named for Streep's former classmate at Vassar College) for math majors.\n\nIn 2014, it was announced she was slated to appear in an anti-NRA production titled The Senator’s Wife, created by Harvey Weinstein. As of 2023, it has not been produced.\n\nIn April 2015, it was announced that Streep had funded a screenwriters lab for female screenwriters over forty years old, called the Writers Lab, to be run by New York Women in Film & Television and the collective IRIS. The Lab was the only one of its kind in the world for female screenwriters over forty years old. In 2015, Streep signed an open letter for which One Campaign had been collecting signatures; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they served as heads of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa, respectively, in setting development funding priorities. Also in 2015, Streep sent each member of the U.S. Congress a letter supporting the Equal Rights Amendment. Each of her letters was sent with a copy of the book Equal Means Equal: Why the Time for the ERA is Now by Jessica Neuwirth, president of the ERA Coalition.\n\nWhen asked in a 2015 interview with Time Out if she was a feminist, Streep replied, \"I am a humanist, I am for nice easy balance.\" In March 2016, Streep, among others, signed a letter asking for gender equality throughout the world, in observance of International Women's Day; this was also organized by One Campaign. In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up the Time's Up initiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.\n\nOn April 25, 2017, Streep publicly backed the campaign to free Oleg Sentsov, a Ukrainian filmmaker from Crimea who was subjected to a sham trial by Russia and jailed in Siberia for 20 years in August 2015. She was pictured alongside Ukrainian lawmaker Mustafa Nayyem with a \"Free Sentsov\" sign in a photograph taken during the PEN America Annual Literary Gala on April 25, at which Sentsov was honoured with a 2017 PEN/Barbey Freedom to Write award.\n\n## Reception and legacy\n\nIn 2004, Streep was awarded the AFI Life Achievement Award by the board of directors of the American Film Institute. In 2011, she received a Kennedy Center Honors, introduced by Tracey Ullman, and speeches by 2009 Kennedy Center Honoree Robert De Niro and 2003 Kennedy Center Honoree Mike Nichols. Those also to honor Streep included, Kevin Kline, Emily Blunt, Stanley Tucci, and Anne Hathaway. The tribute ended with the whole cast who sang \"She's My Pal,\" a play on \"He's My Pal\" from Ironweed.\n\nIn November 2014, President Barack Obama bestowed upon Streep the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor. The citation reads as follows, \"Meryl Streep is one of the most widely known and acclaimed actors in history. Ms. Streep has captured our imaginations with her unparalleled ability to portray a wide range of roles and attract an audience that has only grown over time, portraying characters who embody the full range of the human experience.\" In January 2017, Viola Davis presented Streep with the Cecil B. DeMille at the Golden Globes. Davis stated to Streep \"You make me proud to be an artist\". In her acceptance speech, Streep quoted the recently departed Carrie Fisher, saying, \"Take your broken heart and make it into art.\"\n\nVanity Fair commented that \"it's hard to imagine that there was a time before Meryl Streep was the greatest-living actress\". Emma Brockes of The Guardian notes that despite Streep's being \"one of the most famous actresses in the world\", it is \"strangely hard to pin an image on Streep\", in a career where she has \"laboured to establish herself as an actor whose roots lie in ordinary life\". Despite her success, Streep has always been modest about her own acting and achievements in cinema. She has stated that she has no particular method when it comes to acting, learning from the days of her early studies that she cannot articulate her practice. She said in 1987, \"I have a smattering of things I've learned from different teachers, but nothing I can put into a valise and open it up and say 'Now, which one would you like?' Nothing I can count on, and that makes it more dangerous. But then, the danger makes it more exciting.\" She has stated that her ideal director is one who gives her complete artistic control, allowing her to have a degree of improvisation and to learn from her mistakes.\n\nKarina Longworth notes how \"external\" Streep's performances are, \"chameleonic\" in her impersonation of characters, \"subsuming herself into them, rather than personifying them\". In her early roles such as Manhattan and Kramer vs. Kramer, she was compared to both Diane Keaton and Jill Clayburgh, in that her characters were unsympathetic, which Streep has attributed to the tendency to be drawn to playing women who are difficult to like and lack empathy. Streep has stated that many consider her to be a technical actor, but she professed that it comes down to her love of reading the initial script, adding, \"I come ready and I don't want to screw around and waste the first 10 takes on adjusting lighting and everybody else getting comfortable\".\n\nMike Nichols, who directed Streep in Silkwood, Heartburn, Postcards from the Edge, and Angels in America, praised Streep's ability to transform herself into her characters, remarking that, \"In every role, she becomes a totally new human being. As she becomes the person she is portraying, the other performers begin to react to her as if she were that person.\" He said that directing her is \"so much like falling in love that it has the characteristics of a time which you remember as magical, but which is shrouded in mystery\". He also noted that Streep's acting ability had a profound impact on her co-stars, and that \"one could improve by 1000% purely by watching her\". Longworth believes that in nearly every film, Streep has \"sly infused\" a feminist point of view in her portrayals. However, film critic Molly Haskell has stated, \"None of her heroines are feminist, strictly speaking. Yet, they uncannily embody various crosscurrents of experience in the last twenty years, as women have re-defined themselves against the background of the women's movement\".\n\nStreep is well known for her ability to imitate a wide range of accents – from Danish in Out of Africa (1985) to British Received Pronunciation in The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981), Plenty (1985), and The Iron Lady (2011); Italian in The Bridges of Madison County (1995); a southern American accent in The Seduction of Joe Tynan (1979); a Minnesota accent in A Prairie Home Companion (2006); Upstate New York in Ironweed (1987); and a heavy Bronx accent in Doubt (2008). Streep has stated that she grew up listening to artists such as Barbra Streisand, the Beatles, and Bob Dylan, and she learned a lot about how to use her voice, her \"instrument\", by listening to Barbra Streisand's albums. In the film Evil Angels (1988, released in the U.S. as A Cry in the Dark), in which she portrays a New Zealand transplant to Australia, Streep developed a hybrid of Australian and New Zealand English. Her performance received the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, as well as Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress.\n\nFor her role in the film Sophie's Choice (1982), Streep spoke both English and German with a Polish accent, as well as Polish itself. In The Iron Lady, she reproduced the vocal style of Margaret Thatcher from the time before Thatcher became Britain's Prime Minister, and after she had taken elocution lessons to change her pitch, pronunciation, and delivery. Streep has commented that using accents as part of her acting is a technique she views as an obvious requirement in her portrayal of a character. When questioned in Belfast as to how she reproduces different accents, Streep replied in a reportedly \"perfect\" Belfast accent: \"I listen.\"\n\n## Activism and advocacy\n\nPolitically, Streep has described herself as part of the American Left. She gave a speech at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in support of presidential nominee Hillary Clinton.\n\nIn January 2017, Streep was honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Award for Lifetime Achievement at the 74th Golden Globe Awards, during which she delivered a predominantly political speech that implicitly criticized President-elect Donald Trump. She argued that Trump had a very strong platform and used it inappropriately to mock a disabled reporter, Serge F. Kovaleski, whom, in her words, Trump \"outranked in privilege, power, and the capacity to fight back\". Trump responded by calling Streep \"one of the most over-rated actresses in Hollywood,\" and \"a Hillary flunky who lost big.\"\n\nWhile promoting Suffragette in 2015, Streep accused the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes of disproportionately representing the opinions of male film critics, resulting in a skewed ratio that adversely affected the commercial performances of female-driven films.\n\nIn June 2023, Streep was reported as one of many A-List members of the SAG-AFTRA who signed a letter threatening to strike.\n\n## Personal life\n\nAuthor Karina Longworth notes that despite her stardom, for decades Streep has managed to maintain a relatively normal personal life. Streep lived with actor John Cazale in the 1970s, caring for him after his lung cancer diagnosis until he died in March 1978. Streep said of his death:\n\n> I didn't get over it. I don't want to get over it. No matter what you do, the pain is always there in some recess of your mind, and it affects everything that happens afterwards. I think you can assimilate the pain and go on without making an obsession of it.\n\nStreep married sculptor Don Gummer six months after Cazale's death. They have four children: musician Henry Wolfe Gummer (born 1979), and actresses Mary Willa \"Mamie\" Gummer (born 1983), Grace Jane Gummer (born 1986), and Louisa Jacobson Gummer (born 1991).\n\nIn 1985, the family moved into a \\$1.8-million private estate in Connecticut and lived there until they bought a \\$3-million mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles, in 1990. They later moved back to Connecticut. Streep is the godmother of Billie Lourd, daughter of fellow actress and close friend Carrie Fisher. Fisher wrote the screenplay for Streep's 1990 film Postcards from the Edge, based on Fisher's book.\n\nWhen asked if religion plays a part in her life in 2009, Streep replied: \"I follow no doctrine. I don't belong to a church or a temple or a synagogue or an ashram.\" In an interview in December 2008, she alluded to her lack of religious belief when she said:\n\n> So, I've always been really, deeply interested because I think I can understand the solace that's available in the whole construct of religion. But I really don't believe in the power of prayer, or things would have been avoided that have happened, that are awful. So, it's a horrible position as an intelligent, emotional, yearning human being to sit outside of the available comfort there. But I just can't go there.\n\nWhen asked where she draws consolation in the face of aging and death, Streep responded:\n\n> Consolation? I'm not sure I have it. I have a belief, I guess, in the power of the aggregate human attempt – the best of ourselves. In love and hope and optimism – you know, the magic things that seem inexplicable. Why we are the way we are. I do have a sense of trying to make things better. Where does that come from?\n\n## Acting credits and awards\n\nOne of the most prolific actresses of screen and stage since her career's inception in the late 1970s, Streep's most acclaimed and highest-grossing films, according to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, include Julia (1977), The Deer Hunter (1978), Kramer vs. Kramer (1979), The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981), Sophie's Choice (1982), Silkwood (1983), A Cry in the Dark (1988), Postcards from the Edge (1990), Defending Your Life (1991), The Bridges of Madison County (1995), Marvin's Room (1996), Adaptation. (2002), The Devil Wears Prada (2007), Mamma Mia (2008), Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009), The Homesman (2014), Florence Foster Jenkins (2016), Little Women (2019), and Let Them All Talk (2020). Her television projects include the miniseries Holocaust (1978), the television film ...First Do No Harm (1997), the miniseries Angels in America (2003), and the drama series Big Little Lies (2019). Her notable stage roles include the Broadway theatre productions A Memory of Two Mondays, 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (both 1976) and The Cherry Orchard (1977), as well as multiple plays at the Delacorte Theater.\n\nStreep has been recognised by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) for the following performances:\n\n- 51st Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Supporting Role, nomination, for The Deer Hunter (1978)\n- 52nd Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Supporting Role, win, for Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)\n- 54th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981)\n- 55th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, win, for Sophie's Choice (1982)\n- 56th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Silkwood (1983)\n- 58th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Out of Africa (1985)\n- 60th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Ironweed (1987)\n- 61st Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for A Cry in the Dark (1988)\n- 63rd Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Postcards from the Edge (1990)\n- 68th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for The Bridges of Madison County (1995)\n- 71st Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for One True Thing (1998)\n- 72nd Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Music of the Heart (1999)\n- 75th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Supporting Role, nomination, for Adaptation. (2002)\n- 79th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for The Devil Wears Prada (2006)\n- 81st Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Doubt (2008)\n- 82nd Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Julie & Julia (2009)\n- 84th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, win, for The Iron Lady (2011)\n- 86th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for August: Osage County (2013)\n- 87th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Supporting Role, nomination, for Into the Woods (2014)\n- 89th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for Florence Foster Jenkins (2016)\n- 90th Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for The Post (2017)\n\nThese nominations make Streep the most Academy Award-nominated performer in history, with 21 in total (17 for Best Actress and four for Best Supporting Actress), as well as one of only 13 performers to win an Oscar in both acting categories and one of only three performers to win three Academy Awards across the two acting categories (with Ingrid Bergman and Jack Nicholson being the only others to achieve this feat).\n\nAlso the recipient of six Grammy Award nominations, five Primetime Emmy Award nominations (with three wins), and one Tony Award nomination; Streep is one of few performers to be nominated for the Triple Crown of Acting and EGOT. Her other accolades include two BAFTA Awards for Best Actress in a Leading Role (for The French Lieutenant's Woman and The Iron Lady), eight Golden Globe Awards (as well as the honorary Cecil B. DeMille Award) and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.\n\n## Discography\n\n- The Velveteen Rabbit (1984)\n- A Prairie Home Companion (2006)\n- Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack (2008)\n- Into the Woods (2014)\n- Florence Foster Jenkins (2016)\n- Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack (2018)\n- Mary Poppins Returns (2018)\n- The Prom (2020)\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Academy Award records\n- List of actors with Academy Award nominations\n- List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories\n- List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories\n- List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees\n- List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars\n- List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame\n- List of wax figures displayed at Madame Tussauds museums\n- List of Yale University people", "revid": "1172313279", "description": "American actress (born 1949)", "categories": ["1949 births", "20th-century American actresses", "21st-century American actresses", "AFI Life Achievement Award recipients", "Actresses from New Jersey", "American Shakespearean actresses", "American film actresses", "American musical theatre actresses", "American people of English descent", "American people of German descent", "American people of Irish descent", "American people of Swiss-German descent", "American stage actresses", "American television actresses", "American voice actresses", "American women television producers", "Audiobook narrators", "Bernards High School alumni", "Best Actress AACTA Award winners", "Best Actress AACTA International Award winners", "Best Actress Academy Award winners", "Best Actress BAFTA Award winners", "Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners", "Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actress Golden Globe winners", "Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners", "Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners", "Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners", "Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners", "Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners", "Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres", "César Honorary Award recipients", "Dartmouth College alumni", "David Geffen School of Drama at Yale University alumni", "David di Donatello winners", "Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Former Presbyterians", "Honorary Golden Bear recipients", "Kennedy Center honorees", "Living people", "Meryl Streep", "Musicians from Summit, New Jersey", "New Jersey Hall of Fame inductees", "Obie Award recipients", "Outstanding Narrator Primetime Emmy Award winners", "Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners", "Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners", "Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners", "People from Bernardsville, New Jersey", "People from Brentwood, Los Angeles", "People from Summit, New Jersey", "Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients", "Silver Bear for Best Actress winners", "Television producers from California", "Television producers from New Jersey", "Theatre World Award winners", "United States National Medal of Arts recipients", "Vassar College alumni"]}
{"id": "66299", "url": null, "title": "Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor", "text": "The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is an American single-seat, twin-engine, supersonic all-weather stealth fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). As a product of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program the aircraft was designed as an air superiority fighter, but also incorporates ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22's airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.\n\nThe aircraft first flew in 1997 and was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Although the USAF had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs, the program was cut to 187 production aircraft in 2009 due to high costs, a lack of air-to-air missions at the time of production, and the development of the more affordable and versatile F-35. The last F-22 was delivered in 2012.\n\nWhile it had a protracted development and initial operational difficulties, the F-22 has become a critical component of the USAF's tactical airpower. The fighter's combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and mission systems enabled a leap in air combat capabilities and set the benchmark for its generation.\n\n## Development\n\n### Origins\n\nIn 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. Code-named \"Senior Sky\", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by intelligence reports of emerging worldwide threats emanating from the Soviet Union, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems, the introduction of the Beriev A-50 \"Mainstay\" airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft, and the proliferation of the Sukhoi Su-27 \"Flanker\"- and Mikoyan MiG-29 \"Fulcrum\"-class of fighter aircraft. The ATF would have to perform offensive and defensive counter-air operations (OCA/DCA) in this highly contested environment; to do so, it would make an ambitious leap in performance by taking advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems and avionics, more powerful propulsion systems for supersonic cruise (or supercruise) over Mach 1.5, and most importantly, stealth technology.\n\nThe USAF initiated an ATF request for information (RFI) to the aerospace industry in May 1981 as well as a subsequent concept development team (CDT) to manage concept and technology development. In 1983, the CDT became the ATF System Program Office (SPO) and managed the program at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. Following a period of concept refinement and system requirements definition, the demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) was issued in September 1985, with requirements placing a strong emphasis on stealth and supercruise. The RFP would see some alterations after its first release; stealth requirements were drastically increased in December 1985, and the requirement for flying technology demonstrator prototypes was added in May 1986. Additionally, the U.S. Navy, under the Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program, eventually announced that it would use an ATF derivative to replace its F-14 Tomcat. Owing to the immense investments required to develop the technology needed to achieve performance requirements, teaming between companies was encouraged. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed, through its Skunk Works division, then teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas, and the two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23, respectively. Concurrently, Pratt & Whitney and General Electric were contracted to develop the propulsion systems for the ATF engine competition.\n\nDem/Val was focused on system engineering, technology development plans, and risk reduction over point aircraft designs; in fact, after the down-select, the Lockheed team completely redesigned the airframe configuration in the summer of 1987 due to weight analysis during detailed design, with notable changes including the wing planform from swept trapezoidal to diamond-like delta and a reduction in forebody planform area. Contractors made extensive use of analytical and empirical methods, including computational fluid dynamics, wind-tunnel testing, and radar cross-section (RCS) calculations and pole testing; the Lockheed team would conduct nearly 18,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing for Dem/Val. Avionics development was marked by extensive testing and prototyping and supported by ground and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used the results of performance and cost trade studies conducted by contractor teams to adjust ATF requirements and delete ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. As avionics was a major cost driver, side looking radars were deleted, and the dedicated infrared search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multicolor to single color and then deleted as well. Space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for the later addition of these components. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimate was increased from 50,000 to 60,000 lb (23,000 to 27,000 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 to 35,000 lbf (130 to 160 kN) class.\n\nEach team built two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each of the two engine options. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and in flight tests successfully demonstrated supercruise as well as the firing of air-to-air missiles from internal weapons bays. After the Dem/Val flight test of the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announced the Lockheed team and Pratt & Whitney as the winners of the ATF and engine competitions for full-scale development. The YF-23 design was considered stealthier and faster, while the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky. The press also speculated that the Lockheed team's design was also more adaptable to the Navy's NATF, but by fiscal year (FY) 1992, the Navy had abandoned NATF.\n\n### Full-scale development\n\nAs the program moved to full-scale development, or Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD), the production F-22 design evolved to have notable differences from the immature YF-22 demonstrator, despite having a similar configuration. The wing's leading edge sweep angle was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. The radome shape was changed for better radar performance and the wingtips were clipped for antennas. To improve pilot visibility and aerodynamics, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm) and the engine inlets moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the fuselage, wing, and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. The production airframe was designed with a service life of 8,000 hours. Increasing weight during EMD caused slight reductions in projected range and maneuver performance.\n\nAside from advances in air vehicle and propulsion technology, the F-22's avionics and software were unprecedented in terms of complexity and scale, with the fusion of multiple sensors systems and software integration of 1.7 million lines of code. To enable early looks and troubleshooting for mission software development, the software was flight-tested on a Boeing 757 modified with F-22 mission systems to serve as the Flying Test Bed avionics laboratory.\n\nThe end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 reduced the Department of Defense's (DoD) urgency for new weapon systems and the following years would see successive reductions in DoD spending; this resulted in the F-22's EMD being rescheduled and lengthened multiple times. The roughly equal division of work amongst the team largely carried through from Dem/Val to EMD, although prime contractor Lockheed acquired General Dynamics' fighter portfolio at Fort Worth, Texas in 1993 and thus had the majority of the airframe manufacturing; Lockheed would merge with Martin Marietta in 1995 to form Lockheed Martin. While Lockheed primarily performed Dem/Val work at its Skunk Works sites in Burbank and Palmdale, California, it would shift its program office and EMD work from Burbank to Marietta, Georgia, where it performed final assembly; program partner Boeing provided additional airframe components as well as avionics integration and training systems in Seattle, Washington. The first F-22, an EMD aircraft with tail number 4001, was unveiled at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta on 9 April 1997 and first flew on 7 September 1997.\n\nThe numerous new technologies needed for the F-22's ambitious performance requirements resulted in substantial cost overruns and delays; issues with meeting scheduled milestones were exacerbated by post-Cold War funding cuts in the 1990s. Furthermore, many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost. Following extensive tests and evaluations, EMD transitioned to full-rate production in March 2005 while Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RTD&E) activity continued for upgrades and modifications. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. Due to the aircraft's sophisticated capabilities, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.\n\n### Production and procurement\n\nThe USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of \\$44.3 billion and procurement cost of \\$26.2 billion in FY 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994 and service entry in the late 1990s. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996 and in service in the early-to-mid 2000s. After the end of the Cold War, this was further curtailed to 442 in the 1993 Bottom-Up Review while the USAF eventually set its requirement to 381 to adequately support its Air Expeditionary Force structure with last delivery in 2013. However, funding instability had reduced the total to 339 by 1997 and production was nearly halted by Congress in 1999. Although production funds were eventually restored, the planned number continued to decline due to delays and cost overruns during EMD, slipping to 277 by 2003. In 2004, with its focus on asymmetric counterinsurgency warfare in Iraq and Afghanistan, the DoD under Secretary Donald Rumsfeld further cut the planned F-22 procurement to 183 production aircraft, despite the USAF's requirement for 381. A multi-year procurement contract was awarded in 2006 to bring the number to 183, which would be distributed to seven combat squadrons; total program cost was projected to be \\$62 billion. In 2008, Congress passed a defense spending bill that raised the total orders for production aircraft to 187.\n\nF-22 production would support over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month, about half of the initially planned rate; after EMD aircraft contracts, the first production lot was awarded in September 2000. As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost was estimated to be about \\$67.3 billion (about \\$360 million for each production aircraft delivered), with \\$32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) and \\$34.9 billion on procurement and military construction (MILCON) in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at \\$138 million in 2009.\n\nIn total, 195 F-22s were built. The first two were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing and envelope expansion, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 74 Block 10/20 training aircraft and 112 Block 30/35 combat aircraft for a total of 186 (or 187 when accounting for production representative test vehicles); one of the Block 30 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Block 20 aircraft from Lot 3 onward were upgraded to Block 30 standards under the Common Configuration Plan, increasing the Block 30/35 fleet to 149 aircraft while 37 remain in the Block 20 configuration.\n\n### Ban on exports\n\nThe F-22 cannot be exported under US federal law to protect its stealth technology and classified features. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales. Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of F-22 export sales on the US aerospace industry.\n\nSome Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F-22s instead of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) soon determined that the F-22 was unable to perform the F-35's strike and close air support roles.\n\nThe Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. In 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 would require increases to the Japanese government's defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of its GDP. With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011. Israel also expressed interest, but eventually chose the F-35 because of the F-22's price and unavailability.\n\n### Production termination\n\nThroughout the 2000s when the Department of Defense was primarily fighting counterinsurgency wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the USAF's procurement goal of 381 F-22s was questioned over rising costs, initial reliability and availability problems, limited multirole versatility, and a lack of relevant adversaries for air combat missions. In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that \"the DoD has not demonstrated the need\" for more investment in the F-22, and further opposition was expressed by Bush Administration Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld and his successor Robert Gates, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) Senators John Warner and John McCain. Under Rumsfeld, procurement was severely cut to 183 aircraft. The F-22 lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. In November 2008, Gates stated that the F-22 lacked relevance in asymmetric post-Cold War conflicts, and in April 2009, under the Obama Administration, he called for production to end in FY 2011 after completing 187 F-22s.\n\nThe loss of staunch F-22 advocates in the upper DoD echelons resulted in the erosion of its political support. In July 2008, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the SASC his reasons for supporting the termination of F-22 production, including shifting resources to the multi-service F-35 and preserving the F/A-18 production line for the EA-18G Growler's electronic warfare capabilities. Although Russian and Chinese fighter developments fueled concern for the USAF, Gates dismissed this and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one, despite an effort by Moseley's successor General Norton Schwartz to raise the number of aircraft to 243. After President Barack Obama threatened to veto further production at Gates' urging, the Senate voted in July 2009 in favor of ending production and the House agreed to abide by the 187 cap. Gates highlighted the F-35's role in the decision, and in 2011, he explained that Chinese fighter developments had been accounted for when the F-22 numbers were set, and that the U.S. would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025 even with F-35 delays. In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test and 187 production aircraft built; the jet was delivered on 2 May 2012. The curtailed procurement would force the USAF to operate the F-15C/D into the 2020s in order to retain adequate numbers of air superiority fighters.\n\nAlthough production ended, F-22 tooling was retained for supporting repairs and maintenance as well as the possibility of a production restart or a Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). A RAND Corporation paper from a 2010 USAF study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost \\$17 billion, resulting in \\$227 million per aircraft, \\$54 million higher than the flyaway cost. At that time, Lockheed Martin stated that restarting the production line itself would cost about \\$200 million. Production tooling and associated documentation were subsequently stored at the Sierra Army Depot to support the fleet life cycle while its Marietta plant space was repurposed to support the C-130J and F-35; engineering work for sustainment and upgrades continued at Fort Worth, Texas and Palmdale, California.\n\nIn April 2016, the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee, citing advances in air warfare systems of Russia and China, directed the USAF to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22. On 9 June 2017, the USAF submitted their report to Congress stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to economic and logistical challenges; it estimated it would cost approximately \\$50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of \\$206–216 million per aircraft, including approximately \\$9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and \\$40.4 billion for aircraft procurement costs with the first delivery in the mid-to-late 2020s. The long time gap since the end of production meant hiring new workers and sourcing replacement vendors, contributing to the high start-up costs and lead times. The USAF believed that the funding would be better invested in its next-generation Air Superiority 2030 effort, which evolved into the Next Generation Air Dominance.\n\n### Continued developments and upgrades\n\nThe F-22 and its subsystems were designed to be upgraded over its life cycle in anticipation for technological advances and evolving threats. The modernization and upgrades consist of software and hardware modifications captured under numbered Increments, originally called Spirals, as well as software-only Operational Flight Program (OFP) Updates. Amid debates over the airplane's relevance in asymmetric counterinsurgency warfare, the first Increments and OFP Updates primarily focused on ground attack, or strike capabilities. Increment 2, the first upgrade program, was implemented in 2005 for Block 20 aircraft onward and enabled the employment of Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). The improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes, was certified in March 2007 and fitted on airframes from Lot 5 onward. Increment 3.1 and Updates 3 and 4 for Block 30/35 aircraft improved ground-attack capabilities through synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mapping and radio emitter direction finding, electronic attack and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) integration; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2011. To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012.\n\nIn contrast to prior upgrades, Increment 3.2 for Block 30/35 aircraft emphasized air combat capabilities and was a two-part process. 3.2A focused on electronic warfare, communications and identification, while 3.2B included geolocation improvements and full integration of the AIM-9X and AIM-120D; fleet releases began in 2013 and 2019, respectively. Concurrent with Increment 3.2, Update 5 in 2016 added Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System (AGCAS), datalink updates, and more. Update 6, deployed in tandem with 3.2B, incorporated cryptographic and avionics stability enhancements. Following 3.2B, an open mission system (OMS) processor module and architecture were added and an agile software development process was implemented to enable faster enhancements from additional vendors. The Multifunctional Information Distribution System-Joint Tactical Radio System (MIDS-JTRS) for Tactical Mandates, including Mode 5 IFF, and Link 16 traffic was installed starting in 2021, and the airplane can also use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a two-way communication gateway.\n\nAdditional modernization and enhancements are under development, with funding currently extending to 2031. Upgrades currently being tested include new sensors and antennas as well as reliability improvements such as more durable stealth coatings; the dedicated advanced IRST, originally deleted during Dem/Val, is one of the new sensors added. Other enhancements being developed include all-aspect IRST functionality for the Missile Launch Detector (MLD), manned-unmanned teaming capability with collaborative combat aircraft or \"loyal wingmen\", and cockpit improvements. To preserve the aircraft's stealth while enabling additional payload and fuel capacity, stealthy external carriage has been investigated since the mid-2000s, with a low drag, low-observable 600-gallon external tank and pylon currently under development. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation among USAF platforms. Although the Thales Scorpion helmet-mounted cuing system (HMCS) was successfully tested on the F-22 in 2013, funding cuts prevented its deployment. Lockheed Martin has proposed upgrading all Block 20 training aircraft to Block 30/35 in order to increase numbers available for combat. The F-22 has also been used to test technology for its eventual successor from the Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) program; some advances are expected to be applied to the F-22 as well.\n\nAside from capability upgrades, the F-22 fleet underwent a \\$350 million \"structures retrofit program\" to address improper titanium heat treatment in the parts of certain airframe batches. By January 2021, all aircraft had gone through the Structural Repair Program to ensure full lifetimes for all aircraft. In the long term, the F-22 is expected to eventually be succeeded by the NGAD's crewed fighter component.\n\n## Design\n\n### Overview\n\nThe F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation air superiority fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF. It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform to enable it to conduct missions, primarily counter-air operations, in highly contested environments.\n\nThe F-22's shape combines stealth and aerodynamic performance. Planform and panel edges are aligned and surfaces have continuous curvature to minimize its radar cross-section. Its clipped diamond-like delta wings are smoothly blended into the angular fuselage with four empennage surfaces and leading edge root extensions running to the upper outboard corner of the caret inlets; the inlet upper edges also meet the fuselage's forebody chines. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for speed brake function, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag. Owing to the focus on supersonic performance, extensive area-ruling is applied to the airplane's shape and nearly all of the fuselage volume lies ahead of the wing's trailing edge, with the stabilators pivoting from tail booms extending aft of the engine nozzles. Weapons are carried internally in the fuselage for stealth. The aircraft has a refueling boom receptacle centered on its spine and retractable tricycle landing gear as well as an emergency tailhook; fire suppression system and fuel tank inerting system are installed for survivability.\n\nThe aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees; the nozzles are fully integrated into the F-22's flight controls and vehicle management system. Each engine has maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. The caret inlets are offset from the forward fuselage to divert the boundary layer and generate oblique shocks with the upper inboard corners to ensure good total pressure recovery and efficient supersonic flow compression. Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 at military power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners. With 18,000 lb (8,165 kg) of internal fuel and an additional 8,000 lb (3,629 kg) in two 600-gallon external tanks, the jet has a ferry range of over 1,600 nmi (1,840 mi; 2,960 km).\n\nThe F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. The ability to supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using afterburners, allows it to intercept targets that afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of parasitic drag from external stores. The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m), thus providing 50% greater employment range for air-to-air missiles and twice the effective range for JDAMs than with prior platforms. Its structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and bismaleimide/epoxy composites comprise 42% and 24% of the structural weight.\n\nThe airplane's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope. Its large control surfaces, vortex-generating chines and LERX, and vectoring nozzles provide excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, and is capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra. The triplex-redundant fly-by-wire control system and full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling.\n\n### Stealth\n\nThe F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar, with radio waves reflected, scattered, or diffracted away from the emitter source towards specific sectors, or absorbed and attenuated. Measures to reduce RCS include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges and continuous curvature of surfaces, internal carriage of weapons, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio frequency emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye. The aircraft's flat thrust-vectoring nozzles reduce infrared emissions of the exhaust plume to mitigate the threat of infrared homing (\"heat seeking\") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight.\n\nCompared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. The F-22 incorporates a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair. While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the airplane has an RCS of 0.0001 m<sup>2</sup> or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a \"steel marble\"; the aircraft can mount a Luneburg lens reflector to mask its RCS. Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F-22's mission capable rate to 62–70%.\n\nThe effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar-absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. These are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision. Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging. According to the USAF an F-22 surprised an Iranian F-4 Phantom II that was attempting to intercept an American UAV, despite Iran's assertion of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf.\n\nBeginning in 2021, the F-22 has been seen testing a new chrome-like surface coating. This highly polished surface appears to change color based on the viewer's orientation to the aircraft. It is speculated that the new coating will help to reduce the F-22's detectability by IRST and other infrared tracking systems and missiles. This coating has also been seen on some F-35 and F-117 test aircraft.\n\n### Avionics\n\nThe aircraft has an integrated avionics system where through sensor fusion, data from all onboard sensor systems as well as off-board inputs are filtered and processed into a combined tactical picture, thus enhancing the pilot's situational awareness and reducing workload. Key mission systems include Sanders/General Electric AN/ALR-94 electronic warfare system, Martin Marietta AN/AAR-56 infrared and ultraviolet Missile Launch Detector (MLD), Westinghouse/Texas Instruments AN/APG-77 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, TRW Communication/Navigation/Identification (CNI) suite, and long range advanced IRST currently being tested. The F-22's baseline software has some 1.7 million lines of code, the majority involving the mission systems such as processing radar data. The integrated nature of the avionics, as well as the use of Ada, has made the development and testing of upgrades challenging. To enable more rapid upgrades, the avionics suite added an open mission systems (OMS) processor, as well as an open-source Kubernetes platform called the Open Systems Enclave (OSE) to enable the use of containerized software from third-party vendors.\n\nThe APG-77 radar has a low-observable, active-aperture, electronically scanned antenna with multiple target track-while-scan in all weather conditions; the antenna is tilted back for stealth. Its emissions can be focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic-attack capability. The radar changes frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125–150 mi (201–241 km) against an 11 sq ft (1 m<sup>2</sup>) target and 250 mi (400 km) or more in narrow beams. The upgraded APG-77(V)1 provides air-to-ground functionality through synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mapping, ground moving target indication/track (GMTI/GMTT), and strike modes. Alongside the radar is the ALR-94 electronic warfare system, among the most technically complex equipment on the F-22, that integrates more than 30 antennas blended into the wings and fuselage for all-round radar warning receiver (RWR) coverage and threat geolocation. It can be used as a passive detector capable of searching targets at ranges (250+ nmi) exceeding the radar's, and can provide enough information for a radar lock and cue emissions to a narrow beam (down to 2° by 2° in azimuth and elevation). Depending on the detected threat, the defensive systems can prompt the pilot to release countermeasures such as flares or chaff. The MLD uses six sensors to provide full spherical infrared coverage while the advanced IRST, housed in a stealthy wing pod, is a narrow field-of-view sensor for long-range passive identification and targeting. To ensure stealth in the radio frequency spectrum, CNI emissions are strictly controlled and confined to specific sectors, with tactical communication between F-22s performed using the directional Inter/Intra-Flight Data Link (IFDL); the integrated CNI system also manages TACAN, IFF (including Mode 5 through the MIDS-JTRS terminal), and communication through HAVE QUICK/SATURN and SINCGARS. Radar and CNI information are processed by two Hughes Common Integrated Processor (CIP)s, each capable of processing up to 10.5 billion instructions per second. The aircraft has also been upgraded to incorporate an automatic ground collision avoidance system (GCAS).\n\nThe F-22's ability to operate close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint, and the ability to function as a \"mini-AWACS\", though its radar is less powerful than those of dedicated platforms. This allows the F-22 to rapidly designate targets for allies and coordinate friendly aircraft. Data can be transferred to other aircraft through a BACN or via Link 16 through MIDS-JTRS. The IEEE 1394B bus developed for the F-22 was derived from the commercial IEEE 1394 \"FireWire\" bus system. In 2007, the F-22's radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver, transmitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at gigabit speed, far faster than the Link 16 system. The radio frequency receivers of the electronic support measures (ESM) system give the aircraft the ability to perform intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) tasks.\n\n### Cockpit\n\nThe F-22 has a glass cockpit with all-digital flight instruments. The monochrome head-up display offers a wide field of view and serves as a primary flight instrument; information is also displayed upon six color liquid-crystal display (LCD) panels. The primary flight controls are a force-sensitive side-stick controller and a pair of throttles. The USAF initially wanted to implement direct voice input (DVI) controls, but this was judged to be too technically risky and was abandoned. The canopy's dimensions are approximately 140 inches long, 45 inches wide, and 27 inches tall (355 cm × 115 cm × 69 cm) and weighs 360 pounds. The canopy was redesigned after the original design lasted an average of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours.\n\nThe F-22 has integrated radio functionality, the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than as a separate hardware module. The integrated control panel (ICP) is a keypad system for entering communications, navigation, and autopilot data. Two 3 in × 4 in (7.6 cm × 10.2 cm) up-front displays located around the ICP are used to display integrated caution advisory/warning (ICAW) data, CNI data and also serve as the stand-by flight instrumentation group and fuel quantity indicator for redundancy. The stand-by flight group displays an artificial horizon, for basic instrument meteorological conditions. The 8 in × 8 in (20 cm × 20 cm) primary multi-function display (PMFD) is located under the ICP, and is used for navigation and situation assessment. Three 6.25 in × 6.25 in (15.9 cm × 15.9 cm) secondary multi-function displays are located around the PMFD for tactical information and stores management.\n\nThe ejection seat is a version of the ACES II commonly used in USAF aircraft, with a center-mounted ejection control. The F-22 has a complex life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation system (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, and a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG) valve controlling flow and pressure to the pilot's mask and garments. The pilot garments were developed under the Advanced Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS) project and protect against chemical/biological hazards and cold-water immersion, counter g-forces and low pressure at high altitudes, and provide thermal relief. Following a series of hypoxia-related issues, the life support system was consequently revised to include an automatic backup oxygen system and a new flight vest valve. In combat environments, the ejection seat includes a modified M4 carbine designated the GAU-5/A.\n\n### Armament\n\nThe F-22 has three internal weapons bays: a large main bay on the bottom of the fuselage, and two smaller bays on the sides of the fuselage, aft of the engine inlets; a small bay for countermeasures such as flares is located behind each side bay. The main bay is split along the centerline and can accommodate six LAU-142/A launchers for beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles and each side bay has an LAU-141/A launcher for short-range missiles. The primary air-to-air missiles are the AIM-120 AMRAAM and the AIM-9 Sidewinder, with planned integration of the AIM-260 JATM. Missile launches require the bay doors to be open for less than a second, during which pneumatic or hydraulic arms push missiles clear of the aircraft; this is to reduce vulnerability to detection and to deploy missiles during high-speed flight. An internally mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon is embedded in the airplane's right wing root with the muzzle covered by a retractable door. The radar projection of the cannon fire's path is displayed on the pilot's head-up display.\n\nAlthough designed for air-to-air missiles, the main bay can replace four launchers with two bomb racks that can each carry one 1,000 lb (450 kg) or four 250 lb (110 kg) bombs for a total of 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of air-to-surface ordnance. While capable of carrying weapons with GPS guidance such as JDAMs and SDBs, the F-22 cannot self-designate laser-guided weapons.\n\nWhile the F-22 typically carries weapons internally, the wings include four hardpoints, each rated to handle 5,000 lb (2,300 kg). Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600-gallon (2,270 L) external fuel tank or a launcher holding two air-to-air missiles; the two inboard hardpoints are \"plumbed\" for external fuel tanks. The two outboard hardpoints have since been dedicated to a pair of stealthy pods housing the IRST and mission systems. The aircraft can jettison external tanks and their pylon attachments to restore its low observable characteristics and kinematic performance.\n\n### Maintenance\n\nEach airplane requires a three-week packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 flight hours. The stealth coatings of the F-22 were designed to be more robust and weather-resistant than those used in earlier stealth aircraft. However, early coatings failed against rain and moisture when F-22s were initially posted to Guam in 2009. The stealth system account for almost one third of maintenance, with coatings being particularly demanding; more durable coatings are being developed in order to reduce maintenance efforts. F-22 depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics Complex at Hill AFB, Utah, and considerable care is taken during maintenance due to the limited attrition reserve aircraft numbers of the small fleet size.\n\nF-22s were available for missions 63% of the time on average in 2015, up from 40% when the aircraft was introduced in 2005. Maintenance hours per flight hour was also improved from 30 early on to 10.5 by 2009, lower than the requirement of 12; man-hours per flight hour was 43 in 2014. When introduced, the F-22 had a Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM) of 1.7 hours, short of the required 3.0; this rose to 3.2 hours in 2012. By fiscal year 2015, the cost per flight hour was \\$59,116.\n\n## Operational history\n\n### Designation and testing\n\nThe YF-22 was originally given the unofficial name \"Lightning II\", from the World War II Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter which persisted until the mid-1990s, when the USAF officially named the F-22 \"Raptor\". The \"Lightning II\" name was later given to the F-35. The aircraft was also briefly dubbed \"SuperStar\" and \"Rapier\". In September 2002, USAF changed the Raptor's designation to F/A-22, mimicking the Navy's McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet and intended to highlight a planned ground-attack capability amid debate over the aircraft's role and relevance. The F-22 designation was reinstated in December 2005, when the aircraft entered service.\n\nThe F-22 flight test program consisted of flight sciences, developmental test (DT), and initial operational test and evaluation (IOT&E) by the 411th Flight Test Squadron at Edwards AFB, California, as well as follow-on OT&E and development of tactics and operational employment by the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron at Nellis AFB, Nevada. Flight testing began in 1997 with Raptor 4001, the first EMD F-22, and eight more EMD jets assigned to the 411th FLTS would participate in the test program under the Combined Test Force (CTF) at Edwards. The first two aircraft conducted envelope expansion testing such as flying qualities, air vehicle performance, propulsion, and stores separation. The third aircraft, the first to have production-level internal structure, tested flight loads, flutter, and JDAM separation, while two non-flying F-22s were built for testing static loads and fatigue. Subsequent EMD aircraft and the Boeing 757 FTB tested avionics, CNI, environmental qualifications, and observables, with the first combat-capable Block 3.0 software flying in 2001. Raptor 4001 was retired from flight testing in 2000 and subsequently sent to Wright-Patterson AFB for survivability testing, including live fire testing and battle damage repair training. Other retired EMD F-22s have been used as maintenance trainers.\n\nThe F-22's numerous technological leaps required extensive testing that would result in repeated delays. While the first production aircraft was delivered to Edwards in October 2002 for IOT&E and the first aircraft for the 422nd TES at Nellis arrived in January 2003, IOT&E was pushed back from its planned start in mid-2003, with avionics stability being particularly challenging. Following a preliminary assessment, called OT&E Phase 1, formal IOT&E began in April 2004 and was completed in December of that year. This marked the successful demonstration of the jet's air-to-air mission capability, although it was also more maintenance intensive than expected. A Follow-On OT&E (FOT&E) in 2005 cleared the F-22's air-to-ground mission capability. Delivery of operational aircraft for pilot training at Tyndall AFB, Florida began in September 2003, and the first combat ready F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing arrived at Langley AFB, Virginia in January 2005. As the F-22 was designed for upgrades throughout its lifecycle, the 411th FLTS and 422nd TES would continue the DT/OT&E and tactics development of these upgrades. The 411th FLTS' fleet was further augmented by a dedicated Block 30 test aircraft in 2010.\n\nIn August 2008, an unmodified F-22 of the 411th FLTS performed the first ever air-to-air refueling of an aircraft using synthetic jet fuel as part of a wider USAF effort to qualify aircraft to use the fuel, a 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a Fischer–Tropsch process-produced, natural gas-based fuel. In 2011, an F-22 flew supersonic on a 50% mixture of biofuel derived from camelina.\n\n### Training\n\nThe 43rd Fighter Squadron was reactivated in 2002 as the F-22 Formal Training Unit (FTU) for the type's basic course at Tyndall AFB. Following severe damage to the installation in the wake of Hurricane Michael in 2018, the squadron and its aircraft were relocated to nearby Eglin AFB; the storm had also damaged several F-22s, which were later repaired. The FTU and its aircraft were reassigned to the 71st Fighter Squadron at Langley AFB in 2023. To reduce operating costs and prolong the F-22's service life, some pilot training sorties are performed using flight simulators, while the T-38 Talon is used for adversary training. The advanced F-22 weapons instructor course at USAF Weapons School is conducted by the 433rd Weapons Squadron at Nellis AFB.\n\n### Introduction into service\n\nIn December 2005, the USAF announced that the F-22 had achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) with the 94th Fighter Squadron. The unit subsequently participated in Exercise Northern Edge in Alaska in June 2006 and Exercise Red Flag 07–1 at Nellis AFB in February 2007, where it demonstrated the F-22's greatly increased air combat capabilities when flying against Red Force Aggressor F-15s and F-16s and also refined operational tactics and employment.\n\nThe F-22 achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) in December 2007, when General John Corley of Air Combat Command (ACC) officially declared the F-22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully operational. This was followed by an Operational Readiness Inspection (ORI) of the integrated wing in April 2008, in which it was rated \"excellent\" in all categories, with a simulated kill-ratio of 221–0.\n\n### Initial operational problems\n\nDuring the initial years of service, F-22 pilots experienced symptoms as a result of oxygen system issues that include loss of consciousness, memory loss, emotional lability and neurological changes as well as lingering respiratory problems and a chronic cough; the issues resulted in a four-month grounding in 2011. In August 2012, the DoD found that the BRAG valve, used to inflate the pilot's vest during high-g maneuvers, was defective and restricted breathing and the OBOGS (onboard oxygen generation system) unexpectedly reduced oxygen levels during high-g maneuvers. The Raptor Aeromedical Working Group had recommended several changes in 2005 regarding oxygen supply issues that were initially unfunded but received further consideration in 2012. The F-22 CTF and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron eventually determined that breathing restrictions were the root cause. The coughing symptoms were attributed to acceleration atelectasis from high g exposure and the OBOGS delivering excessive oxygen concentration at low altitudes. The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed to be unrelated. Modifications to the life-support equipment and oxygen system allowed the distance and altitude flight restrictions to be lifted on 4 April 2013.\n\n### Operational service\n\nFollowing IOC and large-scale exercises, the F-22 flew its first homeland defense mission in January 2007. In November 2007, F-22s of 90th Fighter Squadron at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, performed their first North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) interception of two Russian Tu-95MS bombers. Since then, F-22s have also escorted probing Tu-160 bombers.\n\nThe F-22 was first deployed overseas in February 2007 with the 27th Fighter Squadron to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan. This first overseas deployment was initially marred by problems when six F-22s flying from Hickam AFB, Hawaii, experienced multiple software-related system failures while crossing the International Date Line (180th meridian of longitude). The aircraft returned to Hawaii by following tanker aircraft. Within 48 hours, the error was resolved and the journey resumed. Kadena would be a frequent rotation for F-22 units; they have also been involved in training exercises in South Korea and Malaysia.\n\nDefense Secretary Gates initially refused to deploy F-22s to the Middle East in 2007; the type made its first deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE in 2009. In April 2012, F-22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra, less than 200 miles from Iran. In March 2013, the USAF announced that an F-22 had intercepted an Iranian F-4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an MQ-1 Predator flying off the Iranian coastline.\n\nOn 22 September 2014, F-22s performed the type's first combat sorties by conducting some of the opening strikes of Operation Inherent Resolve, the American-led intervention in Syria; aircraft dropped 1,000-pound GPS-guided bombs on Islamic State targets near Tishrin Dam. Between September 2014 and July 2015, F-22s flew 204 sorties over Syria, dropping 270 bombs at some 60 locations. Throughout their deployment, F-22s conducted close air support (CAS) and also deterred Syrian, Iranian, and Russian aircraft from attacking U.S.-backed Kurdish forces and disrupting U.S. operations in the region. F-22s also participated in the U.S. strikes that defeated pro-government and Russian Wagner Group paramilitary forces near Khasham in eastern Syria on 7 February 2018. These strikes notwithstanding, the F-22's main role in the operation was conducting intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance.\n\nIn late 2014, the USAF tested a rapid deployment concept involving four F-22s and one C-17 for support, first proposed in 2008 by two F-22 pilots. The goal was for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat within 24 hours. Four F-22s were deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany in August, Łask Air Base in Poland, and Ämari Air Base in Estonia in September 2015, to train with NATO allies.\n\nIn November 2017, F-22s operating alongside B-52s bombed opium production and storage facilities in Taliban-controlled regions of Afghanistan. In 2019, the F-22 cost US\\$35,000 per flight hour to operate.\n\nOn 4 February 2023, an F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing shot down an alleged Chinese spy balloon within visual range off the coast of South Carolina at an altitude of 60,000 to 65,000 ft. The wreckage landed approximately 6 miles offshore and was subsequently secured by ships of the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard. F-22s shot down additional high-altitude objects near the coast of Alaska on 10 February and over Yukon on 11 February.\n\n## Variants\n\nYF-22A\nPre-production technology demonstrator for Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) demonstration/validation phase; two were built.\n\nF-22A\nSingle-seat version, was designated F/A-22A in early 2000s; 195 built, consisting of 8 test and 187 production aircraft.\n\nF-22B\nPlanned two-seat version, cancelled in 1996 to save development costs with test aircraft orders converted to F-22A.\n\nNaval F-22 variant\nPlanned carrier-borne variant of the F-22 with variable-sweep wings for the U.S. Navy's Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program to replace the F-14 Tomcat. Program was cancelled in 1991.\n\n### Proposed derivatives\n\nThe FB-22 was a proposed medium-range supersonic stealth bomber for the USAF. The design was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of the F-22A. The FB-22 proposals were cancelled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of a larger subsonic bomber with a much greater range.\n\nThe X-44 MANTA, or multi-axis, no-tail aircraft, was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic surface backup. The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this program was halted in 2000.\n\nIn August 2018, Lockheed Martin proposed an F-22 derivative to the USAF and JASDF that would combine an improved and modified F-22 airframe with the avionics and improved stealth coatings of the F-35. The proposal was not considered by the USAF or JASDF due to cost as well as existing export restrictions.\n\n## Operators\n\nThe United States Air Force is the only operator of the F-22. As of August 2022, it has 183 aircraft in its inventory.\n\n### Air Combat Command\n\n- 1st Fighter Wing - Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia\n  - 27th Fighter Squadron\n  - 71st Fighter Squadron (Formal Training Unit)\n  - 94th Fighter Squadron\n- 49th Wing - Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico\n  - 7th Fighter Squadron\n  - 8th Fighter Squadron\n- 53d Wing - Eglin Air Force Base, Florida\n  - 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron\n- 57th Wing - Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada\n  - 433d Weapons Squadron\n- 325th Fighter Wing - Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida\n  - 43d Fighter Squadron - Eglin Air Force Base, Florida\n  - 95th Fighter Squadron\n\n### Pacific Air Forces\n\n- 3rd Wing - Joint Base Elmendorf–Richardson, Alaska\n  - 90th Fighter Squadron\n  - 525th Fighter Squadron\n- 15th Wing - Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii\n  - 19th Fighter Squadron (active associate unit)\n\n### Air National Guard\n\n- 154th Wing - Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii\n  - 199th Fighter Squadron\n- 192d Fighter Wing - Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia\n  - 149th Fighter Squadron (associate unit)\n\n### Air Force Reserve Command\n\n- 477th Fighter Group – Joint Base Elmendorf–Richardson, Alaska\n  - 302d Fighter Squadron (associate unit)i\n\n### Air Force Material Command\n\n- 412th Test Wing - Edwards Air Force Base, California\n  - 411th Flight Test Squadron\n\n## Accidents\n\nThe first F-22 crash occurred during takeoff at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot ejected safely before impact. The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a flight-control system malfunction; consequently the aircraft design was corrected to avoid the problem. Following a brief grounding, F-22 operations resumed after a review.\n\nOn 25 March 2009, an EMD F-22 crashed 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Edwards AFB during a test flight, resulting in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P. Cooley. An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high-G maneuver, or g-LOC, then ejected when he found himself too low to recover. Cooley was killed during ejection by blunt-force trauma from windblast due to the aircraft's speed. The investigation found no design issues.\n\nOn 16 November 2010, an F-22 from Elmendorf AFB crashed, killing the pilot, Captain Jeffrey Haney. F-22s were restricted to flying below 25,000 feet, then grounded during the investigation. The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected, shutting down the Environmental Control System (ECS) and OBOGS. The accident review board ruled Haney was to blame, as he did not react properly to engage the emergency oxygen system. Haney's widow sued Lockheed Martin, claiming equipment defects, and later reached a settlement. After the ruling, the emergency oxygen system engagement handle was redesigned; the system was eventually replaced by an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS). On 11 February 2013, the DoD's Inspector General released a report stating that the USAF had erred in blaming Haney, and that facts did not sufficiently support conclusions; the USAF stated that it stood by the ruling.\n\nDuring a training mission, an F-22 crashed to the east of Tyndall AFB, on 15 November 2012. The pilot ejected safely and no injuries were reported on the ground. The investigation determined that a \"chafed\" electrical wire ignited the fluid in a hydraulic line, causing a fire that damaged the flight controls.\n\nOn 15 May 2020, an F-22 from Eglin Air Force Base crashed during a routine training mission shortly after takeoff; the pilot ejected safely. The cause of the crash was attributed to a maintenance error after an aircraft wash resulting in faulty air data sensor readings.\n\n## Aircraft on display\n\n- 91-4002 – Hill Air Force Base Aerospace Museum in Ogden, Utah\n- 91-4003 – National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio\n\n## Specifications (F-22A)\n\n## See also", "revid": "1173826279", "description": "American air superiority fighter by Lockheed Martin", "categories": ["1990s United States fighter aircraft", "Aircraft first flown in 1997", "Articles containing video clips", "Lockheed Martin aircraft", "Mid-wing aircraft", "Stealth aircraft", "Twinjets", "Two dimension thrust vectoring aircraft"]}
{"id": "38995590", "url": null, "title": "Demographic history of Scotland", "text": "The demographic history of Scotland includes all aspects of population history in what is now Scotland. Scotland may have been first occupied in the last interglacial period (130,000–70,000 BC), but the earliest surviving archaeological evidence of human settlement is of Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments. These suggest a highly mobile boat-using people, probably with a very low density of population. Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements dating from 3500 BC, and greater concentrations of population. Evidence of hillforts and other buildings suggest a growing settled population. Changes in the scale of woodland indicates that the Roman invasions from the first century AD had a negative impact on the native population.\n\nThere are almost no written sources from which to reconstruct the demography of early medieval Scotland. This was probably a high fertility, high mortality society, similar to developing countries in the modern world. The population may have grown from half a million to a million by the mid-fourteenth century when the Black Death reached the country. It may then have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century. Roughly half lived north of the River Tay and perhaps 10 per cent in the burghs that grew up in the later medieval period. Inflation in prices, indicating greater demand, suggests that the population continued to grow until the late sixteenth century, when it probably levelled off. It began to grow again in the relative stability of the late seventeenth century. The earliest reliable evidence suggests a population of 1.2 million in 1681. This was probably reduced by the \"seven ill years\" of the 1690s, which caused severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north. The first national census was conducted in 1755, and showed the population of Scotland as 1,265,380. By then four towns had populations of over 10,000, with the capital, Edinburgh, the largest with 57,000 inhabitants.\n\nOverall the population of Scotland grew rapidly in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Whilst the Lowland Clearances caused depopulation in the affected areas, only local net population reductions occurred in the Highlands during the Highland Clearances. By 1801, Scotland's population had reached 1,608,420 and it grew to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901. By the beginning of the twentieth century, one in three lived in the four cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen. Glasgow emerged as the largest city, with a population of 762,000 by 1901, making it \"the Second City of the Empire\". Despite industrial expansion there were insufficient jobs and between the mid-nineteenth century and the Great Depression about two million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 to England. The Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population but they provided 15 per cent of the national armed forces, and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead in World War I (1914–18). With the end of mass migration, the population reached a peak of 5,240,800 in 1974. Thereafter it began to fall slowly, moving down to 5,062,940 in 2000. There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of policies of slum clearance, overspill and relocation to new towns, with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629,000 in 2001. Rural areas also saw a loss of population, particularly in the Highlands and Hebrides.\n\n## Prehistoric and Roman eras\n\nAt times during the last interglacial period (130,000– 70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to what is now Scotland, though archaeologists have found no traces of this. Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BC. Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated a site near Biggar to around 8500 BC. Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers, probably with a very low density of population.\n\nNeolithic farming brought permanent settlements, such as the stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray dating from 3500 BC, and greater concentrations of population. Although the Roman geographer Ptolemy indicated that there were 19 \"towns\" in Caledonia, north of the Roman province of Britannia, no clear evidence of urban settlements has been found and these were probably hillforts. There is evidence of over 1,000 such forts, most south of the Clyde-Forth line, but the majority seem to have been abandoned in the Roman period. There is also evidence of distinctive stone wheelhouses (a type of roundhouse, with a circle of stone piers resembling the spokes of a wheel) and over 400 small underground souterrains (underground galleries that may have been used to store food). Extensive analyses of Black Loch in Fife indicate that arable land spread at the expense of forest from about 2000 BCuntil the time of the Roman advance into lowland Scotland in the first century AD, suggesting an expanding settled population. Thereafter, there was regrowth of birch, oak and hazel for some 500 years, suggesting that the Roman invasions had a negative impact on the native population.\n\n## Middle Ages\n\nThere are almost no written sources from which to reconstruct the demography of early medieval Scotland. Estimates have been made of a population of 10,000 in Dál Riata and 80–100,000 for Pictland, which was probably the largest region. It is likely that the fifth and sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague, which may have reduced the population. The examination of burial sites for this period, such as that at Hallowhill, St Andrews, indicates a life expectancy of only 26 to 29. The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility, high mortality society, similar to developing countries in the modern world, with a relatively young demographic profile, and perhaps early childbearing, and large numbers of children born to each woman (although with high child mortality). This would have meant a relatively low ratio of available workers to the number of mouths to feed, which in turn would have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and the development of more complex societies.\n\nFrom the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the tenth century, to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349, estimates based on the amount of farmable land suggest that the population may have grown from half a million to a million. Growth was probably punctuated by occasional crises, like the famines recorded in chronicles for 1154 and 1256. More significant was a series of poor harvests that affected Scotland and most of Europe in the early fourteenth century and widespread famines in 1315–16 and in the later 1330s.\n\nAlthough there is no reliable documentation of the demographic impact of the Black Death in Scotland, there are some indications of the immediate effects of the plague. Walter Bower recorded that 24, about a third, of the canons of St. Andrews died during the outbreak. There are also anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades. If the pattern followed that in England, then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century. Compared with the distribution of population after the later Clearances and the Industrial Revolution, these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom, with roughly half living north of the River Tay.\n\n## Early modern era\n\nPrice inflation, which generally reflects growing demand for food, suggests that the population was probably still expanding in the first half of the sixteenth century. Almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century saw local or national scarcity, necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic. Distress was exacerbated by outbreaks of plague, with major epidemics in the periods 1584-8, 1595 and 1597–1609. The population expansion probably levelled off after the famine of the 1590s, as prices were relatively stable in the early seventeenth century. Famine was common, with four periods of famine prices between 1620 and 1625. The invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy, with the destruction of crops and the disruption of markets resulting in some of the most rapid price rises of the century, but population probably expanded in the Lowlands in the period of stability that followed the Restoration in 1660. There is evidence that there was a different demographic regime operating in the Highlands, where growth probably continued from the early seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century.\n\nEstimates based on hearth tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of around 1.2 million. The population may have been seriously affected by the failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698-9) known as the \"seven ill years\". The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north. Starvation probably killed 5 to 15 per cent of the Scottish population, but in areas like Aberdeenshire death rates reached 25 per cent. The famines of the 1690s were seen as particularly severe, partly because famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century, with only one year of dearth (in 1674), and the shortages of the 1690s were the last of their kind. Between 1650 and 1700 approximately 7,000 Scots migrated to America, 10–20,000 to Europe and England and 60–100,000 to Ireland. The first reliable figure for the national population is from the census conducted by the Reverend Alexander Webster in 1755, which showed the inhabitants of Scotland as 1,265,380 persons.\n\nUnlike in England, where the nucleated village existed relatively early, most of the early modern population of Scotland, in both the Lowlands and Highlands, was housed in small clachans or townships and isolated dwellings. These were unstructured groups of houses, often belonging to between four and six tenants, who were often engaged in common agriculture. As the population expanded, some of these settlements were subdivided to create new clachans and more marginal land was settled, with sheilings (clusters of huts occupied while summer pasture was being used for grazing) becoming permanent settlements.\n\nPerhaps 10 per cent of the population lived in the burghs that had grown up in the later medieval period, mainly in the east and south of the country. They perhaps had an average population of 2,000, but many were much smaller than 1,000, and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a population of over 10,000 at the beginning of the period. Edinburgh doubled in size in the century after 1540, particularly after the plague of 1580, with most of its population probably coming from a growing reservoir in the surrounding countryside. It also expanded beyond the city walls in suburbs at Cowgate, Bristo and Westport and by 1750, with its suburbs, it had reached a population of 57,000. The only other towns above 10,000 by the end of the period were Glasgow with 32,000, Aberdeen with around 16,000 and Dundee with 12,000. By 1600 Scotland had a higher proportion of its population living in larger towns than contemporaneous Scandinavia, Switzerland and most of Eastern Europe: by 1750 in Europe, only Italy, the Low Countries and England were more urbanised than Scotland.\n\n## Modern era\n\nThe agricultural revolution changed the traditional system of agriculture which had existed in Lowland Scotland. Thousands of cottars and tenant farmers migrated from farms and smallholdings to the new industrial centres of Glasgow, Edinburgh and northern England. Particularly after the end of the boom created by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1790–1815), Highland landlords needed cash to maintain their position in London society. Whereas rents had often been paid in kind, the landlords turned to money rents. They evicted the farmers who had occupied run rig arable land and shared grazing. Their holdings were let to large scale sheep farmers, who could afford substantially higher rents. The eviction of tenants went against dùthchas, the principle that clan members had an inalienable right to rent land in the clan territory. Particularly in the north and west Highlands, estates offered alternative accommodation in newly established crofting communities, with the intention that the resettled tenants worked in fishing or the kelp industry. These evictions were the first phase of the Highland Clearances. The total population of the Highlands continued to rise throughout the clearances. The result was a continuous exodus from the land—to the cities, and further afield to England, Canada, America and Australia. The Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s, caused by potato blight, which devastated the population of Ireland, reached the Highlands in 1846. The overcrowded crofting communities were highly dependent on the potato. Although 150,000 people faced disaster, they were rescued by an effective emergency relief system that stands in dramatic contrast to the failures of relief in Ireland and prevented a major demographic crisis.\n\nBy the time of the first decadal census in 1801, the population was 1,608,420. It grew steadily in the nineteenth century, to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901. While population fell in some rural areas, it rose rapidly in the towns. Aberdeen, Dundee and Glasgow grew by a third or more between 1755 and 1775 and the textile town of Paisley more than doubled its population. Because of the industrial revolution, Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800. In 1800, 17 per cent of people in Scotland lived in towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants. By 1850 it was 32 per cent and by 1900 it was 50 per cent. By 1900 one in three of the entire population were in the four cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen. Glasgow emerged as the largest city. Its population in 1780 was 43,000, reaching 147,000 by 1820; by 1901 it had grown to 762,000. This was due to a high birth rate and immigration from the countryside and particularly from Ireland; but from the 1870s there was a fall in the birth rate and lower rates of migration and much of the growth was due to longer life expectancy. Glasgow was now one of the largest cities in the world, and it became known as \"the Second City of the Empire\" after London.\n\nMortality rates were high compared with England and other European nations. Evidence suggests a national death rate of 30 per 1,000 in 1755, 24 in the 1790s and 22 in the early 1860s. Mortality tended to be much higher in urban than rural settlements. The first time these were measured, 1861–82, in the four major cities these were 28.1 per 1,000 and 17.9 in rural areas. Mortality probably peaked in Glasgow in the 1840s, when large inflows of population from the Highlands and Ireland combined population outgrowing sanitary provision and combining with outbreaks of epidemic disease. National rates began to fall in the 1870s, particularly in the cities, as environmental conditions improved. By 1930–32 the national rate was 13.4 per 1,000, with a rate of 14.1 and in rural areas 12.8.\n\nEven with the growth of industry there were not enough good jobs: as a result, from 1841 to 1931, about two million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 Scots relocated to England. With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the First World War, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded. Thus, although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 8.3% of the UK's 887,858 dead from all causes. While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War, it continued apace in Scotland, with 400,000 Scots, 10 per cent of the population, estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931. When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s there were no easily available jobs in the US and Canada, and emigration fell to less than 50,000 a year, bringing to an end the period of mass migrations that had opened in the mid-eighteenth century. This contributed to the growth of the population, which reached a peak of 5,240,800 in 1974. Thereafter it began to fall slowly, moving down to 5,062,940 in 2000. There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of slum clearance, overspill and relocation to new towns, with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629,000 in 2001. Rural areas also saw a loss of population, particularly the Highlands and Hebrides. In the early part of the twenty-first century Scotland saw a rise in its population to 5,313,600 (its highest ever recorded) at the 2011 census.\n\n## See also\n\n- Demographic history, global perspective\n- Demography of Scotland", "revid": "1127473093", "description": null, "categories": ["Demographic history of the United Kingdom", "History of Scotland by topic"]}
{"id": "9736", "url": null, "title": "Empire State Building", "text": "The Empire State Building is a 102-story Art Deco skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The building was designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and built from 1930 to 1931. Its name is derived from \"Empire State\", the nickname of the state of New York. The building has a roof height of 1,250 feet (380 m) and stands a total of 1,454 feet (443.2 m) tall, including its antenna. The Empire State Building was the world's tallest building until the first tower of the World Trade Center was topped out in 1970; following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was New York City's tallest building until it was surpassed in 2012 by One World Trade Center. As of 2022, the building is the seventh-tallest building in New York City, the ninth-tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, the 54th-tallest in the world, and the sixth-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas.\n\nThe site of the Empire State Building, in Midtown South on the west side of Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets, was developed in 1893 as the Waldorf–Astoria Hotel. In 1929, Empire State Inc. acquired the site and devised plans for a skyscraper there. The design for the Empire State Building was changed fifteen times until it was ensured to be the world's tallest building. Construction started on March 17, 1930, and the building opened thirteen and a half months afterward on May 1, 1931. Despite favorable publicity related to the building's construction, because of the Great Depression and World War II, its owners did not make a profit until the early 1950s.\n\nThe building's Art Deco architecture, height, and observation decks have made it a popular attraction. Around four million tourists from around the world annually visit the building's 86th- and 102nd-floor observatories; an additional indoor observatory on the 80th floor opened in 2019. The Empire State Building is an international cultural icon: it has been featured in more than 250 television series and films since the film King Kong was released in 1933. The building's size has become the global standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures. A symbol of New York City, the building has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It was ranked first on the American Institute of Architects' List of America's Favorite Architecture in 2007. Additionally, the Empire State Building and its ground-floor interior were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1980, and were added to the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark in 1986.\n\n## Site\n\nThe Empire State Building is located on the west side of Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, between 33rd Street to the south and 34th Street to the north. Tenants enter the building through the Art Deco lobby located at 350 Fifth Avenue. Visitors to the observatories use an entrance at 20 West 34th Street; prior to August 2018, visitors entered through the Fifth Avenue lobby. Although physically located in South Midtown, a mixed residential and commercial area, the building is so large that it was assigned its own ZIP Code, 10118; as of 2012, it is one of 43 buildings in New York City that have their own ZIP codes.\n\nThe areas surrounding the Empire State Building are home to other major points of interest, including Macy's at Herald Square on Sixth Avenue and 34th Street, and Koreatown on 32nd Street between Madison and Sixth Avenues. To the east of the Empire State Building is Murray Hill, a neighborhood with a mix of residential, commercial, and entertainment activity. The block directly to the northeast contains the B. Altman and Company Building, which houses the City University of New York's Graduate Center, while the Demarest Building is directly across Fifth Avenue to the east. The nearest New York City Subway stations are 34th Street–Herald Square, one block west, and 33rd Street at Park Avenue, two blocks east; there is also a PATH station at 33rd Street and Sixth Avenue.\n\n## Architecture\n\nThe Empire State Building was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the Art Deco style. The Empire State Building is 1,250 ft (381 m) tall to its 102nd floor, or 1,453 feet 8+9⁄16 inches (443.092 m) including its 203-foot (61.9 m) pinnacle. It was the first building in the world to be more than 100 stories tall, though only the lowest 86 stories are usable. The first through 85th floors contain 2.158 million square feet (200,500 m<sup>2</sup>) of commercial and office space, while the 86th story contains an observatory. The remaining 16 stories are part of the spire, which is capped by an observatory on the 102nd floor; the spire does not contain any intermediate levels and is used mostly for mechanical purposes. Atop the 102nd story is the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, and surmounted with a lightning rod.\n\n### Form\n\nThe Empire State Building has a symmetrical massing because of its large lot and relatively short base. Its articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and capital. The five-story base occupies the entire lot, while the 81-story shaft above it is set back sharply from the base. The setback above the 5th story is 60 feet (18 m) deep on all sides. There are smaller setbacks on the upper stories, allowing sunlight to illuminate the interiors of the top floors while also positioning these floors away from the noisy streets below. The setbacks are located at the 21st, 25th, 30th, 72nd, 81st, and 85th stories. The setbacks correspond to the tops of elevator shafts, allowing interior spaces to be at most 28 feet (8.5 m) deep (see ).\n\nThe setbacks were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution, which was intended to allow sunlight to reach the streets as well. Normally, a building of the Empire State's dimensions would be permitted to build up to 12 stories on the Fifth Avenue side, and up to 17 stories on the 33rd/34th Streets side, before it would have to utilize setbacks. However, with the largest setback being located above the base, the tower stories could contain a uniform shape. According to architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern, the building's form contrasted with the nearly contemporary, similarly designed 500 Fifth Avenue eight blocks north, which had an asymmetrical massing on a smaller lot.\n\n### Facade\n\nThe Empire State Building's Art Deco design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York City. The facade is clad in Indiana limestone panels sourced from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana, which give the building its signature blonde color. According to official fact sheets, the facade uses 200,000 cubic feet (5,700 m<sup>3</sup>) of limestone and granite, ten million bricks, and 730 short tons (650 long tons) of aluminum and stainless steel. The building also contains 6,514 windows. The decorative features on the facade are largely geometric, in contrast with earlier buildings, whose decorations often were intended to represent a specific narrative.\n\nThe main entrance, composed of three sets of metal doors, is at the center of the facade's Fifth Avenue elevation, flanked by molded piers that are topped with eagles. Above the main entrance is a transom, a triple-height transom window with geometric patterns, and the golden letters \"Empire State\" above the fifth-floor windows. There are two entrances each on 33rd and 34th Streets, with modernistic, stainless steel canopies projecting from the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets there. Above the secondary entrances are triple windows, less elaborate in design than those on Fifth Avenue.\n\nThe storefronts on the first floor contain aluminum-framed doors and windows within a black granite cladding. The second through fourth stories consist of windows alternating with wide stone piers and narrower stone mullions. The fifth story contains windows alternating with wide and narrow mullions, and is topped by a horizontal stone sill.\n\nThe facade of the tower stories is split into several vertical bays on each side, with windows projecting slightly from the limestone cladding. The bays are arranged into sets of one, two, or three windows on each floor. The bays are separated by alternating narrow and wide piers, the inclusion of which may have been influenced by the design of the contemporary Daily News Building. The windows in each bay are separated by vertical nickel-chrome steel mullions and connected by horizontal aluminum spandrels between each floor. The windows are placed within stainless-steel frames, which saved money by eliminating the need to apply a stone finish around the windows. In addition, the use of aluminum spandrels obviated the need for cross-bonding, which would have been required if stone had been used instead.\n\n### Lights\n\nThe building was originally equipped with white searchlights at the top. They were first used in November 1932 when they lit up to signal Roosevelt's victory over Hoover in the presidential election of that year. These were later swapped for four \"Freedom Lights\" in 1956. In February 1964, flood lights were added on the 72nd floor to illuminate the top of the building at night so that the building could be seen from the World Fair later that year. The lights were shut off from November 1973 to July 1974 because of the energy crisis at the time. In 1976, the businessman Douglas Leigh suggested that Wien and Helmsley install 204 metal-halide lights, which were four times as bright as the 1,000 incandescent lights they were to replace. New red, white, and blue metal-halide lights were installed in time for the country's bicentennial that July. After the bicentennial, Helmsley retained the new lights due to the reduced maintenance cost, about \\$116 a year.\n\nSince October 12, 1977, the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal events and holidays. Organizations are allowed to make requests through the building's website. The building is also lit in the colors of New York-based sports teams on nights when they host games: for example, orange, blue, and white for the New York Knicks; red, white, and blue for the New York Rangers. The spire can also be lit to commemorate events including disasters, anniversaries, or deaths, as well as for celebrations such as Pride and Halloween. In 1998, the building was lit in blue after the death of singer Frank Sinatra, who was nicknamed \"Ol' Blue Eyes\".\n\nThe structure was lit in red, white, and blue for several months after the collapse of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of NBC program The Today Show. After retired basketball player Kobe Bryant's January 2020 death, the building was lit in purple and gold, signifying the colors of his former team, the Los Angeles Lakers.\n\nIn 2012, the building's four hundred metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with 1,200 LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. The computer-controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. For instance, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard during the 2012 United States presidential election, using red and blue lights to represent Republican and Democratic electoral votes respectively. Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys. Artists such as Eminem and OneRepublic have been featured in later shows, including the building's annual Holiday Music-to-Lights Show. The building's owners adhere to strict standards in using the lights; for instance, they do not use the lights to play advertisements.\n\n### Interior\n\nAccording to official fact sheets, the Empire State Building weighs 365,000 short tons (331,122 t) and has an internal volume of 37 million cubic feet (1,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>). The interior required 1,172 miles (1,886 km) of elevator cable and 2 million feet (609,600 m) of electrical wires. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m<sup>2</sup>), and each of the floors in the base cover 2 acres (1 ha). This gives the building capacity for 20,000 tenants and 15,000 visitors.\n\nThe riveted steel frame of the building was originally designed to handle all of the building's gravitational stresses and wind loads. The amount of material used in the building's construction resulted in a very stiff structure when compared to other skyscrapers, with a structural stiffness of 42 pounds per square foot (2.0 kPa) versus the Willis Tower's 33 pounds per square foot (1.6 kPa) and the John Hancock Center's 26 pounds per square foot (1.2 kPa). A December 1930 feature in Popular Mechanics estimated that a building with the Empire State's dimensions would still stand even if hit with an impact of 50 short tons (45 long tons).\n\nUtilities are grouped in a central shaft. On the 6th through 86th stories, the central shaft is surrounded by a main corridor on all four sides. Per the final specifications of the building, the corridor is surrounded in turn by office space 28 feet (8.5 m) deep, maximizing office space at a time before air conditioning became commonplace. Each of the floors has 210 structural columns that pass through it, which provide structural stability but limits the amount of open space on these floors. The relative dearth of stone in the Empire State Building allows for more space overall, with a 1:200 stone-to-building ratio compared to a 1:50 ratio in similar buildings.\n\n#### Lobby\n\nThe original main lobby is accessed from Fifth Avenue, on the building's east side, and is the only place in the building where the design contains narrative motifs. It contains an entrance with one set of double doors between a pair of revolving doors. At the top of each doorway is a bronze motif depicting one of three \"crafts or industries\" used in the building's construction—Electricity, Masonry, and Heating. The three-story-high space runs parallel to 33rd and 34th Streets. The lobby contains two tiers of marble: a wainscoting of darker marble, topped by lighter marble. There is a pattern of zigzagging terrazzo tiles on the lobby floor, which leads from east to west. To the north and south are storefronts, which are flanked by tubes of dark rounded marble and topped by a vertical band of grooves set into the marble. Until the 1960s, there was a Longchamps restaurant next to the lobby, with six oval murals designed by Winold Reiss; these murals were placed in storage when the Longchamps closed.\n\nThe western ends of the north and south walls include escalators to a mezzanine level. At the west end of the lobby, behind the security desk, is an aluminum relief of the skyscraper as it was originally built (without the antenna). The relief, which was intended to provide a welcoming effect, contains an embossed outline of the building, with rays radiating from the spire and the sun behind it. In the background is a state map of New York with the building's location marked by a \"medallion\" in the very southeast portion of the outline. A compass is depicted in the bottom right and a plaque to the building's major developers is on the bottom left. A scale model of the building was also placed south of the security desk.\n\nThe plaque at the western end of the lobby is on the eastern interior wall of a one-story tall rectangular-shaped corridor that surrounds the banks of escalators, with a similar design to the lobby. The rectangular-shaped corridor actually consists of two long hallways on the northern and southern sides of the rectangle, as well as a shorter hallway on the eastern side and another long hallway on the western side. At both ends of the northern and southern corridors, there is a bank of four low-rise elevators in between the corridors. The western side of the rectangular elevator-bank corridor extends north to the 34th Street entrance and south to the 33rd Street entrance. It borders three large storefronts and leads to escalators (originally stairs), which go both to the second floor and to the basement. Going from west to east, there are secondary entrances to 34th and 33rd Streets from the northern and southern corridors, respectively. The side entrances from 33rd and 34th Street lead to two-story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the mezzanine floor.\n\nUntil the 1960s, an Art Deco mural, inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, was installed in the lobby ceilings. Subsequent damage to these murals, designed by artist Leif Neandross, resulted in reproductions being installed. Renovations to the lobby in 2009, such as replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer and installing two chandeliers intended to be part of the building when it originally opened, revived much of its original grandeur. The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels created in 1963 by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov, in time for the 1964 World's Fair, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World alongside the traditional seven. The building's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. Johnson later filed a federal lawsuit, in January 2014, under the Visual Artists Rights Act alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist. As part of the building's 2010 renovation, Denise Amses commissioned a work consisting of 15,000 stars and 5,000 circles, superimposed on a 13-by-5-foot (4.0 by 1.5 m) etched-glass installation, in the lobby.\n\n#### Elevators\n\nThe Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. Its original 64 elevators, built by the Otis Elevator Company, in a central core and are of varying heights, with the longest of these elevators reaching from the lobby to the 80th floor. As originally built, there were four \"express\" elevators that connected the lobby, 80th floor, and several landings in between; the other 60 \"local\" elevators connected the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. Of the 64 total elevators, 58 were for passenger use (comprising the four express elevators and 54 local elevators), and eight were for freight deliveries. The elevators were designed to move at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min). At the time of the skyscraper's construction, their practical speed was limited to 700 feet per minute (213 m/min) per city law, but this limit was removed shortly after the building opened.\n\nAdditional elevators connect the 80th floor to the six floors above it, as the six extra floors were built after the original 80 stories were approved. The elevators were mechanically operated until 2011, when they were replaced with automatic elevators during the \\$550 million renovation of the building. An additional elevator connects the 86th and 102nd floor observatories, which allows visitors access the 102nd floor observatory after having their tickets scanned. It also allows employees to access the mechanical floors located between the 87th and 101st floors.\n\n#### Observation decks\n\nThe 80th, 86th, and 102nd floors contain observatories. The latter two observatories saw a combined average of four million visitors per year in 2010. Since opening, the observatories have been more popular than similar observatories at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the Chrysler Building, the first One World Trade Center, or the Woolworth Building, despite being more expensive. There are variable charges to enter the observatories; one ticket allows visitors to go as high as the 86th floor, and there is an additional charge to visit the 102nd floor. Other ticket options for visitors include scheduled access to view the sunrise from the observatory, a \"premium\" guided tour with VIP access, and the \"AM/PM\" package which allows for two visits in the same day.\n\nThe 86th floor observatory contains both an enclosed viewing gallery and an open-air outdoor viewing area, allowing for it to remain open 365 days a year regardless of the weather. The 102nd floor observatory is completely enclosed and much smaller in size. The 102nd floor observatory was closed to the public from the late 1990s to 2005 due to limited viewing capacity and long lines. The observation decks were redesigned in mid-1979. The 102nd floor was again redesigned in a project that was completed in 2019, allowing the windows to be extended from floor to ceiling and widening the space in the observatory overall. An observatory on the 80th floor, opened in 2019, includes various exhibits as well as a mural of the skyline drawn by British artist Stephen Wiltshire.\n\nAccording to a 2010 report by Concierge.com, the five lines to enter the observation decks are \"as legendary as the building itself\". Concierge.com stated that there were five lines: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. However, in 2016, New York City's official tourism website, NYCgo.com, made note of only three lines: the security check line, the ticket purchase line, and the second elevator line. Following renovations completed in 2019, designed to streamline queuing and reduce wait times, guests enter from a single entrance on 34th Street, where they make their way through 10,000-square-foot (930 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibits on their way up to the observatories. Guests were offered a variety of ticket packages, including a package that enables them to skip the lines throughout the duration of their stay. The Empire State Building garners significant revenue from ticket sales for its observation decks, making more money from ticket sales than it does from renting office space during some years.\n\n#### New York Skyride\n\nIn early 1994, a motion simulator attraction was built on the 2nd floor, as a complement to the observation deck. The original cinematic presentation lasted approximately 25 minutes, while the simulation was about eight minutes. The ride had two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek's Scotty, as the airplane's pilot who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the ride was closed. An updated version debuted in mid-2002, featuring actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot, with the new flight also going haywire. This new version served a more informative goal, as opposed to the old version's main purpose of entertainment, and contained details about the 9/11 attacks. The simulator received mixed reviews, with assessments of the ride ranging from \"great\" to \"satisfactory\" to \"corny\".\n\n### Spire\n\n#### Above the 102nd floor\n\nThe final stage of the building was the installation of a hollow mast, a 158-foot (48 m) steel shaft fitted with elevators and utilities, above the 86th floor. At the top would be a conical roof and the 102nd-floor docking station. Inside, the elevators would ascend 167 feet (51 m) from the 86th floor ticket offices to a 33-foot-wide (10 m) 101st-floor waiting room. From there, stairs would lead to the 102nd floor, where passengers would enter the airships. The airships would have been moored to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor.\n\nAs constructed, the mast contains four rectangular tiers topped by a cylindrical shaft with a conical pinnacle. On the 102nd floor (formerly the 101st floor), there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor (formerly the 102nd). This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. It is now an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment, but celebrities and dignitaries may also be given permission to take pictures there. Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work. The mast's 480 windows were all replaced in 2015. The mast serves as the base of the building's broadcasting antenna.\n\n#### Broadcast stations\n\nBroadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when NBC and RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the mast, with two separate transmitters for the visual and audio data. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there. In 1934, RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building's antenna. This setup, which entailed the installation of the world's first FM transmitter, continued only until October of the next year due to disputes between RCA and Armstrong. Specifically, NBC wanted to install more TV equipment in the room where Armstrong's transmitter was located.\n\nAfter some time, the 85th floor became home to RCA's New York television operations initially as experimental station W2XBS channel 1 then, from 1941, as commercial station WNBT channel 1 (now WNBC channel 4). NBC's FM station, W2XDG, began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ordered the exclusive deal be terminated. The FCC directive was based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the seven extant New York-area television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Other television broadcasters would later join RCA at the building on the 81st through 83rd floors, often along with sister FM stations. Construction of a dedicated broadcast tower began on July 27, 1950, with TV, and FM, transmissions starting in 1951. The 200-foot (61 m) broadcast tower was completed in 1953. From 1951, six broadcasters agreed to pay a combined \\$600,000 per year for the use of the antenna. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennae was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna.\n\nThe placement of the stations in the Empire State Building became a major issue with the construction of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers in the late 1960s, and early 1970s. The greater height of the Twin Towers would reflect radio waves broadcast from the Empire State Building, eventually resulting in some broadcasters relocating to the newer towers instead of suing the developer, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Even though the nine stations who were broadcasting from the Empire State Building were leasing their broadcast space until 1984, most of these stations moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed in 1971. The broadcasters obtained a court order stipulating that the Port Authority had to build a mast and transmission equipment in the North Tower, as well as pay the broadcasters' leases in the Empire State Building until 1984. Only a few broadcasters renewed their leases in the Empire State Building.\n\nThe September 11 attacks destroyed the World Trade Center and the broadcast centers atop it, leaving most of the city's stations without a transmitter for ten days until the Armstrong Tower in Alpine, New Jersey was re-activated temporarily. By October 2001, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) were again transmitting from the top of the Empire State Building. In a report that Congress commissioned about the transition from analog television to digital television, it was stated that the placement of broadcast stations in the Empire State Building was considered \"problematic\" due to interference from nearby buildings. In comparison, the congressional report stated that the former Twin Towers had very few buildings of comparable height nearby thus signals suffered little interference. In 2003, a few FM stations were relocated to the nearby Condé Nast Building to reduce the number of broadcast stations using the Empire State Building. Eleven television stations and twenty-two FM stations had signed 15-year leases in the building by May 2003. It was expected that a taller broadcast tower in Bayonne, New Jersey, or Governors Island, would be built in the meantime with the Empire State Building being used as a \"backup\" since signal transmissions from the building were generally of poorer quality. Following the construction of One World Trade Center in the late 2000s and early 2010s, some TV stations began moving their transmitting facilities there.\n\nAs of 2021, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:\n\n- Television: WABC-7, WPIX-11, WXTV-41 Paterson, and WFUT-68 Newark\n- FM: WINS-92.3, WPAT-93.1 Paterson, WNYC-93.9, WPLJ-95.5, WXNY-96.3, WQHT-97.1, WSKQ-97.9, WEPN-98.7, WHTZ-100.3 Newark, WCBS-101.1, WFAN-101.9, WNEW-FM-102.7, WKTU-103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ-104.3, WWPR-105.1, WQXR-105.9 Newark, WLTW-106.7, and WBLS-107.5\n- NOAA Weather Radio station KWO35 broadcasts at a frequency of 162.550 MHz from the National Weather Service in Upton, New York.\n\n## History\n\nThe site was previously owned by John Jacob Astor of the prominent Astor family, who had owned the site since the mid-1820s. In 1893, John Jacob Astor Sr.'s grandson William Waldorf Astor opened the Waldorf Hotel on the site. Four years later, his cousin, John Jacob Astor IV, opened the 16-story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site. The two portions of the Waldorf–Astoria hotel had 1,300 bedrooms, making it the largest hotel in the world at the time. After the death of its founding proprietor, George Boldt, in early 1918, the hotel lease was purchased by Thomas Coleman du Pont. By the 1920s, the old Waldorf–Astoria was becoming dated and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north. Additionally, many stores had opened on Fifth Avenue north of 34th Street. The Astor family decided to build a replacement hotel on Park Avenue and sold the hotel to Bethlehem Engineering Corporation in 1928 for \\$14–16 million. The hotel closed shortly thereafter on May 3, 1929.\n\n### Planning\n\n#### Early plans\n\nBethlehem Engineering Corporation originally intended to build a 25-story office building on the Waldorf–Astoria site. The company's president, Floyd De L. Brown, paid \\$100,000 of the \\$1 million down payment required to start construction on the building, with the promise that the difference would be paid later. Brown borrowed \\$900,000 from a bank but defaulted on the loan.\n\nAfter Brown was unable to secure additional funding, the land was resold to Empire State Inc., a group of wealthy investors that included Louis G. Kaufman, Ellis P. Earle, John J. Raskob, Coleman du Pont, and Pierre S. du Pont. The name came from the state nickname for New York. Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and U.S. presidential candidate whose 1928 campaign had been managed by Raskob, was appointed head of the company. The group also purchased nearby land so they would have the 2 acres (1 ha) needed for the base, with the combined plot measuring 425 feet (130 m) wide by 200 feet (61 m) long. The Empire State Inc. consortium was announced to the public in August 1929. Concurrently, Smith announced the construction of an 80-story building on the site, to be taller than any other buildings in existence.\n\nEmpire State Inc. contracted William F. Lamb, of architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, to create the building design. Lamb produced the building drawings in just two weeks using the firm's earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina as the basis. He had also been inspired by Raymond Hood's design for the Daily News Building, which was being constructed at the same time. Concurrently, Lamb's partner Richmond Shreve created \"bug diagrams\" of the project requirements. The 1916 Zoning Act forced Lamb to design a structure that incorporated setbacks resulting in the lower floors being larger than the upper floors. Consequently, the building was designed from the top down, giving it a pencil-like shape. The plans were devised within a budget of \\$50 million and a stipulation that the building be ready for occupancy within 18 months of the start of construction.\n\n#### Design changes\n\nThe original plan of the building was 50 stories, but was later increased to 60 and then 80 stories. Height restrictions were placed on nearby buildings to ensure that the top fifty floors of the planned 80-story, 1,000-foot-tall (300 m) building would have unobstructed views of the city. The New York Times lauded the site's proximity to mass transit, with the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit's 34th Street station and the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad's 33rd Street terminal one block away, as well as Penn Station two blocks away and Grand Central Terminal nine blocks away at its closest. It also praised the 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of proposed floor space near \"one of the busiest sections in the world\". The Empire State Building was to be a typical office building, but Raskob intended to build it \"better and in a bigger way\", according to architectural writer Donald J. Reynolds.\n\nWhile plans for the Empire State Building were being finalized, an intense competition in New York for the title of \"world's tallest building\" was underway. 40 Wall Street (then the Bank of Manhattan Building) and the Chrysler Building in Manhattan both vied for this distinction and were already under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. The \"Race into the Sky\", as popular media called it at the time, was representative of the country's optimism in the 1920s, fueled by the building boom in major cities. The race was defined by at least five other proposals, although only the Empire State Building would survive the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The 40 Wall Street tower was revised, in April 1929, from 840 feet (260 m) to 925 feet (282 m) making it the world's tallest. The Chrysler Building added its 185-foot (56 m) steel tip to its roof in October 1929, thus bringing it to a height of 1,046 feet (319 m) and greatly exceeding the height of 40 Wall Street. The Chrysler Building's developer, Walter Chrysler, realized that his tower's height would exceed the Empire State Building's as well, having instructed his architect, William Van Alen, to change the Chrysler's original roof from a stubby Romanesque dome to a narrow steel spire. Raskob, wishing to have the Empire State Building be the world's tallest, reviewed the plans and had five floors added as well as a spire; however, the new floors would need to be set back because of projected wind pressure on the extension. On November 18, 1929, Smith acquired a lot at 27–31 West 33rd Street, adding 75 feet (23 m) to the width of the proposed office building's site. Two days later, Smith announced the updated plans for the skyscraper. The plans included an observation deck on the 86th-floor roof at a height of 1,050 feet (320 m), higher than the Chrysler's 71st-floor observation deck.\n\nThe 1,050-foot Empire State Building would only be 4 feet (1.2 m) taller than the Chrysler Building, and Raskob was afraid that Chrysler might try to \"pull a trick like hiding a rod in the spire and then sticking it up at the last minute.\" The plans were revised one last time in December 1929, to include a 16-story, 200-foot (61 m) metal \"crown\" and an additional 222-foot (68 m) mooring mast intended for dirigibles. The roof height was now 1,250 feet (380 m), making it the tallest building in the world by far, even without the antenna. The addition of the dirigible station meant that another floor, the now-enclosed 86th floor, would have to be built below the crown; however, unlike the Chrysler's spire, the Empire State's mast would serve a practical purpose. A revised plan was announced to the public in late December 1929, just before the start of construction. The final plan was sketched within two hours, the night before the plan was supposed to be presented to the site's owners in January 1930. The New York Times reported that the spire was facing some \"technical problems\", but they were \"no greater than might be expected under such a novel plan.\" By this time the blueprints for the building had gone through up to fifteen versions before they were approved. Lamb described the other specifications he was given for the final, approved plan:\n\n> The program was short enough—a fixed budget, no space more than 28 feet from window to corridor, as many stories of such space as possible, an exterior of limestone, and completion date of [May 1], 1931, which meant a year and six months from the beginning of sketches.\n\n### Construction\n\nThe contractors were Starrett Brothers and Eken, which were composed of Paul and William A. Starrett and Andrew J. Eken. The project was financed primarily by Raskob and Pierre du Pont, while James Farley's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was the construction superintendent of the project, and the structural engineer of the building was Homer G. Balcom. The tight completion schedule necessitated the commencement of construction even though the design had yet to be finalized.\n\n#### Hotel demolition\n\nDemolition of the old Waldorf–Astoria began on October 1, 1929. Stripping the building down was an arduous process, as the hotel had been constructed using more rigid material than earlier buildings had been. Furthermore, the old hotel's granite, wood chips, and \"'precious' metals such as lead, brass, and zinc\" were not in high demand, resulting in issues with disposal. Most of the wood was deposited into a woodpile on nearby 30th Street or was burned in a swamp elsewhere. Much of the other materials that made up the old hotel, including the granite and bronze, were dumped into the Atlantic Ocean near Sandy Hook, New Jersey.\n\nBy the time the hotel's demolition started, Raskob had secured the required funding for the construction of the building. The plan was to start construction later that year but, on October 24, the New York Stock Exchange experienced the major and sudden Wall Street Crash, marking the beginning of the decade-long Great Depression. Despite the economic downturn, Raskob refused to cancel the project because of the progress that had been made up to that point. Neither Raskob, who had ceased speculation in the stock market the previous year, nor Smith, who had no stock investments, suffered financially in the crash. However, most of the investors were affected and as a result, in December 1929, Empire State Inc. obtained a \\$27.5 million loan from Metropolitan Life Insurance Company so construction could begin. The stock market crash resulted in no demand for new office space; Raskob and Smith nonetheless started construction, as canceling the project would have resulted in greater losses for the investors.\n\n#### Steel structure\n\nA structural steel contract was awarded on January 12, 1930, with excavation of the site beginning ten days later on January 22, before the old hotel had been completely demolished. Two twelve-hour shifts, consisting of 300 men each, worked continuously to dig the 55-foot (17 m) deep foundation. Small pier holes were sunk into the ground to house the concrete footings that would support the steelwork. Excavation was nearly complete by early March, and construction on the building itself started on March 17, with the builders placing the first steel columns on the completed footings before the rest of the footings had been finished. Around this time, Lamb held a press conference on the building plans. He described the reflective steel panels parallel to the windows, the large-block Indiana Limestone facade that was slightly more expensive than smaller bricks, and the building's vertical lines. Four colossal columns, intended for installation in the center of the building site, were delivered; they would support a combined 10,000,000 pounds (4,500,000 kg) when the building was finished.\n\nThe structural steel was pre-ordered and pre-fabricated in anticipation of a revision to the city's building code that would have allowed the Empire State Building's structural steel to carry 18,000 pounds per square inch (120,000 kPa), up from 16,000 pounds per square inch (110,000 kPa), thus reducing the amount of steel needed for the building. Although the 18,000-psi regulation had been safely enacted in other cities, Mayor Jimmy Walker did not sign the new codes into law until March 26, 1930, just before construction was due to commence. The first steel framework was installed on April 1, 1930. From there, construction proceeded at a rapid pace; during one stretch of 10 working days, the builders erected fourteen floors. This was made possible through precise coordination of the building's planning, as well as the mass production of common materials such as windows and spandrels. On one occasion, when a supplier could not provide timely delivery of dark Hauteville marble, Starrett switched to using Rose Famosa marble from a German quarry that was purchased specifically to provide the project with sufficient marble.\n\nThe scale of the project was massive, with trucks carrying \"16,000 partition tiles, 5,000 bags of cement, 450 cubic yards [340 m<sup>3</sup>] of sand and 300 bags of lime\" arriving at the construction site every day. There were also cafes and concession stands on five of the incomplete floors so workers did not have to descend to the ground level to eat lunch. Temporary water taps were also built so workers did not waste time buying water bottles from the ground level. Additionally, carts running on a small railway system transported materials from the basement storage to elevators that brought the carts to the desired floors where they would then be distributed throughout that level using another set of tracks. The 57,480 short tons (51,320 long tons) of steel ordered for the project was the largest-ever single order of steel at the time, comprising more steel than was ordered for the Chrysler Building and 40 Wall Street combined. According to historian John Tauranac, building materials were sourced from numerous, and distant, sources with \"limestone from Indiana, steel girders from Pittsburgh, cement and mortar from upper New York State, marble from Italy, France, and England, wood from northern and Pacific Coast forests, [and] hardware from New England.\" The facade, too, used a variety of material, most prominently Indiana limestone but also Swedish black granite, terracotta, and brick.\n\nBy June 20, the skyscraper's supporting steel structure had risen to the 26th floor, and by July 27, half of the steel structure had been completed. Starrett Bros. and Eken endeavored to build one floor a day in order to speed up construction, achieving a pace of 4+1⁄2 stories per week; prior to this, the fastest pace of construction for a building of similar height had been 3+1⁄2 stories per week. While construction progressed, the final designs for the floors were being designed from the ground up (as opposed to the general design, which had been from the roof down). Some of the levels were still undergoing final approval, with several orders placed within an hour of a plan being finalized. On September 10, as steelwork was nearing completion, Smith laid the building's cornerstone during a ceremony attended by thousands. The stone contained a box with contemporary artifacts including the previous day's New York Times, a U.S. currency set containing all denominations of notes and coins minted in 1930, a history of the site and building, and photographs of the people involved in construction. The steel structure was topped out at 1,048 feet (319 m) on September 19, twelve days ahead of schedule and 23 weeks after the start of construction. Workers raised a flag atop the 86th floor to signify this milestone.\n\n#### Completion and scale\n\nWork on the building's interior and crowning mast commenced after the topping out. The mooring mast topped out on November 21, two months after the steelwork had been completed. Meanwhile, work on the walls and interior was progressing at a quick pace, with exterior walls built up to the 75th floor by the time steelwork had been built to the 95th floor. The majority of the facade was already finished by the middle of November. Because of the building's height, it was deemed infeasible to have many elevators or large elevator cabins, so the builders contracted with the Otis Elevator Company to make 66 cars that could speed at 1,200 feet per minute (366 m/min), which represented the largest-ever elevator order at the time.\n\nIn addition to the time constraint builders had, there were also space limitations because construction materials had to be delivered quickly, and trucks needed to drop off these materials without congesting traffic. This was solved by creating a temporary driveway for the trucks between 33rd and 34th Streets, and then storing the materials in the building's first floor and basements. Concrete mixers, brick hoppers, and stone hoists inside the building ensured that materials would be able to ascend quickly and without endangering or inconveniencing the public. At one point, over 200 trucks made material deliveries at the building site every day. A series of relay and erection derricks, placed on platforms erected near the building, lifted the steel from the trucks below and installed the beams at the appropriate locations. The Empire State Building was structurally completed on April 11, 1931, twelve days ahead of schedule and 410 days after construction commenced. Al Smith shot the final rivet, which was made of solid gold.\n\nThe project involved more than 3,500 workers at its peak, including 3,439 on a single day, August 14, 1930. Many of the workers were Irish and Italian immigrants, with a sizable minority of Mohawk ironworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction, although the New York Daily News gave reports of 14 deaths and a headline in the socialist magazine The New Masses spread unfounded rumors of up to 42 deaths. The Empire State Building cost \\$40,948,900 to build (equivalent to \\$ in ), including demolition of the Waldorf–Astoria. This was lower than the \\$60 million budgeted for construction.\n\nLewis Hine captured many photographs of the construction, documenting not only the work itself but also providing insight into the daily life of workers in that era. Hine's images were used extensively by the media to publish daily press releases. According to the writer Jim Rasenberger, Hine \"climbed out onto the steel with the ironworkers and dangled from a derrick cable hundreds of feet above the city to capture, as no one ever had before (or has since), the dizzy work of building skyscrapers\". In Rasenberger's words, Hine turned what might have been an assignment of \"corporate flak\" into \"exhilarating art\". These images were later organized into their own collection. Onlookers were enraptured by the sheer height at which the steelworkers operated. New York magazine wrote of the steelworkers: \"Like little spiders they toiled, spinning a fabric of steel against the sky\".\n\n### Opening and early years\n\nThe Empire State Building officially opened on May 1, 1931, forty-five days ahead of its projected opening date, and eighteen months from the start of construction. The opening was marked with an event featuring United States President Herbert Hoover, who turned on the building's lights with the ceremonial button push from Washington, D.C. Over 350 guests attended the opening ceremony, and following luncheon, at the 86th floor including Jimmy Walker, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Al Smith. An account from that day stated that the view from the luncheon was obscured by a fog, with other landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty being \"lost in the mist\" enveloping New York City. The Empire State Building officially opened the next day. Advertisements for the building's observatories were placed in local newspapers, while nearby hotels also capitalized on the events by releasing advertisements that lauded their proximity to the newly opened building.\n\nAccording to The New York Times, builders and real estate speculators predicted that the 1,250-foot-tall (380 m) Empire State Building would be the world's tallest building \"for many years\", thus ending the great New York City skyscraper rivalry. At the time, most engineers agreed that it would be difficult to build a building taller than 1,200 feet (370 m), even with the hardy Manhattan bedrock as a foundation. Technically, it was believed possible to build a tower of up to 2,000 feet (610 m), but it was deemed uneconomical to do so, especially during the Great Depression. As the tallest building in the world, at that time, and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building became an icon of the city and, ultimately, of the nation.\n\nIn 1932, the Fifth Avenue Association gave the building its 1931 \"gold medal\" for architectural excellence, signifying that the Empire State had been the best-designed building on Fifth Avenue to open in 1931. A year later, on March 2, 1933, the movie King Kong was released. The movie, which depicted a large stop motion ape named Kong climbing the Empire State Building, made the still-new building into a cinematic icon.\n\n#### Tenants and tourism\n\nAt the beginning of 1931, Fifth Avenue was experiencing high demand for storefront space, with only 12 of 224 stores being unoccupied. The Empire State Building, along with 500 Fifth Avenue and 608 Fifth Avenue, were expected to add a combined 11 stores. The office space was less successful, as the Empire State Building's opening had coincided with the Great Depression in the United States. In the first year, only 23 percent of the available space was rented, as compared to the early 1920s, where the average building would be 52 percent occupied upon opening and 90 percent occupied within five years. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the \"Empty State Building\" or \"Smith's Folly\".\n\nThe earliest tenants in the Empire State Building were large companies, banks, and garment industries. Jack Brod, one of the building's longest resident tenants, co-established the Empire Diamond Corporation with his father in the building in mid-1931 and rented space in the building until he died in 2008. Brod recalled that there were only about 20 tenants at the time of opening, including him, and that Al Smith was the only real tenant in the space above his seventh-floor offices. Generally, during the early 1930s, it was rare for more than a single office space to be rented in the building, despite Smith's and Raskob's aggressive marketing efforts in the newspapers and to anyone they knew. The building's lights were continuously left on, even in the unrented spaces, to give the impression of occupancy. This was exacerbated by competition from Rockefeller Center as well as from buildings on 42nd Street, which, when combined with the Empire State Building, resulted in surplus of office space in a slow market during the 1930s.\n\nAggressive marketing efforts served to reinforce the Empire State Building's status as the world's tallest. The observatory was advertised in local newspapers as well as on railroad tickets. The building became a popular tourist attraction, with one million people each paying one dollar to ride elevators to the observation decks in 1931. In its first year of operation, the observation deck made approximately \\$2 million in revenue, as much as its owners made in rent that year. By 1936, the observation deck was crowded on a daily basis, with food and drink available for purchase at the top, and by 1944 the building had received its five-millionth visitor. In 1931, NBC took up tenancy, leasing space on the 85th floor for radio broadcasts. From the outset the building was in debt, losing \\$1 million per year by 1935. Real estate developer Seymour Durst recalled that the building was so underused in 1936 that there was no elevator service above the 45th floor, as the building above the 41st floor was empty except for the NBC offices and the Raskob/Du Pont offices on the 81st floor.\n\n#### Other events\n\nPer the original plans, the Empire State Building's spire was intended to be an airship docking station. Raskob and Smith had proposed dirigible ticketing offices and passenger waiting rooms on the 86th floor, while the airships themselves would be tied to the spire at the equivalent of the building's 106th floor. An elevator would ferry passengers from the 86th to the 101st floor after they had checked in on the 86th floor, after which passengers would have climbed steep ladders to board the airship. The idea, however, was impractical and dangerous due to powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, the wind currents across Manhattan, and the spires of nearby skyscrapers. Furthermore, even if the airship were to successfully navigate all these obstacles, its crew would have to jettison some ballast by releasing water onto the streets below in order to maintain stability, and then tie the craft's nose to the spire with no mooring lines securing the tail end of the craft. On September 15, 1931, a small commercial United States Navy airship circled 25 times in 45-mile-per-hour (72 km/h) winds. The airship then attempted to dock at the mast, but its ballast spilled and the craft was rocked by unpredictable eddies. The near-disaster scuttled plans to turn the building's spire into an airship terminal, although one blimp did manage to make a single newspaper delivery afterward.\n\nOn July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors. One engine completely penetrated the building and landed in a neighboring block, while the other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. Fourteen people were killed in the incident, but the building escaped severe damage and was reopened two days later.\n\n### Profitability\n\nBy the 1940s, the Empire State Building was 98 percent occupied. The structure broke even for the first time in the 1950s. At the time, mass transit options in the building's vicinity were limited compared to the present day. Despite this challenge, the Empire State Building began to attract renters due to its reputation. A 222-foot (68 m) radio antenna was erected on top of the towers starting in 1950, allowing the area's television stations to be broadcast from the building.\n\nDespite the turnaround in the building's fortunes, Raskob listed it for sale in 1951, with a minimum asking price of \\$50 million. The property was purchased by business partners Roger L. Stevens, Henry Crown, Alfred R. Glancy and Ben Tobin. The sale was brokered by the Charles F. Noyes Company, a prominent real estate firm in upper Manhattan, for \\$51 million, the highest price paid for a single structure at the time. By this time, the Empire State had been fully leased for several years with a waiting list of parties looking to lease space in the building, according to the Cortland Standard. That same year, six news companies formed a partnership to pay a combined annual fee of \\$600,000 to use the building's antenna, which was completed in 1953. Crown bought out his partners' ownership stakes in 1954, becoming the sole owner. The following year, the American Society of Civil Engineers named the building one of the \"Seven Modern Civil Engineering Wonders\".\n\nIn 1961, Lawrence A. Wien signed a contract to purchase the Empire State Building for \\$65 million, with Harry B. Helmsley acting as partners in the building's operating lease. This became the new highest price for a single structure. Over 3,000 people paid \\$10,000 for one share each in a company called Empire State Building Associates. The company in turn subleased the building to another company headed by Helmsley and Wien, raising \\$33 million of the funds needed to pay the purchase price. In a separate transaction, the land underneath the building was sold to Prudential Insurance for \\$29 million. Helmsley, Wien, and Peter Malkin quickly started a program of minor improvement projects, including the first-ever full-building facade refurbishment and window-washing in 1962, the installation of new flood lights on the 72nd floor in 1964, and replacement of the manually operated elevators with automatic units in 1966. The little-used western end of the second floor was used as a storage space until 1964, at which point it received escalators to the first floor as part of its conversion into a highly sought retail area.\n\n### Loss of \"tallest building\" title\n\nIn 1961, the same year that Helmsley, Wien, and Malkin had purchased the Empire State Building, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey formally backed plans for a new World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. The plan originally included 66-story twin towers with column-free open spaces. The Empire State's owners and real estate speculators were worried that the twin towers' 7.6 million square feet (710,000 m<sup>2</sup>) of office space would create a glut of rentable space in Manhattan as well as take away the Empire State Building's profits from lessees. A revision in the World Trade Center's plan brought the twin towers to 1,370 feet (420 m) each or 110 stories, taller than the Empire State. Opponents of the new project included prominent real-estate developer Robert Tishman, as well as Wien's Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center. In response to Wien's opposition, Port Authority executive director Austin J. Tobin said that Wien was only opposing the project because it would overshadow his Empire State Building as the world's tallest building.\n\nThe World Trade Center's twin towers started construction in 1966. The following year, the Ostankino Tower succeeded the Empire State Building as the tallest freestanding structure in the world. In 1970, the Empire State surrendered its position as the world's tallest building, when the World Trade Center's still-under-construction North Tower surpassed it, on October 19; the North Tower was topped out on December 23, 1970.\n\nIn December 1975, the observation deck was opened on the 110th floor of the Twin Towers, significantly higher than the 86th floor observatory on the Empire State Building. The latter was also losing revenue during this period, particularly as a number of broadcast stations had moved to the World Trade Center in 1971; although the Port Authority continued to pay the broadcasting leases for the Empire State until 1984. The Empire State Building was still seen as prestigious, having seen its forty-millionth visitor in March 1971.\n\n### 1980s and 1990s\n\nBy 1980, there were nearly two million annual visitors, although a building official had previously estimated between 1.5 million and 1.75 million annual visitors. The building received its own ZIP code in May 1980 in a roll out of 63 new postal codes in Manhattan. At the time, its tenants collectively received 35,000 pieces of mail daily. The Empire State Building celebrated its 50th anniversary on May 1, 1981, with a much-publicized, but poorly received, laser light show, as well as an \"Empire State Building Week\" that ran through to May 8. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981,\n\nCapital improvements were made to the Empire State Building during the early to mid-1990s at a cost of \\$55 million. Because all of the building's windows were being replaced at the same time, the LPC mandated a paint-color test for the windows; the test revealed that the Empire State Building's original windows were actually red. The improvements also entailed replacing alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning; making the observation deck compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA); and refurbishing the limestone facade. The observation deck renovation was added after disability rights groups and the United States Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against the building in 1992, in what was the first lawsuit filed by an organization under the new law. A settlement was reached in 1994, in which Empire State Building Associates agreed to add ADA-compliant elements, such as new elevators, ramps, and automatic doors, during the renovation.\n\nPrudential sold the land under the building in 1991 for \\$42 million to a buyer representing hotelier Hideki Yokoi [ja], who was imprisoned at the time in connection with the deadly Hotel New Japan Fire [ja] at the Hotel New Japan [ja] in Tokyo. In 1994, Donald Trump entered into a joint-venture agreement with Yokoi, with a shared goal of breaking the Empire State Building's lease on the land in an effort to gain total ownership of the building so that, if successful, the two could reap the potential profits of merging the ownership of the building with the land beneath it. Having secured a half-ownership of the land, Trump devised plans to take ownership of the building itself so he could renovate it, even though Helmsley and Malkin had already started their refurbishment project. He sued Empire State Building Associates in February 1995, claiming that the latter had caused the building to become a \"high-rise slum\" and a \"second-rate, rodent-infested\" office tower. Trump had intended to have Empire State Building Associates evicted for violating the terms of their lease, but was denied. This led to Helmsley's companies countersuing Trump in May. This sparked a series of lawsuits and countersuits that lasted several years, partly arising from Trump's desire to obtain the building's master lease by taking it from Empire State Building Associates. Upon Harry Helmsley's death in 1997, the Malkins sued Helmsley's widow, Leona Helmsley, for control of the building.\n\n### 21st century\n\n#### 2000s\n\nFollowing the destruction of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, but was only the second-tallest building in the Americas after the Sears (later Willis) Tower in Chicago. As a result of the attacks, transmissions from nearly all of the city's commercial television and FM radio stations were again broadcast from the Empire State Building. The attacks also led to an increase in security due to persistent terror threats against prominent sites in New York City.\n\nIn 2002, Trump and Yokoi sold their land claim to the Empire State Building Associates, now headed by Malkin, in a \\$57.5 million sale. This action merged the building's title and lease for the first time in half a century. Despite the lingering threat posed by the 9/11 attacks, the Empire State Building remained popular with 3.5 million visitors to the observatories in 2004, compared to about 2.8 million in 2003.\n\nEven though she maintained her ownership stake in the building until the post-consolidation IPO in October 2013, Leona Helmsley handed over day-to-day operations of the building in 2006 to Peter Malkin's company. In 2008, the building was temporarily \"stolen\" by the New York Daily News to show how easy it was to transfer the deed on a property, since city clerks were not required to validate the submitted information, as well as to help demonstrate how fraudulent deeds could be used to obtain large mortgages and then have individuals disappear with the money. The paperwork submitted to the city included the names of Fay Wray, the famous star of King Kong, and Willie Sutton, a notorious New York bank robber. The newspaper then transferred the deed back over to the legitimate owners, who at that time were Empire State Land Associates.\n\n#### 2010s to present\n\nStarting in 2009, the building's public areas received a \\$550 million renovation, with improvements to the air conditioning and waterproofing, renovations to the observation deck and main lobby, and relocation of the gift shop to the 80th floor. About \\$120 million was spent on improving the energy efficiency of the building, with the goal of reducing energy emissions by 38% within five years. For example, all of the windows were refurbished onsite into film-coated \"superwindows\" which block heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced, saving \\$17 million of the project's capital cost immediately and partially funding some of the other retrofits. The Empire State Building won the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold for Existing Buildings rating in September 2011, as well as the World Federation of Great Towers' Excellence in Environment Award for 2010. For the LEED Gold certification, the building's energy reduction was considered, as was a large purchase of carbon offsets. Other factors included low-flow bathroom fixtures, green cleaning supplies, and use of recycled paper products.\n\nOn April 30, 2012, One World Trade Center topped out, taking the Empire State Building's record of tallest in the city. By 2014, the building was owned by the Empire State Realty Trust (ESRT), with Anthony Malkin as chairman, CEO, and president. The ESRT was a public company, having begun trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange the previous year. In August 2016, the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) was issued new fully diluted shares equivalent to 9.9% of the trust; this investment gave them partial ownership of the entirety of the ESRT's portfolio, and as a result, partial ownership of the Empire State Building. The trust's president John Kessler called it an \"endorsement of the company's irreplaceable assets\". The investment has been described by the real-estate magazine The Real Deal as \"an unusual move for a sovereign wealth fund\", as these funds typically buy direct stakes in buildings rather than real estate companies. Other foreign entities that have a stake in the ESRT include investors from Norway, Japan, and Australia.\n\nA renovation of the Empire State Building was commenced in the 2010s to further improve energy efficiency, public areas, and amenities. In August 2018, to improve the flow of visitor traffic, the main visitor's entrance was shifted to 20 West 34th Street as part of a major renovation of the observatory lobby. The new lobby includes several technological features, including large LED panels, digital ticket kiosks in nine languages, and a two-story architectural model of the building surrounded by two metal staircases. The first phase of the renovation, completed in 2019, features an updated exterior lighting system and digital hosts. The new lobby also features free Wi-Fi provided for those waiting. A 10,000-square-foot (930 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibit with nine galleries opened in July 2019. The 102nd floor observatory, the third phase of the redesign, reopened to the public on October 12, 2019. That portion of the project included outfitting the space with floor-to-ceiling glass windows and a brand-new glass elevator. The final portion of the renovations to be completed was a new observatory on the 80th floor, which opened on December 2, 2019. In total, the renovation had cost \\$165 million and taken four years to finish.\n\nA comprehensive restoration of the building's mooring and antenna masts also began in June 2019. Antennas on the mooring mast were removed or relocated to the upper mast, while the aluminum panels were cleaned and coated with silver paint. To minimize disruption to the observation decks, the restoration work took place at night. The project was completed by late 2020.\n\n## Height records\n\nThe longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in October 1970. The Empire State Building was also the tallest human-made structure in the world before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954, and the tallest freestanding structure in the world until the completion of the Ostankino Tower in 1967. An early-1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected.\n\nWith the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second-tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. The Empire State Building remained the tallest building in New York until the new One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. As of 2022, it is the seventh-tallest building in New York City and the tenth-tallest in the United States. The Empire State Building is the 49th-tallest in the world as of February 2021. It is also the eleventh-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas behind the tallest U.S. buildings and the CN Tower.\n\n## Notable tenants\n\nAs of 2013, the building houses around 1,000 businesses. Current tenants include:\n\nFormer tenants include:\n\n- The National Catholic Welfare Council (now Catholic Relief Services, located in Baltimore)\n- The King's College (now located at 56 Broadway)\n- China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue)\n- National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway)\n- Nathaniel Branden Institute\n- Schenley Industries\n- YWCA of the USA (relocated to Washington, DC)\n\n## Incidents\n\n### 1945 plane crash\n\nAt 9:40 am on July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors (then the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council). One engine completely penetrated the building, landing on the roof of a nearby building where it started a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft, causing a fire that was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver fell 75 stories and survived, which still holds the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded.\n\nDespite the damage and loss of life, many floors were open two days later. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident. Also as a result of the crash, the Civil Aeronautics Administration enacted strict regulations regarding flying over New York City, setting a minimum flying altitude of 2,500 feet (760 m) above sea level regardless of the weather conditions.\n\nA year later, on July 24, 1946, another airplane narrowly missed striking the building. The unidentified twin-engine plane scraped past the observation deck, frightening the tourists there.\n\n### 2000 elevator plunge\n\nOn January 24, 2000, an elevator in the building suddenly descended 40 stories after a cable that controlled the cabin's maximum speed was severed. The elevator fell from the 44th floor to the fourth floor, where a narrowed elevator shaft provided a second safety system. Despite the 40-floor fall, both of the passengers in the cabin at the time were only slightly injured. After the fall, building inspectors reviewed all of the building's elevators.\n\n### Suicide attempts\n\nBecause of the building's iconic status, it and other Midtown landmarks are popular locations for suicide attempts. More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building, with most attempts being successful.\n\nThe first suicide from the building occurred on April 7, 1931, before it was even completed, when a carpenter who had been laid-off went to the 58th floor and jumped. The first suicide after the building's opening occurred from the 86th floor observatory in February 1935, when Irma P. Eberhardt fell 1,029 feet (314 m) onto a marquee sign. On December 16, 1943, William Lloyd Rambo jumped to his death from the 86th floor, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below. In the early morning of September 27, 1946, shell-shocked Marine Douglas W. Brashear Jr. jumped from the 76th-floor window of the Grant Advertising Agency; police found his shoes 50 feet (15 m) from his body.\n\nOn May 1, 1947, Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions that she left on the observation deck: \"He is much better off without me.... I wouldn't make a good wife for anybody\". The photo ran in the May 12, 1947 edition of Life magazine and is often referred to as \"The Most Beautiful Suicide\". It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body). A 7-foot (2.1 m) mesh fence was put up around the 86th floor terrace in December 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span in October and November of that year. By then, sixteen people had died from suicide jumps.\n\nOnly one person has jumped from the upper observatory. Frederick Eckert of Astoria ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd-floor gallery on November 3, 1932, and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. He landed and died on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade.\n\nTwo people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation.\n\n### Shootings\n\nTwo fatal shootings have occurred in the direct vicinity of the Empire State Building. Abu Kamal, a 69-year-old Palestinian teacher, shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck during the afternoon of February 23, 1997. He killed one person and wounded six others before committing suicide. Kamal reportedly committed the shooting in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel.\n\nOn the morning of August 24, 2012, 58-year-old Jeffrey T. Johnson shot and killed a former co-worker on the building's Fifth Avenue sidewalk. He had been laid off from his job in 2011. Two police officers confronted the gunman, and he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders. Most of the injured were hit by bullet fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets.\n\n## Impact\n\nAs the tallest building in the world and the first one to exceed 100 floors, the Empire State Building immediately became an icon of the city and of the nation. In 2013, Time magazine noted that the Empire State Building \"seems to completely embody the city it has become synonymous with\". The historian John Tauranac called it \"'the' twentieth-century New York building\", despite the existence of taller and more modernist buildings.\n\nThe New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission voted to designate the building and its lobby as city landmarks on May 19, 1981, citing the historic nature of the first and second floors, as well as \"the fixtures and interior components\" of the upper floors. The New York City Planning Commission endorsed the landmark status. The building became a National Historic Landmark in 1986 in close alignment with the New York City Landmarks report. The Empire State Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places the following year due to its architectural significance.\n\n### Contemporary reception\n\nEarly architectural critics also focused on the Empire State Building's exterior ornamentation. Architectural critic Talbot Hamlin wrote in 1931, \"That it is the world's tallest building is purely incidental.\" George Shepard Chappell, writing in The New Yorker under the pseudonym \"T-Square\", wrote the same year that the Empire State Building had a \"palpably enormous\" appeal to the general public, and that \"its difference and distinction [lay] in the extreme sensitiveness of its entire design\". Edmund Wilson of The New Republic wrote that the building's neutral color palette made it \"New York's handsomest skyscraper\".\n\nArchitectural critics also wrote negatively of the mast, especially in light of its failure to become a real air terminal. Chappell called the mast \"a silly gesture\", and Lewis Mumford called it \"a public comfort station for migratory birds\". Nevertheless, architecture critic Douglas Haskell said the Empire State Building's appeal came from the fact that it was \"caught at the exact moment of transition—caught between metal and stone, between the idea of 'monumental mass' and that of airy volume, between handicraft and machine design, and in the swing from what was essentially handicraft to what will be essentially industrial methods of fabrication.\"\n\n### As icon\n\nEarly in the building's history, travel companies such as Short Line Motor Coach Service and New York Central Railroad used the building as an icon to symbolize the city. In a 1932 survey of 50 American architects, fourteen ranked the Empire State Building as the United States' best building; the Empire State Building received more votes than any building except the Lincoln Memorial. After the construction of the first World Trade Center, architect Paul Goldberger noted that the Empire State Building \"is famous for being tall, but it is good enough to be famous for being good.\"\n\nAs an icon of the United States, it is also very popular among Americans. In a 2007 survey, the American Institute of Architects found that the Empire State Building was \"America's favorite building\". The building was originally a symbol of hope in a country devastated by the Depression, as well as a work of accomplishment by newer immigrants. The writer Benjamin Flowers states that the Empire State was \"a building intended to celebrate a new America, built by men (both clients and construction workers) who were themselves new Americans.\" The architectural critic Jonathan Glancey refers to the building as an \"icon of American design\". Additionally, in 2007, the Empire State Building was first on the AIA's List of America's Favorite Architecture.\n\nThe Empire State Building has been hailed as an example of a \"wonder of the world\" due to the massive effort expended during construction. The Washington Star listed it as part of one of the \"seven wonders of the modern world\" in 1931, while Holiday magazine wrote in 1958 that the Empire State's height would be taller than the combined heights of the Eiffel Tower and the Great Pyramid of Giza. The American Society of Civil Engineers also declared the building \"A Modern Civil Engineering Wonder of the United States\" in 1958 and one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World in 1994. Ron Miller, in a 2010 book, also described the Empire State Building as one of the \"seven wonders of engineering\". It has often been called the Eighth Wonder of the World as well, an appellation that it has held since shortly after opening. The panels installed in the lobby in 1963 reflected this, showing the seven original wonders alongside the Empire State Building. The Empire State Building also became the standard of reference to describe the height and length of other structures globally, both natural and human-made.\n\nThe building has also inspired replicas. The New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the \"Empire Tower\", a 47-story replica of the Empire State Building.In addition, the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Paradise, Nevada, contains the \"Chrysler Tower\", a replica of the Chrysler Building measuring 35 or 40 stories tall. A portion of the hotel's interior was also designed to resemble the Empire State Building's interior.\n\n### In media\n\nAs an icon of New York City, the Empire State Building has been featured in various films, books, TV shows, and video games. According to the building's official website, more than 250 movies contain depictions of the Empire State Building. In his book about the building, John Tauranac writes that its first documented appearance in popular culture was Swiss Family Manhattan, a 1932 children's story by Christopher Morley. A year later, the film King Kong depicted Kong, a giant stop motion ape that climbs the Empire State Building during the film's climax, bringing the building into the popular imagination. Later movies such as An Affair to Remember (1957), Sleepless in Seattle (1993), and Independence Day (1996) also prominently featured the building. The building has also been featured in other works, such as \"Daleks in Manhattan\", a 2007 episode of the TV series Doctor Who; and Empire, an eight-hour black-and-white silent film by Andy Warhol, which was later added to the Library of Congress's National Film Registry.\n\n### Empire State Building Run-Up\n\nThe Empire State Building Run-Up, a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck, has been held annually since 1978. It is organized by NYCRUNS. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 ft (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour.\n\n## See also\n\n- Early skyscrapers\n- NTT Docomo Yoyogi Building\n- List of buildings with 100 floors or more\n- List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City\n- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets\n- List of tallest buildings by U.S. state\n- List of tallest freestanding steel structures\n- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets", "revid": "1173454341", "description": "Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York", "categories": ["1930s architecture in the United States", "1931 establishments in New York City", "34th Street (Manhattan)", "Art Deco architecture in Manhattan", "Art Deco skyscrapers", "Empire State Building", "Fifth Avenue", "Former world's tallest buildings", "Midtown Manhattan", "National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City interior landmarks", "New York State Register of Historic Places in New York County", "Office buildings completed in 1931", "Office buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Radio masts and towers in the United States", "Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan", "Symbols of New York City", "Tourist attractions in Manhattan", "Towers completed in 1953"]}
{"id": "37825120", "url": null, "title": "When I Was Your Man", "text": "\"When I Was Your Man\" is a song by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars from his second studio album, Unorthodox Jukebox (2012). Atlantic Records released the song as the third promotional single and as the second official single, taken from the album, to mainstream radio in the United States on January 15, 2013. \"When I Was Your Man\" was written by Mars, Philip Lawrence, Ari Levine and Andrew Wyatt. The former three produced the track under the name the Smeezingtons. The track was inspired by the time Mars was worried about losing his girlfriend, Jessica Caban.\n\nThe pop song is an emotional piano ballad with lyrics describing the heartbreak and regret Mars felt from letting his lover get away, and his expressed hope that her new man will give her all the love and attention that he failed to provide. It features Mars singing and a piano accompaniment as the sole instrumentation. \"When I Was Your Man\" received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who generally praised Mars's vocal prowess, calling it a \"vulnerable and emotional ballad\". \"When I Was Your Man\" topped the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, and reached the top ten on the singles chart of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. It was certified eleven times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), as well as six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and nine times platinum by Music Canada (MC). \"When I Was Your Man\" was the world's eighth best-selling digital single of 2013, with sales of 8.3 million copies.\n\nCameron Duddy and Mars directed the ballad's accompanying music video. It portrays Mars as a \"lonely balladeer\" in sunglasses, sitting at a piano with a half-full glass of whiskey atop it. Critics resoundingly complimented the simplicity of the video's production. The song has been covered by artists, including Mike Ward, who released a studio version of the song after he performed it on The Voice UK. Ward's cover peaked at number 60 in the UK Singles Chart. \"When I Was Your Man\" was also added to the soundtrack of the Brazilian soap opera Amor à Vida. Mars performed the song on The Moonshine Jungle Tour (2013–14) and on the 24K Magic World Tour (2017–18). The song won \"Favorite Hit\" at the 2013 Premios Juventud and was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards.\n\n## Writing and production\n\nWhile working on the album, Bruno Mars said: \"I'm never singing another ballad again,\" but that came from the gut – it's the most honest, real thing I've ever sung,\" he says. \"When there are no safe bets, that's when I feel my blood move.\" He also shared how important the lyrics to this song are for him when he posted a photograph of Unorthodox Jukebox's artwork via his Twitter account. \"Soon you guys will hear a song I wrote called When I Was Your Man. I've never been this nervous. Can't explain it,\" he tweeted. Philip Lawrence explained the inspiration of the song: \"I think Bruno and I are both huge fans of older music, like Billy Joel and Elton John. We always loved those moments where you can sit at the piano and emote. Those intimate moments when an artist is so naked and vulnerable; you can't help but be drawn to it. We always wanted to find a stripped down song like that, which is how that song came to be. The subject matter was real life; Bruno had experienced that, so we tried to say it in the best and catchiest way we could.\"\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" was written by Mars, Lawrence, Ari Levine and Andrew Wyatt, while production was handled by the former three production-team, the Smeezingtons. Mars played the piano, while the recording was done by Levine at Levcon Studios in Los Angeles, California. Charles Moniz was responsible for providing additional engineering to the recording. It was mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in Hollywood by Manny Marroquin. It was mastered by David Kutch at The Mastering Place.\n\n## Composition and lyrics\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" is written in the key of C major. Mars's vocals range from the low note of G<sub>3</sub> to the high note of C<sub>5</sub> with chord progressions Am–C–Dm–G–G<sub>7</sub>–C (verse) and F–G–C (chorus). The pop piano ballad finds Mars singing about a pre-fame heartbreak as he regrets letting his woman get away. It starts with a rolling piano riff; unto a nearly scat \"vocal cadence\": \"Same bed but it feels just a little bit bigger now / Our song on the radio but it don't sound the same\", as he laments the \"single state\" he created for himself. Next, he sings of his failings; to do right by his woman, \"I shoulda bought you flowers / And held your hand / Shoulda gave you all my hours / When I had the chance\". Its title phrase re-emerges in the final chorus, juxtaposed by Bruno from all the things he \"shoulda\" done, into things he hopes his ex's new man will do; concluding: \"Do all of the things I should have done / When I was your man\". In an interview to Rolling Stone, Mars revealed, while reluctant, that he wrote the song for his girlfriend, model Jessica Caban, when he was worried about losing her. In contrast with the song, Mars and Caban stayed together. Mars also said, in the interview, that he finds it difficult to perform the song; saying: \"You're bringing up all these old emotions again,\" and that: \"It's just like bleeding!\"\n\nFor Andrew Unterberger of Pop Dust, the song \"starts out dangerously close to 'Drops of Jupiter' territory, but luckily, there are no fried chicken or soy latte lyrics to be found here.\" He also noted that \"'When I Was Your Man' goes minimal with the musical accompaniment, featuring just Bruno and his piano, sounding halfway between an Alicia Keys ballad and Prince’s \"How Come U Don't Call Me Anymore?\".\" Andy Gill of The Independent called it a \"McCartney-esque piano ballad.\" Melinda Newman of HitFix thought that the song \"sounds like a cross between Stevie Wonder and Elton John,\" also seeing \"a touch of Michael Jackson\" in his delivery. Sam Lansky of Idolator agreed, writing that \"while evoking Elton John, the track sounds like it was recorded live in a piano bar, with audible background noise, like the spooling of film on a projector.\" Robert Copsey of Digital Spy said that Mars lists everything he should have done for the one he loved before she broke up with him. The lyrics find Mars regretful of not giving attention to his ex, as he \"should have bought her\" flowers and treated her better, as he reflects on their past relationship wishing for her new man to treat her better.\n\n## Release\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" was released as the third and final promotional single taken from Unorthodox Jukebox, on December 3, 2012. Later, it was reported by Mars that \"Young Girls\" was scheduled to be the second single from the album. However, a week later, while performing \"When I Was Your Man\" on a TV show, he announced that it would be the second official single from the album. To confirm the news, Mediabase also published that the song will be soon released to radio stations.\n\nAtlantic Records serviced \"When I Was Your Man\" to contemporary hit radio in the United States on January 15, 2013. The single was released on the United Kingdom on February 10, 2013, via digital download. On March 8, 2013, Warner Music Group sent the song for radio airplay in Italy. It was released as a CD single in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland on April 5, 2013.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Critical\n\nThe song has received generally positive reviews from most music critics. Sam Lanksy of Idolator gave the song a favorable review, calling it \"an emotional ballad that shows off Mars’ sweet vocals.\" Lansky also praised it, naming it \"another exceptional offering from Unorthodox Jukebox, which is shaping up to be one of the year's best pop releases.\" Andrew Unterberger of Pop Dust gave the song a rating of 3.5 out of 5 stars, commenting that 'When I Was Your Man' is \"a much more satisfying, less ostentatious ballad than 'Young Girls'— though maybe the lyrics are a little too clichéd to result in a classic soul ballad the way Bruno seems to be going for.\" However, he praised Mars, which according to him, \"nobody puts a song like this over quite like him, and when he hits the big high note on the song's bridge, it's about as striking a moment as you're likely to hear on a pop record this year. It might be a little too perfect to be as devastating as a song like 'Someone Like You', but it might be a big hit just the same, and it's guaranteed to absolutely slay in a live set.\" Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly was positive, writing that \"Old-school charm still gets Mars the furthest, and the best thing here is the classic torch song 'When I Was Your Man', which finds him at the piano listing all the ways he wronged an ex. 'Caused a good, strong woman like you to walk out my life,' he cries in his Sinatra-smooth tenor, oozing charm. Maybe he's a jerk. But he's the jerk that girl's going home with tonight.\"\n\nJon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that \"The piano tells it all on this song, which is one of the most certain on the album.\" Later, he stated, \"If this isn't the beginning of the Billy Joel comeback, people should lose their jobs.\" Jason Lipshut of Billboard wrote that \"it will make for a killer lighters-in-the-air moment in concert. Although it's not quite an Alicia Keys-esque powerhouse, 'When I Was Your Man' smartly allows Mars to momentarily remove his fedora and bare his soul.\" The Arizona Republic's Ed Masley viewed \"When I Was Your Man\" as one of Unorthodox Jukebox best tracks and described it as \"stripped-down soul\". Jim Farber of New York Daily News wrote that in the ballad, \"he matches his bravura performance to a tune stirring enough to inspire aspiring stars on the 'X Factor/Idol' axis for years to come.\" Melinda Newman of HitFix called it a \"beautiful piano ballad,\" writing that \"There's not a lot of embellishment, there are no samples and there is not a wasted note.\" Sandy Cohen from the Associated Press wrote that \"Mars is at his best on the bare piano ballad 'When I Was Your Man'.\" Andrew Chan of Slant Magazine gave a mixed review for the song, writing that \"his melody and lyrics end up sounding as slight as they did before— an embarrassment for an artist who's staked so much of his image on sturdy, old-fashioned songcraft.\" Digital Spy's Robert Copsey preferred \"Locked Out of Heaven\" to \"When I Was Your Man\", despite being \"a kind gesture and all\".\n\n### Awards and recognition\n\nIn 2013, \"When I Was Your Man\" won \"Favorite Hit\" at the 2013 Premios Juventud. It was nominated for Break-Up Song at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards and for That's My Jam at the 2013 NewNowNext Awards. In 2014, the ballad received a nomination for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards and it was also nominated for Favorite Song at the 2014 People's Choice Awards. The single was one of the several winners of the 2014 ASCAP Pop Music Awards for Most Performed Songs, as well as, one of the Top 10 Gold International Gold Songs at the RTHK International Pop Poll Awards. It was the fourth most played song on radio, the eighth most played on Top 40 and on Adult Contemporary radios, according to Nielsen SoundScan Mediabase ranked the song as the 15th most played on Top 40 radio stations in 2013. In the UK, \"When I Was Your Man\" was the tenth pop track most played in 2013.\n\n## Commercial performance\n\n### North America\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" was released on iTunes as a promotional single, leading the song to debut at number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. \"When I Was Your Man\" entered the top 10 the week of February 13, 2013, charting at number nine, becoming Mars's 10th top 10 single. At that time, \"Locked Out of Heaven\" was at number two, and thus Mars became the first male artist to place two titles as a lead act on the Billboard Hot 100 top 10 simultaneously since \"Grenade\" and \"Just the Way You Are\" doubled up for eight consecutive weeks. On February 27, 2013, the song jumped from number 8 to number 3 on the Hot 100 with \"Airplay Gainer\" honors for a seventh week in a row, tying it with Rihanna's \"Rude Boy\" (2010), T-Pain's \"Buy U a Drank (Shawty Snappin'),\" featuring Yung Joc (2007), and Beyonce's \"Baby Boy,\" featuring Sean Paul (2003), for the longest streak dating to the award's 1985 launch. The song reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, in its 16th week after being discounted to 69 cents on the iTunes music store, making it Mars's slowest-peaking single. It also became the second number one song in the charts to feature exclusively piano and vocals after Adele's \"Someone like You\" in 2011. With \"When I Was Your Man\" topping the Billboard Hot 100, Mars reached the same mark as Diddy, Ludacris, Prince and Lionel Richie. Elvis Presley was the only male who reached five leaders more quickly than Mars. It stayed at number one for one week.\n\nOn the Radio Songs chart, \"When I Was Your Man\" peaked at number one, becoming Mars's fifth number-one on the chart. Among men, Mars tied 50 Cent and trailed Usher, Ludacris and Kanye West, the latter two with six number-ones and the former with seven, since the chart's 1990 start. At that time, Mariah Carey led the list with 11 songs peaking at number one on the chart. On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, \"When I Was Your Man\" peaked at number 1, giving Mars the highest total among solo males of number one songs (six) on the chart (only Katy Perry and Rihanna lead all acts with eleven number one's each). After a year, Justin Timberlake's \"Not a Bad Thing\" passed Mars for most number one songs on the Mainstream Top 40. It became the ninth best-selling song of 2013 in the US with 3,928,000 downloads. As of January 2014, it has sold over 4,123,000 copies in the US. It was certified eleven times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).\n\nOn the Canadian Hot 100 chart, the song peaked at number 3 and spent 32 weeks on the chart. \"When I Was Your Man\" topped the Canadian CHR/Top 40 and Hot AC charts. It was certified nine times platinum by Music Canada (MC).\n\nThe popularity of \"When I Was Your Man\" resurged in January 2023, after Miley Cyrus released the single \"Flowers\", which lyrics interpolated the song's chorus. In the week ending on January 19 the song rose from 4.5 million to 5.3 million in weekly streams in the United States, a 19.5 percent gain.\n\n### International\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom and it was certified three times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). On the Danish Singles Chart, the single debuted at number 23 on February 15, 2013 and reached a high point of number four on March 8, 2013, and on March 22, 2013. It was certified double-platinum by the IFPI Denmark, indicating streams of 3,600,000. \"When I Was Your Man\" entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 26 on January 1, 2013. After three weeks the song entered the top ten, at its highest peak, number four, remaining for two non-consecutive weeks. It has received a double-platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), denoting sales of 30,000 copies. In Australia, the song debuted at number 44 on the ARIA Charts week of December 23, 2012. In its fifth week, the song peaked at number six, becoming his sixth top-ten single in Australia. It was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In South Korea, the track peaked at number 7 on the \"International Download Chart\". It was the eighth best selling digital single of 2013 with sales of 8.3 million copies.\n\n## Music video\n\n### Development and synopsis\n\nThe music video of the song was directed by Cameron Duddy and Mars, and was released February 5, 2013. The video portrays the taping of a TV special, in which Mars is playing a lonely balladeer on the ivories while sitting in front of a piano with sunglasses donned and a half-full glass of whiskey atop his instrument, wearing a suit with a carnation boutonnière, while he keeps reminding himself of what he could have done to keep his lover. The video is based on 70's vibe and retro effects. The set and the idea of the video is similar to one used for \"Love in the Key of C\", a 1997 Belinda Carlisle minor hit.\n\n### Reception\n\nRolling Stone, called the video \"powerful\" and a found \"the final crescendo reaching a breaking point of true sorrow\". Chris Payne, from Billboard called the music video \"somber\". Nicole Sia of Spin praised \"the song's visual\". According to Lansky of Idolator, \"the clip, which is basically just Mars...sitting and singing at the piano...works\". He continued, \"While he certainly could have gone for something a little more high-concept, the clip's elegant framing just draws attention to...the song\".\n\n## Live performances\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" was performed live for the first time on the season three finale of US The Voice. Mars performed the song back by two piano players. Rap-Up considered that Mars \"rocked the stage\" during his performance, while EW's Hillary Bussis found the crowd to \"go crazy\" because of his lyrics or persuading Mars \"to ditch those Cee Lo shades\". He also performed the song on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on January 10, 2013. The performance had Mars with piano accompaniment. Kyle McGovern of Spin wrote that \"he swells and contracts with every new regret and heartbroken epiphany.\" McGovern also stated, \"Mars might still be locked out of heaven, but it sounds like he's getting closer to the angels.\" \"When I Was Your Man\" was performed at The Jonathan Ross Show after an interview, on March 3, 2013. The song was performed at season five the finale of Let's Dance for Comic Relief, on March 9, 2013. On April 3, 2013, Mars performed the song live on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. Carl Williott called the performance \"flawless\".\n\nIt was sung on the show Vivement Dimanche, on April 7, 2013. On May 26, 2013, the single was performed at the Radio 1's Big Weekend. \"When I Was Your Man\" was sung on The Moonshine Jungle Tour (2013–2015), on his debut concert residency, Bruno Mars at The Chelsea, Las Vegas (2013–2015), and during the 24K Magic World Tour (2017–2018). The song was part of the setlist of An Evening With Silk Sonic at Park MGM (2022), a concert residency performed by Mars with Anderson .Paak, as Silk Sonic. They performed it as a medley of \"Put on a Smile\" of Silk Sonic's debut studio album An Evening With Silk Sonic (2021), and \"Make It Better\", a song included on .Paak's fourth studio album Ventura (2019) featuring Smokey Robinson.\n\n## Cover versions and usage in media\n\nIn 2013, The Voice UK contestant Mike Ward performed the song during the competition. A studio version of his performance was released and peaked at number 60 in the UK Singles Chart. Country singer Thomas Rhett recorded a cover of the song as a 'thank-you' to fans. The song was released for sale on February 3, 2015 and it debuted at No. 27 on the Hot Country Songs chart and despite failing to reach the Billboard Hot 100, it peaked inside of the Bubbling Under Hot 100, which acts as an extension of the former chart, peaking at number 7 there.\n\n\"When I Was Your Man\" was included on the soundtrack of the Brazilian soap opera Amor à Vida. In January 2023, American singer Miley Cyrus issued the single \"Flowers\", which chorus is a paraphrase of the chorus of \"When I Was Your Man\". However, editors of Billboard noted that songs' similarities are not based on sampling, thus writers of the aforementioned song did not need to be credited as co-writers of \"Flowers\".\n\n## Track listing\n\n## Personnel\n\nCredits adapted from the liner notes of Unorthodox Jukebox.\n\n- Bruno Mars – lead vocals, songwriting, piano\n- Philip Lawrence – songwriting\n- Ari Levine – songwriting, recording\n- Andrew Wyatt – songwriting\n- The Smeezingtons – production\n- Charles Moniz – additional engineer\n- Manny Marroquin – mixing\n- David Kutch – mastering\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## Release history\n\n### Promotional release\n\n### Single release\n\n## See also\n\n- List of best-selling singles\n- List of best-selling singles in Australia\n- List of best-selling singles in the United States\n- List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2013 (U.S.)\n- List of Mainstream Top 40 number-one hits of 2013 (U.S.)\n- List of Adult Top 40 number-one songs of the 2010s\n- List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 2013 (U.S.)", "revid": "1172793429", "description": "2013 single by Bruno Mars", "categories": ["2010s ballads", "2012 songs", "2013 singles", "Atlantic Records singles", "Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles", "Bruno Mars songs", "Music videos directed by Cameron Duddy", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by the Smeezingtons", "Songs about jealousy", "Songs written by Andrew Wyatt", "Songs written by Ari Levine", "Songs written by Bruno Mars", "Songs written by Philip Lawrence (songwriter)", "Torch songs"]}
{"id": "53395457", "url": null, "title": "Village East by Angelika", "text": "Village East by Angelika (also Village East, originally the Louis N. Jaffe Art Theatre, and formerly known by several other names) is a movie theater at 189 Second Avenue, on the corner with 12th Street, in the East Village of Manhattan in New York City. Part of the former Yiddish Theatre District, the theater was designed in the Moorish Revival style by Harrison Wiseman and built from 1925 to 1926 by Louis Jaffe. In addition to Yiddish theatre, the theater has hosted off-Broadway shows, burlesque, and movies. Since 1991, it has been operated by Angelika Film Center as a seven-screen multiplex. Both the exterior and interior of the theater are New York City designated landmarks, and the theater is on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\nVillage East's main entrance is through a three-story office wing on Second Avenue, which has a facade of cast stone. The auditorium is housed in the rear along 12th Street. The first story contains storefronts and a lobby, while the second and third stories contained offices, which were converted into apartments in the 1960s. The main lobby connects to another lobby along 12th Street with a promenade behind the auditorium. The auditorium consists of a ground-level orchestra and one overhanging balcony with boxes. The balcony remains in its original condition, but the orchestra and former stage area have been divided into six screens.\n\nThe Louis N. Jaffe Art Theatre was originally used by the Yiddish Art Theatre and largely served as a Yiddish playhouse from 1926 to 1945. It opened on November 17, 1926, with The Tenth Commandment. The Yiddish Art Theatre moved out of the theater after two seasons, and it became the Yiddish Folks Theatre. The venue was leased by Molly Picon in 1930–1931 and by Misha and Lucy German in 1931–1932. The Yiddish Arts Theatre then performed at the theater until 1934, after which the Yiddish Folks continued for two more years. From 1936 to 1944, the building was a movie theater called the Century Theatre, hosting Yiddish performances during two seasons.\n\nAfter a decline in Yiddish theater, the Jaffe Art Theatre was renamed the Stuyvesant Theatre in 1946 and continued as a movie theater for seven years. The then-new Phoenix Theatre used the playhouse from 1953 to 1961. The Jaffe Art Theatre then became the Casino East Theatre, which hosted the burlesque production This Was Burlesque for three years before becoming a burlesque house called the Gayety Theatre in 1965. The theater was renamed yet again in 1969, this time operating as the off-Broadway Eden Theatre until 1976, showing the revue Oh! Calcutta!. The venue was then converted into a movie theater, the 12th Street Cinema, before returning to live shows in 1977 under the name Entermedia Theatre (renamed the Second Avenue Theatre in 1985). After closing in 1988, the Jaffe Art Theatre was renovated into Village East Cinema, reopening in 1991. Angelika rebranded the theater in 2021.\n\n## Description\n\nVillage East, originally the Yiddish Art Theatre, is at the southwestern corner of East 12th Street and Second Avenue in the East Village of Manhattan in New York City, within the former Yiddish Theatre District. The theater occupies a rectangular land lot of 12,077 square feet (1,122.0 m<sup>2</sup>), with a frontage of 103 feet (31 m) on Second Avenue and 117.25 feet (36 m) on 12th Street. It is composed of two sections: a three-story office wing with a cast-stone facade, facing east on Second Avenue, as well as an auditorium wing with a brown-brick facade, extending westward along 12th Street. The site is a block north of St. Mark's Church.\n\nThe theater was built by Louis Jaffe, a developer and prominent Jewish community leader, for Maurice Schwartz's Yiddish Art Theatre, which presented works in Yiddish. The theater was designed in the Moorish Revival style by Harrison Wiseman, while William Pogany consulted on the interior design. Despite the prevalence of Yiddish theaters in the area in the early 20th century, the Jaffe Art Theatre was the only one in the Yiddish Theatre District that was specifically built for a Yiddish theatrical group. By the 21st century, Village East was the only remaining Yiddish theater building on Second Avenue, the one-time center of the Yiddish Theatre District.\n\n### Facade\n\nOn the building's Second Avenue elevation, the first two stories consist of a double-height arcade with seven arches, each corresponding to one bay. The main entrance is in the second-northernmost bay and is taller and wider than the others. This bay contains a large archway surrounded by panels with geometric and foliate decorations. There are four metal-and-glass doors at the ground floor, with a projecting triangular marquee sign above. The marquee was originally rectangular and had decorations at its corners. To the left (south) of the main entrance is a door to the upper office stories, topped by a lintel with the inscribed words \"Jaffe Art Theatre Bldg\". To the right (north) is a sign board and a cornerstone, containing an inscription of the Gregorian date May 23, 1926, in English and the corresponding Hebrew calendar date in Hebrew. The intrados, near the top of the arch, contains capitals shaped like half-menorahs. Above those, seven Moorish-style openings with medallions are arranged in a semicircle. The top of the entrance bay contains a cornice supported by round corbels.\n\nThe other six arches are identical round-arched openings and are separated by paneled pilasters. The top of each pilaster contains a capital with foliate and geometric motifs and birds. The smaller arches formerly contained six storefronts, one in each bay. After the building was converted into a cinema in 1990, the northernmost bay was converted to an interior staircase, while the two bays immediately south of the main entrance became ticket counters. The remaining storefronts in the three southernmost bays contain aluminum storefronts at the first floor, as well as aluminum spandrel panels between the first and second floors. At the third floor, there are two small arched windows in each bay. These are separated by pilasters with guilloche motifs, which are topped by capitals with foliate decorations. The roof above the northernmost bay contains a small dormer unit, while the roof above the southern five bays is a terrace.\n\nThe easternmost portion of the 12th Street elevation contains two bays of double-height arches and paired windows, similar to those in the Second Avenue elevation. The steel-framed auditorium structure is clad in brick. The outer portions of the auditorium facade are treated as pavilions. They are slightly taller than the rest of the auditorium and protrude slightly from the central section of the facade. Each outer pavilion contains a metal gate at ground level, above which is an arched opening with a fire stair behind it. The center of the facade contains a cast-stone doorway surrounding five sets of exit doors. There is a carved corbel on either side of the doorway. Above the doors is a blind brick arch, surrounding a panel with pink terracotta quatrefoils. The top of the auditorium facade is made of a band of cast stone. An alley runs to the west of the theater.\n\n### Interior\n\nThe interior is decorated in a gold, blue, rose, cream, and silver color scheme. Many of the interior decorations are inspired by the Alhambra in Spain. The decorations also contain elements of Moorish, Islamic, and Judaic architecture. Most decorations resemble their original condition, even though the layout of the theater has been substantially changed. The interior of Village East was used as a filming location for the films The Night They Raided Minsky's in 1968 and The Fan in 1981, as well as a promotional video for Reese's Peanut Butter Cups in 1984.\n\n#### Lobbies\n\nThe theater has two lobbies. The main one on Second Avenue was a square space (subsequently expanded to a rectangular space), while a secondary lobby on 12th Street provides access to the balcony level. When the theater was converted into a movie theater in the early 1990s, all of the floor surfaces were covered or replaced with a carpet containing red, gold, blue, and gray patterns.\n\nOriginally, the main lobby had a floor made of terracotta, with a pattern of white rhombus motifs. The box office was on the north wall, while the south wall contained mirrored panels. Only the original ceiling of the main lobby remains intact. The center of the ceiling contains a medallion; the edges of the ceiling contain a frieze with corbels, as well as decorative rectangular and square panels. During the early-1990s renovation, the lobby was expanded southward, and a concession stand and a wall of poster boards were installed. The lobby also contains an exhibit about the history of Yiddish theatre.\n\nOn the northern side of the theater building, to the right of the main lobby, is the 12th Street lobby. The walls there are buff-colored and are designed to resemble travertine. The exit doors on the north wall contain trefoil arches, corbels, and Moorish exit signs. The ceiling has three circular chandeliers and is ornately designed with floral symbols and circles. The 12th Street lobby connects to a pair of segmentally arched alcoves, inside which are stairs descending to the basement.\n\nOn the north wall of the 12th Street lobby, two curved staircases with wrought-iron railings lead up to a narrow promenade behind the balcony-level seating. The underside of the balcony promenade (immediately above the 12th Street lobby) contains three medallions, each of which contains six-pointed arabesques, as well as recessed lighting fixtures and a decorative border. Above the promenade are four rectangular panels and one square panel, each with cartouches at its center, in addition to recessed lighting. Small staircases at the western and eastern ends of the promenade lead up to the top of the balcony-level seating.\n\n#### Auditorium\n\nThe auditorium has an orchestra level, a balcony, boxes, and a proscenium arch that originally had a stage behind it. The auditorium is oriented toward the south, with the rear wall and 12th Street lobby being to the north. The original auditorium contained 1,143, 1,236, 1,252, or 1,265 seats. The orchestra level was initially raked, sloping down toward an orchestra pit in front of the stage. The stage originally measured 30 by 36 feet (9.1 by 11.0 m) across.\n\nIn 1990, the theater was multiplexed, being split into a seven-screen movie theater. Most of the original decorations remain intact, although the seating at orchestra level was raised to the height of the original stage. Screens 1 through 5 are within the original auditorium, while screens 6 and 7 are within the stage area. In all seven screens, the seats are 21 to 22 inches (530 to 560 mm) wide, larger than similar theaters. The balcony level is the largest and most ornate screen; it originally had 500 seats. Below the balcony are four additional screens: two 200-seat venues within the original orchestra level, a 175-seat venue in a former basement restaurant, and a 75-seat venue in a sidewalk vault. The stage area was divided into two screens, one above the other. The lower screen is at the level of the original stage, while the upper screen is about 60 feet (18 m) above the ground, within the former fly loft.\n\nThe side walls of the auditorium are made of textured plaster and were initially painted in a buff color, though it was subsequently repainted blue-gray. The front of the balcony is decorated with rosettes and round-arched panels, atop which are a parapet and railing. After the original auditorium was multiplexed, a lower balcony was created in front of the original balcony, connected to it by double staircases. The lower balcony has an exit to the promenade, directly below the original balcony, as well as a ramp leading to an exit on the north wall. There are 40 seats within the lower balcony. On either side of the proscenium arch is a wall section with one box at the balcony level. The boxes are each recessed within a pointed Moorish arch, which is framed by vermiculated quoins and topped by voussoirs. The inner reveals of the boxes contain colonettes, above which are lambrequin arches. The fronts of the boxes contain rosettes and round-arched panels, which wrap around to the front of the balcony. Next to the boxes is a flat proscenium arch, which is surrounded by floral and geometric decorations. The proscenium opening has been bricked up, and a movie screen for the balcony-level seats has been installed within the proscenium.\n\nThe middle of the ceiling contains a shallow circular dome measuring 40 feet (12 m) across. At the center of the dome is a medallion with the Star of David, which is enclosed within a larger six-pointed star with trefoils at its \"points\". A metal chandelier with two tiers hangs from the center of the dome. The outer border of the dome is decorated with wrought-iron grilles and motifs of the Star of David. There are also fascia panels around the dome, some of which have been modified to accommodate projection equipment and ventilation openings. Outside of the dome, the ceiling contains ornate gilded plaster moldings. The decoration is intended to resemble a honeycomb and contains rosettes, eight-pointed stars, and strapwork. There are ducts near where the ceiling intersects with the walls. The ceiling is actually made of 3-by-3-foot (0.91 by 0.91 m) panels suspended from the roof via iron bars.\n\n#### Other spaces\n\nAbove the stage were twelve dressing rooms, as well as access to the space above the dome. Under the stage were offices, storage rooms, and access to the orchestra pit. In addition, the theater's restrooms, lounge, and administrative offices were in the basement behind the auditorium (near 12th Street). The lounge contained busts of prominent playwrights and performers in Yiddish theatre, such as Abraham Goldfaden, David Kessler, Jacob Pavlovich Adler, Jacob Gordin, and Sholem Aleichem. The basement also included a restaurant and cabaret/nightclub.\n\nThe second and third stories along Second Avenue contained rehearsal rooms. These were accessed from the third bay from north, just left of the main entrance. These floors also contained offices. The Russian Art Restaurant took up one of the storefronts for several years. Among the building's office tenants were the Jewish National Workers Alliance, Yiddisher Kultur Farband, and Jewish Folk Schools. The offices were converted into apartments in the 1960s. The residents included actress Jackie Curtis, photographer Peter Hujar, and painter David Wojnarowicz.\n\n## History\n\nDuring the 1880s, New York City's Jewish immigrant population started moving to the East Village and the Lower East Side in large numbers; many immigrants were Ashkenazi Jews who spoke Yiddish. The Yiddish Theatre District was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to provide entertainment for the growing Jewish population. While most early Yiddish theaters were south of Houston Street, many producers moved north along Second Avenue in the early 20th century. One of them was Maurice Schwartz, who came from Ukraine and founded the Yiddish Art Theatre in 1918. The theatre company was originally housed in several theater buildings. Developer and lawyer Louis N. Jaffe had watched one of the Yiddish Art Theatre's shows at Madison Square Garden and was so impressed that he decided to build a dedicated building for the company.\n\n### Development and opening\n\nIn May 1925, Jaffe acquired a site on 12th Street and Second Avenue, formerly part of the Stuyvesant Farm. He hired Harrison G. Wiseman to design a building with a 1,200-seat theater for Schwartz's company. The theater would be designed in what media described as an \"old Jerusalem\" style. In addition to being the Yiddish Art Theatre's home, the building would contain offices for the theatre company's staff and the Jaffe Art Film Corporation; a gymnasium; and a theatrical library. The theatre company would lease the theater at a nominal price. The demolition of Madison Square Garden had forced the Yiddish Art Players to relocate to the Nora Bayes Theatre in the midtown Theater District. Initially, the project was to have been completed in December 1925.Wiseman filed plans with the New York City Department of Buildings (DOB) at the end of May 1925, shortly after Jaffe acquired the site. The building was to cost \\$235,000. The DOB initially objected to the project because of its location within a residential neighborhood, the lack of exits to the west, and the absence of a setback along Second Avenue. Site-clearing began the next month, and five old houses were torn down to make way for the theater. Olga Loev, widow of Sholem Aleichem, laid the theater's cornerstone at a ceremony on May 23, 1926. Playwright Herman Bernstein said that the event was \"of magnitude for Jews in America\", given the Yiddish Art Theatre's success in spite of early difficulties. Portraits of Abraham Goldfaden (the \"father of the Yiddish theatre movement\") and Peter Stuyvesant (the owner of the Stuyvesant Farm) were placed inside the cornerstone. Jaffe said he wanted the theater to be \"a permanent monument to prove that the Jewish immigrant to [the United States] is a useful citizen and makes a definite contribution to the country\", responding to anti-Semitic comments that Stuyvesant had made three centuries prior.\n\nBy mid-1926, the Jaffe Art Theater was expected to open that September, but it remained closed past that date. Schwartz then planned to open the theater on November 11 with The Tenth Commandment, his adaptation of Goldfaden's play Thou Shalt Not Covet. Before the theater opened, the New York Herald Tribune called it \"a lasting monument to Yiddish art\", while The New York Times said the theater building \"will be the most attractive amusement structure in that locality\". The Louis N. Jaffe Art Theater opened on November 17, 1926, with The Tenth Commandment. In the opening-night program, Schwartz described the theater's opening as the \"culmination of a lifelong dream\". The opening-night visitors included theatrical personalities such as Daniel Frohman, Owen Davis, and Robert Milton, as well as non-theatrical notables such as Otto Kahn and Fannie Hurst. The theater, which cost \\$1 million to construct, was not officially completed until January 8, 1927.\n\n### Yiddish shows\n\nThe Jaffe Art Theatre was one of the last Yiddish theaters to open on Second Avenue, having been completed just as Yiddish theater was starting to decline. From 1926 to 1945, the Jaffe Art Theatre largely hosted Yiddish productions, though it changed names several times based on whichever company appeared there. It hosted not only straight plays but also revues, musicals, and operettas. Notable performers during this era included Joseph Buloff, Celia Adler, Luba Kadison, Ludwig Satz, Molly Picon, Menasha Skulnik, Joseph M. Rumshinsky, Ola Lilith, and Jacob Ben-Ami. Yiddish theatre historian Nahma Sandrow referred to the theater as \"a temple\" for Yiddish theatre, saying: \"It was more than just a physical building; it really existed in people's cultural consciousnesses\".\n\n#### 1920s\n\nFor the rest of the 1926–1927 season, the Jaffe Art Theatre was occupied by limited runs of six productions: Mendele Spivak in 1926 and Her Crime, Reverend Doctor Silver, Yoske Musicanti, Wolves, and Menschen Shtoib in early 1927. After a summer hiatus, the theater then reopened the 1927–1928 season with the play Greenberg's Daughters in September 1927. The season also featured the play The Gardener's Dog, the first American production by Boris Glagolin's Moscow Revolution Theater. Other plays of that season included The Gold Diggers and On Foreign Soil in late 1927, as well as Alexander Pushkin and American Chasidim in early 1928. Schwartz appeared in many of these plays. Despite high expectations, the theater performed worse than expected in its first two seasons. Among the reasons for this were the rise of talking pictures, negotiations with performers' unions, and a decline in Jewish immigration.\n\nIn April 1928, Jaffe leased the theater to the Amboard Theatre Corporation, headed by Morris Lifschitz. The next month, the Louis N. Jaffe Art Theatre Corporation sold the theater to a client of Jacob I. Berman. The Yiddish Art Theatre moved out after two seasons because Schwartz had severed his agreement with Jaffe. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) stated that the Jaffe Art Theatre remained vacant for the 1928–1929 season, but contemporary news reports indicate that the Yiddish Folk Theatre occupied the building during that season, starting with a dance recital in September 1928. The Yiddish Folks Theatre gave at least two other performances at the theater, both directed by Ludwig Satz. His Wife's Lover opened in October 1929, followed by If the Rabbi Wants that December.\n\n#### 1930s\n\nThe comedienne Molly Picon leased the Jaffe Art Theatre in June 1930, and it was renamed Molly Picon's Folks Theatre. Isaac Lipshitz acquired the theater in a foreclosure proceeding that August, and the play The Girl of Yesterday opened the next month, starring Picon. This was followed in January 1931 by the play The Love Thief, also starring Picon. Prosper Realty Corporation was recorded as taking ownership of the theater that February. Misha and Lucy German (also spelled Gehrman) leased the theater in May 1931, and the theater was rebranded yet again as the Germans' Folks Theatre. Under the German family's ownership, the theater hosted at least four performances: One Woman in 1931 and In a Tenement House, Pioneers, and Wedding Chains in 1932.\n\nThe Yiddish Art Theatre returned to the theater after Schwartz leased it for the 1932–1933 season. The company opened the season with Yoshe Kalb, which ran for 235 performances at the theater and was then performed on Broadway in English, for a total of 300 performances. Other Yiddish plays performed in 1932–1933 included Chayim Lederer, Legend of Yiddish King Lear, Bread, and Revolt. Schwartz also leased the theater for the 1933–1934 season, when he hosted Wise Men of Chelm, Josephus, and Modern Children. The theatrical company departed in April 1934, and the venue again became the Yiddish Folks Theatre, since Schwartz owned the rights to the \"Yiddish Art Theatre\" name. Under the direction of Joseph Buloff, the New York Art Troupe leased the theater for the 1934–1935 season, hosting eight plays there.\n\nMenasha Skulnik and Joseph M. Rumshinsky signed a lease for the theater in April 1935, then announced plans to lease the theater as a movie house \"until the fall\". One newspaper proclaimed that the Yiddish Folks Theatre would become the world's first movie theater that hosted films exclusively in Yiddish, though it is unknown whether this ever happened. The first live show that Skulnik and Rumshinsky hosted at the theater was Fishel der Gerutener (English: \"The Perfect Fishel\"), which opened in September 1935. The men hosted three other shows: Schlemiehl in September 1936, Straw Hero in November 1936, and The Galician Rabbi in 1937.\n\n#### Decline and film conversion\n\nBy the late 1930s, the popularity of Yiddish theatre was starting to wane. Various reasons were cited for the decline, including a slowdown in the number of Jewish immigrants after World War I and the fact that younger Jews were blending in with American culture. In addition, the city's Jewish population dispersed from the Lower East Side and East Village. By March 1937, just ten years after the Yiddish Folks Theatre had opened, independent film operators Weinstock and Hertzig planned to lease the theater for movies. Saulray Theatres Corporation leased the theater the next month, and it became a movie theater called the Century. The conversion occurred as similar Yiddish venues in the East Village and Lower East Side had become movie houses. Shortly after the Century reopened, its sound equipment was replaced. The theater went into foreclosure by September 1937 and was taken over by the Greater New York Savings Bank.\n\nIn June 1940, the Yiddish Folks Theatre leased the Century for one season. The Yiddish Folks Players then presented Sunrise that October, followed by Sixty Years of Yiddish Theatre, a musical in honor of Rumshinsky, in January 1941. The troupe's manager Jacob Wexler died in the middle of the 1940–1941 season, and Ola Lilith took over the troupe's management. The third and final Yiddish show of the season was A Favorn Vinkel (\"The Forsaken Nook\") in February 1941, with a special performance in honor of Ludwig Satz. The Century's operators announced that March that they would return the theater to a film policy, showing three American feature films every day. After a renovation, the Century screened the feature film Gone with the Wind that April. In addition, O'Gara & Co. Inc. was hired to lease out the office space on Second Avenue.\n\nIn 1942, the Greater New York Savings Bank leased the theater to the Century Theatre Company for ten years. The bank then leased the Jaffe Art Theatre in January 1944 to Benjamin Benito, who planned to stage Italian opera and vaudeville there. The Raynes Realty Company acquired the theater from the bank that September and discontinued Benito's lease. Jacob Ben-Ami's New Jewish Folk Theater leased the theater during the 1944–1945 season, operating it as the Century Theatre. Ben-Ami presented two shows, The Miracle of the Warsaw Ghetto by H. Leivick and We Will Live by David Bergelson, in what was the theater's last season as a Yiddish theatrical venue. By then, many Yiddish speakers had been murdered in the Holocaust, further contributing to the decline in Yiddish theatre. The Jaffe Art Theatre then reopened as a 1,082-seat movie theater, the Stuyvesant Theatre, around March 1946. The theater continued to screen films until 1953.\n\n### Off-Broadway use\n\n#### Phoenix Theatre era\n\nIn October 1953, Norris Houghton and T. Edward Hambleton formed the Phoenix Theatre company and leased the Jaffe Art Theatre, initially for a series of five plays. The Phoenix Theatre was a pioneering project in the development of off-Broadway, with a different approach to legitimate theatre than found on Broadway. Houghton and Hambleton had wanted a theater away from Broadway's Theater District. The Jaffe Art Theatre had appealed to them because it was newer than most Broadway venues and also because it was close to Stuyvesant Town–Peter Cooper Village, which had 30,000 residents. The group planned to charge a relatively cheap \\$1.20 to \\$3.00 per ticket; in return, performers would not be paid more than \\$100 per week, and each show would have a four-week limited run. A writer for Variety described Phoenix's formation as \"one of the most important off-Broadway developments of recent years\".\n\nPhoenix's first production was Sidney Howard's play Madam, Will You Walk?, which opened in December 1953 with Hume Cronyn and Jessica Tandy. Other notable shows of the 1953–1954 season included Coriolanus, 'The Golden Apple', and The Seagull. The troupe's first season was successful; The Golden Apple transferred to Broadway, while The Seagull was sold out through its limited run. This prompted Houghton to renew his lease on the theater. The 1954–1955 season included the plays Sing Me No Lullaby, The Doctor's Dilemma, and The Master Builder, as well as the revue Phoenix '55. The theater also started hosting Sideshows, a set of \"programs of diverse entertainment\", on Monday nights during that season. Additionally, air-conditioning was installed in the theater around 1955 so shows could be presented there during the summer. The presence of the Phoenix Theatre and other off-Broadway companies on Second Avenue contributed to a revival of the former theatrical hub there.\n\nDuring the 1955–1956 season, Phoenix presented plays from aspiring directors at the Jaffe Art Theatre as part of an experimental program. The regular season also included the plays Six Characters in Search of an Author, The Adding Machine, Miss Julie and The Stronger in repertory, and A Month in the Country. For the 1956–1957 season, Phoenix changed its policy to present exclusively revivals of 18th- and 19th-century works. The shows during this season included Saint Joan, Diary of a Scoundrel, The Good Woman of Setzuan, Measure for Measure, The Taming of the Shrew, and The Duchess of Malfi. After the season ended, Phoenix was reorganized as a nonprofit in an attempt to solve its financial troubles, and Theater Incorporated took over the theater building. After Phoenix's reorganization, the theater hosted several shows during the 1957–1958 season, including Mary Stuart, The Makropulos Secret, The Chairs and The Lesson in repertory, The Infernal Machine, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Broken Jug, La Malade Imaginaire, and three Molière plays in repertory. Phoenix continued to lose money and had a relatively small 3,000 subscribers during 1957–1958.\n\nFor the 1958–1959 season, Phoenix decided to book plays by Nobel Prize-winning writers such as T. S. Eliot. The plays during that season included The Family Reunion, Britannicus, The Power and the Glory, The Beaux' Stratagem, and Once Upon a Mattress. After launching a drive to enroll new subscribers in April 1959, the theatrical company enrolled 9,000 subscribers and obtained \\$150,000 in subsidies by that June. This enabled Phoenix to pre-select all of the plays in a season, rather than booking plays as the season progressed, for the first time in the troupe's history. The theater then hosted plays such as Lysistrata, Peer Gynt, and part 1 and part 2 of Shakespeare's Henry IV during 1959–1960. Phoenix's last full season at the theater, in 1960–1961, consisted of H.M.S. Pinafore, She Stoops to Conquer, The Plough and the Stars, The Octoroon, and Hamlet. The company relocated to the much smaller 74th Street Theater in late 1961 after The Pirates of Penzance, the first play of the 1961–1962 season, was staged at the Second Avenue theater. This move was prompted by the fact that, after its first season, Phoenix had consistently operated at a loss and could not fill the Jaffe Art Theatre.\n\n#### Burlesque and nude era\n\nIn November 1961, Michael Iannucci and Milton Warner leased the Jaffe Art Theatre for one year, with an option to renew for another year. The next month, the theater was renamed the Casino East Theater and reopened with a Yiddish-language show, Gezunt un Meshuga (\"Hale and Crazy\"). By then, it had 1,150 seats. In March 1962, Casino East hosted the satirical burlesque production This Was Burlesque starring Ann Corio. During this time, Iannucci managed the front of house, or the publicly accessible parts of the theater. Corio oversaw the stage and backstage operations, with a speaker in her dressing room that allowed her to hear everything on stage. The revue was successful, ultimately lasting 1,509 performances at the Casino. This Was Burlesque ultimately relocated to the Hudson Theatre on Broadway in March 1965. Corio said that tourists could not find Casino East and that ticket sellers could more easily sell tickets to the show if it were on Broadway.\n\nAfterward, Casino East became the Gayety Theater, the only burlesque theater in Manhattan. The venue was operated by Leroy Griffith, who had opened the burlesque venue there following the success of Corio's show. The operator charged \\$4 admission, higher than at the Hudson Theatre. The off-Broadway production Oh! Calcutta!, a revue in which all the cast members were nude, was announced for the theater in April 1969, upon which point the venue was renamed the Eden Theater. The revue's producer George Platt explained the renaming by saying, \"We're not doing a burlesque show, we're doing a legitimate show.\" Oh! Calcutta! opened at the theater in June 1969. While the Eden was as large as a standard Broadway theater, Oh! Calcutta! used an off-Broadway contract that limited the audience to 499 seats; nonetheless, the show made a profit at the Eden. The revue moved to Broadway's Belasco Theatre in February 1971 after running for 704 performances.\n\n#### Yiddish revival and legitimate shows\n\nIn March 1971 the Broadway musical Man of La Mancha moved from the Martin Beck Theatre to the Eden. La Mancha operated under a Broadway contract, which allowed all of the Eden's seats to be used; the musical moved to Broadway's Mark Hellinger Theatre after three months. That June, Jacob Jacobs leased the Eden with plans to host Yiddish shows there. Next, the rock musical Grease opened in February 1972 under a Broadway contract that allowed all seats to be used. The musical moved to the Broadhurst Theatre that June and later became Broadway's longest-running musical. By then, Jewish Nostalgic Productions was raising funds for a series of Yiddish plays at the Eden.\n\nThe revue Crazy Now opened at the Eden in September 1972, followed the next month by a revival of Yoshe Kalb. In early 1973, the theater also hosted a dance special by Larry Richardson and the Broadway musical Smith, the latter of which relocated to the Alvin Theatre. Jewish Nostalgic Productions staged several more shows, of which three had more than 100 performances. For the 1973–1974 season, the Eden was occupied by Aleichem's play Hard To Be a Jew. This was followed in the 1974–1975 season by another Aleichem play, Dos Groyse Gevins (\"The Big Winner\"), as well as a short run of A Wedding in Shtetel. Senyar Holding Company, a firm owned by Martin Raynes, took ownership of the theater in March 1975. During the 1975–1976 season, the Eden hosted Sylvia Regan's musical The Fifth Season. The theater had become the 12th Street Cinema by mid-1976, but this use only lasted a short time.\n\nBy September 1977, the Jaffe Art Theatre was known as the Entermedia Theater. The theater reopened the next month with The Possessed, a dance special by Pearl Lang. Its operator Entermedia presented not only films but also dance, experimental legitimate shows, and other events. Among the Entermedia's early shows was the musical The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas, which opened in 1978 and subsequently transferred to Broadway, as well as the musical God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater in 1979. The theater also hosted events such as an independent film festival, a jazz showcase, and a samurai film festival. The musical Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, which later transferred to Broadway, opened at the Entermedia in 1981 and was so successful that its audience was allowed to use all the seats. Other popular shows at the theater were the 1982 play Lennon and the 1983 musical Taking My Turn. The Jaffe Art Theatre was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 19, 1985. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission also considered protecting the theater as a landmark in 1985 and 1986 but did not make a decision.\n\nEntermedia left the theater in 1985, and the venue was leased to M Square Productions, which renamed it the Second Avenue Theater. It was one of M Square's three off-Broadway houses. M Square's managing director Alan J. Schuster said the company wanted \"to have a legitimate theater and a film theater at the Second Avenue\" without incurring the exorbitant costs of Broadway theatre contracts. The movie theater would have been above the legitimate theater, but these plans never materialized. The Second Avenue hosted Zalmen Mlotek and Moishe Rosenfeld's bilingual revue The Golden Land, which opened in November 1985 and ran for 277 regular performances. For the 1986–1987 season, the theater staged the musical Have I Got a Girl for You!, which opened in November 1986, and the musical Staggerlee, which opened in March 1987. The theater also hosted a tribute to the late off-Broadway actor Charles Ludlam in mid-1987. The Chaim Potok play The Chosen opened in January 1988 but flopped with just six regular performances.\n\n### Village East use\n\nThe failure of The Chosen had been particularly devastating for M Square, which had spent three years creating the play and could no longer afford to continue operating the Second Avenue Theater. The venue was the only surviving Yiddish theater building on Second Avenue, as well as one of the few off-Broadway houses in the East Village. In 1988, M Square leased the theater to City Cinemas, a branch of Reading International, for use as a movie theater called Village East. City Cinemas converted the auditorium into a seven-screen multiplex. Averitt Associates preserved the balcony but split the orchestra and backstage areas into six screens. The renovation had to conform with historic-preservation guidelines because Village East was still being considered for city-landmark designation. The architects used archival photos to restore the theater's design features.\n\nThe project ultimately cost \\$8 million. Village East Cinemas opened on February 22, 1991, initially with only five screens in operation. The LPC designated the exterior and interior of the theater as a landmark in 1993. Since then, it has shown a mixture of Hollywood productions and indie films. The Village East Cinema also shows films that originally opened at the Angelika Film Center, an arthouse chain that is also an arm of Reading International. The multiplex also hosted movies that were screened as part of the annual New York International Children's Film Festival.\n\nEverGreene Architectural Arts restored the theater at the beginning of 2015. The work involved replacing some of the historical design features that had deteriorated over the years. The theater closed temporarily in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. When the theater reopened on March 5, 2021, it was rebranded as Village East by Angelika. After Village East reopened, several movies were screened in 70 mm. A new bar and kitchen were announced for the theater in late 2021. By 2022, the theater generally screened newly released films, though it sometimes showed revivals as well. Among these is the premiere of Tommy Wiseau's second film Big Shark, which is set to take place at the theater in August 2023.\n\n## Notable productions\n\nProductions are listed by the year of their first performance. This list only includes theatrical shows; it does not include films, burlesque shows, or other types of live performance.\n\n- 1954: Coriolanus\n- 1954: The Golden Apple\n- 1954: The Seagull\n- 1954: Sing Me No Lullaby\n- 1955: The Doctor's Dilemma\n- 1955: The Master Builder\n- 1955: Marcel Marceau\n- 1955: Six Characters in Search of an Author\n- 1956: The Adding Machine\n- 1956: Miss Julie/The Stronger\n- 1956: A Month in the Country\n- 1956: Saint Joan\n- 1956: Diary of a Scoundrel\n- 1956: The Good Woman of Setzuan\n- 1957: Measure for Measure\n- 1957: The Taming of the Shrew\n- 1957: The Duchess of Malfi\n- 1957: Mary Stuart\n- 1957: The Makropulos Secret\n- 1958: The Chairs/The Lesson\n- 1958: The Infernal Machine\n- 1958: The Two Gentlemen of Verona\n- 1958: The Broken Jug\n- 1958: La Malade Imaginaire\n- 1958: Evening of Three Farces\n- 1958: The Family Reunion\n- 1958: Britannicus\n- 1958: The Power and the Glory\n- 1959: The Beaux' Stratagem\n- 1959: Once Upon a Mattress\n- 1959: Lysistrata\n- 1960: Peer Gynt\n- 1960: Henry IV, Part 1\n- 1960: Henry IV, Part 2\n- 1960: H.M.S. Pinafore\n- 1960: She Stoops to Conquer\n- 1960: The Plough and the Stars\n- 1961: The Octoroon\n- 1961: Hamlet\n- 1961: The Pirates of Penzance\n- 1969: Oh! Calcutta!\n- 1971: Man of La Mancha\n- 1972: Grease\n- 1978: The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas\n- 1979: God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater\n- 1981: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat\n\n## See also\n\n- List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street\n- National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street", "revid": "1166452879", "description": "Movie theater in Manhattan, New York", "categories": ["1926 establishments in New York City", "1990s in Manhattan", "1991 establishments in New York City", "Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan", "Cinemas and movie theaters in Manhattan", "East Village, Manhattan", "New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan", "New York City interior landmarks", "Off-Broadway theaters", "Theatres completed in 1926", "Yiddish theatre in the United States"]}
{"id": "37631995", "url": null, "title": "2003 Food City 500", "text": "The 2003 Food City 500 was the sixth stock car race of the 2003 NASCAR Winston Cup Series. It was held on March 23, 2003, before a crowd of approximately 160,000, in Bristol, Tennessee, at Bristol Motor Speedway, a short tracks that holds NASCAR races. The 500-lap race was won by Kurt Busch of the Roush Racing team after starting from ninth position. Matt Kenseth of Roush Racing finished in second and Joe Gibbs Racing's Bobby Labonte placed third.\n\nEntering the event, Kenseth led the Drivers' Championship by 57 points over Tony Stewart in second position. Although Ryan Newman won the pole position with the fastest recorded lap time in qualifying, he was immediately passed by Jeff Gordon at the start of the race. Twenty-eight laps later Rusty Wallace became the leader of the race. Gordon reclaimed the lead on lap 34 and led the most laps with 174. Jimmy Spencer passed Gordon for the lead on lap 161, and kept the position for a total of 139 laps. After the final pit stops, Busch became the leader of the race and maintained the position to lead a total of 116 laps, and to win his first race of the season. There were seventeen cautions and eleven lead changes among seven different drivers during the course of the race.\n\nThe race victory was Busch's first win in the 2003 season, as well as fifth of his career. The result advanced Busch from joint fifth with Ricky Craven to second in the Drivers' Championship, one hundred and thirty-eight points behind Kenseth, and nine ahead of Stewart, who fell to third. Ford maintained its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship, eight ahead of Chevrolet, and eighteen ahead of Pontiac, who demoted Dodge to fourth place, with thirty races of the season remaining.\n\n## Background\n\nThe Food City 500 was the sixth scheduled stock car race of the 2003 NASCAR Winston Cup Series, out of 36, and the 2000th in Winston Cup Series history. It was held on March 23, 2003 in Bristol, Tennessee, at Bristol Motor Speedway, a short track that holds NASCAR races. The standard track at Bristol Motor Speedway is a four-turn short track oval that is 0.533 miles (0.858 km) long. The track's turns are banked from twenty-four to thirty degrees, while both the front stretch (the location of the finish line) and the back stretch are banked from six to ten degrees.\n\nBefore the race, Matt Kenseth led the Drivers' Championship with 760 points, with Tony Stewart in second place with 703 points. Michael Waltrip and Dale Earnhardt Jr. were third and fourth with 698 and 634 points respectively, with Kurt Busch and Ricky Craven were tied for fifth place with 617 points. Dave Blaney, Jimmie Johnson, Joe Nemechek and Johnny Benson Jr. rounded out the top ten. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Ford was leading with 36 points, five points ahead of their rivals Chevrolet. Pontiac, with 24 points, was five points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third place. Busch was the race's defending champion.\n\nAhead of the event, Speedway Motorsports unveiled an extended backstretch grandstand which added 43,826 to the track's capacity. Spectators at the track also planned a \"patriotic rally\" which showed support to troops serving in the Iraq War. This caused Speedway Motorsports to employ extra security during the event. NASCAR subsequently announced that a contingency plan was being prepared that included arrangements for travel and extra security for the next three races in the season. The United States Government gave its consent to NASCAR and the other professional sporting associations to resume with their normal schedules.\n\n## Practice and qualifying\n\nThree practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—one on Friday and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 120 minutes, while the second and final sessions ran for 45 minutes. Jeff Gordon was fastest in the first practice session with a time of 15.149 seconds, ahead of Sterling Marlin in second and Ryan Newman in third. Ken Schrader (with a lap of 15.178) was fourth fastest, and Mike Skinner placed fifth. Busch, Kenny Wallace, Earnhardt, Jimmy Spencer and Nemechek rounded out the session's top-ten drivers. During the session, Jeff Green and Jamie McMurray both made contact with the wall, and both were required to switch to back-up cars for qualifying. Robby Gordon also hit the wall, after spinning sideways.\n\nA total of forty-five drivers were entered in the qualifier on Friday afternoon; according to NASCAR's qualifying procedure, forty-three were allowed to race. Each driver ran two timed laps to determine pole position to 36th. The remainder of the field qualified through the use of provisionals. Ryan Newman clinched the second pole position of his season, and the ninth of his career, with a time of 14.908 seconds. The time beat Jeff Gordon's March 2002 track record, and it became the first sub-15 second lap in the Winston Cup Series. He was joined on the grid's front row by Jeff Gordon who was 0.160 seconds slower than Newman and held pole position until Newman's lap. Schrader qualified third in the highest qualifying position for his team BAM Racing. Rusty Wallace took fourth, and Bill Elliott started fifth. Skinner, Spencer, Earnhardt, Busch and Stewart completed the top ten starters. Positions two through twenty-four were covered by almost two-tenths of a second. Kenseth, Dale Jarrett, Casey Mears, Kenny Wallace, Todd Bodine, Jack Sprague and John Andretti used provisionals to qualify for the event. The two drivers who failed to qualify for the race were Larry Foyt for the second time in the 2003 season and Hermie Sadler. After the qualifier Newman said, \"That's the most amazed I've ever been after a qualifying run to go that fast and not anticipate it. We picked up over a quarter of a second from practice, and that's just unheard of at Bristol.\"\n\nOn Saturday morning, Kenseth was fastest in the second practice session with a lap of 15.683 seconds, ahead of Newman in second and Ward Burton in third. Busch was fourth quickest, and Rusty Wallace took fifth. Jeff Burton managed sixth. Kyle Petty, Mark Martin, Sprague and Nemechek followed in the top ten. During the final practice session, Busch was fastest with a time of 15.701. Stewart and Jeff Gordon followed in second and third with times of 15.722 and 15.723. Dave Blaney was fourth fastest, ahead of Earnhardt and Craven. Kenseth was seventh fastest, Martin eighth, Jerry Nadeau ninth, and Ward Burton tenth. The session was temporarily suspended when Marlin spun on the track, but managed to not to collide with the barriers.\n\n### Qualifying results\n\n## Race\n\nThe race began at 1:00pm EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox. Commentary was provided by Mike Joy, Larry McReynolds, and Darrell Waltrip. At the start of the race, weather conditions were sunny and warm. Reverend Mike Rife, of the Vansant Church of Christ in Vansant, Virginia, began pre-race ceremonies with an invocation. Country music singer Rebecca Lynn Howard performed the national anthem, and representatives of the United States Armed Forces commanded the drivers to start their engines. During the pace laps, McMurray had to move to the rear of the grid because of him changing his engine.\n\nJeff Gordon accelerated faster than Newman off the line, getting ahead of him by the first turn. Rusty Wallace passed Newman for the second position one lap later. On the third lap, the first caution was given when Robby Gordon made contact with Petty, forcing him to spin sideways. Robby Gordon was cautioned for the collision. Kenny Wallace also made contact with Ricky Rudd, but escaped with minor damage. None of the drivers made pit stops during the caution. Jeff Gordon led the field back up to speed at the restart on lap seven. Jeremy Mayfield made contact with the wall leaving the second turn at around the tenth lap, and suffered a flat front right tire. No caution was given. Four laps later, Michael Waltrip experienced oversteer and collided with Dave Blaney. Jarrett had no room to negotiate through and struck the rear of Waltrip's car. The incident prompted the race's second caution. Waltrip's car suffered heavy damage to the rear end of his car.\n\nAlmost immediately after the lap 20 restart, Andretti collided with the slowing Bodine, who in turn, struck Petty. Mears had no space to pass by and struck Andretti. The accident caused the event's third caution. Andretti's car sustained major damage to the front end. The race restarted on lap 29, with Rusty Wallace claiming the lead. One lap later, Busch and Stewart passed Schrader for seventh and eighth respectively. Earnhardt moved into third after passing Skinner on lap 33. One lap later, Jeff Gordon reclaimed the first position. On the 42nd lap, Earnhardt passed Rusty Wallace for second. Thirteen laps later, Tony Raines stopped on track due to an engine failure, and the fourth caution was given as a result. All of the leaders elected to make pit stops during the caution. Jeff Gordon maintained his lead at the restart on the 64th lap, followed by Terry Labonte and Green.\n\nStewart made contact with Newman, who went up the circuit. Newman then came town the track and crashed into the side of Craven, who went into Bodine, which prompted the fifth caution on lap 68. Behind the trio, Steve Park hit the rear of Johnson, causing the latter to spin sideways. Most drivers stayed on track during the caution, allowing Jeff Gordon to remain the leader on the restart. Skinner fell to eighth after being passed by Busch and Earnhardt on the 75th lap. It was around this lap that Kenseth had advanced to fourth place. Five laps later, Earnhardt passed Busch to claim sixth. On lap 85, Skinner fell from eighth to twelfth position. Kenseth, who started the race in thirty-seventh, had moved up thirty-four positions to third by lap 91. By the 111th lap, Jeff Gordon had maintained a half second lead over Terry Labonte. Thirteen laps later, Spencer and Stewart passed Kenseth for fourth and fifth respectively.\n\nThe pace car came out for the sixth caution on lap 136, after Skinner collided with the turn two outside wall due to a failed right-front tire and his car caught fire. During the caution, all of the leaders elected to make pit stops. Jeff Gordon led on the restart, followed by Nemechek and Spencer. On the 149th lap, the seventh caution came out, after Sprague spun 180 degrees when he attempted to pass Benson on the inside and the two made contact. Jeff Gordon led on the lap 154-restart, although he was passed by Skinner on lap 161. After starting the race in twenty-eighth, Kevin Harvick moved to sixth position by lap 169. Twelve laps later, Sprague spun sideways in the fourth turn and crashed against the inside barrier on the front stretch, prompting the eighth caution. Sprague was able to continue driving. During the caution, some of the leaders chose to make pit stops. Jeff Gordon led on the restart on the 187th lap.\n\nOn the 198th lap, Jeff Burton made contact with Earnhardt, collecting Johnson, with all three cars escaping with minor damage. The ninth caution was prompted on the next lap, after Martin was sent spinning sideways from contact with Bill Elliott. Mears spun sideways before the caution was given. During the caution, some of the leaders elected to make pit stops. Harvick was the leader at the restart, followed by Spencer and Terry Labonte. Robby Gordon collided with the wall on lap 210, damaging his car and fell to twelfth position. Four laps later, Sadler passed Marlin for eighth. Spencer passed Harvick to reclaim the lead on the 217th lap. Nadeau was sent into the turn one inside barrier when he spun sideways from making contact with Newman and being struck by Brett Bodine, prompting the tenth caution one lap later.\n\nSpencer maintained his lead at the lap 223 restart. Bobby Labonte slowed and was hit at the rear by his teammate Stewart, just as Kenseth went into the rear of his teammate Busch. Both Bobby Labonte and Busch spun, and these accidents triggered the eleventh caution on the 226th lap. Spencer led when the race restarted on lap 241. Two laps later, a multi-car collision occurred at turn two when Brett Bodine made contact with Terry Labonte, causing Labonte to spin, and collect Kenny Wallace, Robby Gordon, Petty, and Schrader; this would prompt the twelfth caution. Spencer remained the leader at the restart on lap 250. On lap 256, McMurray made contact with Robby Gordon, slowed and was hit by Ward Burton, spinning sideways and causing the thirteenth caution. Stewart also made contact with Rudd, while Bobby Labonte spun sideways and managed to not collide with the barriers. Rudd was pushed by Stewart during the caution, earning Joe Gibbs Racing a warning to calm Stewart down.\n\nThe race restarted on lap 263. On lap 265, Earnhardt lost two positions after being passed by Johnson, Jeff Gordon and Kenseth. Eighteen laps later, Kenseth passed Jeff Gordon for the fifth position. By the 300th lap, Kenseth passed Johnson for third. On lap 315, Busch moved into the fifth position by passing Jeff Gordon. Green flag pit stops began on lap 327 when Harvick made a pit stop. Competitors who had not made a pit stop beforehand would be required to do so under green flag conditions. Kenseth passed Spencer to claim the first position on the 334th lap. Spencer lost another position to Busch four laps later. On lap 348, Bobby Labonte moved into fifth position after passing Johnson. Eleven laps later, Busch passed Kenseth to claim the lead. On the 367th lap, Earnhardt began to run out of fuel and made a pit stop one lap later. Jeff Gordon entered the backstretch pit lane when his pit stall was on the frontstretch area during lap 371 and lost around two to three seconds worth of time.\n\nBobby Labonte claimed the first position off Busch seven laps later. On lap 390, the fourteenth caution was prompted, after one of Jarrett's tires went flat; he spun into the turn two inside barrier. Schrader spun before the caution came out and damaged the front of his car. Jarrett stopped at the pit road entrance on the backstretch in his unsuccessful attempt to exit the track. Pit road was closed until cleanup crews removed debris. At the time, just Bobby Labonte, Busch, Marlin, Rudd and Greg Biffle had not made a pit stop under green flag conditions and were expected to make them. Since speeds during caution laps were limited to 35 mph (56 km/h), the five lead teams would be able to make pit stops and avoid falling one or two laps behind than drivers who had made their pit stops under racing conditions. Jimmy Fennig, Busch's crew chief, requested over the radio to Busch that he make a pit stop two laps earlier. When he noticed debris on the track in the second turn due to a legacy of Jarrett's crash, Busch decided not to make a pit stop.\n\nThe race restarted on lap 404, with Busch overtaking Bobby Labonte for the lead. On lap 406, the fifteenth caution was given; Petty drove onto the apron and made contact with Nemechek, causing Petty to spin sideways. Busch remained the leader at the restart on the 412th lap, ahead of Bobby Labonte and Rudd. Kenseth passed Biffle for fifth on lap 420. Four laps later, the sixteenth caution was prompted, when Ward Burton made contact with Robby Gordon exiting turn four. Ward Burton struck the inside barrier on the frontstretch and went up the circuit. He made contact with Petty's car, sending Petty spinning 180 degrees backwards driver's-side and struck the turn one outside barrier driver's side. Petty remained in his car until he was extricated by rescue workers. Busch led the field back up to speed on the lap 439 restart. On the 456th lap, Kenseth passed Rudd to claim third position. Nine laps later, Biffle passed Rudd for fourth position. Martin was spun in front of the race leaders on lap 470, but managed to continue.\n\nTwo laps later, the pace car came out for the seventeenth and final caution; as competitors ahead of him slowed, Nemechek made rear-end contact with Stewart, (who just before made contact with the slowing Andretti) because of reduced visibility caused by smoke from when Martin spun on track. Stewart sustained heavy damage to the front of his vehicle. Busch remained the leader at the lap 482 restart. Bobby Labonte was passed by Kenseth for second during the same lap. Kenseth damaged his car's right-front fender during the pass; it affected his car's handling until the metal on the fender became worn out. On the 488th lap, Rudd reclaimed fourth position from Biffle. Kenseth was unable to get close enough to effect an overtake on his teammate Busch, who achieved his first victory of the 2003 season, his second successive in the event, and the fifth of his career. Kenseth finished second, ahead of Bobby Labonte in third, Rudd in fourth, and Biffle a then-career best fifth. Only the first six finishers were on the same lap as Busch. There were seventeen cautions and eleven changes of lead among seven different drivers during the race. Jeff Gordon more often than any other driver with 174 laps led during three different periods. Busch led twice for a total of 116 laps.\n\n### Post-race\n\nBusch appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first win of the season in front of approximately 160,000 people who attended the race, earning \\$162,790 in race winnings. Afterward, Fennig praised his performance, \"Kurt Busch is awesome, so awesome. He gets up on the wheel and drives the hell out of that race car, and he made a call today that won him the race.\" Kenseth was happy with his second-place finish, commenting, \"I feel lucky. Started provisional here at Bristol and coming home second. So, it was a great race. Me and Bobby had to go there a little at the end, and I got my fender knocked in there a little. I was hoping I could make a run at Kurt before that happened. But, it was a good race. It's always physical out there, and we didn't have a scratch on the car there until right at the end, so it was pretty good.\"\n\nBobby Labonte was happy with finishing third, commenting, \"I got spun out twice and finished third. \"It's a great day. How much greater could you want it to get?\" Spencer, who led 139 laps of the race, was candid about his performance, \"It should have been a first, but the Sirius Dodge boys are doing a good job. I wouldn't trade 'em. We made some mistakes, but we'll get better.\" Mears, who was involved in the lap 20 collision with Andretti and Todd Bodine, commented, \"I don't know what happened. I was just going through the gears taking my time and it looked like somebody up front may have missed a shift or somebody may have got into somebody else.\" Terry Labonte, who was part of the race's biggest crash when Bodine made contact with him on lap 243, said that, \"Any time you're in a race with a Bodine, you're liable to get in a wreck, and I did.\" Rudd said his team possibly had a car that could have finished between positions four and six that was dependent on alterations and pit stops. Stewart remarked that he had \"never been hit so much in one day\" and called it \"a bad day\" for himself.\n\nDuring the race, Jerry Nadeau and Ryan Newman were involved in a battle for position that resulted in the two colliding on the 219th lap. Once Nadeau returned to pit road, he was talking out of anger to Newman's team personnel about the incident. Once the argument ended, Nadeau commented, \"It's a shame. It was a great car for us, the U.S. Army Pontiac. Damn lapped-car can't use his head. I don't know what Ryan (Newman) was thinking. He just kept coming down, kept coming down.\" Newman argued, \"It looked to me like the 11 (Bodine) got into the back of the 01 (Nadeau) on that one deal.\" Kyle Petty, who was involved in the crash on lap 425, was taken to the circuit's infield medical center, and later taken for a precautionary visit at the Bristol Regional Medical Center to undergo medical evaluations. Petty's crash was measured at 80G, and he suffered injuries to his ribs and abdomen. Petty was released from hospital during the night; he was replaced by former CART driver Christian Fittipaldi for the next round, the Samsung/Radio Shack 500 at Texas Motor Speedway.\n\nThe race result left Kenseth leading the Drivers' Championship with 935 points. Busch, who finished first, moved to second on 797, nine points ahead of Stewart and eleven ahead of Waltrip. Earnhardt Jr. fell to fifth with 749 points. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Ford maintained the lead with 45 points. Chevrolet remained second on 37 points. Pontiac followed with 27 points, four points ahead of Dodge in fourth. Having increased his points lead, Kenseth said that he was happy and he would not change his driving style because of this change. He also added that his team would \"have another six to eight months\" before they would start to worry about their rivals making a challenge for the championship. The race took three hours, twenty-nine minutes and twenty-two seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 0.390 seconds.\n\n### Race results\n\n## Standings after the race", "revid": "1127988942", "description": null, "categories": ["2003 NASCAR Winston Cup Series", "2003 in sports in Tennessee", "March 2003 sports events in the United States", "NASCAR races at Bristol Motor Speedway"]}
{"id": "3338124", "url": null, "title": "Geology of Scotland", "text": "The geology of Scotland is unusually varied for a country of its size, with a large number of different geological features. There are three main geographical sub-divisions: the Highlands and Islands is a diverse area which lies to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault; the Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Palaeozoic formations; and the Southern Uplands, which lie south of the Southern Uplands Fault, are largely composed of Silurian deposits.\n\nThe existing bedrock includes very ancient Archean gneiss, metamorphic beds interspersed with granite intrusions created during the Caledonian mountain building period (the Caledonian orogeny), commercially important coal, oil and iron-bearing carboniferous deposits and the remains of substantial Palaeogene volcanoes. During their formation, tectonic movements created climatic conditions ranging from polar to desert to tropical and a resultant diversity of fossil remains.\n\nScotland has also had a role to play in many significant discoveries such as plate tectonics and the development of theories about the formation of rocks and was the home of important figures in the development of the science including James Hutton (the \"father of modern geology\"), Hugh Miller and Archibald Geikie. Various locations such as 'Hutton's Unconformity' at Siccar Point in Berwickshire and the Moine Thrust in the northwest were also important in the development of geological science.\n\n## Overview\n\nFrom a geological and geomorphological perspective the country has three main sub-divisions all of which were affected by Pleistocene glaciations.\n\n### Highlands and Islands\n\nThe Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which runs from Arran to Stonehaven. This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks, from Cambrian and Precambrian times, that were uplifted to form a mountain chain during the later Caledonian orogeny. These foundations are interspersed with many igneous intrusions of more recent age, the remnants of which have formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins. A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of the Old Red Sandstone found principally along the Moray Firth coast and in the Orkney islands. These rocks are around 400 million years old, and were laid down in the Devonian period. The Highlands are generally mountainous and are bisected by the Great Glen Fault. The highest elevations in the British Isles are found here, including Ben Nevis, the highest peak at 1,344 metres (4,409 ft). Scotland has over 790 islands, divided into four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, further sub-divided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides.\n\nThe Hebridean archipelago outlier of St Kilda is composed of Palaeogene igneous formations of granites and gabbro, heavily weathered by the elements. These islands represent the remnants of a long extinct ring volcano rising from a seabed plateau approximately 40 m (130 ft) below sea level.\n\nThe geology of Shetland is complex with numerous faults and folds. These islands are Scotland's most northerly area of Caledonian orogenic rocks and there are outcrops of Lewisian, Dalradian and Moine metamorphic rocks with similar histories to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland. Similarly, there are also Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions. The most distinctive feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar, which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor. Much of Shetland's economy depends on oil and gas production from fields in the surrounding seas.\n\n### Midland Valley\n\nOften referred to as the Central Lowlands, this is a rift valley mainly comprising Palaeozoic formations. Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland's industrial revolution are to be found. Although relatively low-lying, hills such as the Pentland Hills, Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view. This area has also experienced intense volcanism, Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano active in the Carboniferous period about 340 million years ago. As a result of ice age glaciers, drumlins were formed, and many hills have a crag and tail landform.\n\n### Southern Uplands\n\nThe Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 200 km (120 mi) long, interspersed with broad valleys. They lie south of a second fault line running from Ballantrae towards Dunbar. The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 4-500 million years ago.\n\n### Post-glacial events\n\nThe whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation, and to a lesser extent by subsequent sea level changes. In the post-glacial epoch, circa 6100 BC, Scotland and the Faroe Islands experienced tsunamis up to 20 metres high caused by the Storegga Slides, a series of immense underwater landslides off the coast of Norway. Earth tremors are infrequent and usually slight. The Great Glen is the most seismically active area of Britain, but the last event of any size was in 1901.\n\n## Chronology\n\n### Archean and Proterozoic eons\n\nThe oldest rocks of Scotland are the Lewisian gneisses, which were formed in the Precambrian period, up to 3,000 Ma (million years ago). They are among the oldest rocks in the world. They form the basement to the west of the Moine Thrust on the mainland, in the Outer Hebrides and on the islands of Coll and Tiree. These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed marble, quartzite and mica schist and intruded by later basaltic dykes and granite magma. One of these intrusions forms the summit plateau of the mountain Roineabhal in Harris. The rock here is anorthosite, and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of the Moon.\n\nTorridonian sandstones were also laid down in this period over the gneisses, and these contain the oldest signs of life in Scotland. In later Precambrian times, thick sediments of sandstones, limestones muds and lavas were deposited in what is now the Highlands of Scotland.\n\n### Palaeozoic era\n\n#### Cambrian period\n\nFurther sedimentary deposits were formed through the Cambrian period (541–485 Ma), some of which, along with the earlier Precambrian sediments, metamorphosed into the Dalradian series. This is composed of a wide variety of materials, including mica schist, biotite gneiss schist, schistose grit, greywacke and quartzite. The area that would become Scotland was at this time close to the south pole and part of Laurentia. Fossils from the north-west Highlands indicate the presence of trilobites and other primitive forms of life.\n\n#### Ordovician period\n\nThe proto-Scotland landmass moved northwards, and from 460 to 430 Ma, sandstone, mudstone and limestone were deposited in the area that is now the Midland Valley. This occurred in shallow tropical seas at the margins of the Iapetus Ocean. The Ballantrae Complex near Girvan was formed from this ocean floor and is similar in composition to rocks found at The Lizard in Cornwall. Nonetheless, northern and southern Britain were far apart at the beginning of this period, although the gap began to close as the continent of Avalonia broke away from Gondwana, collided with Baltica and drifted towards Laurentia. The Caledonian orogeny began forming a mountain chain from Norway to the Appalachians. There was an ice age in the southern hemisphere, and the first mass extinction of life on Earth took place at the end of this period.\n\n#### Silurian period\n\nDuring the Silurian period (444–419 Ma) the continent of Laurentia gradually collided with Baltica, joining Scotland to the area that would become England and Europe. Sea levels rose as the Ordovician ice sheets melted, and tectonic movements created major faults which assembled the outline of Scotland from previously scattered fragments. These faults are the Highland Boundary Fault, separating the Lowlands from the Highlands, the Great Glen Fault that divides the North-west Highlands from the Grampians, the Southern Uplands Fault and the Iapetus Suture, which runs from the Solway Firth to Lindisfarne and which marks the close of the Iapetus Ocean and the joining of northern and southern Britain.\n\nSilurian rocks form the Southern Uplands of Scotland, which were pushed up from the sea bed during the collision with Baltica/Avalonia. The majority of the rocks are weakly metamorphosed coarse greywacke. The Highlands were also affected by these collisions, creating a series of thrust faults in the northwest Highlands including the Moine Thrust, the understanding of which played an important role in 19th century geological thinking. Volcanic activity occurred across Scotland as a result of the collision of the tectonic plates, with volcanoes in southern Scotland, and magma chambers in the north, which today form the granite mountains such as the Cairngorms.\n\n#### Devonian period\n\nThe Scottish landmass now formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 25 degrees south of the equator, moving slowly north during this period to 10 degrees south. The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago were created as earlier Silurian rocks, uplifted by the formation of Pangaea, eroded and were deposited into a body of fresh water (probably a series of large river deltas). A huge freshwater lake - Lake Orcadie - existed on the edges of the eroding mountains stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth. The formations are extremely thick, up to 11,000 metres in places, and can be subdivided into three categories \"Lower\", \"Middle\", and \"Upper\" from oldest to youngest. As a result, the Old Red Sandstone is an important source of fish fossils and it was the object of intense geological studies in the 19th century. In Scotland these rocks are found predominantly in the Moray Firth basin and Orkney Archipelago, and along the southern margins of the Highland Boundary Fault.\n\nElsewhere volcanic activity, possibly as a result of the closing of the Iapetus Suture, created the Cheviot Hills, Ochil Hills, Sidlaw Hills, parts of the Pentland Hills and Scurdie Ness on the Angus coast.\n\n#### Carboniferous period\n\nDuring the Carboniferous period (359–299 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred and the coal deposits of Lanarkshire and West Lothian and limestones of Fife and Dunbar date from this time. There are oil shales near Bathgate around which the 19th-century oil-processing industry developed, and elsewhere in the Midland Valley there are ironstones and fire clay deposits that had significance in the early Industrial Revolution. Fossil Grove in Victoria Park, Glasgow contains the preserved remains of a Carboniferous forest. More volcanic activity formed Arthur's Seat and the Salisbury Crags in Edinburgh and the nearby Bathgate Hills.\n\n#### Permian period\n\nThe Old Red Sandstone Continent became a part of the supercontinent Pangaea in the Permian (299–252 Ma), during which proto-Britain continued to drift northwards. Scotland's climate was arid at this time and some fossils of reptiles have been recovered. However, Permian sandstones are found in only a few places - principally in the south west, on the island of Arran, and on the Moray coast. Stone quarried from Hopeman in Moray has been used in the National Museum and Scottish Parliament buildings in Edinburgh.\n\nAt the close of this period came the Permian–Triassic extinction event in which 96% of all marine species vanished and from which biodiversity took 30 million years to recover.\n\n### Mesozoic era\n\n#### Triassic period\n\nDuring the Triassic (252–201 Ma), much of Scotland remained in desert conditions, with higher ground in the Highlands and Southern Uplands providing sediment to the surrounding basins via flash floods. This is the origin of sandstone outcrops near Dumfries, Elgin and the Isle of Arran. Towards the close of this period sea levels began to rise and climatic conditions became less arid.\n\n#### Jurassic period\n\nAs the Jurassic (201–145 Ma) started, Pangaea began to break up into two continents, Gondwana and Laurasia, marking the beginning of the separation of Scotland and North America. Sea levels rose, as Britain and Ireland drifted on the Eurasian Plate to between 30° and 40° north. Most of northern and eastern Scotland including Orkney, Shetland and the Outer Hebrides remained above the advancing seas, but the south and south-west were inundated. There are only isolated sedimentary rocks remaining on land from this period, on the Sutherland coast near Golspie and, forming the Great Estuarine Group, on Skye, Mull, Raasay and Eigg. This period does however have considerable significance. The burial of algae and bacteria below the mud of the sea floor during this time led to the formation of North Sea oil and natural gas, much of it trapped in overlying sandstone by deposits formed as the seas fell to form the swamps and salty lakes and lagoons that were home to dinosaurs.\n\n#### Cretaceous period\n\nIn the Cretaceous (145–66 Ma), Laurasia split into the continents of North America and Eurasia. Sea levels rose globally during this period and much of low-lying Scotland was covered in a layer of chalk. Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks were laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion except in a few places on the west coast such as Loch Aline in Morvern where they form a part of the Inner Hebrides Group. At the end of this period the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event brought the age of dinosaurs to a close.\n\n### Cenozoic era\n\n#### Palaeogene period\n\nIn the early Palaeogene period between 63 and 52 Ma, the last volcanic rocks in the British Isles were formed. As North America and Greenland separated from Europe, the Atlantic Ocean slowly formed. This led to a chain of volcanic sites west of mainland Scotland including on Skye, the Small Isles and St. Kilda, in the Firth of Clyde on Arran and Ailsa Craig and at Ardnamurchan. Sea levels began to fall, and for the first time the general outline of the modern British Isles was revealed. At the beginning of this period the climate was sub-tropical and erosion was caused by chemical weathering, creating characteristic features of the Scottish landscape such as the topographical basin of the Howe of Alford near Aberdeen. The vegetation of the period is known from Palaeocene sedimentary deposits on Isle of Mull. The rich flora here included temperate-climate tree species such as plane, hazel, oak, Cercidiphyllum, Metasequoia and ginkgo.\n\n#### Neogene period\n\n##### Miocene and Pliocene epochs\n\nIn the Miocene and Pliocene epochs further uplift and erosion occurred in the Highlands. Plant and animal types developed into their modern forms. Scotland lay in its present position on the globe. As the Miocene progressed, temperatures dropped and remained similar to today's.\n\n#### Quaternary period\n\n##### Pleistocene epoch\n\nSeveral ice ages shaped the land through glacial erosion, creating u-shaped valleys and depositing boulder clays, especially on the western seaboard. The last major incursion of ice peaked about 18,000 years ago, leaving other remnant features such at the granite tors on the Cairngorm mountain plateaux.\n\n##### Holocene epoch\n\nOver the last twelve thousand years the most significant new geological features have been the deposits of peat and the development of coastal alluvium. Post-glacial rises in sea level have been combined with isostatic rises of the land resulting in a relative fall in sea level in most areas. In some places, such as Culbin in Moray, these changes in relative sea level have created a complex series of shorelines. A rare type of Scottish coastline found largely in the Hebrides consists of machair habitat, a low lying dune pasture land formed as the sea level dropped leaving a raised beach. In the present day, Scotland continues to move slowly north.\n\n## Geologists in Scotland\n\nScottish geologists and non-Scots working in Scotland have played an important part in the development of the science, especially during its pioneering period in the late 18th century and 19th century.\n\n- James Hutton (1726–1797), the \"father of modern geology\", was born in Edinburgh. His Theory of the Earth, published in 1788, proposed the idea of a rock cycle in which weathered rocks form new sediments and that granites were of volcanic origin. At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains he found granite penetrating metamorphic schists. This showed to him that granite formed from the cooling of molten rock, not precipitation out of water as the Neptunists of the time believed. This sight is said to have \"filled him with delight\". Regarding geological time scales he famously remarked \"that we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end\".\n- John Playfair (1748–1819) from Angus was a mathematician who developed an interest in geology through his friendship with Hutton. His 1802 Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth were influential in the latter's success.\n- John MacCulloch (1773–1835) was born in Guernsey and like Hutton before him, studied medicine at Edinburgh University. A president of the Geological Society from 1815 to 1817, he is best remembered for producing the first geological map of Scotland, published in 1836. 'MacCulloch's Tree', a 40-foot (12 m) high fossil conifer in the Mull lava flows, is named after him.\n\n- Sir Charles Lyell (1797–1875) was also from Angus and his Principles of Geology built on Hutton's ideas. Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism and his interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a central theme in the Principles, and a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin. (Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, loaned Darwin a copy of Volume 1 of the first edition just before they set out on the 'Voyage of the Beagle'.) Lyell is buried in Westminster Abbey.\n\n- Sir Roderick Murchison (1792–1871) was born in Ross and Cromarty and served under Wellesley in the Peninsular War. Knighted in 1846, his main achievements were the investigation of Silurian rocks published as The Silurian System in 1839 and of Permian deposits in Russia. The Murchison crater on the Moon and at least fifteen geographical locations on Earth are named after him.\n- Hugh Miller (1802–56) from Cromarty was a stonemason and self-taught geologist. His 1841 publication The Old Red Sandstone became a bestseller. The fossils founds in these rocks were one of his fascinations, although his deep religious convictions led him to oppose the idea of biological evolution.\n- James Croll (1821–90) developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth's orbit. Born near Perth, he was self-educated and his interest in science led to his becoming appointed as a janitor in the museum at the Andersonian College and Museum, Glasgow in 1859. His 1864 paper On the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Glacial Epochs led to a position in the Edinburgh office of the Geological Survey of Scotland, as keeper of maps and correspondence, where Sir Archibald Geikie, encouraged his research. He was eventually to become a Fellow of the Royal Society.\n- Sir Archibald Geikie (1835–1924) was the first to recognise that there had been multiple glaciations, and his 1863 paper On the glacial drift of Scotland was a landmark in the emergent theories of glaciation. He became Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom in 1888 and was also well known for his work on volcanism.\n- Arthur Holmes (1890–1965) was born in England and became Regius Professor of Geology at the University of Edinburgh in 1943. His magnum opus was Principles of Physical Geology, first published in 1944, in which he proposed the idea that slow moving convection currents in the Earth's mantle created 'continental drift' as it was then called. He also pioneered the discipline of geochronology. He lived long enough to see the theory of plate tectonics become widely accepted, and he is regarded as one of the most influential geologists of the 20th century.\n\n## Important sites\n\n### Siccar Point\n\nSiccar Point, Berwickshire is world-famous as one of the sites that proved Hutton's views about the immense age of the Earth. Here Silurian rocks have been tilted almost to the vertical. Younger Carboniferous rocks lie unconformably over the top of them, dipping gently, indicating that an enormous span of time must have passed between the creation of the two beds. When Hutton and James Hall visited the site in 1788 their companion Playfair wrote:\n\nOn us who saw these phenomenon for the first time the impression will not easily be forgotten...We felt necessarily carried back to a time when the schistus on which we stood was yet at the bottom of the sea, and when the sandstone before us was only beginning to be deposited, in the shape of sand or mud, from the waters of the supercontinent ocean... The mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far back into the abyss of time; and whilst we listened with earnestness and admiration to the philosopher who was now unfolding to us the order and series of these wonderful events, we became sensible how much further reason may sometimes go than imagination may venture to follow. —John Playfair (1805) Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. V, pt. III.\n\n### Knockan Crag\n\nThe Moine Thrust in Assynt is one of the most studied geological features in the world. Its discovery in the 1880s was a milestone in the history of geology as it was one of the first thrust belts in the world to be identified. Investigations by John Horne and Benjamin Peach resolved a dispute between Murchison and Geikie on the one hand and James Nicol and Charles Lapworth on the other. The latter believed that older Moine rocks lay on top of younger Cambrian rocks at Knockan Crag, and Horne and Peach's work confirmed this in their classic paper The Geological Structure of the North-West Highlands of Scotland, which was published in 1907. A statue to these two pioneers of fieldwork was erected at Inchnadamph near the hotel there which played a prominent part in the annals of early geology. This area is at the heart of the 'North West Highlands Geopark'.\n\n### Dob's Linn\n\nLapworth also had a prominent role to play in the fame of Dob's Linn, a small gorge in the Scottish Borders, which contains the 'golden spike' (i.e. the official international boundary or stratotype) between the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Lapworth's work in this area, especially his examination of the complex stratigraphy of the Silurian rocks by comparing fossil graptolites, was crucial in to the early understanding of these epochs.\n\n### Skye Cuillin\n\nThe Skye Cuillin mountains provide classic examples of glacial topography and were the subject of an early published account by James Forbes in 1846 (who had become a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh aged only nineteen). He partnered Louis Agassiz on his trip to Scotland in 1840 and although they subsequently argued, Forbes went on to publish other important papers on Alpine glaciers. In 1904 Alfred Harker published The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye, the first detailed scientific study of an extinct volcano.\n\n### Strontian\n\nIn the hills to the north of the village of Strontian the mineral strontianite was discovered, from which the element strontium was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808.\n\n### Staffa\n\nThe island of Staffa contains Fingal's Cave made up of massive hexagonal columns of Palaeogene basalt.\n\n### Schiehallion\n\nThe Munro Schiehallion's isolated position and regular shape led Nevil Maskelyne to use the deflection caused by the mass of the mountain to estimate the mass of the Earth in a ground-breaking experiment carried out in 1774. Following Maskelyne's survey, Schiehallion became the first mountain to be mapped using contour lines.\n\n### Rhynie\n\nThe village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire is the site of an important sedimentary deposit - Rhynie chert. The bulk of this fossil bed consists of primitive plants that had water-conducting cells and sporangia but no leaves, along with arthropods: Collembola, Opiliones (harvestmen), pseudoscorpions and the extinct, spider-like Trigonotarbids. This fossil bed is remarkable for two reasons. Firstly, the age of the find (early Devonian circa 410 Ma) makes this one of the earliest sites anywhere containing terrestrial fossils, coinciding with the first stages of the colonisation of land by plants and animals. Secondly, these cherts are famous for their exceptional state of ultrastructural preservation, with individual cell walls easily visible in polished specimens. For example, stomata have been counted and lignin remnants detected in the plant material.\n\n### East Kirkton quarry\n\nA disused quarry at East Kirkton in the Bathgate Hills is the location where the Carboniferous fossil of Westlothiana lizziae (aka 'Lizzie') was found in 1984. This lizard is one of the earliest known ancestors of the reptiles. The specimen was purchased in part by public subscription and is now on display in the National Museum of Scotland. The site was originally discovered in the early 19th century and has also provided fossil eurypterids, sharks and a variety of primitive acanthodian fish.\n\n### Wester Ross bolide\n\nIn 2008 the ejected material from a meteorite impact crater was discovered near Ullapool in Wester Ross. Preserved within sedimentary layers of sandstone, this is the largest known bolide impact from what are now the British Isles.\n\n## See also\n\n- Geography of Scotland\n- Geology of the British Isles\n\n\\* Geology of Ireland\n\n\\* Geology of England\n\n\\* Geology of Wales\n\n- British Geological Survey\n- Geological groups of Great Britain\n- Geologic timescale\n- Coal measures\n- Old Red Sandstone\n- New Red Sandstone\n- Geology of Orkney", "revid": "1167824729", "description": "Overview of the geology of Scotland", "categories": ["Geology of Great Britain", "Geology of Scotland"]}
{"id": "2176547", "url": null, "title": "Steve Wariner", "text": "Steven Noel Wariner (born December 25, 1954) is an American country music singer, songwriter, and guitarist. Initially a backing musician for Dottie West, he also worked with Bob Luman and Chet Atkins before beginning a solo career in the late 1970s. He has released eighteen studio albums and over fifty singles for several different record labels.\n\nWariner experienced his greatest chart successes in the 1980s, recording first for RCA Records Nashville and then MCA Nashville. While on these labels he sent a number of singles into the top ten of the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts and received favorable critical reception for the amount of creative control he held over his body of work. Upon moving to Arista Nashville in 1991 he had his most commercially successful album I Am Ready, his first to be certified gold, but followups were less successful. After a period of commercial downfall, he experienced a second wave of success in the late 1990s which was spurred by co-writing the number-one singles \"Longneck Bottle\" by Garth Brooks and \"Nothin' but the Taillights\" by Clint Black. These songs led to him signing with Capitol Records Nashville and achieving two more gold albums with Burnin' the Roadhouse Down and Two Teardrops by decade's end. While his commercial success once again dwindled after these albums, he has continued to record independently on his own SelecTone label.\n\nTen of Wariner's singles have reached the number-one position on the Hot Country Songs charts: \"All Roads Lead to You\", \"Some Fools Never Learn\", \"You Can Dream of Me\", \"Life's Highway\", \"Small Town Girl\", \"The Weekend\", \"Lynda\", \"Where Did I Go Wrong\", \"I Got Dreams\", and \"What If I Said\" (a duet with Anita Cochran). Wariner holds several writing credits for both himself and other artists, and has collaborated with Nicolette Larson, Glen Campbell, Diamond Rio, Brad Paisley, Asleep at the Wheel, and Mark O'Connor among others. He has also won four Grammy Awards: one for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals, and three for Best Country Instrumental. In addition to these he has won three Country Music Association awards and one Academy of Country Music award, and is a member of the Grand Ole Opry. Wariner's musical style is defined by his lead guitar work, lyrical content, and stylistic diversity.\n\n## Early life\n\nSteven Noel Wariner was born on December 25, 1954, in Noblesville, Indiana, but grew up in Russell Springs, Kentucky. As a teenager, Wariner taught himself how to play several instruments, including acoustic guitar, bass guitar, drums, banjo, and steel guitar. Wariner performed locally in his father Roy Wariner's band, drawing influence from musical acts his father listened to such as George Jones and Chet Atkins. When Wariner was 17, country singer Dottie West heard him performing at the Nashville Country Club in Indianapolis and recruited him to play bass guitar in her road band. Wariner completed his education through a correspondence course with his local high school, and went on to play in West's band for three years; he also played on her 1973 single \"Country Sunshine\".\n\nWariner also began writing songs at this point, and West attempted to secure him a record label contract by submitting demos of his work, but was unsuccessful. He then left West's road band to put a greater focus on songwriting, and began touring with Bob Luman after he cut some of Wariner's songs. While in recording sessions with Luman, Wariner encountered guitarist Paul Yandell, who was also working for Atkins at the time. Yandell submitted some of Wariner's demos to Atkins, who was also vice-president of RCA Records Nashville at the time and was thus able to sign Wariner to a contract in 1976.\n\n## Musical career\n\n### 1978–1984: RCA Records\n\nHis first single release for RCA was \"I'm Already Taken\", a song that Wariner co-wrote. It peaked at number 63 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts in 1978. This was followed by five more chart singles, none of which appeared on an album at the time due to their limited success. These singles were primarily covers of songs by other artists, including Charley Pride's \"The Easy Part's Over\". Record World magazine published a positive review of this cover, which stated that it was a \"slow, sad ballad\" in which \"Wariner continues to show a whole lotta vocal talent.\" Atkins also hired Wariner to be a bassist in his road band, which led to a nomination by the Academy of Country Music for Bassist of the Year in 1979. Also, Atkins served as his record producer on his first single releases, but later encouraged him to find a different one. As a result, \"The Easy Part's Over\" was instead produced by Tom Collins, known for also producing Ronnie Milsap and Sylvia.\n\nHis first major chart hit came in 1980 when \"Your Memory\" ascended to the number seven position on the country charts. Due to the song's success, Atkins fired Wariner from his band. \"Your Memory\" was the first of six singles from his self-titled debut album, which was also produced by Collins. After it came his first number-one single, 1981's \"All Roads Lead to You\", followed by the top 15 hit \"Kansas City Lights\". Both of these songs were written by Kye Fleming and Dennis Morgan. The album's last two singles, \"Don't It Break Your Heart\" and \"Don't Plan on Sleeping Tonight\", fared less successfully on the charts. Al Campbell of AllMusic stated that Wariner's \"sophisticated country-pop sound was already perfected, and it showed by the quality of the material.\" In 1980, the Academy of Country Music nominated Wariner for Top New Male Vocalist.\n\nRCA released his second studio album Midnight Fire in 1983. Tony Brown and Norro Wilson co-produced the album except for the last two tracks, for which Collins stayed on as producer. Contributing songwriters included Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, Jerry Fuller, and Richard Leigh. The closing track was a duet with Barbara Mandrell titled \"Overnight Sensation\", which also appeared on Mandrell's 1983 album Spun Gold. Wariner said that he chose to switch producers as a means of introducing more uptempo material, and both Wilson and Brown were working for RCA at the time. The lead single \"Don't Your Memory Ever Sleep at Night\" faltered on the country charts, but the title track was more successful, reaching a peak of number five. Following this was a cover of Luman's 1972 hit \"Lonely Women Make Good Lovers\", which in early 1984 matched the original version's Hot Country Songs peak of number four. The album's next two singles, \"Why Goodbye\" and \"Don't You Give Up on Love\", were less successful. Joy Lynn Stewart of the Red Deer Advocate praised Wariner's \"fine, textured vocals\" along with the combination of upbeat songs and ballads.\n\n### 1984–1987: MCA Nashville\n\nWhen Wariner's contract ended in 1984, he chose to follow Brown to MCA Nashville. His first album for the label was 1985's One Good Night Deserves Another, which Brown co-produced with Jimmy Bowen. The album included three singles: the top-ten hits \"What I Didn't Do\" and \"Heart Trouble\", and his second number-one hit \"Some Fools Never Learn\". The Academy of Country Music nominated \"Some Fools Never Learn\" for Song of the Year in 1985, and Wariner later remarked that he considered it his favorite single. In the process of making the album, Wariner said that Brown and Bowen allowed him more control in the creative process than previous producers, by asking him to find his own material and then explain to them why he liked each song that he had chosen. The song selection process also allowed for a number of songwriters not typically found on albums of the era. These writers included Dave Gibson, Ronnie Rogers, Wood Newton, Paul Overstreet, and Steve Earle. Stewart wrote that \"Wariner takes a fresh approach to traditional country and melds a unique, winning style\", highlighting the ballad \"You Can't Cut Me Any Deeper\" and the \"grand pace\" of \"Your Love Has Got a Hold on Me\" in particular.\n\nHis next album, Life's Highway (1986), produced two consecutive number-one Hot Country Songs peaks: \"You Can Dream of Me\" and the title track. This was followed by the number four \"Starting Over Again\". Wariner co-wrote five songs on the album including \"You Can Dream of Me\", which he wrote with John Hall, then of the band Orleans. As with the previous album, Bowen and Brown requested that he have input on song selection and production processes; one such decision made by Wariner was not to have a string section on the album because he would not be able to include one in a live setting. Al Campbell of AllMusic reviewed the album favorably, stating that it \"showed him moving into a more mature musical direction. The best moments here outshine anything Wariner had recorded up to that point\". In between the releases of \"Life's Highway\" and \"Starting Over Again\", he was also a duet vocalist on Nicolette Larson's \"That's How You Know When Love's Right\", which was nominated for that year's Vocal Event of the Year from the Country Music Association. Wariner gained further exposure in this timespan for singing the theme to the television sitcom Who's the Boss?, which used his rendition from 1986 to 1990.\n\nOverlapping with his first two MCA albums, RCA promoted two compilations of material. The first of these was a Greatest Hits album, issued in 1985. The following year, RCA compiled eight previously-unreleased songs into an album titled Down in Tennessee. RCA also issued promotional singles from each compilation: \"When We're Together\" from Greatest Hits, and \"You Make It Feel So Right\", a duet with Carol Chase, from Down in Tennessee. Also featured on Down in Tennessee was an instrumental track called \"Sano Scat\". Ron Chalmers of the Edmonton Journal gave Down in Tennessee a mixed review, finding Wariner's vocals stronger on the ballads than on the uptempo material. His next MCA release was 1987's It's a Crazy World, which was his first to be issued on compact disc. The title track was written by Mac McAnally, who originally had a pop hit with it in 1977. All three of its singles topped the Hot Country Songs charts: \"Small Town Girl\", \"The Weekend\", and \"Lynda\". In between \"The Weekend\" and \"Lynda\", Wariner was also a guest vocalist on Glen Campbell's top-ten hit \"The Hand That Rocks the Cradle\". This song accounted for Wariner's first Grammy Award nomination in 1987, in the then-new category of Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Also in 1987 he was nominated by the Academy of Country Music for Top Male Vocalist. Tom Roland of AllMusic reviewed It's a Crazy World positively, stating that \"Wariner's in charge vocally, and seems to glide through the album effortlessly. He's received more responsibility for his own direction, and—with one or two exceptions— has upgraded every aspect of his record, particularly in song selection and musicianship.\" Wariner supported It's a Crazy World through a headlining tour that also featured Hank Williams Jr.\n\n### 1988–1990: End of MCA years\n\nIn 1988, Wariner issued I Should Be with You, his fourth release for MCA. It accounted for the top-ten singles \"Baby I'm Yours\", \"I Should Be with You\", and \"Hold On (A Little Longer)\". Wariner noted that the album contained a more country rock influence than its predecessors, particularly in the selection of session musicians such as Leland Sklar and Russ Kunkel, as well as Little Feat cofounder Bill Payne. The album continued Wariner's trend of writing his own material, as he wrote or co-wrote all three singles and three other songs on the album; he also co-produced for the first time, doing so with Bowen. I Should Be with You received a positive review from Cash Box magazine which stated that it was \"a tightly crafted package, showcasing both contemporary and traditional country tunes.\" Wariner supported the album in 1988 by touring with Reba McEntire.\n\nI Got Dreams, also co-produced by Wariner and Bowen, followed in 1989. Wariner wrote nine out of ten songs on the album, with collaborators such as McAnally, Roger Murrah, Mike Reid, and husband-and-wife duo Bill LaBounty and Beckie Foster. McAnally and LaBounty both sang backing vocals on the album, with the former also contributing on acoustic guitar and percussion. At the time of the album's release, Wariner noted that the chart success and positive fan reception of \"I Should Be with You\" inspired a continual growth in his songwriting. He also observed that, while he had not received strong record sales or industry awards, radio performance of his singles inspired him to \"make the best records\". I Got Dreams charted three singles on Hot Country Songs in 1989: \"Where Did I Go Wrong\" and the title track both went to number one, followed by \"When I Could Come Home to You\" at number five. The Ottawa Citizen writer Susan Beyer reviewed the album with favor, stating that \"the more control Wariner gets over his recordings, the better they get...the sounds run the gamut, but elegantly, from acoustic country to rock-edged to adult contemporary.\"\n\nWariner released two albums in 1990, the first of which was Laredo. It accounted for three charted singles: \"The Domino Theory\", \"Precious Thing\", and \"There for Awhile\". LaBounty and Foster wrote \"The Domino Theory\", while Wariner co-wrote \"Precious Thing\" with McAnally. Production duties on the album were split, with Garth Fundis and Randy Scruggs producing three tracks each, and Tony Brown returning to produce the other four. Marc Rice of the Associated Press called Laredo a \"safe, likeable album\", praising the clarity of the production along with the \"clever\" lyrics of \"The Domino Theory\". Kay Knight of Cash Box magazine stated that \"Wariner shows us a very basic and intimate look at his music and his life...this project should definitely bring Wariner into the spotlight of country radio.\" His second release in 1990, and final for MCA, was the Christmas album Christmas Memories. In the process of recording the album, Wariner said that he wanted it to have a \"timeless\" feel. It included traditional Christmas songs such as \"Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!\", \"Do You Hear What I Hear?\", three original songs written by Wariner, and collaborations with The Chieftains on renditions of \"Past Three O'Clock\" and \"I Saw Three Ships\". Wariner promoted the album through a radio special titled Steve Wariner's Acoustic Christmas, which also featured Emmylou Harris and Mike Reid. A year later, he performed in a television special on The Nashville Network also titled Christmas Memories which featured selections from the album.\n\nWhile his tenure with MCA was ending, Wariner contributed to two cuts on Mark O'Connor's 1991 album The New Nashville Cats. The first was a cover of Carl Perkins' \"Restless\". It featured O'Connor on fiddle, with Wariner, Vince Gill, and Ricky Skaggs alternating on lead vocals and guitar. A number 25 entry on Hot Country Songs, it won all four artists that year's Vocal Event of the Year award from the Country Music Association, along with Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. Wariner also co-wrote, sang, and played guitar on \"Now It Belongs to You\", another cut from the album which also made the country charts.\n\n### 1991–1996: Arista Nashville\n\nWariner left MCA amicably in 1991 and signed with Arista Nashville later that same year. His debut for the label was 1991's I Am Ready, which was produced by Tim DuBois and Scott Hendricks. The album's title came from a song that he had selected but ultimately chose not to include on the album, calling it \"left field\". The lead-off single, \"Leave Him Out of This\", achieved a top-ten peak on Hot Country Songs list in early 1992. It was followed by a cover of \"The Tips of My Fingers\", which was written and originally recorded by Bill Anderson in 1960 and was also a hit for Roy Clark in 1963. Wariner's version, featuring a backing vocal from Vince Gill, was the album's most successful single. It achieved a Hot Country Songs peak of number three in 1992, and the number-one position of the country music charts published by Radio & Records. The next single \"A Woman Loves\" also went into the top ten, but followups \"Crash Course in the Blues\" (featuring O'Connor on fiddle) and \"Like a River to the Sea\" were less successful.\n\nI Am Ready was met with largely positive critical reception. Brian Mansfield reviewed the album favorably on AllMusic, stating that \"Wariner, a master of the subtle touch, builds this album's impact quietly and methodically\", highlighting the vocal and instrumental performances on the singles in particular. Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly rated the album \"B−\", concluding her review with \"if Wariner lacks a zippy repertoire, he nearly makes up for it with believable readings and deft vocal shadings\". Jay Brakfield of the Dallas Morning News thought that the album had \"contemporary lyrics\" and \"shows a more aggressive Wariner. He's doing the same thing, but now he's doing it better and doing more of it.\" I Am Ready became Wariner's first album to receive a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States. The corresponding tours for I Am Ready were the most commercially successful of his career to this point. In late 1991, the Takamine guitar corporation issued a limited-edition acoustic guitar model named after Wariner.\n\nHis second album for Arista Nashville was 1993's Drive. Its lead single was the top-ten \"If I Didn't Love You\". After it came the Top 30 hits \"Drivin' and Cryin'\" and \"It Won't Be Over You\", while the album's title track stopped at No. 63. Wariner told Cash Box magazine that he intended for the album to be representative of the energy present in his live shows. He also wanted it to be more upbeat than I Am Ready, which he felt contained too many ballads. Once again, Jarvis, Gill, and McAnally were among the musicians contributing; bluegrass singer Carl Jackson co-wrote and sang harmony on \"The Same Mistake Again\", while electric guitarist Brent Mason and steel guitarist Paul Franklin played on \"It Won't Be Over You\". He promoted the album throughout 1993 with a tour comprising the United States and Canada, sponsored by General Motors Canada. Also featured on the tour were Toby Keith, Larry Stewart, and Canadian country singer Cassandra Vasik. Despite the success of the lead single, DuBois (who was then the president of Arista Nashville) observed that the album sold poorly due to negative reception of the following singles by radio programmers. Patrick Davitt of The Leader-Post rated the album 3 out of 5 stars, praising the lyrics and arrangements of \"It Won't Be Over You\" and \"Drivin' and Cryin'\" as well as the \"simpler country tunes\" \"(You Could Always) Come Back\" and \"The Same Mistake Again\", but criticizing \"If I Didn't Love You\" as \"repetitive\" and several other album cuts for their \"unbearably thick and heavy\" sound.\n\nAlthough he did not release any albums in 1994 and 1995, he appeared on collaborative works in the timespan. The first was Mama's Hungry Eyes: A Tribute to Merle Haggard, on which he joined then-labelmates Diamond Rio and Lee Roy Parnell on a cover of Merle Haggard's \"Workin' Man Blues\". Credited to \"Jed Zeppelin\", this rendition was also made into a music video, and charted at number 48 on Hot Country Songs. A year later, he contributed a cover of The Beatles' \"Get Back\" to the compilation Come Together: America Salutes the Beatles.\n\nAn instrumental album, No More Mr. Nice Guy, followed in 1996. Wariner told Guitar Player magazine that he had wanted to record an instrumental album for much of his career, but had considerable difficulty in getting permission from his labels: MCA executives would only allow him to do one instrumental song on an album, while he had to \"beg and plead\" Arista to allow him a full album. No More Mr. Nice Guy included various country and bluegrass musicians such as Atkins, O'Connor, McAnally, Gill, Sam Bush, Béla Fleck, and Diamond Rio lead guitarist Jimmy Olander; it also included folk guitarist Leo Kottke and Bon Jovi lead guitarist Richie Sambora, and a spoken-word intro by Major League Baseball player Nolan Ryan. While the project produced no singles, the track \"Brickyard Boogie\" (featuring Jeffrey Steele, Bryan White, Bryan Austin, and Derek George) was nominated for Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance in 1997. Chuck Hamilton of Country Standard Time noted the variety of musical styles present on the album, concluding that \"if you appreciate good guitar playing by some of the best in the business, this one's a good pick.\" Also in 1996, Wariner was made a member of the Grand Ole Opry.\n\n### 1997–2001: Capitol Records\n\nWariner began writing songs for other artists in the late 1990s per the suggestion of his wife, Caryn, who also ran his publishing company and fan club. She had suggested doing so following the diminishing success of his previous albums. He wrote two songs that topped the Hot Country Songs charts between late 1997 and early 1998: \"Longneck Bottle\" by Garth Brooks (which also featured Wariner on background vocals and lead guitar at Brooks's request) and \"Nothin' but the Taillights\" by Clint Black; Bryan White also had a top-20 hit in this timespan with \"One Small Miracle\", which Wariner wrote with Bill Anderson. In addition to these, Wariner sang duet vocals on Anita Cochran's single \"What If I Said\". In early 1998, this song became not only Wariner's tenth number-one single on Hot Country Songs chart, but also his first entry on the Billboard Hot 100, reaching number 59. According to Wariner, some radio stations played these four songs consecutively, a move which he felt helped draw greater attention to his body of work. Based on the success of these songs, Wariner expressed interest in issuing another album, but said that Arista Nashville executives were reluctant to do so after the commercial failure of Drive and No More Mr. Nice Guy. In response, Brooks suggested that Wariner terminate his contract and sign with another label. In January 1998, Wariner underwent negotiations with multiple labels including Giant Records and Asylum Records before choosing Capitol Records Nashville, to which Brooks was also signed at the time.\n\nHis first Capitol album, Burnin' the Roadhouse Down, came out in April 1998. Leading off the album was the single \"Holes in the Floor of Heaven\", which spent two weeks at the number two position on Hot Country Songs. The album's other singles were its title track (a duet with Brooks), \"Road Trippin'\", and \"Every Little Whisper\". Wariner wrote or co-wrote and produced every song on the album except for \"What If I Said\", which was included as a bonus track due to its earlier success. Country Standard Time published a mixed review of the album, praising most of Wariner's lyrics while criticizing the title track as \"predictably sappy\". Thom Owens of AllMusic wrote of the album that \"His music may not be as fresh as it was in the early '80s, when he was at the beginning of his career, but he's become a masterful craftsman, and that's why the album shines.\" By year's end, Burnin' the Roadhouse Down had become Wariner's second gold album. \"Holes in the Floor of Heaven\" won the 1998 Song of the Year award from the Academy of Country Music (where he also received Song of the Year and Video of the Year nominations for the same song), and Vocal Event of the Year nominations for both \"What If I Said\" and \"Burnin' the Roadhouse Down\". In addition, \"Holes in the Floor of Heaven\" received the 1998 Country Music Association awards for both Single of the Year and Song of the Year, and was nominated in the 1998 Grammy Awards for both Best Male Country Vocal Performance and Best Country Song.\n\nWariner's second album for Capitol was Two Teardrops. Released in 1999, it was certified gold as well. It produced only two singles: its title track, which Wariner co-wrote with Bill Anderson, and a re-recording of his debut single \"I'm Already Taken\". Respectively, these reached numbers two and three on the Hot Country Songs charts that year; they were also successful on the Hot 100, where they respectively reached numbers 30 and 42. Once again, Wariner produced the album himself. His brother Terry provided background vocals on \"I'm Already Taken\", and son Ryan played guitar on \"So Much\". The album also included a duet with Bryan White on \"Talk to Her Heart\" and an instrumental called \"The Harry Shuffle\". Nash rated the album \"B\", stating that \"he continues to shape his persona as the hopeful but dashed romantic, and veers from country lopers to affecting philosophical ruminations. But in serving as his own producer, he fails to get his stronger emotions off the page.\" Owens said of the album that \"It may not be the stunner Burnin' the Roadhouse Down was, but Two Teardrops proves that Wariner can continue to make winners.\" In addition to this, Wariner was one of several musicians contributing to \"Bob's Breakdown\", a song from Asleep at the Wheel's 1999 album Ride with Bob. The same year, he received a second Grammy Award out of three nominations: both \"The Harry Shuffle\" and \"Bob's Breakdown\" were nominated for Best Country Instrumental Performance, with the latter winning that award, while \"Two Teardrops\" was nominated for Best Country Song. By the end of the 1990s, Wariner had also played lead guitar on albums by Bryan White, Lila McCann, and Collin Raye.\n\nHis last Capitol Nashville album was 2000's Faith in You, which charted its title track (also co-written by Anderson) and \"Katie Wants a Fast One\", another duet with Brooks. Faith in You once again featured Ryan, this time as a lead guitarist on the closing instrumental \"Bloodlines\", and his other son Ross on \"High Time\". In addition to his usual guitar work, Wariner also contributed on lap steel guitar, mandolin, and the papoose (a higher-strung guitar manufactured by Tacoma Guitars). \"Bloodlines\" accounted for another Best Country Instrumental Performance nomination at the 2000 Grammy Awards. William Ruhlmann reviewed the album favorably in AllMusic, stating that it was \"another consistent, craftsman-like effort from an artist who has made the most of his second chance in country music.\" Also in 2000, Wariner co-wrote, played lead guitar, and sang duet vocals on Clint Black's 2000 single \"Been There\" from his album D'lectrified; one year later, Keith Urban had a top-five hit with \"Where the Blacktop Ends\", which Wariner wrote with Allen Shamblin. Wariner's contract with Capitol ended when the label's president Pat Quigley exited.\n\n### 2003–present: SelecTone\n\nIn 2003, Wariner founded his own record label called SelecTone Records. His first album for the label was Steal Another Day. It accounted for the charting singles in \"I'm Your Man\" and \"Snowfall on the Sand\". Wariner recorded the album at a studio he had built behind his own house. In addition to its two singles, the album featured re-recordings of \"Some Fools Never Learn\", \"You Can Dream of Me\", \"The Weekend\", \"Where Did I Go Wrong\", and \"Small Town Girl\", along with \"There Will Come a Day\", a song that he wrote about his stepdaughter, Holly. Wariner promoted the album with a concert at the 2003 Indiana State Fair; he also made appearances at Walmart stores around Indianapolis to promote the chain's childhood literacy program Words Are Your Wheels. Wariner made an appearance at an 80th-anniversary celebration of the Grand Ole Opry in 2005, which included him and various other Opry members as part of a two-day concert. He also performed with The Grascals at the 2006 International Bluegrass Music Association awards.\n\nIn 2008, Wariner played guitar on two tracks from Brad Paisley's instrumental album Play: The Guitar Album: the multi-artist collaboration \"Cluster Pluck\", which won that year's Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental, and \"More Than Just This Song\", which Wariner and Paisley co-wrote. One year later, Wariner released the instrumental album My Tribute to Chet Atkins. The album's track \"Producer's Medley\" won him another Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance. Jeff Tamarkin of AllMusic reviewed the album positively, stating that \"Throughout the album, Wariner's guitar work is crisp, sharp and smart–he never attempts to imitate Atkins but he manages to embody him nonetheless.\" For this album, Wariner referred to himself as \"Steve Wariner, c.g.p.\", indicating the title \"certified guitar player\" which Atkins had bestowed to guitarists whom he respected. Other guitarists to receive this title from Atkins include Tommy Emmanuel, John Knowles, Marcel Dadi, and Jerry Reed. Wariner promoted the album through special concerts in Nashville, whose proceeds were donated to the Chet Atkins Music Education Fund.\n\nAnother instrumental album, Guitar Laboratory, followed in 2011. Contributors on the album included David Hungate, Aubrey Haynie, and Paul Yandell, along with Wariner's touring drummer Ron Gannaway and son Ross. JP Tausig of Country Standard Time noted the variety of musical styles on the album, particularly a jazz influence on some tracks. 2013's It Ain't All Bad returned Wariner to a vocal album after several instrumental ones. Chuck Yarborough of The Plain Dealer rated the album \"A\", noting rockabilly and bluegrass music influences on the album's sound, also highlighting the lyrics of \"Arrows at Airplanes\" and \"Bluebonnet Memories\". Following in 2016 was All Over the Map, on which Wariner played guitar, drums, upright bass, and steel guitar. The album included a mix of instrumental and vocal tracks, among which was \"When I Still Mattered to You\", a track that he wrote with Merle Haggard in 1996. It also included a collaboration with Ricky Skaggs on \"Down Sawmill Road\".\n\nIn 2019, Wariner was one of many artists inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum.\n\n## Musical styles\n\nWilliam Ruhlmann of AllMusic wrote that \"in the beginning, the low-tuned guitars and wide range of his singles brought frequent comparisons to the early Glen Campbell hits.\" Richard Carlin of Country Music: A Biographical Dictionary similarly compared the RCA catalog to that of Glen Campbell, calling such songs \"a pop-country backup that really wasn't suited to him\". Carlin found the MCA albums more \"progressive\" and comparable to pop rock. Thomas Goldsmith of The Tennessean noted that many of Wariner's mid-1980s hit singles were \"personal, down-to-earth songs of daily life.\" He also wrote that by the release of Life's Highway, Wariner had developed a \"leaner country style\" compared to the \"pop-oriented tunes\" of his earlier days. In a review of Faith in You also for AllMusic, Ruhlmann described Wariner's style by saying, \"his abilities as a guitarist, understated but always apparent in the style of his mentor, Chet Atkins, provide a basic level of enjoyment no matter what else is going on.\" Brian Wahlert of Country Standard Time stated that \"most of the time he releases pleasant music that is neither offensive nor exciting.\" Writing for the Dallas Morning News, Jay Brakefield contrasted Wariner's style with that of Vince Gill, saying that \"like Gill, Wariner has a reputation as a superb guitar player and a teriffic vocalist.\" Wariner noted that Atkins was influential in his early days as a recording artist, as Atkins encouraged Wariner to play his own lead guitar parts, and to emphasize the quality of a song over who wrote it. Despite this, Wariner also said that he only chose to include his own guitar solos on songs where he felt that they were necessary. Some of Wariner's songs employ scat singing over his solos, most notably \"I Got Dreams\".\n\nWariner's guitar playing style includes fingerstyle guitar and classical guitar, both of which he claims were inspirations from the work of Jerry Reed. In his early days when performing with Atkins, he recalls that Atkins would lend him a Gretsch guitar on which he was allowed to play solos. Nash wrote of Wariner's vocal and lyrical style that \"the majority of Wariner’s sweet-sad songs about lost opportunity forego front-page passion for little nuggets of long-term longing\" and \"his creamy tenor audibly caresses a lyric.\" An article in The Los Angeles Times noted of Wariner's musical image in the 1990s that, unlike his peers, he did not wear a cowboy hat; the same article described him as \"just plain good...Wariner has an angelic voice, some solid songs and a staggering facility on the guitar.\" Many of his projects have been recorded in only one take, including Burnin' the Roadhouse Down, the track \"I Just Do\" from Faith in You, and the Atkins tribute album.\n\n## Personal life\n\nWariner fathered his first son, Ryan, with Caryn Severs in 1984, although the two were not married at the time. After marrying in 1987, they had a second son, Ross. He also has one stepdaughter, Holly, who was diagnosed with juvenile diabetes. He has one sister, Barbara, and three brothers: Kenny, Dave, and Terry, the last of whom was a longtime member of his road band. His mother Geneva Ilene Wariner died on June 19, 2012, followed by his father, Roy Monroe Wariner, on July 7, 2017.\n\nFor much of the 1980s, Wariner developed an interest in stage magic, and would often include magic acts as part of his concerts. He also took up watercolor painting, and named his song \"Like a River to the Sea\" after one such painting.\n\n## Discography\n\nStudio albums\n\n- Steve Wariner (1982)\n- Midnight Fire (1983)\n- One Good Night Deserves Another (1985)\n- Life's Highway (1985)\n- It's a Crazy World (1987)\n- I Should Be with You (1988)\n- I Got Dreams (1989)\n- Laredo (1990)\n- I Am Ready (1991)\n- Drive (1993)\n- No More Mr. Nice Guy (1996)\n- Burnin' the Roadhouse Down (1998)\n- Two Teardrops (1999)\n- Faith in You (2000)\n- Steal Another Day (2003)\n- This Real Life (2005)\n- My Tribute to Chet Atkins (2009)\n- Guitar Laboratory (2011)\n- It Ain't All Bad (2013)\n- All Over the Map (2016)\n- Feels Like Christmas Time (2021)\n\n## Awards and nominations", "revid": "1172346150", "description": "American country musician", "categories": ["1954 births", "20th-century American guitarists", "20th-century American male musicians", "American country bass guitarists", "American country guitarists", "American country record producers", "American country singer-songwriters", "American male guitarists", "American male singer-songwriters", "Arista Nashville artists", "Capitol Records artists", "Country musicians from Indiana", "Grammy Award winners", "Grand Ole Opry members", "Guitarists from Indiana", "Living people", "MCA Records artists", "People from Noblesville, Indiana", "RCA Records artists", "Singer-songwriters from Indiana"]}
{"id": "49122282", "url": null, "title": "Naoum Mokarzel", "text": "Naoum Mokarzel (Arabic: نعوم مكرزل / ALA-LC: Naʻūm Mukarzil, sometimes spelled \"Naʿum Mukarzil\"; 2 August 1864 – 5 April 1932) was an influential intellectual and publisher who immigrated to the United States from Mount Lebanon in Ottoman Syria.\n\nMokarzel established his first daily publication, Al-ʿAsr (The Epoch) which floundered less than a year after its first issue. He attended medical school for two years before dropping out and became notorious within New York's Arab-speaking community for his aggressive character and controversial demeanor. He engaged in libel and disputes with other immigrants that often became physical and violent. He was arrested on several occasions but was never jailed; his actions stoked politico-sectarian animosity within the Arab-speaking communities of the US.\n\nIn 1895 Mokarzel was accused of adultery with a married woman; the two got married and eloped to Philadelphia where, on 22 February 1898, he published the first issue of his second newspaper Al-Hoda (The Guidance). Al-Hoda would grow to become the largest and longest-running Arabic daily newspaper in the United States. In 1902 Mokarzel got divorced, he moved with his brother Salloum back to New York where they set up the newspaper's office. Naoum collaborated with Ameen Rihani who published a regular section in Al-Hoda and he married Rihani's sister, Saada, in 1904. The two men fell out when Mokarzel and Saada divorced and because of political values differences. Mokarzel claimed that his publication was secular but his writings often showed religious bias; he used his publishing house to print and circulate Maronite politics and Lebanese nationalism.\n\nIn 1910, Naoum and Salloum adapted the linotype machine to the Arabic script to replace manual typesetting. This contribution paved the way for cheaper and easier publishing for Arabic-speaking communities throughout the world. That same year he married his third wife but he never had children.\n\nMokarzel was politically engaged and called for the separation of Lebanon from the Ottoman empire. In 1917 he collected more than \\$30,000 US in donations to relieve the residents of Mount Lebanon during the great famine but he diverted half of the money to fund a volunteer armed force to oust the Ottomans from Lebanon. He represented the Lebanon League of Progress in the post-World War I Paris Peace Conference of 1919 where he advocated for French tutelage over Mount Lebanon; he saw his endeavors materialize in the next few months with the creation of the State of Greater Lebanon. Mokarzel championed freedom of expression, religious tolerance, and women's right for education. He attacked the clergy for sanctioning female illiteracy, and child and forced marriages. He appointed the Lebanese-American journalist Afifa Karam as Director of Women's Issues and had a regular column published about the community's women issues.\n\nMokarzel died on 5 April 1932 in Paris; his body is interred in his hometown of Freike in Lebanon.\n\n## Biography\n\n### Youth in Mount Lebanon\n\nMokarzel was born into a Maronite Catholic family from the town of Freike in Mount Lebanon, then a semi-autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire. His father Antoun, a Maronite priest, and his mother Barbara Mokarzel née Akl were influential figures in local civic and political affairs. Mokarzel attended school at the Collège de la Sagesse in Beirut and received higher education at the Jesuit Saint Joseph University in Beirut. After graduation, Mokarzel moved to Cairo, Egypt where he landed a job teaching literature at the Jesuit college; he became ill with fever after a year there and returned to his hometown in 1886 where he founded a boarding school. Mokarzel's return to Lebanon was brief and he soon decided to move to the United States. Mokarzel traveled with two relatives, Abdo Rihani and the latter's nephew, Ameen, who would become a major figure in the Mahjar literary movement.\n\n### In New York, early careers and turmoil\n\nOn August 4, 1888, Mokarzel and the Rihanis landed in New York; they lived in the basement of 59 Washington Street in Manhattan, a part of the city that was known as Little Syria due to the settlement of a growing Arab Christian immigrant population. The majority of the Syrian and Lebanese immigrants were of modest background and resorted to petty jobs, such as peddling. By contrast, Mokarzel hailed from the Beiruti elite. The Jesuit-educated Mokarzel, who was fluent in French, was quickly hired to teach the language at the Saint Francis Xavier's College in Manhattan, a Jesuit institution at the time. Besides teaching, he was also employed as a bookkeeper for different businesses before engaging in a dry goods commerce venture with Abdo Rihani in 1891. The business failed and Mokarzel consequently departed for Mount Lebanon in 1892.\n\nUpon his return to the United States, the Arbeelys, a Greek Orthodox family of Damascene origins, had begun printing Kawkab America (American Star), the first Arabic-language newspaper in North America; Mokarzel set out to open his own newspaper Al-ʿAsr (The Epoch) with capital from his wealthy merchant friend, Najeeb Maalouf. Mokarzel and Nageeb Arbeely engaged in a journalistic feud, personally attacking each other resulting in series of lawsuits and counter-suits between the two newspapers. The enterprise floundered and was discontinued less than a year after its commencement. Mokarzel attended medical school for two years before dropping out. Meanwhile, Mokarzel was gaining notoriety for his controversial demeanor; he engaged in brawls and verbal disputes with other Arabic-speaking immigrants and was arrested on several occasions for libel and physical assault against members of the community affiliated with the Arbeely family. The brawls that started as a result of professional competition and personal antipathy evolved into sectarian battles between Mokarzel's Maronite entourage and the Orthodox families of the community. Despite his multiple arrests, Mokarzel was never jailed but the incidents were to continue. In 1895, Tannous Shishim, a Lebanese immigrant, petitioned for divorce from his wife Sophie on the ground of adultery and Mokarzel was named co-respondent in the court proceedings. The Arbeelys were quick to publish the culpable news in their newspaper along with a bilingual transcript of the judge's decision, further tarnishing the reputation of Mokarzel. The accused couple got married and eloped to Philadelphia to flee the community's public denunciation.\n\n### Inception of Al-Hoda\n\nIn Philadelphia on February 22, 1898, the estranged Mokarzel published the first issue of his second newspaper Al-Hoda (The Guidance), which became the longest-running Arabic newspaper in the United States. The first issue consisted of 18 pages of three columns each and appeared on a weekly basis. The publication expanded in November 1898 to 24 pages including six full pages of advertisement and was distributed in over forty countries. In early 1899, Mokarzel boasted that the circulation of Al-Hoda surpassed that of its main competitor, the Orthodox-inclined Kawkab America. Although claiming to be a non-sectarian publication, Al-Hoda was, like most of the New York-based Arabic newspapers, a mouthpiece to voice the confessional stances of the paper's owner. Al-Hoda was aimed primarily at the Arabic-speaking Levantine immigrants, especially the Maronite community; it reported on Ottoman politics in the Levant, political reform in Lebanon and on the environment of immigrant-run businesses. Mokarzel's brother Salloum traveled to the United States and joined the enterprise that same year. The format of the publication changed after Salloum's arrival; Al-Hoda began appearing twice weekly and was reduced to eight pages with more space reserved for paid advertisements. Despite his standing in the American Maronite community, infamy and controversy still followed Mokarzel. In 1899, the newlyweds published in Al-Hoda an apologetic article of Sophie's divorce from her previous husband and their subsequent marriage. However, Mokarzel's marriage was failing; he separated from Sophie on the same year that their defensive article was published and they divorced in 1902. Sophie returned to New York and took up selling linens before moving to South California where she started a linen shop and married her third husband, a Levantine confectioner. The Mokarzel brothers continued to print Al-Hoda in Philadelphia until late 1902.\n\n### Back in New York\n\nIn 1902, Naoum and his brother moved back to New York and settled in Brooklyn; they set up their newspaper's office on Manhattan's West Street. The first issue of Al-Hoda was published from the New York offices on 25 August 1902 and was since published on a daily basis. In 1904, Mokarzel married Ameen Rihani's sister Saada, who according to Naoum's niece and biographer Mary Mokarzel, was very eager to marry him. Ameen Rihani brokered his sister's marriage to Mokarzel but the two never cohabited and Saada soon returned to Mount Lebanon. In 1908, Mokarzel sued for divorce from Saada in absentia on the account that she had committing adultery in a hostel in Mount Lebanon. The divorce was settled in May and was followed by a ten-year dispute in which Saada tried to prove her innocence and to win alimony.\n\nMokarzel and Ameen Rihani had a lasting professional collaboration with Ameen publishing a regular section entitled Kashkoul al-Khawater (Patchwork of Thoughts) from 1901 until 1904. The two writers fell out because of Naoum's divorce from Saada and because of political differences and conflicting values.\n\n### Competing newspapers and sects\n\nMokarzel's approach to the Arab American community's other newspapers was contentious and confrontational, and he accused the editors of the other newspapers lacking integrity and professional ethics. The most frequent targets of Mokarzel's attacks were Kawkab America and Al-Islah (The Reform). Mokarzel posited ever since the establishment of Al-Hoda that his newspaper was secular and independent, accusing the other Arabic US-based newspapers of being sectarian and aligned to France, Britain, Russia and to the Ottomans. This position was staunchly upheld by Mokarzel until two Maronite clergymen Yusuf Yazbek and Estephan Qurqumaz sought to publish Al-Sakhra (The Rock), a newspaper representing American Maronites. Feeling threatened by the looming publication, Mokarzel contravened his previous positions and declared that Al-Hoda had always served the Maronite sect and nation and accused the clergymen of seeking \"personal and dishonorable purposes\". Yazbek accused Mokarzel's newspaper of being a mouthpiece of another Maronite priest, Khairallah Stefan. Mokarzel and his newspaper eventually prevailed.\n\nThe animosity prevailing between the newspapers representing different sects mirrored an intra-communal sectarian strife that turned violent in later years. In August 1905, Mokarzel reported that the Orthodox bishop Raphael Hawaweeny called upon his followers to \"crush\" him. The tensions developed into violence in the autumn of 1905 when the partisans of Hawaweeny and Mokarzel sympathizers clashed, resulting in 29 injured.\n\nThe sectarian tension in Little Syria reached its zenith in 1906 when John Stefan, brother of the priest Khairallah Stephan, was killed in a restaurant brawl on Washington Street. Mokarzel was apprehended by the police for the assault that was linked to the murder. Mokarzel's calumnious accusation and arrest were overturned as the complainant did not show up to the trial. The charge was dismissed and the police authorities settled on an Orthodox man, Elias Zreik, as the murderer. During Zreik's trial, the prosecution held that Elias and his brother George were sent to kill Mokarzel; when they did not find him in his office they set out to the restaurant where his Maronite sympathizers often met.\n\n### New Arabic printing era and political involvement\n\nIn 1910, the Mokarzel brothers decided to adapt the linotype machine to Arabic script to mitigate the expensive cost and tedious task of manual typesetting. Naoum Mokarzel imported Arabic type letters from Egypt and acquired the first such machine for Al-Hoda from the Mergenthaler company. While the linotype machine made printing cheaper, there was significant competition for readership since New York's Arabic-speaking community did not exceed 10,000 before World War II.\n\nThrough his writing in Al-Hoda and other American journals, Mokarzel was gaining further prominence as a leading figure of the American Maronite community and was seeking a similarly prominent woman to marry. In 1910 he married for the third and last time; his wife, Rose Abillama hailed from a princely Maronite family and was more than twenty years his minor. Mokarzel did not have any offspring from any of his marriages. In 1911, Mokarzel became the permanent president of the Lebanon League of Progress (Jamʿiyyat al-Nahda al-Lubnaniyya), a Maronite organization established in the US by the journalist Ibrahim Najjar (1882-1957) and dedicated to promoting a French-supported Maronite protectorate in Lebanon.\n\nIn June 1913, Mokarzel was the Lebanon League of Progress delegate to the First Arab Congress in Paris where he represented the North American Maronites. Delegates to the congress discussed reforms to grant the Arabs living under the Ottoman Empire autonomy. The congress did not have a lasting effect, due mostly to the beginning of World War I.\n\nIn 1917, Mokarzel sought and collected through Al-Hoda more than \\$30,000 US in donations to relieve his compatriots in Mount Lebanon who were experiencing a great famine due to Entente and Ottoman blockades. The collected donations were to be personally dispensed by Mokarzel, but half of the money was directed to fund a volunteer armed force that was gathering to enter Lebanon instead of toward relief aid. Mokarzel incorrectly surmised that the Entente powers would come to the Maronite force's assistance, but they did not take interest in the armed venture.\n\nMokarzel represented the Lebanon League of Progress in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 where he advocated French tutelage over Mount Lebanon. On 28 September 1919, when the prospects of French control began to materialize, Mokarzel dispatched a fervent telegram to his New York office announcing that the French army would replace the British forces in Greater Syria and that Lebanon would come under French guardianship. In 1923, on the occasion of Al-Hoda'''s Silver Anniversary, Mokarzel was celebrated as a leading figure by the Maronite and the non-Maronite literary community of America, as well as by a number of American friends.\n\n### Last years and death\n\nMokarzel's last years were marked by bed-confining illnesses. He boarded a boat to France on March 18, 1932 despite his deteriorating health condition to attend a Lebanon-related conference in Paris. Mokarzel succumbed to his illnesses on April 5, 1932. His body was sent from Paris to New York where he received a large public funeral. His body was sent to Lebanon and interred in the family cemetery in his hometown of Freike. After his death, Al-Hoda came under Salloum's management, which passed at the latter's death in 1952 to his daughter Mary. The newspaper closed in 1971.\n\n## Views and activism\n\nMokarzel held an esteemed position in New York's Arabic-speaking community at a young age; his political and social views were expressed in Al-Hoda as well as other non-Arabic American newspapers. According to Suleiman, Mokarzel was an obstinate and passionate individual who fiercely clung to and defended his opinions and the survival of his publication. He sought to convert detractors to his point of view and he repeatedly made contradictory statements and opinions. Mokarzel engaged in many disputes with his detractors and with editors or rival newspapers and responded to criticism with personal attacks and sarcasm.\n\n### Immigration\n\nIn 1896 the Ottoman government lifted the ban on the emigration of its subjects, prompting a surge of immigration to the United States from the Levant. The Ottomans saw benefit in the remittances sent by the Ottoman diaspora, which boosted the economy. In 1898, the Ford Committee lobbied for more stringent immigrant admission criteria to the United States and proposed to the US Congress that the undesirable be turned back. These measures aimed to dampen the flow of the non-European immigrants and prompted Mokarzel to call on all the community's newspapers to stop promoting immigration because the immigrants were likely to be turned back upon arrival. Despite the restrictive measures, only a small fraction of Levantine Ottoman immigrants were debarred.\n\n### Lebanese independence\n\nMokarzel harbored tacit Lebanese separationist aspirations that he did not openly advocate until the Ottoman defeat in World War I. Before the Ottomans' fall, Mokarzel's rhetoric was more diplomatic; unlike Al-Ayam (The Days), another US-based Arabic newspaper, which was openly hostile toward the Ottoman sultan and authorities, Al-Hoda took a more cautious tone, reminding its Arabic-speaking American readers that they were above all, Ottoman settlers in a foreign land. In 1894, Mokarzel attended an event honoring the Ottoman sultan, giving an address in French to the assembled notables among whom was the Ottoman consul-general of New York. In 1899, Mokarzel criticized the newly established Young Syria Party that aimed to overthrow the Ottoman government and sought to recruit a militia for that purpose. At the turn of the twentieth century, Mokarzel began to openly express his disdain for the Ottoman consul in New York. Mokarzel represented the Lebanon League of Progress in the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris advocating for the autonomy of Mount Lebanon within the Ottoman Empire.\n\nThe mistreatment of the Lebanese during World War I and the ensuing famine were turning points for Mokarzel, who afterward openly called for Lebanon's independence from the Ottomans. In 1917, Mokarzel urged his readers to join a special battalion and fight alongside France to help force the Ottomans out of Lebanon. His call for action was met with distrust and was not successful as there was a growing concern that the recruits would be exploited in occupying Mount Lebanon on behalf of the French, not liberate it from the Turks. Mokarzel then engaged in a campaign among the Lebanese communities in the diaspora, especially in the Americas, to change the name of the community and its organizations from \"Syrian\" to \"Lebanese\". Mokarzel participated in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and advocated a French Mandate over Mount Lebanon to train the locals in good governance in preparation for independence. Mokarzel designed the flag used of Mandatory Lebanon; his calls for the establishment of a French-supported protectorate in Lebanon caused his detractors to accuse his newspaper of being financially supported by French endowments.\n\n### Religion and sectarianism\n\nDespite being a staunch practicing Maronite, Mokarzel had often criticized and clashed with the Maronite clergy especially al-mursaloon missionaries who collected funds for the purpose of building or renovating churches in Lebanon. The Maronite clergy members were not accustomed to accountability or reproach of their actions, and thus Mokarzel's criticisms and accusations of corruption made them irate. He was subsequently accused by members of the clergy of being a Freemason. Instead of building more places of worship, Mokarzel pressed in a 1904 article for building more public and secular schools in which the clergy and religion had no influence, arguing that the priests were not serving their community. In a 1923 article, Mokarzel reasserted that secular schools were necessary to avoid sectarian antagonism and aversion between the people of the same nation. Mokarzel also criticized the clergy for imposing social and religious barriers on Syrian women which prevented them from receiving a formal education.\n\nMokarzel also called for freedom of expression and religious tolerance and used the Al-Hoda publishing house to propagate these values. In 1903, Al-Hoda published Ameen Rihani's The Tripartite Alliance in the Animal Kingdom, a book that was critical of religion. Both Rihani and Mokarzel were severely attacked by the Catholic clergy and by the editors of many rival Arabic newspapers in the United States. Notwithstanding his previous calls for secularism, Mokarzel engaged in a sectarian campaign aimed at Lebanon's Muslim population in November 1925; in a New York Times article, he called for French protection of Lebanese Christians from \"the ruthless fanaticism of the Mohammedan element\".\n\n### Women's rights and literacy\n\nIn a 1904 article entitled \"You Are What Your Womenfolk Are\", Mokarzel adamantly called against gender discrimination against women in education and attributed the Levantine women's lack of education to the backwardness of the clergy and their authority over women, which he argued, was the root cause of the lack of progress of the Arabic-speaking community of the United States. In an attack on the role of the clergy in barring women from education and from becoming teachers, Mokarzel described the women who submit to the clergy's impositions as traitors to God, and to the mothers' purpose of upbringing.\n\nMokarzel attacked what he called \"false modesty\" and how the men of the community allowed their women to peddle freely and stay out of town overnight while labeling them as immodest if they became writers or gave public lectures. Mokarzel found an ally in Afifa Karam, a stalwart woman writer whom he appointed as \"Director of Women's Issues\" in Al-Hoda. She contributed a regular column in the newspaper and continued writing about the community's women issues despite angry attacks and attempts to shame her. Mokarzel further encouraged female education by offering a free Al-Hoda subscription to any literate woman from the Arabic-speaking community of the United States. Mokarzel was, however, against granting women the right to vote and women's involvement in politics.\n\nMokarzel condemned forced marriages and child marriage that were still a tradition among Arabic-speaking communities of the US.\n\n### Great Druze Revolt\n\nMokarzel was a vehement opponent of the Great Syrian Revolt of 1925 which pitted Syrian and Lebanese rebels against the French Mandatory authorities. Mokarzel formed the \"Committee to help the Lebanese victims and the refugees\" and initiated a fundraising campaign supervised by the Lebanon League of Progress for the benefit of Lebanese victims of the uprising from Rashaya, Hasbaya and Marjayoun. He managed to collect more than half a million dollars that were transferred to a committee in Lebanon headed by Moussa Nammour, a member of the Lebanese parliament. Meraat-ul-Gharb (The Mirror of the Occident), a rival newspaper, accused Nammour of socializing with the French and accused Nammour's organization of corruption. Mokarzel was opposed to Emir Shakib Arslan, a leading figure of the Druze revolt, with whom he had fundamental political disagreements. He called on his readers to petition the US government to ask for the deportation of Arslan and of his delegation. Mokarzel managed to get the delegation under surveillance.\n\n### Arab whiteness and naturalization\n\nIn 1909 Mokarzel founded the Syrian American Association to defend the eligibility of Syrians to the American citizenship. Mokarzel and the SAA were engaged in the 1914 case Dow v. United States. The plaintiff, George Dow, was an Ottoman Syrian whose application for citizenship had been rejected twice by the lower courts of South Carolina. Mokarzel and Dow's lawyer mounted an elaborate defense of five points arguing why Dow was to be in the \"white persons\" category.\n\nMokarzel argued that Syrians are of Arab origins, \"the purest type of the Semitic race\" and that therefore are \"free white persons\" falling within the meaning of the naturalization statute. In the final ruling, the judge in Dow's case accepted the Dillingham report which stipulated that Syrians were from the Semitic branch of the Caucasian race, that they were of mixed Syrian, Arabian and Jewish ancestry and were not from the Mongolian race of their Turkish overlords. The judge finally ruled that Syrians were \"white persons\", and consequently the court granted Dow American citizenship. The Dow case officially settled the issue of race and eligibility for citizenship for the early Arab Americans.\n\n## Legacy\n\nBy adapting the linotyope machine to the Arabic script, Mokarzel and Al-Hoda paved the way for cheaper and easier publishing for Arabic-speaking communities all throughout the world; subsequently, the New York Arabic-speaking colony became an intellectual epicenter through the preponderance of Arabic printing presses. Al-Hoda grew to be an Arabic daily with the widest circulation in North America. The New York Times'' wrote in 1948 that this development \"made possible and immeasurably stimulated the growth of Arabic journalism in the Middle East\".\n\n## See also\n\n- Al-Hoda\n- Nageeb Arbeely\n- 'Afifa Karam", "revid": "1165895204", "description": "Lebanese writer and philosopher", "categories": ["1864 births", "1932 deaths", "20th-century American people", "20th-century Lebanese people", "Arabs from the Ottoman Empire", "Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the United States", "Lebanese Maronites", "Lebanese nationalists", "Lebanese philosophers", "Lebanese poets", "Lebanese writers"]}
{"id": "39204", "url": null, "title": "Battle of Bennington", "text": "The Battle of Bennington was a battle of the American Revolutionary War, part of the Saratoga campaign, that took place on August 16, 1777, on a farm in Walloomsac, New York, about 10 miles (16 km) from its namesake, Bennington, Vermont. A rebel force of 2,000 men, primarily New Hampshire and Massachusetts militiamen, led by General John Stark, and reinforced by Vermont militiamen led by Colonel Seth Warner and members of the Green Mountain Boys, decisively defeated a detachment of General John Burgoyne's army led by Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum, and supported by additional men under Lieutenant Colonel Heinrich von Breymann.\n\nBaum's detachment was a mixed force of 700, composed primarily of dismounted Brunswick dragoons, Canadians, Loyalists and Indians. He was sent by Burgoyne to raid Bennington in the disputed New Hampshire Grants area for horses, draft animals, provisions, and other supplies. Believing the town to be only lightly defended, Burgoyne and Baum were unaware that Stark and 1,500 militiamen were stationed there. After a rain-caused standoff, Stark's men enveloped Baum's position, taking many prisoners, and killing Baum. Reinforcements for both sides arrived as Stark and his men were mopping up, and the battle restarted, with Warner and Stark driving away Breymann's reinforcements with heavy casualties.\n\nThe battle was a major strategic success for the American cause and is considered part of the turning point of the Revolutionary War; it reduced Burgoyne's army in size by almost 1,000 men, led his Native American supporters to largely abandon him, and deprived him of much-needed supplies, such as mounts for his cavalry regiments, draft animals and provisions, all factors that contributed to Burgoyne's eventual defeat at Saratoga. The victory galvanized colonial support for the independence movement, and played a key role in bringing France into the war on the rebel side. The battle's anniversary is celebrated in the state of Vermont as Bennington Battle Day.\n\n## Background\n\nWith the American Revolutionary War two years old, the British changed their plans. Giving up on the rebellious New England colonies, they decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what the British believed to be the more loyal southern colonies. The British command devised a grand plan to divide the colonies via a three-way pincer movement towards Albany. The western pincer, proceeding eastward from Lake Ontario under the command of Barry St. Leger, was repulsed when the Siege of Fort Stanwix failed, and the southern pincer, which was to progress up the Hudson valley from New York City, never started since General William Howe decided instead to capture Philadelphia.\n\nThe northern pincer, proceeding southward from Montreal, enjoyed the most success. After the British victories at Fort Ticonderoga, Hubbardton, and Fort Anne, General John Burgoyne proceeded with the Saratoga campaign, with the goal of capturing Albany and gaining control of the Hudson River Valley, where Burgoyne's force could (as the plan went) meet the other pincers, dividing the colonies in two.\n\n### British forces\n\nBurgoyne's progress towards Albany had initially met with some success, including the scattering of Seth Warner's men in the Battle of Hubbardton. However, his advance had slowed to a crawl by late July, due to logistical difficulties, exacerbated by the American destruction of a key road, and the army's supplies began to dwindle. Burgoyne's concern over supplies was magnified in early August when he received word from Howe that he (Howe) was going to Philadelphia, and was not in fact going to advance up the Hudson River valley. In response to a proposal first made on July 22 by the commander of his German troops, Baron Riedesel, Burgoyne sent a detachment of about 800 troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum from Fort Miller on a foraging mission to acquire horses for the German dragoons, draft animals to assist in moving the army, and to harass the enemy. Baum's detachment was primarily made up of dismounted Brunswick Army dragoons of the Prinz Ludwig regiment. Along the way it was joined by local companies of Loyalists, some Canadians and about 100 Indians, and a company of British sharpshooters. Baum was originally ordered to proceed to the Connecticut River valley where they believed horses could be procured for the dragoons. However, as Baum was preparing to leave, Burgoyne verbally changed the goal to be a supply depot at Bennington, which was believed to be guarded by the remnants of Warner's brigade, about 400 colonial militia.\n\n### American forces\n\nUnknown to Burgoyne, the citizens of the New Hampshire Grants territory (now Vermont, which was then disputed between New York and the Vermont Republic) had appealed to the states of New Hampshire and Massachusetts for protection from the invading army following the British capture of Ticonderoga. New Hampshire responded on July 18 by authorizing John Stark to raise a militia for the defense of the people \"or the annoyance of the enemy\". Using funds provided by John Langdon, Stark raised 1,500 New Hampshire militiamen in the space of six days, more than 10% of New Hampshire's male population over the age of sixteen. They were first marched to the Fort at Number 4 (modern Charlestown, New Hampshire), then crossed the Connecticut river border into the Grants and stopped at Manchester, where Stark conferred with Warner. While in Manchester, General Benjamin Lincoln, whose promotion in preference to Stark had been the cause for Stark's resignation from the Continental Army, attempted to assert Army authority over Stark and his men. Stark refused, stating that he was solely responsible to the New Hampshire authorities. Stark then went on to Bennington with Warner as a guide, while Warner's men remained in Manchester. Lincoln returned to the American camp at Stillwater, where he and General Philip Schuyler hatched a plan for Lincoln, with 500 men, to join with Stark and Warner in actions to harass Burgoyne's communications and supply lines at Skenesboro. Baum's movements significantly altered these plans.\n\n## Prelude\n\nBaum's Germans left Burgoyne's camp at Fort Edward on August 9 and marched to Fort Miller, where they waited until they were joined by the Indians and a company of British marksmen. The company marched off toward Bennington on August 11. In minor skirmishes along the way they learned from prisoners taken that a sizable force was in place at Bennington. On August 14 Baum's men encountered a detachment of Stark's men that had been sent out to investigate reports of Indians in the area. Stark's men retreated, destroying a bridge to delay Baum's advance. Stark, on receiving word of the approaching force, sent a request to Manchester for support, and then moved his troops out of Bennington toward Baum's force, setting up a defensive line. Baum sent a message to Burgoyne following the first contact indicating that the American force was larger than expected, but that it was likely to retreat before him. He then advanced a few miles further until he neared Stark's position. He then realized that at least part of his first message was incorrect, so he sent a second message to Burgoyne, requesting reinforcements.\n\nIt rained for the next day and a half, preventing battle. During this time, Baum's men constructed a small redoubt at the crest of the hill and hoped that the weather would prevent the Americans from attacking before reinforcements arrived. Stark sent out skirmishers to probe the German lines, and managed to kill thirty Indians in spite of the difficulties of keeping their gunpowder dry. Reinforcements for both sides marched out on the 15th; travel was quite difficult due to the heavy rains. Burgoyne sent 550 men under Heinrich von Breymann, while Warner's company of about 350 Green Mountain Boys came south from Manchester under Lieutenant Samuel Safford's command.\n\nLate on the night of August 15, Stark was awakened by the arrival of Parson Thomas Allen and a band of Massachusetts militiamen from nearby Berkshire County who insisted on joining his force. In response to the minister's fiery threat that his men would never come out again if they were not allowed to participate, Stark is reported to have said, \"Would you go now on this dark and rainy night? Go back to your people and tell them to get some rest if they can, and if the Lord gives us sunshine to-morrow and I do not give you fighting enough, I will never call on you to come again.\" Stark's forces again swelled the next day with the arrival of some Stockbridge Indians, bringing his force (excluding Warner's men) to nearly 2,000 men.\n\nStark was not the only beneficiary of unexpected reinforcements. Baum's force grew by almost 100 when a group of local Loyalists arrived in his camp on the morning of August 16.\n\n## Battle\n\nOn the afternoon of August 16, the weather cleared, and Stark ordered his men to be ready to attack. Stark is reputed to have rallied his troops by saying they were here to fight for their \"natural born rights as Englishmen\" and he added \"There are your enemies, the Red Coats and the Tories. They are ours, or this night Molly Stark sleeps a widow.\" Upon hearing that the militia had melted away into the woods, Baum assumed that the Americans were retreating or redeploying. However, Stark had decided to capitalize on weaknesses in the German's widely distributed position, and had sent sizable flanking parties to either side of his lines. These movements were assisted by a ruse employed by Stark's men that enabled them to get closer safely without alarming the opposing forces. The Germans, most of whom spoke no English, had been told that soldiers with bits of white paper in their hats were Loyalists, and should not be fired on; Stark's men had also heard this and many of them had suitably adorned their hats.\n\nWhen the fighting broke out around 3:00 PM the German position was immediately surrounded by gunfire, which Stark described as \"the hottest engagement I have ever witnessed, resembling a continual clap of thunder.\" The Loyalists and Indian positions were overrun, causing many of them to flee or surrender. This left Baum and his Brunswick dragoons trapped alone on the high ground. The Germans fought valiantly even after running low on powder and the destruction of their ammunition wagon. In desperation the dragoons led a sabre charge in an attempt to break through the enveloping forces. The charge failed horrendously, resulting in massive German casualties and gaining no ground on the rebels. Baum was mortally wounded in this final charge, and the remaining Germans surrendered.\n\nAfter the battle ended, while Stark's militiamen were busy disarming the prisoners and looting their supplies, Breymann arrived with his reinforcements. Seeing the Americans in disarray, they immediately pressed their attack. After hastily regrouping, Stark's forces tried to hold their ground against the new German onslaught, but began to fall back. Before their lines collapsed, Warner's men arrived on the scene to reinforce Stark's troops. Pitched battle continued until dark, when both sides disengaged. Breymann began a hasty retreat; he had lost one quarter of his force and all of his artillery pieces.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nTotal German and British losses at Bennington were recorded at 207 dead and 700 captured; American losses included 30 Americans dead and 40 wounded. The battle was at times particularly brutal when Loyalists met Patriots, as in some cases they came from the same communities. The prisoners, who were first kept in Bennington, were eventually marched to Boston.\n\nBurgoyne's army was readying to cross the Hudson at Fort Edward on August 17 when the first word of the battle arrived. Believing that reinforcements might be necessary, Burgoyne marched the army toward Bennington until further word arrived that Breymann and the remnants of his force were returning. Stragglers continued to arrive throughout the day and night, while word of the disaster spread within the camp.\n\nThe effect on Burgoyne's campaign was significant. Not only had he lost nearly 1,000 men, of which half were regulars, but he also lost the crucial Indian support. In a council following the battle, many of the Indians (who had traveled with him from Quebec) decided to go home. This loss severely hampered Burgoyne's reconnaissance efforts in the days to come. The failure to bring in nearby supplies meant that he had to rely on supply lines that were already dangerously long, and that he eventually broke in September. The shortage of supplies was a significant factor in his decision to surrender at Saratoga, following which France entered the war.\n\nAmerican Patriots reacted to news of the battle with optimism. Especially after Burgoyne's Indian screen left him, small groups of local Patriots began to emerge to harass the fringes of British positions. A significant portion of Stark's force returned home and did not again become influential in the campaign until appearing at Saratoga on October 13 to complete the encirclement of Burgoyne's army.\n\nJohn Stark's reward from the New Hampshire General Assembly for \"the Memorable Battle of Bennington\" was \"a compleat suit of Clothes becoming his Rank\". A reward that Stark likely valued the highest was a message of thanks from John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress, which included a commission as \"brigadier in the army of the United States\".\n\n## Order of battle\n\nThe battle forces are generally described as in Morrissey. His numbers are generally consistent with other sources on the British units, although there is disagreement across a wide array of sources on the number of troops under Breymann, which are generally listed at either approximately 550 or 650. Morrissey is also incorrect in identifying some of the American units. He identifies William Gregg as having a separate command; Gregg apparently led several companies in Nichols' regiment. Morrissey also failed to include the Massachusetts militia, and misidentified Langdon's company, erroneously believing they may have been from Worcester, Massachusetts. (Militia companies from the Worcester area marched on Bennington, with some companies arriving the day after the battle.) Langdon originally raised his company in 1776, but it did not become a cavalry unit until 1778.\n\n### United States and Vermont troops\n\nNew Hampshire militia regiments\nHobart's Regiment of Militia 150\n\nNichols' Regiment of Militia 550\n\nStickney's Regiment of Militia 150\n\nLangdon's Company of Light Horse Volunteers (number unknown, were infantry at the time)\n\nAdditional New Hampshire militia 1,000\n\nVermont militia regiments\nHerrick's Regiment 300\n\nAdditional Vermont Rangers 200\n\nMassachusetts militia regiments\nSimonds' Regiment of Militia (number unknown)\n\nContinental Regiments\nWarner's additional Continental Regiment (Green Mountain Boys, commanded by Safford) 350\n\n### British and German troops\n\nBaum's forces\nPrinz Ludwig Dragoons 205\n\nGrenadiers 24\n\nLight infantry 57\n\nLine infantry (from regiments of Riedesel, Specht, and Rhetz) 37\n\nHesse-Hanau artillery 13\n\nQueen's Loyal Rangers (Peters) over 150\n\nBritish Marksmen 48\n\nLocal Loyalists (Pfister, Covel) over 150\n\nCanadians 56\n\nIndians (Lanaudière, Campbell) over 100\n\nBreymann's forces\nGrenadiers 353\n\nLight infantry 277\n\nHesse-Hanau artillery 20\n\n## Commemorations\n\nAugust 16 is a legal holiday in Vermont, known as Bennington Battle Day. The battlefield, now a New York state historic site, was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 20, 1961, and added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. In the 1870s, the local historic society in Bennington commissioned the design and construction of the Bennington Battle Monument, which was complete in 1889 and dedicated in 1891 with ceremonies attended by President Benjamin Harrison. The Monument, an obelisk 306 feet (93 m) high, is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Although the monument was not ready in time to mark the centennial of the battle, the 100th anniversary of the battle was marked by speeches attended by President Rutherford B. Hayes.\n\nEvery year on Bennington Battle Day there is a firing of the Molly Stark Cannon, the oldest firing cannon in the United States. The cannon was captured at the Battle of Bennington.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of American Revolutionary War battles\n- \\- Places 'Battle of Bennington' in overall sequence and strategic context.\n- USS Bennington – aircraft carrier named in honor of the battle", "revid": "1170691672", "description": "Part of the American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["1777 in New York (state)", "1777 in the United States", "Battles involving Great Britain", "Battles involving the United States", "Battles of the American Revolutionary War in New York (state)", "Battles of the Saratoga campaign", "Bennington County, Vermont", "Bennington, Vermont", "Conflicts in 1777", "New Hampshire in the American Revolution", "Rensselaer County, New York", "Vermont in the American Revolution"]}
{"id": "618124", "url": null, "title": "Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope", "text": "Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, KT, GCB, OM, DSO & Two Bars (7 January 1883 – 12 June 1963) was an Irish-born British officer of the Royal Navy during the Second World War. He was widely known by his initials, \"ABC\".\n\nCunningham was born in Rathmines in the south side of Dublin on 7 January 1883. After starting his schooling in Dublin and Edinburgh, he enrolled at Stubbington House School, at the age of ten. He entered the Royal Navy in 1897 as a naval cadet in the officers' training ship Britannia, passing out in 1898. He commanded a destroyer during the First World War and through most of the interwar period. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and two Bars, for his performance during this time, specifically for his actions in the Dardanelles and in the Baltics.\n\nIn the Second World War, as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet, Cunningham led British naval forces to victory in several critical Mediterranean naval battles. These included the attack on Taranto in 1940, the first completely all-aircraft naval attack in history, and the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941. Cunningham controlled the defence of the Mediterranean supply lines through Alexandria, Gibraltar, and the key chokepoint of Malta. He also directed naval support for the various major Allied landings in the Western Mediterranean littoral. In autumn 1943, with the incumbent, Sir Dudley Pound, dying, Cunningham was promoted to First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy, a position he held until his retirement in 1946. He was ennobled as Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope in 1945 and made Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope the following year. After his retirement, Cunningham enjoyed several ceremonial positions, including Lord High Steward at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. He died on 12 June 1963, aged 80.\n\n## Childhood\n\nCunningham was born at Rathmines, County Dublin, on 7 January 1883, the third of five children born to Professor Daniel John Cunningham and Elizabeth Cumming Browne, both born in Scotland. General Sir Alan Cunningham was his younger brother. His parents were described as having a \"strong intellectual and clerical tradition,\" both grandfathers having been in the clergy. His father was a Professor of Anatomy at Trinity College Dublin, whilst his mother stayed at home. Elizabeth Browne, with the aid of servants and governesses, oversaw much of his upbringing; as a result he reportedly had a \"warm and close\" relationship with her.\n\nAfter a short introduction to schooling in Dublin he was sent to Edinburgh Academy, where he stayed with his aunts Doodles and Connie May. At the age of ten he received a telegram from his father asking \"would you like to go into the Navy?\" At the time, the family had no maritime connections, and Cunningham only had a vague interest in the sea. Nevertheless, he replied \"Yes, I should like to be an Admiral\". He was then sent to a Naval Preparatory School, Stubbington House, which specialised in sending pupils through the entrance examinations. Cunningham passed the exams, showing particular strength in mathematics.\n\n## Early naval career\n\nAlong with 64 other boys Cunningham joined the Royal Navy as a cadet aboard the training ship Britannia at Dartmouth on 15 January 1897. One of his classmates was future Admiral of the Fleet Sir James Somerville. Cunningham was known for his lack of enthusiasm for field sports, although he did enjoy golf and spent most of his spare time \"messing around in boats\". He said in his memoirs that by the end of his course he was \"anxious to seek adventure at sea\". Although he committed numerous minor misdemeanours, he still obtained a very good for conduct. He passed out tenth in April 1898, with first class marks for mathematics and seamanship.\n\nHis first service was as a midshipman on HMS Doris in 1899, serving at the Cape of Good Hope Station when the Second Boer War began. By February 1900, he had transferred into the Naval Brigade as he believed \"this promised opportunities for bravery and distinction in action.\" Cunningham then saw action at Pretoria and Diamond Hill as part of the Naval Brigade. He then went back to sea, as midshipman in HMS Hannibal in December 1901. The following November he joined the protected cruiser Diadem. Beginning in 1902, Cunningham took sub-lieutenant courses at Portsmouth and Greenwich; he served as sub-lieutenant on the battleship Implacable, in the Mediterranean, for six months in 1903. In September 1903, he was transferred to HMS Locust to serve as second-in-command. He was promoted to lieutenant in 1904, and served on several vessels during the next four years. In 1908, he was awarded his first command, HM Torpedo Boat No. 14.\n\n## First World War\n\n`Cunningham was a highly decorated officer during the First World War, receiving the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and two bars. In 1911 he was given command of the destroyer HMS Scorpion, which he commanded throughout the war. In 1914, Scorpion was involved in the shadowing of the German battlecruiser and cruiser Goeben and Breslau. This operation was intended to find and destroy the Goeben and the Breslau but the German warships evaded the British fleet, and passed through the Dardanelles to reach Constantinople. Their arrival contributed to the Ottoman Empire joining the Central Powers in November 1914. Though a bloodless \"battle\", the failure of the British pursuit had enormous political and military ramifications—in the words of Winston Churchill, they brought \"more slaughter, more misery and more ruin than has ever before been borne within the compass of a ship.\"`\n\nCunningham stayed on in the Mediterranean and in 1915 Scorpion was involved in the attack on the Dardanelles. For his performance, Cunningham was rewarded with promotion to commander in July 1915. He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Order, gazetted in March 1916. Cunningham spent much of 1916 on routine patrols. In late 1916, he was engaged in convoy protection, a duty he regarded as mundane. He had no contact with German U-boats during this time, on which he commented; \"The immunity of my convoys was probably due to sheer luck\". Convinced that the Mediterranean held few offensive possibilities he requested to sail for home. Scorpion paid off on 21 January 1918. In his seven years as captain of the Scorpion, Cunningham had developed a reputation for first class seamanship. He was transferred by Vice-Admiral Roger Keyes to HMS Termagant, part of Keyes' Dover Patrol, in April 1918. For his actions with the Dover Patrol, he was awarded a bar to his DSO the following year.\n\n## Interwar years\n\n### Association with Cowan\n\nCunningham saw much action in the interwar years. In 1919, he commanded the S-class destroyer Seafire, on duty in the Baltic. The Communists, the White Russians, several varieties of Latvian nationalists and the Germans were trying to control Latvia; the British Government had recognised Latvia's independence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It was on this voyage that Cunningham first met Admiral Walter Cowan. Cunningham was impressed by Cowan's methods, specifically his navigation of the potentially dangerous seas, with thick fog and minefields threatening the fleet.\n\nThroughout several potentially problematic encounters with German forces trying to undermine the Latvian independence movement, Cunningham exhibited \"good self control and judgement\". Cowan was quoted as saying \"Commander Cunningham has on one occasion after another acted with unfailing promptitude and decision, and has proved himself an Officer of exceptional valour and unerring resolution.\"\n\nHe was promoted to the rank of captain, effective 31 December 1919. For his actions in the Baltic, Cunningham was awarded a second bar to his DSO, gazetted in March 1920. His first appointment as a Captain was President of the Naval Inter-Allied Commission of Control in Heligoland. On his return from the Baltic in 1922, he was appointed captain of the 6th Destroyer Flotilla. Further commands were to follow; the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in 1923, and the destroyer base, HMS Lochinvar, at Port Edgar in the Firth of Forth, from 1924 to 1926. Cunningham renewed his association with Vice Admiral Cowan between 1926 and 1928, when Cunningham was flag captain and chief staff officer to Cowan while serving on the North America and West Indies Squadron, based at the Royal Naval Dockyard in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda, with shore headquarters at Admiralty House in Pembroke. In his memoirs Cunningham made clear the \"high regard\" in which he held Cowan, and the many lessons he learned from him during their two periods of service together.\n\nThe late 1920s found Cunningham back in the UK participating in courses at the Army's Senior Officers' School at Sheerness, as well as at the Imperial Defence College. While Cunningham was at the Imperial Defence College, in 1929, he married Nona Byatt (daughter of Horace Byatt, MA; the couple had no children). After a year at the College, Cunningham was given command of his first big ship; the battleship Rodney. Eighteen months later, he was appointed commodore of HMS Pembroke, the Royal Naval Barracks, Chatham.\n\n### Promoted to flag rank\n\nIn September 1932, Cunningham was promoted to flag rank, and aide-de-camp to the King. He was appointed Rear Admiral (Destroyers) in the Mediterranean in December 1933 and was made a Companion of the Bath in 1934. Having hoisted his flag in the light cruiser Coventry, Cunningham used his time to practice fleet handling for which he was to receive much praise in the Second World War. There were also fleet exercises in the Atlantic Ocean in which he learnt the skills and values of night actions that he would also use to great effect in years to come.\n\nOn his promotion to vice admiral in July 1936, due to the interwar naval policy, further active employment seemed remote. However, a year later due to the illness of Sir Geoffrey Blake, Cunningham assumed the combined appointment of commander of the Battlecruiser Squadron and second-in-command of the Mediterranean Fleet, with HMS Hood as his flagship. After his long service in small ships, Cunningham considered his accommodation aboard Hood to be almost palatial, even surpassing his previous big ship experience on Rodney.\n\nHe retained command until September 1938, when he was appointed to the Admiralty as Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, although he did not actually take up this post until December 1938. He accepted this shore job with reluctance since he loathed administration, but the Board of Admiralty's high regard of him was evident. For six months during an illness of Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse, the then First Sea Lord, he deputised for Backhouse on the Committee of Imperial Defence and on the Admiralty Board. In 1939 he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB), becoming known as Sir Andrew Cunningham.\n\n## Second World War\n\nCunningham described the command of the Mediterranean Fleet as \"The finest command the Royal Navy has to offer\" and he remarked in his memoirs that \"I probably knew the Mediterranean as well as any Naval Officer of my generation\". Cunningham was made Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, hoisting his flag in HMS Warspite on 6 June 1939, one day after arriving in Alexandria on 5 June 1939. As Commander-in-Chief, Cunningham's main concern was for the safety of convoys heading for Egypt and Malta. These convoys were highly significant in that they were desperately needed to keep Malta, a small British colony and naval base, in the war. Malta was a strategic strongpoint and Cunningham fully appreciated this. Cunningham believed that the main threat to British sea power in the Mediterranean would come from the Italian Fleet. As such Cunningham had his fleet at a heightened state of readiness, so that when Italy did choose to enter into hostilities the British Fleet would be ready.\n\n### French Surrender (June 1940)\n\nIn his role as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, Cunningham had to negotiate with the French Admiral René-Émile Godfroy for the demilitarisation and internment of the Force X, the French squadron at Alexandria, in June 1940, following the Fall of France. Churchill had ordered Cunningham to prevent the French warships from leaving port, and to ensure that French warships did not pass into enemy hands. Stationed at the time at Alexandria, Cunningham entered into delicate negotiations with Godfroy to ensure his fleet, which consisted of the battleship Lorraine, four cruisers, three destroyers and a submarine, posed no threat. The Admiralty ordered Cunningham to complete the negotiations on 3 July.\n\nJust as an agreement seemed imminent Godfroy heard of the British action against the French at Mers el Kebir and, for a while, Cunningham feared a battle between French and British warships in the confines of Alexandria harbour. The deadline was overrun but negotiations ended well, after Cunningham put them on a more personal level and had the British ships appeal to their French opposite numbers.\n\nCunningham's negotiations succeeded and the French emptied their fuel bunkers and removed the firing mechanisms from their guns. Cunningham in turn promised to repatriate the ships' crews.\n\n### Battle of Taranto (November 1940)\n\nAlthough the threat from the French Fleet had been neutralised, Cunningham was still aware of the threat posed by the Italian Fleet to British North African operations, based in Egypt. Although the Royal Navy had won in several actions in the Mediterranean, considerably upsetting the balance of power, the Italians who were following the theory of a fleet in being had left their ships in harbour. This made the threat of a sortie against the British Fleet a serious problem. At the time the harbour at Taranto contained six battleships (five of them battle-worthy), seven heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and eight destroyers. The Admiralty, concerned with the potential for an attack, had drawn up Operation Judgement; a surprise attack on Taranto Harbour. To carry out the attack, the Admiralty sent the new aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious, commanded by Lumley Lyster, to join HMS Eagle in Cunningham's fleet.\n\nThe attack started at 21:00, 11 November 1940, when the first of two waves of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers took off from Illustrious, followed by the second wave an hour later. The attack was a great success: the Italian fleet lost half its strength in one night. The \"fleet-in-being\" diminished in importance and the threat to the Royal Navy's control of the Mediterranean had been considerably reduced. Cunningham said of the victory: \"Taranto, and the night of 11–12 November 1940, should be remembered for ever as having shown once and for all that in the Fleet Air Arm the Navy has its most devastating weapon.\" The Royal Navy had launched the first all-aircraft naval attack in history, flying a small number of aircraft from an aircraft carrier. This, and other aspects of the raid, were important facts in the planning of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941: the Japanese planning staff were thought to have studied it intensively.\n\nCunningham's official reaction at the time was memorably terse. After landing the last of the attacking aircraft, Illustrious signalled \"Operation Judgement executed\". After seeing aerial reconnaissance photographs the next day which showed several Italian ships sunk or out of action, Cunningham replied with the two-letter code group which signified, \"Manoeuvre well executed\".\n\n### Battle of Cape Matapan (March 1941)\n\nAt the end of March 1941, Hitler wanted the convoys supplying the British Expeditionary force in Greece stopped, and the Italian Navy was the only force able to attempt this. Cunningham stated in his biography: \"I myself was inclined to think that the Italians would not try anything. I bet Commander Power, the Staff Officer, Operations, the sum of ten shillings that we would see nothing of the enemy.\"\n\nUnder pressure from Germany, the Italian Fleet planned to launch an attack on the British Fleet on 28 March 1941. The Italian commander, Admiral Angelo Iachino, intended to carry out a surprise attack on the British Cruiser Squadron in the area (commanded by Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Pridham-Wippell), executing a pincer movement with the battleship Vittorio Veneto. Cunningham though, was aware of Italian naval activity through intercepts of Italian Enigma messages. Although Italian intentions were unclear, Cunningham's staff believed an attack upon British troop convoys was likely and orders were issued to spoil the enemy plan and, if possible, intercept their fleet. Cunningham wished, however, to disguise his own activity and arranged for a game of golf and a fictitious evening gathering to mislead enemy agents (he was, in fact, overheard by the local Japanese Consul).\n\nAfter sunset, he boarded HMS Warspite and left Alexandria. Cunningham, realising that an air attack could weaken the Italians, ordered an attack by the Formidable's Albacore torpedo-bombers. A hit on the Vittorio Veneto slowed her temporarily and Iachino, realising his fleet was vulnerable without air cover, ordered his forces to retire. Cunningham gave the order to pursue the Italian Fleet.\n\nAn air attack from the Formidable had disabled the cruiser Pola, and Iachino, unaware of Cunningham's pursuing battlefleet, ordered a squadron of cruisers and destroyers to return and protect the Pola. Cunningham, meanwhile, was joining up with Pridham-Wippell's cruiser squadron. Throughout the day several chases and sorties occurred with no overall victor. None of the Italian ships were equipped for night fighting, and when night fell, they made to return to Taranto. The British battlefleet equipped with radar detected the Italians shortly after 22:00. In a pivotal moment in naval warfare during the Second World War, the battleships Barham, Valiant and Warspite opened fire on two Italian cruisers at only 3,800 yards (3.5 km), destroying them in only five minutes.\n\nAlthough the Vittorio Veneto escaped from the battle by returning to Taranto, there were many accolades given to Cunningham for continuing the pursuit at night, against the advice of his staff. After the previous defeat at Taranto, the defeat at Cape Matapan dealt another strategic blow to the Italian Navy. Five ships—three heavy cruisers and two destroyers—were sunk, and around 2,400 Italian sailors were killed, missing or captured. The British lost only three aircrew when one torpedo bomber was shot down. Cunningham had lost his bet with Commander Power but he had won a strategic victory in the war in the Mediterranean. The defeats at Taranto and Cape Matapan meant that the Italian Navy did not intervene in the heavily contested evacuations of Greece and Crete, later in 1941. It also ensured that, for the remainder of the war, the Regia Marina conceded the Eastern Mediterranean to the Allied Fleet, and did not leave port for the remainder of the war.\n\n### Battle of Crete (May 1941)\n\nOn the morning of 20 May 1941, Nazi Germany launched an airborne invasion of Crete, under the code-name Unternehmen Merkur (Operation Mercury). Despite initial heavy casualties, Maleme airfield in western Crete fell to the Germans and enabled them to fly in heavy reinforcements and overwhelm the Allied forces.\n\nAfter a week of heavy fighting, British commanders decided that the situation was hopeless and ordered a withdrawal from Sfakia. During the next four nights, 16,000 troops were evacuated to Egypt by ships (including HMS Ajax of Battle of the River Plate fame). A smaller number of ships were to withdraw troops on a separate mission from Heraklion, but these ships were attacked en route by Luftwaffe dive bombers. Without air cover, Cunningham's ships suffered serious losses. Cunningham was determined, though, that the \"navy must not let the army down\", and when army generals feared he would lose too many ships, Cunningham said,\n\n> It takes the Navy three years to build a ship. It will take three hundred years to build a new tradition. The evacuation will continue.\n\nThe \"never say die\" attitude of Cunningham and the men under his command meant that of 22,000 men on Crete, 16,500 were rescued but at the loss of three cruisers and six destroyers. Fifteen other major warships were damaged.\n\n### Allied Expeditionary Force (1942–43)\n\nCunningham became a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB), \"in recognition of the recent successful combined operations in the Middle East\", in March 1941 and was created a baronet, of Bishop's Waltham in the County of Southampton, in July 1942. From late 1942 to early 1943, he served under General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who made him Naval Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force. In this role Cunningham commanded the large fleet that covered the Anglo-American landings in North Africa (Operation Torch). General Eisenhower said of him in his diary:\n\n> Admiral Sir Andrew Browne Cunningham. He remains in my opinion at the top of my subordinates in absolute selflessness, energy, devotion to duty, knowledge of his task, and in understanding of the requirements of allied operations. My opinions as to his superior qualifications have never wavered for a second.\n\nOn 21 January 1943, Cunningham was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet. February 1943 saw him return to his post as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet. Three months later, when Axis forces in North Africa were on the verge of surrender, he ordered that none should be allowed to escape. Entirely in keeping with his fiery character he signalled the fleet \"Sink, burn and destroy: Let nothing pass\". He oversaw the naval forces used in the joint Anglo-American amphibious invasions of Sicily, during Operation Husky, Operation Baytown and Operation Avalanche. On the morning of 11 September 1943, Cunningham was present at Malta when the Italian Fleet surrendered. Cunningham informed the Admiralty with a telegram; \"Be pleased to inform their Lordships that the Italian battle fleet now lies at anchor under the guns of the fortress of Malta.\"\n\n### First Sea Lord (1943-46)\n\nIn October 1943, Cunningham became First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, after the death of Sir Dudley Pound. This promotion meant that he had to relinquish his coveted post of Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, recommending his namesake Admiral John H. D. Cunningham as his successor. In the position of First Sea Lord, and as a member of the Chiefs of Staff committee, Cunningham was responsible for the overall strategic direction of the navy for the remainder of the war. He attended the major conferences at Cairo, Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, at which the Allies discussed future strategy, including the invasion of Normandy and the deployment of a British fleet to the Pacific Ocean.\n\nWhile the port of Antwerp was vital for the Allies after D-Day, Admirals Cunningham and Ramsay warned SHAEF and Montgomery that the port was of no use while the Germans held the approaches. But Montgomery postponed the Battle of the Scheldt, and the delay in opening the port was a grave blow to the Allied build-up before winter approached.\n\n## Retirement\n\nIn January 1945 Cunningham was appointed a Knight of the Thistle and raised to the peerage as Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope, of Kirkhope in the County of Selkirk. He was entitled to retire at the end of the war in 1945 but he resolved to pilot the Navy through the transition to peace before retiring. With the election of Clement Attlee as British Prime Minister in 1945, and the implementation of his Post-war consensus, there was a large reduction in the Defence Budget. The extensive reorganisation was a challenge for Cunningham. \"We very soon came to realise how much easier it was to make war than to reorganise for peace.\" Due to pressures on the budget from all three services, the Navy embarked on a reduction programme that was larger than Cunningham had envisaged.\n\nIn October 1945, he was elected Rector of the University of Edinburgh. He was made Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, of Kirkhope in the County of Selkirk, in the 1946 New Year Honours, and appointed to the Order of Merit in June of that year. At the end of May 1946, after overseeing the transition through to peacetime, Cunningham retired from his post as First Sea Lord. Cunningham retreated to the \"little house in the country\", 'Palace House', at Bishop's Waltham in Hampshire, which he and Lady Cunningham had acquired before the war. They both had a busy retirement. He attended the House of Lords irregularly and occasionally lent his name to press statements about the Royal Navy, particularly those relating to Admiral Dudley North, who had been relieved of his command of Gibraltar in 1940. Cunningham, and several of the surviving admirals of the fleet, set about securing justice for North, and they succeeded with a partial vindication in 1957.\n\nHe busied himself with various appointments; he was Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1950 and 1952, and in 1953 he acted as Lord High Steward at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Throughout this time Cunningham and his wife entertained family and friends, including his own great nephew, Jock Slater, in their extensive gardens. Cunningham died in London on 12 June 1963, and was buried at sea off Portsmouth. There were no children from his marriage and his titles consequently became extinct on his death.\n\nA bust of Cunningham by Franta Belsky was unveiled in Trafalgar Square in London on 2 April 1967 by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.\n\nThe April 2010 UK naval operation to ship British military personnel and air passengers stranded in continental Europe by the air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption back to the UK was named Operation Cunningham after him.\n\n## Arms", "revid": "1173275840", "description": "Royal Navy Admiral of the Fleet (1883–1963)", "categories": ["1883 births", "1963 deaths", "Admiralty personnel of World War II", "Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War", "Barons created by George VI", "British people of Scottish descent", "Chief Commanders of the Legion of Merit", "Commanders of the Legion of Honour", "Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Crete in World War II", "First Sea Lords and Chiefs of the Naval Staff", "Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States)", "Graduates of Britannia Royal Naval College", "Graduates of the Royal College of Defence Studies", "Graduates of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich", "Grand Crosses of the Order of George I", "Irish Presbyterians", "Irish officers in the Royal Navy", "Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath", "Knights of the Thistle", "Lord High Stewards", "Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland", "Lords of the Admiralty", "Members of the Order of Merit", "Military personnel from Dublin (city)", "Naval history of World War II", "People educated at Edinburgh Academy", "People educated at Stubbington House School", "People from Rathmines", "Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)", "Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)", "Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)", "Recipients of the Medal of Military Merit (Greece)", "Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal", "Rectors of the University of Edinburgh", "Royal Navy admirals of World War II", "Royal Navy admirals of the fleet", "Royal Navy officers of World War I", "Royal Navy personnel of the Second Boer War", "Viscounts created by George VI"]}
{"id": "317497", "url": null, "title": "Lloyd L. Gaines", "text": "Lloyd Lionel Gaines (born 1911 – disappeared March 19, 1939) was the plaintiff in Gaines v. Canada (1938), one of the most important early court cases in the 20th-century U.S. civil rights movement. After being denied admission to the University of Missouri School of Law because he was African American, and refusing the university's offer to pay for him to attend a neighboring state's law school that had no racial restriction, Gaines filed suit. The U.S. Supreme Court ultimately ruled in his favor, holding that the separate but equal doctrine required that Missouri either admit him or set up a separate law school for black students.\n\nThe Missouri General Assembly chose the latter option. It authorized conversion of a former cosmetology school in St. Louis to establish the Lincoln University School of Law, to which other, mostly black, students were admitted. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which had supported Gaines's suit, planned to file another one challenging the adequacy of the new law school. While waiting for classes to begin, Gaines traveled between St. Louis, Kansas City and Chicago looking for work. He worked odd jobs and gave speeches before local NAACP chapters. One night in Chicago he left the fraternity house, where he was staying, to buy stamps, and never returned. He was never seen again by anyone who knew or recognized him and reported doing so.\n\nGaines's disappearance was not noted immediately, since he frequently traveled independently and alone, without telling anyone his plans. Only in late 1939, when the NAACP's lawyers were unable to locate him to take depositions for a rehearing in state court, did a serious search begin. It failed, and the suit was dismissed. While most of his family believed at the time that he had been killed in retaliation for his legal victory, there has been speculation that Gaines had tired of his role in the movement and gone elsewhere, either New York or Mexico City, to start a new life. In 2007 the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agreed to look into the case, among many other missing persons cold cases related to the civil rights era.\n\nHis unknown fate notwithstanding, Gaines has been honored by the University of Missouri School of Law and the state. The Black Culture Center at the University of Missouri and a scholarship at its law school are named for him and another black student initially denied admission. In 2006 Gaines was posthumously granted an honorary law degree. The state bar granted him a posthumous law license. A portrait of Gaines hangs in the University of Missouri law school building.\n\n## Early life\n\nBorn in 1911 in Water Valley, Mississippi, Gaines moved with his mother and siblings to St. Louis, Missouri in 1926 after the death of their father. Part of the Great Migration from rural communities in the South to industrial cities in the North, his family settled in the city's Central West End neighborhood. Gaines did well academically, and was a valedictorian at Vashon High School.\n\nAfter winning a \\$250 (\\$ in current dollars) scholarship in an essay contest, Gaines went to college. He graduated with honors and a bachelor's degree in history from Lincoln University, a historically black college in Jefferson City, Missouri. It was the state's segregated undergraduate institution for African Americans.\n\nTo cover the gap between his scholarship and the college's tuition, he sold magazines on the street. Gaines was elected as president of the senior class and a brother in the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.\n\n## Law school application\n\nFollowing his 1935 graduation, during the Great Depression, Gaines unsuccessfully sought work as a teacher.\n\nAround that time, NAACP lawyer Charles Hamilton Houston was looking for a plaintiff to bring a case challenging Missouri's Jim Crow laws that restricted the University of Missouri to white students. He sent St. Louis lawyer Sidney Redmond, one of three dozen African Americans then admitted to the Missouri bar, to visit the university's Columbia campus, with instructions to take pictures of buildings that housed departments and courses of study not available at Lincoln University, and obtain admission forms.\n\nIn June 1935, Gaines had requested a catalog and admission form from Sy Woodson Canada, registrar, of the University of Missouri Law School. They were sent to his address at Lincoln in Jefferson City. By August he applied for admission, encouraged by Lorenzo Greene, a Lincoln University professor and veteran civil rights activist. Accounts vary as to whether Gaines did this on his own initiative or was encouraged by the NAACP, in order to have a plaintiff, without any interest in a legal career. When Redmond informed Houston that Gaines was willing to be a plaintiff, Houston initially asked for another candidate. Houston later accepted Gaines, when it became apparent he was the only available plaintiff, but never explained what his initial objections might have been.\n\nAt first Canada did not realize that Gaines was black, since the application form did not ask for prospective students to indicate their race. Only when he received Gaines' transcript from Lincoln University did he understand. He left Gaines's application on his desk, without taking any action, although the young man was otherwise qualified for admission to the law school. Canada sent Gaines a telegram urging him to meet with the registrar to discuss \"further advice\" and \"possible arrangement\". Gaines wrote both the president of Lincoln to ask what this meant, and to Frederick Middlebush, president of University of Missouri, requesting admission to the law school. Middlebush never replied.\n\n## Lawsuit\n\nThe official policy of Missouri was to pay the \"out of state\" expenses for education of African Americans who wished to study law until such time as demand was sufficient to build a separate law school within the state for them. At first Houston and Redmond hoped that the ruling in University of Maryland v. Murray (1936), which they had won when Maryland's Court of Appeals invalidated a similar provision there, would persuade Missouri to allow Gaines to attend without legal resistance. They began planning security arrangements for him.\n\nThey filed a writ of mandamus in January 1936 ordering that Gaines's application be considered. When Middlebush asked the university's board how it should respond, the lawyers recommended defending their policy. They adopted a resolution formally denying Gaines's admission, arguing that segregated higher education was the public policy of the state, and that Gaines had the legal option of attending law school outside Missouri at the state's expense.\n\nWith Gaines's application formally denied, the mandamus petition was now moot. Houston and the NAACP filed another petition, State ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, arguing that the law school's refusal to admit him on racial grounds was a violation of his Fourteenth Amendment rights. The university responded with the same points it had made in the board's resolution. Further, it said that Gaines should have sued Lincoln to compel it to open a law school. Gaines and his lawyers argued in response that lawyers educated out of state lost the benefit of courses that were specific to Missouri law, as well as the connections and firsthand experience of the state's courts that were gained by an in-state legal education.\n\nThe NAACP did not expect to overturn the \"separate but equal\" standard set by the US Supreme Court's 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which allowed states to impose legal racial segregation, but to undermine it by requiring states that had segregated education to provide the \"equal\" part of the ruling. They targeted graduate and professional public institutions of higher learning. Unlike most other segregated facilities, these were few in number and under centralized state control. They expected that if the court ruled in their favor, segregationist states would realize they had to choose between the expense of developing duplicates of such institutions for a small group of African Americans and integrating existing facilities, and that those states would pragmatically choose the latter. Houston believed that, since such graduate schools served small portions of the population, attempts to integrate them would incite less public opposition than efforts to integrate public elementary and secondary schools. Lastly, judges had been educated in law schools and could be expected to understand the adverse effects of inequalities on students.\n\nHouston and the other NAACP attorneys were encouraged in this strategy by their victory in Murray, two years earlier. In Missouri, the racial bar to attendance was by state law rather than administrative regulation. The NAACP hoped to get the US Supreme Court to hear the case and establish a precedent.\n\n### Trial\n\nHouston, Redmond and Gaines drove to Columbia, Missouri for the July 1936 trial at Boone County Courthouse. They arrived as the courthouse was beginning to open for the morning. Due to that summer's severe heat and drought, many of the white farmers from surrounding communities were there, waiting to apply for financial relief. Some went into the courtroom to take in the unusual sight, at that time, of African-American lawyers arguing a case.\n\nThey were joined by a hundred current University of Missouri law students, reporters, and a few local African Americans. Two recent local lynchings had discouraged most of the local black community from attending, although local NAACP chapters tried to encourage attendance. African Americans sat among the whites, since the courtroom facilities were not segregated. The lawyers for both sides shared a table, and shook hands before the case.\n\nBy the time the trial began, the heat outside already exceeded 100 °F (38 °C). The crowds and poor ventilation made it even hotter in the courtroom. Judge W.M. Dinwiddie suggested to the lawyers that he and they remove their jackets.\n\nDuring his opening arguments, Houston reiterated that Gaines's exclusion from the law school solely on racial grounds violated his constitutional rights. Representing the state, William Hogsett conceded in his argument that Gaines was an excellent and qualified student with a right to a legal education, as long as it was somewhere other than the state university's law school. He noted that racial segregation was public policy of the state, codified in the constitution and laws enacted by its legislature elected by the people, which prohibited African-American students from attending University of Missouri law school.\n\nPresentation of witnesses began with Gaines testifying on his own behalf that he wished to attend Missouri's law school because of its quality. He did not want to attend law school out of state, even at the state's expense, because Columbia was more convenient to his home in St. Louis than the law schools of neighboring states' universities. And at one of those schools, he would not be as able to develop the expertise in Missouri law necessary to practice in the state as he would be at Missouri's law school.\n\nOn cross-examination, Hogsett suggested that Gaines was interested in applying to law school only to act as a plaintiff in this lawsuit, pressing Gaines on when he had contacted the NAACP after he had learned that his application had been denied. Had he ever seen a black student attending the university? Why had he refused, in an earlier deposition, to answer a question about whether he would have been interested in attending a hypothetical Lincoln law school? Gaines conceded that some of the out-of-state law schools were closer to St. Louis than Columbia, and cost less to travel to, per evidence the state introduced, but noted that students there were not compelled to choose them. Hogsett concluded by asking Gaines if he was aware that black students were not accepted at Missouri's law school when he applied; Gaines said he had not been.\n\nHouston next called law school dean William Masterton to the stand as a hostile witness. Masterson denied that there was any special benefit to attending the law school for a student interested in Missouri law in particular, since the other law schools Gaines could have attended all used the same casebook as Missouri. He maintained this position even when Houston reminded him that the school's law review had a stated editorial policy of publishing one article in every issue that addressed an issue specific to Missouri. Houston showed him the Iowa law school's catalog, which touted the benefits of attending for a student interested in practicing law in Iowa. On cross-examination, Masterson claimed not to know details of the admissions process or the school's budget, and could not answer Houston's question as to whether or not Missouri's was the only public law school in the state.\n\nOther state and university officials took the stand, with both sides using their testimony to buttress their cases. Canada told Houston that to his knowledge black students were the only ones barred from the university on account of their race; the university's assistant secretary added later that the school not only admitted students from overseas but extended financial aid to them if necessary. Robert Witherspoon, an African-American lawyer who practiced in St. Louis, testified that having had to attend law school out of state had put him at a disadvantage.\n\nState Senator F.M. McDavid, chair of the state's Board of Regents, testified on direct examination that the admission of a black student would be very disruptive for the university and its students, undermining a hundred years of tradition. Houston asked on cross if he really believed that that tradition \"could bind progress forever.\" McDavid also worried that it would be \"very unhappy\" for Gaines. But when Houston asked him also if he was aware of any problems caused by the admission of a black student at Maryland following that lawsuit, McDavid said he was not, as he had not researched the issue.\n\nHogsett presented his case for the audience, some of whom nodded in sympathy with his arguments, while Houston concentrated on getting facts in the record for appeal, hopefully to the U.S. Supreme Court, the only venue where he expected and wanted to prevail. Two weeks later Dinwiddie held for the state, without writing an opinion. Gaines appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court.\n\n### Appeals\n\n#### Missouri Supreme Court\n\nThe state's highest court heard the arguments near the end of the year. While normally it sat in two divisions, the case was considered so important that all seven justices were present. Two months later, it upheld Judge Dinwiddie.\n\nIn his opinion for a unanimous court, Justice William Francis Frank conceded that the state's constitution's provision requiring that its public schools be racially segregated did not explicitly extend to higher education. But that did not mean the legislature was barred from making such a prohibition. Despite language in one statute, which Gaines had relied on, saying that the university was open to \"all youths\" of the state, the legislature had gone to great lengths to create Lincoln and differentiate between white and black colleges.\n\nCiting both Plessy and his own court's prior holdings, Frank reiterated that this segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment: \"The right of a state to separate the races for the purpose of education is no longer an open question.\" He also rejected a due process argument, that Gaines had been unconstitutionally deprived of his proprietary interest in the university as a citizen and taxpayer of Missouri. \"[E]quality and not identity of school advantages is what the law guarantees to every citizen, white or black.\"\n\nFrank addressed the only remaining question, whether, as Gaines alleged, his legal education out of state would have been the equal of that he could have received at Missouri's law school. He accepted the law school's evidence about its non-specialization in the state's law and similarities in its curriculum to the neighboring state's law schools. As for the distance involved, some of those schools, such as Illinois's, were closer to St. Louis than Columbia would be for residents of Caruthersville, in the state's southeastern Bootheel. And if Gaines were to attend school outside he state, the state would subsidize his living expenses while he did, costs he would have to bear himself if he went to Missouri.\n\nLastly, Frank distinguished Gaines's case from Murray by noting that that state's Court of Appeals had found that Maryland had made no provisions for establishing a law school for black students and did not financially support those who attended law school out of state, unlike Missouri. He believed that the construction of a law school for blacks at Lincoln would satisfy Gaines's desires if he could wait.\n\n#### U.S. Supreme Court\n\nHouston and Redmond successfully petitioned to the United States Supreme Court for certiorari. Now known as Gaines v. Canada, the case was argued in November 1938. Houston said the state's offer to pay for Gaines to attend law school out of state could not guarantee him a legal education equal to that offered white students at Missouri.\n\nA month later a 6-2 majority ordered the State of Missouri either to admit Gaines to the University of Missouri School of Law or to provide another school of equal stature within the state borders. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for the majority:\n\n> The basic consideration is not as to what sort of opportunities other States provide, or whether they are as good as those in Missouri, but as to what opportunities Missouri itself furnishes to white students and denies to negroes solely upon the ground of color. The admissibility of laws separating the races in the enjoyment of privileges afforded by the State rests wholly upon the equality of the privileges which the laws give to the separated groups within the State. The question here is not of a duty of the State to supply legal training, or of the quality of the training which it does supply, but of its duty when it provides such training to furnish it to the residents of the State upon the basis of an equality of right. By the operation of the laws of Missouri, a privilege has been created for white law students which is denied to negroes by reason of their race. The white resident is afforded legal education within the State; the negro resident having the same qualifications is refused it there and must go outside the State to obtain it. That is a denial of the equality of legal right to the enjoyment of the privilege which the State has set up, and the provision for the payment of tuition fees in another State does not remove the discrimination.\n\nThe case articulated an important rule of law in the sequence of NAACP cases leading to the eventual order for desegregation of public schools: that any academic program that a state provided to whites had to have an equivalent available to blacks. The Gaines holding helped the NAACP lay the foundation for the Supreme Court's landmark 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, holding that separate facilities for public schools were inherently unequal and ordering such schools to be desegregated, thus overturning Plessy.\n\nSince the Supreme Court had ordered the Missouri Supreme Court to rehear the case in light of its ruling, Gaines's legal battle was not over. Historian Gary Lavergne describes Gaines during this period as \"high-maintenance\": he sought media attention, then complained about how stressful it was being the center of that attention. Heman Marion Sweatt, later the plaintiff in another desegregation case heard by the Supreme Court, worked with Gaines at the University of Michigan. The NAACP had paid for him to attend graduate school there and Sweatt reportedly found Gaines \"rather arrogant\".\n\nAfter working as a clerk for the Works Progress Administration in Michigan and completing a master's degree in economics, Gaines returned to Missouri in anticipation of the proceedings there, set to begin in August. The Missouri legislature hastily passed a bill appropriating \\$275,000 (\\$ in current dollars) to convert an old beauty school in St. Louis into the new Lincoln University School of Law, in the hope that would satisfy the court. The NAACP planned to challenge the establishment of the new law school as still inadequate compared to the resources of the existing University of Missouri School of Law.\n\nGaines, who would need to pay his law school tuition as well as his daily living expenses, looked for work in the meantime. Between the continuing Depression and segregation, he had to settle for work at a gas station. He gave speeches to local NAACP chapters and church groups while seeking donations, telling them \"I am ready, willing and able to enroll in the law department at the University of Missouri in September, and I have the fullest intention of doing so,\" but he still had to borrow money from his brother George for everyday expenses.\n\nGaines quit the job at the gas station when he discovered the owner was purposely mislabeling low-grade fuel as high-grade. He feared getting caught in the legal consequences should the fraud be discovered. After taking a train across the state to Kansas City to give a speech to the local NAACP chapter and look, unsuccessfully, for work, he boarded another train for Chicago. There he reunited with the Page family, friends and neighbors from his youth in the Central West End. He stayed at a local YMCA.\n\n## Disappearance\n\nOver the next several weeks, Gaines looked for work and visited with the Pages. While he maintained at public appearances that he was determined to continue his court case until its end and to attend the University of Missouri School of Law, in private he was becoming increasingly ambivalent. His mother later said that he had decided not to go, as they both believed it was \"too dangerous.\" Nancy Page later recalled asking Gaines directly about this. \"His answer wasn't straightforward, and if I remember correctly, he said something like this: 'If I don't go, I will have at least made it possible for some other boy or girl to go.'\"\n\nIn his last letter to his mother, dated March 3, Gaines wrote:\n\n> As for my publicity relative to the university case, I have found that my race still likes to applaud, shake hands, pat me on the back and say how great and noble is the idea: how historical and socially important the case but — and it ends ... Off and out of the confines of the publicity columns, I am just a man — not one who has fought and sacrificed to make the case possible: one who is still fighting and sacrificing — almost the 'supreme sacrifice' to see that it is a complete and lasting success for thirteen million Negroes — no! — just another man. Sometimes I wish I were just a plain, ordinary man whose name no one recognized.\n\nGaines had begun his letter by telling his mother that he had gone to Chicago \"hoping to find it possible to make my own way.\" He ended with \"Should I forget to write for a time, don't worry about it. I can look after myself OK.\"\n\nGaines also wrote that his accommodations at the YMCA were paid through March 7, and that if he stayed in Chicago beyond that date, he would have to make \"other arrangements\". After that, brothers at an Alpha Phi Alpha house took him in. He continued to have dinner at the Pages' home.\n\nNancy Page said that Gaines had told her he had taken a job at a department store. A reporter later found that although he had been hired, Gaines never reported for what would have been his first day of work. In the last days that she had contact with Gaines, Page said he seemed \"to be running away from something\". Gaines's family members and descendants believe he—and possibly the family as a whole—had received death threats. Given their background in rural Mississippi, where they knew of lynchings, they would have been too fearful to report such threats to the police.\n\nGaines's financial woes continued. The Alpha Phi Alpha brothers took up a collection for him. Gaines promised the Pages that he would repay their generosity by taking them out to dinner on the night of March 19 but he never got the chance to do so. Earlier that evening, Gaines told the house attendant at Alpha Phi Alpha that he was going out to buy stamps, although the weather was cold and wet. Gaines never returned, and no one ever reported seeing him again.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nGaines had left a duffel bag filled with clothing at the fraternity house when he disappeared. Since he had had a history of leaving for days at a time with little or no notice to his friends and family, and often kept to himself, his absence seemed unremarkable at first. No one reported him missing to the police in either Chicago or St. Louis.\n\nSeveral months later, people became aware that he was missing. In August, Houston and Sidney Redmond went looking for Gaines, as they had begun to argue his case at the Missouri Supreme Court's rehearing. They could not locate him. Redmond said later that the Gaines family was neither concerned nor very helpful in trying to do so. The Lincoln University School of Law in St. Louis opened in late September, and pickets denounced it as a segregationist sham. Thirty students had been admitted to the first year and they arrived for classes, but Gaines was not among them. Since only Gaines had been denied admission to the University of Missouri School of Law, only he had standing to pursue the case before the Supreme Court of Missouri. The case could not proceed without him.\n\nNear the end of 1939, the NAACP began a frantic effort to find Gaines. There were rumors that he had been killed or committed suicide, or that he had been paid to disappear and was living in Mexico City or teaching school in New York. The story received widespread media attention, and Gaines's photograph was published in newspapers across the country, with a plea for anyone with information to contact the NAACP. No credible leads were received. In his 1948 memoir, NAACP president Walter White said, \"He [Gaines] has been variously reported in Mexico, apparently supplied with ample funds, and in other parts of North America.\"\n\nLavergne notes that Houston, Marshall, and Redmond never publicly called for an investigation of Gaines's disappearance or said that they believed he had met with foul play. Since extrajudicial abductions and murders of African Americans who challenged segregation were not unheard of at the time, and the three lawyers frequently spoke out and demanded investigations when they believed such events had occurred, he thinks that they had no such evidence in Gaines' case. He suggests that they believed that Gaines, whom they knew had grown resentful of the NAACP and his role in the lawsuit, had purposely dropped out of sight. Fifty years later, near the end of his own career as a Supreme Court justice, Thurgood Marshall recalled the case in terms that suggest this assessment: \"The sonofabitch just never contacted us again.\"\n\nIn January 1940, the state of Missouri moved to dismiss the case due to the absence of the plaintiff. Houston and Redmond did not oppose the motion, and it was granted.\n\n## Investigations\n\nNo law enforcement agency of the era formally investigated Gaines's disappearance; it had not been reported to any, and many African Americans distrusted the police. J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), who was more concerned about potential communist influence on the civil rights movement, wrote in an internal memo in 1940 that he did not believe the case fell under the FBI's jurisdiction.\n\nWith the onset of World War II, other concerns displaced the Gaines case for most of the 1940s. Later the FBI released a 1970 letter from Hoover to an unidentified member of the public, thanking them for their interest in the case but reiterating his position from 30 years earlier that he did not believe the FBI had any jurisdiction to investigate. Two media outlets looked into the case, a half-century apart: Ebony magazine, in the 1950s, and The Riverfront Times of St. Louis, in the 2000s.\n\n### Ebony\n\nEbony reporter Edward T. Clayton revisited Gaines and his disappearance in 1951; the Times described his article as the most thorough investigation of the case. Clayton retraced Gaines's movements in the months between the Supreme Court ruling and his trip to Chicago. Many persons who knew Gaines were still alive, such as family members in St. Louis and fraternity brothers in Chicago, and Clayton interviewed them.\n\nClayton found little new information. He drew a fuller portrait of Gaines that revealed the young man's disillusionment with his activist path. Callie Gaines, bedridden in her attic, shared her last conversation with her son. She said that both of them realized that he would not be following through and enrolling in the University of Missouri School of Law. She said that he had sent her a final postcard saying, \"Goodbye. If you don't hear from me anymore you know I'll be all right.\" She had heard all the rumors about him turning up in Mexico or New York. \"But nobody knows any more than we do.\" One of his sisters believed he was still alive. The family has never sought to have him declared legally dead.\n\nGaines's brother George, who had continued to loan his brother spending money at that time, said that when he disappeared, Gaines had owed him \\$500. He expressed bitterness that the NAACP had, in his opinion, exploited his brother. \"That organization—the N-A-A-C-P or whatever it was—had him going around here making speeches,\" George Gaines told Clayton, \"but when he got ready to go to Kansas City, I had to let him have \\$10 so he could get himself a white shirt.\" Sidney Redmond agreed that the Gaines family \"doesn't seem too much concerned—and never was as I recall\" about finding him, due to their resentment of the NAACP's role in pushing Lloyd Gaines into the public eye without adequately providing for or protecting him.\n\nGeorge provided Clayton with Lloyd's letters home, including the last one, written almost two weeks before he disappeared, in which he had lamented what he felt was a lack of support from fellow African Americans and said he wished he were just a regular, unknown person again. Like the postcard, it concludes by implying that he might be out of touch for a while.\n\nIn Chicago, Clayton talked to the Alpha Phi Alpha brothers among whom Gaines had spent his last known days and the Pages, his family friends from St. Louis. The former could offer little beyond clarifying the precise date of his disappearance and the duffel bag of dirty laundry he had left behind. Two who claimed Gaines had sent them postcards from Mexico were unable to corroborate their accounts by producing the postcards.\n\nThe Pages shared the details of Gaines's increasingly anxious state of mind in March 1939. Nancy Page said she had not inquired closely, out of respect for his privacy, but could tell something was bothering him. She reported a conversation with Gaines in which he was at best ambivalent about continuing the legal case and attending the University of Missouri School of Law. Clayton learned from her that Gaines had accepted a job, and found through his own research that Gaines had never started work there.\n\n### The Riverfront Times\n\nIn 2007 The Riverfront Times, St Louis's alternative weekly newspaper, revisited the case, well over 60 years after Gaines's disappearance. By that time Gaines had received posthumous honors. The FBI had accepted the case as the oldest of nearly a hundred civil-rights era disappearances referred to it for investigation by the NAACP. His immediate family and all others who had worked or socialized with him during that time had died. Reporter Chad Garrison spoke with George Gaines, a nephew of Lloyd's, and other, younger descendants. George was one of two surviving family members who had been alive when Lloyd disappeared, although he had only been an infant.\n\nGeorge Gaines said his family rarely spoke of Lloyd during his childhood in the 1940s, but when they did it was usually in positive terms. \"Lloyd was always held in high regard as a person who set a positive example and stood up for what was right\", he recalled. He had assumed that his uncle had died. He did not learn until reading the Ebony article that his uncle's fate was unknown.\n\nWhile Garrison did not find any new facts about the disappearance itself or Gaines's time in Chicago, he found more direct evidence that Gaines might have fled to Mexico and lived out his life there. Sid Reedy, a University City librarian who had been an Alpha Phi Alpha brother at Lincoln University, told Garrison that he became fascinated by the case in the late 1970s. Reedy had sought out Lorenzo Greene, Gaines's mentor at Lincoln University and an esteemed civil rights activist and intellectual. Greene told Reedy that while on a visit to Mexico City in the late 1940s, he had made contact with Lloyd Gaines.\n\nGreene, who died in 1988, claimed to have spoken on the telephone several times with Gaines, whose voice he recognized instantly. The two made plans to have dinner together, but Gaines did not show up. Greene told Reedy that Gaines had indeed \"grown tired of the fight ... He had some business in Mexico City and apparently did well financially.\"\n\nGarrison reported that Greene's son, Lorenzo Thomas Greene, said his father also told him of the encounter; the older man always hoped Gaines would return. But because of his experience with the FBI while active in the civil-rights movement during those years, Greene did not report his telephone contact with Gaines. \"There wasn't a lot of trust there,\" said the son. \"Even if my father went to them with that information, I really don't think they would have cared.\"\n\nSome of Gaines's relatives were willing to accept that he lived out his life in Mexico, as opposed to the alternative scenarios. \"It's better than being buried in a basement somewhere—Jimmy Hoffa style,\" said Paulette Mosby-Smith, one of Gaines's great-nieces. Others believe that would have been against his nature. \"It's hard for me to believe that he went to Mexico and accepted a big payoff,\" George Gaines told Garrison. \"That's not the same man who presented himself during the trial. I don't believe he would compromise his integrity like that.\" Another great-niece, Tracy Berry, who graduated from law school and became a federal prosecutor, agrees:\n\n> When you think of those old photos of lynchings and burned bodies, who wouldn't want to think that he lived a full life in Mexico? But based on the love my grandmother and great-grandmother had for their brother and son, that's really hard for me to reconcile. If he wanted to walk away, there are easier ways to do it than to sever ties from the entire family.\"\n\nShe has since told The New York Times that she believes her great-uncle was murdered.\n\n## Legacy and honors\n\nAlthough the family never had Lloyd Gaines declared legally dead, they erected a monument to him in 1999 in a Missouri cemetery. \"His legacy didn't so much make me want to go to law school,\" says Tracy Berry. \"But I think he did instill the legacy of education in our family. It's expected that you go to college. He started the fight that made it all possible.\"\n\nIn a December 1939 editorial, the Louisville Defender, that city's African-American newspaper, wrote:\n\n> \"[W]hether Gaines has been bribed, intimidated or worse, should certainly have little permanent effect on the struggle for equal rights and social justice in connection with Negro education in the South ... [where] Negroes are already hammering upon the doors of graduate schools hitherto closed to them, with increasing persistence.\"\n\nThurgood Marshall later said, \"I remember the Gaines case as one of our greatest legal victories.\" He had argued Brown v. Board of Education before the Supreme Court and was later that body's first African-American justice. He went on, \"But I have never lost the pain of having so many people spend so much time and money on him, just to have him disappear.\"\n\nLavergne has noted that the Gaines ruling by the US Supreme Court \"[made] constitutional compliance in the absence of integration difficult to achieve,\" even though the issue was not forced at the Missouri Supreme Court, and the separate but equal doctrine was not directly challenged. He cited three aspects of the Supreme Court decision to this point:\n\n- First, the Court held that Gaines's right was \"a personal and individual one.\" Gaines was entitled to go to law school regardless of how little demand there was in Missouri by African Americans for legal education.\n- Second, the state could not meet its constitutional burden by sending students out of state. \"With Gaines, the idea of using out-of-state scholarships to meet the test of separate but equal legally ended forever and everywhere in the United States,\" Lavergne says.\n- Third, \"the Court said that the promise of future equality ... did not make temporary discrimination constitutional.\"\n\nHouston had hoped the effect of similar court rulings giving segregationist states a choice between full integration or duplication of programs for students of different races would lead many of them to choose the less expensive former option. But without Gaines, he could not carry through the next stage of his plan in the Missouri Supreme Court.\n\nIn the short term, the abrupt dismissal of the case forced by Gaines's disappearance was a setback for efforts to legally challenge segregation. After having spent \\$25,000 (\\$ in current dollars) on the case, the NAACP had no money left. It could not support new plaintiffs, who were already difficult to find in the depressed economy. By the mid-1950s, the state closed Lincoln University School of Law, the only tangible result of the case, due to lack of students.\n\nHouston was ill with the tuberculosis that would end his life a decade later. He resigned from the NAACP to return to private practice; Thurgood Marshall took over for him. In the first five years after the war, the NAACP found more plaintiffs and challenged segregationist policies in public graduate schools with cases such as Sipuel v. Board of Regents of Univ. of Okla., Sweatt v. Painter, and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents. The University of Missouri School of Law, bowing to pressure from the student body, finally admitted its first African-American student in 1951. Three years later the desegregation effort climaxed with Brown, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson and the separate but equal doctrine.\n\n### At University of Missouri\n\nIn the years after Brown, when desegregation became a reality but tensions persisted and implementation proved difficult, Gaines's story became a cautionary tale at the University of Missouri. In a 2004 paper, LeeAnn Whites, a professor of Civil War history at the school, repeated a version in which Gaines had been on his way to enroll at the school as an undergraduate and had disappeared from a train traveling across the state, with the implication that he was murdered. Gerald M. Boyd, a St. Louis native and Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter for The New York Times, who was one of a few hundred black students at the University of Missouri in the early 1970s, recalls hearing Gaines's story early in his time there. He was also confronted by open displays of racial prejudice, such as the university's \"Confederate Rock.\" \"Whatever his fate,\" Boyd wrote in his memoirs, \"in the eyes of blacks, the university bore the brunt of the blame.\"\n\nThe University of Missouri, and particularly the University of Missouri School of Law, began recognizing Gaines near the end of the 20th century, despite his never having been admitted. It established a scholarship in his name in 1995. In 2001, the school's African-American center was named for Gaines and another African American who had legally challenged the school's color bar early in the 20th century. A portrait of Gaines hangs in a prominent public place in the law school building.\n\nIn 2006 the law school posthumously awarded Gaines an honorary degree in law. The Supreme Court of Missouri, which had denied Gaines's admission almost 70 years before, and the state bar association, granted him an honorary posthumous law license. If Gaines were still alive and had reappeared (he would have turned 95 in 2006), he might have used those awards to practice law in Missouri.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Alpha Phi Alpha brothers\n- List of people who disappeared mysteriously: pre-1970", "revid": "1084021889", "description": "Plaintiff in 1930s U.S. civil rights case who disappeared", "categories": ["1911 births", "1930s missing person cases", "African Americans in Columbia, Missouri", "African-American people", "Lincoln University (Missouri) alumni", "Missing people", "Missing person cases in Illinois", "People from Jefferson City, Missouri", "People from Water Valley, Mississippi", "School desegregation pioneers", "University of Michigan alumni", "University of Missouri people", "Year of death unknown"]}
{"id": "17867", "url": null, "title": "London", "text": "London (/ˈlʌndən/ ) is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea and has been a major settlement for two millennia. The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and retains its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament. Since the 19th century, the name \"London\" also refers to the metropolis around this core, historically split among the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which since 1965 has largely comprised Greater London, which is governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.\n\nAs one of the world's major global cities, London exerts a strong influence on its arts, entertainment, fashion, commerce and finance, education, health care, media, science and technology, tourism, transport, and communications. Its GDP (€801.66 billion in 2017) makes it the largest urban economy in Europe, and it is one of the major financial centres in the world. With Europe's largest concentration of higher education institutions, it is home to some of the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world—Imperial College London in natural and applied sciences, the London School of Economics in social sciences, and the comprehensive University College London. London is the most visited city in Europe and has the busiest city airport system in the world. The London Underground is the oldest rapid transit system in the world.\n\nLondon's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages. The mid-2018 population of Greater London of about 9 million made it Europe's third-most populous city, accounting for 13.4% of the population of the United Kingdom and over 16% of the population of England. The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants at the 2011 census. The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants in 2016, granting London the status of a megacity.\n\nLondon has four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the combined Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and also the historic settlement in Greenwich, where the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, defines the prime meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time. Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, and Trafalgar Square. London has many museums, galleries, libraries, and cultural venues, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library, and numerous West End theatres. Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final, the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, and the London Marathon. In 2012, London became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games.\n\n## Toponymy\n\nLondon is an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form Londinium. Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources: Latin (usually Londinium), Old English (usually Lunden), and Welsh (usually Llundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as \\*Londonjon or something similar. This was adapted into Latin as Londinium and borrowed into Old English.\n\nUntil 1889, the name \"London\" applied officially only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and to Greater London.\n\n## History\n\n### Prehistory\n\nIn 1993, remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore upstream from Vauxhall Bridge. Two of the timbers were radiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BC. In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC, were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge. Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames.\n\n### Roman London\n\nDespite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans around 47 AD, about four years after their invasion of 43 AD. This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it and burnt it to the ground.\n\nThe next planned incarnation of Londinium prospered, superseding Colchester as the principal city of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.\n\n### Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London\n\nWith the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued around St Martin-in-the-Fields until about 450. From about 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city. By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.\n\nThe Vikings applied Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London to Chester as an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred \"refounded\" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950.\n\nBy the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: \"It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital.\"\n\n### Middle Ages\n\nAfter winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William built the Tower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants. In 1097, William II began building Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. It became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.\n\nIn the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes at Westminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. With the Black Death in the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population. London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.\n\nLondon was a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation. In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.\n\n### Early modern\n\nDuring the Tudor period, the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city. In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up a main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called the Stalhof or Steelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway. Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries.\n\nYet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean was normally through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity. The Royal Exchange was founded. Mercantilism grew and monopoly traders such as the East India Company were founded as trade expanded to the New World. London became the main North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.\n\nIn the 16th century, William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London during English Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was constructed in 1599 in Southwark. Stage performances came to a halt in London when Puritan authorities shut down the theatres in the 1640s and 1650s. The ban on theatre was lifted during the Restoration in 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now the West End theatre district.\n\nBy the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot of 5 November 1605. In 1637, the government of Charles I attempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the Liberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's \"The Great Refusal\", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of the City.\n\nIn the English Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months. The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647, and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.\n\nLondon was plagued by disease in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.\n\nThe Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings. Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath Robert Hooke. In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 18th century.\n\nIn 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.\n\nCoffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing literacy and development of the printing press made news widely available, with Fleet Street becoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.\n\n### Late modern and contemporary\n\nWith the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, an unprecedented growth in urbanisation took place, and the number of High Streets (the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew. London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare). In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such as Harding, Howell & Co.—one of the first department stores—located on Pall Mall, the streets had scores of street sellers. London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866. Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of county areas surrounding the capital.\n\nFrom the early years of the 20th century onwards, teashops were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, with Lyons, who opened the first of their chain of teashops in Piccadilly in 1894, leading the way. The tearooms, such as the Criterion in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement. The city was the target of many attacks during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such as Westminster Abbey and St Paul's Cathedral bombed.\n\nLondon was bombed by the Germans in the First World War, and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city. The tomb of the Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920. The Cenotaph, located in Whitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for the National Service of Remembrance held annually on Remembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November.\n\nThe 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war. From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank. The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the \"pea soup fogs\" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the \"Big Smoke\".\n\nStarting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London sub-culture associated with the King's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street. The role of trendsetter revived in the punk era. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created. During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing. Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.\n\nGreater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s. Located about 2 miles (3.2 km) east of central London, the Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.\n\nThe Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of the Greater London Authority. To mark the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed. On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times. On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.\n\nIn 2008, Time named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influential global cities. In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939. During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining. However, Britain’s exit from the European Union (EU) in early 2021 (Brexit) only marginally weakened London’s position as an international financial center (IFC).\n\nOn 6 May 2023, the coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, took place at Westminster Abbey, London.\n\n## Administration\n\n### Local government\n\nThe administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities. The GLA consists of two elected components: the mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional arm Transport for London (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues. The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has been Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.\n\nThe local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).\n\nThe London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London, run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the world. National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world. The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea.\n\n### National government\n\nLondon is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as the prime minister's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall. There are 73 members of Parliament (MPs) from London; As of December 2019, 49 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, and three are Liberal Democrats. The ministerial post of minister for London was created in 1994 and as of 2020 is held by Paul Scully.\n\n### Policing and crime\n\nPolicing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police (\"The Met\"), overseen by the mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC). The Met is also referred to as Scotland Yard after the location of its original headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police. First worn by Met police officers in 1863, the custodian helmet has been called a \"cultural icon\" and a \"symbol of British law enforcement\". Introduced by the Met in 1929, the blue police telephone box (basis for the TARDIS in Doctor Who) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK.\n\nThe British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services. The Ministry of Defence Police is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public. The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered in Thames House on the north bank of the River Thames, and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered in the SIS Building on the south bank.\n\nCrime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level. In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014. Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved. However, the murder rate in London is much lower than other major cities around the world.\n\n## Geography\n\n### Scope\n\nLondon, also known as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. The City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the City with its suburbs, causing \"London\" to be defined several ways.\n\nForty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, in which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses. The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.\n\nFurther urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London, and by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about .\n\n### Status\n\nWithin London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies. The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed by statute or in written form.\n\nIts status as a capital was established by constitutional convention, which means its status as de facto capital is a part of the UK's uncodified constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London.\n\n### Topography\n\nGreater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km<sup>2</sup>) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km<sup>2</sup>). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km<sup>2</sup>) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km<sup>2</sup>).\n\nModern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a flood plain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.\n\nSince the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level caused by climate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result of post-glacial rebound.\n\n### Climate\n\nLondon has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began at Kew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893. The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm). The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall of New York City. Despite its relatively low annual precipitation, London still receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. However, London is vulnerable to climate change in the United Kingdom, and there is increasing concern among hydrological experts that London households may run out of water before 2050.\n\nTemperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981. Records for atmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.\n\nSummers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the 2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths. A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths. A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard. Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December. However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.\n\nWinters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect, making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts.\n\n### Areas\n\nPlaces within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley, and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.\n\nSuch names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London. The City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.\n\nThe West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists. West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.\n\nThe East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.\n\n### Architecture\n\nLondon's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace.\n\nPart of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Christopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey courthouse and the 1960s Barbican Estate. The 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington. The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area and Canary Wharf, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London.\n\nThe Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column (built to commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellow London stock brick.\n\nIn the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe (dubbed \"The Gherkin\"), Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings. This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937. Nevertheless, there are a number of tall skyscrapers in central London, including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the United Kingdom and Western Europe.\n\nOther notable modern buildings include The Scalpel, 20 Fenchurch Street (dubbed \"The Walkie-Talkie\"), the former City Hall in Southwark, the Art Deco BBC Broadcasting House plus the Postmodernist British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross and No 1 Poultry by James Stirling. The BT Tower stands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O<sub>2</sub> Arena.\n\n### Natural history\n\nThe London Natural History Society suggests that London is \"one of the World's Greenest Cities\" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish. They state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two national nature reserves and 76 local nature reserves.\n\nAmphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, barred grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London.\n\nAmong other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehog, brown rat, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and grey squirrel. In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, including European hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city. Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, Nathusius' and common pipistrelles, common noctule, serotine, barbastelle, Daubenton's, brown long-eared, Natterer's and Leisler's.\n\nHerds of red and fallow deer roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained. Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.\n\n## Demography\n\nThe 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population were foreign-born making it the city with the second largest immigrant population after New York City, in terms of absolute numbers. About 69% of children born in London in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad.\n\nThe population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, to reach 8,173,941 in the latter. London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area had a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used. According to Eurostat, London is the second most populous metropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001.\n\nThe region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km<sup>2</sup>), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km<sup>2</sup>) more than ten times that of any other British region. In population terms, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region.\n\n### Age structure and median age\n\nChildren younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London.\n\nThe median age of London's residents in 2018 was 36.5, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3.\n\n### Ethnic groups\n\nAccording to the Office for National Statistics, based on 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 44.9% White British, 2.2% White Irish, 0.1% gypsy/Irish traveller and 12.1% classified as Other White. Meanwhile, 20.9% of Londoners were of Asian or mixed-Asian descent, with 19.7% being of full Asian descents and 1.2% being of mixed-Asian heritage. Indians accounted for 6.6% of the population, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2.7% each. Chinese people accounted for 1.5%, and Arabs for 1.3%. A further 4.9% were classified as \"Other Asian\".\n\n15.6% of London's population were of Black or mixed-Black descent. 13.3% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.3%. Black Africans accounted for 7.0% of London's population; 4.2% identified as Black Caribbean, and 2.1% as \"Other Black\". 5.0% were of mixed race. The history of African presence extends back to the Roman period.\n\nAs of 2007, one fifth of primary school across London were from ethnic minorities. Altogether at the 2011 census, of London's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4% were White, 19.8% Asian, 19% Black, 10.8% Mixed and 4% another ethnic group. In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that in 2021, London's foreign-born population was 3,346,000 (35%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997.\n\nThe 2011 census showed that 36.7% of Greater London's population were born outside the UK. Estimates by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign-born groups living in London from July 2009 to June 2010 were born in India, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria. In the 2021 census 40.6% of London residents were foreign-born. The ethnic demographics of the 2021 census were reported as 53.8% White, with White British reported at 36.8%, Asian or Asian British at 20.8%, Black or Black British at 13.5%, mixed 5.7% and other at 6.3%.\n\n### Religion\n\nAccording to the 2011 Census, the largest religious groupings were Christians (48.4%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%), Muslims (12.4%), no response (8.5%), Hindus (5.0%), Jews (1.8%), Sikhs (1.5%), Buddhists (1.0%) and other (0.6%).\n\nLondon has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.\n\nImportant national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.\n\nNotable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park and the Baitul Futuh of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Middle-Eastern Arab Muslims based themselves around Mayfair, Kensington and Knightsbridge in West London. There are large Bengali Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham.\n\nLarge Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter hosting what was until 2006 Europe's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple. London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.\n\nThe majority of British Jews live in London, with notable Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon and Edgware, all in North London. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London's historic Sephardic Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe. The London Jewish Forum was set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.\n\n### Accents\n\nCockney is an accent heard across London, mainly spoken by working-class and lower-middle class Londoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older. Some features of Cockney include, Th-fronting (pronouncing \"th\" as \"f\"), \"th\" inside a word is pronounced with a \"v\" , H-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accent drops the \"r\" after a vowel. John Camden Hotten, in his Slang Dictionary of 1859, makes reference to Cockney \"use of a peculiar slang language\" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing the costermongers of the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in the home counties.\n\nEstuary English is an intermediate accent between Cockney and Received Pronunciation. It is widely spoken by people of all classes.\n\nMulticultural London English (MLE) is a multiethnolect becoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence.\n\nReceived Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard for British English. It has no specific geographical correlate, although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England. It is mainly spoken by upper-class and upper-middle class Londoners.\n\n## Economy\n\nLondon's gross regional product in 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter of UK GDP. London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m<sup>2</sup> of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m<sup>2</sup> of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world. London is the world's most expensive office market according to world property journal (2015) report. As of 2015 the residential property in London is worth \\$2.2 trillion. The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics. On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities.\n\n### City of London\n\nLondon's finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major business districts. London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century. The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time. This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity.\n\nBy the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency. Still, as of 2016 London tops the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI), and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.\n\nLondon's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the \\$5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS. Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance. Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market.\n\nOver half the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, Sir Adrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery company Cadbury, produced the Cadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of corporate governance around the world.\n\n### Media and technology\n\nMedia companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector. The BBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers, including The Times, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the term Fleet Street (where most national newspapers operated) remains a metonym for the British national press. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The Port of London is the second largest in the UK, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.\n\nA growing number of technology companies are based in London, notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD. In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list by fDi Intelligence. A museum in Bletchley Park, where Alan Turing was based during World War II, is in Bletchley, 40 miles (64 km) north of central London, as is The National Museum of Computing.\n\nThe gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN and UK Power Networks.\n\n### Tourism\n\nLondon is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US\\$20.23 billion in 2015. Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy. The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK. As of 2016 London was the world top city destination as ranked by TripAdvisor users.\n\nIn 2015 the top most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London. The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue)\n\n1. British Museum: 6,820,686\n2. National Gallery: 5,908,254\n3. Natural History Museum (South Kensington): 5,284,023\n4. Southbank Centre: 5,102,883\n5. Tate Modern: 4,712,581\n6. Victoria and Albert Museum (South Kensington): 3,432,325\n7. Science Museum: 3,356,212\n8. Somerset House: 3,235,104\n9. Tower of London: 2,785,249\n10. National Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486\n\nThe number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years.\n\n## Transport\n\nTransport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TfL).\n\nThe lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.\n\n### Aviation\n\nLondon is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word London in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights.\n\n- Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, was for many years the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways. In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.\n- Gatwick Airport, south of London in West Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base of easyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.\n- Stansted Airport, north-east of London in Essex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base of Ryanair, the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.\n- Luton Airport, to the north of London in Bedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines (especially easyJet and Wizz Air) for short-haul flights.\n- London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic.\n- Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines. In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.\n\n### Rail\n\n#### Underground and DLR\n\nOpened in 1863, the London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longest metro system in the world. The system serves 272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway, which opened in 1890.\n\nOver four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year. An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham.\n\n#### Suburban\n\nThere are 368 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports. London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year. Clapham Junction is one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges.\n\nWith the need for more rail capacity, the Elizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.\n\n#### Inter-city and international\n\nLondon is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London. King's Cross station and Euston station, both in London, are the starting points of the East Coast Main Line and the West Coast Main Line – the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns. The Flying Scotsman is an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service, Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934.\n\nSome international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Calais, Paris, Disneyland Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel. The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London. There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.\n\n### Buses, coaches and trams\n\nLondon's bus network runs 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops. In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year. Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year. London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.\n\nLondon's coach hub is Victoria Coach Station, opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and subsequently purchased by London Transport which then became Transport for London, Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe.\n\nLondon has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink. The network has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013. Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink.\n\n### Cable car\n\nLondon's first and to date only cable car is the London Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and links Greenwich Peninsula with the Royal Docks in the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times.\n\n### Cycling\n\nIn the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day, meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day. Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a bicycle hire scheme in July 2010 was successful and generally well received.\n\n### Port and river boats\n\nThe Port of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009. Most of this cargo passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.\n\nLondon has river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services. At major piers including Canary Wharf, London Bridge City, Battersea Power Station and London Eye (Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times. The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads.\n\n### Roads\n\nAlthough the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long. The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh.\n\nThe Austin Motor Company began making hackney carriages (London taxis) in 1929, and models include Austin FX3 from 1948, Austin FX4 from 1958, with more recent models TXII and TX4 manufactured by London Taxis International. The BBC states, \"ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions\".\n\nLondon is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h). In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass. Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars.\n\n## Education\n\n### Tertiary education\n\nLondon is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe. According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world. A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London the global capital of higher education. A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College London is ranked No. 6 in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 8th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 37th. All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in the Research Excellence Framework ranking 2021. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by the Financial Times. The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings): the Royal College of Music (ranking 2nd in the world), the Royal Academy of Music (ranking 4th) and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama (ranking 6th).\n\nWith students in London and around 48,000 in University of London Worldwide, the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK. It includes five multi-faculty universities – City, King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies.\n\nUniversities in London outside the University of London system include Brunel University, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University, University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe). In addition, there are three international universities – Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University.\n\nLondon is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London – and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe). Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently in White City. Founded by pioneering nurse Florence Nightingale at St Thomas' Hospital in 1860, the first nursing school is now part of King's College London. It was at King's in 1952 where a team led by Rosalind Franklin captured Photo 51, the critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA. There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management.\n\nLondon is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Central School of Ballet, London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA), London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA; president Sir Kenneth Branagh), Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, Sylvia Young Theatre School and Trinity Laban. The BRIT School in the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies.\n\n### Primary and secondary education\n\nThe majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include Ashbourne College, Bethnal Green Academy, Brampton Manor Academy, City and Islington College, City of Westminster College, David Game College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, London Academy of Excellence, Tower Hamlets College, and Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School.\n\n### Royal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies\n\nFounded in 1675, the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was established to address the problem of calculating longitude for navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royal Nevil Maskelyne's Nautical Almanac which made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as the prime meridian (0° longitude) in 1884.\n\nImportant scientific learned societies based in London include the Royal Society—the UK's national academy of sciences and the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660, and the Royal Institution, founded in 1799. Since 1825, the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures have presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included aerospace engineer Frank Whittle, naturalist David Attenborough and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins.\n\n## Culture\n\n### Leisure and entertainment\n\nLeisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London at 25.6 events per 1000 people. The city is one of the four fashion capitals of the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city, and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.\n\nWithin the City of Westminster in London, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century. Agatha Christie's The Mousetrap, the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952. The Laurence Olivier Awards–named after Laurence Olivier–are given annually by the Society of London Theatre. The Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.\n\nIslington's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK. Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including Selfridges flagship store. Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west. Opened in 1760 with its flagship store on Regent Street since 1881, Hamleys is the oldest toy store in the world. Madame Tussauds wax museum opened in Baker Street in 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began.\n\nLondon is home to designers John Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion. Mary Quant designed the miniskirt in her King's Road boutique in Swinging Sixties London. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown. There are Chinese takeaways throughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provide Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine. Around 1860, the first fish and chips shop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, in Bow. The full English breakfast dates from the Victorian era, and many cafe's in London serve a full English throughout the day. London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, including Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea. Many hotels in London provide a traditional afternoon tea service, such as the Oscar Wilde Lounge at the Hotel Café Royal in Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example an Alice in Wonderland themed afternoon tea served at the Egerton House Hotel, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory themed afternoon tea at One Aldwych in Covent Garden. The nation's most popular biscuit to dunk in tea, chocolate digestives have been manufactured by McVitie's at their Harlesden factory in north-west London since 1925.\n\nThere is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the city, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday. The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors. First held in 1862, the RHS Chelsea Flower Show (run by the Royal Horticultural Society) takes place in May every year.\n\n### LGBT scene\n\nThe first gay bar in London in the modern sense was The Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just off Regent Street, in 1912 and became a haunt for the wealthy, aristocratic and bohemian.\n\nWhile London has been an LGBT tourism destination, after homosexuality was decriminalised in England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970s Soho (and in particular Old Compton Street) became the centre of the London LGBT community. G-A-Y, previously based at the Astoria, and now Heaven, is a long-running night club.\n\nWider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence of glam rock in the UK in the early 1970s, via Marc Bolan and David Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musical The Rocky Horror Show, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements. The Blitz Kids (which included Boy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz in Covent Garden, helping launch the New Romantic subcultural movement in the late 1970s. Today, the annual London Pride Parade and the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival are held in the city.\n\n### Literature, film and television\n\nLondon has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play The Alchemist, was set in the city. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague.\n\nThe literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire; Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of early Victorian London; and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Robert Louis Stevenson mixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote the Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, a gothic novella set in Victorian London. In 1898, H. G. Wells' sci-fi novel The War of the Worlds sees London (and the south of England) invaded by Martians. Letitia Elizabeth Landon wrote Calendar of the London Seasons in 1834. Modern writers influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a \"biography\" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography. In the 1940s, George Orwell wrote essays in the London Evening Standard, most notably \"A Nice Cup of Tea\" (method for making tea) and \"The Moon Under Water\" (an ideal pub). The WWII evacuation of children from London is depicted in C. S. Lewis' first Narnia book The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950). On Christmas Eve 1925, Winnie-the-Pooh debuted in London's Evening News, with the character based on a stuffed toy A. A. Milne bought for his son Christopher Robin in Harrods. In 1958, author Michael Bond created Paddington Bear, a refugee found in London Paddington station. A screen adaptation, Paddington (2014), features the calypso song \"London is the Place for Me\".\n\nLondon has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include Pinewood, Elstree, Ealing, Shepperton, Twickenham, and Leavesden, with the James Bond and Harry Potter series among many notable films produced here. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. A post-production community is centred in Soho, and London houses six of the world's largest visual effects companies, such as Framestore. The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded by Andy Serkis. London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), A Clockwork Orange (1971), The Long Good Friday (1980), The Great Mouse Detective (1986), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V for Vendetta (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2008) and The King's Speech (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Julie Andrews, Peter Sellers, David Lean, Julie Christie, Gary Oldman, Emma Thompson, Guy Ritchie, Christopher Nolan, Alan Rickman, Jude Law, Helena Bonham Carter, Idris Elba, Tom Hardy, Daniel Radcliffe, Keira Knightley, Daniel Kaluuya and Daniel Day-Lewis. Post-war Ealing comedies featured Alec Guinness, from the 1950s Hammer Horrors starred Christopher Lee, films by Michael Powell included the London-set early slasher Peeping Tom (1960), the 1970s comedy troupe Monty Python had film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990s Richard Curtis's rom-coms have featured Hugh Grant. The largest cinema chain in the country, Odeon Cinemas was founded in London in 1928 by Oscar Deutsch. The British Academy Film Awards (BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with the BAFTA Fellowship the Academy's highest accolade. Founded in 1957, the BFI London Film Festival takes place over two weeks every October.\n\nLondon is a major centre for television production, with studios including Television Centre, ITV Studios, Sky Campus and Fountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows, Pop Idol, The X Factor, and Britain's Got Talent, before each format was exported around the world. Formerly a franchise of ITV, Thames Television featured comedians such as Benny Hill and Rowan Atkinson (Mr. Bean was first screened by Thames), while Talkback produced Da Ali G Show which featured Sacha Baron Cohen as Ali G. Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera EastEnders.\n\n### Museums, art galleries and libraries\n\nLondon is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.\n\nThe British Library is the second largest library in the world, and the national library of the United Kingdom. There are many other research libraries, including the Wellcome Library and Dana Centre, as well as university libraries, including the British Library of Political and Economic Science at LSE, the Abdus Salam Library at Imperial, the Maughan Library at King's, and the Senate House Libraries at the University of London.\n\nIn the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as \"Albertopolis\", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits. The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station which is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via the Millennium Bridge.\n\n### Music\n\nLondon is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), the Southbank Centre (London Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms). The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with the Last Night of the Proms. London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum (home to the English National Opera). The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells of St Clement Danes feature in the 1744 nursery rhyme \"Oranges and Lemons\". Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban. The record label EMI was formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company, Alan Blumlein, created stereo sound that year.\n\nLondon has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue, the O<sub>2</sub> Arena, and Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire. Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, Lovebox and Hyde Park's British Summer Time, are held in London.\n\nThe city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where the Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones, the Kinks, Queen, Eric Clapton, the Who, Cliff Richard, Led Zeppelin, Iron Maiden, Deep Purple, T. Rex, the Police, Elvis Costello, Dire Straits, Cat Stevens, Fleetwood Mac, the Cure, Madness, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.\n\nLondon was instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex Pistols, the Clash and fashion designer Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. Other artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael, Kate Bush, Seal, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, the Prodigy, Gorillaz, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Ellie Goulding, Dua Lipa and Florence and the Machine. Artists from London played a prominent role in the development of synth-pop, including Gary Numan, Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys and Eurythmics; the latter's \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods. Artists from London with a Caribbean influence include Hot Chocolate, Billy Ocean, Soul II Soul and Eddy Grant, with the latter fusing reggae, soul and samba with rock and pop. London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of house, hip hop, and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. The British Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, the Brit Awards, are held in London.\n\n## Recreation\n\n### Parks and open spaces\n\nA 2013 report by the City of London Corporation said that London is the \"greenest city\" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens. The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent's Park to the north. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Primrose Hill is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline.\n\nClose to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James's Park. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including Hampstead Heath and the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the southeast, and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the southwest. Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks.\n\nClose to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest, both controlled by the City of London Corporation. Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, a former stately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake. Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering. Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks, Thorpe Park near Staines-upon-Thames, Chessington World of Adventures in Chessington and Legoland Windsor, are located within 20 miles (32 km) of London.\n\n### Walking\n\nWalking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, canals and disused railway tracks. Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail along the River Wandle.\n\nOther long-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path (\"Loop\"), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk.\n\n## Sport\n\nLondon has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times. The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934. In 2017, London hosted the World Championships in Athletics for the first time.\n\nLondon's most popular sport is football, and it has seven clubs in the Premier League in the 2022–23 season: Arsenal, Brentford, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Fulham, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United. Other professional men's teams in London are AFC Wimbledon, Barnet, Bromley, Charlton Athletic, Dagenham & Redbridge, Leyton Orient, Millwall, Queens Park Rangers and Sutton United. Four London-based teams are in the Women's Super League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham and West Ham United.\n\nThree Premiership Rugby union teams are based in Greater London: Harlequins, London Irish and Saracens. Ealing Trailfinders, London Sottish and Richmond play in the RFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city include Scottish, Rosslyn Park F.C., Westcombe Park R.F.C. and Blackheath F.C. Twickenham Stadium in south-west London hosts home matches for the England national rugby union team. While rugby league is more popular in the north of England, there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the London Broncos in the second-tier RFL Championship and the third-tier League 1 team, the London Skolars.\n\nOne of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon since 1877. Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.\n\nLondon has two Test cricket grounds, Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C.) and the Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C.). Lord's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup and is known as the Home of Cricket. Alexandra Palace in north London hosts the PDC World Darts Championship and the Masters snooker tournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participation London Marathon and the University Boat Race.\n\n## Notable people\n\n## See also\n\n- Outline of England\n- Outline of London", "revid": "1173842489", "description": "Capital city of England and the United Kingdom", "categories": ["1st-century establishments in Roman Britain", "British capitals", "Capital cities in the United Kingdom", "Capitals in Europe", "Greater London", "London", "Populated places established in the 1st century", "Port cities and towns in Southern England", "Southern England", "Staple ports"]}
{"id": "15410318", "url": null, "title": "One Son", "text": "\"One Son\" is the twelfth episode from the sixth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. It first aired on February 14, 1999, on the Fox network. The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz, and directed by Rob Bowman. It explores the series' overarching mythology and concludes the Syndicate story arc.\n\nThe series centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson), who work on \"X-Files\"—cases deemed \"unsolvable\" by the FBI, usually dealing with the paranormal. Although Mulder is a believer in the paranormal, and the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work, the two have developed a deep friendship. While Cassandra Spender (Veronica Cartwright) reveals the truth about the alien conspiracy to take over the Earth to Mulder, the Smoking Man (William B. Davis) does the same to her son, Jeffrey Spender (Chris Owens), in an effort to convince him to work with the Syndicate. Even as Mulder is deceived by Special Agent Diana Fowley (Mimi Rogers), Scully stays true to the investigation, and the two find Spender to be a surprise ally. Meanwhile, the Syndicate reaches the climax of its plans, only to have its members systematically exterminated by the faceless alien rebels, who oppose colonization.\n\n\"One Son,\" a direct continuation of the previous episode \"Two Fathers,\" was written, along with its predecessor, to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series' mythology in a different direction. Both the opening of the episode and the climactic scene featuring the demise of the Syndicate were filmed at the Marine Corps Air Station Tustin in Tustin, California. Spotnitz was particularly critical of some of the visual effects used in the episode, expressing a desire to one day revisit and redo them. The episode has also been analyzed for its thematic examination of family. \"One Son\" earned a Nielsen household rating of 10.1, and its first broadcast was watched by 16.57 million people. The episode was well received by critics, who applauded the way the Syndicate's story arc was wrapped up, although others felt the resolution was too simplistic.\n\n## Plot\n\n### Background\n\nFor the first five seasons of the series, FBI federal agents Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) have unravelled a conspiracy that involves the mysterious Syndicate, and their plans to aid in the alien colonization of Earth. The fifth-season episodes \"Patient X\" and \"The Red and the Black\" reveal that, counter to the colonization effort, there is a faction of alien rebels opposed to colonization. In the previous episode, \"Two Fathers\", one of the rebels tried to infiltrate the Syndicate and form an alliance, only to be killed. Meanwhile, Mulder learned that The Smoking Man's (William B. Davis) ex-wife, Cassandra Spender (Veronica Cartwright), had successfully become an alien-human hybrid—a signal to the aliens for them to begin colonizing the planet.\n\n### Events\n\nCassandra demands to be killed by Mulder but, before he can do anything, the group is quarantined by Diana Fowley (Mimi Rogers). Mulder, Cassandra, and Scully are taken to a Centers for Disease Control (CDC) facility at Fort Marlene, where Fowley tells the agents that Cassandra is carrying a contagious organism. Meanwhile, Alex Krycek (Nicholas Lea) reports on Cassandra's escape to the Syndicate, noting that the alien rebels want Cassandra kept alive. However, the Syndicate decides to turn Cassandra over to the colonists and save themselves by commencing colonization.\n\nAt Fort Marlene, Mulder runs into the sickly looking Marita Covarrubias (Laurie Holden), who tells him that she was subjected to experiments by the Syndicate to create a black oil vaccine and that the colonists will begin colonization if they learn of Cassandra's existence as an alien-human hybrid. Scully, with help of the Lone Gunmen, looks into Fowley's personal history and informs Mulder that Fowley has been collecting data on alien abductees—MUFON—in Tunisia almost every week, although there is no trace of her activities in FBI records. Although Mulder still trusts Fowley, he goes to her apartment to confront her.\n\nInside the apartment, Mulder's search for clues is interrupted by the arrival of The Smoking Man, who tells Mulder that he has been betrayed by Jeffrey Spender (Chris Owens), who is actually his son. The Smoking Man tells Mulder that, many years ago, the Syndicate agreed by majority vote, against Bill Mulder's objections, to align themselves with the alien colonists to be spared during colonization. The Syndicate was forced to give up family members to the colonists as collateral so that an alien fetus could be given to the Syndicate in order for them to gain access to alien DNA, to make the human-alien hybrid possible. Since Bill Mulder was slow to agree, Samantha Mulder was not taken until after the others. Using the alien fetus, the Syndicate worked on creating alien-human hybrids who could survive the colonization. The Smoking Man then tells Mulder that the colonization will begin once Cassandra is handed over and that Mulder will be able to see his sister again, providing him with an address to the hangar where the Syndicate members will be meeting the colonists.\n\nSpender goes to the Syndicate's headquarters, only to find Krycek, who tells him that the group's members—with the exception of The Smoking Man, who has gone to retrieve Cassandra—are preparing to give Cassandra to the aliens. Fowley returns to her apartment, where she finds Mulder. Fowley heads to the hangar at El Rico Air Force Base, whereas Scully picked up Mulder, and the two try but fail to stop the train car transporting Cassandra to El Rico. Spender arrives at Fort Marlene, where he runs into Marita; she tells him to go to El Rico Air Force Base to find his mother.\n\nA Syndicate surgeon attempting to procure the alien fetus is killed by one of the alien rebels, who assumes his form. Krycek finds the dead surgeon and the fetus missing, and tells Spender that the rebels are now going to succeed in their goals to halt colonization. The Syndicate and its families gather at El Rico Air Force Base. Shortly after Fowley arrives, a white light appears around one end of the hangar. It is revealed to be the rebels, who surround and immolate the entire Syndicate, except for The Smoking Man and Fowley, who escape by car.\n\nThe next day, Mulder, Scully, Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) and Spender report to Assistant Director Alvin Kersh (James Pickens, Jr.) on the deaths of the Syndicate and Cassandra. Spender tells Kersh that Mulder and Scully could have prevented their demise, and recommends that they be reassigned to the X-Files before abruptly leaving the room. Heading to the X-Files office in the basement, Spender finds The Smoking Man, who first berates Spender for not being like Mulder and then shoots him in the head.\n\n## Production\n\n### Conception and writing\n\n\"One Son\" concluded not only the story that had begun in the preceding episode, \"Two Fathers\", but also a large portion of the series' mythology, much of which had been centered around the Syndicate. The producers felt this was necessary as the Syndicate's story arc was becoming a \"narrative drag\" on the series, and that many questions from the past five seasons were still unanswered. Another impetus for finishing the arc was the belief of series creator and episode co-writer Chris Carter that the series would end by the spring of 2000. Thus \"One Son\" was written to resolve many of the show's arcs in preparation for a future series finale. The writing staff was also looking for ways to create a new story lines for the series, such as the \"Super Soldiers\" arc, which was created for the eighth and ninth seasons.\n\nCarter also sought to rectify small issues that fans had with the 1998 feature film, The X-Files, explaining, \"I think if there was any trouble with the movie, it was that we promised so much that we didn't deliver all of it. I think we wanted to deliver a lot, and all at once, in these two episodes\". Episode co-writer Frank Spotnitz agreed, saying that when The X-Files film was being promoted with the tagline \"The Truth is Revealed,\" he realized that many fans would be unhappy with the revelations. Spotnitz struggled when writing \"One Son\" because he believed that episodes that gave answers seemed to be less entertaining for viewers than episodes that presented new questions. He did, however, acknowledge that this episode was necessary to explain the show's mythology; he called the episode the \"biggest chapter we had time to explore in the nine years we were on the air\".\n\nWriters for the series often struggled with writing \"mytharc\" episodes because there was a need to force as much material into them as possible, given their relative paucity compared to the \"Monster of the week\" episodes. While the title of the previous episode, \"Two Fathers\", referred to both Bill Mulder and The Smoking Man, this episode was titled \"One Son\" to reflect the fact that Mulder was the only remaining son of either of these men, after the presumed death of Jeffrey Spender.\n\nSeveral of the plot elements self-reference other episodes of the series. Fort Marlene's presence is a reference to the first season finale \"The Erlenmeyer Flask,\" in which the alien fetus was first introduced; the term \"purity control\" is also a reference to this episode. The references to MUFON were designed to recall the fourth-season story-arc involving Scully's cancer. The episode also references and mirrors elements of popular culture. Fowley's apartment was purposely located in the Watergate complex, a hotel notorious as the location of the 1970s Watergate scandal. The scenes featuring Mulder and Scully being decontaminated were based on a similar scene in the James Bond film Dr. No (1962), according to Spotnitz. He felt that the scene successfully played upon the sexual tension between the two lead characters.\n\n### Casting and filming\n\n\"One Son\" would be the last episode of the series to feature Owens' character, Jeffrey Spender, until the ninth season entry \"William\". Owens learned that he would be killed off when Carter told him, \"You're going to go out a hero, of sorts\". Owens was slightly disappointed, as he had just been introduced during the conclusion of the previous season. Davis was upset that Owens was leaving the series, and reportedly told Owens during their last scene together, \"I don't want to shoot you! I enjoy working with you!\" Owens, however, jokingly noted that Davis had no problems slapping him when the script called for it. In the episode, Laurie Holden, who played Marita Covarrubias, returns. Spotnitz crafted the sequence in which she confronts Mulder to be a way of \"taking away [her] beauty and making her [look] as horrifying as possible\". To accomplish this, she was given \"terrible-looking\" contact lenses and her hair was disheveled.\n\nWhile the first five seasons of the series were mainly filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, production of the show's sixth season was based in Los Angeles, California. The scenes taking place in the hangar were filmed at the Marine Corps Air Station Tustin in Tustin, California. The hangar—constructed in 1942 in support of the United States Navy coastal patrol efforts during World War II—is one of the largest all-wooden hangars in the United States. Bill Roe, director of photography, and Rob Bowman were tasked with lighting the entire structure for the episode's teaser and climax, a job that Spotnitz later called \"amazing\". Because the series' move to Los Angeles had caused production costs to rise, the show was forced to cut down on its \"astonishing production values\". However, Spotnitz highlighted the use of the hangar as \"was a way to try and create that cinematic scale and still keep [the show] affordable\". Initially, the production staff had hoped to show the alien rebels incinerating the Syndicate on screen. However, because they were filming in an all-wooden hangar, the use of fire was never considered.\n\nThe episode also revisits trains as a setting, something that had previously been done in the third season episodes \"731\" and \"Nisei\". However, for budgetary reasons, the scenes taking place on the trains did not take up much screen time. To give the effect that the train carrying Cassandra Spender is moving at a high speed, Manners utilized \"sound effects, music, clever camera angles and quick cutting\". In reality, the train was going a little under ten miles an hour.\n\nAll of the sets in the episode were created by Corey Kaplan. Roe, meanwhile, was in charge of the cinematography. While Spotnitz was complimentary towards Rob Bowman's directing, he was critical of the scene in which one of the Syndicate members morphs into an alien rebel. He felt that the effect was subpar, largely because it had been created on such short notice. He explained, \"It was one of those cases where you just run out of time, sorry to say\". He later expressed a desire to one day go back and revisit the effect.\n\nThe episode required extensive demands from makeup department head Cheri Montesanto-Medcalf. She was tasked with creating the illusion of the lead surgeon's head being frozen in liquid nitrogen, as well as \"de-aging\" members of the Syndicate for the episode's flashback sequences. To create the former, Montesanta-Medcalf painted the actor's face blue, then attached silicone icicles to his head.\n\n## Themes\n\nThe episode emphasizes the importance of family. Meghan Deans of Tor.com wrote that the Syndicate handing over their family and loved ones to save the world was evidence of this permeating theme. She also highlighted the duality of fathers and sons. The Smoking Man is both a father to Mulder and Spender, but he favors Mulder. At the same time, both Spender and Krycek vie for the position of \"son,\" with the former falling from The Smoking Man's grace, and the latter playing the role of \"prodigal son\". However, both Spender and Krycek eventually fail, leaving Mulder as the titular \"one son\". Neal Justin of the Star Tribune also wrote about the episode's emphasis on family, commenting that \"it is interesting to note that the core of the story appears to be the relationship between parents and their children\". He compared the episode's thematic mechanism to the same concern of the Star Wars films.\n\n## Reception\n\n### Ratings and accolades\n\n\"One Son\" originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on February 14, 1999, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on May 23, 1999. In the U.S., the episode was watched by 16.57 million viewers. It earned a Nielsen household rating of 10.1, with a 16 share. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10.1 percent of all television-equipped households, and 16 percent of households watching television, were watching the episode. In the U.K., \"One Son\" was seen by 860,000 viewers, making it the fourth most-watched episode that week, behind ER, The Simpsons, and Friends. Dean Haglund's name is misspelled as Dean Haglung in the opening credits.\n\nCartwright was nominated for an Emmy for \"Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series\" for her role in both this episode and \"Two Fathers\". \"One Son\" was also nominated for \"Outstanding Art Direction—Series\", and \"One Son\" and \"Two Fathers\" were co-nominated for \"Outstanding Makeup—Series\". The series won an Emmy for the latter. On November 5, 2002, the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete sixth season. The episode was later included on The X-Files Mythology, Volume 3 – Colonization, a DVD collection that features episodes involved with the alien colonists' plans to take over the Earth.\n\n### Reviews\n\nBecause the episode was promoted with the promise of answering questions, it caused increased media speculation. With the conclusion of \"One Son\", many critics applauded the way the series was able to wrap up the Syndicate arc. A.M. Jamison of the Dayton Daily News wrote that \"'One Son' ends dramatically, drawing to a close one quest and opening a new set of challenges not only for Mulder but the Earth as well\". Noel Holston and Justin of the Star Tribune awarded the episode four stars out of five, noting that it answered even more questions than \"Two Fathers\". They also applauded the familial bonds that held the episode together. However, some critics felt that the answers were slightly rushed. Manuel Mendoza of The Dallas Morning News wrote that \"Mr. Carter and his co-writer Frank Spotnitz have a wonderfully indirect way of setting up dramatic situations and an unbelievably shorthand way of resolving them\".\n\nRobert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode three-and-a-half stars out of five. The two enjoyed Davis' performance, noting that he gave the role \"real power\", and that he was \"the emotional centre of the episode\". Shearman and Pearson were critical of the amount of attention Fowley's allegiance received. However, they felt that the episode \"reaches for both significance and closure, and mostly works\". Deans wrote that \"One Son,\" along with \"Two Fathers,\" is elevated above a \"mytharc infodump\" because of \"its use of family, a theme woven deep and clear throughout\". She largely applauded the episode's exploration of the various characters, and its central motif, noting that \"the conspiracy [the Syndicate] is no longer the threat now. It's the rebels and the colonists, fearful and unknown. Just like family\". Tom Kessenich, in his book Examination: An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6–9 of the X-Files wrote positively of the episode, saying \"The 'Two Fathers'/'One Son' was extremely powerful stuff. Tightly written, beautifully filmed and filled with more affirmations than revelations, but fascination looks at the characters in the drama\".\n\nZack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a \"B\" rating. He felt that the episode worked extremely well on a visual and character-based level. Handlen felt that, because the show was \"often scariest when it's implying, rather than flat out stating,\" its \"mythology only really works as something just out of sight\". For this reason, he felt that the episode mixed \"the compelling with the absurd\" with \"mixed results\". Handlen concluded that the episode \"has its moment,\" but is ultimately hurt by the fact that it refuses \"to come to any serious conclusions,\" as well as \"the inherent limitations of the [episode's] form\". Not all reviews were glowing. Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one-and-a-half stars out of four. Vitaris criticized the death scene of the Syndicate, noting that it was \"clumsily contrived, allowing [The Smoking Man] and Fowley to escape, but not because it makes sense, but because the show needs them to return at some point\".\n\nSince its airing, \"One Son\" has been called one of the best episodes of The X-Files. Joyce Millman from Salon magazine said the episode, along with \"Two Fathers,\" was one \"of the most coherent, [...] almost unbearably tense, hours in the series' run\". She said that the episode gave some long-waited answers, but created new questions, such as what has really happened to Samantha Mulder. Michigan Daily reviewer Melissa Runstrom said that \"One Son,\" along with \"Two Fathers\" and season finale \"Biogenesis,\" were the highlights of the sixth season. Earl Cressey from DVD Talk also named \"One Son,\" along with \"Two Fathers,\" as one of the \"highlights of season six\".", "revid": "1167595461", "description": null, "categories": ["1999 American television episodes", "Television episodes set in New York City", "Television episodes written by Chris Carter (screenwriter)", "Television episodes written by Frank Spotnitz", "The X-Files (season 6) episodes"]}
{"id": "471471", "url": null, "title": "Merced River", "text": "The Merced River (/mɜːrˈsɛd/), in the central part of the U.S. state of California, is a 145-mile (233 km)-long tributary of the San Joaquin River flowing from the Sierra Nevada into the San Joaquin Valley. It is most well known for its swift and steep course through the southern part of Yosemite National Park, where it is the primary watercourse flowing through Yosemite Valley. The river's character changes dramatically once it reaches the plains of the agricultural San Joaquin Valley, where it becomes a slow-moving meandering stream.\n\nThe river first formed as the Sierra Nevada rose about 10 million years ago, and sediment eroded from its canyon helped form the flat floor of the San Joaquin Valley. Glaciation during the ice ages carved the high elevation parts of the watershed, including Yosemite Valley, into their present shape. Historically, there was an extensive riparian zone which provided habitat for millions of migrating birds, and the river had one of the southernmost runs of chinook salmon in North America.\n\nMiwok and Paiute people lived along the river for thousands of years before Spanish and Mexican military expeditions passed through in the early 19th century. The California Gold Rush brought many people into California and some settled in towns along the lower Merced River. A railroad was built along the Merced canyon, enabling mining and logging in the upper watershed, and later carrying tourists to Yosemite National Park. Conflicts between settlers and Native Americans resulted in wars, including the expulsion of the Ahwahnechee from Yosemite.\n\nLarge-scale irrigation was introduced to the San Joaquin Valley in the late 19th century, and led to the construction of numerous state, federal and privately owned dams, which blocked migrating salmon and caused a large decline in riparian habitat. Diversion of water for irrigation often reduces the river to a small stream by the time it reaches its mouth. Efforts to mitigate environmental damage include habitat conservation work, re-establishment of historic streamflow patterns, and the construction of a salmon hatchery.\n\n## Course\n\nThe headwaters of the Merced River are at 8,017 feet (2,444 m) at the foot of the Clark Range subrange of the Sierra Nevada, rising at the confluence of the Triple Peak Fork and Merced Peak Fork after they cascade down glacially polished slopes from the high country in the southeastern corner of Yosemite National Park. From its headwaters, the river flows north for a short distance and collects the Lyell Peak Fork. The course of the Merced then turns to the north west and flows through a steep walled canyon for 2.5 miles (4.0 km) where the river receives the Red Peak Fork and then collects into Washburn Lake, 7,612 feet (2,320 m) above sea level.\n\nThe Merced continues to the northwest for 3 miles (4.8 km) where collects into Merced Lake. Leaving Merced Lake, the river continues to the west northwest for 2.3 miles (3.7 km) where the canyons open up into Echo Valley. The river then turns generally westward for another 3 miles (4.8 km), where it snakes through a spectacular narrow gorge between massive, glacially resistant granite cliffs. The gorge opens up after Bunnell Point and Sugarloaf Dome confine the river to form Bunnell Cascade, before turning southward through the Lost Valley of the Merced, and then spills over a granite cliff into Little Yosemite Valley, named for its resemblance to Yosemite Valley downstream.\n\nThe Merced River drops over Nevada Fall and Vernal Fall, together known as the \"Giant Staircase\", then receives Illilouette Creek and flows into Yosemite Valley, where it meanders between pine forests and meadows that fill the valley floor. Tenaya, Yosemite, Bridalveil and Pigeon Creeks join the Merced River in Yosemite Valley. Beyond the glacial moraine at the western end of the valley the river flows through the steep Merced River Canyon, picks up Cascade Creek and turns south near El Portal. State Route 140 follows the river out of the west entrance to the national park, a few miles before the South Fork Merced River, the largest tributary, joins from the left.\n\nThe river arcs northwest to receive the North Fork, and a few miles after it enters Lake McClure, formed by New Exchequer Dam. Below New Exchequer, the river flows west through a heavily irrigated region of the Central Valley, passing through McSwain and Crocker-Huffman Dams and the cities of Hopeton, Delhi and Livingston. It joins the San Joaquin River at Hills Ferry, a few miles south of Turlock.\n\n## Watershed\n\nThe Merced River watershed encompasses 1,726 square miles (4,470 km<sup>2</sup>) in the central Sierra Nevada. To the north it is bordered by the watershed of the Tuolumne River, the other major river draining Yosemite National Park. On the south, the Merced watershed borders on the headwaters of the San Joaquin River. To the east, it is bordered by the Sierra crest which divides it from the endorheic Great Basin watershed of Mono Lake.\n\nMuch of the Merced River basin is at high elevation, where an alpine climate prevails. The Sierra receives heavy snowfall in the winter, which melts in the spring and early summer causing annual flooding. By late autumn the river level has dropped considerably, and some smaller tributaries dry up altogether. Up to 85% of the flow above Happy Isles comes from melting snow. In the dry season, groundwater provides the only base flow to the river. In addition, the river is fed by dozens of high Sierra lakes, the largest of which include Merced Lake, Tenaya Lake, Ostrander Lake, the Chain Lakes, and May Lake. The foothills experience a drier Mediterranean climate, while the San Joaquin Valley floor is dry enough to be considered semi-desert.\n\nThe Merced River is the third largest tributary of the San Joaquin River. Before irrigation started in the Central Valley and dams were constructed, the river's natural flow at the mouth was much higher than the current average of 661 cubic feet per second (18.7 m<sup>3</sup>/s), or about 479,000 acre-feet (591,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>) per year. Upstream on the river, at Happy Isles, the average flow is 355 cubic feet per second (10.1 m<sup>3</sup>/s). The United States Geological Survey has river gauges at three locations along the Merced River: at Happy Isles, above Lake McClure, and at the mouth. The first two record flows unaffected by dams and human intervention, but discharge at the mouth is chiefly controlled by New Exchequer Dam. The Lake McClure gauge, located at the former mining town of Bagby, is probably the most accurate gauge for flows overall. The average annual flow recorded there was 1,185 cubic feet per second (33.6 m<sup>3</sup>/s) from 1923 to 1966. A peak of 92,500 cubic feet per second (2,620 m<sup>3</sup>/s) was reported there on December 23, 1955. For the mouth gauge, the highest flow was only 13,600 cubic feet per second (390 m<sup>3</sup>/s) in 1950. Finally, for the gauge at Happy Isles, the largest flow ever recorded was 10,100 cubic feet per second (290 m<sup>3</sup>/s) in the 1997 Yosemite floods, which destroyed many campgrounds, roads, paths, and bridges in the valley.\n\n## Ecology\n\nAccording to a study in 2006, there were 37 fish species, 127 bird species, and 140 insect and invertebrate species found in the Merced River watershed. Due to differences in climate, there is a large disparity between species found in the upper watershed (above Lake McClure) and along the lower river.\n\nThere are 26 species of native and introduced fish in the lower Central Valley portion of the river, including Sacramento sucker, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass and carp. Anadromous fish species found in the lower river are chinook salmon, Pacific lamprey and striped bass. The upper section of the river, defined as the stretch from Lake McClure to the headwaters, has 11 species of fish. Historically, the range of anadromous fish extended to the waterfalls at the head of Yosemite Valley, but dams have blocked their migration since the early 1900s, and diversions frequently dewater their remaining spawning habitat in the lower part of the river. Environmental measures enacted in the late 20th century have had some success in boosting chinook salmon populations, from a record low of 500 fish during several years in the 1950s, to a high of 30,000 in 1984. Since the 1970s, the annual chinook run has averaged about 5,300.\n\nOf the 127 bird species found along the Merced River, only 35 occur along the entire length of the river. Many of these birds are migratory and only pass the area a few times every year, while 109 species of birds are found only in the breeding season. Birds are more abundant along the slow-moving lower river, which has more suitable riparian habitat compared to the rocky, swift upper river. Common species of bird throughout the basin include ruby-crowned kinglet, cedar waxwing, American robin, yellow-rumped warbler, tree swallow and European starling, and several endangered species, including white-tailed kite and Swainson's hawk. Birds that occur commonly in the middle and upper sections of the Merced River include mourning dove, Cassin's finch, California quail, dark-eyed junco, woodpecker, dipper, great blue heron, scrub jay, red-winged blackbird, red-tailed hawk, turkey vulture, cliff swallow, canyon wren, merganser, and bald eagles. Common insects found along the river include mayflies, stoneflies and caddisflies. The river is impacted by invasive Asiatic clam, Chinese mitten crab, and New Zealand mud snail.\n\nMany species of plants are found throughout the middle and upper basin, including California poppy, white alder, Oregon ash, oak, poison oak, bigleaf maple, Indian rhubarb, buttonbush, willow, whiteleaf manzanita, and historically, sugar pine, before heavy logging in the late 19th century. Squirrels, raccoon, jackrabbits, bats, skunks, beavers, mule deer, coyote, bobcat and black bear are among the mammal species found in the middle and upper watershed.\n\nOne species of interest is the limestone salamander, an extremely rare amphibian whose only habitat is the Merced Canyon downstream of Yosemite Valley. The salamander depends on the limestone walls of the Merced Canyon to survive. To protect the salamander, a 20-mile (32 km) segment of the canyon covering 1,600 acres (6.5 km<sup>2</sup>) was designated an \"Area of Critical Environmental Concern\" in 1986.\n\n## Geology\n\nWhen the North American Plate on its slow journey westwards encountered the Pacific Plate approximately 250 million years ago during the Paleozoic, the latter began to subduct under the North American continent. Intense pressure underground caused some of the Pacific Plate to melt, and the resulting upwelling magma pushed up and hardened into the granite batholith that makes up much of the Sierra Nevada. Extensive layers of marine sedimentary rock that originally made up the ancient Pacific seabed were also pushed up by the rising granite, and the ancestral Merced River formed on this layer of rock. Over millions of years, the Merced cut a deep canyon through the softer sedimentary rock, eventually hitting the hard granite beneath. The encounter with this resilient rock layer caused the Merced River to mostly stop its downcutting, although tributary streams continued to widen the ancient canyon.\n\nOver about 80 million years, erosion caused the transportation of massive amounts of alluvial sediment to the floor of the Central Valley, where it was trapped between the California Coast Range on the west and the Sierra Nevada on the east, forming an incredibly flat and fertile land surface. The present-day form of the upper Merced River watershed, however, was formed by glaciers, and the lower watershed was indirectly but significantly affected.\n\nWhen the last glacial period or Ice Age arrived, a series of four tremendous valley glaciers filled the upper basin of the Merced River. These glaciers rose in branches upstream of Yosemite Valley, descending from the Merced River headwaters, Tenaya Canyon and Illilouette Creek. Tenaya Canyon was actually eroded even deeper by an arm of the Tuolumne Glacier, which formed the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne and Hetch Hetchy Valley on the Tuolumne River in the north. Little Yosemite Valley formed as a result of the underlying rock being harder than that below the Giant Staircase, the cliff wall containing Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall. These three branches of each glacier combined to form one large glacier about 7,000 feet (2,100 m) thick at maximum, stretching 25 miles (40 km) downstream past the mouth of Yosemite Valley, well into Merced Canyon. These glaciers formed the granite cliffs that now constitute landmarks such as Half Dome, El Capitán, and Cloud's Rest.\n\nThe first and largest glacier was the Sherwin or Pre-Tahoe glacier, which eroded the upper Merced watershed to an extent close to its present form. Three stages followed during the Wisconsinian glaciation; these were the Tahoe, Tenaya and Tioga stages, of which the Tioga was the smallest. The Tioga glacier left at the mouth of Yosemite Valley a rocky moraine. This moraine was actually one of several moraines deposited by the four glaciations, which include Medial Moraine and Bridalveil Moraine. After the Tioga Glacier retreated this moraine formed a lake that flooded nearly the entire valley. Gradual sedimentation filled Lake Yosemite, creating a broad and flat valley floor. Sediments of glacial origin continued to travel down the Merced River following then, helping to form the flat floor of the Central Valley.\n\n## History\n\nOf the many Native American tribes that have lived on the Merced River the most prominent were the Miwok (consisting of Plains Miwok and Sierra Miwok), Paiute, and Ahwahnechee. Many Plains Miwok settled in the lowlands along the lower Merced River. The Sierra (or Mountain) Miwok lived in the upper Merced Canyon and in Yosemite Valley, and at the time the first white explorers came to the area, there were about 450 Sierra Miwok split among ten permanent villages. Paiute, of origin from the eastern Sierra near the Mono Lake area, also lived in the upper watershed of the Merced River. The Sierra Miwok and Mono Lake Paiute eventually, through cultural interaction over time, formed a new culture, the Ahwahnechee, derived from Ahwahnee, meaning \"the valley shaped like a big mouth\" (referring to U-shaped Yosemite Valley).\n\nIn the early 19th century, several military expeditions sent by Spanish colonists from coastal California traveled into the Central Valley. One of these trips, headed by lieutenant Gabriel Moraga, arrived on the south bank of the Merced River on September 29, 1806. They named the river Rio de Nuestra Señora de la Merced (River of Our Lady of Mercy), who is the patron saint of the diocese of Barcelona and is celebrated on September 24. Another expedition to the Central Valley in 1805 also named the Kings River upon reaching it on January 6, 1805, which is the feast of the Magi or Epiphany. Moraga's expedition was part of a series of exploratory ventures, funded by the Spanish government, to find suitable sites for missions in the Central Valley and the Sierra Nevada foothills. In 1808 and 1810, Moraga led further expeditions along the lower Merced River below Merced Canyon, each time coming to nothing. Eventually, plans to establish a mission chain in the Valley were abandoned. In 1855, Merced County was created, named after the Merced River.\n\nFollowing the establishment of Merced County and the independence of California from Mexico, many settlers came to the Merced River area and established small towns on the Merced River. One of the first was Dover, established in 1844 at the confluence of the Merced River with the San Joaquin River. Dover functioned as an \"inland seaport\" where boats delivered supplies from the San Francisco Bay area to settlers in the San Joaquin Valley. Some towns that followed were Hopeton, Snelling and Merced Falls, the latter named for a set of rapids on the Merced River near the present-day site of McSwain Dam. In the late 1880s a flour mill, woolen mill and a few lumber mills were constructed at Merced Falls. The Sugar Pine Lumber Company and Yosemite Lumber Company operated lumber mills at Merced Falls for over thirty years, relying on narrow-gauge railroads to ship lumber from the Sierra Nevada along the Merced River. Following the construction of the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads, many of the river towns on the Merced River were deserted. Several cities that did achieve prominence, however, include Merced and Turlock, both located on the railroad.\n\nThe California Gold Rush in the 1850s saw gradually increasing mining in Merced Canyon and Yosemite Valley. Many Native Americans in the area revolted, leading to conflicts between miners and the Ahwahnechee. In 1851 the Mariposa Battalion was formed to drive the remaining Ahwahnechee out of the valley into reservations. The Battalion fought an Ahwahnechee group led by Chief Tenaya over the South Fork of the Merced River. Eventually, they succeeded in driving most of the Indians out of the Yosemite Valley, first into a reservation near Fresno. Following the gold rush, the Ahwahnechee were allowed back into Yosemite Valley, but further incidents prompted a second battalion to drive them out, this time to the Mono Lake area. Many place names in the valley have their origin from the Mariposa Battalion.\n\nEven before the establishment of Yosemite National Park, tourists began to travel into the Merced Canyon and Yosemite Valley as early as 1855. The first roads were constructed into Yosemite Valley in the 1870s. The first was Coulterville Road, followed by Big Oak Flat Road, a trading route from Stockton to Merced Canyon. Environmental movements led by John Muir and Robert Underwood Johnson convinced the U.S. Congress to establish Yosemite National Park in 1890. With the creation of the national park tourism to the Valley and the Merced River increased significantly, leading to many other roads being built throughout the upper Merced River watershed. Other national forests protecting more of the Merced River upper basin followed, including Sierra National Forest and Stanislaus National Forest.\n\nThe Yosemite Valley Railroad, originally established with the discovery of mineral deposits in Yosemite Valley and Merced Canyon, continued functioning through the early 20th century carrying tourists to Yosemite Valley along the Merced River. El Portal Road, constructed through Merced Canyon in 1926, put an end to passenger service on the railway, but operations continued until the mid-1940s, when major flooding occurred, destroying sections of the railroad. In the early 20th century, when the upper Merced River basin lay mostly protected, the lower river was the subject of dam-building and irrigation diversions by the Merced Irrigation District. The District proposed the Exchequer Dam, completed in the mid-1920s and raised in the 1960s, as a water storage facility on the Merced River.\n\nIrrigation with water from the Merced River continued to grow substantially until most of the arable land around the river, some 120,000 acres (490 km<sup>2</sup>), was under cultivation. By the late 1950s and early 1960s, irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley was to such an extent that many of the rivers ran dry in sections. Upriver of the Merced River confluence with the San Joaquin, the latter river was usually dry, only regaining flow where the Merced River enters. In the mid-20th century, the flow in the Merced River diminished to such a degree that very few salmon returned to spawn in the lower section of the Merced River. In 1991, a fish hatchery, the Merced River Hatchery, was built beside the Merced River just downstream of the Crocker-Huffman Diversion Dam, the lowermost Merced River dam. Fall chinook salmon travel up a fish ladder into the hatchery's pools, which are supplied with water diverted from the Merced River.\n\nYosemite Valley saw significant amounts of damage when the river flooded the valley in 1997.\n\n## River modifications\n\nDespite its partial status as a National Wild and Scenic River, the Merced River has many dams and irrigation diversions. New Exchequer Dam is the largest dam on the river and forms Lake McClure, which holds 1,032,000 acre-feet (1.273×10<sup>9</sup> m<sup>3</sup>) of water for irrigation, flood control and hydropower generation. This modern structure was preceded by the old Exchequer Dam forming 281,000-acre-foot (347,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>) Exchequer Reservoir. The old concrete arch dam, completed in 1926, was flooded out when the new concrete-faced rockfill dam was built in 1967, but occasionally reappears during periods of low water.\n\nDownstream of New Exchequer Dam is McSwain Dam, which serves as a regulating forebay for New Exchequer Dam and also generates power. Below this dam is Merced Falls Dam, an irrigation diversion dam. The lowermost, the Crocker-Huffman Diversion Dam, was built in 1906 and completely blocks the passage of anadromous fish up the Merced River. Together, these diversions remove almost half the natural flow of the Merced River, and an even greater proportion during dry years.\n\nCascades Diversion Dam was a timber crib dam built in 1917 near where the Merced River flows out of Yosemite Valley. Originally built to generate hydropower, the dam was decommissioned in 1985 but remained standing for a number of years afterward. After the great flood of 1997, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation surveyed the dam and found it in danger of failure. Classified as a \"high hazard\" structure, it was originally considered for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places but was deemed too dangerous, and was subsequently removed. Today, the Merced River above Lake McClure is completely free-flowing and unobstructed by any dams.\n\nThe Merced Irrigation District (MID) operates most of the irrigation infrastructure on the lower river, which supplies water to 154,394 acres (624.81 km<sup>2</sup>) of farmland. As a whole, the system includes about 4,000 control gates and 793 miles (1,276 km) of canals and laterals. Irrigation has taken most of the water out of the lower river, which is often reduced to a small stream where it joins the San Joaquin. Irrigation return flows carry pesticides, fertilizer and other pollutants into the river. The MID is federally required to allow at least 15,000 acre-feet (19,000,000 m<sup>3</sup>) of water annually to flow continually down the river, not including floodwater releases.\n\n## Recreation\n\nThe Merced River and its tributaries are a popular recreational area in part because of Yosemite National Park. There are many activities within the watershed, including boating, fishing, camping and hiking. Whitewater rafting is permitted throughout Merced River Canyon from the downstream half of Yosemite Valley to the entrance of Lake McClure. The most difficult rapids in this segment rate Class III and Class IV, mostly upstream of El Portal. There is also boating on Lake McClure. Camping throughout the upper Merced watershed is generally only permitted in designated campgrounds. Campgrounds along the Merced River and its tributaries include ones at Railroad Flat, McCabe Flat, Willow Placer, Merced Lake, Vogelsang Lake, Sunrise Creek, May Lake, Bridalveil Creek, and a ski hut at Ostrander Lake, the source of Bridalveil Creek.\n\nThe name \"Railroad Flat\" originates from the Yosemite Valley Railroad, which once travelled up Merced River Canyon into Yosemite Valley. The old railroad grade still exists, and is now the site of a public trail. Many other trails lead throughout the Merced River watershed, notably the John Muir Trail, which starts near Happy Isles and climbs the Giant Staircase, past Vernal and Nevada Falls, into Little Yosemite Valley and north along Sunrise Creek to join the Pacific Crest Trail near Tuolumne Meadows. Trails also follow the river through Little Yosemite Valley to the headwaters area, and along Illilouette, Bridalveil, Yosemite, Alder and Chilnualna Creeks, and the lower South Fork of the Merced River. There are no trails along some segments, including the lower Bridalveil Creek, upper South Fork, and specifically Tenaya Canyon, which is extremely dangerous.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of rivers of California", "revid": "1169540937", "description": "River in California", "categories": ["Geography of the San Joaquin Valley", "Merced River", "Rivers of Mariposa County, California", "Rivers of Merced County, California", "Rivers of Northern California", "Rivers of Yosemite National Park", "Rivers of the Sierra Nevada (United States)", "Rivers of the Sierra Nevada in California", "Rivers with fish ladders", "Tributaries of the San Joaquin River", "Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States"]}
{"id": "41356995", "url": null, "title": "Rocket (Beyoncé song)", "text": "\"Rocket\" is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé from her fifth studio album, Beyoncé (2013). It was written by Miguel, Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, Jerome \"J-Roc\" Harmon and Beyoncé with the group of the latter three people also serving as its producers. Miguel initially conceived the song inspired by Beyoncé, trying to showcase her confidence and sexuality. Beyoncé revealed that \"Rocket\" was inspired by D'Angelo's \"Untitled (How Does It Feel)\" (2000) and felt it was one of her liberating songs meant to illustrate different sides of her personality.\n\n\"Rocket\" is a slowtempo soul, funk and R&B ballad which was frequently compared to the music of D'Angelo and Prince. It features explicit and metaphorical lyrics discussing frank female sexuality, a prominent theme present on Beyoncé. Lyrically, it sees Beyoncé addressing a male partner through sexual innuendos, adopting soft and sensual vocals.\n\nA music video for the song was directed by Beyoncé, Ed Burke and Bill Kirstein and released through Beyoncé itself on December 13, 2013. It was shot at The Standard, High Line hotel, New York City in black-and-white using a slow motion technique and features various shots of the singer, who appears dressed in lingerie for most of the time. Many critics considered it to be one of the most erotic clips on the entire album and praised its filming technique. At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards, Beyoncé performed \"Rocket\" during a medley consisting of songs from her fifth studio album. It was also a part of the setlist during The Formation World Tour (2016).\n\n## Background\n\n\"Rocket\" was written by Miguel, Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, Jerome \"J-Roc\" Harmon and Beyoncé for the latter's self-titled fifth studio album. It was produced by Beyoncé, Timbaland and Harmon, with the former also serving as the song's vocal producer. The track was recorded with guidance by Stuart White and Chris Godbey in Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios, both located in New York City. The engineering of \"Rocket\" was done by Ramon Rivas with assistance by Matt Weber. Chris Godbey finished the mixing and eventually, the mastering was done by Tom Coyne and Aya Merrill at Sterling Sound. Timberlake further provided background vocals.\n\nWhile working in the studio for her fifth studio album, Beyoncé demanded from Miguel to write a song in which nothing was \"off-limits\" and where he could push the envelope creatively. He recalled that they collaborated soon after she had had her first baby. Inside the studio, she told him, \"'Listen I feel so empowered at this time and place. You'll have to put me on a pedestal, like, never mind that it's Beyoncé. I wanna make music that makes me feel or shows that I feel hot and I'm confident and I wanna feel empowered because that's what I meant in my life'\". For the opening lines of the song, Miguel was inspired by the singer herself: \"What's the first thing I'd want Beyoncé to say to me, as a man? What have I not heard her say? That's where the song came from.\" He further noted that \"Rocket\" managed to showcase a new part of the singer which was confident, sexual and liberating at the same time.\n\nBeyoncé explained on her iTunes Radio channel that \"Rocket\" was one of the \"most sensual songs\", adding that it reminded her of the vibes of D'Angelo's song \"Untitled (How Does It Feel)\" (2000). The singer elaborated the concept behind the song during an album documentary filmed for Beyoncé, titled \"Honesty\", saying, \"Now I'm in my 30s, and those children that grew up listening to me have grown up, and I always felt like it was my responsibility to be aware of kids and their parents and all these generation\". With that said, the singer felt \"stifled\" and unable to express every feeling she wanted to show. However, she noted that with \"Rocket\", one of the most liberating songs on the record, she managed to express many of those feelings and show different sides of her personality. Revealing that she would not have been confident enough to record the song earlier in her career, Beyoncé noted, \"I kinda dropped that fourth wall and I did it\". The singer also discussed the meaning of the song by saying, \"What I love about this song is, it takes you through this journey. You're flirting and you're talking all of your arrogant s--t [sic]. Then you climax, and then you have your cigarette... This song actually is about singing from the heart, and harmonies and adlibs and arrangement\". During the same video, she praised Timberlake and Miguel's work; the clip also showed footage of Beyoncé recording the song in the studio.\n\n## Composition\n\n\"Rocket\" is a six and a half-minute track, the longest one on Beyoncé. It has a time signature of 6/8. It is a slow tempo ballad and explores elements of soul music, neo soul, funk and R&B. It was noted to be one of the album's retro songs. Houston Chronicle's Joey Guerra deemed the track an \"old-school R&B stunner\" filled with \"all swooping verses and steamy choruses\". Many critics found similarities to work by musician Prince. Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly described the track as a \"funk excursion\" similar to songs by Prince. Mike Divers from Clash magazine also felt that \"Rocket\" was reminiscent of Prince's \"funky prime\". Jon Pareles of The New York Times noted that the seductive track harks back to Prince's music with \"harmonies blossom[ing] all around Beyoncé's cooing lead vocal\". Julia Leconte of Now summarized the song's sound as a cross between music by D'Angelo during the late-90s and Usher during the early 2000s. Other critics noted \"Rocket\" to be a rehash and a homage of D'Angelo's work, particularly on his song \"Untitled (How Does It Feel)\". Claire Lobenfeld of Complex magazine found cues taken from \"Untitled\" in \"Rocket\" to the \"point of pop-facsimile\". Variety's Andrew Barker deemed the seductive, \"grinding\" \"Rocket\" a 2013 makeover of that song. In a review for The Quietus, Mof Gimmers concluded that the song followed up where Ciara's \"Body Party\" (2013) and R. Kelly's Black Panties (2013) finished.\n\nKeeping in line with the most prominent theme of Beyoncé, \"Rocket\" explores frank female sexuality. It opens with Beyoncé expressing feelings of lust in the first line, \"Let me sit this assssss  [sic] on ya\" for which she adopts a soft and sultry vocal style. She further sings about love-making with a male lover and the second line includes the lyrics: \"Let me take this off while you watch me / that's my'ass appeal\". It features explicit and metaphorical lyrics throughout and sees Beyoncé instructing her love interest to watch her perform a striptease. She further talks about how their evening together is going to proceed with lyrics such as \"If you like you can touch it babe, do you wanna touch it baby?\".\n\nWhile singing the lines \"So rock right up to the side of my mountain / Climb until you reach my peak babe my peak, the peak / And reach right into the bottom of my fountain\", Beyoncé uses sexual innuendos. She also incorporates similar double entendres and euphemisms in the lyrics, \"Reach right into the bottom of my fountain / dip me under to where you can feel my river flow / Rock it till water falls\". During the end of the song, Beyoncé sings the lines \"You rock hard / I rock steady\" eventually \"erupting into an orgasmic finish\" as stated by Puja Patel of Spin. During the last part, she sings \"Goddamnit, I'm comfortable in my skin / And you're comfortable in my skin\". It was noted that during the end of the song, the protagonist becomes ready to be sexually subordinate and \"discipline[d]\" as opposed to the first part where she adopted a more dominant persona; this is further exemplified in the lines \"Punish me, punish me please\" where Beyoncé uses soft vocals.\n\n## Critical reception\n\nJohn Kennedy from Vibe magazine opined it was impossible for a sexually active person not to feel an urge to invite their partner over upon hearing \"Rocket\". Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club compared the song's sexiness to that of \"Drunk in Love\" in a style of an \"overeager, pre-shower quickie\", calling both of them the singer's raunchiest and most romantic. Mike Diver of Clash felt surprised by Miguel's writing contribution mostly due to the sound showcased in the song. Now's Julia LeConte listed the song as the best on the entire album. Andy Kellman from AllMusic called \"Rocket\" the second best song on Beyoncé, deeming it an \"amusing mix of metaphorical and explicit come-ons\" with an \"elegant\" opening line. Similarly, Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone provided a positive review for the \"squishy\" tune where Beyoncé \"hits nasty highs\", further praising the first line as a nice song-opener. Jon Dolan of the same publication further praised it as the best opening line of the \"sumptuously asstastic\" track. In an article for Vulture, Jody Rosen viewed the song as \"teasingly slow and salacious\" and felt that its opening line was one of the best of all time. James Montgomery from MTV News regarded it as a \"slowed-down jam in the purest sense of the term\".\n\nWriters of Billboard magazine called \"Rocket\" a \"baby-making anthem\" in the vein of Zapp, which finds the singer \"fully equipped for the occasion\". Commenting it was \"a primer on what sex with Beyoncé is like\", Chris Bosman from the website Consequence of Sound concluded the track \"beats R. Kelly at his own game of pairing hyper-specific, 'so ridiculous they're incredible' bedroom euphemisms with the most classic of soul vibes\". Writer Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune noted that Beyoncé's voice turned into a \"lust-saturated choir\" on the track. Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times felt the \"sumptuous\" song provided a room for the singer to \"flex her impressive stylistic chops\". Jody Rosen in Vulture also described it as a \"sumptuous old-fashioned soul ballad, [which] goes down like a profiterole\". Ryan E.C. Hamm from Under the Radar advised people who thought D'Angelo's \"Untitled \" is \"the sexiest song ever\" to hear \"Rocket\". Lindsey Weber of Vulture considered it an ode to \"Untitled\" and summed it up as \"insanely sexy\". Editor Caitlin White writing for the website The 405 noted how the singer managed to reveal her true side in \"Rocket\" while making herself the dominant lover.\n\nPhilip Matusavage in a review for the musicOMH pointed out the lines \"you're the shit, that makes you my equivalent\" as re-appropriation of \"When I Get You Alone\" (2002) by singer Robin Thicke. Writing for Idolator, Mike Wass likened the song to material on B'Day (2006), and complemented it as a \"vocal tour de force with eye-popping, quotable lyrics\". BET's Latifah Muhammad used the words \"assertive, feminine, coy and direct\" to describe the track. Una Mullally of The Irish Times dubbed \"Rocket\" as \"simple and inoffensive\". Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast felt that Beyoncé managed to execute a modern Motown sound. Tris McCall of The Star-Ledger wrote that \"Rocket\" featured \"a thing or two to say about the irresistible siren call of her butt\". Claire Lobenfeld from Complex found \"Rocket\" to be more sultry than the rest of the songs on the album. Tim Finney of the same publication highlighted \"Rocket\" as a \"relatively classicist... sex romp slow jam\" and concluded, \"[it] gradually disintegrates into a loosely interwoven patchwork of faux-improvised exclamations and exhalations as Beyoncé determinedly roots out every possible voluptuous vocal angle on the song's preoccupations\".\n\nStereogum journalist Tom Breihan described \"Rocket\" as \"a squelchy, Prince-ly old-school sex-ballad\" in which the singer seemingly \"melt[s] into the track\". He stated that despite \"nothing remotely innovative about it... I can't remember the last time I heard a ballad of this type so completely fleshed-out and fully realized\". Ryan B. Patrick of Exclaim! noted that songs on the album, such as Rocket\", effectively display genre diversity, Beyoncé's vocal range and \"a penchant of musical experimentation\". Although describing it as a \"pitch-perfect rehash\" of \"Untitled\" and noting that it succeeded in turning Beyoncé's \"sex life into topography\", Fact's Chris Kelly felt \"Rocket\" was unnecessary on the album. Philip Cosores of Paste stated that the song was \"dragging on a minute or two too long\". Janice Llamoca from the website HipHopDX called it suitable for a bonus track on Timberlake's The 20/20 Experience (2013). Neil McCormick, writing for The Daily Telegraph criticized the song as a \"superflous\" [sic] cut meant for The 20/20 Experience. In the annual Pazz and Jop mass critics poll of the year's best in music in 2013, \"Rocket\" was ranked at number 424.\n\n## Music video\n\nThe music video for \"Rocket\" was directed by Beyoncé along with Ed Burke and Bill Kirstein. It was filmed at a room known as Hudson Studio in the hotel The Standard, High Line, located in Manhattan, New York City. Some of the scenes were also shot in the hotel's hallway while others were filmed at different locations. The visual was released on December 13, 2013 to iTunes Store on Beyoncé itself along with sixteen other music videos for every track on the album. On November 24, 2014 it was also uploaded to the singer's Vevo account. Todd Tourso, who served as the creative director for Beyoncé, revealed that while making the video, \"Rocket\" was altered to fit with its visual counterpart.\n\nDuring one scene in the video, Beyoncé is seen wearing a denim button-down top and a lace bra by retailer Agent Provocateur. In a commentary about the look, Joanna Nikas of The New York Times described her style as \"[a]t-[h]ome\". Neal Farinah, who worked as a stylist for the singer, elaborated that the team wanted to keep her hair long and wavy in order to portray sexuality and femininity. The video features various close-up shots of the singer throughout; she is seen writhing on a bed dressed in lingerie, eating strawberries, having a shower inside a bathtub, playing on a piano. Other scenes show various objects and Beyoncé walking along a corridor and lighting up a cigarette atop a car.\n\n### Reception\n\nA writer from the website E! Online felt that in the video, Beyoncé \"most certainly comes into her own\". Puja Patel of Spin regarded it as \"practically a tribute to her curves\". An editor for CTV News noted how the singer was seen hovering over a bed in an exorcist style. Kathy Iandoli from Vice remarked the same particular scenes for showing Beyoncé living in a matrix. Billie Cohen from the magazine Condé Nast Traveler noted that \"maybe one of the most memorable image\" from the visual album was when the singer was seen falling on a king-size bed in \"Rocket\". In what she perceived to be the best dance moves on the album, Lindsey Weber of Vulture listed the same scene. Considering it one of the most intimate videos on the entire record, Michael Zelenko from The Fader noted, \"In a collection full of erotic videos, 'Rocket,' with its heaving chests, bare thighs, bubble baths, and nails clawing at sheets, manages to stand apart as the steamiest of the bunch.\" Jody Rosen of The New York Times opined that the video featured mostly slow-motion pictures of \"billowing silk sheets and water droplets tumbling onto Beyoncé's bare midriff\". Neil McCormik from The Daily Telegraph noted the lack of subtlety during the scenes showing a power drill and Beyoncé \"shuddering with pleasure\". In another review, he labeled the clip as \"very naughty\".\n\nFuse writer Jason Newman called the clip an ode to D'Angelo and went on to state it worked as part underwear commercial, part shower commercial. Writing for the Italian edition of Vogue, Valentina Veneziano concluded that the video showcased Beyoncé's positive attitude portrayed through her laugh in \"Rocket\". Meghan O'Keefe from VH1 argued that the video was the first to focus on Beyoncé's \"voluptuous curve, toned muscle, raised goosebumps and bleached strands of bed head\". Brent DiCrescenzo from the magazine Time Out found influences by Madonna from her work on the album Erotica (1992) and the book Sex (1992). Vanity Fair reviewer Michelle Collins opined that the video opened with shots of Beyoncé on a bed to slightly change the overall feeling present on the album. Insanul Ahmed writing in Complex remarked that things \"get sensual\" in \"Rocket\"'s clip. Whitney Phaneuf of the website HitFix was more critical towards the visual, saying that it \"may be the sexiest video of the bunch, but it's achieved in such a conventional way that it ends up being boring\". On December 21, 2013, eight days following the release of the video for \"Rocket\", CTV News reported that the hotel where the clip was filmed would earn profit from the exposure in the album.\n\n## Live performances\n\n\"Rocket\" was performed live for the first time by Beyoncé during the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 25, as part of a medley consisting of songs from her self-titled album. For the rendition of the song, the singer danced atop a chair, surrounded by smoke on stage. She performed the same dance choreography seen in the music video for \"Partition\". Beyoncé was dressed in a jeweled bodysuit and performed \"Rocket\" as the seventh song on the set. Mike Wayers writing for The Wall Street Journal noted that the performance of the song was during the medley's \"sexiest part\". Following the song's live performance, its sales in the US increased by 584%. In 2016, \"Rocket\" was performed live throughout The Formation World Tour. During the track, a line of \"Untitled (How Does It Feel)\" was implemented and Beyoncé performed a chair dance.\n\n## Personnel\n\nCredits adapted from the album's liner notes and the singer's official website.\n\nSong credits\n\n- Writing – Miguel Jontel Pimentel, Beyoncé Knowles, Justin Timberlake, Timothy Mosley, Jerome Harmon, James Fauntleroy\n- Production – Timbaland, Knowles\n- Co-production – Harmon\n- Vocals production – Knowles\n- Recording – Stuart White, Chris Godbey; Jungle City Studios, Oven Studios, New York City\n- Second engineering – Ramon Rivas\n- Assistant engineering – Matt Weber\n- Background vocals – Beyoncé, Timberlake\n- Guitar – Mike Scott\n- Bass – Dwayne Wright\n- Audio mixing – Chris Godbey\n- Assistant mix engineering – Chris Cannon\n- Audio mastering – Tom Coyne, Aya Merrill; Sterling Sound, New York City\n\nVideo credits\n\n- Directors – Knowles, Ed Burke, Bill Kirstein\n- Directors of photography – Kirstein, Steve Romano, Jackson Hunt\n- Executive producers – Rob Galluzzo, Erinn Williams\n- Producers – Carly Hugo, Kirstein, Tracey-Lee Permall\n- Co-producer – Luke Kenny\n- Production companies – Loveless, Parkwood Entertainment\n- Stylists – Ty Hunter, Raquel Smith\n- Additional styling – Tim White\n- Production designer – Philip Dorling\n- Editor – Jonathan Wing\n- Brand manager – Melissa Vargas\n- Color correction – Ron Sudul\n- Visual effects – The Brigadem Alexander Moors\n- Assistant editors – Jonatán López, Joe Sinopoli\n- Photography – Robin Harper\n\n## Certifications", "revid": "1172711515", "description": "Song by Beyoncé", "categories": ["2010s ballads", "2013 songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Neo soul songs", "Song recordings produced by Beyoncé", "Song recordings produced by Jerome \"J-Roc\" Harmon", "Song recordings produced by Timbaland", "Songs written by Beyoncé", "Songs written by Jerome \"J-Roc\" Harmon", "Songs written by Justin Timberlake", "Songs written by Timbaland", "Soul ballads"]}
{"id": "1838957", "url": null, "title": "My All", "text": "\"My All\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth studio album, Butterfly (1997). It was released as the album's fifth single overall and second commercial single on April 21, 1998, by Columbia Records. The song was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff. \"My All\" is built around Latin guitar chord melodies, and makes subtle use of Latin percussion throughout the first chorus, before taking on a more conventional R&B-style beat. Carey was inspired to write the song and use Latin inspired melodies after a trip to Puerto Rico, where she was influenced by the culture. The song's lyrics tell of a lonely woman declaring she would give \"her all\" to have just one more night with her estranged lover. It is the first song Carey wrote for the Butterfly album.\n\nThe music video for the song was released in March 1998. It shows many scenes of Carey laying on a submerged vessel in a large body of water, while lamenting her lost lover. Towards the video's climax, Carey and her love interest climb atop a lighthouse and caress each other under the night's sky. \"My All\" was performed live on various occasions, including the 1998 World Music Awards and Blockbuster Entertainment Awards, Saturday Night Live, The Rosie O'Donnell Show and various European television and music chart programs. The song was also part of Carey's 1998 Butterfly World Tour, and was performed during many future tours and concerts. House music producer David Morales remixed the song, which was performed live as a medley with the original.\n\n\"My All\" received acclaim from music critics and charted strongly throughout various music markets. In the United States, the song became Carey's thirteenth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100, and was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Throughout Europe, the song performed moderately, peaking at number four in the United Kingdom and in the top ten in Belgium (Wallonia), France, Spain and Switzerland. In France, due to strong sales, the song was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP).\n\n## Background\n\nCarey began writing and composing themes for Butterfly by the end of 1996. She considered this period in time to be a \"redefining moment for herself,\" as she began making the music she truly loved, R&B and hip hop. Additionally, Carey began incorporating other musical genres into her songwriting, assisting her in developing new ideas and melodies. Carey expressed how the mixed emotions she felt at that point in her life helped develop the song, as she would \"pour herself and emotions into anything she was writing at the time.\" In an interview with Fred Bronson, Carey expressed how a visit to Puerto Rico and the current emotions in her life inspired her to write \"My All\":\n\n> I had gone to Puerto Rico and was influenced by Latin music at that moment. When I came back, the melody was in my head. It was at a melancholy point in my life and the song reflects the yearning that was going on inside of me. It was like being in a situation but you want to break free and you can't, so you're confined yet you're releasing those emotions through the lyrics and the actual act of singing. That's why think a lot of people felt very strongly about that song, because the emotion is clear when you listen to it.\n\nCarey began to infuse her personality into her work, something that showed throughout various tracks. During her stay, she was influenced by the Latin culture, and began harmonizing and singing the music she heard there. When she arrived back to New York, she already had the melody developed, and soon began working on the song in San Francisco with Afanasieff.\n\nIn her 2020 memoir, The Meaning of Mariah Carey, Carey revealed how \"My All\" was also inspired by a secret romantic rendezvous she and baseball player Derek Jeter had during her time in Puerto Rico.\n\n## Recording\n\nCarey and Afanasieff had worked together since her debut album in 1990. Together, they had written some of Carey's biggest hits at the time, including \"Hero\" and \"One Sweet Day.\" \"My All\" would be the last time the two would collaborate, as he is absent from the writing credits in her follow-up album, Rainbow (1999). During the recording of the song, Carey and then-husband Tommy Mottola were in the midst of their divorce. Afanasieff, who had developed relationships with the two of them, was caught in the middle. He spoke of the difficulties he had recording \"My All\" with Carey, as their relationship had already strained during the divorce. Afanasieff had been employed by Mottola and Columbia Records, and had worked extensively with Carey in the studio. In an interview with Fred Bronson, Afanasieff spoke in depth of the personal problems he experienced with Carey in 1997:\n\n> I needed to maintain a very strong relationship with Tommy [Mottola]. During that period, the beginning of their end, I had to stay away more than normal from her because she was going through a rough time. She felt that shutting her relationship with Tommy was also a cleansing of who she was. She felt that part of what she was dropping was the shmaltzy pop singer ballad kind of stuff he was adamant about. I had to make my exit and say 'Mariah, you need to redefine yourself, that's fine. I'm here doing what I do and if and when you want to come back and do it again, I'm here.\n\n\"My All\" was written in Carey's home-studio in upstate New York, and was recorded in Afanasieff's recording studio in San Francisco. After she presented him with the melody she had developed in Puerto Rico, he began playing chords on the piano, while Carey sang the tune and directed him. After they produced the chorus, Carey wrote the lyrics, while he added a drum groove to the basic melody. According to Afanasieff, \"My All\" had tapped into both their Latin backgrounds. While she hadn't spent much time with her Venezuelan paternal grandfather, Carey said the music was \"definitely subconsciously in me.\" On the other hand, Afanasieff was born in Brazil, and had heard Russian and Brazilian music his whole life. In an interview with Fred Bronson, Afanasieff described the steps they took to record the song:\n\n> I remember being in the back part of the studio, and we were sitting there late at night and writing. I was strolling through some sounds and came upon a particular sound from a steel acoustic guitar. I played these really beautiful chord changes that eventually led to 'My All.' She started singing and I started playing, and we came up with the basis for the song. I put a little drum groove down and it was one of the easier songs to write with her.\n\n## Composition\n\n\"My All\" is a slow-tempo ballad, that blends contemporary R&B beats and Latin guitar and chord melodies, making subtle use of Latin percussion in the first chorus. The song is described as having a \"lush sound\" and featured synthetic guitar arpeggios that were produced in the studio. \"My All\" was compared to Toni Braxton's music style, described as \"slink, slow-jam R&B sounds.\" The song is set in signature common time and written in the key of G minor. It features a basic chord progression of Gm-Cm-D7-Gm. Carey's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B<sub>2</sub> to the high note of F<sub>5</sub>, with the piano and guitar pieces range from G3 to G5. The track was very different than anything Carey had ever recorded, incorporating strong \"Latin cultured background.\" The instrumentation and vocal arrangement used in the song was compared to Kenneth \"Babyface\" Edmonds' productions, due to its \"soft R&B coos and guitar melodies.\"\n\n## Critical reception\n\n\"My All\" received acclaim from music critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic chose the song as one of the three \"track choices\" from the album. Daryl Easlea for BBC said it \"encapsulates her more traditional, straight ballad approach with Latin overtones.\" Larry Flick from Billboard praised the song, calling it an \"anthemic gem.\" He also described it as \"sparkling with a house flavor that's mildly reminiscent of Toni Braxton's landmark 'Un-break My Heart'.\" While reviewing the album, Flick also reviewed the Morales remix, writing \"Morales straddles the fence between underground aggression and pop-radio fluff with deceptive ease, crafting a track anchored with a muscular bassline and embellished with vibrant synths. It's 10 minutes of pure disco bliss.\" David Browne from Entertainment Weekly praised the song's instrumentation, noting \"with its gently plucked guitars, is the best Babyface track Babyface never produced.\" Another editor, Mark Bautz, felt it stand up as one of \"the best pop tunes of the '90s.\" In 2018, the magazine described it as a \"let-the-candles-burn\" ballad \"put through a slow-burn flamenco filter and zhuzhed up with some serious sensuality and Spanish guitar.\" A reviewer from The Hartford Courant wrote that Carey's voice \"flows like molasses, accompanied by a lead guitar in the sexy \"My All\".\" Virginian Pilot declared the song as a \"lush pop ballad\" that has been \"tailor-made\" for Carey. Richard Harrington from The Washington Post felt it's \"another yearning ballad with Babyface-style romantic extremism\".\n\n## Chart performance\n\nAlthough \"My All\" was the fifth single released from Butterfly, it was only the second commercial worldwide release. The song debuted at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart behind Next's \"Too Close\" with 21 million radio airplay audience impressions and sales of 122,000 units. According to Billboard, the single was \"deeply discounted\". It eventually became Carey's 13th chart topper in the United States, placing her in fourth place for most number ones in the US. Also, it gave Carey the honor of having the most number ones for a female artist. It stayed atop the Hot 100 for one week, and was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over two million units. \"My All\" peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, and eighteen on the Adult Contemporary chart. It finished number seventeen on the Billboard end of year chart, and ninety-nine on the end of decade chart. In Canada, the song entered the Canadian RPM Chart at number 89 during the week of May 18, 1998. In its fifth week, the song peaked at number 28, spending 16 weeks in the chart before exiting the week of August 31.\n\n\"My All\" performed weakly in Australia, peaking at number 39 while spending only two weeks on the ARIA Top-40. In Belgium (Wallonia), it peaked at number nine, and spent 14 weeks on the Ultratop singles chart. The song performed well in France, peaking at number six and spending 24 weeks fluctuating in the French singles chart. \"My All\" was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP), denoting shipments of 125,000 units throughout France. The song performed moderately in Ireland, peaking at number 21, and spending seven weeks on the Irish Singles Chart. In Norway and Sweden, it peaked at numbers 14 and 15, respectively. The song charted well in Switzerland, spending 21 weeks in the top-100, and peaking at number seven. In the United Kingdom, 'My All\" debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart on June 13, 1998, the highest new entry of the week. The song spent eight weeks on the singles chart, until the week of August 1, 1998, where it dropped outside the top-100. Sales in the UK are estimated at 160,000 units.\n\n## Remixes and other versions\n\n\"My All\" features two remixes: the first is a contemporary R&B version titled, \"My All/Stay Awhile\" (So So Def Remix). Carey re-recorded her vocals for the song, while building it around a sample from the Loose Ends song \"Stay a Little While, Child.\" Carey's vocal interpolation blends the first verse and chorus of \"My All\" with the verse and chorus of \"Stay a Little While, Child.\" It was produced by Jermaine Dupri and features raps from Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz. The single also features a version without any rap verses. The second remix is a dance version mixed by David Morales. The dance remix is known as the Classic Club Mix; it was Carey's first collaboration with Morales that did not feature entirely new vocals. Consequently, the song is fairly close to the original chord progressions of the album version, though some new vocals were added. The remix was performed live as a medley with the original during many of Carey's live concert tours.\n\nCarey recorded a Spanish version of \"My All\" titled, \"Mi Todo.\" Unlike with \"Hero\" (1993) and \"Open Arms\" (1995), Carey recorded the Spanish version of the song in a different key from the original English version. The first line of the song had been mistranslated and was grammatically incorrect. Carey later mentioned on her website that she would no longer record Spanish versions of her songs until she could verify the correct lyrics and pronunciation. \"Mi Todo\" was remixed as well, however only being released as a promotional single in Mexico.\n\n## Music videos\n\n\"My All\" and the \"My All/Stay Awhile\" (So So Def Remix) featured different music videos. The video for \"My All\" was shot entirely in black and white in Puerto Rico, and was directed by fashion photographer Herb Ritts. The video begins with Carey lying on an overturned vessel on a beach, staring into the night sky, lamenting her estranged lover. As the scenes progress, Carey's love interest is seen atop a lighthouse in the middle of the ocean, searching for his lost companion. Further scenes show Carey laying on a large conch shell, wet and vulnerable. Soon after, she begins walking on a path of large white flowers, until she reaches the top of the lighthouse where she is rejoined with her lover. After the song's second verse, Carey and the man begin caressing each other, and embracing atop the lighthouse. After they share an intimate moment, Carey is shown walking back on the trail of white flowers, smiling and happy. The scenes of Carey lying in the shell and in front of the flowers were inspired by Sandro Botticelli's painting The Birth of Venus. According to author Chris Nickson, the snippets of Carey on the overturned vessel showed her vulnerability without her loved one, truly highlighting the yearning emphasized in the song. Sony Music Video released \"My All\" on VHS on April 21, 1998; it peaked at number six on the US Billboard Music Video Sales chart and sold 6,000 copies by June of that year according to Nielsen SoundScan.\n\nA music video was also filmed for the So So Def remix. Directed by Diane Martel, it was shot in a grainy fashion to simulate a home video. The video features cameo appearances by Dupri, Tariq and Gunz. It begins with scenes of Carey and Dupri at a small in-home gathering, lounging and enjoying each other's company. As the video progresses, the other two featured hip-hop musicians appear at the house, alongside various other guests. They begin to dance to music, while sipping on cocktails by the pool. As the video reaches its climax, scenes of Carey singing in an outdoor garden are shown, while the others join her on the pool deck.\n\n## Live performances\n\n\"My All\" was performed on several live television appearances, as well as most of Carey's tours following the song's release. Carey first sang \"My All\" on Saturday Night Live on November 15, 1997. The performance featured guitar player. Later, Carey performed the song at the 1998 World Music Awards, completing both the original and dance remix as a medley. The performance was via-satellite from Carey's tour at the time, which was broadcast onto a large screen. At the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards in 1998, Carey sang the original version of the song, featuring a full orchestra and live backup vocals.\n\nCarey was one of the five featured performers at the 1998 VH1 Divas, where she sang \"My All\" as well as the dance remix. The song was performed on the British music chart program, Top of the Pops, where a live medley of the original and dance versions were performed. \"My All\" was performed during Carey's Butterfly World Tour in 1998. For the performances in Japan, Carey featured a Latin guitarist and backing vocals. The guitarist was present during the song's recital throughout the entire tour, replacing the orchestra used during her television appearances. For the shows, Carey wore a beige outfit, with varying hairstyles. Neither remix version was performed during the tour.\n\nFor her Rainbow World Tour (2000) Carey performed the original version of the song, once again featuring the orchestra and live female background vocals. 2 years later on December 7, 2002, Carey performed the original version of \"My All\" in front of a crowd of 50,000 people, at the closing ceremony concert of the Mexican Teletón, which took place in the country's Azteca Stadium. Since the Charmbracelet World Tour in 2004, Carey has not performed the full version of the original, substituting it for the dance remix after the second verse. During the shows in the Adventures of Mimi tour, Carey donned a black bikini and matching cape, while featuring one male and two female background singers. On the Angels Advocate Tour (2010), she performed the original and dance remix versions, wearing a red outfit while performing the song seated. Again, the original and dance remix was performed as a medley, featuring the same backup from the previous tour. After completing the song, Carey was whisked away by a shirtless male dancer, and carried off the stage for a costume change, as the back-up continued into the dance version.\n\n## Cover versions\n\nOn February 25, 2014, Alisa Kozhikina, the representative of Russia to the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014, won in the Grand Finals of Golos Deti, the Russian kids' edition of The Voice, performing a Russian version of the song called \"Vsyo\". In 2020, Australian singer Greg Gould recorded a Spanglish version as a duet with Emily Williams for his album 1998.\n\n## Formats and track listings\n\n- US CD single\n\n1. \"My All\" – 3:51\n2. \"Breakdown\" – 4:58\n\n- US CD maxi single /My All/Breakdown EP\n\n1. \"My All\" (Album Version) – 3:51\n2. \"My All\" (Classic Club Mix) – 9:06\n3. \"Breakdown\" (The Mo Thugs Remix) – 4:58\n4. \"The Roof\" (Remix With Mobb Deep) – 5:29\n5. \"Fly Away\" (Fly Away Club Mix) – 9:50\n\n- US CD and 12-inch maxi single\n\n1. \"My All/Stay Awhile\" (So So Def Mix With Lord Tariq & Peter Gunz) – 4:33\n2. \"My All/Stay Awhile\" (So So Def Mix Without Rap) – 3:46\n3. \"My All\" (Morales My Club Mix) – 7:08\n4. \"My All\" (Morales Def Club Mix) – 7:16\n5. \"The Roof\" (Morales Funky Club Mix) – 8:28\n\n- My All EP\n\n1. \"My All / Stay Awhile\" (So So Def Remix) – 4:45\n2. \"My All / Stay Awhile\" (So So Def Remix without Rap) – 3:34\n3. \"My All\" (Full Crew Radio Mix) – 3:59\n4. \"My All\" (Classic Radio Club Mix) – 4:17\n5. \"My All\" (Morales \"My\" Club Mix) – 7:11\n6. \"My All\" (Morales \"Def\" Club Mix) – 7:17\n7. \"My All\" (Morales Classic Club Mix) – 9:15\n8. \"My All\" (VH1 Divas Live) – 5:28\n\n- European CD maxi single\n\n1. \"My All\" (Album Version) – 3:51\n2. \"My All\" (Morales Classic Radio Mix) – 4:21\n3. \"My All\" (Morales Classic Club Mix) – 9:06\n4. \"My All\" (Full Crew Main Mix) – 4:40\n5. \"My All\" (Full Crew Radio Mix) – 3:57\n\n- US 12-inch single\n\n1. \"My All\" (Classic Club Mix) – 9:06\n2. \"The Roof\" (Mobb Deep Mix) – 5:29\n3. \"Breakdown\" (The Mo'Thugs Remix) – 4:58\n4. \"Fly Away\" (Butterfly Reprise) (Fly Away Club Mix) – 9:50\n\n- European 12-inch single\n\n1. \"My All\" (Classic Club Mix) – 9:06\n2. \"My All\" (My Club Mix) – 7:08\n3. \"My All\" (Album Version) – 3:51\n4. \"My All\" (Classic Radio Club Mix) – 4:15\n\n- Mariah en Español'' EP\n\n1. \"Héroe\" – 4:17\n2. \"El Amor Que Soñé\" – 3:29\n3. \"Mi Todo\" – 3:51\n4. \"Mi Todo\" (Versión Por Una Noche Más) – 3:25\n5. \"Mi Todo\" (Versión Mi Fiesta) – 4:30\n6. \"Mi Todo\" (Por Una Noche Más En Los Clubs) – 7:04\n7. \"Mi Todo\" (Por Una Noche Más Instrumental) – 3:24\n\n## Credits and personnel\n\nCredits and personnel are adapted from the Butterfly'' liner notes.\n\nRecording\n\n- Recorded at Crave Studios (New York City), WallyWorld (California) and The Hit Factory (New York City)\n- Mixed at Crave Studios (New York City)\n- Mastered at Gateway Mastering (Portland, Maine)\n\nManagement\n\n- Published by Sony/ATV Songs LLC, Rye Songs (BMI)/Sony/ATV Tunes LLC and WallyWorld Music\n- All rights administered by Sony/ATV Music Publishing\n\nPersonnel\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n### Decade-end charts\n\n## Certifications and sales\n\n## Release history\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1998", "revid": "1170363062", "description": "1998 single by Mariah Carey", "categories": ["1990s ballads", "1997 songs", "1998 singles", "Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles", "Black-and-white music videos", "Columbia Records singles", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical", "Latin pop songs", "Mariah Carey songs", "Music videos directed by Diane Martel", "Music videos directed by Herb Ritts", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Walter Afanasieff", "Songs written by Mariah Carey", "Songs written by Walter Afanasieff", "Sony Music singles", "Torch songs"]}
{"id": "577221", "url": null, "title": "1971 San Fernando earthquake", "text": "The 1971 San Fernando earthquake (also known as the 1971 Sylmar earthquake) occurred in the early morning of February 9 in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains in southern California. The unanticipated thrust earthquake had a magnitude of 6.5 on the scale and 6.6 on the scale, and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The event was one in a series that affected Los Angeles county in the late 20th century. Damage was locally severe in the northern San Fernando Valley and surface faulting was extensive to the south of the epicenter in the mountains, as well as urban settings along city streets and neighborhoods. Uplift and other effects affected private homes and businesses.\n\nThe event affected a number of health-care facilities in Sylmar, San Fernando, and other densely populated areas north of central Los Angeles. The Olive View Medical Center and Veterans Hospital both experienced very heavy damage, and buildings collapsed at both sites, causing the majority of deaths that occurred. The buildings at both facilities were constructed with mixed styles, but engineers were unable to thoroughly study the buildings' responses because they were not outfitted with instruments for recording strong ground motion; this prompted the Veterans Administration to later install seismometers at its high-risk sites. Other sites throughout the Los Angeles area had been instrumented as a result of local ordinances, and an unprecedented amount of strong motion data was recorded, more so than any other event up until that time. The success in this area spurred the initiation of California's Strong Motion Instrumentation Program.\n\nTransportation around the Los Angeles area was severely afflicted with roadway failures and the partial collapse of several major freeway interchanges. The near total failure of the Lower Van Norman Dam resulted in the evacuation of tens of thousands of downstream residents, though an earlier decision to maintain the water at a lower level may have contributed to saving the dam from being overtopped. Schools were affected, as they had been during the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, but this time amended construction styles improved the outcome for the thousands of school buildings in the Los Angeles area. Another result of the event involved the hundreds of various types of landslides that were documented in the San Gabriel Mountains. As had happened following other earthquakes in California, legislation related to building codes was once again revised, with laws that specifically addressed the construction of homes or businesses near known active fault zones.\n\n## Tectonic setting\n\nThe San Gabriel Mountains are a 37.3 mi (60.0 km) long portion of the Transverse Ranges and are bordered on the north by the San Andreas Fault, on the south by the Cucamonga Fault, and on the southwest side by the Sierra Madre Fault. The San Bernardino, Santa Ynez, and Santa Monica Mountains are also part of the anomalous east–west trending Transverse Ranges. The domain of the ranges stretches from the Channel Islands offshore to the Little San Bernardino Mountains, 300 miles (480 km) to the east. The frontal fault system at the base of the San Gabriel Mountains extends from the San Jacinto Fault Zone in the east to offshore Malibu in the west, and is defined primarily by moderate to shallow north-dipping faults, with a conservative vertical displacement estimated at 4,000–5,000 feet (1,200–1,500 m).\n\nPaleomagnetic evidence has shown that the western Transverse Ranges were formed as the Pacific Plate moved northward relative to the North American Plate. As the plate shifted to the north, a portion of the terrane that was once parallel with the coast was rotated in a clockwise manner, which left it positioned in its east–west orientation. The Transverse Ranges form the perimeter of a series of basins that begins with the Santa Barbara Channel on the west end. Moving eastward, there is the Ventura Basin, the San Fernando Valley, and the San Gabriel Basin, with active reverse faults (San Cayetano, Red Mountain, Santa Susana, and Sierra Madre) all lining the north boundary. A small number of damaging events have occurred, with three in Santa Barbara (1812, 1925, and 1978) and two in the San Fernando Valley (1971 and 1994), though other faults in the basin that have high Quaternary slip rates have not produced any large earthquakes.\n\n## Earthquake\n\nThe San Fernando earthquake occurred on February 9, 1971, at 6:00:41 am Pacific Standard Time (14:00:41 UTC) with a strong ground motion duration of about 12 seconds as recorded by seismometers, although the whole event was reported to have lasted about 60 seconds. The origin of faulting was located five miles north of the San Fernando Valley. Considerable damage was seen in localized portions of the valley and also in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains above the fault block. The fault that was responsible for the movement was not one that had been considered a threat, and this highlighted the urgency to identify other similar faults in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The shaking surpassed building code requirements and exceeded what engineers had prepared for, and although most dwellings in the valley had been built in the prior two decades, even modern earthquake-resistant structures sustained serious damage.\n\nSeveral key attributes of the event were shared with the 1994 Northridge earthquake, considering both were brought about by thrust faults in the mountains north of Los Angeles, and each resulting earthquake being similar in magnitude, though no surface rupture occurred in 1994. Since both occurred in urban and industrial areas and resulted in significant economic impairment, each event drew critical observation from planning authorities, and has been thoroughly studied in the scientific communities.\n\n### Surface faulting\n\nProminent surface faulting trending N72°W was observed along the San Fernando Fault Zone from a point south of Sylmar, stretching nearly continuously for 6 miles (9.7 km) east to the Little Tujunga Canyon. Additional breaks occurred farther to the east that were in a more scattered fashion, while the western portion of the most affected area had less pronounced scarps, especially the detached Mission Wells segment. Although the complete Sierra Madre Fault Zone had previously been mapped and classified by name into its constituent faults, the clusters of fault breaks provided a natural way to identify and refer to each section. As categorized during the intensive studies immediately following the earthquake, they were labeled the Mission Wells segment, Sylmar segment, Tujunga segment, Foothills area, and the Veterans fault.\n\nAll segments shared the common elements of thrust faulting with a component of left-lateral slip, a general east–west strike, and a northward dip, but they were not unified with regard to their connection to the associated underlying bedrock. The initial surveyors of the extensive faulting in the valley, foothills, and mountains reported only tectonic faulting, while excluding fissures and other features that arose from the effects of compaction and landslides. In the vicinity of the Sylmar Fault segment, there was a low possibility of landslides due to a lack of elevation change, but in the foothills and mountainous area a large amount of landslides occurred and more work was necessary to eliminate the possibility of misidentifying a feature. Along the hill fronts of the Tujunga segment, some ambiguous formations were present because some scarps may have had influence from downhill motion, but for the most part they were tectonic in nature.\n\nIn repeated measurements of the different fault breaks, the results remained consistent, leading to the belief that most of the slip had occurred during the mainshock. While lateral, transverse, and vertical motions were all observed, the largest individual component of movement was 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) of left lateral slip near the middle of the Sylmar segment. The largest cumulative amount of slip of 6 feet 7 inches (2.01 m) occurred along the Sylmar and Tujunga segments. The overall fault displacement was summarized by geologist Barclay Kamb and others as \"nearly equal amounts of north–south compression, vertical uplift (north side up), and left lateral slip and hence may be described as a thrusting of a northern block to the southwest over a southern block, along a fault surface dipping about 45° north.\"\n\n### Landslides\n\nThe USGS commissioned a private company and the United States Air Force to take aerial photographs over 97 sq mi (250 km<sup>2</sup>) of the mountainous areas north of the San Fernando Valley. Analysis revealed that the earthquake triggered over 1,000 landslides. Highly shattered rock was also documented along the ridge tops, and rockfalls (which continued for several days) were the result of both the initial shock and the aftershocks. Few of the slides that were logged from the air were also observed from the ground. The greatest number of slides were centered to the southwest of the mainshock epicenter and close to the areas where surface faulting took place. The slides ranged from 49–984 feet (15–300 m) in length, and could be further categorized as rock falls, soil falls, debris slides, avalanches, and slumps. The most frequently encountered type of slide was the surficial (less than 3 feet (0.91 m) thick) debris slides and were most often encountered on terrain consisting of sedimentary rock.\n\n### Strong motion\n\nIn early 1971, the San Fernando Valley was the scene of a dense network of strong-motion seismometers, which provided a total of 241 seismograms. This made the earthquake the most documented event, at the time, in terms of strong-motion seismology; by comparison, the 1964 Alaska earthquake did not provide any strong motion records. Part of the reason there were so many stations to capture the event was a 1965 ordinance that required newly constructed buildings in Beverly Hills and Los Angeles over six stories in height to be outfitted with three of the instruments. This stipulation ultimately found its way into the Uniform Building Code as an appendix several years later. One hundred seventy-five of the recordings came from these buildings, another 30 were on hydraulic structures, and the remainder were from ground-based installations near faults, including an array of the units across the San Andreas Fault.\n\nThe instrument that was installed at the Pacoima Dam recorded a peak horizontal acceleration of 1.25 g, a value that was twice as large as anything ever seen from an earthquake. The extraordinarily high acceleration was just one part of the picture, considering that duration and frequency of shaking also play a role in how much damage can occur. The accelerometer was mounted on a concrete platform on a granite ridge just above one of the arch dam's abutments. Cracks formed in the rocks and a rock slide came within 15 feet (4.6 m) of the apparatus, and the foundation remained undamaged, but a small (half-degree) tilt of the unit was discovered that was apparently responsible for closing the horizontal pendulum contacts. As a result of what was considered a fortunate accident, the machine kept recording for six minutes (until it ran out of paper) and provided scientists with additional data on 30 of the initial aftershocks.\n\n## Damage\n\nThe areas that were affected by the strongest shaking were the outlying communities north of Los Angeles that are bounded by the northern edge of the San Fernando Valley at the base of the San Gabriel Mountains. The unincorporated districts of Newhall, Saugus, and Solemint Junction had moderate damage, even to newer buildings. The area where the heaviest effects were present was limited by geographical features on the three remaining margins, with the Santa Susana Mountains on the west, the Santa Monica Mountains and the Los Angeles River to the south, and along the Verdugo Mountains to the east. Loss of life that was directly attributable to the earthquake amounted to 58 (a number of heart attacks and other health-related deaths were not included in this figure). Most deaths occurred at the Veterans and Olive View hospital complexes, and the rest were located at private residences, the highway overpass collapses, and a ceiling collapse at the Midnight Mission in downtown Los Angeles.\n\nThe damage was greatest near and well north of the surface faulting, and at the foot of the mountains. The hospital buildings, the freeway overpasses, and the Sylmar Juvenile Hall were on coarse alluvium that overlay thousands of feet of loosely consolidated sedimentary material. In the city of San Fernando, underground water, sewer, and gas systems suffered breaks too numerous to count, and some sections were so badly damaged that they were abandoned. Ground displacement damaged sidewalks and roads, with cracks in the more rigid asphalt and concrete often exceeding the width of the shift in the underlying soil. Accentuated damage near alluvium had been documented during the investigation of the effects of the 1969 Santa Rosa earthquakes. A band of similarly intense damage further away near Ventura Boulevard at the southern end of the valley was also identified as having been related to soil type.\n\nFederal, county, and private hospitals suffered varying degrees of damage, with four major facilities in the San Fernando Valley suffering structural damage, and two of those collapsing. The Indian Hills Medical Center, the Foothill Medical Building, and the Pacoima Lutheran Professional building were heavily damaged. Nursing homes also were affected. The one-story Foothill Nursing Home sat very close to a section of the fault that broke the surface and was raised up three feet higher than the street. Scarps ran along the sidewalk and across the property. The building was not in use and remained standing. Though the reinforced concrete block structure was afflicted by the shock and uplift, the relatively good performance was in stark contrast to that of the Olive View and Veterans Hospital complexes.\n\n### Olive View Hospital\n\nMost of the buildings at the Los Angeles County–owned, 880-bed hospital complex had been built before the adoption of new construction techniques that had been put in place after the 1933 Long Beach earthquake. The group of one-story structures 300 feet west of the new facility, and some other buildings, were not damaged. The damaged buildings variously were wood-frame and masonry structures. The five-story, reinforced-concrete Medical Treatment and Care Building was one of three new additions to the complex (all three of which sustained damage), was assembled with earthquake-resistant construction techniques, and was completed in December 1970. The hospital was staffed by 98 employees and had 606 patients at the time of the earthquake; all three deaths that occurred at the Olive View complex were in this building. Two deaths were due to power failure of life-support systems and one employee was struck by part of the collapsing building while trying to exit the building.\n\nThe Medical Treatment and Care Building included a basement that was exposed (above grade) on the east and south sides, mixed (above and below grade) on the west side, and below grade on the north side of the building, the variation being due to the shallow slope at the site. The complete structure, including the four external staircases, could be considered five separate buildings, because the stair towers were detached from the main building by about four inches. Earthquake bracing used in the building's second through fifth floors consisted of shear walls, but a rarely used slip joint technique used with the concrete walls at the first floor kept them from being part of that system. Damage to the building, including ceiling tiles, telephone equipment, and elevator doors, was excessive at the basement and the first floor, with little damage further up. The difference in rigidity at the second floor was proposed as a cause of the considerable damage to the lower levels. Because the first floor almost collapsed, the building was leaning to the north by almost two feet, and three of the four concrete stair towers fell away from the main building.\n\nOn the grounds, there were cracks in the pavement and soil, but no surface faulting. In addition to the collapse of the stairways, the elevators were out of commission. Electrical power and communications failed at the hospital at the time of the earthquake, but very few people occupied the lower floors and the stairways at the early hour. Casualties in these highly affected areas might have increased had the shock occurred later in the day. The duration of strong ground motion at that location was probably similar to the 12 seconds observed at the Pacoima Dam, and it is thought that another few seconds' shaking might have been enough to bring the building to collapse.\n\n### Veterans Administration Hospital\n\nThe Veterans Administration Hospital entered into service as a tuberculosis hospital in 1926 and became a general hospital in the 1960s. By 1971, the facility comprised 45 individual buildings, all lying within 5 km (3.1 mi) of the fault rupture in Sylmar, but the structural damage was found to have occurred as a result of the shaking and not from ground displacement or faulting. Twenty-six buildings that were built prior to 1933 had been constructed following the local building codes and did not require seismic-resistant designs. These buildings suffered the most damage, with four buildings totally collapsing, which resulted in a large loss of life at the facility. Most of the masonry and reinforced concrete buildings constructed after 1933 withstood the shaking and most did not collapse, but in 1972 a resolution came forth to abandon the site and the remaining structures were later demolished, the site becoming a city park.\n\nFew strong motion seismometer installations were present outside of the western United States prior to the San Fernando earthquake but, upon a recommendation by the Earthquake and Wind Forces Committee, the Veterans Administration entered into an agreement with the Seismological Field Service (then associated with NOAA) to install the instruments at all VA sites in Uniform Building Code zones two and three. It had been established that these zones had a higher likelihood of experiencing strong ground acceleration, and the plan was made to furnish the selected VA hospitals with two instruments. One unit would be installed within the structure and the second would be set up as a free-field unit located a short distance away from the facility. As of 1973, a few of the highest risk (26 were completed in zone 3 alone) sites that had been completed were in Seattle, Memphis, Charleston, and Boston.\n\n### Van Norman Dam\n\nBoth the Upper and Lower Van Norman Dams were severely damaged as a result of the earthquake. The lower dam was very close to breaching, and approximately 80,000 people were evacuated for four days while the water level in the reservoir was lowered. This was done as a precaution to accommodate further collapse due to a strong aftershock. Some canals in the area of the dams were damaged and not usable, and dikes experienced slumping but these did not present a hazard. The damage at the lower dam consisted of a landslide that dislocated a section of the embankment. The earthen lip of the dam fell into the reservoir and brought with it the concrete lining, while what remained of the dam was just 5 feet (1.5 m) above the water level. The upper lake subsided 3 feet (0.91 m) and was displaced about 5 feet (1.5 m) as a result of the ground movement, and the dam's concrete lining cracked and slumped.\n\nThe upper dam was constructed in 1921 with the hydraulic fill process, three years after the larger lower dam, which was fabricated using the same style. An inspection of the lower dam in 1964 paved the way towards an arrangement between the State of California and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power that would maintain the reservoir's water level that was reduced 10 feet lower than was typical. Since the collapse of the dam lowered its overall height, the decision to reduce its capacity proved to be a valuable bit of insurance.\n\nDifferential ground motion and strong shaking (MMI VIII (Severe)) were responsible for serious damage to the Sylmar Juvenile Hall facility and the Sylmar Converter Station (both located close to the Upper Van Norman lake). The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, as well as the County of Los Angeles, investigated and verified that local soil conditions contributed to the ground displacement and resulting destruction. The area of surface breaks on the ground at the site was 900 ft (270 m) (at its widest) and stretched 4,000 ft (1,200 m) down a 1% grade slope towards the southwest. As much as 5 ft (1.5 m) of lateral motion was observed on either end of the slide, and trenches that were excavated during the examination at the site revealed that some of the cracks were up to 15 ft (4.6 m) deep. The two facilities, located near Grapevine and Weldon canyons that channel water and debris off the Sierra Madre Mountains, are lined by steep ridges and have formed alluvial fans at their mouths. The narrow band of ground disturbances were found to have been the result of settling of the soft soil in a downhill motion. Soil liquefaction played a role within confined areas of the slide, but it was not responsible for all the motion at the site, and tectonic slip of faults in the area was also excluded as a cause.\n\n### Transportation\n\nSubstantial disruption to about 10 miles of freeways in the northern San Fernando Valley took place, with most of the damage occurring at the Foothill Freeway / Golden State Freeway interchange, and along a five-mile stretch of Interstate 210. On Interstate 5, the most significant damage was between the Newhall Pass interchange on the north end and the I-5 / I-405 interchange in the south, where subsidence at the bridge approaches and cracking and buckling of the roadway made it unusable. Several landslides occurred between Balboa Boulevard and California State Route 14, but the most significant damage occurred at the two major interchanges. The Antelope Valley Freeway had damage from Newhall Pass to the northeast, primarily from settling and alignment issues, as well as splintering and cracking at the Santa Clara River and Solemint bridges.\n\nGolden State Freeway – Antelope Valley Freeway Interchange\n\nWhile the Newhall Pass interchange was still under construction at the time of the earthquake, the requisite components of the overpass were complete. Vibration caused two of the bridge's 191-foot sections to fall from a maximum height of 140 ft (43 m), along with one of the supporting pillars. The spans slipped off of their supports at either end due to lack of proper ties and insufficient space (a 14 in (360 mm) seat was provided) on the support columns. Ground displacement at the site was ruled out as a major cause of the failure, and in addition to the fallen sections and a crane that was struck during the collapse, other portions of the overpass were also damaged. Shear cracking occurred at the column closest to the western abutment, and the ground at the same column's base exhibited evidence of rotation.\n\nGolden State Freeway – Foothill Freeway Interchange\n\nThis interchange is a broad complex of overpasses and bridges that was nearly complete at the time of the earthquake and not all portions were open to traffic. Several instances of failure or collapse at the site took place and two men were killed while driving in a pickup truck as a result. The westbound I-210 to southbound I-5, which was complete except for paving at the ramp section, collapsed to the north, likely because of vibration that moved the overpass off its supports due to an inadequate seat. Unlike the situation at the Antelope Valley Interchange, permanent ground movement (defined as several inches of left-lateral displacement with possibly an element of thrusting) was observed in the area. The movement contributed to heavy damage at the Sylmar Juvenile Hall facility, Sylmar Converter Station, and the Metropolitan Water District Treatment Plant, but its effects on the interchange was not completely understood as of a 1971 report from the California Institute of Technology.\n\n### Schools\n\nA large number of public school buildings in the Los Angeles area displayed mixed responses to the shaking, and those that were built after the enforcement of the Field Act clearly showed the results of the reformed construction styles. The Field Act was put into effect just one month following the destructive March 1933 Long Beach earthquake that damaged many public school buildings in Long Beach, Compton, and Whittier. The Los Angeles Unified School District had 660 schools consisting of 9,200 buildings at the time of the earthquake, with 110 masonry buildings that had not been reinforced to meet the new standards. More than 400 portable classrooms and 53 wood frame pre-Field Act buildings were also in use. All these buildings had been previously inspected with regard to the requirements of the Act, and many were reinforced or rebuilt at that time, but earthquake engineering experts recommended further immediate refurbishment or demolition after a separate evaluation was done after the February 1971 earthquake, and within a year and a half the district followed through with the direction with regard to about 100 structures.\n\nAt Los Angeles High School (20 mi (32 km) from Pacoima Dam) where the exterior walls of the main pre-Field Act building (constructed 1917) were unreinforced brick masonry, long portions of the parapet and the associated brick veneer broke off and some fragments fell through the roof to a lower floor, while other material landed on an exit stairway and into a courtyard area. The main building was demolished at a cost of \\$127,000, and none of the various post-Field Act buildings were damaged at the site. Except for the concrete gymnasium, all of the buildings at Sylmar High School (3.75 mi (6.04 km) from Pacoima Dam) were post-Field Act, one-story, wood construction. Abundant cracks formed in the ground at the site, and some foundations and many sidewalks were also cracked. The estimate for repairs at the site was \\$485,000. At 2 mi (3.2 km), Hubbard Street Elementary School was the closest school to Pacoima dam and was also less than a mile from the Veterans Hospital complex. The wood-frame buildings (classrooms, a multipurpose building, and some bungalows) were built after the Field Act, and damage and cleanup costs there totaled \\$42,000. Gas lines were broken and separation of the buildings' porches was due to lateral displacement of up to six inches.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nFollowing many of California's major earthquakes, lawmakers have acted quickly to develop legislation related to seismic safety. After the M6.4 1933 Long Beach earthquake, the Field Act was passed the following month, and after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the Seismic Hazards Mapping Act and Senate Bill 1953 (hospital safety requirements) were established. Following the San Fernando event, earthquake engineers and seismologists from established scientific organizations, as well as the newly formed Los Angeles County Earthquake Commission, stated their recommendations that were based on the lessons learned. The list of items needing improvements included building codes, dams and bridges being made more earthquake resistant, hospitals that are designed to remain operational, and the restriction of development near known fault zones. New legislation included the Alquist-Priolo Special Studies Zone Act and the development of the Strong Motion Instrumentation Program.\n\nAlquist-Priolo Special Studies Zone Act\n\nIntroduced as Senate Bill 520 and signed into law in December 1972, this legislation was originally known as the Alquist-Priolo Geologic Hazard Zones Act, and had the goal of reducing damage and losses due to surface fault ruptures or fault creep. The act restricts construction of buildings designed for human occupancy across potentially active faults. Since it is presumed that surface rupture will likely take place where past surface displacement has occurred, the state geologist was given the responsibility for evaluating and mapping faults that had evidence of Holocene rupture, and creating regulatory zones around them called Earthquake Fault Zones. State and local agencies (as well as the property owner) were then responsible for enforcing or complying with the building restrictions.\n\nCalifornia Strong Motion Instrumentation Program\n\nPrior to the San Fernando earthquake, some structural engineers had already believed that the existing groundwork for seismic design required enhancement. Although instruments had recorded a force of 0.33 g during the 1940 El Centro earthquake, building codes only required structures to withstand a lateral force of 0.1 g as late as the 1960s. Even at that time, engineers were against the idea of constructing buildings to resist the high forces that were seen in the El Centro shock, but after a 1966 earthquake peaked at 0.5 g, and a maximum of 1.25 g was observed at the Pacoima Dam during the San Fernando event, a debate began as to whether that low requirement was sufficient.\n\nDespite the compelling seismogram from the 1940 event in El Centro, strong-motion seismology was not explicitly sought until later events occurred—the San Fernando earthquake made evident the need for more data for earthquake engineering applications. The California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program was initiated in 1971 with the goal of maximizing the volume of data by furnishing and maintaining instruments at selected lifeline structures, buildings, and ground response stations. By the late 1980s, the program had instrumented more than 450 structures, bridges, dams, and power plants. The 1979 Imperial Valley and 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquakes were presented as gainful events that were recorded during that period, because both produced valuable data that increased knowledge of how moderate events affect buildings. The success of the Imperial Valley event was especially pronounced because of a recently constructed and fully instrumented government building that was shaken to the point of failure.\n\n## See also\n\n- 1994 Northridge earthquake, a magnitude 6.7 quake which affected many of the same areas\n- California State Route 126\n- Interstate 105 (California)\n- List of earthquakes in 1971\n- List of earthquakes in California\n- Long Beach Search and Rescue\n- San Gabriel Fault\n- Wadsworth Chapel", "revid": "1170348321", "description": "Earthquake in California", "categories": ["1970s in Los Angeles County, California", "1971 disasters in the United States", "1971 earthquakes", "1971 in California", "1971 in Los Angeles", "Disasters in Los Angeles", "Earthquakes in California", "February 1971 events in the United States", "Geology of Los Angeles County, California", "History of the San Fernando Valley"]}
{"id": "4412145", "url": null, "title": "Crusades", "text": "The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Christian Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were intended to conquer Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Muslim rule. Beginning with the First Crusade, which resulted in the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of military campaigns were organised, providing a focal point of European history for centuries. Crusading declined rapidly after the 15th century.\n\nIn 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the first expedition at the Council of Clermont. He encouraged military support for Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos and called for an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Across all social strata in western Europe there was an enthusiastic response. Participants came from all over Europe and had a variety of motivations, including religious salvation, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic or political advantage. Later expeditions were conducted by generally more organized armies, sometimes led by a king. All were granted papal indulgences. Initial successes established four Crusader states: the County of Edessa; the Principality of Antioch; the Kingdom of Jerusalem; and the County of Tripoli. A European presence remained in the region in some form until the fall of Acre in 1291. After this, no further large military campaigns were organised.\n\nOther church-sanctioned campaigns include crusades against Christians not obeying papal rulings, against the Ottoman Empire, and for political reasons. The struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula was proclaimed a crusade in 1123, but eventually became better known as the Reconquista, and only ended in 1492 with the fall of the Emirate of Granada. From 1147, campaigns in Northern Europe against pagan tribes were considered crusades. In 1199, Pope Innocent III began the practice of proclaiming crusades against what the Latin Church considered heretic Christian communities. Crusades were called against the Cathars in Languedoc and against Bosnia; against the Waldensians in Savoy and the Hussites in Bohemia; and in response to the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Unsanctioned by the church, there were also several popular Crusades.\n\n## Terminology\n\nAccording to modern historiography the term \"crusade\" (/kruːˈseɪd/ kroo-SAYD) first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends. These differed from other Christian religious wars in that they were considered a penitential exercise, and so earned participants forgiveness for all confessed sins. What constituted a \"crusade\" has been understood in diverse ways, particularly regarding the early Crusades, and the definition remains a matter of debate among contemporary historians. The meaning of a \"crusade\" is generally viewed in one of four ways. Traditionalists view Crusades as only those to the Holy Land from 1095–1291. Pluralists view Crusades as military expeditions that enjoyed papal endorsement, including those to the Holy Land before and after 1291, to Northern Europe and Iberia, and against Christians. Popularists focus on the popular groundswells of religious fervour. Generalists focus on the basic phenomenon of Latin holy wars. Most modern Crusades historians consider a combination of pluralism and popularism, which is also the focus of this article.\n\nAt the time of the First Crusade, iter, \"journey\", and peregrinatio, \"pilgrimage\" were used for the campaign. Crusader terminology remained largely indistinguishable from that of Christian pilgrimage during the 12th century. A specific term for a crusader in the form of crucesignatus—\"one signed by the cross\"—emerged in the early 12th century. This led to the French term croisade—the way of the cross. By the mid 13th century the cross became the major descriptor of the crusades with crux transmarina—\"the cross overseas\"—used for crusades in the eastern Mediterranean, and crux cismarina—\"the cross this side of the sea\"—for those in Europe. The use of croiserie, \"crusade\" in Middle English can be dated to c. 1300, but the modern English \"crusade\" dates to the early 1700s.\n\nThe Arabic word for struggle or contest, particularly one for the propagation of Islam—jihād—was used for a religious war of Muslims against unbelievers, and it was believed by some Muslims that the Quran and Hadith made this a duty. \"Franks\" and \"Latins\" were used by the peoples of the Near East during the crusades for western Europeans, distinguishing them from the Byzantine Christians who were known as \"Greeks\". \"Saracen\" was used for an Arab Muslim, derived from a Greek and Roman name for the inhabitants of the Syro-Arabian desert. Crusader sources used the term \"Syrians\" to describe Arabic speaking Christians who were members of the Greek Orthodox Church, and \"Jacobites\" for those who were members of the Syrian Orthodox Church. The Crusader states of Syria and Palestine were known as the \"Outremer\" from the French outre-mer, or \"the land beyond the sea\".\n\n## Crusades and the Holy Land, 1095–1291\n\nThe Crusades to the Holy Land are the best known of the religious wars associated with the term, beginning in 1095 and lasting some two centuries. These Crusades began with the fervent desire to wrest the Holy Land from the Muslims, and ran through eight major numbered crusades and dozens of minor crusades over the period.\n\n### Background\n\nThe Arab-Byzantine wars from 629 to the 1050s resulted in the Muslim conquest of the Levant and Egypt by the Rashidun Caliphate. Jerusalem was captured after a half-year siege in 637. In 1025, the Byzantine emperor Basil II was able to extend the empire's territorial recovery to its furthest extent, with frontiers stretching east to Iran. The empire's relationships with its Islamic neighbours were no more quarrelsome than its relationships with the Western Christians, after the East-West Schism of 1054. The political situation in the Middle East was changed by waves of Turkic migration – in particular, the arrival of the Seljuk Turks in the 10th century. Previously a minor ruling clan from Transoxiana, they were recent converts to Islam who migrated into Persia. They conquered Iran, Iraq and the Near East to the Seljuk Empire. Byzantium's attempted confrontation in 1071 to suppress the Seljuks' sporadic raiding led to the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert, eventually the occupation of most of the Anatolian peninsula. In the same year, Jerusalem was taken from the Fatimid Caliphate by the Seljuks led by the warlord Atsiz, who seized most of Syria and Palestine throughout the Middle East. The Seljuk hold on the city resulted in pilgrims reporting difficulties and the oppression of Christians.\n\n### First Crusade\n\nIn 1074, just three years after Manzikert and the Seljuk takeover of Jerusalem, Gregory VII began planning to launch a military campaign for the liberation of the Holy Land. Twenty years later, Urban II realized that dream, hosting the decisive Council of Piacenza and subsequent Council of Clermont in November 1095, resulting in the mobilization of Western Europe to go to the Holy Land. Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos, worried about the continued advances of the Seljuks, sent envoys to these councils asking Urban for aid against the invading Turks. Urban talked of the violence of Europe and the necessity of maintaining the Peace of God; about helping Byzantium; about the crimes being committed against Christians in the east; and about a new kind of war, an armed pilgrimage, and of rewards in heaven, where remission of sins was offered to any who might die in the undertaking. The enthusiastic crowd responded with cries of Deus lo volt! – \"God wills it!\"\n\nImmediately after Urban's proclamation, the French priest Peter the Hermit led thousands of mostly poor Christians out of Europe in what became known as the People's Crusade. In transit through Germany, these Crusaders spawned German bands who massacred Jewish communities in what became known as the Rhineland massacres. They were destroyed in 1096 when the main body of Crusaders was annihilated at the battle of Civetot.\n\nIn response to Urban's call, members of the high aristocracy from Europe took the cross. Foremost amongst these was the elder statesman Raymond IV of Toulouse, who with bishop Adhemar of Le Puy commanded southern French forces. Other armies included: one led by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin of Boulogne; forces led by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred; and contingents under Robert Curthose, Stephen of Blois, Hugh of Vermandois, and Robert II of Flanders. The armies travelled to Byzantium where they were cautiously welcomed by the emperor.\n\nAlexios persuaded many of the princes to pledge allegiance to him. He also convinced them their first objective should be Nicaea. Buoyed by their success at Civetot, the over-confident Seljuks left the city unprotected, thus enabling its capture after the siege of Nicaea in May–June 1097. The first experience of Turkish tactics occurred when a force led by Bohemond and Robert was ambushed at battle of Dorylaeum in July 1097. The Normans resisted for hours before the arrival of the main army caused a Turkish withdrawal.\n\nThe Crusader army marched to the former Byzantine city of Antioch, which had been in Muslim control since 1084. The Crusaders began the siege of Antioch in October 1097 and fought for eight months to a stalemate. Finally, Bohemond persuaded a guard in the city to open a gate. The Crusaders entered, massacring the Muslim inhabitants as well as many Christians. A force to recapture the city was raised by Kerbogha, the Seljuk atabeg of Mosul.\n\nThe discovery of the Holy Lance by mystic Peter Bartholomew may have boosted the morale of the Crusaders. The Byzantines did not march to the assistance of the Crusaders. Instead, Alexius retreated from Philomelium. The Greeks were never truly forgiven for this perceived betrayal. The Crusaders attempted to negotiate surrender but were rejected. Bohemond recognised that the only remaining option was open combat and launched a counterattack. Despite superior numbers, the Muslims retreated and abandoned the siege.\n\nRaymond besieged Arqa in mid-February 1099 and the crusaders sent an embassy to the Fatimid vizier of Egypt seeking a treaty. When Adhemar died after Antioch, there was no spiritual leader of the crusade and the discovery of the Holy Lance provoked accusations of fraud among the clerical factions. On 8 April 1099, Arnulf of Chocques, chaplain to Robert Curthose, challenged Bartholomew to an ordeal by fire. Peter underwent the ordeal and died after days of agony from his wounds, which discredited the Holy Lance as a fake. Raymond lifted the siege of Arqa in May without capturing the town and the crusade proceeded south along the Mediterranean coast. Bohemond remained in Antioch, retaining the city, despite his pledge to return it to Byzantine control, while Raymond led the remaining army. Local rulers offered little resistance. They opted for peace in return for providing provisions. The Frankish emissaries rejoined the army accompanied by Fatimid representatives. This brought added information: the Fatimids had recaptured Jerusalem from the Seljuks. The Franks offered to partition conquered territory in return for rights to the city. When the offer was refused, it became advantageous if the crusade could reach Jerusalem before the Fatimids reinforced its defences and raised a defensive army.\n\nOn 7 June 1099, the Crusaders reached Jerusalem. Many Crusaders wept upon seeing the city they had journeyed so long to reach. An initial attack on the city failed, and the siege of Jerusalem of 1099 became a stalemate, until they breached the walls on 15 July 1099. Iftikhar al-Dawla, the commander of the Fatimid garrison, struck a deal with Raymond, surrendering the citadel in return for being granted safe passage to Ascalon. For two days the Crusaders massacred the inhabitants and pillaged the city. Jerusalem had been returned to Christian rule. Urban II died on 29 July 1099, fourteen days after the fall of Jerusalem to the Crusaders, but before news of the event had reached Italy. He was succeeded by Paschal II.\n\nOn July 22, 1099, a council was held in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Godfrey of Bouillon took the leadership, not called king but rather with the title Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri (Defender of the Holy Sepulchre). At this point, most Crusaders considered their pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe. Godfrey was left with a small force – a mere 300 knights and 2,000 foot soldiers – to defend the kingdom. In August 1099, the Franks defeated a Fatimid relief force at the battle of Ascalon. The First Crusade thus ended successfully and resulted in the creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.\n\n### The Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099–1147\n\nGodfrey of Bouillon died on 18 July 1100, likely from typhoid. The news of his death was met with mourning in Jerusalem. He was lying in state for five days, before his burial at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Jerusalem knights offered the kingdom to Godfrey's brother Baldwin I of Jerusalem, then Count of Edessa. Godfrey's last battle, the siege of Arsuf, would be completed by Baldwin in April 1101. Meanwhile, Dagobert of Pisa, now Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, made the same offer to Bohemond, and asking that he prevent Baldwin's expected travel to Jerusalem. But the letter was intercepted and Bohemond was captured with Richard of Salerno by the Danishmends after the battle of Melitene in August 1100. Baldwin I was crowned as the first king of Jerusalem on Christmas Day 1100 by Dagobert at the Church of the Nativity. Baldwin's cousin Baldwin of Bourcq, later his successor as Baldwin II, was named Count of Edessa, and Tancred became regent of Antioch during Bohemond's captivity, lasting through 1103.\n\n#### Crusade of 1101\n\nThe Crusade of 1101 was initiated by Paschal II when he learned of the precarious position of the remaining forces in the Holy Land. The host consisted of four separate armies, sometimes regarded as a second wave following the First Crusade. The first army was Lombardy, led by Anselm, archbishop of Milan. They were joined by a force led by Conrad, constable to the German emperor, Henry IV. A second army, the Nivernois, was commanded by William II of Nevers. The third group from northern France was led by Stephen of Blois and Stephen of Burgundy. They were joined by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, now in the service of the emperor. The fourth army was led by William IX of Aquitaine and Welf IV of Bavaria. The Crusaders faced their old enemy Kilij Arslan, and his Seljuk forces first met the Lombard and French contingents in August 1101 at the Battle of Mersivan, with the crusader camp captured. The Nivernois contingent was decimated that same month at Heraclea, with nearly the entire force wiped out, except for the count William and a few of his men. The Aquitainians and Bavarians reached Heraclea in September where again the Crusaders were massacred. The Crusade of 1101 was a total disaster both militarily and politically, showing the Muslims that the Crusaders were not invincible.\n\n#### Establishment of the kingdom\n\nThe reign of Baldwin I began in 1100 and oversaw the consolidation of the kingdom in the face of enemies to the north, the Seljuks, and the Fatimids to the south. Al-Afdal Shahanshah, the powerful Fatimid vizier, anxious to recover the lands lost to the Franks, initiated the First Battle of Ramla on 7 September 1101 in which his forces were narrowly defeated, by those of Baldwin I. On 17 May 1102, the Crusaders were not so lucky, suffering a major defeat at the hands of the Fatimids, under the command of al-Afdal's son Sharaf al-Ma'ali at the Second Battle of Ramla. Among the slain were veterans of the Crusade of 1101, Stephen of Blois and Stephen of Burgundy. Conrad of Germany fought so valiantly that his attackers offered to spare his life if he surrendered. The kingdom was on the verge of collapse after the defeat, recovering after the successful Battle of Jaffa on 27 May. In the north, the siege of Tripoli was begun, not to be resolved for seven years. Al-Afdal tried once more in the Third Battle of Ramla in August 1105 and was defeated. After the Crusader victory at the siege of Beirut in 1110, the Fatimid threat to the kingdom subsided for two decades.\n\nThe Battle of Harran was fought in 1104, pitting the Crusader states of Edessa and Antioch against Jikirmish, who had replaced Kerbogha as atabeg of Mosul, and Sökmen, commander of the Seljuk forces. The ensuing Seljuk victory also resulted in the capture of Baldwin of Bourcq, then count of Edessa and later king of Jerusalem, and his cousin Joscelin of Courtenay. A Turkish adventurer Jawali Saqawa killed Jikirmish in 1106, seizing Mosul and his hostage Baldwin. Separately freed, Joscelin began negotiations with Jawali for Baldwin's release. Expelled from Mosul by Mawdud, Jawali fled with his hostage to the fortress of Qal'at Ja'bar. Jawali, in need of allies against Mawdud, accepted Joscelin's offer, releasing Baldwin in the summer of 1108.\n\nAfter Bohemond was ransomed in 1103, he had resumed control of Antioch and continued the conflict with the Byzantine empire. The Byzantines had taken advantage of Bohemond's absence, retaking lands lost. Bohemond returned to Italy on late 1104 to recruit allies and gather supplies. Tancred again assumed leadership in Antioch, successfully defeating the Seljuks at the Battle of Artah in 1105, threatening Aleppo. In the meantime, his uncle began what is known as Bohemond's Crusade (or the Crusade of 1107–1108). Bohemond crossed into the Balkans and began the failed siege of Dyrrhachium. The subsequent Treaty of Devol of 1108 forced Bohemond to become vassal to the emperor, restore taken lands and other onerous terms. Bohemond never returned. He died in 1111, leaving Tancred as regent to his son Bohemond II, who ignored the treaty.\n\nThe Norwegian Crusade also known as the Crusade of Sigurd Jorsalfar, king of Norway, took place from 1107 to 1110. More of a pilgrimage than a crusade, it did include the participation in military action at the siege of Sidon of 1110. Baldwin's army besieged the city by land, while the Norwegians came by sea, and the victorious Crusaders gave similar terms of surrender as given to previous victories at Arsuf in 1102 and at the siege of Acre of 1100–1104, freeing the major port of the kingdom. This Crusade marked the first time a European king visited the Holy Land.\n\nBeginning in 1110, the Seljuks launched a series of attacks on the Crusader states, in particular Edessa, led by Mawdud. These included the Battle of Shaizar in 1111, a stalemate. At the Battle of al-Sannabra of 1113, a Crusader army led by Baldwin I was defeated by a Muslim army led by Mawdud and Toghtekin, atabeg of Damascus, whose ultimate objective was Edessa. Mawdud was unable to annihilate the Crusader forces and was soon murdered by Assassins. Bursuq ibn Bursuq took command of the failed attempt against Edessa in 1114. Finally, Roger of Salerno routed the last Seljuk invading army at the First Battle of Tell Danith on 14 September 1115.\n\nBaldwin I died on 2 April 1118 after an attack on the city of Pelusium on the Nile. He was buried in Jerusalem. Baldwin II of Jerusalem became king on 14 April 1118, but there was not a formal coronation until Christmas Day 1119 due to issues concerning his wife Morphia of Melitene. The early days of Baldwin II's reign included the Battle of Ager Sanguinis, the Field of Blood, on 28 June 1119. At Ager Sanguinis, an army led by Ilghazi annihilated the Antiochian forces led by Roger of Salerno who was killed during the battle. The Muslim victory was short-lived, with Baldwin II and Pons of Tripoli narrowly defeating Ilghazi's army at the Second Battle of Tell Danith on 14 August 1119.\n\nOn 16 January 1120, Baldwin II and the new patriarch Warmund of Jerusalem held the Council of Nablus, establishing a rudimentary set of rules for governing the kingdom now known as the assizes of Jerusalem. The formal establishment of the Knights Templar was likely also granted by the council, complementing the military arm of the Knights Hospitaller that was protecting pilgrims to the Holy Land. Both military orders were accumulating holdings in the kingdom and Crusader states, with the Hospitallers eventually obtaining the famous Krak des Chevaliers, an important military and administrative center.\n\nThe Venetian Crusade, also known as the Crusade of Calixtus II, was conducted from 1122 to 1124. The Western participants included those from the Republic of Venice as well as Pons of Tripoli. The actions resulted in the successful siege of Tyre, taking the city from the Damascene atabeg Toghtekin. This marked a major victory for Baldwin II prior to his second captivity in 1123.\n\nIn 1123, Baldwin II led a raid to Sarūj in order to rescue hostages held by Belek Ghazi and was also captured. Belek died in May 1124 and Baldwin II was seized by Ilghazi's son, Timurtash, who commenced negotiations for Baldwin's release. After a portion of the ransom was paid, additional hostages, to include Baldwin's youngest daughter Jovetta, were provided secure the payment of the balance, Baldwin II was released from the Citadel of Aleppo on 29 August 1124. Jovetta was held by il-Bursuqi and were ransomed by Baldwin II in 1125 using his spoils from the Battle of Azaz of 1125.\n\nToghtekin died in February 1128, and Baldwin II began the Crusade of 1129, also known as the Damascus Crusade, shortly thereafter. The objective was Damascus, now led by the new atabeg Taj al-Muluk Buri, the son of Toghtekin. The Crusaders were able to capture the town of Banias, but were unable to take Damascus despite coming within six miles of the town.\n\nBaldwin II and Morphia married their eldest daughter Melisende of Jerusalem to Fulk V of Anjou in 1129 in anticipation of a royal succession. Baldwin II fell ill in Antioch and died on 21 August 1131. Fulk and Melisende were crowned joint rulers of Jerusalem on 14 September 1131 in the same church where Baldwin II had been laid to rest. Fulk assumed full control of the government, excluding Melisende, as he favored fellow Angevins to the native nobility.\n\n#### The rise of Zengi\n\nAt the same time, the advent of Imad ad-Din Zengi saw the Crusaders threatened by a Muslim ruler who would introduce jihad to the conflict, joining the powerful Syrian emirates in a combined effort against the Franks. He became atabeg of Mosul in September 1127 and used this to expand his control to Aleppo in June 1128. In 1135, Zengi moved against Antioch and, when the Crusaders failed to put an army into the field to oppose him, he captured several important Syrian towns. He defeated Fulk at the Battle of Ba'rin of 1137, seizing Ba'rin Castle.\n\nIn 1137, Zengi invaded Tripoli, killing the count Pons of Tripoli. Fulk intervened, but Zengi's troops captured Pons' successor Raymond II of Tripoli, and besieged Fulk in the border castle of Montferrand. Fulk surrendered the castle and paid Zengi a ransom for his and Raymond's freedom. John II Komnenos, emperor since 1118, reasserted Byzantine claims to Cilicia and Antioch, compelling Raymond of Poitiers to give homage. In April 1138, the Byzantines and Franks jointly besieged Aleppo and, with no success, began the Siege of Shaizar, abandoning it a month later.\n\nOn 13 November 1143, while the royal couple were in Acre, Fulk was killed in a hunting accident. On Christmas Day 1143, their son Baldwin III of Jerusalem was crowned co-ruler with his mother. That same year, having prepared his army for a renewed attack on Antioch, John II Komnenos went hunting wild boar, cutting himself with a poisoned arrow. He died on 8 April 1143 and was succeeded as emperor by his son Manuel I Komnenos.\n\nFollowing John's death, the Byzantine army withdrew, leaving Zengi unopposed. Fulk's death later in the year left Joscelin II of Edessa with no powerful allies to help defend Edessa. Zengi came north to begin the first siege of Edessa, arriving on 28 November 1144. The city had been warned of his arrival and was prepared for a siege, but there was little they could do. Zengi realized there was no defending force and surrounded the city. The walls collapsed on 24 December 1144. Zengi's troops rushed into the city, killing all those who were unable to flee. All the Frankish prisoners were executed, but the native Christians were allowed to live. The Crusaders were dealt their first major defeat.\n\nZengi was assassinated by a slave on 14 September 1146 and was succeeded in the Zengid dynasty by his son Nūr-ad-Din. The Franks recaptured the city during the Second Siege of Edessa of 1146 by stealth but could not take or even properly besiege the citadel. After a brief counter-siege, Nūr-ad-Din took the city. The men were massacred, with the women and children enslaved, and the walls razed.\n\n### Second Crusade\n\nThe fall of Edessa caused great consternation in Jerusalem and Western Europe, tempering the enthusiastic success of the First Crusade. Calls for a new crusade – the Second Crusade – were immediate, and was the first to be led by European kings. Concurrent campaigns as part of the Reconquista and Northern Crusades are also sometimes associated with this Crusade. The aftermath of the Crusade saw the Muslim world united around Saladin, leading to the fall of Jerusalem.\n\n#### The Second Crusade\n\nEugene III, recently elected pope, issued the bull Quantum praedecessores in December 1145 calling for a new crusade, one that would be more organized and centrally controlled than the First. The armies would be led by the strongest kings of Europe and a route that would be pre-planned. The pope called on Bernard of Clairvaux to preach the Second Crusade, granting the same indulgences which had accorded to the First Crusaders. Among those answering the call were two European kings, Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Louis, his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and many princes and lords prostrated themselves at the feet of Bernard in order to take the cross. Conrad and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa also received the cross from the hand of Bernard.\n\nConrad III and the German contingent planned to leave for the Holy Land at Easter, but did not depart until May 1147. When the German army began to cross Byzantine territory, emperor Manuel I had his troops posted to ensure against trouble. A brief Battle of Constantinople in September ensued, and their defeat at the emperor's hand convinced the Germans to move quickly to Asia Minor. Without waiting for the French contingent, Conrad III engaged the Seljuks of Rûm under sultan Mesud I, son and successor of Kilij Arslan, the nemesis of the First Crusade. Mesud and his forces almost totally destroyed Conrad's contingent at the Second Battle of Dorylaeum on 25 October 1147.\n\nThe French contingent departed in June 1147. In the meantime, Roger II of Sicily, an enemy of Conrad's, had invaded Byzantine territory. Manuel I needed all his army to counter this force, and, unlike the armies of the First Crusade, the Germans and French entered Asia with no Byzantine assistance. The French met the remnants of Conrad's army in northern Turkey, and Conrad joined Louis's force. They fended off a Seljuk attack at the Battle of Ephesus on 24 December 1147. A few days later, they were again victorious at the Battle of the Meander. Louis was not as lucky at the Battle of Mount Cadmus on 6 January 1148 when the army of Mesud inflicted heavy losses on the Crusaders. Shortly thereafter, they sailed for Antioch, almost totally destroyed by battle and sickness.\n\nThe Crusader army arrived at Antioch on 19 March 1148 with the intent on moving to retake Edessa, but Baldwin III of Jerusalem and the Knights Templar had other ideas. The Council of Acre was held on 24 June 1148, changing the objective of the Second Crusade to Damascus, a former ally of the kingdom that had shifted its allegiance to that of the Zengids. The Crusaders fought the Battle of Bosra with the Damascenes in the summer of 1147, with no clear winner. Bad luck and poor tactics of the Crusaders led to the disastrous five-day siege of Damascus from 24 to 28 July 1148. The barons of Jerusalem withdrew support and the Crusaders retreated before the arrival of a relief army led by Nūr-ad-Din. Morale fell, hostility to the Byzantines grew and distrust developed between the newly arrived Crusaders and those that had made the region their home after the earlier crusades. The French and German forces felt betrayed by the other, lingering for a generation due to the defeat, to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land.\n\nIn the spring of 1147, Eugene III authorized the expansion of his mission into the Iberian peninsula, equating these campaigns against the Moors with the rest of the Second Crusade. The successful Siege of Lisbon, from 1 July to 25 October 1147, was followed by the six-month siege of Tortosa, ending on 30 December 1148 with a defeat for the Moors. In the north, some Germans were reluctant to fight in the Holy Land while the pagan Wends were a more immediate problem. The resulting Wendish Crusade of 1147 was partially successful but failed to convert the pagans to Christianity.\n\nThe disastrous performance of this campaign in the Holy Land damaged the standing of the papacy, soured relations between the Christians of the kingdom and the West for many years, and encouraged the Muslims of Syria to even greater efforts to defeat the Franks. The dismal failures of this Crusade then set the stage for the fall of Jerusalem, leading to the Third Crusade.\n\n#### Nūr-ad-Din and the rise of Saladin\n\nIn the first major encounter after the Second Crusade, Nūr-ad-Din's forces then destroyed the Crusader army at the Battle of Inab on 29 June 1149. Raymond of Poitiers, as prince of Antioch, came to the aid of the besieged city. Raymond was killed and his head was presented to Nūr-ad-Din, who forwarded it to the caliph al-Muqtafi in Baghdad. In 1150, Nūr-ad-Din defeated Joscelin II of Edessa for a final time, resulting in Joscelin being publicly blinded, dying in prison in Aleppo in 1159. Later that year, at the Battle of Aintab, he tried but failed to prevent Baldwin III's evacuation of the residents of Turbessel. The unconquered portions of the County of Edessa would nevertheless fall to the Zengids within a few years. In 1152, Raymond II of Tripoli became the first Frankish victim of the Assassins. Later that year, Nūr-ad-Din captured and burned Tortosa, briefly occupying the town before it was taken by the Knights Templar as a military headquarters.\n\nAfter the Siege of Ascalon ended on 22 August 1153 with a Crusader victory, Damascus was taken by Nūr-ad-Din the next year, uniting all of Syria under Zengid rule. In 1156, Baldwin III was forced into a treaty with Nūr-ad-Din, and later entered into an alliance with the Byzantine Empire. On 18 May 1157, Nūr-ad-Din began a siege on the Knights Hospitaller contingent at Banias, with the Grand Master Bertrand de Blanquefort captured. Baldwin III was able to break the siege, only to be ambushed at Jacob's Ford in June. Reinforcements from Antioch and Tripoli were able to relieve the besieged Crusaders, but they were defeated again that month at the Battle of Lake Huleh. In July 1158, the Crusaders were victorious at the Battle of Butaiha Bertrand's captivity lasted until 1159, when emperor Manuel I negotiated an alliance with Nūr-ad-Din against the Seljuks.\n\nBaldwin III died on 10 February 1163, and Amalric of Jerusalem was crowned as king of Jerusalem eight days later. Later that year, he defeated the Zengids at the Battle of al-Buqaia. Amalric then undertook a series of four invasions of Egypt from 1163 to 1169, taking advantage of weaknesses of the Fatimids. Nūr-ad-Din's intervention in the first invasion allowed his general Shirkuh, accompanied by his nephew Saladin, to enter Egypt. Shawar, the deposed vizier to the Fatimid caliph al-Adid, allied with Amalric I, attacking Shirkuh at the second Siege of Bilbeis beginning in August 1164, following Amalric's unsuccessful first siege in September 1163. This action left the Holy Land lacking in defenses, and Nūr-ad-Din defeated a Crusader forces at the Battle of Harim in August 1164, capturing most of the Franks' leaders.\n\nAfter the sacking of Bilbeis, the Crusader-Fatimid force was to meet Shirkuh's army in the indecisive Battle of al-Babein on 18 March 1167. In 1169, both Shawar and Shirkuh died, and al-Adid appointed Saladin as vizier. Saladin, with reinforcements from Nūr-ad-Din, defeated a massive Crusader-Byzantine force at the Siege of Damietta in late October. This gained Saladin the attention of the Assassins, with attempts on his life in January 1175 and again on 22 May 1176.\n\nBaldwin IV of Jerusalem became king on 5 July 1174 at the age of 13. As a leper he was not expected to live long, and served with a number of regents, and served as co-ruler with his cousin Baldwin V of Jerusalem beginning in 1183. Baldwin IV, Raynald of Châtillon and the Knights Templar defeated Saladin at the celebrated Battle of Montgisard on 25 November 1177. In June 1179 the Crusaders were defeated at the Battle of Marj Ayyub, and in August the unfinished castle at Jacob's Ford fell to Saladin, with the slaughter of half its Templar garrison. However, the kingdom repelled his attacks at the Battle of Belvoir Castle in 1182 and later in the Siege of Kerak of 1183.\n\n#### The fall of Jerusalem\n\nBaldwin V became sole king upon the death of his uncle in 1185 under the regency of Raymond III of Tripoli. Raymond negotiated a truce with Saladin which went awry when the king died in the summer of 1186. His mother Sibylla of Jerusalem and her husband Guy of Lusignan were crowned as queen and king of Jerusalem in the summer of 1186, shortly thereafter. They immediately had to deal with the threat posed by Saladin.\n\nDespite his defeat at the Battle of al-Fule in the fall of 1183, Saladin increased his attacks against the Franks, leading to their defeat at the Battle of Cresson on 1 May 1187. Guy of Lusignan responded by raising the largest army that Jerusalem had ever put into the field. Saladin lured this force into inhospitable terrain without water supplies and routed them at the Battle of Hattin on 4 July 1187. One of the major commanders was Raymond III of Tripoli who saw his force slaughtered, with some knights deserting to the enemy, and narrowly escaping, only to be regarded as a traitor and coward. Guy of Lusignan was one of the few captives of Saladin's after the battle, along with Raynald of Châtillon and Humphrey IV of Toron. Raynald was beheaded, settling an old score. Guy and Humphrey were imprisoned in Damascus and later released in 1188.\n\nAs a result of his victory, much of Palestine quickly fell to Saladin. The siege of Jerusalem began on 20 September 1187 and the Holy City was surrendered to Saladin by Balian of Ibelin on 2 October. According to some, on 19 October 1187, Urban III died upon of hearing of the defeat. Jerusalem was once again in Muslim hands. Many in the kingdom fled to Tyre, and Saladin's subsequent attack at the siege of Tyre beginning in November 1187 was unsuccessful. The siege of Belvoir Castle began the next month and the Hospitaller stronghold finally fell a year later. The sieges of Laodicea and Sahyun Castle in July 1188 and the sieges of al-Shughur and Bourzey Castle in August 1188 further solidified Saladin's gains. The siege of Safed in late 1188 then completed Saladin's conquest of the Holy Land.\n\n### Third Crusade\n\nThe years following the founding of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were met with multiple disasters. The Second Crusade did not achieve its goals, and left the Muslim East in a stronger position with the rise of Saladin. A united Egypt–Syria led to the loss of Jerusalem itself, and Western Europe had no choice but to launch the Third Crusade, this time led by the kings of Europe.\n\nThe news of the disastrous defeat at the battle of Hattin and subsequent fall of Jerusalem gradually reached Western Europe. Urban III died shortly after hearing the news, and his successor Gregory VIII issued the bull Audita tremendi on 29 October 1187 describing the events in the East and urging all Christians to take up arms and go to the aid of those in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, calling for a new crusade to the Holy Land – the Third Crusade – to be led by Frederick Barbarossa and Richard I of England.\n\nFrederick took the cross in March 1188. Frederick sent an ultimatum to Saladin, demanding the return of Palestine and challenging him to battle and in May 1189, Frederick's host departed for Byzantium. In March 1190, Frederick embarked to Asia Minor. The armies coming from western Europe pushed on through Anatolia, defeating the Turks and reaching as far as Cilician Armenia. On 10 June 1190, Frederick drowned near Silifke Castle. His death caused several thousand German soldiers to leave the force and return home. The remaining German army moved under the command of the English and French forces that arrived shortly thereafter.\n\nRichard the Lionheart had already taken the cross as the Count of Poitou in 1187. His father Henry II of England and Philip II of France had done so on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin. Richard I and Philip II of France agreed to go on the Crusade in January 1188. Arriving in the Holy Land, Richard led his support to the stalemated siege of Acre. The Muslim defenders surrendered on 12 July 1191. Richard remained in sole command of the Crusader force after the departure of Philip II on 31 July 1191. On 20 August 1191, Richard had more than 2000 prisoners beheaded at the massacre of Ayyadieh. Saladin subsequently ordered the execution of his Christian prisoners in retaliation.\n\nRichard moved south, defeating Saladin's forces at the battle of Arsuf on 7 September 1191. Three days later, Richard took Jaffa, held by Saladin since 1187, and advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On 12 December 1191 Saladin disbanded the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, to within 12 miles from Jerusalem before retreating back to the coast. The Crusaders made another advance on Jerusalem, coming within sight of the city in June before being forced to retreat again. Hugh III of Burgundy, leader of the Franks, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.\n\nOn 27 July 1192, Saladin's army began the battle of Jaffa, capturing the city. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from the sea and the Muslims were driven from the city. Attempts to retake Jaffa failed and Saladin was forced to retreat. On 2 September 1192 Richard and Saladin entered into the Treaty of Jaffa, providing that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, while allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims and traders to freely visit the city. This treaty ended the Third Crusade.\n\nThree years later, Henry VI launched the Crusade of 1197. While his forces were en route to the Holy Land, Henry VI died in Messina on 28 September 1197. The nobles that remained captured the Levant coast between Tyre and Tripoli before returning to Germany. The Crusade ended on 1 July 1198 after capturing Sidon and Beirut.\n\n### Fourth Crusade\n\nIn 1198, the recently elected Pope Innocent III announced a new crusade, organised by three Frenchmen: Theobald of Champagne; Louis of Blois; and Baldwin of Flanders. After Theobald's premature death, the Italian Boniface of Montferrat replaced him as the new commander of the campaign. They contracted with the Republic of Venice for the transportation of 30,000 crusaders at a cost of 85,000 marks. However, many chose other embarkation ports and only around 15,000 arrived in Venice. The Doge of Venice Enrico Dandolo proposed that Venice would be compensated with the profits of future conquests beginning with the seizure of the Christian city of Zara. Pope Innocent III's role was ambivalent. He only condemned the attack when the siege started. He withdrew his legate to disassociate from the attack but seemed to have accepted it as inevitable. Historians question whether for him, the papal desire to salvage the crusade may have outweighed the moral consideration of shedding Christian blood. The crusade was joined by King Philip of Swabia, who intended to use the Crusade to install his exiled brother-in-law, Alexios IV Angelos, as Emperor. This required the overthrow of Alexios III Angelos, the uncle of Alexios IV. Alexios IV offered the crusade 10,000 troops, 200,000 marks and the reunion of the Greek Church with Rome if they toppled his uncle Emperor Alexios III. When the crusade entered Constantinople, Alexios III fled and was replaced by his nephew. The Greek resistance prompted Alexios IV to seek continued support from the crusade until he could fulfil his commitments. This ended with his murder in a violent anti-Latin revolt. The crusaders were without seaworthy ships, supplies or food. Their only escape route was through the city, taking by force what Alexios had promised and the new anti-westerner Byzantine ruler – Alexios V Doukas – denied them. The Sack of Constantinople involved three days of pillaging churches and killing much of the Greek Orthodox Christian populace. This sack was not unusual considering the violent military standards of the time, but contemporaries such as Innocent III and Ali ibn al-Athir saw it as an atrocity against centuries of classical and Christian civilisation.\n\n### Fifth Crusade\n\nThe Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) was a campaign by Western Europeans to reacquire Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering Egypt, ruled by the sultan al-Adil, brother of Saladin. In 1213, Innocent III called for another Crusade at the Fourth Lateran Council, and in the papal bull Quia maior. Innocent died in 1216 and was succeeded by Honorius III who immediately called on Andrew II of Hungary and Frederick II of Germany to lead a Crusade. Frederick had taken the cross in 1215, but hung back, with his crown still in contention, and Honorius delayed the expedition.\n\nAndrew II left for Acre in August 1217, joining John of Brienne, king of Jerusalem. The initial plan of a two-prong attack in Syria and in Egypt was abandoned and instead the objective became limited operations in Syria. After accomplishing little, the ailing Andrew returned to Hungary early in 1218. As it became clear that Frederick II was not coming to the east, the remaining commanders began the planning to attack the Egyptian port of Damietta.\n\nThe fortifications of Damietta were impressive, and included the Burj al-Silsilah – the chain tower – with massive chains that could stretch across the Nile. The siege of Damietta began in June 1218 with a successful assault on the tower. The loss of the tower was a great shock to the Ayyubids, and the sultan al-Adil died soon thereafter. He was succeeded as sultan by his son al-Kamil. Further offensive action by the Crusaders would have to wait until the arrival of additional forces, including legate Pelagius with a contingent of Romans. A group from England arrived shortly thereafter.\n\nBy February 1219, the Crusaders now had Damietta surrounded, and al-Kamil opened negotiations with the Crusaders, asking for envoys to come to his camp. He offered to surrender the kingdom of Jerusalem, less the fortresses of al-Karak and Krak de Montréal, guarding the road to Egypt, in exchange for the evacuation of Egypt. John of Brienne and the other secular leaders were in favor of the offer, as the original objective of the Crusade was the recovery of Jerusalem. But Pelagius and the leaders of the Templars and Hospitallers refused. Later, Francis of Assisi arrived to negotiate unsuccessfully with the sultan.\n\nIn November 1219, the Crusaders entered Damietta and found it abandoned, al-Kamil having moved his army south. In the captured city, Pelagius was unable to prod the Crusaders from their inactivity, and many returned home, their vow fulfilled. Al-Kamil took advantage of this lull to reinforce his new camp at Mansurah, renewing his peace offering to the Crusaders, which was again refused. Frederick II sent troops and word that he would soon follow, but they were under orders not to begin offensive operations until he had arrived.\n\nIn July 1221, Pelagius began to advance to the south. John of Brienne argued against the move, but was powerless to stop it. Already deemed a traitor for opposing the plans and threatened with excommunication, John joined the force under the command of the legate. In the ensuing Battle of Mansurah in late August, al-Kamil had the sluices along the right bank of the Nile opened, flooding the area and rendering battle impossible. Pelagius had no choice but to surrender.\n\nThe Crusaders still had some leverage as Damietta was well-garrisoned. They offered the sultan a withdrawal from Damietta and an eight-year truce in exchange for allowing the Crusader army to pass, the release of all prisoners, and the return of the relic of the True Cross. Prior to the formal surrender of Damietta, the two sides would maintain hostages, among them John of Brienne and Hermann of Salza for the Franks side and a son of al-Kamil for Egypt. The masters of the military orders were dispatched to Damietta, where the forces were resistant to giving up, with the news of the surrender, which happened on 8 September 1221. The Fifth Crusade was over, a dismal failure, unable to even gain the return of the piece of the True Cross.\n\n### Sixth Crusade\n\nThe Sixth Crusade (1228–1229) was a military expedition to recapture the city of Jerusalem. It began seven years after the failure of the Fifth Crusade and involved very little actual fighting. The diplomatic maneuvering of Frederick II resulted in the Kingdom of Jerusalem regaining some control over Jerusalem for much of the ensuing fifteen years. The Sixth Crusade is also known as the Crusade of Frederick II.\n\nOf all the European sovereigns, only Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, was in a position to regain Jerusalem. Frederick was, like many of the 13th-century rulers, a serial crucesignatus, having taken the cross multiple times since 1215. After much wrangling, an onerous agreement between the emperor and Pope Honorius III was signed on 25 July 1225 at San Germano. Frederick promised to depart on the Crusade by August 1227 and remain for two years. During this period, he was to maintain and support forces in Syria and deposit escrow funds at Rome in gold. These funds would be returned to the emperor once he arrived at Acre. If he did not arrive, the money would be employed for the needs of the Holy Land. Frederick II would go on the Crusade as king of Jerusalem. He married John of Brienne's daughter Isabella II by proxy in August 1225 and they were formally married on 9 November 1227. Frederick claimed the kingship of Jerusalem despite John having been given assurances that he would remain as king. Frederick took the crown in December 1225. Frederick's first royal decree was to grant new privileges on the Teutonic Knights, placing them on equal footing as the Templars and Hospitallers.\n\nAfter the Fifth Crusade, the Ayyubid sultan al-Kamil became involved in civil war in Syria and, having unsuccessfully tried negotiations with the West beginning in 1219, again tried this approach, offering return of much of the Holy Land in exchange for military support. Becoming pope in 1227, Gregory IX was determined to proceed with the Crusade. The first contingents of Crusaders then sailed in August 1227, joining with forces of the kingdom and fortifying the coastal towns. The emperor was delayed while his ships were refitted. He sailed on 8 September 1227, but before they reached their first stop, Frederick was struck with the plague and disembarked to secure medical attention. Resolved to keep his oath, he sent his fleet on to Acre. He sent his emissaries to inform Gregory IX of the situation, but the pope did not care about Frederick's illness, just that he had not lived up to his agreement. Frederick was excommunicated on 29 September 1227, branded a wanton violator of his sacred oath taken many times.\n\nFrederick made his last effort to be reconciled with Gregory. It had no effect and Frederick sailed from Brindisi in June 1228. After a stop at Cyprus, Frederick II arrived in Acre on 7 September 1228 and was received warmly by the military orders, despite his excommunication. Frederick's army was not large, mostly German, Sicilian and English. Of the troops he had sent in 1227 had mostly returned home. He could neither afford nor mount a lengthening campaign in the Holy Land given the ongoing War of the Keys with Rome. The Sixth Crusade would be one of negotiation.\n\nAfter resolving the internecine struggles in Syria, al-Kamil's position was stronger than it was a year before when he made his original offer to Frederick. For unknown reasons, the two sides came to an agreement. The resultant Treaty of Jaffa was concluded on 18 February 1229, with al-Kamil surrendering Jerusalem, with the exception of some Muslim holy sites, and agreeing to a ten-year truce. Frederick entered Jerusalem on 17 March 1229 and received the formal surrender of the city by al-Kamil's agent and the next day, crowned himself. On 1 May 1229, Frederick departed from Acre and arrived in Sicily a month before the pope knew that he had left the Holy Land. Frederick obtained from the pope relief from his excommunication on 28 August 1230 at the Treaty of Ceprano.\n\nThe results of the Sixth Crusade were not universally acclaimed. Two letters from the Christian side tell differing stories, with Frederick touting the great success of the endeavor and the Latin patriarch painting a darker picture of the emperor and his accomplishments. On the Muslim side, al-Kamil himself was pleased with the accord, but other regarded the treaty as a disastrous event. In the end, the Sixth Crusade successfully returned Jerusalem to Christian rule and had set a precedent, in having achieved success on crusade without papal involvement.\n\n### The Crusades of 1239–1241\n\nThe Crusades of 1239–1241, also known as the Barons' Crusade, were a series of crusades to the Holy Land that, in territorial terms, were the most successful since the First Crusade. The major expeditions were led separately by Theobald I of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall. These crusades are sometimes discussed along with that of Baldwin of Courtenay to Constantinople.\n\nIn 1229, Frederick II and the Ayyubid sultan al-Kamil, had agreed to a ten-year truce. Nevertheless, Gregory IX, who had condemned this truce from the beginning, issued the papal bull Rachel suum videns in 1234 calling for a new crusade once the truce expired. A number of English and French nobles took the cross, but the crusade's departure was delayed because Frederick, whose lands the crusaders had planned to cross, opposed any crusading activity before the expiration of this truce. Frederick was again excommunicated in 1239, causing most crusaders to avoid his territories on their way to the Holy Land.\n\nThe French expedition was led by Theobald I of Navarre and Hugh of Burgundy, joined by Amaury of Montfort and Peter of Dreux. On 1 September 1239, Theobald arrived in Acre, and was soon drawn into the Ayyubid civil war, which had been raging since the death of al-Kamil in 1238. At the end of September, al-Kamil's brother as-Salih Ismail seized Damascus from his nephew, as-Salih Ayyub, and recognized al-Adil II as sultan of Egypt. Theobald decided to fortify Ascalon to protect the southern border of the kingdom and to move against Damascus later. While the Crusaders were marching from Acre to Jaffa, Egyptian troops moved to secure the border in what became the Battle at Gaza. Contrary to Theobald's instructions and the advice of the military orders, a group decided to move against the enemy without further delay, but they were surprised by the Muslims who inflicted a devastating defeat on the Franks. The masters of the military orders then convinced Theobald to retreat to Acre rather than pursue the Egyptians and their Frankish prisoners. A month after the battle at Gaza, an-Nasir Dā'ūd, emir of Kerak, seized Jerusalem, virtually unguarded. The internal strife among the Ayyubids allowed Theobald to negotiate the return of Jerusalem. In September 1240, Theobald departed for Europe, while Hugh of Burgundy remained to help fortify Ascalon.\n\nOn 8 October 1240, the English expedition arrived, led by Richard of Cornwall. The force marched to Jaffa, where they completed the negotiations for a truce with Ayyubid leaders begun by Theobald just a few months prior. Richard consented, the new agreement was ratified by Ayyub by 8 February 1241, and prisoners from both sides were released on 13 April. Meanwhile, Richard's forces helped to work on Ascalon's fortifications, which were completed by mid-March 1241. Richard entrusted the new fortress to an imperial representative, and departed for England on 3 May 1241.\n\nIn July 1239, Baldwin of Courtenay, the young heir to the Latin Empire, travelled to Constantinople with a small army. In the winter of 1239, Baldwin finally returned to Constantinople, where he was crowned emperor around Easter of 1240, after which he launched his crusade. Baldwin then besieged and captured Tzurulum, a Nicaean stronghold seventy-five miles west of Constantinople.\n\nAlthough the Barons' Crusade returned the kingdom to its largest size since 1187, the gains would be dramatically reversed a few years later. On 15 July 1244, the city was reduced to ruins during the siege of Jerusalem and its Christians massacred by the Khwarazmian army. A few months later, the Battle of La Forbie permanently crippled Christian military power in the Holy Land. The sack of the city and the massacre which accompanied it encouraged Louis IX of France to organize the Seventh Crusade.\n\n### The Seventh Crusade\n\nThe Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) was the first of the two Crusades led by Louis IX of France. Also known as the Crusade of Louis IX to the Holy Land, its objective was to reclaim the Holy Land by attacking Egypt, the main seat of Muslim power in the Middle East, then under as-Salih Ayyub, son of al-Kamil. The Crusade was conducted in response to setbacks in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, beginning with the loss of the Holy City in 1244, and was preached by Innocent IV in conjunction with a crusade against emperor Frederick II, the Prussian crusades and Mongol incursions.\n\nAt the end of 1244, Louis was stricken with a severe malarial infection and he vowed that if he recovered he would set out for a Crusade. His life was spared, and as soon as his health permitted him, he took the cross and immediately began preparations. The next year, the pope presided over First Council of Lyon, directing a new Crusade under the command of Louis. With Rome under siege by Frederick, the pope also issued his Ad Apostolicae Dignitatis Apicem, formally renewing the sentence of excommunication on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the imperial throne and that of Naples.\n\nThe recruiting effort under cardinal Odo of Châteauroux was difficult, and the Crusade finally began on 12 August 1248 when Louis IX left Paris under the insignia of a pilgrim, the Oriflamme. With him were queen Margaret of Provence and two of Louis' brothers, Charles I of Anjou and Robert I of Artois. Their youngest brother Alphonse of Poitiers departed the next year. They were followed by Hugh IV of Burgundy, Peter Maulcerc, Hugh XI of Lusignan, royal companion and chronicler Jean de Joinville, and an English detachment under William Longespée, grandson of Henry II of England.\n\nThe first stop was Cyprus, arriving in September 1248 where they experienced a long wait for the forces to assemble. Many of the men were lost en route or to disease. The Franks were soon met by those from Acre including the masters of the Orders Jean de Ronay and Guillaume de Sonnac. The two eldest sons of John of Brienne, Alsonso of Brienne and Louis of Brienne, would also join as would John of Ibelin, nephew to the Old Lord of Beirut. William of Villehardouin also arrived with ships and Frankish soldiers from the Morea. It was agreed that Egypt was the objective and many remembered how the sultan's father had been willing to exchange Jerusalem itself for Damietta in the Fifth Crusade. Louis was not willing to negotiate with the infidel Muslims, but he did unsuccessfully seek a Franco-Mongol alliance, reflecting what the pope had sought in 1245.\n\nAs-Salih Ayyub conducting a campaign in Damascus when the Franks invaded as he had expected the Crusaders to land in Syria. Hurrying his forces back to Cairo , he turned to his vizier Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh to command the army that fortified Damietta in anticipation of the invasion. On 5 June 1249 the Crusader fleet began the landing and subsequent siege of Damietta. After a short battle, the Egyptian commander decided to evacuate the city. Remarkably, Damietta had been seized with only one Crusader casualty. The city became a Frankish city and Louis waited until the Nile floods abated before advancing, remembering the lessons of the Fifth Crusade. The loss of Damietta was a shock to the Muslim world, and as-Salih Ayyub offered to trade Damietta for Jerusalem as his father had thirty years before. The offer was rejected. By the end of October 1249 the Nile had receded and reinforcements had arrived. It was time to advance, and the Frankish army set out towards Mansurah.\n\nThe sultan died in November 1249, his widow Shajar al-Durr concealing the news of her husband's death. She forged a document which appointed his son al-Muazzam Turanshah, then in Syria, as heir and Fakhr ad-Din as viceroy. But the Crusade continued, and by December 1249, Louis was encamped on the river banks opposite to Mansurah. For six weeks, the armies of the West and Egypt faced each other on opposite sides of the canal, leading to the Battle of Mansurah that would end on 11 February 1250 with an Egyptian defeat. Louis had his victory, but a cost of the loss of much of his force and their commanders. Among the survivors were the Templar master Guillaume de Sonnac, losing an eye, Humbert V de Beaujeu, constable of France, John II of Soissons, and the duke of Brittany, Peter Maulcerc. Counted with the dead were the king's brother Robert I of Artois, William Longespée and most of his English followers, Peter of Courtenay, and Raoul II of Coucy. But the victory would be short-lived. On 11 February 1250, the Egyptians attacked again. Templar master Guillaume de Sonnac and acting Hospitaller master Jean de Ronay were killed. Alphonse of Poitiers, guarding the camp, was encircled and was rescued by the camp followers. At nightfall, the Muslims gave up the assault.\n\nOn 28 February 1250, Turanshah arrived from Damascus and began an Egyptian offensive, intercepting the boats that brought food from Damietta. The Franks were quickly beset by famine and disease. The Battle of Fariskur fought on 6 April 1250 would be the decisive defeat of Louis' army. Louis knew that the army must be extricated to Damietta and they departed on the morning of 5 April, with the king in the rear and the Egyptians in pursuit. The next day, the Muslims surrounded the army and attacked in full force. On 6 April, Louis' surrender was negotiated directly with the sultan by Philip of Montfort. The king and his entourage were taken in chains to Mansurah and the whole of the army was rounded up and led into captivity.\n\nThe Egyptians were unprepared for the large number of prisoners taken, comprising most of Louis' force. The infirm were executed immediately and several hundred were decapitated daily. Louis and his commanders were moved to Mansurah, and negotiations for their release commenced. The terms agreed to were harsh. Louis was to ransom himself by the surrender of Damietta and his army by the payment of a million bezants (later reduced to 800,000). Latin patriarch Robert of Nantes went under safe-conduct to complete the arrangements for the ransom. Arriving in Cairo, he found Turanshah dead, murdered in a coup instigated by his stepmother Shajar al-Durr. On 6 May, Geoffrey of Sergines handed Damietta over to the Moslem vanguard. Many wounded soldiers had been left behind at Damietta, and contrary to their promise, the Muslims massacred them all. In 1251, the Shepherds' Crusade, a popular crusade formed in 1251, with the objective to free Louis, engulfed France. After his release, Louis went to Acre where he remained until 1254. This is regarded as the end of the Seventh Crusade.\n\n### The Last Crusades\n\nAfter the defeat of the Crusaders in Egypt, Louis remained in Syria until 1254 to consolidate the crusader states. A brutal power struggle developed in Egypt between various Mamluk leaders and the remaining weak Ayyubid rulers. The threat presented by an invasion by the Mongols led to one of the competing Mamluk leaders, Qutuz, seizing the sultanate in 1259 and uniting with another faction led by Baibars to defeat the Mongols at Ain Jalut. The Mamluks then quickly gained control of Damascus and Aleppo before Qutuz was assassinated and Baibers assumed control.\n\nBetween 1265 and 1271, Baibars drove the Franks to a few small coastal outposts. Baibars had three key objectives: to prevent an alliance between the Latins and the Mongols, to cause dissension among the Mongols (particularly between the Golden Horde and the Persian Ilkhanate), and to maintain access to a supply of slave recruits from the Russian steppes. He supported Manfred of Sicily's failed resistance to the attack of Charles and the papacy. Dissension in the crusader states led to conflicts such as the War of Saint Sabas. Venice drove the Genoese from Acre to Tyre where they continued to trade with Egypt. Indeed, Baibars negotiated free passage for the Genoese with Michael VIII Palaiologos, Emperor of Nicaea, the newly restored ruler of Constantinople. In 1270 Charles turned his brother King Louis IX's crusade, known as the Eighth Crusade, to his own advantage by persuading him to attack Tunis. The crusader army was devastated by disease, and Louis himself died at Tunis on 25 August. The fleet returned to France. Prince Edward, the future king of England, and a small retinue arrived too late for the conflict but continued to the Holy Land in what is known as Lord Edward's Crusade. Edward survived an assassination attempt, negotiated a ten-year truce, and then returned to manage his affairs in England. This ended the last significant crusading effort in the eastern Mediterranean.\n\n### Decline and fall of the Crusader States\n\nThe years 1272–1302 include numerous conflicts throughout the Levant as well as the Mediterranean and Western European regions, and many crusades were proposed to free the Holy Land from Mamluk control. These include ones of Gregory X, Charles I of Anjou and Nicholas IV, none of which came to fruition. The major players fighting the Muslims included the kings of England and France, the kingdoms of Cyprus and Sicily, the three Military Orders and Mongol Ilkhanate. The end of Western European presence in the Holy Land was sealed with the fall of Tripoli and their subsequent defeat at the siege of Acre in 1291. The Christian forces managed to survive until the final fall of Ruad in 1302.\n\nThe Holy Land would no longer be the focus of the West even though various crusades were proposed in the early years of the fourteenth century. The Knights Hospitaller would conquer Rhodes from Byzantium, making it the center of their activity for a hundred years. The Knights Templar, the elite fighting force in the kingdom, would be disbanded and its knights imprisoned or executed. The Mongols converted to Islam, but disintegrated as a fighting force. The Mamluk sultanate would continue for another century. The Crusades to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land were over.\n\n## Other crusades\n\nThe military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to recover the Holy Land from Muslims provided a template for warfare in other areas that also interested the Latin Church. These included the 12th and 13th century conquest of Muslim Al-Andalus by Spanish Christian kingdoms; 12th to 15th century German Northern Crusades expansion into the pagan Baltic region; the suppression of non-conformity, particularly in Languedoc during what has become called the Albigensian Crusade and for the Papacy's temporal advantage in Italy and Germany that are now known as political crusades. In the 13th and 14th centuries there were also unsanctioned, but related popular uprisings to recover Jerusalem known variously as Shepherds' or Children's crusades.\n\nUrban II equated the crusades for Jerusalem with the ongoing Catholic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and crusades were preached in 1114 and 1118, but it was Pope Callixtus II who proposed dual fronts in Spain and the Middle East in 1122. In the spring of 1147, Eugene authorized the expansion of his mission into the Iberian peninsula, equating these campaigns against the Moors with the rest of the Second Crusade. The successful siege of Lisbon, from 1 July to 25 October 1147, was followed by the six-month siege of Tortosa, ending on 30 December 1148 with a defeat for the Moors. In the north, some Germans were reluctant to fight in the Holy Land while the pagan Wends were a more immediate problem. The resulting Wendish Crusade of 1147 was partially successful but failed to convert the pagans to Christianity. By the time of the Second Crusade the three Spanish kingdoms were powerful enough to conquer Islamic territory – Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. In 1212 the Spanish were victorious at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa with the support of foreign fighters responding to the preaching of Innocent III. Many of these deserted because of the Spanish tolerance of the defeated Muslims, for whom the Reconquista was a war of domination rather than extermination. In contrast the Christians formerly living under Muslim rule called Mozarabs had the Roman Rite relentlessly imposed on them and were absorbed into mainstream Catholicism. Al-Andalus, Islamic Spain, was completely suppressed in 1492 when the Emirate of Granada surrendered.\n\nIn 1147, Pope Eugene III extended Calixtus's idea by authorising a crusade on the German north-eastern frontier against the pagan Wends from what was primarily economic conflict. From the early 13th century, there was significant involvement of military orders, such as the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Order of Dobrzyń. The Teutonic Knights diverted efforts from the Holy Land, absorbed these orders and established the State of the Teutonic Order. This evolved the Duchy of Prussia and Duchy of Courland and Semigallia in 1525 and 1562, respectively.\n\nBy the beginning of the 13th century Papal reticence in applying crusades against the papacy's political opponents and those considered heretics. Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against Catharism that failed to suppress the heresy itself but ruined the culture the Languedoc. This set a precedent that was followed in 1212 with pressure exerted on the city of Milan for tolerating Catharism, in 1234 against the Stedinger peasants of north-western Germany, in 1234 and 1241 Hungarian crusades against Bosnian heretics. The historian Norman Housley notes the connection between heterodoxy and anti-papalism in Italy. Indulgence was offered to anti-heretical groups such as the Militia of Jesus Christ and the Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Innocent III declared the first political crusade against Frederick II's regent, Markward von Annweiler, and when Frederick later threatened Rome in 1240, Gregory IX used crusading terminology to raise support against him. On Frederick II's death the focus moved to Sicily. In 1263, Pope Urban IV offered crusading indulgences to Charles of Anjou in return for Sicily's conquest. However, these wars had no clear objectives or limitations, making them unsuitable for crusading. The 1281 election of a French pope, Martin IV, brought the power of the papacy behind Charles. Charles's preparations for a crusade against Constantinople were foiled by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, who instigated an uprising called the Sicilian Vespers. Instead, Peter III of Aragon was proclaimed king of Sicily, despite his excommunication and an unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade. Political crusading continued against Venice over Ferrara; Louis IV, King of Germany when he marched to Rome for his imperial coronation; and the free companies of mercenaries.\n\nThe Latin states established were a fragile patchwork of petty realms threatened by Byzantine successor states – the Despotate of Epirus, the Empire of Nicaea and the Empire of Trebizond. Thessaloniki fell to Epirus in 1224, and Constantinople to Nicaea in 1261. Achaea and Athens survived under the French after the Treaty of Viterbo. The Venetians endured a long-standing conflict with the Ottoman Empire until the final possessions were lost in the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War in the 18th century. This period of Greek history is known as the Frankokratia or Latinokratia (\"Frankish or Latin rule\") and designates a period when western European Catholics ruled Orthodox Byzantine Greeks.\n\nThe major crusades of the 14th century include: the Crusade against the Dulcinians; the Crusade of the Poor; the Anti-Catalan Crusade; the Shepherds' Crusade; the Smyrniote Crusades; the Crusade against Novgorod; the Savoyard Crusade; the Alexandrian Crusade; the Despenser's Crusade; the Mahdia, Tedelis, and Bona Crusades; and the Crusade of Nicopolis.\n\nThe threat of the expanding Ottoman Empire prompted further campaigns. In 1389, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo, won control of the Balkans from the Danube to the Gulf of Corinth, in 1396 defeated French crusaders and King Sigismund of Hungary at the Nicopolis, in 1444 destroyed a crusading Polish and Hungarian force at Varna, four years later again defeated the Hungarians at Kosovo and in 1453 captured Constantinople. The 16th century saw growing rapprochement. The Habsburgs, French, Spanish and Venetians and Ottomans all signed treaties. Francis I of France allied with all quarters, including from German Protestant princes and Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.\n\nAnti-Christian crusading declined in the 15th century, the exceptions were the six failed crusades against the religiously radical Hussites in Bohemia and attacks on the Waldensians in Savoy. Crusading became a financial exercise; precedence was given to the commercial and political objectives. The military threat presented by the Ottoman Turks diminished, making anti-Ottoman crusading obsolete in 1699 with the final Holy League.\n\n## Crusading movement\n\nPrior to the 11th century, the Latin Church had developed a system for the remission and absolution of sin in return for contrition, confession, and penitential acts. Reparation through abstinence from martial activity still presented a difficulty to the noble warrior class. It was revolutionary when Gregory VII offered absolution of sin earned through the Church-sponsored violence in support of his causes, if selflessly given at the end of the century. This was developed by subsequent Popes into the granting of plenary indulgences that reduced all God-imposed temporal penalties. The papacy developed \"Political Augustinianism\" into attempts to remove the Church from secular control by asserting ecclesiastical supremacy over temporal polities and the Orthodox Church. This was associated with the idea that the Church should actively intervene in the world to impose \"justice\".\n\nA distinct ideology promoting and regulating crusading is evidenced in surviving texts. The Church defined this in legal and theological terms based on the theory of holy war and the concept of pilgrimage. Theology merged the Old Testament Israelite wars instigated and assisted by God with New Testament Christocentric views. Holy war was based on ancient ideas of just war. The fourth-century theologian Augustine of Hippo had Christianised this, and it eventually became the paradigm of Christian holy war. Theologians widely accepted the justification that holy war against pagans was good, because of their opposition to Christianity. The Holy Land was the patrimony of Christ; its recovery was on behalf of God. The Albigensian Crusade was a defence of the French Church, the Northern Crusades were campaigns conquering lands beloved of Christ's mother Mary for Christianity.\n\nInspired by the First Crusade, the crusading movement went on to define late medieval western culture and impacted the history of the western Islamic world. Christendom was geopolitical, and this underpinned the practice of the medieval Church. Reformists of the 11th century urged these ideas which declined following the Reformation. The ideology continued after the 16th century with the military orders but dwindled in competition with other forms of religious war and new ideologies.\n\n## Military orders\n\n`The military orders were forms of a religious order first established early in the twelfth century with the function of defending Christians, as well as observing monastic vows. The Knights Hospitaller had a medical mission in Jerusalem since before the First Crusade, later becoming a formidable military force supporting the crusades in the Holy Land and Mediterranean. The Knights Templar were founded in 1119 by a band of knights who dedicated themselves to protecting pilgrims en route to Jerusalem. The Teutonic Knights were formed in 1190 to protect pilgrims in both the Holy Land and Baltic region.`\n\nThe Hospitallers and the Templars became supranational organisations as papal support led to rich donations of land and revenue across Europe. This, in turn, led to a steady flow of new recruits and the wealth to maintain multiple fortifications in the crusader states. In time, they developed into autonomous powers in the region. After the fall of Acre the Hospitallers relocated to Cyprus, then ruled Rhodes until the island was taken by the Ottomans in 1522. While there was talk of merging the Templars and Hospitallers in by Clement V, but ultimately the Templars were charged with heresy and disbanded. The Teutonic Knights supported the later Prussian campaigns into the fifteenth century.\n\n## Art and architecture\n\nAccording to the historian Joshua Prawer no major European poet, theologian, scholar or historian settled in the crusader states. Some went on pilgrimage, and this is seen in new imagery and ideas in western poetry. Although they did not migrate east themselves, their output often encouraged others to journey there on pilgrimage.\n\nHistorians consider the crusader military architecture of the Middle East to demonstrate a synthesis of the European, Byzantine and Muslim traditions and to be the most original and impressive artistic achievement of the crusades. Castles were a tangible symbol of the dominance of a Latin Christian minority over a largely hostile majority population. They also acted as centres of administration. Modern historiography rejects the 19th-century consensus that Westerners learnt the basis of military architecture from the Near East, as Europe had already experienced rapid development in defensive technology before the First Crusade. Direct contact with Arab fortifications originally constructed by the Byzantines did influence developments in the east, but the lack of documentary evidence means that it remains difficult to differentiate between the importance of this design culture and the constraints of situation. The latter led to the inclusion of oriental design features such as large water reservoirs and the exclusion of occidental features such as moats.\n\nTypically, crusader church design was in the French Romanesque style. This can be seen in the 12th-century rebuilding of the Holy Sepulchre. It retained some of the Byzantine details, but new arches and chapels were built to northern French, Aquitanian, and Provençal patterns. There is little trace of any surviving indigenous influence in sculpture, although in the Holy Sepulchre the column capitals of the south facade follow classical Syrian patterns.\n\nIn contrast to architecture and sculpture, it is in the area of visual culture that the assimilated nature of the society was demonstrated. Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries the influence of indigenous artists was demonstrated in the decoration of shrines, paintings and the production of illuminated manuscripts. Frankish practitioners borrowed methods from the Byzantines and indigenous artists and iconographical practice leading to a cultural synthesis, illustrated by the Church of the Nativity. Wall mosaics were unknown in the west but in widespread use in the crusader states. Whether this was by indigenous craftsmen or learnt by Frankish ones is unknown, but a distinctive original artistic style evolved.\n\nManuscripts were produced and illustrated in workshops housing Italian, French, English and local craftsmen leading to a cross-fertilisation of ideas and techniques. An example of this is the Melisende Psalter, created by several hands in a workshop attached to the Holy Sepulchre. This style could have both reflected and influenced the taste of patrons of the arts. But what is seen is an increase in stylised, Byzantine-influenced content. This extended to the production of icons, unknown at the time to the Franks, sometimes in a Frankish style and even of western saints. This is seen as the origin of Italian panel painting. While it is difficult to track illumination of manuscripts and castle design back to their origins, textual sources are simpler. The translations made in Antioch are notable, but they are considered of secondary importance to the works emanating from Muslim Spain and from the hybrid culture of Sicily.\n\n## Finance of the Crusades\n\nCrusade finance and taxation left a legacy of social, financial, and legal institutions. Property became available while coinage and precious materials circulated more readily within Europe. Crusading expeditions created immense demands for food supplies, weapons, and shipping that benefited merchants and artisans. Levies for crusades contributed to the development of centralised financial administrations and the growth of papal and royal taxation. This aided development of representative bodies whose consent was required for many forms of taxation. The Crusades strengthened exchanges between oriental and occidental economic spheres. The transport of pilgrims and crusaders notably benefitted Italian maritime cities, such as the trio of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. Having obtained commercial privileges in the fortified places of Syria, they became the favoured intermediaries for trade in goods such as silk, spices, as well as other raw alimentary goods and mineral products. Trade with the Muslim world was thus extended beyond existing limits. Merchants were further advantaged by technological improvements, and long-distance trade as a whole expanded. The increased volume of goods being traded through ports of the Latin Levant and the Muslim world made this the cornerstone of a wider middle-eastern economy, as manifested in important cities along the trade routes, such as Aleppo, Damascus, and Acre. It became increasingly common for European merchants to venture further east, and business was conducted fairly despite religious differences, and continued even in times of political and military tensions.\n\n## Legacy\n\nThe Crusades created national mythologies, tales of heroism, and a few place names. Historical parallelism and the tradition of drawing inspiration from the Middle Ages have become keystones of political Islam encouraging ideas of a modern jihad and a centuries-long struggle against Christian states, while secular Arab nationalism highlights the role of western imperialism. Modern Muslim thinkers, politicians and historians have drawn parallels between the crusades and political developments such as the establishment of Israel in 1948. Right-wing circles in the western world have drawn opposing parallels, considering Christianity to be under an Islamic religious and demographic threat that is analogous to the situation at the time of the crusades. Crusader symbols and anti-Islamic rhetoric are presented as an appropriate response. These symbols and rhetoric are used to provide a religious justification and inspiration for a struggle against a religious enemy.\n\n## Historiography\n\nThe historiography of the Crusades is concerned with their \"history of the histories\" during the Crusader period. The subject is a complex one, with overviews provided in Select Bibliography of the Crusades, Modern Historiography, and Crusades (Bibliography and Sources). The histories describing the Crusades are broadly of three types: (1) The primary sources of the Crusades, which include works written in the medieval period, generally by participants in the Crusade or written contemporaneously with the event, letters and documents in archives, and archaeological studies; (2) secondary sources, beginning with early consolidated works in the 16th century and continuing to modern times; and (3) tertiary sources, primarily encyclopedias, bibliographies and genealogies.\n\nPrimary sources. The primary sources for the Crusades are generally presented in the individual articles on each Crusade and summarized in the list of sources for the Crusades. For the First Crusade, the original Latin chronicles, including the Gesta Francorum, works by Albert of Aachen and Fulcher of Chartres, The Alexiad by Byzantine princess Anna Komnene, the Complete Work of History by Muslim historian Ali ibn al-Athir, and the Chronicle of Armenian historian Matthew of Edessa, provide for a starting point for the study of the Crusades' historiography. Many of these and related texts are found in the collections Recueil des historiens des croisades (RHC) and Crusade Texts in Translation. The work of William of Tyre, Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum, and its continuations by later historians complete the foundational work of the traditional Crusade. Some of these works also provide insight into the later Crusades and Crusader states. Other works include:\n\n- Eyewitness accounts of the Second Crusade by Odo of Deuil and Otto of Freising. The Arab view from Damascus is provided by ibn al-Qalanisi.\n- Works on the Third Crusade such as Libellus de Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum expeditione, the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi, and the works of Crusaders Tageno and Roger of Howden, and the narratives of Richard of Devizes, Ralph de Diceto, Ralph of Coggeshall and Arnold of Lübeck. The Arabic works by al-Isfahani and al-Maqdisi as well as the biography of Saladin by Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad are also of interest.\n- The Fourth Crusade is described in the Devastatio Constantinopolitana and works of Geoffrey of Villehardouin, in his chronicle De la Conquête de Constantinople, Robert de Clari and Gunther of Pairis. The view of Byzantium is provided by Niketas Choniates and the Arab perspective is given by Abū Shāma and Abu'l-Fida.\n- The history of the Fifth and Sixth Crusades is well represented in the works of Jacques de Vitry, Oliver of Paderborn and Roger of Wendover, and the Arabic works of Badr al-Din al-Ayni.\n- Key sources for the later Crusades include Gestes des Chiprois, Jean de Joinville's Life of Saint Louis, as well as works by Guillaume de Nangis, Matthew Paris, Fidentius of Padua and al-Makrizi.\n\nAfter the fall of Acre, the crusades continued in through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject are the Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades and Norman Housley's The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar. Complete bibliographies are also given in these works.\n\nSecondary sources. The secondary sources of the Crusades began in the 16th century, with the first use of the term crusades was by 17th century French historian Louis Maimbourg in his Histoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte. Other works of the 18th century include Voltaire's Histoire des Croisades, and Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, excerpted as The Crusades, A.D. 1095–1261 and published in 1870. This edition also includes an essay on chivalry by Sir Walter Scott, whose works helped popularize the Crusades. Early in the 19th century, the monumental Histoire des Croisades was published by the French historian Joseph François Michaud, a major new narrative based on original sources.\n\nThese histories have provided evolving views of the Crusades as discussed in detail in the Historiography writeup in Crusading movement. Modern works that serve as secondary source material are listed in the Bibliography section below and need no further discussion here.\n\nTertiary sources. Three such works are: Louis Bréhier's multiple works on the Crusades in the Catholic Encyclopedia; the works of Ernest Barker in the Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition), later expanded into a separate publication; and The Crusades: An Encyclopedia (2006), edited by historian Alan V. Murray.\n\n## See also\n\n- Criticism of crusading\n- Crusades after Acre, 1291–1399\n- History of Christianity\n- History of the Knights Hospitaller in the Levant\n- History of the Knights Templar\n- List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land\n- Military history of the Crusader states\n- Women in the Crusades", "revid": "1172535689", "description": "Religious wars of the High Middle Ages", "categories": ["Catholicism and Islam", "Catholicism-related controversies", "Christianity-related controversies", "Crusades", "Islam-related controversies", "Judaism-related controversies", "Medieval Africa", "Medieval Asia", "Medieval history of the Middle East"]}
{"id": "1261188", "url": null, "title": "The College Dropout", "text": "The College Dropout is the debut studio album by American rapper and producer Kanye West. It was released on February 10, 2004, by Def Jam Recordings and Jay-Z's Roc-A-Fella Records. In the years leading up to release, West had received praise for his production work for rappers such as Jay-Z and Talib Kweli, but faced difficulty being accepted as an artist in his own right by figures in the music industry. Intent on pursuing a solo career, he signed a record deal with Roc-A-Fella and recorded the album over a period of four years, beginning in 1999.\n\nThe production of The College Dropout was primarily handled by West and showcased his \"chipmunk soul\" musical style, which made use of sped-up, pitch shifted vocal samples from soul and R&B records, in addition to West's own drum programming, string accompaniments, and gospel choirs; the album also features contributions from Jay-Z, Mos Def, Jamie Foxx, Syleena Johnson, and Ludacris, among others. Diverging from the then-dominant gangster persona in hip hop, West's lyrics concern themes of family, self-consciousness, materialism, religion, racism, and higher education.\n\nThe College Dropout debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200, selling 441,000 copies in its first week of sales. It was a large-scale commercial success, becoming West's best-selling album in the United States at the time, with domestic sales of over 3.4 million copies by 2014 and was certified 4x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2020. The album was promoted with singles such as \"Through the Wire\", \"Jesus Walks\", \"All Falls Down\", and \"Slow Jamz\", the latter two of which peaked within the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100, with \"Slow Jamz\" becoming West's first number-one single as a lead artist.\n\nA widespread critical success, The College Dropout was praised for West's production, humorous and emotional raps, and the music's balance of self-examination and mainstream sensibilities. The album earned the rapper several accolades, including nominations for Album of the Year and Best Rap Album at the 2005 Grammy Awards, winning for the latter. It has since been named by numerous publications as one of the greatest albums of all time, including Rolling Stone and NME, who ranked it at 74 and 273 respectively on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time lists, and is credited for popularizing the chipmunk soul and conscious rap subgenres in the 2000s.\n\n## Background\n\nKanye West began his early production career in the mid-1990s, making beats primarily for burgeoning local artists, eventually developing a style that involved speeding up vocal samples from classic soul records. For a time, he acted as a ghost producer for Deric \"D-Dot\" Angelettie. Due to his association with D-Dot, West wasn't able to release a solo album, so he formed and became a member and producer of the Go-Getters, a late-1990s Chicago rap group composed of him, GLC, Timmy G, Really Doe, and Arrowstar. The group released their first and only studio album World Record Holders in 1999. West came to achieve recognition with his contributions to Jay-Z's influential 2001 album The Blueprint. The Blueprint has been named by Rolling Stone as the 252nd greatest album of all time and the critical and financial success of the album generated substantial interest in West as a producer. Serving as an in-house producer for Roc-A-Fella Records, West produced records for other artists from the label, including Beanie Sigel, Freeway, and Cam'ron. He also crafted hit songs for Ludacris, Alicia Keys, and Janet Jackson.\n\nAlthough he had attained success as a producer, Kanye West aspired to be a rapper, but had struggled to attain a record deal. Record companies ignored him because he did not portray the gangsta image prominent in mainstream hip hop at the time. After a series of meetings with Capitol Records, West was ultimately denied an artist deal. According to Capitol Record's A&R, Joe Weinberger, he was approached by West and almost signed a deal with him, but another person in the company convinced Capitol's president not to. Desperate to keep West from defecting to another label, then-label head Damon Dash reluctantly signed West to Roc-A-Fella Records. Jay-Z, West's colleague, later admitted that Roc-A-Fella was initially reluctant to support West as a rapper, claiming that many saw him as a producer first and foremost, and that his background contrasted with that of his labelmates.\n\nWest's breakthrough came a year later on October 23, 2002, when, while driving home from a California recording studio after working late, he fell asleep at the wheel and was involved in a near-fatal car crash. The crash left him with a shattered jaw, which had to be wired shut in reconstructive surgery. The accident inspired West; two weeks after being admitted to a hospital, he recorded a song at the Record Plant with his jaw still wired shut. The composition, \"Through the Wire\", expressed West's experience after the accident, and helped lay the foundation for his debut album, as according to West \"all the better artists have expressed what they were going through\". West added that \"the album was my medicine\", as working on the record distracted him from the pain. \"Through the Wire\" was first available on West's Get Well Soon... mixtape, released December 2002. At the same time, West announced that he was working on an album called The College Dropout, whose overall theme was to \"make your own decisions. Don't let society tell you, 'This is what you have to do.'\"\n\n## Recording\n\nWest began recording The College Dropout in 1999, taking four years to complete. Recording sessions took place at Record Plant in Los Angeles, California, but the production featured on the record took place elsewhere over the course of several years. According to John Monopoly, West's friend, manager and business partner, the album \"...[didn't have] a particular start date. He's been gathering beats for years. He was always producing with the intention of being a rapper. There's beats on the album he's been literally saving for himself for years\". At one point, West hovered between making a portion of the production in the studio and the majority within his own apartment in Hoboken, New Jersey. Because it was a two-bedroom apartment, West was able to set up a home studio in one of the rooms and his bedroom in the other.\n\nWest brought a Louis Vuitton backpack filled with old disks and demos to the studio, producing tracks in less than fifteen minutes at a time. He recorded the remainder of the album in Los Angeles while recovering from the car accident. Once he had completed the album, it was leaked months before its release date. However, West decided to use the opportunity to review the album, and The College Dropout was significantly remixed, remastered, and revised before being released. As a result, certain tracks originally destined for the album were subsequently retracted, among them \"Keep the Receipt\" with Ol' Dirty Bastard and \"The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly\" with Consequence. West meticulously refined the production, adding string arrangements, gospel choirs, improved drum programming and new verses. On his personal blog in 2009, West stated he was most inspired by The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill and listened to the album every day while working on The College Dropout.\n\nThe song \"School Spirit\" was censored for the album because Aretha Franklin would not allow the rapper to sample her music without censorship being promised. It was revealed by Plain Pat that there were around three other versions of the song, but West disliked them. Pat said in reference to the Franklin sample: \"That song would have been so weak if we didn't get that sample cleared\". In 2011, an uncensored version of the track was distributed online.\n\nWest finished recording around December 2003, according to his older cousin and singer Tony Williams, who was recruited by the rapper two weeks before the album's deadline to contribute vocals. Williams had impressed West by singing improvisations to \"Spaceship\" during one of their drives together. The singer later recounted recording with West for The College Dropout at the Record Plant: \"I get in, go in the booth, start vibing out on 'Spaceship' and finished it up. At that point he was like, 'Ok, Well let me see what you do on this song.' I think that's when we did 'Last Call.' One song lead to another, and by the end of the weekend, I was on like five songs. Then we did the 'I'll Fly Away' joint\". In a January 2020 interview with GQ, West revealed that around 30 to 40 percent of the album was recorded on a Roland VS-1680.\n\n## Music and lyrics\n\nThe College Dropout diverged from the then-dominant gangster persona in hip hop in favor of more diverse, topical subjects for the lyrics. Throughout the album, West touches on a number of different issues drawn from his own experiences and observations, including organized religion, family, sexuality, excessive materialism, self-consciousness, minimum wage labor, institutional prejudice, and personal struggles. Music journalist Kelefa Sanneh wrote, \"Throughout the album, Mr. West taunts everyone who didn't believe in him: teachers, record executives, police officers, even his former boss at the Gap\". West explained, \"My persona is that I'm the regular person. Just think about whatever you've been through in the past week, and I have a song about that on my album\". The album was musically notable for West's unique development of his \"chipmunk soul\" production style, in which R&B and soul music samples were sped up and pitch shifted.\n\nThe album begins with a skit featuring a college professor asking West to deliver a graduation speech. The skit is followed by \"We Don't Care\" featuring West comically celebrating drug life with lines like \"We wasn't supposed to make it past 25, joke's on you, we still alive\" and then criticizing its influence amongst children. The next track, \"Graduation Day\", features Miri Ben-Ari on violin and vocals by John Legend.\n\nOn \"All Falls Down\", West wages an attack on consumerism. The song features singer Syleena Johnson and contains an interpolation of Lauryn Hill's \"Mystery of Iniquity\". West called upon Johnson to re-sing a vocal portion of \"Mystery of Iniquity\", which ended up in the final mix. Gospel hymn with doo-wop elements \"I'll Fly Away\" precedes \"Spaceship\", a track with a relaxed beat containing a soulful Marvin Gaye sample. The lyrics are mostly critical of the working world, where West muses about flying away in a spaceship to leave his boring job, and guest rappers GLC and Consequence add comparisons to modern day retail environment with slavery.\n\nOn \"Jesus Walks\", West professes his belief in Jesus, while also discussing how religion is used by various people and how the media seems to avoid songs that address matters of faith while embracing compositions on violence, sex, and drugs. \"Jesus Walks\" is built around a sample of \"Walk With Me\" as performed by the ARC Choir. Garry Mulholland of The Observer described it as a \"towering inferno of martial beats, fathoms-deep chain gang backing chants, a defiant children's choir, gospel wails, and sizzling orchestral breaks\". The first verse of the song is told through the eyes of a drug dealer seeking help from God, and it reportedly took over six months for West to draw inspiration for the second verse.\n\n\"Never Let Me Down\" is influenced by West's near-death car crash. The song features Jay-Z, who rhymes about maintaining status and power given his chart success, while West comments on racism and poverty. The song features verses by spoken word performer J. Ivy who offers comments of upliftment. \"Never Let Me Down\" reuses a Jay-Z verse first heard in the remix of his song \"Hovi Baby\". \"Get Em High\" is a collaboration by West with two socially conscious rappers, Talib Kweli and Common. \"The New Workout Plan\" is a call to fitness to improve one's love life. \"Slow Jamz\" features Twista and Jamie Foxx and serves as a tribute to classic smooth soul artists and slow jam songs. The song also appeared on Twista's album Kamikaze. On the song \"School Spirit\", West relates the experience of dropping out of school and contains references to well-known fraternities, sororities, singer Norah Jones, and record label Roc-A-Fella Records. \"Two Words\" features commentary on social issues and features Mos Def, Freeway, and the Harlem Boys Choir.\n\n\"Through the Wire\" features a high-pitched vocal sample of Chaka Khan and relates West's real life experience with being in a car accident. The song provides a mostly comedic account of his difficult recovery, and features West rapping with his jaw still wired shut from the accident. The chorus and instrumentals sample a pitched up version of Chaka Khan's 1985 single \"Through the Fire\". \"Family Business\" is a soulful tribute to the godbrother of Tarrey Torae, one of the many collaborators in the album. The song \"Last Call\" is about West's transition from being a producer to a rapper, and the album ends with a nearly nine-minute autobiographical monologue that follows the song \"Last Call\". However, this is not a separate track.\n\n## Title and packaging\n\nThe album's title is in part a reference to West's decision to drop out of college to pursue his dream of becoming a musician. This action greatly displeased his mother, who was a professor at the university from which he withdrew. She later said, \"It was drummed into my head that college is the ticket to a good life... but some career goals don't require college. For Kanye to make an album called [The] College Dropout it was more about having the guts to embrace who you are, rather than following the path society has carved out for you\".\n\nThe artwork for the album was developed by Eric Duvauchelle, who was then part of Roc-A-Fella's in-house brand design team. West had already taken pictures dressed as the Dropout Bear - which would reappear in his later work - and Duvauchelle picked the image of him sitting on a set of bleachers, as he was attracted to the loneliness of what was supposed to be \"the most popular representation of a school\". The image is framed inside gold ornaments, which Duvauchelle found in a book of illustrations from the 16th-century and West wanted to use to \"bring a sense of elegance and style to what was typically a gangster-led image of rap artists\". The inside cover follows a college yearbook, with photos of the featured artists from their youth.\n\n## Marketing and sales\n\nThe College Dropout was originally scheduled for release in August 2003, but West's perfectionist habits producing the album led to it being postponed three times. It was first delayed to October 2003, then to January 2004, before finally being released to stores on February 10, 2004.\n\nIn its first week of release, the album sold 441,000 copies and debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, being held off the top spot by Norah Jones' second studio album Feels Like Home. The College Dropout remained at the second spot behind Feels Like Home for two consecutive weeks, with 196,000 units sold in the second week and 132,000 in the third week, respectively. In 2004, The College Dropout ranked as the twelfth most popular of the year on the Billboard 200. The album had sold 2.3 million units in the United States by November 2004. By June 2014, the album had become West's best-selling album in the US at the time, with domestic sales of 3,358,000 copies. On November 23, 2020, The College Dropout was certified four-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). On the UK Albums Chart, the album peaked at number 12, and the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) had certified it double platinum by November 25, 2004; this indicated shipments of 600,000 copies. As of 2018, The College Dropout is the fourteenth highest selling rap album in the UK in the 21st-century. The album has sold over 4 million copies worldwide.\n\nFour of the singles released in promotion of the album became top-20 chart hits: \"Through the Wire\", \"Slow Jamz\", \"All Falls Down\" and \"Jesus Walks\". \"The New Workout Plan\" was the fifth and last single. \"Spaceship\" was planned to be the sixth single, but Def Jam decided to move on from The College Dropout's promotional campaign to begin marketing West's next album, Late Registration (2005). At one point, \"Two Words\" was also intended to be released as a single, and a video for the song was filmed, and later uploaded by West online in 2009.\n\n## Critical reception\n\nThe College Dropout was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 87, based on 25 reviews.\n\nThe record was hailed by Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times as \"2004's first great hip-hop album\". Reviewing it for The A.V. Club, Nathan Rabin observed in the music \"substance, social commentary, righteous anger, ornery humanism, dark humor, and even Christianity\", calling it \"one of those wonderful crossover albums that appeal to a huge audience without sacrificing a shred of integrity\". The staff of Mojo said its exceptional hip hop production was miraculous during a time when hip hop's practice of sampling was becoming \"increasingly litigious\", and those of Urb deemed it \"both visceral and emotive, sprinkling the dancefloors with tears and sweat\". Dave Heaton from PopMatters found it \"musically engaging\" and \"a genuine extension of Kanye's personality and experiences\", while Hua Hsu of The Village Voice felt that his sped-up samples \"carry a humble, human air\", allowing listeners to \"hear tiny traces of actual people inside\". Fellow Village Voice critic Robert Christgau wrote that \"not only does [West] create a unique role model, that role model is dangerous—his arguments against education are as market-targeted as other rappers' arguments for thug life\". In the opinion of Stylus Magazine's Josh Love, West \"subverts cliches from both sides of the hip-hop divide\" while \"trying to reflect the entire spectrum of hip-hop and black experience, looking for solace and salvation in the traditional safehouses of church and family\". Entertainment Weekly's Michael Endelman elaborated on West's avoidance of the then-dominant \"gangsta\" persona of hip hop:\n\n> West delivers the goods with a disarming mix of confessional honesty and sarcastic humor, earnest idealism and big-pimping materialism. In a scene still dominated by authenticity battles and gangsta posturing, he's a middle-class, politically conscious, post-thug, bourgeois rapper – and that's nothing to be ashamed of.\n\nSome reviewers were more qualified in their praise. Rolling Stone's Jon Caramanica felt that \"West isn't quite MC enough to hold down the entire disc\", though claimed that West's \"ace in the hole is his signature cozy sound\", while Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani observed \"too many guest artists, too many interludes, and just too many songs period\" on what he considered a \"chest-beatingly self-congratulatory\" yet humorous, deeply sincere, and affecting record. It was regarded by Pitchfork critic Rob Mitchum as a \"flawed, overlong, hypocritical, egotistical, and altogether terrific album\". The staff of Rolling Stone were more receptive in a retrospective review than Caramanica was previously for the publication, calling the album \"a demonstration that hip-hop—real, banging, commercial hip-hop—could be a vehicle for nuanced self-examination and musical subtlety\".\n\n### Rankings\n\nThe College Dropout was voted as the best album of the year by The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics. The album elsewhere topped year-end lists by Rolling Stone, Spin, Vibe, and PopMatters. Dutch magazine OOR named it the seventh best album of 2004. Billboard named The College Dropout the second best album of 2004. Rhapsody named it the seventh best album of the decade and the fourth best hip hop album of the decade.\n\nIn 2005, Pitchfork named it No. 50 in their best albums of 2000–2004. In 2006, the album was named by Time as one of the 100 best albums of all time. In its retrospective 2007 issue, XXL named it one of the magazine's \"XXL\"-rated releases; this perfect rating had previously been given by the magazine to only sixteen other albums. In 2012, Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the last decade, and the 20th best hip hop debut album ever. Dagsavisen listed the album eleventh in its list of the top forty albums of the 2000s decade. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. NME placed the album at 273 on its 2013 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, while Rolling Stone ranked it at 74 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2020.\n\n### Industry awards\n\n## Influence\n\nThe College Dropout sparked a resurgence of socially conscious rap in the mid 2000s, arriving at a time when pop rap was saturated with songs featuring product placement and intensely violent lyrics, epitomized by rappers like 50 Cent, Nelly, Ja Rule, Ludacris, and P. Diddy. West instead created a space in the mainstream for rappers to express themselves and black identity without resorting to hip hop's prevalent theme of gang culture. Raul Verma of The Independent said \"West is charged with proving mainstream hip hop has a conscience with his nourishing messages of substance flying in the face of the amoral majority perpetuating clichés of guns, girls and bling\", while Vibe senior editor Noah Callahan-Bever argued that West's infusion of \"pop sensibility\" into his otherwise progressive hip hop had \"bridged the gap\" and encouraged rappers to gravitate more towards the center between mainstream and alternative forms. Today commented that \"The College Dropout, stood out in the rap landscape because of its atypical prose. It avoided the usual plotlines about sex, money and violence and touched on everything from his faith to his fears of failure and other crises from his life.\"\n\nAccording to DJBooth journalist Brad Callas, the album also \"helped solidify chipmunk soul as not only the defining sound of the Roc-A-Fella era but also the most popular sub-genre in hip-hop\". \"It feels like that album birthed an entire sub-genre\", Max Weinstein wrote in retrospect for Vibe, going on to say, \"The palette of emotions was so broad, the depth of topics so searingly relevant, that it was bound to make an impression on any artist that heard it. RZA might have birthed chipmunk soul, and Black Star perfected smart lyricism for the JanSport bunch, but 'Ye brought all that to the masses in one single, digestible product, breaking down the divisions between mainstream rap and Rawkus-grade consciousness.\" Weinstein also credited The College Dropout with directly influencing 10 albums: Lupe Fiasco's Food & Liquor (2006) by Lupe Fiasco, School Was My Hustle (2006) by Kidz in the Hall, Don't Quit Your Day Job! (2007) by Consequence, A Kid Named Cudi (2008) by Kid Cudi, Asleep in the Bread Aisle (2009) by Asher Roth, Kendrick Lamar's self-titled first EP (2009), Camp (2011) by Childish Gambino, Cole World: The Sideline Story (2011) by J. Cole, When Fish Ride Bicycles (2011) by The Cool Kids, and Acid Rap (2013) by Chance the Rapper.\n\nWith the album, West began to develop a following of listeners who could not relate to lyrics glorifying gangster lifestyle but still enjoyed rap music and connected more with his musings on family and love. In 2005, comedian Chris Rock attested to listening to The College Dropout while writing his stand-up material. Music journalists such as Meaghan Garvey, Andrew Barber, and Erika Ramirez also connected to the album during their formative years, with Barber saying in a roundtable discussion for Noisey, \"I could identify with this project the most because I was in college at the time, and I felt like an underdog in my own life. I was uncertain of my future. [West's] words on 'Last Call' inspired me to follow my dreams, and motivated me to graduate despite the album title.\" In the same discussion, music journalist Eric Sundermann cited The College Dropout as the first in West's pop rap album trilogy that would be followed by Late Registration in 2005 and Graduation in 2007, while Craig Jenkins called it \"a watershed moment in 2000s rap history where the nerds stormed the school to seize control from the jocks, a shift memorialized two albums later when Graduation trounced 50 Cent's Curtis album in their 2007 sales showdown.\"\n\n## Track listing\n\nAll tracks are produced by Kanye West, except \"Last Call\" (co-produced with Evidence; additional production by Porse) and \"Breathe In Breathe Out\" (co-produced with Brian Miller).\n\n### 2005 Japanese special edition\n\n### Sample credits\n\n- \"We Don't Care\" contains samples of \"I Just Wanna Stop\", written by Ross Vannelli and performed by The Jimmy Castor Bunch.\n- \"All Falls Down\" contains interpolations of \"Mystery of Iniquity\", written and performed by Lauryn Hill.\n- \"Spaceship\" contains samples of \"Distant Lover\", written by Marvin Gaye, Gwen Gordy Fuqua and Sandra Greene, and performed by Marvin Gaye.\n- \"Jesus Walks\" contains samples of \"Walk with Me\", performed by The ARC Choir and \"(Don't Worry) If There's a Hell Below, We're All Going to Go\", written and performed by Curtis Mayfield.\n- \"Never Let Me Down\" contains samples of \"Maybe It's the Power of Love\", written by Michael Bolton and Bruce Kulick, and performed by Blackjack.\n- \"Slow Jamz\" contains samples of \"A House Is Not a Home\", written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David, and performed by Luther Vandross.\n- \"School Spirit\" contains samples of \"Spirit in the Dark\", written and performed by Aretha Franklin.\n- \"Two Words\" contains samples of \"Peace & Love (Amani Na Mapenzi) – Movement IV (Encounter)\", written by Lou Wilson, Ric Wilson and Carlos Wilson, and performed by Mandrill.\n- \"Through the Wire\" contains samples of \"Through the Fire\", written by David Foster, Tom Keane and Cynthia Weil, and performed by Chaka Khan.\n- \"Family Business\" contains samples of \"Fonky Thang\", written by Terry Callier and Charles Stepney, and performed by The Dells.\n- \"Last Call\" contains samples of \"Mr. Rockefeller\", written by Jerry Blatt and Bette Midler, and performed by Bette Midler.\n\n## Personnel\n\nCredits are adapted from the album's liner notes.\n\n### Musicians\n\n- John Legend – vocals (track 3), additional vocals (tracks 2, 6, 7, 11, 21), background vocals (track 8), piano (track 3)\n- DeRay – additional vocals (tracks 1, 5, 14, 16, 17)\n- Tony Williams – additional vocals (track 5, 6, 15, 17, 21)\n- Sumeke Rainey – additional vocals (tracks 9, 11)\n- Tracie Spencer – additional vocals (track 12), background vocals (track 8)\n- Riccarda Watkins – additional vocals (track 2)\n- Candis Brown – additional vocals (track 10)\n- Brandi Kuykenvall – additional vocals (track 10)\n- Tiera Singleton – additional vocals (track 10)\n- Aisha Tyler – additional vocals (track 12)\n- Thomasina Atkins – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Linda Petty – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Beverly McCargo – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Lavel Mena – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Thai Jones – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Kevin Shannon – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Tarey Torae – additional vocals (track 20)\n- Rude Jude – additional vocals (track 22)\n- Terence Hardy – \"kids\" vocals (track 2)\n- Diamond Alabi-Isama – \"kids\" vocals (track 2)\n- James \"JT\" Knight – \"kids\" vocals (track 2)\n- Keyshia Cole – background vocals (track 2)\n- Ervin \"EP\" Pope – keyboards (tracks 8, 12), piano (tracks 5, 11, 17, 21)\n- Glenn Jefferey – guitars (tracks 8, 12, 21)\n- Keenan \"Kee-note\" Holloway – bass (tracks 8, 12), additional bass (track 21)\n- Frank Walker – percussion (tracks 3, 8, 12)\n- Ken Lewis – acoustic guitar (track 4), sample recreation and performance (track 8), additional instrumentation (track 20), guitar, bass, keyboard, percussion, vocal (track 21)\n- Eric \"E-Bass\" Johnson – guitars (tracks 4, 11)\n- Bosko – talkbox (track 11)\n- Keith Slattery – keyboards (track 18)\n- Scott Ward – bass guitar (track 19)\n- Josh Zandman – piano (track 20)\n- Miri Ben-Ari – violins production, writing, arrangement and performance (tracks 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 18, 22)\n\n### Production\n\n- Rabeka Tunei – recording (tracks 1, 4–6, 8, 10, 14–17, 20, 21)\n- Eugene A. Toale – recording (tracks 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 22)\n- Andrew Dawson – recording (tracks 6, 7, 11, 15)\n- Anthony Kilhoffer – recording (tracks 3, 8, 9)\n- Tatsuya Sato – recording (tracks 4, 6, 7)\n- Rich Balmer – recording (tracks 2, 22)\n- Brent Kolatalo – recording (tracks 8, 21), assistant engineering (track 22)\n- Keith Slattery – recording (tracks 11, 18)\n- Jacob Andrew – recording (tracks 13, 20)\n- Gimel \"Guru\" Keaton – recording (track 8)\n- Jacelyn Parry – recording (track 8)\n- Michael Eleopoulos – recording (track 9)\n- Dave Dar – recording (track 9)\n- Jason Rauhoff – recording (track 13)\n- Marc Fuller – recording (track 18)\n- Carlisle Young – recording (track 18)\n- Francis Graham – recording (track 19)\n- Manny Marroquin – mixing (tracks 1–10, 12–17, 19–21)\n- Jared Lopez – mixing (track 11)\n- Mike Dean – mixing (track 18)\n- Ken Lewis – mixing (track 22)\n- Eddy Schreyer – mastering\n\n### Design\n\n- Danny Clinch – photography\n- Eric Duvauchelle – art direction and design\n- Mike Godshall – art direction and design\n- Jim Morris – art direction and design\n- Stephanie Reynolds – art direction and design\n- Lauri Rowe – art direction and design\n- Bobby Naugle – Dropout Bear logo design\n- Sam Hansen – Dropout Bear logo design\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n### Decade-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## See also\n\n- 2004 in hip hop music\n- Kanye West albums discography\n- Kanye West production discography\n- The College Dropout Video Anthology\n- List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2004\n- College Dropout (restaurant)", "revid": "1172887615", "description": "2004 studio album by Kanye West", "categories": ["2004 debut albums", "Albums produced by Evidence (musician)", "Albums produced by Kanye West", "Albums recorded at Record Plant (Los Angeles)", "Def Jam Recordings albums", "Grammy Award for Best Rap Album", "Kanye West albums", "Pop-rap albums", "Progressive rap albums", "Roc-A-Fella Records albums"]}
{"id": "71536498", "url": null, "title": "Al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi", "text": "Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (Arabic: أبو عبد الله المفضل بن عمر الجعفي), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (c. 700–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), he belonged to those circles in Kufa whom later Twelver Shi'i authors would call ghulāt ('exaggerators') for their 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams.\n\nAs a money-changer, al-Mufaddal wielded considerable financial and political power. He was likely also responsible for managing the financial affairs of the Imams in Medina. For a time he was a follower of the famous ghulāt leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), who had claimed that the Imams were divine. Early Imami heresiographers and Nusayri sources regard al-Mufaddal as a staunch supporter of Abu al-Khattab's ideas who later spawned his own ghulāt movement (the Mufaḍḍaliyya). However, Twelver Shi'i sources instead report that after Ja'far al-Sadiq's repudiated Abu al-Khattab in 748, al-Mufaddal broke with Abu al-Khattab and became a trusted companion of Ja'far's son Musa al-Kazim.\n\nA number of writings—collectively known as the Mufaddal Tradition—have been attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which are still extant. They were likely falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal by later 9th–11th-century authors. As one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq, al-Mufaddal was an attractive figure for authors of various Shi'i persuasions: by attributing their own ideas to him they could invest these ideas with the authority of the Imam. The writings attributed to al-Mufaddal are very different in nature and scope, but Ja'far al-Sadiq is the main speaker in most of them.\n\nA major part of the extant writings attributed to al-Mufaddal originated among the ghulāt, an early branch of Shi'i Islam. A recurring theme in these texts is the myth of the world's creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent \"shadows\" or human souls, whom God punished for their disobedience by concealing himself from them and by casting them down into the seven heavens. The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows, 8th to 11th centuries) develops the theme of seven primordial Adams who rule over the seven heavens and initiate the seven historical world cycles. The Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path, written c. 874–941) describes an initiatory \"path\" leading believers back through the seven heavens towards God. Those who grow in religious devotion and knowledge climb upwards on the chain of being, but others are reborn into human bodies, while unbelievers travel downwards and reincarnate into animal, vegetable, or mineral bodies. Those who reach the seventh heaven and attain the rank of Bāb (\"Gate\") enjoy a beatific vision of God and share the divine power to manifest themselves in the world of matter.\n\nAmong the extant non-ghulāt texts attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which were preserved in the Twelver Shi'i tradition, two treatises stand out for their philosophical content. These are the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (al-Mufaddal's Tawhid) and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit), both of which feature Ja'far al-Sadiq presenting al-Mufaddal with a proof for the existence of God. The teleological argument used in the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back to Hellenistic models such as pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum. The dialectical style of the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja is more typical of early Muslim speculative theology (kalām), and the work may originally have been authored by the 8th-century scribe Muhammad ibn Layth. Both works may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal as a reliable transmitter of hadiths in the Twelver Shi'i tradition.\n\n## Life\n\nAl-Mufaddal was a non-Arab mawlā (\"client\") of the Ju'fa, a tribe belonging to the South-Arabian Madhhij confederation. Apart from the fact that he was a money-changer based in Kufa (Iraq), very little is known about his life. He probably managed the financial affairs of the Shi'ite Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (c. 700–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), who resided in Medina (Arabia). Using his professional network, he actively raised funds for the Imams in Medina, thus also playing an important role as an intermediary between the Imams and the Shi'ite community. His date of death is unknown, but he died before Musa al-Kazim, who died in 799.\n\nAt some point during his life, al-Mufaddal's relations with Ja'far al-Sadiq soured because of his adherence to the teachings of the Kufan ghulāt leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6). Abu al-Khattab had been a designated spokesman of Ja'far, but in c. 748 he was excommunicated by the Imam for his 'extremist' or 'exaggerated' (ghulāt) ideas, particularly for having declared Ja'far to be divine. However, al-Mufaddal later recanted and cut of all contact with the Khaṭṭabiyya (the followers of Abu al-Khattab), leading to a reconciliation with Ja'far.\n\nThis episode was understood in widely different ways by later Shi'i authors. On the one hand, early Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver Shi'i) heresiographers report the existence of a ghulāt sect named after him, the Mufaḍḍaliyya, who would have declared Ja'far to be God and al-Mufaddal his prophet or Imam. It is not certain whether the Mufaḍḍaliyya really ever existed, and if they did, whether they really held the doctrines attributed to them by the heresiographers. Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal was also highly regarded by the members of other ghulāt sects such as the Mukhammisa, and several of the writings attributed to him contain ghulāt ideas. He was even accused in some hadith reports of having tried to contaminate Ja'far's eldest son Isma'il with the ideas of Abu al-Khattab. In addition, most works attributed to al-Mufaddal were preserved by the Nusayris, a ghulāt sect that survives to this day and that sometimes regarded al-Mufaddal as a Bāb (an official deputy of the Imam and a \"gateway\" to his secret knowledge).\n\nOn the other hand, later Twelver Shi'i sources often insist that al-Mufaddal never gave in to heresy, and they often emphasize that it was al-Mufaddal who was appointed by Ja'far to lead the Khaṭṭabiyya back to the right path. Some of the works attributed to al-Mufaddal, like the Kitab al-Ihlīlaja and the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, explicitly refute those who would deny the exclusive oneness (tawḥīd) of God. These works may have been written in order to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal within the Twelver tradition and to prove his reliability as a hadith transmitter. But even among Twelver scholars there was dissension. For example, while al-Shaykh al-Mufid (c. 948–1022) praised al-Mufaddal as a learned person and a trustworthy companion of the Imams, al-Najashi (c. 982–1058) and Ibn al-Ghada'iri ( half of the 11th century) denounced him as an unbelieving heretic.\n\n## Ghulāt works\n\n### Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows)\n\n#### Content\n\nThe Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows), also known as Kitāb al-Haft al-sharīf (Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as Kitāb al-Haft (Book of the Seven), 8th–11th centuries, is perhaps the most important work attributed to al-Mufaddal. It sets out in great detail the ghulāt myth of the pre-existent \"shadows\" (Arabic: aẓilla) whose fall from grace led to the creation of the material world. This theme of pre-existent shadows seems to have been typical of the 8th-century Kufan ghulāt: also appearing in other early ghulāt works such as the Umm al-kitāb, it may ultimately go back to Abd Allah ibn Harb ().\n\nGreat emphasis is placed throughout the work on the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to as mawlānā (\"our lord\"), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers (muʾminūn). It involves notions such as the transmigration of souls (tanāsukh or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles. This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism, where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle.\n\nA central element of the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla is the creation myth involving pre-existent \"shadows\", which also occurs in many other ghulāt works with slightly different details. According to this myth, the first created beings were human souls who initially dwelt in the presence of God in the form of shadows. When the shadows disobeyed God, he created a veil (ḥijāb) in which he concealed himself as a punishment. Then God created the seven heavens as a dwelling place for the disobedient souls, according to their sin. In each of the heavens God also created bodies from his own light for the souls who arrived there, and from the souls' disobedience he created the Devil. Finally, from the offspring of the Devil God created the bodies of animals and various other sublunary entities (masūkhiyya).\n\n#### Composition and legacy\n\nThe Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla consists of at least eleven different textual layers which were added over time, each of them containing slightly different versions of ghulāt concepts and ideas. The earliest layers were written in 8th/9th-century Kufa, perhaps partly by al-Mufaddal himself, or by his close associates Yunus ibn Zabyan and Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835). A possible indication for this is the fact that Muhammad ibn Sinan also wrote two works dealing with the theme of pre-existent shadows: the Kitāb al-Aẓilla (Book of the Shadows) and the Kitāb al-Anwār wa-ḥujub (Book of the Lights and the Veils). Shi'i bibliographical sources also list several other 8th/9th-century Kufan authors who wrote a Kitāb al-Aẓilla or Book of the Shadows. In total, at least three works closely related to al-Mufaddal's Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla are extant, all likely dating to the 8th or 9th century:\n\n1. Muhammad ibn Sinan's Kitāb al-Anwār wa-ḥujub (Book of the Lights and the Veils)\n2. an anonymous work called the Kitāb al-Ashbāh wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Apparitions and the Shadows)\n3. another anonymous work also called the Kitāb al-Aẓilla (Book of the Shadows).\n\nThough originating in the milieus of the early Kufan ghulāt, the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla was considerably expanded by members of a later ghulāt sect called the Nusayris, who were active in 10th-century Syria. The Nusayris were probably also responsible for the work's final 11th-century form. However, the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla was not preserved by the Nusayris, but by the Syrian Nizari Isma'ilis. Like the Umm al-kitāb, another ghulāt work that was transmitted by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia, it contains ideas which –despite being largely unrelated to Isma'ili doctrine– influenced various later Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century.\n\n### Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path)\n\nThe Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path) is another purported dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, likely composed in the period between the Minor and the Major Occultation (874–941). This work deals with the concept of an initiatory \"path\" (Arabic: ṣirāṭ) leading the adept on a heavenly ascent towards God, with each of the seven heavens corresponding to one of seven degrees of spiritual perfection. It also contains references to typical ghulāt ideas like tajallin (the manifestation of God in human form), tanāsukh (metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul), maskh/raskh (metamorphosis or reincarnation into non-human forms), and the concept of creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent beings (as in the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla, see above).\n\nThe philosophical background of the work is given by the late antique concept of a great chain of being linking all things together in one great cosmic hierarchy. This hierarchical system extends from the upper world of spirit and light (populated by angels and other pure souls) to the lower world of matter and darkness (populated by humans, and below them animals, plants and minerals). Humanity is perceived as taking a middle position in this hierarchy, being located at the top of the world of darkness and at the bottom of the world of light. Those human beings who lack the proper religious knowledge and belief are reborn into other human bodies, which are likened to 'shirts' (qumṣān, sing. qamīṣ) that a soul can put on and off again. This is called tanāsukh or naskh. But grave sinners are reborn instead into animal bodies (maskh), and the worst offenders are reborn into the bodies of plants or minerals (raskh). On the other hand, those believers who perform good works and advance in knowledge also travel upwards on the ladder, putting on ever more pure and luminous 'shirts' or bodies, ultimately reaching the realm of the divine. This upwards path is represented as consisting of seven stages above that of humanity, each located in one of the seven heavens:\n\n1. al-Mumtaḥā: the Tested, first heaven\n2. al-Mukhliṣ: the Devout, second heaven\n3. al-Mukhtaṣṣ: the Elect, third heaven\n4. al-Najīb: the Noble, fourth heaven\n5. al-Naqīb: the Chief, fifth heaven\n6. al-Yatīm: the Unique, sixth heaven\n7. al-Bāb: the Gate, seventh heaven\n\nAt every degree the initiate receives the chance to gain a new level of 'hidden' or 'occult' (bāṭin) knowledge. If the initiate succeeds at internalizing this knowledge, they may ascend to the next degree. If, however, they lose interest or start to doubt the knowledge already acquired, they may lose their pure and luminous \"shirt\", receiving instead a heavier and darker one, and descend down the scale of being again. Those who reach the seventh degree (that of Bāb or \"Gate\") are granted wondrous powers such as making themselves invisible, or seeing and hearing all things –including a beatific vision of God– without having to look or listen. Most notably, they are able to manifest themselves to ordinary beings in the world of matter (tajallin), by taking on the form of a human and appearing to anyone at will. This ability is shared between the \"Gates\" in the seventh heaven and God, who also manifests himself to the world by taking on a human form.\n\nThe theme of a heavenly ascent through seven degrees of spiritual perfection is also explored in other ghulāt works, including the anonymous Kitāb al-Marātib wa-l-daraj (Book of Degrees and Stages), as well as various works attributed to Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835), Ibn Nusayr (died after 868), and others. In the 9th/10th-century works attributed to the Shi'i alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, the seven degrees corresponding to the seven heavens (themselves related to the seven planets) are replaced with fifthy-five degrees carrying similar names (including al-Muʾmin al-Mumtaḥā, al-Najīb, al-Naqīb, al-Yatīm, al-Bāb). These fifthy-five degrees correspond to the fifthy-five celestial spheres alluded to by Plato in his Timaeus and mentioned by Aristotle in his Metaphysics.\n\n### Other ghulāt works\n\n- al-Risāla al-Mufaḍḍaliyya (Mufaddali Epistle) is a brief dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq of unclear date and origin. It strongly resembles the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla and the Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ in doctrine and terminology. Its main subject is the classical theological question of the relationship between the one transcendent God (al-maʿnā, lit. 'the meaning') on the one hand, and his many attributes (ṣiffāt) and names (asmāʾ) on the other.\n- Mā yakūn ʿinda ẓuhūr al-Mahdī (What Will Happen at the Appearance of the Mahdi) is a lengthy apocalyptic text about the state of the world during the end times, just before the return (rajʿa) of the Mahdi. Its earliest known version is preserved in a work by the Nusayri author al-Khasibi (died 969), but the text likely goes back to the 9th century and perhaps even to al-Mufaddal himself. Though mainly dealing with the actions that the Mahdi will undertake to render justice to the oppressed, the work also contains references to mainstream Shi'i ideas such as temporary marriage contracts (mutʿa), as well as to the ghulāt idea of world cycles. It has been argued that the conceptualization of rajʿa in this and similar 8th/9th-century ghulāt texts has influenced the 10th-century development of the Twelver Shi'i doctrine on the return of the twelfth and 'hidden' Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi.\n- Kitāb Mā iftaraḍa Allāh ʿalā al-jawāriḥ min al-īmān (Book on the Faith that God has Imposed on the Bodily Members), also known as the Kitāb al-Īmān wa-l-islām (Book of Faith and Submission) and perhaps identical to the Risālat al-Mayyāḥ (Epistle of the Swagger) mentioned by the Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (c. 982–1058), presents itself as a long letter from Ja'far al-Sadiq to al-Mufaddal. It was preserved by the Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver) scholar al-Saffar al-Qummi (died 903). Likely written as a reaction to the negative portrayals of the ghulāt by Imami heresiographers, it refutes the typical accusation of the ghulāt's purported licentiousness and sexual promiscuity. It also contains a reference to the obscure idea, likewise found in the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla but attributed here to Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), that religious commandments and restrictions are 'men' (rijāl), and that to know these 'men' is to know religion.\n\n## Mu'tazili-influenced works\n\nTwo of the treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja, differ from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature. Though both were preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only element connecting them to Shi'ism is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology (kalām). Often transmitted together in the manuscript tradition, they may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal among Twelver Shi'is, to whom al-Mufaddal was important as a narrator of numerous hadiths from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim. Both works were also known to other Twelver scholars such as al-Najashi (c. 982–1058), Ibn Shahrashub (died 1192), and Ibn Tawus (1193–1266).\n\n### Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (al-Mufaddal's Tawhid)\n\nThe Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (lit. 'Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God') sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the teleological argument). The work consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness (tawḥīd) of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'. In four \"sessions\" (majālis), Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise and providential creator. The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (c. 982–1058) also refers to the work as the Kitāb Fakkir (lit. 'Book of Think'), a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortations with the word fakkir (think!).\n\nThe Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title Kitāb al-Dalāʾil wa-l-iʿtibār ʿalā al-khalq wa-l-tadbīr (Book on the Proofs and Contemplation of Creation and Administration). The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, although the original was likely written in the 9th century. Compared to pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal adds an introduction that sets up a frame story involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage.\n\nScholars have espoused various views on the ultimate origins of this work. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original. In Chokr's view, at some point the work must have been translated by a Syriac author into the Arabic from a Greek original, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work. However, both Hans Daiber and Josef van Ess identify the original work on which pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil was based as the Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār (Book of Thought and Contemplation), written by the 9th-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. However this may be, Jibril ibn Nuh's Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop Elijah of Nisibis (died 1056), by the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali (died 1111), and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda (died first half of 12th century).\n\nThe Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil contains many parallels with Syriac Christian literature, especially with the commentaries on the Hexameron (the six days of creation as described in Genesis) written by Jacob of Edessa (c. 640–708) and Moses bar Kepha (c. 813–903), as well as with Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosophy called the Book of Treasures (c. 817). Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the four elements, minerals, plants, animals, meteorology, and the human being—was likely inspired by pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (On the Universe, 3rd/2nd century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above. In particular, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo is called \"one\", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence (kunh) remains hidden for all.\n\nThe idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the Quran. However, in the case of the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on Hellenistic models. Apart from pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with Cicero's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum, especially with the Stoic views on teleology and divine providence outlined in Cicero's work. Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and Epicurus (341–270 BCE), both reviled since late antiquity for their alleged atheism, as well as Mani (c. 216–274 or 277 CE, the founding prophet of Manichaeism), a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefulness (ʿamd) of God.\n\n### Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit)\n\nThe Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit) is another work in which al-Mufaddal asks Ja'far al-Sadiq to present a proof of the existence and oneness of God in response to those who openly profess atheism. In comparison with the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, the frame story here is less well integrated into the main text, which despite being written in the form of an epistle does not directly address al-Mufaddal's concerns about the appearance of people who would publicly deny the existence of God. In the epistle itself, the author (presumed to be Ja'far al-Sadiq) recounts his meeting with an Indian physician, who contended that the world is eternal and therefore does not need a creator. Taking the myrobalan fruit (perhaps the black myrobalan or Terminalia reticulata, a plant used in Ayurveda) that the Indian physician was grinding as a starting point for contemplation, the author of the epistle succeeds in convincing the physician of the existence of God. The dialectical style of the debate is typical of early Muslim speculative theology (kalām). Sciences like astrology and medicine are presented as originating from divine revelation. Melhem Chokr has proposed the 8th-century scribe (kātib) and speculative theologian Muhammad ibn Layth as the original author of the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja, based on similarities with other works attributed to Ibn Layth, and on the attribution to him in Ibn al-Nadim's (c. 932 – c. 995 or 998) Fihrist of a work called Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja fī al-iʿtibār (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit on Contemplation).\n\n## Other works\n\nSome other works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal are still extant:\n\n- The Waṣiyyat al-Mufaḍḍal (Testament of al-Mufaddal) is a short text purporting to be al-Mufaddal's testament to the Shi'is of Kufa. The testament itself only contains a rather generic exhortation to piety and proper religious conduct, but it is followed by a paragraph in which Ja'far al-Sadiq reproaches the Kufan Shi'is for their hostility towards al-Mufaddal, exonerating his disciple from all blame. The text may very well be authentic, though it may also have been attributed to al-Mufaddal by later authors seeking to rehabilitate him.\n- The Duʿāʾ samāt, also called the Duʿāʾ Shabbūr, is a prayer (duʿāʾ) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, supposedly transmitted from Ja'far by al-Mufaddal and later by Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri (died 917 or 918), the second deputy of the Hidden Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi during the Minor Occultation (874–941). It is a revised version of an originally Talmudic invocation that was used by Jews to cast off robbers and thieves. It was apparently in use among Muslims during the time of Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri, who approved of this practice but claimed to possess a \"fuller\" version handed down from the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. This version is nearly identical to the version preserved in the Talmud, only adding the names of the prophet Muhammad and some of his family members.\n- The Riwāyat al-ruzz wa-mā fīhi min al-faḍl is treatise attributed to al-Mufaddal on the virtue of rice.\n- al-Ḥikam al-Jaʿfariyya (Ja'farian Aphorisms) is a collection of moral aphorisms (ḥikam) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq and transmitted by al-Mufaddal.\n\nThere are also some works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal that are mentioned in other sources but are now lost:\n\n- Kitāb ʿIlal al-Sharāʾiʿ (Book of the Causes of Religious Laws)\n- Kitāb Yawm wa-layla (Book of Day and Night)\n- Kitāb (Book), a notebook containing hadiths purportedly recorded by al-Mufaddal", "revid": "1170217503", "description": "8th-century Shi'i ghulat leader", "categories": ["8th-century Islamic religious leaders", "8th-century Shia Muslims", "Ghulat leaders", "People from Kufa", "Year of birth unknown", "Year of death unknown"]}
{"id": "21314614", "url": null, "title": "Protests in Canada against the Sri Lankan Civil War", "text": "Protests in Canada against the Sri Lankan Civil War, often referred to as the Tamil protests by the media, consisted of a series of demonstrations which took place in major Canadian cities with a significant Tamil diaspora population during the year 2009 protesting the alleged genocide of Sri Lankan Tamil people in the Northern Province and Eastern Province of the island nation Sri Lanka. It was part of a global outcry by the Tamil diaspora to end the Sri Lankan Civil War, investigate acts of war crimes by the Government of Sri Lanka, and restore civil rights for Tamils in Sri Lanka. The aim was also to create awareness and appeal to leaders, notably the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, the President of the United States, Barack Obama and the Consulate General of Sri Lanka in Canada, Bandula Jayasekara, to take action in ending the conflict. Several Tamil Canadian citizens and business-owners from different parts of Canada and the United States took part in major protests set up in Toronto and Ottawa, while smaller scale demonstrations took place in Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary.\n\nThe first notable demonstration took place on 28 January 2009 in front of the Sri Lankan Consulate in Toronto involving a few hundred people. The following day, several thousands gathered in front of the Consulate of the United States in Toronto to appeal to the Government of the United States to take action on ending the civil war. A 5-kilometre (3.1-mile) human chain of several thousands of citizens took place the next day along major streets in Downtown Toronto. There after, demonstrations began to escalate in size and occurred on Parliament Hill in Ottawa for sometime, until returning to continue in Toronto. Other tactics by protesters included, sit-ins, hunger strikes, Internet activism and occupation of major streets.\n\n## Major events\n\n### Early demonstrations\n\nIn the Greater Toronto Area, local Tamil communities and organizations began to set up demonstrations by January 2009, following similar movements in the United Kingdom and India regarding the large civilian casualties from the Sri Lankan Civil War. Tamil Student Associations at the University of Toronto and Ryerson University staged demonstrations on campus to promote awareness of the ethnic conflict to fellow students. During the week of 25 January, several Tamil media outlets announced a strike, requesting all Tamils to not attend work or school during the week and take part in the protests that would happen in Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary.\n\nOn 28 January, several Tamils gathered in front of the Consulate of Sri Lanka in Toronto to protest, with hopes to meet the consulate general. However, the consulate general, Bandula Jayasekara, reportedly termed the protesters as \"terrorists\" and refused to admit them. The protest resumed until the evening. The following day, 29 January, several protesters gathered in front of the Consulate of the United States throughout the day, appealing to the consulate general of the United States to pressure its government to take an action on ending the war.\n\nThe next demonstration took the form of a human chain on 30 January in Downtown Toronto, comprising thousands of protesters along parts of Yonge Street, Front Street and University Avenue. Slogans such as \"We want justice\", \"Sri Lanka, end the war\" and \"Canada help us\" were chanted by the protesters across the streets. According to a Toronto Police Service spokesperson, \"the protest took place in a very peaceful and orderly manner.\"\n\n### Parliament Hill protests\n\nThe first major protest in Ottawa, the capital city of Canada, took place on 4 February 2009 at Parliament Hill in an effort to attract the attention of Canada's parliament members. Thousands of Tamils gathered in front of the Peace Tower, subsequently drawing out a few politicians from inside, notably Bev Oda and New Democratic Party (NDP) leader Jack Layton. Layton announced that he would call parliament to an emergency debate at the House of Commons. Oda announced that the government would provide financial aid to the affected civilians, with the help of World Vision and Médecins Sans Frontières.\n\nOn 6 April 2009, a non-stop, continuous demonstration began at Parliament Hill, organized by Tamil Student Associations and the Canadian Tamil Congress. The protest, similar to non-stop demonstrations that were contemporaneously held elsewhere in the world, such as London and Sydney, saw bus-loads of protesters joining. Ottawa Police Service, Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) oversaw the protests, which were deemed \"peaceful.\" On 7 April 2009, Albert Street was blocked when Tamil demonstrators surrounded a Société de transport de l'Outaouais bus in the intersection at Elgin Street, which caused major detours of transit buses. As of 20 April, the non-stop protest took its fourteenth consecutive day. A few streets in the vicinity of Parliament Hill had closed down to make way for demonstrators. The protest was the decision by several Tamil organizations after the Government of Sri Lanka ruled out a ceasefire and allegedly forced an attack in Northern Sri Lanka with an unknown chemical warfare substance, claiming the lives of nearly 2,000 civilians. Five protesters of varying ages also began fast-unto-death hunger strikes, but were forced to end ten days later due to deteriorating health. The protest was expected to continue until the Government of Canada forced negotiations with the Government of Sri Lanka.\n\nAfter a climactic protest with an estimated 30,000 protesters at Parliament Hill on 21 April, the \"non-stop protest\" in Ottawa came to an end. Ottawa City Councillor Eli El-Chantiry announced the policing costs for the protest to be nearly C\\$800,000 which the federal government was expected to pay.\n\n### University Avenue sit-ins\n\nA week after the non-stop protests in Ottawa ended, non-stop protests began on the evening of 26 April in front of the Consulate of the United States in Toronto, urging Barack Obama to call for an immediate permanent ceasefire. Protesters sat down on University Avenue, occupying a large portion of the street. On the third day of the non-stop protest (29 April), fifteen arrests were made while one woman was injured after a brief scuffle with police. This incident was the first one to happen among these protests in Canada. The protests later shifted to Queen's Park with a diminished number of protesters.\n\nAnother major human chain, which was expected to occur 5 May, was abruptly postponed the previous night by organizers because of the impact of previous demonstrations. The cancellation was reported throughout Facebook, Twitter, Tamil television and radio stations and word of mouth. Some thought the cancellation was because of the recent swine flu outbreak. The postponed human chain demonstration instead took place on 9 May through Downtown Toronto, reminiscent of the one that occurred on 30 January.\n\n### Gardiner Expressway blockade\n\nOn 10 May, an immediate vigil and protest was launched in light of international reports of the shelling of Tamil civilians in the Sri Lanka Army-declared safe zone in which 378 civilians had been killed, while protesters claimed it to be nearly 3,000. The protest began on Spadina Avenue but abruptly spread past police cordons onto the Gardiner Expressway, a busy freeway in the city, bringing all vehicular traffic to a halt. The protesters, including women and children in strollers, said they would not stop blocking the Gardiner Expressway until they met with a representative from Premier Dalton McGuinty's office and got a promise for a clear course of action to stop the civil war in Sri Lanka. Police subsequently shut-down the Gardiner Expressway and Toronto's Don Valley Parkway, causing heavy traffic congestions throughout other Toronto streets and highways.\n\nYork Regional Police, Peel Regional Police and the OPP were called in for back up policing. It was the first time a major highway was unlawfully occupied in the city. CP24 aired the protest live as breaking news coverage throughout the evening. The protest continued throughout the night, demanding an immediate response to the latest casualties in Sri Lanka. The highway was cleared and reopened after a message from the Liberal Party of Canada stated that they would make a statement on the issue soon. Three individuals were arrested during the protest for assaulting a police officer while on duty.\n\nThe next day, peaceful protests continued in front of the Consulate of Sri Lanka on the sidewalk of Spadina Avenue and at Queen's Park simultaneously. York Regional Police, Peel Regional Police, the OPP and the RCMP continued to help Toronto Police Service to prevent civil disobedience as what had happened the previous night. Toronto Mayor David Miller urged that such tactics as blockading the Gardiner Expressway not be used again. Police officials decried the use of children during such dangerous tactics.\n\n### Queen's Park rally\n\nOn 13 May several thousands of protesters crowded in front of Queen's Park protesting another offensive by the Sri Lanka Army, resulting in a situation which was termed by the United Nations as a \"bloodbath.\" Traffic was blocked and police forces with riot control mounted on horses were present. After demonstrations took place at Queen's Park, the protesters flooded portions of College Street, Yonge Street, Queen Street and University Avenue for a march. The immediate demands of the protest were to call for an immediate permanent ceasefire, allow media and journalists into the warzone and to place diplomatic sanctions on Sri Lanka. The protesters also ran a food-drive, asking for non-perishable food items. David Miller attended the protest and remarked, \"some people would probably be offended by the flag and afraid to show their support for these people, but I'm not here about politics.\" The very same day, Barack Obama made a statement on the Sri Lankan Civil War, calling upon the Sri Lanka Army and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) to stop the \"bloodbath\" and to stop the use of human-shields\n\nToronto's Sinhalese community set up a counter-demonstration, condemning the Tamil protesters. The counter-protesters flew a private airplane with a banner attached to it reading \"Protect Canada – Stop the Tamil Tigers\", circling Queen's Park for some time. In May 2009, a Sinhala-Buddhist temple in Scarborough was set on fire, allegedly by LTTE supporters, and a worshipper claimed that the incident was part of a global pattern of violence against Sinhalese wherever there were mass Tamil demonstrations. However, a Tamil protest leader denied that anyone in her community would resort to such action.\n\n## Post-civil war\n\nAfter the march from Queen's Park, protests continued in front of the Consulate of the United States in Toronto, even after Sri Lankan president Mahinda Rajapakse declared a victory over the LTTE on 17 May, which officially marked the end of the Sri Lankan Civil War. Post-civil war, the goal of the protests were to ensure peace and better treatment of Tamil civilians and investigate war crimes by the Government of Sri Lanka. Protests also continuously happened in front of the Consulate of the United States in Montreal. Protesters held non-stop protests, urging Stephen Harper, who had not yet given any remarks on protests, to make a statement on the issue and request immediate humanitarian aid to be sent to the island nation. The Canadian Tamil Congress urged the European Union for a unanimous investigation of war crimes. Canada's Minister of Foreign Affairs Lawrence Cannon reflected by announcing that \"Canada would work with the United States helping the United Nations deliver humanitarian aid to Sri Lanka.\" In the meantime, Toronto's Sinhalese community continued to hold counter-Tamil protests, claiming that they were in danger by the LTTE.\n\nThroughout the remainder of 2009, the protests continued but became smaller as attendance decreased to about two dozen at most, happening only in front of the Consulate of the United States on University Avenue, and only during the daytime. On the 150th day, petitions were given out to protesters to sign, as they were in many other Tamil diaspora demonstrations around the world, and given to a guard at the Consulate of the United States. As of 13 October, the protest had reached its 173rd day.\n\n## Impact\n\n### Canadian government response\n\nDuring the first Parliament Hill protest in Ottawa, Jack Layton had called for an emergency debate on 4 February, gathering all members of parliament at the House of Commons. It had occurred despite the absence of Prime Minister Stephen Harper. A few members of parliament, such as John McCallum and Robert Oliphant, brought up concerns of whether the aid the government sends, which was announced to be C\\$3 million, would successfully reach the affected civilians or not. Canada's Minister of State for the Americas Peter Kent, in an argument, suggested that extortions and funds underlying of the LTTE may still be present in Toronto. Immediately, Liberal member of parliament Jim Karygiannis assured that there were no cases of such extortions in recent times after phoning a few national security agencies. Kent reflected back, saying that both the LTTE and the Sri Lanka Army must drop their weapons in order for the war to end. Karygiannis stated that the wish of his constituency, Scarborough—Agincourt, was that the ceasefire should not be initiated by the Government of Sri Lanka or by the Government of India but should be a United Nations-initiated, internationally sponsored ceasefire. Liberal member of parliament Irwin Cotler condemned Sri Lanka's restrictions on international humanitarian aid, journalists and media to reach the affected areas of northern Sri Lanka, which has been in place for several years. He suggested to bring forth an immediate ceasefire and begin negotiation talks. The United Nations, too, were condemned for not taking an active part in ending the civil war. Deepak Obhrai, a Conservative member of parliament, was the only member to label the LTTE at fault, referring to the assassination of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.\n\nA final report from the debate outlined four recommendations of action:\n\n1. The Government of Canada should continue to call upon all parties in Sri Lanka to immediately cease fire and end hostilities.\n2. The Government of Canada should redouble its efforts in cooperation with other states to meet the humanitarian needs of all civilians in northeastern Sri Lanka, including those still in the combat zone and those in IDP camps, by securing a sufficient humanitarian pause and through international supervision of assistance.\n3. The Government of Canada should stand ready to increase Canadian assistance to Sri Lanka in collaboration with other partners, as on-the-ground assessments and capacity to absorb warrant, not only for relief purposes but also for development and reconstruction. In addition to ensuring that assistance reaches those who need it most, the government should pursue a whole-of-government strategy to ensure that Canadian assistance of all sorts encourages longer-term reconciliation among communities in Sri Lanka.\n4. The Government of Canada should call on the United Nations Security Council to seriously engage itself in the resolution of the conflict in Sri Lanka, and to investigate the conduct of both parties during the conflict with respect to international law. The Government of Canada should also initiate a dialogue with the Government of Sri Lanka, in conjunction with the international community, aimed at laying the groundwork for a political reconciliation between the communities. If these efforts fail, the Government of Canada should consider financial and diplomatic sanctions, including, but not limited to, advocating for Sri Lanka's suspension from the Commonwealth, as well as incentives.\n\n### Other political remarks\n\nDuring the non-stop protests in Ottawa, Lawrence Cannon requested the Government of Sri Lanka for an immediate ceasefire. He also rejected calls from the High Commissioner of Sri Lanka in Canada to stop all protests in Ottawa. Cannon condemned the LTTE for preventing civilians from leaving areas being attacked and using them as human shields. Bev Oda and the Conservative Party of Canada both condemned the use of LTTE flags, insisting that they symbolize connection with a terrorist organization. David Miller and Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty also condemned the Gardiner Expressway blockade. Liberal Party of Canada leader Michael Ignatieff had made statements on the protests in a few occasions. Ignatieff urged the Harper government to break its silence and take initiative in condemning the violence. He stated that there are no military solutions to the conflict and that the war must stop under a worldwide initiative and internationally coordinated diplomatic strategy. On 21 April, Ignatieff met with a few Tamil leaders in Ottawa to discuss the humanitarian crisis. On the occasion, he said the following:\n\n> I am deeply concerned about escalating violence in Sri Lanka, and the resulting deaths of thousands of civilians. It was important for me to hear from Tamil Canadians, whose family and friends in Sri Lanka are suffering first hand from this crisis. We cannot sit back and watch as thousands of innocent lives are lost in the cross-fire, and we condemn any attempt to use civilians as human shields.\n\nOn 13 May in Washington, D.C., Barack Obama condemned the civil war in Sri Lanka and the army's continuous shelling of safe-zones and shelters. He also condemned the use of civilians as human shields by the LTTE. Obama insisted that the civil war, which became a humanitarian crisis, could result in a \"full-blown catastrophe.\" According to him, \"the United States is ready to work towards ending the conflict.\"\n\nOn 9 June, Bob Rae was denied entry into Sri Lanka by Sri Lankan immigration officials at Bandaranaike International Airport in Colombo. Although reasons for rejection were generally found unclear, the Government of Sri Lanka cited Rae was \"a threat to national security and sympathetic to the Tamil Tigers rebel group\". On the issue, Rae stated: \"Sri Lanka is afraid of dialogue, afraid of discussion, afraid of engagement. If this is how they treat me, imagine how they treat people who can't speak out.\" Rae described Sri Lanka as \"a very dangerous place to be a journalist\" and that it is \"a very dangerous place to be any kind of Tamil right now\". The news sparked controversy for both Rae and Sri Lanka in Canada and made it to the headlines of newspapers in other countries.\n\n### Public reception and criticism\n\nThe protests have drawn criticism from some observers of the Sri Lankan Civil War. In an opinion piece titled \"Misguided Tamil protesters\" published by the National Post, Martin Collacott, a former High Commissioner of Canada to Sri Lanka, questioned the objectives of the protesters. In the editorial, he insisted that if the primary concern of the protesters was the safety of Tamil civilians, they would have asked the LTTE to free those trapped in the war zone instead of using them as human shields. However, by asking for a ceasefire, he said, the protesters want to \"bring about a situation that would allow the Tigers to preserve their fighting capability and prolong the insurgency.\" The article goes on to question why children who were born in Canada to native Sri Lankan parents were brought out to protests among others who were waving the flag of an organisation Canada has labelled a terrorist organization.\n\n## See also\n\n- Tamils Against Genocide", "revid": "1159637039", "description": "Anti-war demonstrations, chiefly by the Tamil diaspora in major Canadian cities", "categories": ["2009 in Canada", "2009 protests", "Canada–Sri Lanka relations", "Protests in Canada", "Sri Lankan Civil War protests", "Student protests in Canada", "Tamil Canadians"]}
{"id": "14996633", "url": null, "title": "Indiana in the American Civil War", "text": "Indiana, a state in the Midwest, played an important role in supporting the Union during the American Civil War. Despite anti-war activity within the state, and southern Indiana's ancestral ties to the South, Indiana was a strong supporter of the Union. Indiana contributed approximately 210,000 Union soldiers, sailors, and marines. Indiana's soldiers served in 308 military engagements during the war; the majority of them in the western theater, between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. Indiana's war-related deaths reached 25,028 (7,243 from battle and 17,785 from disease). Its state government provided funds to purchase equipment, food, and supplies for troops in the field. Indiana, an agriculturally rich state containing the fifth-highest population in the Union, was critical to the North's success due to its geographical location, large population, and agricultural production. Indiana residents, also known as Hoosiers, supplied the Union with manpower for the war effort, a railroad network and access to the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, and agricultural products such as grain and livestock. The state experienced two minor raids by Confederate forces, and one major raid in 1863, which caused a brief panic in southern portions of the state and its capital city, Indianapolis.\n\nIndiana experienced significant political strife during the war, especially after Governor Oliver P. Morton suppressed the Democratic-controlled state legislature, which had an anti-war (Copperhead) element. Major debates related to the issues of slavery and emancipation, military service for African Americans, and the draft, ensued. These led to violence. In 1863, after the state legislature failed to pass a budget and left the state without the authority to collect taxes, Governor Morton acted outside his state's constitutional authority to secure funding through federal and private loans to operate the state government and avert a financial crisis.\n\nThe American Civil War altered Indiana's society, politics, and economy, beginning a population shift to central and northern Indiana, and contributed to a relative decline in the southern part of the state. Increased wartime manufacturing and industrial growth in Hoosier cities and towns ushered in a new era of economic prosperity. By the end of the war, Indiana had become a less rural state than it previously had been. Indiana's votes were closely split between the parties for several decades after the war, making it one of a few key swing states that often decided national elections. Between 1868 and 1916, five Indiana politicians were vice-presidential nominees on the major party tickets. In 1888 Benjamin Harrison, one of the state's former Civil War generals, was elected president of the United States.\n\n## Indiana's contributions\n\nIndiana was the first of the country's western states to mobilize for the Civil War. When news reached Indiana of the attack on Fort Sumter, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, many Indiana residents were surprised, but their response was immediate. On the following day, two mass meetings were held in Indianapolis, the state capital of Indiana, and the state's position was decided: Indiana would remain in the Union and would immediately contribute men to suppress the rebellion. On April 15, Indiana's governor, Oliver P. Morton, issued a call for volunteer soldiers to meet the state's quota set by President Abraham Lincoln.\n\nIndiana's geographical location in the Midwest, its large population, and its agricultural production made the state's wartime support critical to the Union's success. Indiana, with the fifth-largest population of the states that remained in the Union, could supply much-needed manpower for the war effort, its railroad network and access to the Ohio River and the Great Lakes could transport troops and supplies, and its agricultural yield, which became even more valuable to the Union after the loss of the rich farmland of the South, could provide grain and livestock.\n\n### Military service\n\nOn April 15, 1861, President Lincoln called for a total of 75,000 volunteers to join the Union army. On the same day, Governor Morton telegraphed the president offering 10,000 Indiana volunteers. The state's initial quota was set at six regiments (a total of 4,683 men) for three months of service. Orders were issued on April 16 to form the state's first regiments and to gather at Indianapolis. On the first day, five hundred men were encamped in the city; within a week more than 12,000 Hoosier volunteers had signed up to fight for the Union, nearly three times as many needed to meet the state's initial quota.\n\nGovernor Morton and Lew Wallace, Indiana's adjutant general, established Camp Morton at the state fairgrounds in Indianapolis as the initial gathering place and training camp for the state's Union volunteers. (Camp Morton was converted to a prisoner-of-war camp in 1862.) By April 27, Indiana's first six regiments were fully organized as the First Brigade, Indiana Volunteers, under the command of Brigadier General Thomas A. Morris. Members of companies not selected for these first regiments were given the option of volunteering for three years of service or returning home until they were needed; some companies formed into regiments in the state militia and were called into federal service within a few weeks.\n\nIndiana ranked second among the states in terms of the percentage of its men of military age who served in the Union army. Indiana contributed 208,367 men, roughly 15 percent of the state's total population to serve in the Union army, and 2,130 to serve in the navy. Most of Indiana's soldiers were volunteers; 11,718 were re-enlistments. Deserters numbered 10,846.\n\nIndiana's volunteers responded to requests for military service in the early months of the war; however, as the war progressed and the number of casualties increased, the state government had to resort to conscription (the draft) to fill its quotas. Military conscription, which began in October 1862, was a divisive issue within the state. It was especially unpopular among Democrats, who viewed it as a threat to individual freedom and opposed legislation that allowed a man to purchase an exemption for \\$300 or pay another person to serve as his substitute. A total of 3,003 Hoosier men were drafted in October 1862; subsequent drafts in Indiana brought the total to 17,903.\n\nIndiana's volunteers and draftees provided the Union army with 129 infantry regiments, 13 cavalry regiments, 3 cavalry companies, 1 regiment of heavy artillery, and 26 light artillery batteries. In addition to providing Union troops, Indiana also organized its own volunteer militia, known as the Indiana Legion. Formed in May 1861, the Legion was responsible for protecting Indiana's citizens from attack and maintaining order within the state.\n\nMore than 35 percent of the Hoosiers who joined the Union army became casualties: 24,416, roughly 12.6 percent of Indiana's soldiers who served, died in the conflict. An estimated 48,568 soldiers, double the number of Hoosiers killed in the war, were wounded. Indiana's war-related death toll eventually reached 25,028 (7,243 from battle and 17,785 from disease).\n\n## Notable leaders from Indiana\n\nBy the end of the war, Indiana could claim 46 general officers in the Union army who had at one time resided in the state. These men included Don Carlos Buell, Ambrose Burnside, Lew Wallace, Robert H. Milroy, and Joseph J. Reynolds, and Jefferson C. Davis, among others.\n\n### Training and support\n\nSlightly more than 60 percent of Indiana's regiments mustered into service and trained at Indianapolis. Other camps for Union soldiers were established elsewhere in the state, including Fort Wayne, Gosport, Jeffersonville, Kendallville, Lafayette, Richmond, South Bend, Terre Haute, Wabash, and in LaPorte County.\n\nGovernor Morton was called the \"Soldier's Friend\" because of his efforts to equip, train, and care for Union soldiers in the field. Indiana's state government financed a large portion of the costs involved in preparing its regiments for war, including housing, feeding, and equipping them, before their assignment to the standing Union armies. To secure arms for Indiana's troops, the governor appointed purchasing agents to act on the state's behalf. Early in the war, for example, Robert Dale Owen purchased more than \\$891,000 in arms, clothing, blankets, and cavalry equipment for Indiana troops; the state government made additional purchases of arms and supplies exceeding \\$260,000. To provide ammunition, Morton established a state-owned arsenal at Indianapolis served the Indiana militia, home guard, and as a backup supply depot for the Union army. The state arsenal operated until April 1864, employing 700 at its peak; many of its employees were women. A federal arsenal was also established in Indianapolis in 1863.\n\nThe Indiana Sanitary Commission, created in 1862, and soldiers' aid societies throughout the state raised funds and gathered supplies for troops in the field. Hoosiers also provided other forms of support for soldiers and their families, including a Soldiers' Home and a Ladies' Home, and Orphans' Home to help meet the needs of Indiana's soldiers and their families as they passed through Indianapolis.\n\nDuring the war some women took on the added responsibility of running family farms and businesses. Hoosier women also contributed to the war effort as nurses and volunteers in charitable organizations, most commonly the local Ladies' Aid Societies. In January 1863 Governor Morton and the Indiana Sanitary Commission began recruiting women to work as nurses in military hospitals and on hospital ships and transport trains in Indiana as well as the South; others served behind the lines at battlefields. It is not known how many women from Indiana became wartime nurses, but several died during their service, including Eliza George of Fort Wayne and Hannah Powell and Asinae Martin of Goshen. Oher women nurses who returned to their homes in Indiana following their service include Jane Chambers McKinney Graydon, Jane Merrill Ketcham, and Bettie Bates, all three from Indianapolis; Harriet Reese Colfax and Lois Dennett from Michigan City; Adelia Carter New, among the few women from Indiana who served at hospitals in the East; Amanda Way of Winchester; Mary F. Thomas from Richmond, who was trained as a physician; members of the Sisters of the Holy Cross; and members of the Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary of the Woods, among other women.\n\nWounded soldiers were cared for at Indiana facilities in Clark County (Port Fulton, near Jeffersonville and New Albany), Jefferson County (Madison), Knox County (Vincennes), Marion County (Indianapolis), Warrick County (Newburgh), and Vanderburgh County (Evansville). Jefferson General Hospital at Port Fulton, Indiana, now a part of present-day Jeffersonville, was briefly the third-largest hospital in the United States. Between 1864, when Jefferson General opened, and 1866, when it closed, the hospital treated 16,120 patients.\n\n### Prison camps\n\nIndianapolis was the site of Camp Morton, one of the Union's largest prisons for captured Confederate soldiers. Lafayette, Richmond, and Terre Haute, Indiana, occasionally held prisoners of war as well.\n\n### Military cemeteries\n\nTwo national military cemeteries were established in Indiana as a result of the war. In 1882 the federal government established in New Albany, Indiana, the New Albany National Cemetery, one of fourteen national cemeteries established that year. In 1866 the federal government authorized a national cemetery for Indianapolis; Crown Hill National Cemetery was established within the grounds of Crown Hill Cemetery, a privately owned cemetery northwest of downtown.\n\n## Conflicts\n\nIndiana troops participated in 308 military engagements, the majority of them between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. Soldiers from Indiana were present on most of the Civil War battlefields, beginning with the first engagement involving Hoosier troops at the Battle of Philippi (West Virginia) on June 3, 1861, to the Battle of Palmetto Ranch (Texas) on May 13, 1865. Nearly all the fighting was outside of the state's boundaries. Only one significant conflict, known as Morgan's Raid, occurred on Indiana soil during the war. The raid, which caused a brief panic in Indianapolis and southern Indiana, was preceded by two minor incursions into Indiana.\n\n### Raids\n\nOn July 18, 1862, during the Newburgh Raid, Confederate officer Adam Johnson briefly captured Newburgh, Indiana, making it the first town in a Northern state to be captured during the American Civil War. Johnson and his men succeeded after convincing the town's Union garrison that they had cannon on the surrounding hills (they were merely camouflaged stovepipes). The raid convinced the federal government of the need to supply Indiana with a permanent force of regular Union Army soldiers to counter future raids.\n\nOn June 17, 1863, in preparation for a planned cavalry offensive by Confederate troops under the command of John Hunt Morgan, one of his officers, Captain Thomas Hines and approximately 80 men crossed the Ohio River to search for horses and support from Hoosiers in southern Indiana. During the minor incursion, which became known as Hines' Raid, local citizens and members of Indiana's home guard pursued the Confederates and succeeded in capturing most of them without a fight. Hines and a few of his men escaped across the river into Kentucky.\n\nMorgan's Raid, the Confederate army's major incursion into Indiana, occurred a month after Hines' raid. On July 8, 1863, General Morgan crossed the Ohio River, landing at Mauckport, Indiana, with 2,400 troopers. Their arrival was initially contested by a small party from the Indiana Legion, who withdrew after Morgan's men began firing artillery from the river's southern shore. The state militia quickly retreated towards Corydon, Indiana, where a larger body was gathering to block Morgan's advance. The Confederates advanced rapidly on the town and engaged in the Battle of Corydon. After a brief but fierce fight, Morgan took command of high ground south of town, and Corydon's local militia and citizens promptly surrendered after Morgan's artillery fired two warning shots. Corydon was sacked, but little damage was done to its buildings. Morgan continued his raid north and burned most of the town of Salem.\n\nWhen Morgan's movements appeared to be headed toward Indianapolis, panic spread through the capital city. Governor Morton had called up the state militia as soon as Morgan's intention to cross into the state was known, and more than 60,000 men of all ages volunteered to protect Indiana against Morgan's men. Morgan considered attacking Camp Morton, the prisoner-of-war camp in Indianapolis, to free more than 5,000 Confederate prisoners of war imprisoned there, but decided against it. Instead, his raiders turned abruptly east and began moving towards Ohio. With Indiana's militia in pursuit, Morgan's men continued to raid and pillage their way toward the Indiana-Ohio border, crossing into Ohio on July 13. By the time Morgan left Indiana, his raid had become a desperate attempt to escape to the South. He was captured on July 26 in Ohio.\n\n### Indiana regiments\n\nMany of Indiana's regiments served with distinction in the war. The 19th Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment, 20th Indiana Infantry Regiment, and 27th Indiana Infantry Regiment suffered the highest casualties of the state's infantry regiments as a percentage of the regiment's total enrollment.\n\nIndiana's first six regiments organized during the Civil War were the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th Indiana infantry regiments. The men in these regiments volunteered for three months of service at the start of the war, but their brief terms proved inadequate; most of these soldiers re-enlisted for three additional years of service.\n\nBy the end of 1861, forty-seven Indiana regiments had mustered into service; most of the men enlisted for terms of three years. The majority of the three-year regiments were deployed in the western theater. In 1862 another forty-one regiments from Indiana were mustered into service; about half were sent to the eastern theater and the other half remained in the west. During 1863 six more regiments were mustered into service to replace the casualties of the first two years' fighting, and on July 8, 1863, and additional thirteen temporary regiments were established during Morgan's Raid into southern Indiana. The men in these temporary regiments enlisted for terms of three months, but the regiments disbanded once the threat posed by Morgan's troops was gone. In 1864 twenty-one Indiana regiments mustered into service. As the fighting declined, most of Indiana's regiments mustered out of service by the end of 1864, but some continued to serve. During 1865 fourteen additional Indiana regiments were mustered into a year of service. On November 10, 1865, the 13th Regiment Indiana Cavalry became the state's final regiment to be mustered out of the U.S. Army.\n\nThe 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment, also known as the Indiana Zouaves, under the command of Lew Wallace, was the first regiment organized in Indiana during the Civil War and the first one to march into battle. The 11th Indiana fought in the Battle of Fort Donelson, the Siege of Vicksburg, the second day of the Battle of Shiloh, and elsewhere. In 1861 the 9th Indiana Infantry Regiment became one of the first Hoosier regiments to see action in the war. The 9th Indiana fought in many major battles, including the Battle of Shiloh, the Battle of Stones River, the Atlanta Campaign, and the Battle of Nashville, among others.\n\nThe 14th Indiana Infantry Regiment was nicknamed the \"Gibraltar Brigade\" for maintaining its position at the Battle of Antietam. It secured Cemetery Hill on the first day of the three-day fight at the Battle of Gettysburg, where it lost 123 of its men. The 19th Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment, part of the Iron Brigade, made critical contributions to some of the most important engagements of the war, including the Second Battle of Bull Run, but was almost completely destroyed in the Battle of Gettysburg, where it sustained 210 casualties. The 19th Indiana suffered the heaviest battle losses of any Indiana unit; 15.9 percent of its men were killed or mortally wounded during the war. The 27th Indiana Infantry Regiment earned the nickname \"giants in the cornfield\" at the Battle of Antietam. The regiment also fought at the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Battle of Gettysburg, and in the Atlanta Campaign. The 27th Indiana's casualties were 15.3 percent of its total enrollment, nearly as many as the 19th Indiana.\n\nMost of Indiana's regimental units were organized within towns or counties, but ethnic units were also formed, including the 32nd Indiana, a German-American infantry regiment, and the 35th Indiana, composed of Irish Americans. The 28th Regiment U.S. Colored Troops, formed at Indianapolis between December 24, 1863, and March 31, 1864, was the only black regiment formed in Indiana during the war. It trained at Indianapolis's Camp Fremont, near Fountain Square, and included 518 enlisted men who signed on for three years of service. The regiment lost 212 men during the conflict. The 28th participated in the Siege of Petersburg and at the Battle of the Crater, where twenty-two of its men were killed. At the end of the war the regiment served in Texas, where it mustered out of service on November 8, 1865.\n\nThe last casualty of the Civil War was a Hoosier serving in the 34th Regiment Indiana Infantry. Private John J. Williams died at the Battle of Palmetto Ranch on May 13, 1865.\n\n## Politics\n\nHoosiers voted in favor of the Republicans in 1860, and in January 1861, Indiana's newly elected lieutenant governor, Oliver P. Morton, became governor after Henry Smith Lane resigned from the office to take a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate. Hoosiers also helped Abraham Lincoln win the presidency in the 1860 election and voted in favor of his re-election in 1864. Although Lincoln won only 40 percent of the country's popular vote in the U.S. presidential election in 1860, he earned Indiana's 13 electoral votes with 51.09 percent of its popular vote, compared to Stephen Douglas's 42.44 percent, John Breckenridge's 4.52 percent, and John Bell's 1.95 percent. In the 1864 presidential election, Lincoln once again carried the state, this time by a wider margin, earning Indiana's electoral votes with 53.6 percent of the state's popular vote compared to George McClellan's 46.4 percent.\n\nAs one of Lincoln's \"war governors\", Morton and the president maintained a close alliance throughout the war; however, as war casualties mounted, Hoosiers began to doubt the necessity of war and many became concerned over the increase in governmental power and the loss of personal freedom, which resulted in major conflicts between the state's Republicans and Democrats.\n\n### Southern influence\n\nThe Civil War era showed the extent of the South's influence on Indiana. Much of southern and central Indiana had strong ties to the South. Many of Indiana's early settlers had come from the Confederate state of Virginia and from Kentucky. Governor Morton once complained to President Lincoln that \"no other free state is so populated with southerners\", which Morton believed kept him from being as forceful as he wanted to be.\n\nDue to their location across the Ohio River from Louisville, Kentucky, the Indiana cities of Jeffersonville, New Albany, and Port Fulton saw increased trade and military activity. Some of this increase was due to Kentucky's desire to stay neutral in the war. In addition, Kentucky was home to many Confederate sympathizers. Military bases in southern Indiana were needed to support Union operations against Confederates in Kentucky, and it was safer to store war supplies in towns on the north side of the river. Jeffersonville served as an important military depot for Union troops heading south. Towards the end of the war, Port Fulton was home to the third-largest hospital in the United States, Jefferson General Hospital.\n\nIn 1861, Kentucky's governor Beriah Magoffin refused to allow pro-Union forces to mobilize in his state and issued a similar order regarding Confederate forces. Governor Morton, who repeatedly came to the military rescue of Kentucky's pro-Union government during the war and became known as the \"Governor of Indiana and Kentucky\" allowed Kentuckians to form Union regiments on Indiana soil. Kentucky troops, especially from Louisville, which included the 5th Kentucky Infantry and others, at Indiana's Camp Joe Holt. Camp Joe Holt was established in Clarksville, Indiana, between Jeffersonville and New Albany.\n\nJesse D. Bright, who represented Indiana in the United States Senate had been a leader among the state's Democratics for several years prior to the outbreak of the war. In January 1862, Bright was expelled from the Senate on allegations of disloyalty to the Union. He had written a letter of introduction for an arms merchant addressed to \"His Excellency, Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederation.\" In the letter, Bright offered the merchant's services as a firearms supplier. Bright's Senate replacement was Joseph A. Wright, a pro-Union Democrat and former Indiana governor. As of 2015, Bright was the last senator to be expelled by the Senate.\n\n### Political conflict\n\nHoosiers cooperated in support of the war effort at its outset, but political differences soon erupted into the \"most violent political battles\" in the state's history. The major debates, which also led to violence, related to the issues of slavery and emancipation; military service for African Americans; and the draft.\n\nOn April 24, 1861, Morton addressed a special session of the Indiana General Assembly to obtain the legislature's approval to borrow and spend funds to purchase arms and supplies for Indiana's troops. Morton also urged Indiana's legislators to set aside party considerations for the duration of the war and unite in defense of the Union, but the Republicans and Democrats did not cooperate for long. Initially, the Democratic-controlled legislature was supportive of Morton's measures and passed the legislation he requested. After the state legislature adjourned in May, however, some of the state's prominent Democrats changed their opinion about the war. In January 1862 the Democrats clarified their position at a state convention chaired by Thomas Hendricks. Indiana's Democrats stated their support for the integrity of the Union and the war effort, but opposed emancipation of blacks and the abolition of slavery.\n\nAfter the elections in the fall of 1862, Governor Morton feared that the legislature's Democratic majority would attempt to hinder the war effort, reduce his authority, and vote to secede from the Union. After the legislative session convened in 1863, all but four Republican legislators stayed away from Indianapolis to prevent the general assembly from attaining the quorum it needed to pass legislation, including funding the state government or making tax provisions. This rapidly led to a crisis as the state government began to run out of money to conduct its business and was nearly bankrupt. Going beyond his constitutional powers, Morton solicited millions of dollars in federal and private loans to avert the crisis. To obtain funds to run the state government, Morton turned to James Lanier, a wealthy banker from Madison, Indiana. On two occasions, Lanier provided the state with more than \\$1 million (USD) in unsecured loans. Morton's move was successful, and he was able to fund the state government and the war effort in Indiana. There was little the legislature could do but watch.\n\nIndiana's political polarity continued to worsen after the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) made freeing the slaves a war goal. Many of the formerly pro-war Democrats moved to openly oppose the war, and Governor Morton began a crackdown on dissidents. During one notorious incident in May 1863, the governor had soldiers disrupt a Democratic state convention in Indianapolis, causing what would latter be referred to as the Battle of Pogue's Run. No regular session of the Indiana General Assembly was convened until June 1865.\n\nWhile most of the state was decidedly pro-Union, a group of Southern sympathizers known as the Knights of the Golden Circle had a strong presence in southern Indiana. The group proved enough of a threat that General Lew Wallace, commander of Union forces in the region, spent considerable time countering their activities. By June 1863, the group was successfully broken up. Many Golden Circle members were arrested without formal charges, the pro-Confederate press was prevented from printing anti-war material, and the writ of habeas corpus was denied to anyone suspected of disloyalty. In reaction to Governor Morton's actions against dissenters, Indiana's Democrats Party called him a \"dictator\" and an \"underhanded mobster;\" Republicans countered that the Democrats were using treasonable and obstructionist tactics in the conduct of the war.\n\nConfederate special agent Thomas Hines went to French Lick in June 1863, seeking support for Confederate General John Hunt Morgan's eventual raid into Indiana. Hines met with Sons of Liberty \"major general\" William A. Bowles, to inquire if Bowles could offer any support for Morgan's upcoming raid. Bowles claimed he could raise a force of 10,000, but before the deal was finalized, Hines was informed that a Union force was approaching and fled the state. As a result, Bowles provided no support for Morgan's raiders, which caused Morgan to harshly treat anyone in Indiana who claimed to be sympathetic to the Confederacy.\n\nLarge-scale support for the Confederacy among Golden Circle members and Southern Hoosiers in general declined after Morgan's Confederate raiders ransacked many homes bearing the banners of the Golden Circle, despite their proclaimed support for the Confederates. As Confederate Colonel Basil W. Duke recalled after the incident, \"The Copperheads and Vallandighammers fought harder than the others\" against Morgan's raiders. When Hoosiers failed to support Morgan's men in significant numbers, Governor Morton slowed his crackdown on Confederate sympathizers, theorizing that because they had failed to come to Morgan's aid in large numbers, they would similarly fail to aid a larger invasion.\n\nAlthough raids into Indiana were infrequent, smuggling goods into Confederate territory was common, especially in the early days of the war when the Union army had not yet pushed the front lines far to the south of the Ohio River. New Albany and Jeffersonville, Indiana, were origination points for many Northern goods smuggled into the Confederacy. The Cincinnati Daily Gazette pressured both towns to stop trading with the South, especially with Louisville, because Kentucky's proclaimed neutrality was perceived as sympathetic to the South. A fraudulent steamboat company was established to ply the Ohio River between Madison, Indiana, and Louisville; its boat, the Masonic Gem, made regular trips to Confederate ports.\n\n### Southern sympathizers\n\nWhile it is believed that they were not particularly numerous, the exact number of Hoosiers to serve in Confederate armies is unknown. It is likely that most traveled to Kentucky to join Confederate regiments formed in that state. Former U.S. Army officer Francis A. Shoup, who briefly led the Indianapolis Zouave militia unit, left for Florida prior to the war, and ultimately become a Confederate brigadier general.\n\n### Republican legislative majority\n\nAfter the elections in 1864 the state's Republican legislative majority arrived at a critical turning point, as the North was slowly tightening its blockade of the South. The new Republican-controlled legislature fully supported Morton's policies and worked to meet the state's commitments to the war effort. In 1865 the Indiana General Assembly validated the loans Morton had secured to run the state government, assumed them as state debt, and commended Morton for his actions during the interim.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nNews of Confederate General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, reached Indianapolis at 11 p.m. on April 9, 1865, causing immediate and enthusiastic public celebrations that the Indianapolis Journal characterized as \"demented\". A week later, the community's excitement turned to sadness when news of Lincoln's assassination arrived on April 15. Lincoln's funeral train passed through the capital city on April 30, and 100,000 people attended his bier at the Indiana Statehouse.\n\n### Economic\n\nThe Civil War forever altered Indiana's economy. Despite hardships during the war, Indiana's economic situation improved. Farmers received higher prices for their agricultural products, railroads and commercial businesses thrived in the state's cities and towns, and manpower shortages gave laborers more bargaining power. The war also helped establish a national banking system to replace state-chartered banking institutions; by 1862 there were thirty-one national banks in the state. Wartime prosperity was particularly evident in Indianapolis, whose population more than doubled during the war, reaching 45,000 at the end of 1864.\n\nIncreased wartime manufacturing and industrial growth in Hoosier cities and towns ushered in a new era of economic prosperity. By the end of the war, Indiana had become less rural that it previously had been. Overall, the war caused Indiana's industries to grow exponentially, although the state's southern counties experienced growth after the war at a slower rate than its other counties. The state's population shifted to central and northern Indiana as new industries and cities began to develop around the Great Lakes and the railroad depots erected during the war. In 1876 Colonel Eli Lilly opened a new pharmaceutical laboratory in Indianapolis, founding what later became Eli Lilly and Company. Indianapolis was also the wartime home of Richard Gatling, inventor of the Gatling Gun, one of the world's first machine guns. Although his invention was used in some Civil War-era campaigns, it was not fully adopted for use by the U.S. Army until 1866. Charles Conn, another war veteran, founded C. G. Conn Ltd. in Elkhart, Indiana, where the manufacturing of musical instruments became a new industry for the town.\n\nPost-war development was different in southern Indiana. The state's commerce along the Ohio River was reduced during the war, especially after the closure of the Mississippi River to commercial trade with the South and increased competition from the state's expanding railroad network. Some of Indiana's river towns, such as Evansville, recovered by providing transport to Union troops across the Ohio River, but others did not. Before the war, New Albany was the largest city in the state, primarily due to its commerce with the South, but its trade dwindled during the war. After the war much of Indiana viewed New Albany as too friendly to the South. New Albany's formerly robust steamboat-building industry ended in 1870; the last steamboat built in New Albany was named the Robert E. Lee. New Albany never regained its pre-war stature; its population leveled off at 40,000, and only the antebellum, early-Victorian Mansion Row district remains from its boom period.\n\n### Political\n\nWhen the war ended, the state's Democrats were upset about their wartime treatment by the Republicans, but they staged a quick comeback. Indiana became the first state after the Civil War to elect a Democratic governor, Thomas Hendricks. His rise to the governor's office initiated a period of Democratic control in the state that reversed many of the political gains made by the Republican Party during the war.\n\nIndiana's U.S. senators were strong supporters of the radical Reconstruction plans proposed by Congress. Senators Oliver Morton, who was elected to the Senate after serving as Indiana's governor, and Schuyler Colfax voted in favor of President Andrew Johnson's impeachment. Morton was especially disappointed in Congress's failure to remove him.\n\nWhen the South returned to firm Democratic control at the end of the 1870s, Indiana, which was closely split between the two parties, was one of a few key swing state that often decided the balance of power in Congress and the presidency. Five Hoosier politicians were vice-presidential nominees on the major party tickets held between 1868 and 1916, as the nation's political parties vied for the support of the state's electorate. In 1888, at the height of the state's post-war political influence, former Civil War general Benjamin Harrison was elected president, and served in that capacity from 1889 to 1893.\n\n### Social\n\nMore than half of the state's households, based on an average family size of four persons, contributed a family member to fight in the war, making the effects of the conflict widely felt throughout the state. More Hoosiers died in the Civil War than in any other conflict. Although twice as many Hoosiers served in World War II, almost twice as many died in the Civil War. After the war, veterans programs were initiated to help wounded soldiers with housing, food, and other basic needs. In addition, orphanages and asylums were established to assist women and children.\n\nAfter the war, some women who had been especially active in supporting the war on the home front turned their organizational skills to other concerns, especially prohibition and woman suffrage. In 1874, for example, Zerelda Wallace, the wife of former Indiana governor David Wallace and stepmother of General Lew Wallace, became a founder of the Indiana chapter of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and served as its first president.\n\n### Memorials\n\nNumerous war memorials were erected to honor the Indiana veterans of the Civil War. Among the largest in Indiana is the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument in downtown Indianapolis. After two decades of discussion, construction for the monument began in 1888; it was finally completed in 1901.\n\n## See also\n\n- Indianapolis in the American Civil War\n- Union (American Civil War)", "revid": "1155679217", "description": "Union state in the American Civil War", "categories": ["American Civil War by state", "Indiana in the American Civil War"]}
{"id": "70155", "url": null, "title": "Toronto Maple Leafs", "text": "The Toronto Maple Leafs (officially the Toronto Maple Leaf Hockey Club and often referred to as the Leafs) are a professional ice hockey team based in Toronto. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference. The club is owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment, a company that owns several professional sports teams in the city. The Maple Leafs' broadcasting rights are split between BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. For their first 14 seasons, the club played their home games at the Mutual Street Arena, before moving to Maple Leaf Gardens in 1931. The Maple Leafs moved to their present home, Scotiabank Arena (originally named Air Canada Centre), in February 1999.\n\nThe club was founded in 1917, operating simply as Toronto and known then as the Toronto Arenas. Under new ownership, the club was renamed the Toronto St. Patricks in 1919. In 1927, the club was purchased by Conn Smythe and renamed the Maple Leafs. A member of the \"Original Six\", the club was one of six NHL teams to have endured the period of League retrenchment during the Great Depression. The club has won 13 Stanley Cup championships, second only to the 24 championships of the Montreal Canadiens. The Maple Leafs history includes two recognized dynasties, from 1947 to 1951; and from 1962 to 1967. Winning their last championship in the 1966–67 season, the Maple Leafs' 56-season drought between championships is the longest drought in league history, surpassing the previous record held by the New York Rangers, going into the 2023–24 season. The Maple Leafs have developed rivalries with four NHL franchises: the Boston Bruins, Detroit Red Wings, the Montreal Canadiens, and the Ottawa Senators. However, they have a minor geographic rivalry with a fifth NHL franchise: the Buffalo Sabres.\n\nThe Maple Leafs have retired the use of 13 numbers in honour of 19 players, including the first in professional sports. In addition, several individuals who hold an association with the club have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams: the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League and the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL.\n\n## Team history\n\n### Early years (1917–1927)\n\nThe National Hockey League was formed in 1917 in Montreal by teams formerly belonging to the National Hockey Association (NHA) that had a dispute with Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Toronto Blueshirts. The owners of the other four clubs—the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Quebec Bulldogs and the Ottawa Senators—wanted to replace Livingstone, but discovered that the NHA constitution did not allow them to simply vote him out of the league. Instead, they opted to create a new league, the NHL, and did not invite Livingstone to join them. They also remained voting members of the NHA, and thus had enough votes to suspend the other league's operations, effectively leaving Livingstone's league with one team.\n\nThe NHL had decided that it would operate a four-team circuit, made up of the Canadiens, Montreal Maroons, Ottawa, and one more club in either Quebec City or Toronto. Toronto's inclusion in the NHL's inaugural season was formally announced on November 26, 1917, with concerns over the Bulldogs' financial stability surfacing. The League granted temporary franchise rights to the Arena Company, owners of the Arena Gardens. The NHL granted the Arena responsibility of the Toronto franchise for only the inaugural season, with specific instructions to resolve the dispute with Livingstone or transfer ownership of the Toronto franchise back to the League at the end of the season.\n\nThe franchise did not have an official name but was informally called \"the Blueshirts\" or \"the Torontos\" by the fans and press. Although the inaugural roster was made up of players leased from the NHA's Toronto Blueshirts, including Harry Cameron and Reg Noble, the Maple Leafs do not claim the Blueshirts' history as their own. During the inaugural season, the club performed the first trade in NHL history, sending Sammy Hebert to the Senators, in return for cash. Under manager Charlie Querrie, and head coach Dick Carroll, the team won the Stanley Cup in the inaugural 1917–18 season.\n\nFor the next season, rather than return the Blueshirts' players to Livingstone as originally promised, on October 19, 1918, the Arena Company formed the Toronto Arena Hockey Club, which was readily granted full membership in the NHL. The Arena Company also decided that year that only NHL teams were allowed to play at the Arena Gardens—a move which effectively killed the NHA. Livingstone sued to get his players back. Mounting legal bills from the dispute forced the Arenas to sell some of their stars, resulting in a horrendous five-win season in 1918–19. With the company facing increasing financial difficulties, and the Arenas officially eliminated from the playoffs, the NHL agreed to let the team forfeit their last two games. Operations halted on February 20, 1919, with the NHL ending its season and starting the playoffs. The Arenas' .278 winning percentage that season remains the worst in franchise history. However, the 1919 Stanley Cup Finals ended without a winner due to the worldwide flu epidemic.\n\nThe legal dispute forced the Arena Company into bankruptcy, and it was forced to sell the team. On December 9, 1919, Querrie brokered the team's purchase by the owners of the St. Patricks Hockey Club, allowing him to maintain an ownership stake in the team. The new owners renamed the team the Toronto St. Patricks (or St. Pats for short), which they used until 1927. Changing the colours of the team from blue to green, the club won their second Stanley Cup championship in 1922. Babe Dye scored four times in the 5–1 Stanley Cup-clinching victory against the Vancouver Millionaires. In 1924, Jack Bickell invested C\\$25,000 in the St. Pats as a favour to his friend Querrie, who needed to financially reorganize his hockey team.\n\n### Conn Smythe era (1927–1961)\n\nAfter several financially difficult seasons, the St. Patricks' ownership group seriously considered selling the team to C. C. Pyle for C\\$200,000 (). Pyle sought to move the team to Philadelphia. However, Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together a group of his own and made a \\$160,000 () offer. With the support of Bickell, a St. Pats shareholder, Smythe persuaded Querrie to accept their bid, arguing that civic pride was more important than money.\n\nAfter taking control on February 14, 1927, Smythe immediately renamed the team the Maple Leafs, after the national symbol of Canada. He attributed his choice of a maple leaf for the logo to his experiences as a Canadian Army officer and prisoner of war during World War I. Viewing the maple leaf as a \"badge of courage\", and a reminder of home, Smythe decided to give the same name to his hockey team, in honour of the many Canadian soldiers who wore it. However, the team was not the first to use the name. A Toronto minor-league baseball team had used the name \"Toronto Maple Leafs\" since 1895.\n\nInitial reports were that the team's colours were to be red and white, but the Leafs wore white sweaters with a green maple leaf for their first game on February 17, 1927. On September 27, 1927, it was announced that the Leafs had changed their colour scheme to blue and white. Although Smythe later stated he chose blue because it represents the Canadian skies and white to represent snow, these colours were also used on the trucks for his gravel and sand business. The colour blue was also a colour historically associated with the City of Toronto. The use of blue by top-level Toronto-based sports clubs began with the Argonaut Rowing Club in the 19th century, later adopted by their football team, the Toronto Argonauts, in 1873.\n\n#### Opening of Maple Leaf Gardens (1930s)\n\nBy 1930 Smythe saw the need to construct a new arena, viewing the Arena Gardens as a facility lacking modern amenities and seating. Finding an adequate number of financiers, he purchased land from the Eaton family, and construction of the arena was completed in five months.\n\nThe Maple Leafs debuted at their new arena, Maple Leaf Gardens, with a 2–1 loss to the Chicago Black Hawks on November 12, 1931. The opening ceremonies for Maple Leaf Gardens included a performance from the 48th Highlanders of Canada Pipe and Drums. The military band has continued to perform in every subsequent season home opening game, as well as other ceremonies conducted by the hockey club. The debut also featured Foster Hewitt in his newly constructed press box above the ice surface, where he began his famous Hockey Night in Canada radio broadcasts that eventually came to be a Saturday-night tradition. The press box was often called \"the gondola\", a name that emerged during the Gardens' inaugural season when a General Motors advertising executive remarked how it resembled the gondola of an airship.\n\nBy the 1931–32 NHL season, the Maple Leafs were led by the \"Kid Line\" consisting of Busher Jackson, Joe Primeau and Charlie Conacher and coached by Dick Irvin. The team captured their third Stanley Cup that season, vanquishing the Chicago Black Hawks in the first round, the Montreal Maroons in the semifinals, and the New York Rangers in the finals. Smythe took particular pleasure in defeating the Rangers that year. He had been tapped as the Rangers' first general manager and coach for their inaugural season (1926–27) but had been fired in a dispute with Madison Square Garden management before the season had begun.\n\nMaple Leafs star forward Ace Bailey was nearly killed in 1933 when Boston Bruins defenceman Eddie Shore checked him from behind at full speed into the boards. Leafs defenceman Red Horner knocked Shore out with a punch, but Bailey, writhing on the ice, had his career ended. The Leafs held the Ace Bailey Benefit Game, the NHL's first All-Star Game, to collect medical funds to help Bailey. His jersey was retired later the same night. The Leafs reached the finals five times in the next seven years but bowed out to the now-disbanded Maroons in 1935, the Detroit Red Wings in 1936, Chicago in 1938, Boston in 1939 and the Rangers in 1940. After the end of the 1939–40 season, Smythe allowed Irvin to leave the team as head coach, replacing him with former Leafs captain Hap Day.\n\n#### The first dynasty (1940s)\n\nIn the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals, the Maple Leafs were down three games to none in the best-of-seven series against Detroit. Fourth-line forward Don Metz then galvanized the team, to score a hat-trick in game four and the game-winner in game five. Goalie Turk Broda shut out the Wings in game six, and Sweeney Schriner scored two goals in the third period to win the seventh game 3–1, completing the reverse-sweep. The Leafs remain the only team to have successfully performed a reverse-sweep in the Stanley Cup finals. Captain Syl Apps won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy that season, not taking one penalty, and finished his ten-season career with an average of 5 minutes, 36 seconds in penalties a season.\n\nSmythe, who reenlisted in the Canadian Army at the outbreak of World War II, was given leave from military duty to view the final game of the 1942 finals. He arrived at the game in full military regalia. Earlier, at the outbreak of war, Smythe arranged for many of his Maple Leafs players and staff to take army training with the Toronto Scottish Regiment. Most notably, the Leafs announced a large portion of their roster had enlisted, including Apps, and Broda, who did not play on the team for several seasons due to their obligations with the Canadian Forces. During this period, the Leafs turned to lesser-known players such as rookie goaltender Frank McCool and defenceman Babe Pratt.\n\nThe Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in the 1945 Finals. They won the first three games, with goaltender McCool recording consecutive shutouts. However, in a reversal of the 1942 finals, the Red Wings won the next three games. The Leafs were able to win the series, winning the seventh game by the score of 2–1 to prevent a complete reversal of the series played three years ago.\n\nAfter the end of the war, players who had enlisted were beginning to return to their teams. With Apps and Broda regaining their form, the Maple Leafs beat the first-place Canadiens in the 1947 finals. To bolster their centre depth, the Leafs acquired Cy Thomas and Max Bentley in the following off-season. With these key additions, the Leafs were able to win a second consecutive Stanley Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in the 1948 finals. With their victory in 1948, the Leafs moved ahead of Montreal as the team having won the most Stanley Cups in League history. Apps announced his retirement following the 1948 finals, with Ted Kennedy replacing him as the team's captain. Under a new captaincy, the Leafs managed to make it to the 1949 finals, facing the Red Wings, who had finished the season with the best overall record. However, the Leafs went on to win their third consecutive Cup, sweeping the Red Wings in four games. This brought the total of Detroit's playoff game losses against the Leafs to eleven. The Red Wings were able to end this losing streak in the following post-season, eliminating Toronto in the 1950 NHL playoffs.\n\n#### The Barilko Curse (1950s)\n\nThe Maple Leafs and Canadiens met again in the 1951 finals, with five consecutive overtime games played in the series. Defenceman Bill Barilko managed to score the series-winning goal in overtime, leaving his defensive position (despite coach Joe Primeau's instructions not to) to pick up an errant pass and score. Barilko helped the club secure its fourth Stanley Cup in five years. His glory was short-lived, as he disappeared in a plane crash near Timmins, Ontario, four months later. The crash site was not found until a helicopter pilot discovered the plane's wreckage plane about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of Cochrane, Ontario 11 years later. The Leafs did not win another Cup during the 1950s, with rumours swirling that the team was \"cursed\", and would not win a cup until Barilko's body was found. The \"curse\" came to an end after the Leafs' 1962 Stanley Cup victory, which came six weeks before the discovery of the wreckage of Barilko's plane.\n\nTheir 1951 victory was followed by lacklustre performances in the following seasons. The team finished third in the 1951–52 season and was eventually swept by the Red Wings in the semi-finals. With the conclusion of the 1952–53 regular season, the Leafs failed to make it to the postseason for the first time since the 1945–46 playoffs. The Leafs' poor performance may be attributed partly to a decline in their sponsored junior system (including the Toronto St. Michael's Majors and the Toronto Marlboros). The junior system was managed by Frank J. Selke until his departure to the Canadiens in 1946. In his absence, the quality of players it produced declined. Many who were called up to the Leafs in the early 1950s were found to be seriously lacking in ability. It was only later in the decade that the Leafs' feeder clubs produced prospects that helped them become competitive again.\n\nAfter a two-year drought from the playoffs, the Maple Leafs clinched a berth after the 1958–59 season. Under Punch Imlach, their new general manager and coach, the Leafs made it to the 1959 Finals, losing to the Canadiens in five games. Building on a successful playoff run, the Leafs followed up with a second-place finish in the 1959–60 regular season. Although they advanced to their second straight Cup Finals, the Leafs were again defeated by the Canadiens in four games.\n\n### New owners and a new dynasty (1961–1971)\n\nBeginning in the 1960s, the Leafs became a stronger team, with Johnny Bower as the goaltender, and Bob Baun, Carl Brewer, Tim Horton and Allan Stanley serving as the Maple Leafs' defencemen. To bolster their forward group during the 1960 off-season, Imlach traded Marc Reaume to the Red Wings for Red Kelly. Originally a defenceman, Kelly was asked to make the transition to the role of centre, where he remained for the rest of his career. Kelly helped reinforce a forward group made up of Frank Mahovlich, and team captain George Armstrong. The beginning of the 1960–61 season also saw the debut of rookies Bob Nevin, and Dave Keon. Keon previously played for the St. Michael's Majors (the Maple Leafs junior affiliate), but had impressed Imlach during the Leafs' training camp, and joined the team for the season. Despite these new additions, the Leafs' 1961 playoff run ended in the semifinals against the Red Wings, with Armstrong, Bower, Kelly and others, suffering from injuries.\n\nIn November 1961, Smythe sold nearly all of his shares in the club's parent company, Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL), to a partnership composed of his son Stafford Smythe, and his partners, newspaper baron John Bassett and Toronto Marlboros President Harold Ballard. The sale price was \\$2.3 million (), a handsome return on Smythe's original investment 34 years earlier. Initially, Conn Smythe claimed that he knew nothing about his son's partners and was furious with the arrangement (though it is highly unlikely he could have believed Stafford could have financed the purchase on his own). However, he did not stop the deal because of it. Conn Smythe was given a retiring salary of \\$15,000 per year for life, an office, a secretary, a car with a driver, and seats to home games. Smythe sold his remaining shares in the company, and resigned from the board of directors in March 1966, after a Muhammad Ali boxing match was scheduled for the Gardens. Smythe found Ali's refusal to serve in the United States Army offensive, noting that the Gardens was \"no place for those who want to evade conscription in their own country\". He had also said that because the Gardens' owners agreed to host the fight they had \"put cash ahead of class\".\n\nUnder the new ownership, Toronto won another three straight Stanley Cups. The team won the 1962 Stanley Cup Finals beating the defending champion Chicago Black Hawks on a goal from Dick Duff in Game 6. During the 1962–63 season, the Leafs finished first in the league for the first time since the 1947–48 season. In the following playoffs, the team won their second Stanley Cup of the decade. The 1963–64 season saw certain members of the team traded. With Imlach seeking to reinvigorate the slumping Leafs, he made a mid-season trade that sent Duff, and Nevin to the Rangers for Andy Bathgate and Don McKenney. The Leafs managed to make the post-season as well as the Cup finals. In game six of the 1964 Cup finals, Baun suffered a fractured ankle and required a stretcher to be taken off the ice. He returned to play with his ankle frozen, and eventually scored the game-winning goal in overtime against the Red Wings. The Leafs won their third consecutive Stanley Cup in a 4–0 game 7 victory; Bathgate scored two goals.\n\nThe two seasons after the Maple Leafs' Stanley Cup victories, the team saw several player departures, including Bathgate, and Brewer, as well as several new additions, including Marcel Pronovost, and Terry Sawchuk. During the 1966–67 season, the team had lost 10 games in a row, sending Imlach to the hospital with a stress-related illness. However, from the time King Clancy took over as the head coach, to Imlach's return, the club was on a 10-game undefeated streak, building momentum before the playoffs. The Leafs made their last Cup finals in 1967. Playing against Montreal, the heavy favourite for the year, the Leafs managed to win, with Bob Pulford scoring the double-overtime winner in game three; Jim Pappin scored the series winner in Game 6. Keon was named the playoff's most valuable player and was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy.\n\nFrom 1968 to 1970, the Maple Leafs made it to the playoffs only once. They lost several players to the 1967 expansion drafts, and the team was racked with dissension because of Imlach's authoritative manner, and his attempts to prevent the players from joining the newly formed Players' Association. Imlach's management of the team was also brought into question due to some of his decisions. It was apparent that he was too loyal to aging players who had been with him since 1958. In the 1967–68 season, Mahovlich was traded to Detroit in a deal that saw the Leafs acquire Paul Henderson and Norm Ullman. The Leafs managed to return to the playoffs after the 1968–69 season, only to be swept by the Bruins. Immediately after, Stafford Smythe confronted Imlach and fired him. This act was not without controversy, with some older players, including Horton, declaring that, \"if this team doesn't want Imlach, I guess it doesn't want me\".\n\nThe Maple Leafs completed the 1969–70 season out of the playoffs. With their low finish, the Leafs were able to draft Darryl Sittler at the 1970 NHL Amateur Draft. The Leafs returned to the playoffs after the 1970–71 season with the addition of Sittler, as well as Bernie Parent and Jacques Plante, who were both acquired through trades during the season. They were eliminated in the first round against the Rangers.\n\n### The Ballard years (1971–1990)\n\nA series of events in 1971 made Harold Ballard the primary owner of the Maple Leafs. After a series of disputes between Bassett, Ballard and Stafford Smythe, Bassett sold his stake in the company to them. Shortly afterwards, Smythe died in October 1971. Under the terms of Stafford's will, of which Ballard was an executor, each partner was allowed to buy the other's shares upon their death. Stafford's brother and son tried to keep the shares in the family, but in February 1972 Ballard bought all of Stafford's shares for \\$7.5 million, valuing the company at \\$22 million (). Six months later, Ballard was convicted of charges including fraud, and theft of money and goods, and spent a year at Milhaven Penitentiary.\n\nBy the end of 1971, the World Hockey Association (WHA) began operations as a direct competitor to the NHL. Believing the WHA would not be able to compete against the NHL, Ballard's attitude caused the Maple Leafs to lose key players, including Parent to the upstart league. Undermanned and demoralized, the Leafs finished with the fourth-worst record for the 1972–73 season. They got the fourth overall pick in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft, and drafted Lanny McDonald. General Manager Jim Gregory also acquired the 10th overall pick from the Philadelphia Flyers, and the 15th overall pick from the Bruins, using them to acquire Bob Neely and Ian Turnbull. In addition to these first-round picks, the Leafs also acquired Borje Salming during the 1973 off-season.\n\nDespite acquiring Tiger Williams in the 1974 draft, and Roger Neilson as head coach in the 1977–78 season, the Maple Leafs found themselves eliminated in the playoffs by stronger Flyers or Canadiens teams from 1975 to 1979. Although Neilson was a popular coach with fans and his players, he found himself at odds with Ballard, who fired him late in the 1977–78 season. Nielson was later reinstated after appeals from the players and the public. He continued as Leafs' head coach until after the 1979 playoffs, when he was fired again, alongside Gregory. Gregory was replaced by Imlach as general manager.\n\nIn the first year of his second stint as general manager, Imlach became embroiled in a dispute with Leafs' captain Darryl Sittler over his attempt to take part in the Showdown series for Hockey Night in Canada. In a move to undermine Sittler's influence on the team, Imlach traded McDonald, who was Sittler's friend. By the end of the 1979–80 season, Imlach had traded away nearly half of the roster he had at the beginning of his tenure as general manager. With the situation between Ballard and Sittler worsening, Sittler asked to be traded. Forcing the Leafs' hand, the club's new general manager, Gerry McNamara, traded Sittler to the Flyers on January 20, 1982. Rick Vaive was named the team's captain shortly after Sittler's departure.\n\nThe Maple Leafs' management continued in disarray throughout most of the decade, with an inexperienced McNamara named as Imlach's replacement in September 1981. He was followed by Gord Stellick on April 28, 1988, who was replaced by Floyd Smith on August 15, 1989. Coaching was similarly shuffled often after Nielson's departure. Imlach's first choice for coach was his former player Smith, although he did not finish the 1979–80 season after being hospitalized by a car accident on March 14, 1980. Joe Crozier was named the new head coach until January 10, 1981, when he was succeeded by Mike Nykoluk. Nykoluk was head coach until April 2, 1984. Dan Maloney returned as head coach from 1984 to 1986, with John Brophy named head coach from 1986 to 1988. Both coaches had little success during their tenure. Doug Carpenter was named the new head coach to begin the 1989–90 season when the Leafs posted their first season above .500 in the decade.\n\nThe team did not have much success during the decade, missing the playoffs entirely in 1982, 1984 and 1985. On at least two occasions, they made the playoffs with the worst winning percentages on record for a playoff team. However, in those days, the top four teams in each division made the playoffs, regardless of record. Since the Norris only had five teams in total, this meant only the last-place team in the division missed the postseason. In 1985–86, for instance, they finished with a .356 winning percentage, the fourth worst in the league. However, due to playing in a Norris Division where no team cracked the 90-point mark, the Leafs still made the playoffs. In 1987–88, they entered the final day of the season with the worst record in the league, but were only one point behind the Minnesota North Stars and thus were still in playoff contention. Detroit was the only team in the division with a winning record. However, the Leafs upset the Red Wings in their final game while the North Stars lost to the Flames hours later to hand the Leafs the final spot from the Norris.\n\nThe low finishes allowed the team to draft Wendel Clark first overall at the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. Clark managed to lead the Leafs to the playoffs from 1986 to 1988, as well as the 1990 playoffs. Ballard died on April 11, 1990.\n\n### Resurgence (1990–2004)\n\nDon Crump, Don Giffin, and Steve Stavro were named executors of Ballard's estate. Stavro succeeded Ballard as chairman of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and governor of the Maple Leafs. Cliff Fletcher was hired by Giffin to be the new general manager, although this was opposed by Stavro, who told Fletcher that he wanted to appoint his own general manager.\n\nNotwithstanding Stavro's initial reluctance with Fletcher's appointment, the Leafs' new ownership would soon earn a reputation for steering clear of exerting undue interference in hockey operations, in stark contrast to Ballard. Fletcher soon set about building a competitive club, hiring Pat Burns as the new coach, and making a series of trades and free-agent acquisitions, such as acquiring Doug Gilmour and Dave Andreychuk, which turned the Leafs into a contender. Assisted by stellar goaltending from minor league call-up Felix Potvin, the team posted a then-franchise-record 99 points.\n\nToronto dispatched the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in the first round, then defeated the St. Louis Blues in another seven games in the Division Finals. Hoping to meet long-time rival Montreal (who was playing in the Wales Conference finals against the New York Islanders) in the Cup finals, the Leafs faced the Los Angeles Kings in the Campbell Conference finals. They led the series 3–2 but dropped game six in Los Angeles. The game was not without controversy, as Wayne Gretzky clipped Gilmour in the face with his stick, but referee Kerry Fraser did not call a penalty, and Gretzky scored the winning goal moments later. The Leafs eventually lost in game seven 5–4.\n\nThe Leafs had another strong season in 1993–94, starting the season on a 10-game winning streak, and finishing it with 98 points. The team made it to the conference finals again, only to be eliminated by the Vancouver Canucks in five games. At the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, the Leafs packaged Wendel Clark in a multi-player trade with the Quebec Nordiques that landed them Mats Sundin. Missing two consecutive playoffs in 1997 and 1998, the Leafs relieved Fletcher as general manager.\n\n#### New home and a new millennium (1998–2004)\n\nOn February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors, a National Basketball Association franchise, and the arena the Raptors were building, from Allan Slaight and Scotiabank. With the acquisition, MLGL was renamed Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), acting as the parent company of the two teams. Larry Tanenbaum was a driving force in the acquisition, having bought a 12.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL) in 1996.\n\nCurtis Joseph was acquired as the team's starting goalie, while Pat Quinn was hired as the head coach before the 1998–99 season. Realigning the NHL's conferences in 1998, the Leafs were moved from the Western to the Eastern Conference. On February 13, 1999, the Leafs played their final game at the Gardens before moving to their new home at the then-Air Canada Centre. In the 1999 playoffs, the team advanced to the Conference Finals but lost in five games to the Buffalo Sabres.\n\nIn the 1999–2000 season, the Leafs hosted the 50th NHL All-Star Game. By the end of the season, they recorded their first 100-point season and won their first division title in 37 years. In both the 2000 and 2001 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Ottawa Senators in the first round and lost to the New Jersey Devils in the second round. In the 2002 playoffs, the Leafs dispatched the Islanders and the Senators in seven games each during the first two rounds, only to lose to the Cinderella-story Carolina Hurricanes in six games in the Conference Finals. The 2001–02 season was particularly impressive in that injuries sidelined many of the Leafs' better players, but the efforts of depth players, including Alyn McCauley, Gary Roberts and Darcy Tucker, led them to the Conference Finals.\n\nAs Joseph opted to become a free agent during the 2002 off-season, the Leafs signed Ed Belfour as the new starting goaltender. Belfour played well during the 2002–03 season and was a finalist for the Vezina Trophy. The Leafs lost to Philadelphia in seven games during the first round of the 2003 playoffs. In 2003, an ownership change occurred in MLSE. Stavro sold his controlling interest in MLSE to the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan (OTPP) and resigned his position as chairman in favour of Tanenbaum. Quinn remained as head coach but was replaced as general manager by John Ferguson Jr.\n\nBefore the 2003–04 season, the team held their training camp in Sweden and played in the NHL Challenge against teams from Sweden and Finland. The Leafs went on to enjoy a very successful regular season, leading the NHL at the time of the All-Star Game (with Quinn named head coach of the East's All-Star Team). They finished the season with a then-franchise-record 103 points. They finished with the fourth-best record in the League, and their highest overall finish in 41 years, achieving a .628 win percentage, their best in 43 years, and third-best in franchise history. In the 2004 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Senators in the first round of the post-season for the fourth time in five years, with Belfour posting three shutouts in seven games, but lost to the Flyers in six games during the second round.\n\n### After the lockout (2005–2014)\n\nFollowing the 2004–05 NHL lockout, the Maple Leafs experienced their longest playoff drought in the team's history. They struggled in the 2005–06 season; despite a late-season surge (9–1–2 in their final 12 games), led by goaltender Jean-Sebastien Aubin, Toronto was out of playoff contention for the first time since 1998. This marked the first time the team had missed the postseason under Quinn, who was later relieved as head coach. Quinn's dismissal was controversial since many of the young players who were key contributors to the Leafs' late-season run had been drafted by him before Ferguson's arrival, while Ferguson's signings (Jason Allison, Belfour, Alexander Khavanov, and Eric Lindros) had suffered season-ending injuries.\n\nPaul Maurice, who had previously coached the inaugural season of the Maple Leafs' Toronto Marlies farm team, was named as Quinn's replacement. On June 30, 2006, the Leafs bought out fan-favourite Tie Domi's contract. The team also decided against picking up the option year on goaltender Ed Belfour's contract; he became a free agent. However, despite the coaching change, as well as a shuffle in the roster, the team did not make the playoffs in 2006–07. During the 2007–08 season, John Ferguson, Jr. was fired in January 2008 and replaced by former Leafs' general manager Cliff Fletcher on an interim basis. The team retained Toronto-based sports lawyer Gord Kirke to begin a search for a new team president and general manager, and negotiate a contract. The Leafs did not qualify for the post-season, marking the first time since 1928 the team had failed to make the playoffs for three consecutive seasons. It was also Sundin's last year with the Leafs, as his contract was due to expire at the end of the season. However, he refused Leafs management's request to waive his no-trade clause for the team to rebuild by acquiring prospects and/or draft picks. On May 7, 2008, after the 2007–08 season, the Leafs fired Maurice, as well as assistant coach Randy Ladouceur, naming Ron Wilson as the new head coach, and Tim Hunter and Rob Zettler as assistant coaches.\n\nOn November 29, 2008, the Maple Leafs hired Brian Burke as their 13th non-interim, and the first American, general manager in team history. The acquisition ended the second Cliff Fletcher era and settled persistent rumours that Burke was coming to Toronto. On June 26, 2009, Burke made his first appearance as the Leafs GM at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft, selecting London Knights forward Nazem Kadri with the seventh overall pick. On September 18, 2009, Burke traded Toronto's first- and second-round 2010, as well as its 2011 first-round picks, to the Boston Bruins in exchange for forward Phil Kessel. On January 31, 2010, the Leafs made another high-profile trade, this time with the Calgary Flames in a seven-player deal that brought defenceman Dion Phaneuf to Toronto. On June 14, during the off-season, the Leafs named Phaneuf captain after two seasons without one following Sundin's departure. On February 18, 2011, the team traded long-time Maple Leafs defenceman Tomas Kaberle to the Bruins in exchange for prospect Joe Colborne, Boston's first-round pick in 2011, and a conditional second-round draft choice.\n\nOn March 2, 2012, Burke fired Wilson and named Randy Carlyle the new head coach. However, the termination proved to be controversial as Wilson had received a contract extension just two months before being let go. Changes at the ownership level also occurred in August 2012, when the OTPP completed the sale of their shares in MLSE to BCE Inc. and Rogers Communications. On January 9, 2013, Burke was fired as general manager, and replaced by Dave Nonis. In their first full season under the leadership of Carlyle, Toronto managed to secure a playoff berth in the 2012–13 season (which was shortened again due to another lock-out) for the first time in eight years. However, the Leafs lost in seven games to eventual 2013 Stanley Cup finalist Boston in the first round. Despite the season's success, it was not repeated during the 2013–14 season, as the Leafs failed to make the playoffs.\n\n### Brendan Shanahan era (2014–present)\n\nShortly after the end of the 2013–14 regular season, Brendan Shanahan was named as the president and an alternate governor of the Maple Leafs. On January 6, 2015, the Leafs fired Randy Carlyle as head coach, and assistant coach Peter Horachek took over on an interim basis immediately. While the Leafs had a winning record before Carlyle's firing, the team eventually collapsed. On February 6, 2015, the Leafs set a new franchise record of 11 consecutive games without a win. At the beginning of February, Shanahan gained the approval of MLSE's board of directors to begin a \"scorched earth\" rebuild of the club. Both Dave Nonis and Horachek were relieved of their duties on April 12, just one day after the season concluded. In addition, the Leafs also fired several assistant coaches, including Steve Spott, and Rick St. Croix; as well as individuals from the Leafs' player scouting department.\n\nOn May 20, 2015, Mike Babcock was named as the new head coach, and on July 23, Lou Lamoriello was named the 16th general manager in team history. On July 1, 2015, the Leafs packaged Kessel in a multi-player deal to the Pittsburgh Penguins in return for three skaters, including Kasperi Kapanen, a conditional first-round pick, and a third-round pick. Toronto also retained \\$1.2 million of Kessel's salary for the remaining seven seasons of his contract. During the following season, on February 9, 2016, the Leafs packaged Phaneuf in another multi-player deal, acquiring four players, as well as a 2017 second-round pick from the Ottawa Senators. The team finished last in the NHL for the first time since the 1984–85 season. They subsequently won the draft lottery and used the first overall pick to draft Auston Matthews.\n\nIn their second season under Babcock, Toronto secured the final Eastern Conference wildcard spot for the 2017 playoffs. On April 23, 2017, the Maple Leafs were eliminated from the playoffs by the top-seeded Washington Capitals four games to two in the best-of-seven series.\n\nToronto finished the 2017–18 season with 105 points by beating Montreal 4–2 in their final game of the regular season, a franchise-record, beating the previous record of 103 points set in 2004. They faced the Boston Bruins in the First Round and lost in seven games. Following the playoffs, Lamoriello was not renewed as general manager. Kyle Dubas was subsequently named the team's 17th general manager in May 2018. During the 2018 off-season, the Maple Leafs signed John Tavares to a seven-year, \\$77 million contract. On April 1, the Maple Leafs clinched a division berth for the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Maple Leafs were eliminated in the First Round of the 2019 playoffs on April 23, after losing to the Bruins in a seven-game series.\n\nOn October 2, 2019, Tavares was named as the team's 25th team captain prior to the Leafs' 2019–20 season opening game. After a 9–10–4 start to the 2019–20 season, the club relieved Babcock as head coach on November 20, with Sheldon Keefe named as his replacement. The Maple Leafs were eliminated in the 2020 Stanley Cup Qualifiers on August 9, after losing a five-game series against the Columbus Blue Jackets.\n\nAs a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and travel restrictions at the Canada–United States border, the Leafs were temporarily moved to the North Division for the 2020–21 season alongside the NHL's other Canadian teams. During that season, teams only played games against teams in their new divisions in a limited 56-game season. On May 8, 2021, the Leafs clinched the North Division title, giving the Leafs guaranteed home advantage in the first two rounds of the 2021 Stanley Cup playoffs. Matthews also led the league in goals with 41 in 52 games played, becoming the first Maple Leaf to capture the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy. However, the Leafs lost in the First Round to their archrivals, the Montreal Canadiens, with the Leafs surrendering a 3–1 series lead in the process.\n\nDespite the ending to the previous season, the Leafs were poised to make another run, with much of the core roster intact. Aided by the arrival of defenceman Mark Giordano and center Colin Blackwell from the Seattle Kraken on March 21, the team cruised throughout the regular season. The Leafs broke their franchise record for points in a season, with 106, and wins in a season, with 50, during a 4–2 victory over the New York Islanders on April 17. Despite the achievement, they were unable to match the Florida Panthers' record, who led the Atlantic Division and the Eastern Conference. The Leafs made the playoffs, but lost in the First Round to the Tampa Bay Lightning in seven games.\n\nDuring the 2022–23 NHL season, the Leafs again fared well in the regular season, achieving an excellent 50-21-11 record and 111 points, one point less than the record achieved the season prior. However, the record-setting Boston Bruins led the division, finishing with 135 points, and leaving the Leafs in second place in the Atlantic. In the First Round of the playoffs, the Leafs faced Lightning again, and emerged victorious after six games. This marked the first time since the 2004 playoffs that the Leafs had advanced to the second round of playoffs.\n\n## Team culture\n\n### Fan base\n\nThe price of a Maple Leafs home game ticket is the highest amongst any team in the NHL. Scotiabank Arena holds 18,900 seats for Leafs games, with 15,500 reserved for season ticket holders. Because of the demand for season tickets, their sale is limited to the 10,000 people on the waiting list. As of March 2016, Leafs' season tickets saw a renewal rate of 99.5 percent, a rate that would require more than 250 years to clear the existing waiting list. In a 2014 survey by ESPN The Magazine, the Leafs were ranked last out of the 122 professional teams in the Big Four leagues. Teams were graded by stadium experience, ownership, player quality, ticket affordability, championships won and \"bang for the buck\"; in particular, the Leafs came last in ticket affordability.\n\nLeafs fans have been noted for their loyalty to the team despite their performance. In a study conducted by sports retailer Fanatics in March 2017, the Leafs and the Minnesota Wild were the only two NHL teams to average arena sellouts despite a below league average winning percentage. Conversely, fans of other teams harbour an equally passionate dislike of the team. In November 2002, the Leafs were named by Sports Illustrated hockey writer Michael Farber as the \"Most Hated Team in Hockey\".\n\nDespite their loyalty, there have been several instances where the fanbase voiced their displeasure with the club. During the 2011–12 season, fans attending the games chanted for the dismissal of head coach Ron Wilson, and later general manager Brian Burke. Wilson was let go shortly after the fans' outburst, even though he had been given a contract extension months earlier. Burke alluded to the chants noting \"it would be cruel and unusual punishment to let Ron coach another game in the Air Canada Centre\". In the 2014–15 season, fans threw Leafs jerseys onto the ice to show their disapproval of the team's poor performances in the past few decades. Similarly, during the later portion of the 2015–16 season, which overlaps with the start of Major League Baseball's regular season of play, fans were heard sarcastically chanting \"Let's go Blue Jays!\" and clapping alongside the chant as a sign of their farcical shift in priority from an under-performing team to the more successful playoff-bound 2016 Toronto Blue Jays season. Leafs fans also vandalized Mike Babcock's Wikipedia article amid the poor records of the first few months into the 2019–20 season; his article was temporarily semi-protected to minimize further vandalism.\n\nIn addition to the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), many fans live throughout Ontario, including the Ottawa Valley, the Niagara Region, and Southwestern Ontario. As a result, Leafs' away games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa, KeyBank Center in Buffalo, and Little Caesars Arena in Detroit host a more neutral attendance. This is due in part to the Leafs fans in those areas, and those cities' proximity to the GTA.\n\nThe Leafs are also a popular team in Atlantic Canada. In November 2016, a survey was conducted that found 20 percent of respondents from Atlantic Canada viewed the Leafs as their favourite team, second only to the Montreal Canadiens at 26 percent. The Leafs were found to be the most favoured team in Prince Edward Island, with 24 percent of respondents favouring the Leafs; and the second favourite team in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador (19 and 24 percent respectively, both trailing respondents who favoured the Canadiens by one percent).\n\n### Rivalries\n\nDuring the 25 years of the Original Six era (1942–67), teams played each other 14 times during the regular season, and with only four teams continuing into the playoffs, rivalries were intense. The Maple Leafs established several rivalries with other teams that played in this era, including the Boston Bruins, Detroit Red Wings, and the Montreal Canadiens. In addition to the aforementioned teams, the Maple Leafs have also developed a rivalry with the Ottawa Senators, as well as a minor geographic rivalry with the Buffalo Sabres called the Battle of the QEW after the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW), the freeway that links Buffalo with Toronto along the western edge of Lake Ontario.\n\n#### Boston Bruins\n\nBoth teams are Original Six teams, with their first game played in Boston's inaugural season on December 3, 1924. In the match-up, the St. Patricks earned a 5–3 victory against the Bruins at Mutual Street Arena. The Maple Leafs played their first Stanley Cup playoff series against the Bruins in 1933, winning the series 3–2. From 1933 to 2019, the two teams played in 16 postseason series against one another, including one Stanley Cup Finals.\n\nThe rivalry has since been renewed from the 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs which saw the Bruins rally from a 4–1 third-period deficit to defeat the Maple Leafs in overtime, 5–4, and advance to the second round. In the 2018 and 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Bruins would again defeat the Maple Leafs in seven games in both of those years.\n\n#### Detroit Red Wings\n\nThe Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs are both Original Six teams, playing their first game together in 1927. From 1929 to 1993, the teams met each other in the 16 playoff series, as well as seven Stanley Cup Finals. Meeting one another a combined 23 times in the postseason, they have played each other in more playoff series than any other two teams in NHL history except of the Bruins and Canadiens who have played a total of 34 playoff series. Overlapping fanbases, particularly in markets such as Windsor, Ontario, and the surrounding Essex County, have added to the rivalry.\n\nThe rivalry between the Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs was at its height during the Original Six era. The Leafs and Red Wings met in the playoffs six times during the 1940s, including four Stanley Cup finals. The Leafs beat the Red Wings in five of their six meetings. In the 1950s, the Leafs and Red Wings met one another in six Stanley Cup semifinals; the Red Wings beat the Leafs in five of their six meetings. From 1961 to 1967, the two teams met one another in three playoff series, including two Stanley Cup finals. Within those 25 years, the Leafs and Red Wings played a total of 15 playoff series including six Cup Finals; the Maple Leafs beat the Red Wings in all six Cup Finals.\n\nThe teams have only met three times in the playoffs since the Original Six era, with their last meeting in 1993. After the Leafs moved to the Eastern Conference in 1998, they faced each other less often, and the rivalry began to stagnate. The rivalry became intradivisional once again in 2013 when Detroit was moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference as part of a realignment.\n\n#### Montreal Canadiens\n\nThe rivalry between the Montreal Canadiens and the Maple Leafs is the oldest in the NHL, featuring two clubs that were active since the inaugural NHL season in 1917. In the early 20th century, the rivalry was an embodiment of a larger culture war between English Canada and French Canada. The Canadiens have won 24 Stanley Cups, while the Maple Leafs have won 13, ranking them first and second for most Cup wins, respectively.\n\nThe height of the rivalry was during the 1960s when the Canadiens and Leafs combined to win all but one Cup. The two clubs had 15 playoff meetings. However, the rivalry has waned with the two having not met in the postseason from 1979 to 2021. It also suffered when Montreal and Toronto were placed in opposite conferences in , with the Leafs in the Clarence Campbell/Western Conference and the Canadiens in the Prince of Wales/Eastern Conference. The rivalry became intradivisional once again in when the Leafs were moved into the Eastern Conference's Northeast Division.\n\nThe rivalry's cultural imprint may be seen in literature and art. The rivalry from the perspective of the Canadiens fan is captured in the popular Canadian short story The Hockey Sweater by Roch Carrier. Originally published in French as \"Une abominable feuille d'érable sur la glace\" (\"An abominable maple leaf on the ice\"), it referred to the Maple Leafs sweater a mother forced her son to wear. The son is presumably based on Carrier himself when he was young. This rivalry is also evident in Toronto's College subway station, which displays murals depicting the two teams, one on each platform (the Leafs mural being on the southbound platform), given that when the murals were installed in 1984, the station was the closest to the Leafs' then-home of Maple Leaf Gardens.\n\n#### Ottawa Senators\n\nThe modern Ottawa Senators entered the NHL in 1992, but the rivalry between the two teams did not begin to emerge until the late 1990s. From 1992 to 1998, Ottawa and Toronto played in different conferences (Prince of Wales / Eastern and Clarence Campbell / Western respectively), which meant they rarely played each other. However, before the 1998–99 season, the conferences and divisions were realigned, with Toronto moved to the Eastern Conference's Northeast Division with Ottawa. From 2000 to 2004, the teams played four post-season series; the Leafs won all four playoff series. Due in part to the number of Leafs fans living in the Ottawa Valley, and in part to Ottawa's relative proximity to Toronto, Leafs–Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa hold a more neutral audience.\n\n## Team operations\n\n### Branding\n\n#### Logo and uniform\n\nThe team is represented through several images and symbols, including the maple leaf logo found on the club's uniform. The Maple Leafs' jersey has a long history and is one of the best-selling NHL jerseys among fans. The club's uniforms have been altered several times. The club's first uniforms were blue and featured the letter T. The first major alteration came in 1919 when the club was renamed the St. Patricks. The uniforms were green with \"Toronto St. Pats\" on the logo, lettered in green either on a white \"pill\" shape or stripes.\n\nWhen the club was renamed the Maple Leafs in the 1927–28 season, the logo was changed, and the team reverted to blue uniforms. The logo was a 48-point maple leaf with the words lettered in white. The home jersey was blue with alternating thin-thick stripes on the arms, legs and shoulders. The road uniform was white with three stripes on the chest and back, waist and legs. For 1933–34, the alternating thin-thick stripes were replaced with stripes of equal thickness. This remained the basic design for the next 40 years. In 1937, veins were added to the leaf and \"Toronto\" curved downwards at the ends instead of upwards. In 1942, the 35-point leaf was introduced. In 1946, the logo added trimming to the leaf with a white or blue border, while \"C\" for captain and \"A\" for alternate captain first appeared on the sweaters. In 1947, the \"Toronto Maple Leafs\" lettering was in red for a short time. In 1958, a six-eyelet lace and tie were added to the neck and a blue shoulder yoke was added. In 1961, player numbers were added to the sleeves.\n\nThe fourth major change came in the 1966–67 season when the logo was changed to an 11-point leaf, similar to the leaf on the then-new flag of Canada to commemorate the Canadian Centennial. The simpler leaf logo featured the Futura Display typeface, replacing the previous block letters. The stripes on the sleeves and waistline were also changed, adding a wider stripe in between the two thinner stripes (similar to the stripe patterns on the socks and the early Leafs sweaters). Before the 1970–71 season, the Leafs adopted a new 11-point leaf logo, with a Kabel bold-font \"Toronto\" going straight across, running parallel to the other words. Other changes to the sweater included the replacement of the arm strips with an elongated yoke that extended to the ends of the sleeves, a solid single stripe on the waist replacing the three waistline stripes, two stripes on the stockings, and a smaller, textless Leaf crest on the shoulders. In 1973, the jersey's neck was a lace tie-down design, before the V-neck returned in 1976. In 1977, the NHL rules were changed to require names on the backs of the uniforms, but Harold Ballard resisted the change. Under Ballard's direction, the team briefly \"complied\" with the rule by placing blue letters on the blue road jersey for a game on February 26, 1978. With the NHL threatening hefty fines for failing to comply with the spirit of the rule (namely, having the names be legible for the fans and broadcasters in attendance), Ballard reached a compromise with the league, allowing the Leafs to finish the 1977–78 season with contrasting white letters on the road sweaters, and coming into full compliance with the new rule in the 1978–79 season by adding names in blue to the white home sweaters.\n\nWith the NHL's 75th anniversary season (1991–92 season), the Leafs wore \"Original Six\" style uniforms similar to the designs used in the 1940s. Because of the fan reaction to the previous season's classic uniforms, the first changes to the Maple Leafs uniform in over 20 years were made. The revised uniforms for 1992–93 featured two stripes on the sleeves and waistline like the classic uniform, but with the 1970 11-point leaf with Kabel text on the front. A vintage-style veined leaf crest was placed on the shoulders. The uniforms would undergo a few modifications over the years.\n\nIn 1997, Nike acquired the rights to manufacture Maple Leafs uniforms. Construction changes to the uniform included a wishbone collar and pothole mesh underarms, while the player name and number font were changed to Kabel to match the logo. CCM returned to manufacturing the Leafs uniforms in 1999 when Nike withdrew from the hockey jersey market, and kept most of the changes, although in 2000 the Kabel numbers were replaced with block numbers outlined in silver, and a silver-outlined interlocked TML monogram replaced the vintage leaf on the shoulders. Also during this time, the Leafs began wearing a white 1960s-style throwback third jersey featuring the outlined 35-point leaf, blue shoulders, and lace-up collar.\n\nWith Reebok taking over the NHL jersey contract following the 2004–05 lock-out, changes were expected when the Edge uniform system was set to debut in 2007. As part of the Edge overhaul, the TML monograms were removed from the shoulders, and the silver outlines on the numbers were replaced with blue or white outlines (e.g. the blue home jersey featured white numbers with blue and white outlines, rather than blue and silver), and the waistline stripes were removed. In 2010, the two waistline stripes were restored, the vintage leaf returned to the shoulders, and the player names and numbers were changed again, reverting to a simpler single-colour block font. Finally, lace-up collars were brought back to the primary uniforms. The Leafs also brought back the 1967–1970 blue uniform, replacing the white 1960s jersey as their third uniform. For the 2014 NHL Winter Classic, the Leafs wore a sweater inspired by their earlier uniforms in the 1930s.\n\nOn February 2, 2016, the team unveiled a new logo for the 2016–17 season in honour of its centennial, dropping the use of the Kabel-style font lettering used from 1970; it returns the logo to a form inspired by the earlier designs, with 31 points to allude to the 1931 opening of Maple Leaf Gardens, and 17 veins a reference to its establishment in 1917. 13 of the veins are positioned along the top part in honour of its 13 Stanley Cup victories. The logo was subsequently accompanied by a new uniform design that was unveiled during the 2016 NHL Entry Draft on June 24, 2016. In addition to the new logo, the new uniforms feature a custom block typeface for the player names and numbers. Two stripes remain on the sleeves, with a single stripe at the waistline. The updated design carried over to the Adidas Adizero uniforms adopted by the NHL in 2017.\n\nThe Maple Leafs have worn historical throwback uniforms for select games, with the club wearing Toronto Arenas or St. Pats-inspired throwback designs. Additionally, the Leafs have also used contemporary \"historically inspired\" uniforms as an alternate uniform. For the Centennial Classic, each Leafs player wore a blue sweater with bold white stripes across the chest and arms; the white stripe being a tribute to the St. Pats, while a stylized-\"T\" used by the Arenas featured on their hockey pants. For the 2020–21 season, the Maple Leafs wore \"reverse retro\" alternate uniforms, which included silver stripes inspired by the uniforms used from 1970 to 1972, while using the club's logo used from 1967 to 1970. Then for the 2022 Heritage Classic, the Maple Leafs donned a modified version of the team's Arenas throwbacks, with blue-on-blue lettering on the \"Arenas\" wordmark as a nod to the infamous 1978 uniforms. A second \"reverse retro\" alternate uniform, featuring the blue version of the white road uniforms they wore in 1962, was released. This design added a white shoulder yoke which was absent on the original blue uniform.\n\nOther alternate uniforms worn by the team include a white uniform with two blue stripes across the chest and arms, paired this uniform with white pants worn for the 2018 NHL Stadium Series. The uniforms were largely coloured white as a tribute to the Royal Canadian Navy and also included bolder blue outlines to create uniforms more pronounced for outdoor settings.\n\nDuring the 2021–22 season, the Leafs named TikTok, a video-sharing website, as their helmet entitlement partner. Then in the 2022–23 season, the Maple Leafs announced a uniform sponsorship with the Dairy Farmers of Ontario, utilizing the organization's \"Milk\" insignia.\n\nOn March 22, 2022, the Maple Leafs unveiled a new alternate uniform, but for the first time in team history, black served as a base colour with the traditional blue serving as a trim colour. The \"Next Gen\" uniform features the team crest with a blue and black tie-dye background, along with a subtle black/blue skyline motif serving as sleeve stripes. It also comes with a reversible crest, featuring Canadian singer Justin Bieber's modified drew house insignia inside a yellow Maple Leafs logo and yellow stripes. The black/blue front is normally worn as a game uniform.\n\n#### Mascot\n\nThe Maple Leafs' mascot is Carlton the Bear, an anthropomorphic polar bear whose name and number (#60) comes from the location of Maple Leaf Gardens at 60 Carlton Street, where the Leafs played throughout much of their history. Carlton made his first public appearance on July 29, 1995. He later made his regular season appearance on October 10, 1995.\n\n### Broadcasting\n\nAs a result of both Bell Canada and Rogers Communications having an ownership stake in MLSE, Maple Leafs broadcasts are split between the two media companies; with regional TV broadcasts split between Rogers' Sportsnet Ontario and Bell's TSN4. Colour commentary for Bell's television broadcasts is performed by Mike Johnson, while play-by-play is provided by Gord Miller. Colour commentary for Rogers' television broadcasts is performed by Craig Simpson, while play-by-play is provided by Chris Cuthbert; both also serve as the lead broadcast team of Hockey Night in Canada and Sportsnet's national TV broadcasts. From 2001 to 2022, MLSE also operated a specialty channel, the Leafs Nation Network.\n\nLike the Maple Leafs television broadcasts, radio broadcasts are split evenly between Rogers' CJCL (Sportsnet 590, The Fan) and Bell's CHUM (TSN Radio 1050). Both Bell and Rogers' radio broadcasts have their colour commentary provided by Jim Ralph, with play-by-play provided by Joe Bowen.\n\nRadio broadcasts of games played by the club were started in 1923. The first Leafs hockey game that was televised occurred on November 10, 1952; the broadcast also being the first English-language television broadcast of an NHL game in Canada. Foster Hewitt was the Leafs' first play-by-play broadcaster, providing radio play-by-play from 1927 to 1978. In addition, he provided play-by-play for television from 1952 to 1958, and colour commentary from 1958 to 1961. Originally aired over CFCA, Hewitt's broadcast was picked up by the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (the CRBC) in 1933, moving to CBC Radio (the CRBC's successor) three years later.\n\n### Home arenas and practice facilities\n\nThe team's first home was the Arena Gardens, later known as the Mutual Street Arena. From 1912 until 1931, the Arena was ice hockey's premier site in Toronto. The Arena Gardens was the third arena in Canada to feature a mechanically frozen, or artificial, ice surface, and for 11 years was the only such facility in Eastern Canada. The Arena was demolished in 1989, with most of the site converted to residential developments. In 2011, parts of the site were made into a city park, known as Arena Gardens.\n\nWithin a six months in 1931, Conn Smythe built Maple Leaf Gardens on the northwest corner of Carlton Street and Church Street, for C\\$1.5 million (C\\$ million in 2023). The arena soon acquired nicknames including the \"Carlton Street Cashbox\", and the \"Maple Leaf Mint\", since the team's games were constantly sold out. The Maple Leafs won 11 Stanley Cups while playing at the Gardens. The first annual NHL All-Star Game was also held at Maple Leaf Gardens in 1947. The Gardens opened on November 12, 1931, with the Maple Leafs losing 2–1 to the Chicago Blackhawks. On February 13, 1999, the Maple Leafs played their last game at the Gardens, also suffering a 6–2 loss to the Blackhawks. The building is presently used as a multi-purpose facility, with a Loblaws grocery store occupying retail space on the lower floors, Joe Fresh and LCBO occupying another floor, and an athletics arena for Ryerson University (now Toronto Metropolitan University) occupying the topmost level.\n\nThe Maple Leafs presently use two facilities in the City of Toronto. The club moved from the Gardens on February 20, 1999, to their current home arena, Air Canada Centre, later renamed Scotiabank Arena, a multi-purpose indoor entertainment arena on Bay Street in the South Core neighbourhood of Downtown Toronto. The arena is owned by the Maple Leafs' parent company MLSE and is shared with the NBA's Toronto Raptors (another MLSE subsidiary), as well as the National Lacrosse League's Toronto Rock. In addition to the main arena, the Maple Leafs also operate a practice facility at the Ford Performance Centre. The facility was opened in 2009 and operated by the Lakeshore Lions Club until September 2011, when the City of Toronto took over ownership of the facility after the Lions Club faced financial difficulties. The facility now operates as a City of Toronto-controlled corporation. The facility was known as the Mastercard Centre for Hockey Excellence until 2019 when it was renamed the Ford Performance Centre. The facility has three NHL rinks and one Olympic-sized rink.\n\nOn January 1, 2017, the Maple Leafs played the Detroit Red Wings in a home game at BMO Field, an outdoor multipurpose stadium at Exhibition Place, home to Leafs owner MLSE's other teams: the Toronto FC and the Toronto Argonauts. Known as the NHL Centennial Classic, the outdoor game served as a celebration for both the centennial season of the franchise and the NHL.\n\n### Minor league affiliates\n\nThe Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League and the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL. The Marlies play from Coca-Cola Coliseum in Toronto, while the Growlers play from the Mary Brown's Centre in St. John's, Newfoundland. The Maple Leafs' parent company has owned the Marlies franchise since 1978. The Growlers became affiliated with the Maple Leafs and the Marlies before the 2018–19 season. Unlike the Marlies, the Growlers are not owned by the Leafs' parent company but are instead owned by Deacon Sports and Entertainment.\n\nThe first AHL affiliate owned by the Maple Leafs was the Rochester Americans, a team the Leafs initially co-owned with the Montreal Canadiens from 1956 to 1959, before MLGL bought out the Canadiens' share in the team. MLGL held sole ownership of the team until it was sold to an investor group in 1966. However, it continued to serve as their minor league affiliate until 1969. The Leafs did not have an AHL affiliate from 1969 to 1978 and relied on placing their drafted players with other team's affiliates. However, after several poor draft picks and having insufficient control over their prospect's development, MLGL opted to reestablish their own farm system; co-founding the Marlies franchise in 1978, and operating the Cincinnati Tigers of the Central Hockey League from 1981 to 1982. The Marlies were initially established as the New Brunswick Hawks, and were later relocated to St. Catherines, Newmarket, and St. John's, before finally moving to Toronto in 2005.\n\nThe Marlies was named after the Toronto Marlboros, a junior hockey team named after the Duke of Marlborough. Founded in 1903, the Marlboros were sponsored by the Leafs from 1927 to 1989. The Marlboros constituted one of two junior hockey teams the Leafs formerly sponsored, the other being the Toronto St. Michael's Majors. The sponsored junior system served as the Leafs primary farm system for young replacement players from the 1940s to 1950s. Formal NHL sponsorship of junior teams ceased in 1966, making all qualifying prospects not already on NHL-sponsored lists eligible for the draft.\n\n### Ownership\n\nThe Maple Leafs is one of six professional sports teams owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE). In 2018, Forbes estimated the value of the club at US\\$1.45 billion, making the Maple Leafs the second most valuable franchise in the NHL, after the New York Rangers. However, MLSE has refuted past valuations made by Forbes.\n\nInitially, ownership of the club was held by the Arena Gardens of Toronto, Limited; an ownership group fronted by Henry Pellatt, that owned and managed Arena Gardens. The club was named a permanent franchise in the League following its inaugural season, with team manager Charles Querrie, and the Arena Gardens treasurer Hubert Vearncombe as its owners. The Arena Company owned the club until 1919 when litigations from Eddie Livingstone forced the company to declare bankruptcy. Querrie brokered the sale of the Arena Garden's share to the owners of the amateur St. Patricks Hockey Club. Maintaining his shares in the club, Querrie fronted the new ownership group until 1927, when the club was put up for sale. Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together an ownership group and purchased the franchise for \\$160,000. In 1929, Smythe decided, amid the Great Depression, that the Maple Leafs needed a new arena. To finance it, Smythe launched Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL), a publicly traded management company to own both the Maple Leafs and the new arena, which was named Maple Leaf Gardens. Smythe traded his stake in the Leafs for shares in MLGL and sold shares in the holding company to the public to help fund construction for the arena.\n\nAlthough Smythe was the face of MLGL from its founding, he did not gain the controlling interest in the company until 1947. Smythe remained MLGL's principal owner until 1961 when he sold 90 percent of his shares to an ownership group consisting of Harold Ballard, John Bassett and Stafford Smythe. Ballard became majority owner in February 1972 shortly following the death of Stafford Smythe. Ballard was the principal owner of MLGL until he died in 1990. The company remained a publicly traded company until 1998, when an ownership group fronted by Steve Stavro privatized the company by acquiring more than the 90 percent of stock necessary to force objecting shareholders out.\n\nWhile initially primarily a hockey company, with ownership stakes in several junior hockey clubs including the Toronto Marlboros of the Ontario Hockey Association, the company later branched out to own the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League from the late 1970s to late 1980s (though the company would later sell off the Tiger-Cats). On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association, who were constructing the then-Air Canada Centre. After MLGL acquired the Raptors, the company changed its name to MLSE. The company's portfolio has since expanded to include the Toronto FC of Major League Soccer, the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League, and a 37.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Square.\n\nThe present ownership structure emerged in 2012 after the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan (the company's former principal owner) announced the sale of its 75 percent stake in MLSE to a consortium made up of telecommunications rivals Bell Canada and Rogers Communications, in a deal valued at \\$1.32 billion. As part of the sale, two numbered companies were created to jointly hold stock. This ownership structure ensures that, at the shareholder level, Rogers and Bell vote their overall 75 percent interest in the company together and thus decisions on the management of the company must be made by consensus between the two. A portion of Bell's share in MLSE is owned by its pension fund, to make Bell's share in MLSE under 30 percent. This was done so that Bell could retain its existing 18 percent interest in the Montreal Canadiens; as NHL's conflict of interest rules prevent any shareholder that owns more than 30 percent of a team from holding an ownership position in another. The remaining 25 percent is owned by Larry Tanenbaum, who is also the chairman of MLSE.\n\n## Season-by-season record\n\nThis is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Maple Leafs. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Toronto Maple Leafs seasons\n\nNote: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against\n\n## Players and personnel\n\n### Current roster\n\n### Team captains\n\nIn all, 25 individuals have served as captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Ken Randall served as the team's first captain for two years beginning with the inaugural 1917–18 NHL season. John Ross Roach was the first goaltender to be named captain in the NHL, and the only goaltender to serve as the Leafs' captain. He was one of only six goalies in NHL history to have been officially recognized as the team captain. George Armstrong served as captain from 1958 through 1969 and was the longest-serving captain in the team's history. In 1997, Mats Sundin became the first non-Canadian to captain the Maple Leafs. His tenure as captain holds the distinction as the longest captaincy for a non-North American-born player in NHL history. The last player named to the position was John Tavares on October 2, 2019.\n\nThree captains of the Maple Leafs have held the position at multiple points in their careers. Syl Apps' first tenure as the captain began from 1940 to 1943, before he stepped down and left the club to enlist in the Canadian Army. Bob Davidson served as the Maple Leafs captain until Apps' return from the Army in 1945 and resumed his captaincy until 1948. Ted Kennedy's first tenure as captain was from 1948 to 1955. He announced his retirement from the sport at the end of the 1954–55 season, with Sid Smith succeeding him as captain. Although Kennedy missed the entire 1955–56 season, he came out of retirement to play the second half of the 1956–57 season. During that half-season, Kennedy served his second tenure as the Maple Leafs' captain. Darryl Sittler was the third player to have been named the team's captain twice. As a result of a dispute between Sittler and the Maple Leafs' general manager Punch Imlach, Sittler relinquished the captaincy on December 29, 1979. The dispute was resolved in the following off-season after a heart attack hospitalized Imlach. Sittler arranged talks with Ballard to resolve the issue, eventually resuming his captaincy on September 24, 1980. No replacement captain was named during the interim period.\n\n### Head coaches\n\nThe Maple Leafs have had 40 head coaches (including four interim coaches). The franchise's first head coach was Dick Carroll, who coached the team for two seasons. Several coaches have served as the Leafs head coach on multiple occasions. King Clancy was named the head coach on three occasions while Charles Querrie and Punch Imlach served the position on two occasions. Sheldon Keefe is the current head coach. He was named coach on November 20, 2019.\n\nPunch Imlach coached the most regular-season games of any Leafs' head coach with 770 games, and has the most all-time points with the Maple Leafs, with 865. He is followed by Pat Quinn, who coached 574 games, with 678 points all-time with the Maple Leafs. Both Mike Rodden and Dick Duff, have the fewest points with the Maple Leafs, with 0. Both were interim coaches who coached only two games each in 1927 and 1980 respectively, losing both games. Sheldon Keefe earned the most points of any Leafs head coach in a single season, with 115 points during the 2021–22 season. Five Maple Leafs' coaches have been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as players, while four others were inducted as builders. Pat Burns is the only Leafs' head coach to win a Jack Adams Award with the team.\n\n### Draft picks\n\nIn the 1963 NHL Amateur Draft, the NHL's inaugural draft, the Maple Leafs selected Walt McKechnie, a centre from the London Nationals with their first pick, sixth overall. Two Maple Leafs captains were obtained through the draft, Darryl Sittler in the 1970 draft; as well as Wendel Clark in the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. The Maple Leafs have drafted two players with a first overall draft pick; Clark in the 1985 draft, and Auston Matthews in the 2016 draft. Rodion Amirov was the most recent player selected by the Maple Leafs in the first round, with the 15th overall pick at the 2020 draft.\n\n## Team and league honours\n\nThe Maple Leafs have won 13 Stanley Cups in its history. Toronto's first two Stanley Cups, in 1918 and 1922, took place when the Stanley Cup tournament operated as an interleague competition. Toronto's subsequent 11 Stanley Cups were awarded after 1926 when the Cup was established as the championship trophy of the NHL. The Maple Leafs won their last Stanley Cup in 1967; with the team's 53-season Stanley Cup drought being the longest active drought in the NHL. The Maple Leafs were also awarded the Prince of Wales Trophy twice, following the 1946–47 season, and the 1962–63 season. The Prince of Wales Trophy was awarded to the club when it was used as NHL's regular-season championship trophy.\n\n### Retired numbers\n\nThe Maple Leafs have retired the numbers of 19 players; as some players used the same number, only 13 numbers have been retired. Between October 17, 1992, and October 15, 2016, the Maple Leafs took a unique approach to retired numbers. Whereas players who suffered a career-ending injury had their numbers retired, \"great\" players had their number \"honoured\". Honoured numbers remained in general circulation for players, however, during Brian Burke's tenure as the Maple Leafs' general manager, the use of honoured numbers required his approval.\n\nDuring this period, only two players met the criteria for retirement, the first being number 6, worn by Ace Bailey and retired on February 14, 1934; and Bill Barilko's number 5, retired on October 17, 1992. The retirement of Bailey's number was the first of its kind in professional sports. It was briefly taken out of retirement after Bailey asked that Ron Ellis be allowed to wear his number. Bailey's number returned to retirement after Ellis's final game on January 14, 1981.\n\nThe first players to have their numbers honoured were Syl Apps and Ted Kennedy, on October 3, 1993. Mats Sundin was the last player to have his number honoured on February 11, 2012. On October 15, 2016, before the home opening game of the team's centenary season, the Maple Leafs announced they had changed their philosophy on retiring numbers, and that the numbers of those 16 honoured players would now be retired, in addition to the retirement of Dave Keon's number.\n\nAs well as honouring and retiring the numbers, the club also commissioned statues of former Maple Leafs. The group of statues, known as Legends Row, is a 9.2 metres (30 ft) granite hockey bench with statues of former club players. Unveiled in September 2014, it is located outside Gate 5 of Scotiabank Arena, at Maple Leaf Square. As of October 2017, statues have been made of 14 players with retired numbers.\n\nIn addition to the 13 numbers retired by the Maple Leafs, the number 99 is also retired from use in the organization. At the 2000 NHL All-Star Game hosted in Toronto, the NHL announced the league-wide retirement of Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retiring it from use throughout all its member teams, including the Maple Leafs.\n\n### Hall of Famers\n\nThe Toronto Maple Leafs acknowledge an affiliation with 75 inductees of the Hockey Hall of Fame. The 75 inductees include 62 former players as well as 13 builders of the sport. The Maple Leafs have the greatest number of players inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame of any NHL team. The 13 individuals recognized as builders of the sport include former Maple Leafs broadcasters, executives, head coaches, and other personnel relating to the club's operations. Inducted in 2017, Dave Andreychuk was the latest Maple Leafs player to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.\n\nIn addition to players and builders, five broadcasters for the Maple Leafs were also awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame. In 1984, Foster Hewitt, a radio broadcaster, was awarded the Hall of Fame's inaugural Foster Hewitt Memorial Award, an award named after Hewitt. Hewitt was already inducted as a builder into the Hall of Fame before the award's inception. Other Maple Leafs broadcasters that received the award include Wes McKnight in 1986, Bob Cole in 2007, Bill Hewitt in 2007 and Joe Bowen in 2018.\n\n### Franchise career leaders\n\nThese are the top franchise leaders in regular season points, goals, assists, points per game, games played, and goaltending wins as of the end of the 2022–23 season.\n\n- – current Maple Leafs player\n\n## See also\n\n- List of Toronto Maple Leafs players\n- List of Toronto Maple Leafs general managers\n- Toronto Maple Leafs in popular culture", "revid": "1173212758", "description": "National Hockey League team in Ontario", "categories": ["1917 establishments in Ontario", "Atlantic Division (NHL)", "Events in Toronto", "Ice hockey clubs established in 1917", "Ice hockey teams in Toronto", "Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment", "National Hockey League in Ontario", "National Hockey League teams", "National Hockey League teams based in Canada", "Toronto Maple Leafs"]}
{"id": "11451681", "url": null, "title": "Maryland Route 24", "text": "Maryland Route 24 (MD 24) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The state highway runs 25.17 miles (40.51 km) from an entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground in Edgewood north to the Pennsylvania state line near Fawn Grove, Pennsylvania, where the road becomes State Route 2055 (SR 2055). MD 24 is the main north–south highway of Harford County. The southern half of the state highway connects U.S. Route 1 (US 1) and the county seat of Bel Air with Aberdeen Proving Ground, US 40, and Interstate 95 (I-95) through a suburban corridor. The northern half of MD 24 is a rural highway that passes through Rocks State Park.\n\nThe original section of MD 24, which began at MD 23 in Forest Hill and included MD 165 through Pylesville, was constructed in the late 1910s and early 1920s. MD 24 was moved to the highway to Fawn Grove after that road was built in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The highway between US 1 in Bel Air and US 40 in Edgewood was also constructed in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The state highway from US 40 south to Aberdeen Proving Ground was constructed as MD 408 around 1930. After the road from Bel Air to Forest Hill was completed in the mid-1930s, MD 24 was extended south to Edgewood.\n\nMD 24 received its first relocation in Edgewood in the mid-1950s after assuming all of MD 408. After another relocation due to the construction of I-95 in the early 1960s, the state highway was placed on a new alignment through Edgewood in the late 1960s and early 1970s; the old alignment became MD 755. MD 24 was relocated to a divided highway from I-95 to US 1 in the late 1980s; the old highway through Bel Air became MD 924. Much of the highway through Edgewood was expanded to a divided highway in the mid-1990s. MD 24's interchange with MD 924 was constructed between 2008 and 2011.\n\n## Route description\n\nMD 24 carries five names throughout its length. The highway is named Emmorton Road between Aberdeen Proving Ground and US 40 and Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway from US 40 to US 1. After its short concurrency with US 1 on the Bel Air Bypass, MD 24 is known as Rock Springs Avenue from US 1 to Forest Hill, where the highway becomes Rocks Road for the remainder of its length to the Pennsylvania state line. The state highway is a part of the main National Highway System between I-95 and the northern end of its concurrency with US 1 in Bel Air. MD 24 is also classified as an intermodal connector from MD 755 to I-95 and as a National Highway System principal arterial from Aberdeen Proving Ground to MD 755 and from its northern junction with US 1 to MD 23.\n\n### Edgewood to Bel Air\n\nMD 24 begins at an entrance to the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground; the highway continues south into the military installation as Hoadley Road. This gate is open 24 hours daily and allows entry for persons with a Government ID along with visitors without a Government ID. All visitors to the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground must use this gate to enter. The state highway crosses over Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line and MARC's Penn Line and heads north as Emmorton Road, a two-lane undivided controlled access highway that passes between residential subdivisions in Edgewood, where the highway intersects Trimble Road. MD 24 expands to a four-lane divided highway just south of MD 755 (Edgewood Road). The state highway heads northeast, crossing in quick succession Otter Point Creek, US 40 (Pulaski Highway), and Winters Run. Access to and from US 40 is provided via a two-way ramp between the two highways. MD 24 continues north as the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway, which curves back to the north and crosses over CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line before intersecting MD 7 (Philadelphia Road) in the hamlet of Van Bibber. North of here, the road passes west of a park and ride lot.\n\nAfter an intersection with Edgewood Road, which is MD 24's old alignment, the state highway meets I-95 (John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway) at a partial cloverleaf interchange. Immediately to the north of that interchange is a diamond interchange with the southern ends of MD 924 (Emmorton Road) and Tollgate Road. MD 924, which is the old alignment of MD 24, and Tollgate Road parallel MD 24 to the east and west, respectively. The two highways serve residential subdivisions bypassed by MD 24 between Edgewood and Bel Air; MD 924 serves the village of Emmorton. MD 24 also passes close to the historic home Woodside, accessed via Singer Road; Woodview, found at the west end of Plumtree Road; and Whitaker's Mill Historic District on Ring Factory Road. The state highway parallels Plumtree Run as it approaches Bel Air. MD 24 passes east of University of Maryland Upper Chesapeake Medical Center before meeting US 1 Business (Belair Road) at an intersection surrounded by shopping centers, including the Harford Mall. The state highway crosses over the Ma and Pa Trail, a rail trail that follows the abandoned right-of-way of the Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad, and Heavenly Waters, a tributary of Winters Run, before reaching its junction with US 1 (Bel Air Bypass). The three-way junction features long, sweeping ramps to and from the northbound direction of US 1 and an intersection with the U.S. highway to access the southbound direction.\n\n### Bel Air to Fawn Grove\n\nMD 24 and US 1 head northeast together as a four-lane undivided highway. The two highways pass under Vale Road before reaching the northern end of the concurrency, which is a partial cloverleaf interchange with Rock Spring Road. This road heads south toward downtown Bel Air as MD 924; MD 24 leaves US 1 and heads north on this road. A park and ride lot serving MTA Maryland commuter buses is located in the southwest quadrant of this interchange. The state highway heads north through a commercial area as a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The highway reduces to two lanes and passes through another commercial area before its intersection with MD 23 (East–West Highway) in Forest Hill. At Jarrettsville Road, which is the old alignment of MD 23, MD 24's name changes to Rocks Road and enters a mix of farmland and forest. The state highway crosses Stirrup Run before beginning to closely parallel Deer Creek. MD 24 passes through several sharp curves as the highway enters Rocks State Park, where the state highway passes through the gorge that Deer Creek has cut through Rock Ridge. The state highway crosses Deer Creek and passes the access road to the Gladden Farm before leaving the state park.\n\nMD 24 continues north through farmland, crossing several branches of Deer Creek and intersecting Holy Cross Road, which leads west to the Col. John Streett House and east to the village of Street. At Bush's Corner, the highway meets MD 165 (Federal Hill Road/Pylesville Road) at a roundabout. MD 24 passes close to Kilgore Falls, the second highest waterfall in Maryland; the falls on the Falling Branch of Deer Creek are accessed via St. Marys Road. Just to the north at Five Forks, the state highway intersects Clermont Mill Road and MD 136, which heads west as Harkins Road and east as Whiteford Road. MD 24 continues northwest to its terminus at the Pennsylvania state line. Rocks Road continues north as SR 2055, an unsigned quadrant route, to PA 851 (Main Street) in Fawn Grove.\n\n## History\n\nMD 24 was originally constructed between 1917 and 1938. While the portion of the state highway north of Bel Air has seen limited improvements since the 1930s, the highway south of Bel Air has been fully relocated, in some places multiple times, and expanded to a divided highway for much of its length.\n\n### Original construction and early improvements\n\nMD 24 was one of the original state-numbered highways designated in 1927. The state highway originally began at MD 23 in Forest Hill and followed its current course along Rocks Road north to Bush's Corner, then followed Pylesville Road (which later became MD 165) through Pylesville to the Pennsylvania state line at Cardiff. The portion of Pylesville Road between Graceton Road (now MD 624) and the village of Pylesville was paved with macadam by 1910. MD 24 from just north of Forest Hill to Graceton Road was built with a 15-foot (4.6 m) wide concrete surface in four sections, with construction underway by 1917 and completed by 1921. The state highway just north of Forest Hill and the highway from Pylesville northeast to the state line were completed with a macadam surface by 1923.\n\nMD 24 from Bush's Corner toward Fawn Grove began construction in 1926. The concrete highway was completed to St. Marys Road by 1927 and to Five Forks in 1928. The third section, from Five Forks to about 1 mile (1.6 km) south of the state line, was started in 1929 and completed in 1930. The final section to the state line at Fawn Grove was started in 1930 and completed by 1933. Around the time the highway was completed, MD 24 was switched from Pylesville Road to Rocks Road north of Bush's Corner; MD 165 was extended from Bush's Corner to Cardiff in MD 24's stead. MD 24 received a new bridge over Deer Creek within Rocks State Park in 1934. Since the 1930s, the only notable improvement to the original length of MD 24 was the construction of the roundabout at the MD 24 – MD 165 intersection in 2000.\n\nConstruction on MD 153 (which was later replaced by MD 24) between Van Bibber and Bel Air got underway with the construction of a 1-mile (1.6 km) section of macadam road from Ring Factory Road south to Plumtree Road near Emmorton between 1925 and 1927. Another macadam segment was completed from Emmorton south to Singer Road at Norris Corner in 1928. A concrete highway from Norris Corner toward US 40 at Van Bibber was started in 1929. The first section was completed to approximately the location of I-95 in 1930 and to Van Bibber by 1933. Two county highway gaps in MD 153 from Van Bibber to Bel Air were resurfaced with macadam and brought into the state system in 1933.\n\nThe two remaining portions of the MD 153 corridor to be built were completed through Edgewood and north of Bel Air in the 1930s. In 1930, Edgewood Road was built as a concrete road from US 40 just west of Van Bibber south to its entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground at its Pennsylvania Railroad crossing (now Amtrak). Edgewood Road, which was originally designated MD 408, was constructed with a width of 16 feet (4.9 m) but was proposed for widening to 20 feet (6.1 m) as early as 1934 since it was the main entrance to the Edgewood Arsenal. MD 408 received an underpass of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (now CSX) and approaches to the grade separation in 1939.\n\nRock Spring Avenue north of Bel Air was improved as a macadam road starting in 1929. MD 153 extended from the county seat north to the location of the Bel Air Bypass in the community of Frogtown in 1930 and was extended to about 1 mile (1.6 km) south of Forest Hill by 1933. The gap south of Forest Hill remained under county control until the highway was resurfaced with macadam around 1938. MD 24 was extended south from Forest Hill through Bel Air to MD 7 at Van Bibber in 1938, replacing MD 153. Through Bel Air, MD 24 followed Main Street, which was widened to 40 feet (12 m) in width around 1940.\n\n### Relocations and expansions\n\nThe first post-war project on MD 24 was the reconstruction of the highway from Norris Corner to Van Bibber starting in 1950. By the time the project to resurface the highway in bituminous concrete ended in 1952, MD 24 was extended south through Edgewood, replacing MD 408 from MD 7 to Aberdeen Proving Ground. MD 24 was widened and resurfaced with bituminous concrete from Norris Corner to Bel Air starting in 1954 and from Bel Air to Forest Hill beginning in 1956. The Norris Corner – Bel Air project included the highway's first relocation at Emmorton, leaving behind Old Emmorton Road.\n\nAnother relocation occurred in 1956 to remove MD 24's staggered intersections at MD 7 in Van Bibber. Edgewood Road was extended north to tie into Emmorton Road just south of the interchange with I-95; this project bypassed Van Bibber Road. MD 24 was relocated again near Van Bibber when the highway's interchange with I-95 was constructed in 1963. This relocation left behind the roadways now marked as Walton Road and Woodside Road in the southeast and northeast quadrants, respectively, of the original diamond interchange.\n\nThe next relocation in the Edgewood area occurred in two sections starting in 1967. MD 24 was moved to its present alignment from just south of the I-95 interchange to Edgewood Road south of US 40 in 1970. The bypass included a bridge over US 40; access between the two highways was provided by Edgewood Road, which was designated MD 755. The new alignment of MD 24 was extended south to a new entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground in 1974; MD 755 was extended south along MD 24's old alignment to the pre-existing entrance next to the Edgewood MARC station. MD 24 from I-95 to MD 755 was expanded to a divided highway around 1997; this project included the construction of a two-way ramp between MD 24 and US 40 to add the direct access that had not been provided in 1970.\n\nMD 24's interchange with US 1 north of Bel Air was constructed in 1964 along with the rest of the Bel Air Bypass. The interchange was originally a diamond interchange; a loop ramp was added from northbound US 1 to northbound MD 24 in 1983. Construction of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway from I-95 to US 1 in Bel Air began in 1986. The four-lane divided highway was completed in 1987. MD 24 was also expanded to a divided highway through the I-95 interchange, which was transformed into its modern partial cloverleaf. The original alignment of MD 24 between I-95 and Bel Air was planned to become another section of MD 755 in 1986 but was designated MD 924 in 1987. The highway was formally designated the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway in 1995.\n\nIn December 2008, the Maryland Transportation Authority began a project to replace MD 24's intersection with MD 924 and Tollgate Road just north of the MD 24 – I-95 interchange. The intersection was replaced with a diamond interchange in October 2011. As part of the project, the MD 24 – I-95 interchange had several ramps altered to separate I-95 traffic heading for MD 24 and MD 924. The Maryland State Highway Administration has long-term plans to expand the Bel Air Bypass to a divided highway from Winters Run to US 1 Business south of Hickory. The Bel Air Bypass is already a four-lane divided highway between MD 147 and Winters Run and around Hickory, but is a three- to four-lane undivided highway from Winters Run to US 1 Business south of Hickory. The Bel Air Bypass would be expanded to a four-lane divided highway from Winters Run to MD 24 and a six-lane divided highway along the US 1 – MD 24 concurrency. The US 1 – MD 24 intersection would be reconstructed as a trumpet interchange. The planning phase of the project was completed in 2001, but engineering, right-of-way acquisition, and actual construction are on hold until funding becomes available.\n\nThe Maryland State Highway Administration plans to rebuild the portion of MD 24 that passes through Rocks State Park, which has been undermined by the adjacent Deer Creek. The project was originally proposed in late 2009 and initially called for the route to be relocated further from the creek. The project was put on hold due to opposition from area residents and environmentalists. The Maryland State Highway Administration later proposed reconstructing the road along its current alignment while stabilizing the creek. Work on this project, which is projected to cost \\$13.3 million, is expected to start as soon as May 2014 and will require closing the road.\n\n## Junction list\n\n## Auxiliary routes\n\nMD 24 has three existing auxiliary routes.\n\n- MD 24D is the designation for the Otter Creek Ramp, a 0.23-mile (0.37 km) long four-lane divided ramp that connects MD 24 with US 40. MD 24D was built in 1997.\n- MD 24E is the designation for the unnamed 0.85-mile (1.37 km) ramp from northbound MD 24 to northbound US 1. This ramp was built in 1987 as part of the construction of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway and designated MD 24E in 2001.\n- MD 24F is the designation for the unnamed 0.52-mile (0.84 km) ramp from northbound US 1 to southbound MD 24. Like MD 24E, MD 24F was built in 1987 and received its designation in 2001.\n\n## See also", "revid": "1157363159", "description": "State highway in Harford County, Maryland, US", "categories": ["Roads in Harford County, Maryland", "State highways in Maryland"]}
{"id": "32520884", "url": null, "title": "Days Gone Bye (The Walking Dead)", "text": "\"Days Gone Bye\", titled \"Pilot\" on DVD and Blu-Ray releases, is the pilot episode of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on October 31, 2010. The episode's teleplay was written and directed by Frank Darabont, the series creator.\n\nRobert Kirkman, the creator of the eponymous series of comic books, considered the idea of creating a television show based on the comic series, but did not move forward. Frank Darabont expressed interest in developing the series for television. In January 2010, AMC formally announced that it had ordered a pilot for a possible series adapted from The Walking Dead comic book. In the announcement, the executives stated that Darabont would serve as writer, director, and an executive producer alongside Gale Anne Hurd.\n\nPrincipal photography for the pilot commenced in May 2010 in Atlanta, Georgia. It was wholly shot on 16 mm film, and was edited using computer-generated imagery. \"Days Gone Bye\" was heavily promoted in the months preceding its release; as part of an expansive advertising campaign, zombie invasion events were coordinated in selected locations including New York City, Washington, D.C., London, and Madrid. The episode premiered in 120 countries worldwide.\n\n\"Days Gone Bye\" was critically well received, praising Andrew Lincoln's performance and Darabont's direction. Several critics compared it to Lost. In the United States, the series premiere achieved a viewership of 5.35 million, making it the most-watched series premiere in its network's history. The episode garnered a Nielsen rating of 2.7 in the 18–49 demographic, translating to 3.6 million viewers.\n\n## Plot\n\nThe episode opens in medias res as former Sheriff's Deputy Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln) scavenges for gas and supplies at an abandoned convenience store on a deserted highway in rural Georgia. He spots a little girl (Addy Miller), but she turns out to be a zombie. When she shambles towards him, Rick shoots her in the head.\n\nReturning to several weeks prior, Rick is seriously injured while chasing down criminals alongside his partner and childhood friend Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal); he is shot in the shoulder and goes into a coma. Hospitalized after the injury, Rick experiences a series of dreamlike encounters with friends and family.\n\nWhen he regains consciousness, he finds the hospital abandoned and horrifically ransacked: the walls are sprayed with blood, destroyed equipment is everywhere, and dead bodies litter the hallway. He walks past a set of double doors secured with heavy chains and spray-painted with the ominous warning \"Don't Open Dead Inside\". From the far side of the secured doors, Rick hears growling while an unknown menace pushes against the locked doors. Outside, he finds scores of dead bodies, some covered in makeshift body bags, others strewn about randomly. As he makes his way home, he sees a zombified woman dragging her legless body towards him. He ignores her and returns home, but his family has fled.\n\nRick encounters Morgan Jones (Lennie James) and his son Duane (Adrian Kali Turner), and they explain the zombie apocalypse that occurred while Rick was in a coma. Morgan warns that the only way to stop the zombies is to destroy the brain, and cautions that the zombies are attracted to noise. Rick decides to head to Atlanta where a refugee camp is rumored to exist, though Morgan would rather stay behind. Rick, Morgan, and Duane go to the Sheriff's Department headquarters where Rick was assigned and take weapons, radios, ammunition and a patrol car. While there, Rick encounters a zombified former colleague whom he shoots in the head. Rick splits the stash of weapons and supplies from the police station with Morgan and promises to stay in touch with a walkie-talkie. Morgan and Duane return to their home where Morgan, armed with a sniper rifle and perched in a second-story window, shoots at the zombies wandering in the street below. While Duane sits nervously downstairs, unsure why Morgan is shooting out the window, it becomes clear that Morgan is trying to attract his zombified wife. When she appears, Morgan gets her head in sight but is unable to shoot her.\n\nOn his way out of town, Rick stops by the legless zombie. He apologizes for what had happened to her then shoots her. Continuing toward Atlanta in the police car, Rick radios for help on an emergency channel; his signal is picked up at the survivors' camp where Shane, Rick's wife Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies), and their son Carl (Chandler Riggs) are safe. Unaware that it is Rick on the radio, the survivors lose the signal and can't warn him of the dangers in Atlanta. Shane and Lori kiss, but are interrupted by Carl. Later, Rick abandons his car when it runs out of gas, then finds a nearby farmhouse and its dead owners. He takes their horse and continues toward Atlanta on horseback. In the seemingly empty city, Rick follows a helicopter flying overhead right into a horde of zombies. They attack, killing his horse and forcing him to drop his bag of weapons and crawl under a tank, and as they follow him under it Rick contemplates suicide before noticing a trapdoor in the bottom of the vehicle. After he shoots a walker inside, he hears a voice from the tank's radio sarcastically ask if he is comfortable, before the scene exits with a top-down view of Atlanta overrun by walkers.\n\n## Production\n\n### Conception\n\nRobert Kirkman claimed that he had considered the idea of a television series, but never actively pursued it. When Frank Darabont became interested, Kirkman called it \"extremely flattering\" and went on to say that \"he definitely cares about the original source material, and you can tell that in the way he's adapting it.\" In his interview, Kirkman exclaimed that it was \"an extreme validation of the work\", and continued by expressing that \"never in a million years could [he] have thought that if Walking Dead were to ever be adapted that everything would be going this well.\"\n\nThe Walking Dead institutes elements from George A. Romero's horror film Night of the Living Dead (1968). Darabont admitted to becoming a fan of the film at age fourteen. He insisted that the film has a \"weird vibe\", comparing it to that of pornography. He continued: \"It had this marvelously attractive, disreputable draw [...] I loved it immediately.\" Darabont recalled walking into a comic book store in Burbank, California and seeing The Walking Dead on the shelf in 2005.\n\nFrank Darabont described the process of developing the series and setting it up at a network as \"four years of frustration\". He first initiated a deal with NBC to own copyrights to The Walking Dead, but was later declined. \"They were very excited about the idea of doing a zombie show until I handed them a zombie script where zombies were actually doing zombie shit,\" he stated. Darabont credited Gale Anne Hurd with finally getting the series on AMC. \"Gale was tremendously instrumental in jump-starting it at a point where it felt like it was languishing, \"he asserted. \"I'd gotten turned down enough times, which is no reflection on the material, but no matter what you're trying to sell in Hollywood, you're Willy Loman and it's Death of a Salesman. You're out there trying to sell shit that nobody wants. Even if it's good shit.\"\n\nHurd recalled that she had heard of the comic before, and upon reading it, felt that it would be great for film. She stated: \"When I first read the book, I thought, 'This would be a great film,' and boy was I wrong. It's a much better TV series. Fast forward, I knew that Frank had initially developed it for NBC, which to me seemed like an odd pairing for this. Then I heard it wasn't going forward at NBC so I talked to Frank.\" On January 20, 2010, AMC officially announced that it had ordered a pilot with Darabont and Hurd acting as executive producers; the former wrote the script and directed the episode. The entire series was pre-ordered based on the strength of the source material, the television scripts, and Darabont's involvement.\n\n### Writing\n\nFrank Darabont wrote a 60-page pilot script for \"Days Gone Bye\". His initial script for the episode was split in half and embellished. Darabont explained that he did this to \"slow the narrative down and dig into the characters more deeply, so it's not just plot-driven, event-driven stuff. You really want to drag these characters into the equation.\" Darabont felt that instituting visual maneuvers would increase the surreal atmosphere of a scene. Upon reading the script, Robert Kirkman thought that producers were consistent with his comic, adding that they could possibly improve his initial work. \"Reading that pilot was just a revelation. It's extremely faithful. There are things that are so much like the comic, I can't really remember the nuance of what's different and what's not from the comic. He's definitely being more faithful than I expected, and everything that he's changing is brilliant. I couldn't be happier. I think the fans of the book are going to just love it.\" The episode shares its name with volume one of the comic book series.\n\nThe principal photography produced a high demand for extras as zombies. In an interview with MTV News, special effects artist Greg Nicotero stated that while anyone was welcome to audition, the producers of the show were looking specifically for people who possessed exceptional height and thin features. Casting for extras took approximately three days. Once accepted, the extras would be sent to \"zombie school\" for training and preparing for filming. Nicotero stated that \"it was interesting because I initially thought my experience with zombie movies is you just let them do whatever they want to do. George [Romero] always said, 'You show 50 people one movement, then you have 50 people doing all the same thing.' So we sort of just lined them up and said, 'Let's see what your zombie walk would look like,' and then they would do it and we would say, 'Try this or try that.' You know, sort of fine tuning everybody.\" Alongside with Frank Darabont, Nicotero had previously collaborated with Romero on several occasions, and looked at the structure of the zombies in his films for inspiration. \"It's not that I'm against [fast zombies]. It's just not what I grew up with. It's interesting, too, because a couple takes we did, where a couple of the zombies kind of broke into a run, and after one take Frank's like, 'Did they run too fast? They shouldn't be running. Slow them down.' This is trying to be creepy and moody and, you know, you're building up all this kind of scary tension.\"\n\nIn April 2010, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Jon Bernthal and Andrew Lincoln were chosen by producers for the main cast of the series. Bernthal was to portray Shane Walsh, while Lincoln provided the role of Rick Grimes, the central character of The Walking Dead. While Gale Anne Hurd didn't expect to cast Lincoln, Robert Kirkman was ecstatic with his acting, evaluating him as an \"amazing find\". In his interview with Dread Central, Kirkman added that \"writing Rick Grimes month after month in the comic series, I had no idea he was an actual living, breathing human being, and yet, here he is. I couldn't be more thrilled with how this show is coming together.\" Although he was initially shocked upon hearing of The Walking Dead, Lincoln thought the episode's script was well written. \"I read it and thought it was well written, and I put myself on tape just for one scene. I didn't know who was involved at this point.\" The succeeding day, his agent called him about the development of the pilot. Lincoln described the moment as \"kind of like a dream list\". He later communicated with Darabont via Skype; \"We spoke for about 40 minutes about his ideas for the project, about what I liked about Episode One and then he asked would I fly over to come and test.\" Lincoln flew to Darabont's home, where he viewed \"Days Gone Bye\" in his garage. He opined that was \"brilliant\" and \"very intimate\".\n\nBernthal was extremely comfortable with his character on set. \"The second he opened his mouth and started reading the scene, I knew it was him,\" he said. \"There was no question. I saw Frank and I knew it. He's the guy. He's a wonderful actor, and he's going to kill it in this role.\" Bernthal admitted that he had no prior knowledge of The Walking Dead. He reminisced that he reacted so \"organically\" to the script that he \"didn't want to be colored by anything else. When I did read the comic, I was shocked. Look, I'm not going to sit here and regret. One of the great things about doing TV versus film is to be surprised yourself, to not let where you're going color where you are.\" The pilot episode's script was amongst several other scripts for proposed television pilots that Bernthal skimmed through; He felt that this script overshadowed the others. \"[It was] pilot season, and I read everything that was out there. I still remember the day that I got this script. I told my agent that I'd be thrilled to be an extra in this, it's so good. It just blew the rest of them right out of the water.\"\n\nShortly after the announcement, Sarah Wayne Callies was approached to play the role of Rick's wife Lori Grimes, the lead female. Other actors garnering roles in the main cast include Steven Yeun, Chandler Riggs, and Jeffrey DeMunn. \"Days Gone Bye\" featured guest appearances from actors and actresses such as Emma Bell (Amy), Andrea's younger sister. Bell would later become part of the main cast as a recurring character. Lennie James played Morgan Jones and Jim Coleman guest performed Lam Kendal. Linds Edwards played Leon Bassett, Rick's co-worker. Keisha Tillis played Jenny Jones, Morgan's wife; and Adrian Kali Turner played Duane Jones, Jenny's son. Melissa Cowan played the bicycle girl walker; Sam Witwer, who had collaborated with Darabont in The Mist (2007), appeared as a dying soldier; Addy Miller played the teddy bear girl walker; and Joe Giles played an Atlanta walker who followed Rick. Frances Cobb played a camp survivor.\n\n### Filming\n\nThe producers chose to film in Atlanta because of its proximity to Cynthiana, Kentucky, Robert Kirkman's hometown and the setting of his comic's first issue. \"At the beginning they talk about how some of the people in neighboring states would have gone to larger cities so they could fortify them and protect the population.\" Kirkman had considered other cities, particularly New York City, Miami, and Chicago. Gale Anne Hurd had previously filmed in the city for Lifetime. Frank Darabont felt that Atlanta offered the essentials; \"Atlanta and Georgia all-told is proving to be brilliant for us in terms of what it has to offer, in terms of what the story needed, in terms of the variety of locations—it really is a fantastic place to shoot.\" Prior to filming, Kirkman toured with Darabont around the central business district. He stated, \"I tagged along on a location-scouting expedition, and that was pretty fun—watching Frank Darabont walking through the streets of Atlanta as if he owned the entire city, daring cars to hit him. That was a lot of fun.\" Darabont ventured onto the middle of a street to grasp a perfect shot, oblivious to oncoming traffic.\n\nAtlanta's climate was cited as a potential issue that would hinder production. Darabont recalled that he found it difficult to adjust to the sweltering heat, adding that he \"never had clothes stick to me like this in my life\". Andrew Lincoln retorted that it was \"becoming a running joke that people arrive on set ready for the day and then they are battered and beaten up by the weather.\" Despite such assertions, he opined that it added to the episode's overall emotion. \"There's a lot of hard-earned sweat on camera. It's not comfortable and it's not pleasant, but it's as you would imagine it would be trying to survive in this world.\"\n\nPrincipal photography took place in the city on May 15, 2010, after AMC had officially ordered the production of six episodes for the series. Filming took place over two months, ending in early July. Locations were set up in various spots within the central business district, particularly in the Fairlie–Poplar District. The season premiere was shot completely in anamorphic format on 16 mm film. David Tattersall was the director of photography, while production design was headed by Greg Melton and Alex Hajdu. The special effects team included veteran makeup designer Greg Nicotero, special effects coordinator Darrell Pritchett, and visual effects supervisors Sam Nicholson and Jason Sperling.\n\nComputer-generated imagery was used in much of \"Days Gone Bye\", particularly when Rick encounters a legless walker. \"The woman was wearing basically blue stockings and then everything was cleaned out. There is an alarming amount of CGI in the pilot episode and in the whole show, and you would never know it,\" said Robert Kirkman. Kirkman felt that Stargate Studios, which was chosen by producers to edit the pilot episode, did a splendid job. He stated: \"There's a shot where Rick is riding off on the horse and his hat actually blew off, and they really liked that shot, and so they had Stargate go in and digitally put the hat back on his head.\"\n\n### Marketing\n\nThe show's website released a motion comic based on the first issue of the original comic and voiced by Phil LaMarr. The site also posted a making-of documentary, and other behind-the-scenes videos and interviews. In the documentary, Kirkman as well as artist Charlie Adlard expressed pleasure that the show is faithful to the comic and remark on the similarities between the actors and the comic's original character drawings. Several scenes were screened July 23, 2010 as part of the San Diego Comic-Con in 2010. Hurd asserted that \"[they] really are doing six one-hour movies\", and Frank Darabont insisted that the series would closely reflect the development in the comics. \"The path is a very strong template. But we're going to take every interesting detour we feel like taking. As long as were staying on the path of what Robert has done, I don't see any reason not to. If they have patience we'll eventually catch up to what Robert is doing.\"\n\nThe Walking Dead debuted during the same week in 120 countries. \"Days Gone Bye\" premiered in Hong Kong on TVB Pearl on August 30, 2011, while it expanded in international markets during the first week of November. Two weeks prior to its official US premiere, the contents of the episode leaked online. As part of an expansive campaign to advertise and heighten anticipation for the premiere, international broadcasting affiliates of AMC and Fox coordinated a worldwide zombie invasion event days prior to the U.S. premiere. The event occurred in twenty six cities worldwide, in select locations including the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City, Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., Palace of Westminster in London, Bosphorus Bridge in Istanbul, Acropolis of Athens in Athens, and the Museo del Prado in Madrid. The campaign events commenced in Hong Kong and Taipei, and culminated in Los Angeles.\n\n## Themes\n\nRomance is an underlying theme in \"Days Gone Bye\". After returning from the hospital, Rick Grimes unsuccessfully looks for signs of his family. Determined to find them, he travels to Atlanta, which is imagined to be a haven because of its proximity to the CDC. Kirkman said of the developing storyline:\n\n> Well, I didn’t know how long the comic book series was going to last. I hoped that it would become a success and survive for years and years. But at that time in my career, it was very early, I had had a lot of books canceled, just because of poor sales. So early on in the book I would move past storylines very quickly. I set up this love triangle and I resolved that story and moved along within the first [few] issues. But there's a lot of story potential to mine there. One of the things that the TV show is able to do is to look at the comic book series with hindsight and go, 'This would probably be something that we could explore more.' And that's what we're going to be doing. So we'll be seeing a lot more of the Lori-Shane-Rick love triangle.\n\nThe scene in which Grimes regains consciousness and investigates his situation is reminiscent of the British horror films The Day of the Triffids (1962) and 28 Days Later (2002). Kirkman insisted that the similarities especially with 28 Days Later was coincidental. \"I saw 28 Days Later shortly before the first issue of Walking Dead was released,\" he stated. \"That first issue came out in October of 2003 and 28 Days Later was released in the States in June of 2003. So we were working on our second issue by the time I saw it. It was going to be a matter of somehow trying to restage the entire first issue, because it was a very similar coma opening. I made a decision—which I pretty much regret at this point—I said, 'You know what? It's so different [from that point on], I will probably never hear anything about this.' And I was wrong.\"\n\n## Reception\n\n### Ratings\n\nThe episode attained 5.35 million viewers, making it the most-viewed series premiere in AMC history. It garnered a 2.7 rating in the 18–49 demographic, translating to 3.6 million viewers according to Nielsen ratings. It subsequently attained the highest rating in the 18–49 demographic among cable television programs that year. Following two encore presentations, total viewership reached 8.1 million. \"Days Gone Bye\" became the highest-rated cable telecast ever, hitting significantly higher numbers than predecessors Swamp People and Ice Road Truckers on the History Channel.\n\nIt obtained 2.1 million viewers from the 18–34 demographic and 3.1 million from the 25–54 demographic. It became the highest-rated non-sport cable program of the week, as well as the third highest-rated overall program of the week dated October 30; \"Days Gone Bye\" was outperformed by a game between the Miami Heat and the Boston Celtics as part of the 2010–11 NBA season and a match between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys as part of the 2010 NFL season. It is the third most-watched installment of The Walking Dead's first season, scoring less than \"Wildfire\" (5.56 million), and \"TS-19\" (5.97 million). \"Days Gone Bye\" garnered the highest total viewership for a season premiere out of any cable program up until the airing of its successor, \"What Lies Ahead\", which attracted 7.3 million viewers.\n\n\"Days Gone Bye\" achieved similar success in European markets. It debuted in 120 countries in 33 languages. In the United Kingdom, the episode acquired 579,000 viewers, with an estimated 315,000 from the 18–49 demographic. It became the most-watched FX telecast of the week dated November 5. The terrestrial premiere (including Ireland and Scotland) aired on Channel 5 on April 10, 2011, garnering 1.5 million viewers. In Italy, \"Days Gone Bye\" became the highest-rated telecast of the night on pay television, delivering 360,000 spectators. In Spain, the pilot episode attained a 10.2% share in the television market amongst pay television programs, ultimately obtaining 105,000 viewers. It became the highest-rated series premiere on Fox that year.\n\nThe episode performed strongly in Asian markets. In South Korea, \"Days Gone Bye\" secured 57,000 spectators, subsequently becoming the highest-rated program on Fox that year. In Southeast Asia, total viewership hit 380,000, beating out all Western television programs. \"Days Gone Bye\" saw its strongest figures in Singapore and the Philippines, where its ratings exceeded the time slot average by 425% and 1,700%, respectively.\n\n\"Days Gone Bye\" achieved substantial ratings in the 18–49 demographic in several Latin American countries. In Argentina, the pilot episode attained a 3.5 rating in the 18–49 demographic, thereby outperforming the time slot average by 341% and becoming the highest-rated program in its time slot on pay television. It acquired a 2.1 rating in Colombia and Peru, where it exceeded time slot averages by 176% and 970%, respectively. It became the highest-rated program in its time slot on pay television in both countries. \"Days Gone Bye\" garnered a 1.2 rating in the 18–49 demographic in Venezuela, becoming the highest-rated television program of the day on pay television.\n\n#### Reaction\n\nCharlie Collier, the president of AMC, stated that it was \"a good day to be dead. We are so proud of this series, its depth of storytelling and the remarkable talent attached. As the network dedicated to bringing viewers the best stories on television, we are so pleased to have the opportunity with The Walking Dead to raise the bar within this popular genre and continue our commitment to being the home of premium television on basic cable.\" Senior Vice President Joel Stillerman ascribed that much of its success came from the storytelling presented in the episode; \"The Walking Dead is that rare piece of programming that works on so many levels. It is legitimately great storytelling that is not only highly entertaining, but incredibly thought provoking as well. People who are familiar with the comic books know what's coming, but suffice it to say, this is only the beginning of a long, intense, and powerful ride. Long live The Walking Dead.\"\n\n### Critical response\n\n<div class=\"quotebox pullquote floatright \" style=\"\n    width:33%;\n\n;\n\n    background-color:\n#FFFFF0;\n    \">\n\n> And there's no underplaying the role of AMC, too, which is creating a distinctive brand out of very different series such as Mad Men, Breaking Bad, Rubicon, and now The Walking Dead. AMC makes sure that all of its shows breathe and move at a deliberate and challenging pace that is anathema to the networks. Also, AMC seems to require the kind of arresting visuals most often associated with the big screen.\n\n<cite class=\"center-aligned\" style=\"\">'Matthew Gilbert\nThe Boston Globe'</cite>\n\n</div>\n\n\"Days Gone Bye\" received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 100% with an average rating of 8.08 out of 10, based on 12 reviews. The site's consensus reads: The Walking Dead's debut delivers intense horror set apart by its focus on tragedy and the human condition—not to mention awesome zombie kills.\n\nSebastian Liver of Der Tagesspiegel insisted that the episode was setting new standards, and elaborated that it illuminates even during its timid moments. Mike Ryan of Vanity Fair reflected parallel sentiments, calling it the \"best new television show of the year.\" Ryan felt that the series would broaden the audience of the horror genre, as well as attract new fans. \"Finally, a horror show on television for people who hate horror. It's not that The Walking Dead isn't scary or doesn't contain gratuitous amounts of gore [...] but, where other horror projects opt for camp, The Walking Dead grounds itself in reality.\" Writing for The Atlantic, Scott Meslow affirmed that The Walking Dead was \"as dark, intelligent, and uncompromising as any of AMC's other dramas.\"\n\nSt. Louis Post-Dispatch's Gail Pennington appraised \"Days Gone Bye\" as \"genuinely terrifying\", adding that despite being too gruesome for her tastes, it was \"too engrossing not to watch.\" Pennington commended the character development in the episode, stating that Frank Darabont \"finds time for the human tragedy of the situation.\" In an A− grade review, Boston Herald journalist Mark Perigard said that the pilot episode was a \"suspenseful thriller\", while Robert Bianco of USA Today avouched that it was \"one killer of a zombie show.\" The Wall Street Journal writer Nancy deWolf Smith felt that \"Days Gone Bye\" contained a cinematic quality to it; \"The pilot episode [is] so good that it has hooked even a zombie hater like me.\" Steve West of CinemaBlend praised the episode, calling it \"the best pilot since Lost's introduction\" and \"a brilliant examination of what makes us human.\" Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club gave the episode an 'A−' grade, and described it as a \"stunning debut\".\n\nMatthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said that the installment was \"fully dynamic and engaging\". \"The Walking Dead is a promising human story built over a sea of grunting corpses. It's a scare-fest at points [...] and it's definitely extremely bloody, as zombie guts splatter all over the place like chunky borscht. The 90-minute premiere is a gory Halloween horror event, for sure.\" Liz Kelly and Jen Chaney of The Washington Post reacted positively to the series premiere, deeming it as a \"chilling show\", and exclaiming that it had a \"very real sense that the world can go completely mad, and stay that way for good.\" Kris King of Starpulse said that it was \"a welcome reprieve from the camp-laden world of zombie culture.\" Josh Jackson of Paste gave the episode an 8.8 out of 10. Jackson praised the final moments of the episode, describing it as \"epic\". IGN's Eric Goldman issued \"Days Gone Bye\" a nine out of ten, signifying an \"amazing\" rating. Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly evaluated the pilot episode as intense, and felt that it delivered above expectations. He added that it was an \"instant classic\". Fellow journalist Dan Snierson agreed with Jensen's opinion, complimenting the show for its unpredictability.\n\nJames Poniewozik of Time reacted positively to the episode, exclaiming that it \"paints a thoroughly convincing postapocalyptic world, both visually and emotionally.\" Variety's Brian Lowry avouched that \"Days Gone Bye\" was \"surprisingly fresh\", despite having initial thoughts of a stale premise. He wrote: \"The Walking Dead draws the audience in almost instantly with its cinematic 90-minute pilot, then incorporates tasty soap-like elements meant to animate the ensuing episodes. Although we've seen no shortage of zombies and post-apocalyptic stories, producer-writer-director Frank Darabont has deftly tackled the seemingly perilous task of adapting a comic book about zombies into a viable episodic series.\" In a three out of four star review, Linda Stasi of New York Post summarized, \"The zombies are truly scary and disgusting. The survivors are terrific characters, and the gore is enough for any lunatic to love.\"\n\nCritics were polarized over Andrew Lincoln's performance. Despite citing that his accent was \"dodgy\", Pierce lauded Lincoln's acting. \"his body language and expression here is totally different now than when we saw him before,\" he opined. \"He's a fast learner.\" Gilbert referred to his accent as \"spotty\", while Goldman professed that Lincoln fit into character very well; \"For much of the pilot, he's on his own and exudes a lot of believable, shocked emotion, as Rick tries to process what he is seeing. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter felt that Lincoln's performance was one of the episode's drawbacks. He wrote: \"One drawback in [The Walking Dead''] is that Lincoln plays his emotion a little too close to his deputy's badge. We're told – by him – that all he wants to do is find his wife and kid. His belief that they still are alive is the emotional drive of the story, but there's not enough deep pain that seeps up to coat the dialogue Lincoln delivers.\"\n\n### Accolades\n\nAt the 63rd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, \"Days Gone Bye\" received nominations for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series; and won Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series, Miniseries, Movie, or Special. The episode was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Sound Effects and Foley for Episodic Long Form Broadcast Media and Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Dialogue and ADR for Episodic Long Form Broadcast Media at the 2011 Golden Reel Awards. Its editor Hunter M. Via won the American Cinema Editors Award for Best Edited One Hour Series for Commercial Television, while its director Frank Darabont was nominated for Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series.\n\n### Legacy\n\nFor the show's 100th episode, \"Mercy\", which aired on October 22, 2017, executive producers Greg Nicotero and Scott M. Gimple wanted to create callbacks to this episode. Specifically, the episode included a near shot-for-shot remake of Rick Grimes searching for supplies among abandoned cars, though in this case, with Carl in his shoes. For this, they recast Addy Miller, now a teenager, as a walker that threatens Rick and Carl. They also recast Joe Giles, who plays one of the walkers that followed Rick off the bus in Atlanta, as a walker in \"Mercy\". Additional scenes from \"Mercy\", apparently set in the future, were done to mirror the shots of Rick waking up from his coma in the hospital.", "revid": "1171116185", "description": null, "categories": ["2010 American television episodes", "American television series premieres", "Television episodes written by Frank Darabont", "The Walking Dead (season 1) episodes"]}
{"id": "39856796", "url": null, "title": "Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014", "text": "Austria participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 with the song \"Rise Like a Phoenix\", written by Charlie Mason, Joey Patulka, Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas. The song was performed by Conchita Wurst, the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth, who had risen to fame after taking part in an Austrian talent show in 2011 and attempting to represent Austria at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012. In September 2013 the Austrian broadcaster Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF) announced that they had internally selected Wurst to compete at the 2014 contest in Copenhagen, Denmark, with her song presented to the public in March 2014.\n\nAfter a promotional tour of several European countries, Austria was seen as one of the countries most likely to qualify for the grand final. In the second of the Eurovision semi-finals \"Rise Like a Phoenix\" came first of the 15 participating countries, securing its place among the 26 other countries in the final. In Austria's forty-seventh Eurovision appearance on 10 May, \"Rise Like a Phoenix\" became the sixty-second song to win the Eurovision Song Contest, receiving a total of 290 points and full marks from thirteen countries. This was Austria's second win in the contest, having previously won in , 48 years prior; this is the longest gap between two Eurovision wins of a country to this day.\n\nAfter the show, the song went on to chart in several European countries, reaching number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart, as well as reaching the top 10 in a further 10 countries. Wurst's appearance in the contest brought about both criticism and praise: by some of the more socially conservative sections of European society her victory in the contest was condemned as a promotion of LGBT rights; conversely the international attention received by Wurst's victory firmly established her among the LGBT community, leading her to take an active role in promoting tolerance and respect, and resulted in several invites to perform at several European pride events, as well as performances at the European Parliament and United Nations Office at Vienna.\n\n## Background\n\nPrior to the 2014 contest, Austria had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest forty-six times since its first entry in , winning it in with the song \"Merci, Chérie\" performed by Udo Jürgens. Following the introduction of semi-finals for the , Austria had featured in only two finals. Austria's least successful result has been last place, which they have achieved on eight occasions, most recently in the . Austria has also received nul points on three occasions; in , and .\n\nThe Austrian national broadcaster, Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF), broadcasts the event within Austria and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. From 2011 to 2013, ORF had set up national finals with several artists to choose both the song and performer to compete at Eurovision for Austria, with both the public and a panel of jury members involved in the selection. For the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest, ORF held an internal selection to choose the artist and song to represent Austria at the contest. This method had last been used by ORF in 2007.\n\n## Before Eurovision\n\n### Internal selection\n\nORF confirmed their intentions to participate at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest on 6 September 2013. On 10 September 2013, the broadcaster announced that they had internally selected Conchita Wurst to represent Austria in Copenhagen. Wurst is the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth, who in 2007 finished second in the third season of Austrian talent show Starmania, behind the 2011 Austrian entry Nadine Beiler. Neuwirth went on to join the boy band Jetzt Anders! along with other contestants from Starmania in 2007, which disbanded later that year. Following this, Neuwirth, who uses masculine pronouns when referring to himself but feminine pronouns to describe Wurst, developed his new drag persona and appeared on ORF's talent show Die große Chance (The Big Opportunity) as Wurst in 2011, achieving sixth place. Wurst went on to compete in the Austrian selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 with the song \"That's What I Am\", qualifying for the super final and finishing second with 49 percent of the public vote.\n\nORF confirmed in October 2013 that the song to be performed by Wurst at the contest would also be chosen internally. On 18 March 2014 at an ORF press conference in Vienna, the song \"Rise Like a Phoenix\" was announced as the Austrian entry for the contest. The song was written by Charlie Mason, Joey Patulka, Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas. Wurst's first live performance of the song was on 22 March 2014, during an episode of Dancing Stars, the Austrian version of international franchise Dancing with the Stars.\n\n### Controversy\n\nThe selection of Wurst caused some controversy in Austria and the rest of Europe. A Facebook group which amassed approximately 38,000 members protested the decision by the publicly funded broadcaster ORF, to internally select the country's Eurovision act without a public vote. In an interview with Austrian newspaper Kurier, Wurst defended her internal selection by ORF, noting that the broadcaster had the sole responsibility of making decisions regarding the contest and that the 2007 internal selection of Eric Papilaya received no backlash from the Austrian public. Wurst also claimed that the criticism from the group surpassed protest against her as the selected artist and instead \"displayed homophobic statements and discrimination\", and she vowed to \"continue fighting against discrimination\" in response to the Facebook group.\n\nWurst's selection for Eurovision also sparked outrage outside of Austria; in Belarus, a petition by more than 2,000 people petitioned the Belarusian Ministry of Information to prevent the contest from being broadcast in the country, claiming it to being \"a hotbed of sodomy\" and an attempt by European liberals to impose Western values on Belarus and Russia. A similar petition of more than 15,000 signatures was also received by the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Media from the \"All-Russian parenting group\", claiming that Wurst \"leads the lifestyle inapplicable [sic] for Russians\" Wurst also received criticism from the Armenian representative, Aram Mp3, who claimed that her lifestyle was \"not natural\" and that she should \"eventually decide whether she is a woman or a man\". Aram Mp3 later apologised and insisted his statements were \"a joke\". In response to petitions in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine asking for Wurst to be removed from the competition, some of the other 2014 participants gave Wurst their support. Ireland's representative Kasey Smith, said that \"everyone should be allowed in\" to Eurovision and that she \"totally disagree[s] with what they are doing. It's homophobia.\"\n\n### Promotion\n\nBefore her appearance at the contest, Wurst went on a promotional tour, performing in several European countries. Prior to her song selection, Wurst appeared at a Eurovision fan event in Vienna in October 2013 held by the Austrian branch of OGAE, an international organisation of Eurovision fan clubs across Europe and beyond, where she shared the stage with Anne-Marie David, the 1973 Eurovision winner. On 28 March Wurst appeared at the 2014 Euroschlager Party, held by OGAE Spain, in Madrid. On 29 March 2014, Wurst was a guest at the \"Eurovision Pre-Party Riga\" in Latvia, appearing alongside Poland's 2014 representatives Donatan and Cleo and Latvia's 2013 representatives PeR. Wurst was also one of 26 acts from the 2014 contest to perform during the 2014 Eurovision in Concert, the largest gathering of Eurovision artists outside of Eurovision itself, held in the Melkweg, a popular music venue in Amsterdam, the Netherlands on 5 April 2014. This was followed by an appearance at the London Preview Party alongside 15 other participating entries from 2014, held at the Café de Paris nightclub in London on 13 April. Wurst also took part in several interviews and performances on Irish, Belgian and Dutch television networks. In the run-up to the contest, Wurst asked her fans to take part in a campaign called \"Knit for Tolerance\", in which they would wear knitted beards in a display of tolerance and respect, also promising that she would take all beards that she received with her to Copenhagen.\n\n## At Eurovision\n\nAccording to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the \"Big Five\" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 20 January 2014, a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, as well as which half of the show they would perform in. Austria was placed into the second semi-final, to be held on 8 May 2014, and was scheduled to perform in the first half of the show.\n\nAs part of the contest's graphic design, special postcards were commissioned by the Danish host broadcaster DR to introduce each of the participating countries before the acts took to the stage. For the 2014 contest the contestants were asked to take a photo of their country's flag, made in a creative way. Austria's postcard was the first to be filmed by DR, and was shot at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna featuring Wurst and her stylist Tamara Mascara creating the Austrian flag out of 70 baroque-style dresses.\n\nOnce all the competing songs for the 2014 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Austria was set to perform in position 6, following the entry from Poland and before the entry from Lithuania. All three shows were broadcast on ORF eins, with commentary by Andi Knoll. The Austrian spokesperson, who announced the Austrian votes during the final, was Kati Bellowitsch.\n\n### Semi-final\n\nWurst took part in technical rehearsals on 30 April and 3 May, followed by dress rehearsals on 7 and 8 May. This included the jury final where professional juries of each country, responsible for 50 percent of each country's vote, watched and voted on the competing entries.\n\nThe stage show featured Wurst in a cream-covered mermaid-like dress standing on a pedestal in the middle of the stage. The stage appeared dark at the beginning of the song with minimal lighting, before the lighting rose towards the beginning of the first chorus. At the start of the song, the camera appeared at the back of the arena before swooping into centre stage to a close-up of Wurst, followed by it flying off again at the beginning of the chorus. The background LED screens featured at the first chorus flaming rain, followed by flames in the shape of wings, in reference to the phoenix in the title of the song. Pyrotechnic flames also featured at the finale of the song. Wind machines were also used to effect during the performance.\n\nAt the end of the show, it was announced that Austria had finished in the top 10 and thus qualifying for the grand final; it was the last qualifying country to be announced by the show's hosts, Pilou Asbæk and Nikolaj Koppel. It was later revealed that Austria had won the semi-final, receiving a total of 169 points.\n\n### Final\n\nShortly after the second semi-final, a winner's press conference was held for the ten qualifying countries. As part of this press conference, the qualifying artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in. This draw was done in the order the countries were announced during the semi-final. Austria was drawn to compete in the first half. Following this draw, the shows' producers decided upon the running order of the final, as they had done for the semi-finals. Austria was subsequently placed to perform in position 11, following the entry from Greece and before the entry from Germany. On the day of the grand final, Austria was considered by bookmakers to be the second most likely to win the competition, placed only behind the entry from Sweden.\n\nWurst once again took part in dress rehearsals on 9 and 10 May before the final, including the jury final where the professional juries cast their final votes before the live show. Wurst performed a repeat of her semi-final performance during the final on 10 May. After a slow start, Austria eventually took the lead in the voting and won the competition with 290 points, beating the Netherlands and Sweden into second and third places respectively. Austria received 12 points, the maximum number of points a country can give to another country, from thirteen countries. The broadcast was watched by an average 1.3 million people in Austria, receiving a 54.4 percent market share.\n\n#### Marcel Bezençon Awards\n\nThe Marcel Bezençon Awards, first awarded during the 2002 contest, are awards honouring the best competing songs in the final each year. Named after the creator of the annual contest, Marcel Bezençon, the awards are divided into three categories: the Press Award, given to the best entry as voted on by the accredited media and press during the event; the Artistic Award, presented to the best artist as voted on by the shows' commentators; and the Composer Award, given to the best and most original composition as voted by the participating composers. \"Rise Like a Phoenix\" was awarded the Press Award, which was accepted at the awards ceremony by Kathrin Zechner, ORF's Managing Director.\n\n### Voting\n\nVoting during the three shows consisted of 50 percent public televoting and 50 percent from a jury deliberation. The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent, with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency. This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on vocal capacity, the stage performance, the song's composition and originality, and the overall impression of the act. In addition, no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they could not vote impartially and independently. The individual rankings of each jury member were released shortly after the grand final.\n\nBelow is a breakdown of points awarded to Austria and awarded by Austria in the second semi-final and grand final of the contest, and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows:\n\n#### Points awarded to Austria\n\n#### Points awarded by Austria\n\n#### Detailed voting results\n\nThe following members comprised the Austrian jury:\n\n- Stella Jones [de] (jury chairperson) – singer, songwriter, vocal-stagecoach, represented Austria in the 1995 contest\n- Michael Dörfler – producer and owner of a sound studio\n- Dietmar Lienbacher – Division Head Austria Sony Music\n- Diana Lueger – singer, musician, songwriter\n- Alexander Kahr [de] – producer\n\n## After Eurovision\n\nAs the winners of the 2014 contest, Austria was given the responsibility of hosting the 2015 contest. Shortly after the 2014 final, ORF confirmed the preliminary dates for the 2015 contest, as well as that several cities in Austria were competing to host the 60th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. After a competition was held to determine the host venue, three cities were short-listed by ORF: Vienna; Innsbruck; and Graz. On 6 August it was announced that the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna would host the 2015 contest, scheduled to be held on 19, 21 and 23 May 2015. On 19 December 2014, the hosts of the contest were announced, with Wurst taking on the role of green room host for the event.\n\nOn Wurst's return to Austria after winning Eurovision, she was greeted at Vienna International Airport by thousands of fans and hundreds journalists celebrating her victory. On 18 May she met with Werner Faymann, the Chancellor of Austria and Josef Ostermayer, the Minister of Arts, Culture, and Media at an official reception, followed by a performance on stage at Vienna's Ballhausplatz to an audience of thousands of fans. The concert was however criticised by the conservative Austrian People's Party, a member of the coalition government.\n\n\"Rise Like a Phoenix\" went on to become a hit across Europe, reaching the top 3 in iTunes download charts in fourteen countries, including both Belarus and Russia, where she had courted controversy before the contest. The song also reached the top 10 in charts in twelve countries, including number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart.\n\nWurst received both praise and criticism following her victory. Many celebrities sent their congratulations and support to Wurst via Twitter and other means, including Elton John, Cher, Lady Gaga, Boy George and Robbie Williams, as well as from fellow Eurovision winners Alexander Rybak, Emmelie de Forest, Lena Meyer-Landrut and Charlotte Perrelli. However her victory was also met with negative reaction by some more conservative sections of European society. In Turkey, which had not taken part in the contest since 2012, the government party AKP criticised Wurst's win, with then-Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan vowing that Turkey would never take part in the contest again and his colleague Volkan Bozkır proclaiming \"Thank god we no longer participate in Eurovision\".\n\nChurch leaders in the Balkans have also claimed that Wurst's win is responsible for floods in south-east Europe in May 2014, which left over 60 people dead. Metropolitan Amfilohije, the Montenegrin patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church claimed that \"this [flood] is not a coincidence, but a warning\" and a \"reminder that people should not join the wild side\", Patriarch Irinej, the spiritual leader of Eastern Orthodox Serbs has reportedly said the floods are \"divine punishment for their vices\" and that \"God is thus washing Serbia of its sins\". Wurst had previously been condemned by the Russian Orthodox Church. However Fr. Michael Unger, Tom Neuwirth's childhood Catholic priest, condemned the homophobic backlash against him, and said that he is \"just happy that he's happy\".\n\nIn the wake of her Eurovision win, Wurst was invited onto several television programmes across Europe. Wurst appeared as a guest on several BBC programmes in the United Kingdom; including The Graham Norton Show on 16 May, a chat show hosted by British commentator Graham Norton; and on 23 May 2014 she appeared on The One Show and Newsnight. Wurst was invited onto the German talk show TV total on 4 June 2014, hosted by former Eurovision contestant and host Stefan Raab, and was in demand by German broadcaster RTL as a new personality for their upcoming reality shows. Wurst also performed on the popular Swedish show Allsång på Skansen in July 2014.\n\nIn June 2014, Wurst headlined the Vienna Life Ball, Europe's biggest charity event supporting people with HIV and AIDS, attending the event in a dress designed by Jean Paul Gaultier. Wurst has since modelled for both Gautier and Karl Lagerfeld at several events.\n\nBoth before and after her Eurovision win, Wurst had become very involved with the LGBT community. In June 2014 Wurst recorded a message for the It Gets Better Project, an Internet-based project devoted to preventing suicide among LGBT youth by having gay adults convey the message that their lives will improve, and to inspire change required to make life better for them. Wurst was also invited to perform at several pride events in several cities across Europe, including in Stockholm, Zürich, Dublin, Berlin, Madrid, Amsterdam, London and Manchester among others. In October 2014, British gay lifestyle magazine Attitude awarded Wurst with the 'Moment of the Year' award for her win at Eurovision as part of the 2014 Attitude Awards.\n\nIn October 2014, Wurst accepted an invitation by Ulrike Lunacek MEP, vice-president of the Austrian Greens, to perform in a special concert at the European Parliament. The concert was organised by MEPs from 5 different parliamentary groups, with the aim to support the adoption of a report against homophobia and sexual discrimination in February. This was followed in November 2014 by a performance at the United Nations Office at Vienna and a meeting with the Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon. Ban hailed Wurst's win as a \"powerful message\", praising her promotion of respect for diversity, which he called a \"core value\" of the United Nations and that \"discrimination has no place in the United Nations, nor in the world of the 21st century\". Wurst had also extended her CV into voice acting, voicing the character of Eva in the German dub of the computer-animated film Penguins of Madagascar, spin-off of the Madagascar film franchise.", "revid": "1143718476", "description": null, "categories": ["2014 in Austrian television", "Articles containing video clips", "Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest", "Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014"]}
{"id": "46250540", "url": null, "title": "Panama–Pacific commemorative coins", "text": "The five Panama–Pacific commemorative coins were produced in connection with the 1915 Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco. Struck at that city's mint, the issue included round and octagonal \\$50 pieces. Excepting modern bullion coins, these two gold pieces are the highest denomination ever issued and the largest coins ever struck by the United States Mint. The octagonal \\$50 piece is the only U.S. coin to be issued that is not round.\n\nIn January 1915, Congress passed legislation for a silver half dollar, as well as a gold dollar, quarter eagle (\\$2.50 piece), and two \\$50 pieces: one round and one octagonal. The Mint had already consulted artists. Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo initially rejected all their designs. Two of them, Robert I. Aitken for the \\$50 pieces and Charles Keck for the gold dollar, persevered, and their submissions were used. The half dollar and quarter eagle were designed by Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber, possibly with the participation of his longtime assistant, George T. Morgan.\n\nThe coins were vended at the Exposition by prominent numismatist Farran Zerbe. They did not sell well, and many of each denomination were returned for melting. Only a few hundred of each of the \\$50 pieces were distributed, making them the lowest-mintage commemorative coins. They catalog for up to \\$200,000, depending on condition.\n\n## Background\n\nPrivate gold pieces, sometimes dubbed \"pioneer gold\", were struck several times during the 19th century from locally produced bullion in areas where federal coins were scarce. These unofficial coins came from sites ranging from Georgia to Oregon. Many, ranging in denomination from 25 cents to 50 dollars, are relics of the California Gold Rush and its aftermath. The fifty-dollar denomination was struck by private minters such as Kellogg and Co. The private \\$50 pieces were round in form, but those struck by Augustus Humbert for the U.S. Assay Office at San Francisco, prior to the establishment of the San Francisco Mint in 1854, were octagonal. Humbert's pieces were not money in a legal sense, as Congress had not authorized them as legal tender, and were officially deemed ingots. Nevertheless, they contained their full value in gold. Bearing the denomination \"Fifty Dollars\", they were called \"slugs\" or \"quintuple eagles\" by the public. They circulated widely in California and elsewhere in the Far West, and were accepted on par with federal gold coins.\n\nAll of these \\$50 pieces, public or private, are very rare and valuable today: One of Humbert's octagonal pieces, dated 1851 and with a lettered edge, sold at auction in 2010 for \\$546,250. The only \\$50 piece produced by the United States Bureau of the Mint prior to 1915 was the 1877 pattern half union, produced experimentally at the Philadelphia Mint, though it was not approved as a circulating coin.\n\nIn 1904, San Francisco merchant Rueben Hale proposed an exposition in his home city for 1915, both to commemorate the opening of the Panama Canal and to mark the 400th anniversary of Vasco Núñez de Balboa becoming the first European known to view the Pacific Ocean from the Americas: in phrasing then current, he discovered the Pacific. Although the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire caused a momentary setback to these plans, it actually sparked additional fundraising. Many of the wealthiest in California gave financial support, the state matched private donations dollar for dollar, and in 1911, President William Howard Taft selected San Francisco over its competitor, New Orleans, to host the fair.\n\nThe Panama–Pacific International Exposition, constructed in San Francisco by the Golden Gate at a cost of \\$50 million, was open from February 20, 1915, to December 4, 1915. About 19,000,000 people attended, and the exposition was a great success, generating enough profit to build the San Francisco Civic Auditorium with about \\$1 million remaining. The Palace of Fine Arts is the only building from the fair which remains on the site.\n\nCommemorative coins were not then sold to the public by the Mint, as they subsequently have been. Instead, a commemorative's authorizing legislation would designate a group or organization to purchase the coins from the Mint at face value, and sell them to the public as a fundraiser. Among those who had pushed for commemorative legislation in the past, and had been involved in the sale of the resulting coins, was Farran Zerbe, a collector and numismatic promoter who had by 1914 served as president of the American Numismatic Association. Zerbe was a controversial figure—some felt the coins with which he had been involved had been sold at inflated prices—but he helped promote the hobby with his exhibit, \"Money of the World\", which later became part of the Chase Manhattan Money Museum.\n\n## Legislation\n\nSeveral proposals for commemorative coins had been introduced by mid-1914, though none had been issued by the Mint since 1905. One, sponsored by New York Senator Elihu Root, called for a commemorative quarter dollar marking a century of peace, as well as the August 1914 opening of the Panama Canal. Two bills were introduced calling for coins to commemorate and benefit the Panama–Pacific Exposition; H.R. 16902 was introduced by California Congressman Julius Kahn on June 3, 1914. Senate bill (S.) 6309 was introduced in that body by New Jersey Senator James E. Martine on July 6. This bill called for two \\$50 pieces (one round, one octagonal), a quarter eagle or \\$2.50 in gold, a commemorative gold dollar, and a half dollar. The octagonal pieces were intended to recall the unofficial \\$50 coins struck during the Gold Rush\n\nMartine's bill passed the Senate on August 3, having been approved by the Committee on Industrial Expositions, to which it had been referred. The only objection was procedural, by Utah's Reed Smoot: that the bill should have instead been referred to and approved by the Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, or its Committee on Finance. Neither Smoot nor any other senator objected to the bill itself, which Martine indicated had the support of Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo. S. 6309 was the following day sent to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Committee on Coinage, Weights and Measures. It emerged from that committee on September 1, 1914, with several amendments, one of which increased the combined authorized mintage of the two \\$50 pieces from 2,000 to 3,000. S. 6309 was briefly considered by the House of Representatives on January 4, 1915, and passed after Kahn successfully proposed a minor amendment to strike out the dollar sign from the phrase \"silver coins of the denomination of \\$50 cents each\". The Senate concurred in the House amendments two days later, passing the bill without question, change, or opposition, and President Woodrow Wilson signed it into law on January 16.\n\n## Preparation\n\nOnce Kahn's bill was introduced in the House, Mint Director George E. Roberts began to make informal arrangements to prepare for the commemorative issue. The bill called for four different designs (the two \\$50 pieces would differ mainly in shape), plus a commemorative medal to be sold to fairgoers, with an award medal to be given to prizewinning exhibitors. All of these pieces were to be struck by the Bureau of the Mint, and Roberts asked the Commission of Fine Arts to recommend artists. Among those recommended were Adolph A. Weinman (who would design the Mercury dime and Walking Liberty half dollar in 1916), and Bela L. Pratt (creator of the 1908 Indian Head gold pieces). Others included sculptors Evelyn Beatrice Longman, Robert I. Aitken, Charles Keck, and Paul Manship.\n\nRoberts wrote to several of the sculptors, and found Aitken interested in creating the \\$50 pieces. The Mint Director's tentative negotiations with Aitken for the large gold coins and with Buffalo nickel designer James Earl Fraser for the award medal ended when Roberts resigned in November to take a banking job; McAdoo appointed Dr. Frederic Dewey as Acting Director of the Mint. Dewey and McAdoo did little regarding the Panama–Pacific coins until Congress began to pass the authorizing legislation in early January 1915. Once it had passed both houses, and was awaiting Wilson's signature, Dewey arranged for a meeting in New York with Aitken, Keck, Longman, and Manship. The authorizing act required the Mint to begin delivering coins by the opening date of the fair, February 20, 1915, and although this proved impractical, the Mint still acted quickly. McAdoo approved the choices of Aitken for the \\$50 pieces, Longman for the quarter eagle, Keck for the dollar, and Manship for the half dollar on January 21. All four artists were already at work, and Aitken responded to the notification of his hiring by submitting designs, which were similar to the actual coins.\n\nBy January 29, all four artists had submitted bronze casts of their proposals. Dewey forwarded them to McAdoo, who solicited advice from the Commission of Fine Arts (which liked them), his Assistant Secretary, William Malburn (who did not), and Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber and others at the Philadelphia Mint (who offered suggestions). McAdoo had asked that the Mint prepare alternative designs for all the coins, and Barber did so, starting with the half dollar. Rejections to all four of the outside artists were sent on February 5 over McAdoo's signature. The reasons for this are uncertain, as the rejections are terse—Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen, in their volume on commemoratives, assert that Malburn's opposition was decisive.\n\nAll four outside artists protested. Manship's objections were to no avail; McAdoo selected the design submitted by Barber for the half dollar. Longman asked for an explanation, submitted new designs, and came to Washington to discuss the matter. According to a letter several months later from Dewey, she fell ill there and was unable to participate further; numismatic historian Roger Burdette finds the explanation odd and suggests that there may have been some other reason. Barber was selected to design the quarter eagle. Both Atiken and Keck objected to the Commission of Fine Arts and to McAdoo; Keck also submitted additional designs. Both men met with McAdoo, Malburn and Dewey in Washington, and agreed to changes to their proposed designs. With that done, the \\$50 and \\$1 pieces were approved on March 6, 1915. The half dollar was approved two days later. Barber submitted his designs for the quarter eagle on March 16. They met an enthusiastic reception at the Treasury Department, and were approved.\n\n## Designs\n\n### Barber's half dollar and quarter eagle\n\nTo what extent Mint Assistant Engraver (later Chief Engraver) George T. Morgan should be credited for work on the half dollar and quarter eagle is uncertain; Mint officials and employees were not consistent on this point. Assistant Director Mary M. O'Reilly said in 1936 that the bureau's records indicated that Barber was the designer. Later the same year, she forwarded a statement by an unnamed Philadelphia Mint employee stating that by the very nature of Barber's and Morgan's long association (Morgan was Barber's assistant for 37 years), the two engravers would have conferred frequently, and that Morgan's technique is \"very obvious on both sides of both coins\". The employee concluded that \"no mistake could be made, in my opinion, in crediting both men with the execution of these two coins. I am certain that this is correct.\" Q. David Bowers, in his book on commemoratives, mentions the dispute, credits Barber on the obverses of both coins, and gives both men credit on the reverse of the half dollar. He asserts Morgan created the reverse of the quarter eagle.\n\nThe obverse of the half dollar depicts Liberty, who is scattering fruits and flowers from a cornucopia held by a small, nude child. Behind them, the sun sets beyond San Francisco's Golden Gate, as yet unadorned by its bridge. Tom La Marre, in his 1987 article on the Panama–Pacific issue, pointed out that miners regarded the Golden Gate as a sign of good luck, and suggested it might have been better to depict it on a gold coin. The cornucopia, according to Burdette, demonstrates the advancement in trade brought by the canal, though the 1915 Report of the Director of the Mint states it \"signif[ies] the boundless resources of the West\". The obverse is based on Barber's earlier work, especially his medals for the annual Assay Commission. A representation of waves lies between the sun and the date, representing the maritime themes of the exposition. San Francisco's mint mark, S, is to the left of the date. The reverse depicts an eagle atop a Union shield, flanked by branches of olive, symbolizing peace, something Swiatek and Breen found ironic given the coin's issuance during World War I, and oak, the latter a choice which they were at a loss to explain. The 1915 Mint Director's report deemed the oak branch an \"emblem of strength\". Burdette notes that Barber's original design flanked the shield with two dolphins, representing the two oceans joined by the canal, instead of branches, and speculates, \"McAdoo either did not understand the allegory, did not care for it, or simply did not like aquatic mammals on coins\". McAdoo may also have been suffering from a surfeit of dolphins, as the dollar and octagonal \\$50 pieces bear them—the ones on the half dollar were removed and replaced by the branches.\n\nArt historian Cornelius Vermeule deemed the obverse of the half dollar \"a halfway point between the designs on French silver pieces early in the new century and A. A. Weinman's 'Walking Liberty' for the half dollar\". The fifty-cent piece bears the motto \"In God We Trust\", as do the \\$50 pieces, the first commemorative coins to display it. That motto was first used on U.S. coins in 1864. In the 19th century, it was not mandatory that the motto be used, but it nevertheless appeared on most denominations of U.S. coins by the turn of the 20th century. In 1907 and 1908, there had been many objections to the motto's omission on the gold ten dollar and twenty dollar pieces designed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens. In response to the public outcry, Congress in 1908 passed legislation requiring its presence on any circulating coin which had previously borne it, as both gold pieces had until 1907. The wording on the Panama–Pacific pieces was left to the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury, but officials may have remembered the fracas. Swiatek and Breen suggested that those involved in creating or approving the design may have moved to head off controversy.\n\nBarber's quarter eagle (the first of that denomination issued as a commemorative) depicts, according to the Mint Director's report, \"Columbia, representing the United States, seated [on] the mythical sea horse [a hippocampus], riding through the waters of the canal, with caduceus in grasp, the emblem of trade and commerce, inviting the nations of the world to use the new way from ocean to ocean. Reverse: American eagle, resting on a standard bearing the motto 'E Pluribus Unum' \". The mint mark is on the obverse, to the right of the date. Swiatek and Breen suggested that the caduceus (in modern usage a symbol of medicine) is \"said to represent the medical breakthroughs of Col. William C. Gorgas's successful campaign\" to control malaria and yellow fever at the canal site. They wrote that on the reverse, the \"defiant eagle probably alludes to the necessity of keeping the Canal open during World War I; the whole composition is meant to suggest a Roman legionary standard, which was a pole surmounted by some such device\".\n\nThe obverse of the quarter eagle, Vermeule opined, derived from coins of ancient Greece depicting a \"Nereid, perhaps Thetis, who bears the shield of Achilles astride a hippocamp\". He suggested that the quarter eagle obverse \"may be Barber's answer to Theodore Roosevelt's and Augustus Saint-Gaudens' clamor for modern coins in the Greek manner\". The half dollar's reverse, along with that of the quarter eagle, \"are classic symphonies of old designs, motifs that trace back to the eagles and shields of [Charles Barber's predecessors as Chief Engraver] Longacre and William Barber revised into modern form.\"\n\n### Dollar and \\$50 pieces\n\nCharles Keck's obverse for the dollar was one of the alternative designs submitted to McAdoo, depicting the unadorned, capped head of a Panama Canal construction worker—Keck's original concept had featured Poseidon, god of the sea in Greek mythology. The worker, who represents the labor necessary to build the canal, is sometimes mistaken for a baseball player. Keck's reverse contains the words \"Panama–Pacific Exposition\", \"San Francisco\", the denomination of the coin, and two dolphins, symbolizing the joining of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by the canal. The mint mark is beneath the letters D and O in \"Dollar\".\n\nVermeule called Keck's dollar \"a novel, daring use of the limited area afforded by such a small, thin coin. Compared with the earlier gold dollars, the coin is a work of art.\" Numismatist Arlie Slabaugh, in his volume on commemoratives, noted that the Panama–Pacific dollar \"presents a bold American design, completely different from the classical styles used on the other denominations\".\n\nAitken explained his design for the \\$50 pieces:\n\n> In order to express in my design the fact that this coin is struck to commemorate the Panama–Pacific Exposition, and as the exposition stands for all that wisdom and industry have produced, I have used as the central motive [motif] of the obverse, the head of the virgin goddess Minerva. She is the goddess of wisdom, of skill, of contemplation ... Moreover, she features prominently on the seal of the State of California ... the use of the dolphins on the octagonal coin do much to add to its charm, as well as express the uninterrupted water route made possible by the canal. Upon the reverse I use the owl, the bird sacred to Minerva, also the symbol of wisdom ... With these simple symbols, all full of beauty in themselves, I feel that I have expressed the larger meaning of the exposition, its appeal to the intellect.\n\nThe goddess wears a crested helmet, as her Greek equivalent, Pallas Athena, was commonly depicted on ancient coins; it is pushed back to signify her peaceful intentions. She wears mail, which Swiatek and Breen found an odd anachronism. She bears upon her shield the Roman numerals MCMXV for the year 1915, the second use of Roman numerals on U.S. coins after the early types of the 1907 Saint-Gaudens double eagle. Though Aitken had originally expressed the date as \"1915\" in his original sketches, he soon changed his mind, \"As these designs will not be used in any other year, there will be no need to change the year as we must on other coins.\"\n\nKevin Flynn, in his book on commemorative coins, described the branch on which the owl perches as that of a ponderosa pine tree; several cones are visible. The design on the octagonal piece is smaller than on the round, to allow space for the border featuring the dolphins. The mint mark is on the reverse, adjacent to the rightmost pine cone and directly above the letter \"O\" in \"San Francisco\".\n\nThe design for the \\$50 received contemporary criticism; some suggested that the presence of the dolphins on the octagonal coin implied that the canal had been constructed for cetacean convenience. A 1916 column in the American Journal of Numismatics contained the conclusion that \"the criticism often heard that 'there is nothing American about the coin except the inscription' is fully warranted.\" Swiatek and Breen dismissed criticisms as \"numerous and mostly irrelevant, based on total misreading of the iconography. [McAdoo began it] with stupid claims that Pallas Athena meant nothing on a U.S. coin unless she could be identified with Liberty, and that Athena's owl would never mean anything to all of us\". Vermeule deemed the \\$50 coins \"a tour de force, dated to be sure, but unusual enough in all respects to be worthy of what American numismatic art could achieve\". Later Chief Engraver Elizabeth Jones felt that the \\$50 pieces were \"stylistically in step with the period [and have] considerable artistic merits\". Jeff Garrett and Ron Guth, in their book on U.S. gold coins, deemed the Panama–Pacific \\$50 pieces \"one of the most stunning issues ever produced by the U.S. government\".\n\n## Production and distribution\n\nOnce the designs were approved, the artists prepared bronze casts to be sent to the Medallic Art Company in New York. There, hubs would be made that the Mint could use to produce coinage dies, as the company could do it faster than could the Mint. The Panama–Pacific issues are the first American coins known to have been produced from hubs provided by a private company—the Medallic Art Company prepared hubs for the 1913 Buffalo nickel, but it is uncertain if they were used. The Panama–Pacific hubs were sent to the Philadelphia Mint, where the Engraving Department, headed by Barber, would produce the necessary dies. Although the authorizing statute required that the coins be struck in San Francisco, all coinage dies at that time were produced by Barber and his assistants in Philadelphia.\n\nBy April, Robert W. Woolley had been commissioned as Director of the Mint, and he approved samples of the gold dollar, the first to have work completed, on April 22. He then traveled to San Francisco, and was there when the dies for the dollar arrived on the 27th. When the San Francisco Mint's coiner examined them, they proved to be lacking the mint mark \"S\", customary on coins produced there. Woolley was not sure if this was intentional, and wired to Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce on the 29th. Upon learning that it was intentional—Joyce reasoned that as the entire mintage of this, the first commemorative issue to be struck outside Philadelphia, would be produced at San Francisco, there was no need to use a mint mark—Woolley ordered that the dies at San Francisco and in transit be returned to Philadelphia, and new ones produced with the mint mark. Woolley believed that people would assume the coins were struck at Philadelphia, which did not then use a mint mark. Burdette notes that the San Francisco Mint was a source of local pride and the omission of the mint mark would likely have led to widespread protest, and possibly to two varieties of each of the new coins: with mint mark, and without. New dollar dies were sent from Philadelphia on May 3, and for the half dollar the following day. Dies for the \\$50 followed on May 14, and for the quarter eagle on May 27.\n\nContaining 2.4286 troy ounces (2.6645 oz; 75.54 g) of gold and measuring 44.9 millimetres (1.77 in) across for the octagonal) and 43 millimetres (1.7 in) in diameter for the round, the \\$50 pieces were the largest and heaviest U.S. coins issued until surpassed in 2010 by the America the Beautiful silver bullion coins. The octagonal \\$50 piece is the only U.S. coin that is not round. The facilities at the San Francisco Mint were inadequate to strike such large coins as the \\$50 pieces, and a hydraulic medal press was shipped from Philadelphia. This press was ceremoniously operated at that mint on June 15, 1915 for the initial striking of \\$50 octagonal pieces; the first by San Francisco Mint Superintendent T. W. H. Shanahan, for presentation to the exposition's president, Charles C. Moore. The next nine were struck by other dignitaries, including Congressman Kahn. Anyone else present with the price of \\$100 per coin was then allowed to strike their own piece, and at least three people, including Dewey's wife and the local postmaster, did so.\n\nThe Panama–Pacific Exposition Company hired Farran Zerbe to sell the new coins at the fair. Despite the provisions of the law mandating a delivery of coins before the fair's opening, the only government products Zerbe initially had to vend at his \"Money of the World\" exhibit were a souvenir medal, designed by Aitken and struck by a press operating at the Mint's exhibit, and prints produced by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, also on-site. Sales of the medal were slow, and Zerbe did not have coins to sell until soon after May 8, 1915, when the half dollar and dollar dies were received. Zerbe found the coins hard to sell; many potential purchasers, faced with a plethora of medals, reproductions of Gold Rush-era pioneer gold coins, and other wares from a variety of vendors, did not believe his coins were official government products. Treasury officials agreed to allow him space for a salesperson at the Mint's exhibit, and the two lower denominations were sold there, with orders taken for the \\$50 pieces. Soon, though, Zerbe stopped selling the gold dollar there, and the rest of the fair's run was marked by conflict between him and Treasury representatives. The full legal allocation for each denomination had been struck, but though Zerbe continued selling coins by mail after the fair closed on December 4, 1915, sales dropped through 1916. Zerbe continued to sell coins on behalf of the exposition until at least November 1916, and at some point, he sold an unknown quantity to himself to supply the future needs of his coin business. The remainder were melted by the Treasury.\n\nThe Mint struck 1,500 of each of the two \\$50 pieces, plus nine extra of the octagonal and ten of the round, to be sent to Philadelphia to await the 1916 meeting of the annual Assay Commission, when they would be available for inspection and testing. Zerbe had arranged for special display boxes and cases. A set of four denominations (with the purchaser's choice of round or octagonal for the \\$50) cost \\$100; a set of five cost \\$200. Copper display frames with two of each coin were said by Slabaugh to have cost \\$400, but Swiatek, in his 2011 book on commemoratives, indicates that these sets may actually have been given to dignitaries, as no sales receipts or correspondence relating to them are known. A set of the three smaller denominations sold for \\$7, the half dollar at \\$1, the gold dollar at \\$2 or \\$2.25 (prices may have varied), and the quarter eagle at \\$4 each.\n\n## Collecting and mintages\n\nMore of the octagonal \\$50 pieces were sold than of the round, as the former proved more popular because of the association with the Gold Rush, and because people liked the dolphins. As half of the 3,000 authorized mintage for the \\$50 pieces were of each variety, this meant more of the round ones would be melted, leaving the round \\$50 with the lowest distribution of any U.S. commemorative coin, about 483—the runner up being the octagonal with about 645, though sources vary on the exact numbers distributed. The half dollar and dollar are known struck in different metals; pieces believed to have been struck to create rarities.\n\nThe \\$50 pieces stood as the highest denomination U.S. coins for many years. In 1986, the Mint began producing the American Gold Eagle, also with face value \\$50. The record was surpassed with the American Platinum Eagle with a face value of \\$100, in 1997.\n\nR.S. Yeoman's A Guide Book of United States Coins, published in 2018, lists the Panama–Pacific half dollar at between \\$375 and \\$2,500, depending on condition. The dollar lists at between \\$525 and \\$1,775 and the quarter eagle between \\$1,550 and \\$6,000. The round \\$50 piece lists for between about \\$55,000 and \\$240,000, and the octagonal for between \\$55,000 and \\$245,000 depending on condition.", "revid": "1163401953", "description": "Series of five commemorative  coins  of the United States", "categories": ["Birds on coins", "Currencies introduced in 1915", "Dolphins in art", "Eagles on coins", "Early United States commemorative coins", "Goddess of Liberty on coins", "Owls in art", "Panama–Pacific International Exposition", "Sun on coins", "United States gold coins", "Works by Charles Keck", "World's fair commemorative coins"]}
{"id": "76630", "url": null, "title": "The Wild Bunch", "text": "The Wild Bunch is a 1969 American epic Revisionist Western film directed by Sam Peckinpah and starring William Holden, Ernest Borgnine, Robert Ryan, Edmond O'Brien, Ben Johnson and Warren Oates. The plot concerns an aging outlaw gang on the Mexico–United States border trying to adapt to the changing modern world of 1913. The film was controversial because of its graphic violence and its portrayal of crude men attempting to survive by any available means.\n\nThe screenplay was co-written by Peckinpah, Walon Green, and Roy N. Sickner. The Wild Bunch was filmed in Technicolor and Panavision, in Mexico, notably at the Hacienda Ciénaga del Carmen, deep in the desert between Torreón and Saltillo, Coahuila, and on the Rio Nazas.\n\nThe Wild Bunch is noted for intricate, multi-angle, quick-cut editing using normal and slow motion images, a revolutionary cinema technique in 1969. The writing of Green, Peckinpah, and Sickner was nominated for a best screenplay Oscar, and the music by Jerry Fielding was nominated for Best Original Score. Additionally, Peckinpah was nominated for an Outstanding Directorial Achievement award by the Directors Guild of America, and cinematographer Lucien Ballard won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Cinematography.\n\nIn 1999, the Library of Congress selected The Wild Bunch for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as \"culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant\". The film was ranked 80th in the American Film Institute's 100 best American films and the 69th most thrilling film. In 2008, the AFI listed 10 best films in 10 genres and ranked The Wild Bunch as the sixth-best Western.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn 1913 Texas, Pike Bishop, the leader of a gang of aging outlaws, seeks to retire after a final robbery of silver from a railroad payroll office. Corrupt railroad agent Pat Harrigan has hired a posse of bounty hunters led by Pike's former partner Deke Thornton, who ambush and kill more than half of Bishop's gang in a bloody shootout, which also kills many innocent bystanders as Pike uses a serendipitous temperance union parade to shield their getaway.\n\nPike rides off with the only survivors: his close friend Dutch Engstrom, brothers Lyle and Tector Gorch, the inexperienced Angel, and a fifth man blinded and mortally wounded by buckshot, who Pike mercy-kills. The loot from the robbery turns out to be worthless steel washers planted by Harrigan. Needing money, they head for Mexico accompanied by the cantankerous Freddie Sykes and cross the Rio Grande to the rural village where Angel was born. The village elder warns them about General Mapache, a vicious Huertista officer in the Mexican Federal Army, who has been stealing food and animals from local villages to support his campaign against the forces of Pancho Villa.\n\nPike's gang ask the general for work at his headquarters in the town of Agua Verde. Angel spots his former lover Teresa in Mapache's arms and shoots her dead, angering the general and nearly getting them killed, but Pike defuses the situation. Mapache offers gold to the gang to rob a U.S. Army train so Mapache can resupply his army's dwindling stocks of ammunition and provide samples of American weapons to his German military adviser Commander Mohr.\n\nAngel gives his share of the gold to Pike in return for sending one crate of rifles and ammunition to a band of peasant rebels opposed to Mapache. The holdup goes largely as planned until Thornton's posse turns up on the train the gang has robbed and chases them to the Mexican border. The robbers blow up a trestle bridge spanning the Rio Grande as the posse tries to cross, dumping the entire posse into the river, but the exhausted posse continues their pursuit.\n\nPike, anticipating that Mapache might double-cross him, hides the goods and has his men sell them to Mapache in separate amounts. However, Mapache learns from Teresa's mother that Angel stole some of the weapons and reveals this as Angel and Dutch deliver the last of the weapons. Angel desperately tries to escape, only to be captured and beaten. Mapache lets Dutch go after he states that Angel is a thief who deserves to be punished, and Dutch then tells Pike and the others what happened.\n\nSykes is wounded by Thornton's posse while securing spare horses. Dutch criticizes Thornton for working with the railroad, but Pike says Thornton \"gave his word\" to the railroad and must see it through. Dutch angrily declares, \"That ain't what counts, it's who you give it to.\" Pike and the gang bury most of the gold and return to Agua Verde, where the townspeople and soldiers are drunkenly celebrating the weapons sale and Mapache is dragging Angel through town on a rope tied to the back of his car. Mapache refuses to sell Angel back to the gang, and after a period of reflection while visiting a brothel, Pike and the others arm themselves to rescue their friend by force.\n\nMapache initially agrees to release Angel, only to cut his throat at the last second. The gang instantly opens fire and guns down the general. While the nearby soldiers are frozen in shock, Pike calmly takes aim and kills Mohr. This begins a bloody gunfight that kills Pike, Dutch, the remaining gang members, Mohr's aide, every member of Mapache's staff, and most of the assembled troops.\n\nThornton arrives and finds Pike already dead. Thornton finds a loaded revolver on Pike's belt and takes it as a sign that the days of men like him are over. Feeling outdated and tired, Thornton allows the remaining posse members to greedily strip Pike and his men of their possessions before taking them back to Texas for the bounty, while he stays behind. After some time, Sykes arrives with the elder from Angel's village and a band of rebels, indicating that they caught up with the bounty hunters, avenged the gang's deaths, and buried them properly. Sykes invites Thornton to join the coming revolution against the Mexican government. Thornton smiles and rides off with them.\n\n## Cast\n\n## Production\n\n### Development\n\nIn April 1965, producer Reno Carrell optioned an original story and screenplay by Walon Green and Roy Sickner, called The Wild Bunch.\n\nIn 1967, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts producers Kenneth Hyman and Phil Feldman were interested in having Sam Peckinpah rewrite and direct an adventure film called The Diamond Story. A professional outcast due to the production difficulties of his previous film, Major Dundee (1965), and his firing from the set of The Cincinnati Kid (1965), Peckinpah's stock had improved following his critically acclaimed work on the television film Noon Wine (1966).\n\nAt the time, William Goldman's screenplay for Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid had recently been purchased by 20th Century Fox. An alternative screenplay available at the studio was The Wild Bunch. It was quickly decided that The Wild Bunch, which had several similarities to Goldman's work, would be produced to beat Butch Cassidy to the theaters.\n\n### Writing\n\nBy the fall of 1967, Peckinpah was rewriting the screenplay and preparing for production. The principal photography was shot entirely on location in Mexico, most notably at the Hacienda Ciénaga del Carmen (deep in the desert between Torreón and Saltillo, Coahuila) and on the Rio Nazas. Peckinpah's epic work was inspired by his hunger to return to films, the violence seen in Arthur Penn's Bonnie and Clyde (1967), America's growing frustration with the Vietnam War, and what he perceived to be the utter lack of reality seen in Westerns up to that time. He set out to make a film which portrayed not only the vicious violence of the period but also the crude men attempting to survive the era. Multiple scenes attempted in Major Dundee, including slow motion action sequences (inspired by Akira Kurosawa's work in Seven Samurai (1954), characters leaving a village as if in a funeral procession, and the use of inexperienced locals as extras, would become fully realized in The Wild Bunch.\n\n### Casting\n\nPeckinpah considered many actors for the Pike Bishop role before casting William Holden, including Richard Boone, Sterling Hayden, Charlton Heston, Burt Lancaster, Lee Marvin, Robert Mitchum, Gregory Peck, and James Stewart. Marvin actually accepted the role but pulled out after he was offered more money to star in Paint Your Wagon (1969).\n\nPeckinpah's first two choices for the role of Deke Thornton were Richard Harris (who had co-starred in Major Dundee) and Brian Keith (who had worked with Peckinpah on The Westerner (1960) and The Deadly Companions (1961)). Harris was never formally approached; Keith was asked, but he turned it down. Robert Ryan was ultimately cast in the part after Peckinpah saw him in the World War II action movie The Dirty Dozen (1967). Other actors considered for the role were Henry Fonda, Glenn Ford, Van Heflin, Ben Johnson (later cast as Tector Gorch), and Arthur Kennedy.\n\nThe role of Mapache went to Emilio Fernández, the Mexican film director, writer, actor, and friend of Peckinpah. Among those considered to play Dutch Engstrom were Charles Bronson, Jim Brown, Alex Cord, Robert Culp, Sammy Davis Jr., Richard Jaeckel, Steve McQueen, and George Peppard. Ernest Borgnine was cast based on his performance in The Dirty Dozen (1967). Robert Blake was the original choice to play Angel, but he asked for too much money. Peckinpah was impressed with Jaime Sánchez in Sidney Lumet's film adaptation of The Pawnbroker and demanded that he be cast as Angel.\n\nStage actor Albert Dekker was cast as Harrigan the railroad detective. The Wild Bunch was his last film, as he died just months after its final scenes were completed. Bo Hopkins had only a few television credits on his resume when he played the part of Clarence \"Crazy\" Lee. Warren Oates played Lyle Gorch, having previously worked with Peckinpah on the TV series The Rifleman and his previous films Ride the High Country (1962) and Major Dundee (1965).\n\n### Filming\n\nThe film was shot with the anamorphic process. Peckinpah and his cinematographer, Lucien Ballard, also made use of telephoto lenses, that allowed for objects and people in both the background and foreground to be compressed in perspective. The effect is best seen in the shots where the Bunch makes the walk to Mapache's headquarters to free Angel. As they walk forward, a constant flow of people passes between them and the camera; most of the people in the foreground are as sharply focused as the Bunch.\n\nBy the time filming wrapped, Peckinpah had shot 333,000 feet (101,000 m) of film with 1,288 camera setups. Lombardo and Peckinpah remained in Mexico for six months editing the picture. After initial cuts, the opening gunfight sequence ran 21 minutes. By cutting frames from specific scenes and intercutting others, they were able to fine-cut the opening robbery down to five minutes. The creative montage became the model for the rest of the film and would \"forever change the way movies would be made\".\n\nPeckinpah stated that one of his goals for the movie was to give the audience \"some idea of what it is to be gunned down\". A memorable incident occurred, to that end, as Peckinpah's crew were consulting him on the \"gunfire\" effects to be used in the film. Not satisfied with the results from the squibs his crew had brought for him, Peckinpah became exasperated and finally hollered: \"That's not what I want! That's not what I want!\" He then grabbed a real revolver and fired it into a nearby wall. The gun empty, Peckinpah barked at his stunned crew: \"THAT'S the effect I want!!\"\n\nHe also had the gunfire sound effects changed for the film. Before, all gunshots in Warner Bros. movies sounded identical, regardless of the type of weapon being fired. Peckinpah insisted that each different type of firearm have its own specific sound effect when fired.\n\n### Editing\n\nThe editing of the film is notable in that shots from multiple angles were spliced together in rapid succession, often at different speeds, placing greater emphasis on the chaotic nature of the action and the gunfights.\n\nLou Lombardo, having previously worked with Peckinpah on Noon Wine, was personally hired by the director to edit The Wild Bunch. Peckinpah had wanted an editor who would be loyal to him. Lombardo's youth was also a plus, as he was not bound by traditional conventions.\n\nOne of Lombardo's first contributions was to show Peckinpah an episode of the TV series Felony Squad he had edited in 1967. The episode, entitled \"My Mommy Got Lost\", included a slow motion sequence where Joe Don Baker is shot by the police. The scene mixed slow motion with normal speed, having been filmed at 24 frames per second but triple printed optically at 72 frames per second. Peckinpah was reportedly thrilled and told Lombardo: \"Let's try some of that when we get down to Mexico!\" The director would film the major shootouts with six cameras, operating at various film rates, including 24 frames per second, 30 frames per second, 60 frames per second, 90 frames per second, and 120 frames per second. When the scenes were eventually cut together, the action would shift from slow to fast to slower still, giving time an elastic quality never before seen in motion pictures up to that time.\n\nFurther editing was done to secure a favorable rating from the MPAA, which was in the process of establishing a new set of codes. Peckinpah and his editors cut the film to satisfy the new, expansive R-rating parameters which, for the first time, designated a film as being unsuitable for children. Without this new system in place, the film could not have been released with its explicit images of bloodshed.\n\n## Themes\n\nCritics of The Wild Bunch note the theme of the end of the outlaw gunfighter era. For example, the character Pike Bishop advises: \"We've got to start thinking beyond our guns. Those days are closing fast.\" The Bunch lives by an anachronistic code of honor that is out of place in 20th-century society. Also, when the gang inspects Mapache's new automobile, they perceive it marks the end of horse travel, a symbol also in Peckinpah's Ride the High Country (1962) and The Ballad of Cable Hogue (1970).\n\nThe violence that was much criticized in 1969 remains controversial. Peckinpah noted it was allegoric of the American war in Vietnam, the violence of which was nightly televised to American homes at supper time. He tried showing the gun violence commonplace to the historic western frontier period, rebelling against sanitized, bloodless television Westerns and films glamorizing gunfights and murder: \"The point of the film is to take this façade of movie violence and open it up, get people involved in it so that they are starting to go in the Hollywood television predictable reaction syndrome, and then twist it so that it's not fun anymore, just a wave of sickness in the gut ... it's ugly, brutalizing, and bloody awful; it's not fun and games and cowboys and Indians. It's a terrible, ugly thing, and yet there's a certain response that you get from it, an excitement, because we're all violent people.\" Peckinpah used violence as a catharsis, believing his audience would be purged of violence by witnessing it explicitly on screen. He later admitted to being mistaken, observing that the audience came to enjoy rather than be horrified by his films' violence, which troubled him.\n\nBetrayal is the secondary theme of The Wild Bunch. The characters suffer from their knowledge of having betrayed a friend and left him to his fate, thus violating their own honor code when it suits them (\"\\$10,000 cuts an awful lot of family ties\"). However, Bishop says, \"When you side with a man, you stay with him, and if you can't do that you're like some animal.\" Such oppositional ideas lead to the film's violent conclusion, as the remaining men find their abandonment of Angel intolerable. Bishop remembers his betrayals, most notably when he deserts Deke Thornton (in flashback) when the law catches up to them and when he abandons Crazy Lee at the railroad office after the robbery (ostensibly to guard the hostages). Critic David Weddle writes that \"like that of Conrad's Lord Jim, Pike Bishop's heroism is propelled by overwhelming guilt and a despairing death wish.\"\n\n## Release\n\nThe film opened on June 18, 1969, at the Pix theatre in Los Angeles and grossed \\$39,200 in its first week. Produced on a budget of \\$6 million, the film grossed \\$10.5 million at the US box office in 1970 and another \\$638,641 in the US on its 1995 restored box-office release, making a total of \\$11,138,641. It was the 17th highest-grossing film of 1969.\n\n### Versions\n\nThere have been several versions of the film:\n\n- The original, 1969 European release is 145 minutes long, with an intermission (per the distributor's request, before the train robbery)\n- The original, 1969 American release is 143 minutes long\n- The second, 1969 American release is 135 minutes long, shortened to allow more screenings\n- The 1995 re-release (labeled \"The Original Director's Cut\", available in home video) is 145 minutes long and identical to the 1969 European release\n\nIn 1993, Warner Bros. resubmitted the film to the MPAA ratings board prior to an expected re-release. To the studio's surprise, the originally R-rated film was re-rated NC-17, which delayed the release until the decision was appealed. The controversy was linked to 10 extra minutes added to the film, although none of this footage contained graphic violence. Warner Bros. trimmed some footage to decrease the running time to ensure additional daily screenings. When the restored film finally made it to the screen in March 1995, one reviewer noted:\n\n> By restoring 10 minutes to the film, the complex story now fits together in a seamless way, filling in those gaps found in the previous theatrical release, and proving that Peckinpah was firing on all cylinders for this, his grandest achievement. ... And the one overwhelming feature that the director's cut makes unforgettable are the many faces of the children, whether playing, singing, or cowering, much of the reaction to what happens on-screen is through the eyes, both innocent and imitative, of all the children.\n\nAlmost all of the versions of the film include the missing scenes. Warner Bros. released a newly restored version in a two-disc special edition on January 10, 2006. It includes an audio commentary by Peckinpah scholars, two documentaries concerning the making of the film (one of them is the Oscar-nominated The Wild Bunch: An Album in Montage), and never-before-seen outtakes.\n\n## Critical reception\n\nVincent Canby began his review by calling the film \"very beautiful and the first truly interesting American-made Western in years. It's also so full of violence—of an intensity that can hardly be supported by the story—that it's going to prompt a lot of people who do not know the real effect of movie violence (as I do not) to write automatic condemnations of it.\" He observed, \"Although the movie's conventional and poetic action sequences are extraordinarily good and its landscapes beautifully photographed ... it is most interesting in its almost jolly account of chaos, corruption, and defeat\". About the actors, he commented particularly on William Holden: \"After years of giving bored performances in boring movies, Holden comes back gallantly in The Wild Bunch. He looks older and tired, but he has style, both as a man and as a movie character who persists in doing what he's always done, not because he really wants the money but because there's simply nothing else to do.\"\n\nTIME also liked Holden's performance, describing it as his best since Stalag 17 (a 1953 film that earned Holden an Oscar), noting Robert Ryan gave \"the screen performance of his career\", and concluding that \"The Wild Bunch contains faults and mistakes\" (such as flashbacks \"introduced with surprising clumsiness\"), but \"its accomplishments are more than sufficient to confirm that Peckinpah, along with Stanley Kubrick and Arthur Penn, belongs with the best of the newer generation of American filmmakers.\"\n\nIn a 2002 retrospective Roger Ebert, who \"saw the original version at the world premiere in 1969, during the golden age of the junket, when Warner Bros. screened five of its new films in the Bahamas for 450 critics and reporters\", said that, back then, he had publicly declared the film a masterpiece during the junket's press conference, prompted by comments from \"a reporter from the Reader's Digest [who] got up to ask 'Why was this film ever made?'\" He compared the film to Pulp Fiction: \"praised and condemned with equal vehemence.\"\n\n\"What Citizen Kane was to movie lovers in 1941, The Wild Bunch was to cineastes in 1969,\" wrote film critic Michael Sragow, who added that Peckinpah had \"produced an American movie that equals or surpasses the best of Kurosawa: the Gotterdammerung of Westerns\".\n\nToday, the film holds a 91% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 8.8/10 based on reviews from 65 critics with its consensus stating, \"The Wild Bunch is Sam Peckinpah's shocking, violent ballad to an old world and a dying genre\".\n\nThe Wild Bunch was cited as cinematographer Roger Deakins's favorite film, and film director Kathryn Bigelow named it as one of her five favorite films. In the 2012 BFI poll for The Greatest Films of All Time, The Wild Bunch received 27 votes from critics and directors such as Michael Mann, Paul Schrader and Edgar Wright.\n\n## Awards and nominations\n\nDecades later the American Film Institute placed the film in several of its \"100 Years\" lists:\n\n- AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – No. 80\n- AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – No. 69\n- AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 79\n- AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 6 Western\n\nThe film is ranked No. 94 on Empire magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Films of All Time. In 1999, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant. In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed The Wild Bunch as the 23rd best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.\n\n## Documentary\n\nSam Peckinpah and the making of The Wild Bunch were the subjects of the documentary The Wild Bunch: An Album in Montage (1996) directed and edited by Paul Seydor. The documentary was occasioned by the discovery of 72 minutes of silent, black-and-white film footage of Peckinpah and company on location in northern Mexico during the filming of The Wild Bunch. Michael Sragow wrote in 2000 that the documentary was \"a wonderful introduction to Peckinpah’s radically detailed historical film about American outlaws in revolutionary Mexico—a masterpiece that’s part bullet-driven ballet, part requiem for Old West friendship and part existential explosion. Seydor’s movie is also a poetic flight on the myriad possibilities of movie directing.\" Seydor and his co-producer Nick Redman were nominated in 1997 for the Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject).\n\n## Remake\n\nIn 2005, David Ayer was reported to be in final negotiations to direct and write a remake of The Wild Bunch. Jerry Weintraub would produce and Mark Vahradian would executive produce. The remake would be a modern reinterpretation of the original, involving heists, drug cartels and the CIA.\n\nOn January 19, 2011, it was announced by Warner Bros. that a remake of The Wild Bunch was in the works. Screenwriter Brian Helgeland was hired to develop a new script. The 2012 suicide of Tony Scott, who was scheduled to direct, put the project in limbo.\n\nOn May 15, 2013, The Wrap reported that Will Smith was in talks to star in and produce the remake. The new version would involve drug cartels and follows a disgraced DEA agent who assembles a team to go after a Mexican drug lord and his fortune. No director has been chosen, and a new screenwriter is being sought.\n\nIn 2015, a Hollywood insider website announced that Jonathan Jakubowicz was set to write and direct a remake. \"Our sources also tell us that the remake will update the story to a contemporary setting, revolving around the CIA, dangerous drug cartels, and a thrilling heist against the backdrop of the Southern California-Mexico border. Jakubowicz will be working from previous drafts submitted by David Ayer and Brian Helgeland.\"\n\nIn 2018, it was announced that Mel Gibson would co-write and direct a new version of The Wild Bunch.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of American films of 1969\n- Vigilante film", "revid": "1173517132", "description": "1969 film", "categories": ["1960s American films", "1960s English-language films", "1960s vigilante films", "1969 Western (genre) films", "1969 films", "American Western (genre) films", "American epic films", "American vigilante films", "Films directed by Sam Peckinpah", "Films scored by Jerry Fielding", "Films set in 1913", "Films set in Mexico", "Films set in Texas", "Films shot in Mexico", "Films with screenplays by Walon Green", "Mexican Revolution films", "Revisionist Western (genre) films", "United States National Film Registry films", "Warner Bros. films"]}
{"id": "9448968", "url": null, "title": "Albany City Hall", "text": "Albany City Hall is the seat of government of the city of Albany, New York, United States. It houses the office of the mayor, the Common Council chamber, the city and traffic courts, as well as other city services. The present building was designed by Henry Hobson Richardson in the Romanesque style and opened in 1883 at 24 Eagle Street, between Corning Place (then Maiden Lane) and Pine Street. It is a rectangular three-and-a-half-story building with a 202-foot-tall (62 m) tower at its southwest corner. The tower contains one of the few municipal carillons in the country, dedicated in 1927, with 49 bells.\n\nAlbany's first city hall was the Stadt Huys (/ˈstæt ˈhaɪs/; Dutch for \"city hall\"); sometimes written Stadt Huis), built by the Dutch at what is now the intersection of Broadway and Hudson Avenue, probably in the 1660s, though possibly earlier. It was probably replaced around 1740 with a larger Stadt Huys. In 1754, it was the site of the Albany Congress, where Benjamin Franklin presented the Albany Plan of Union, the first proposal to unite the British American colonies. After the American Revolution brought independence, Albany was declared the state capital in 1797 and the state legislature met in city hall. In 1809 the Legislature opened the first state capitol and Albany's government moved in with it. Two decades later, the city purchased a plot of land at the eastern end of Washington Avenue, across Eagle Street from the capitol and moved its government into a new city hall designed by Philip Hooker that opened in 1832.\n\nIn 1880, Hooker's building was destroyed by fire and a new design by Richardson was commissioned. The cornerstone was laid by the local Masonic fraternity in 1881; the building was completed and opened two years later. Because of budget restrictions the original interior was simply designed, consisting chiefly of beaded board partitions, and thus not fireproof; it was entirely rebuilt in 1916-18 from designs by Albany architects Ogden & Gander. The city hall remains essentially as altered at that time, and the exterior is considered one of Richardson's finest works. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1972; it is also a contributing property to the Lafayette Park Historic District, listed six years later.\n\n## Building\n\nCity Hall occupies the western half of the block with Eagle Street on the west, Lodge Street to the east, and Corning Place and Pine Street on the south and north. The land slopes gently down towards the Hudson River a half-mile (800 m) to the east-southeast, such that the building's rear foundation is exposed. The small Corning Park buffers the building from the Albany Masonic Temple to the east and some other smaller buildings on the block's northwest corner. Academy Park is to the northwest, and East Capitol Park to the southwest, with Washington Avenue (New York State Route 5) dividing them before it ends at the intersection with Eagle just in front of City Hall.\n\nOn all the other sides of the block the surrounding neighborhood is densely developed and urban, with primarily government, institutional and commercial buildings. Some of those buildings are also listed on the National Register. To the north, across Pine Street, is the New York Court of Appeals Building, where the state's highest court sits, with the old Albany County courthouse, now county offices, just to its north. Northwest, in Academy Park, is the Old Albany Academy Building, now headquarters of the Albany City School District. Looking west on Washington, the New York State Education Building is visible on the north a short distance away with the state capitol opposite. All, like City Hall, are also contributing properties to the Lafayette Park Historic District, listed on the Register in 1978.\n\n### Exterior\n\nThe building is a load-bearing masonry design laid out in a rectangle, with a 202-foot (62 m) tall, Venetian-style tower, topped by a pyramidal roof, on the southwest corner, and smaller round towers on the northeast and southeast. The nine-by-six-bay main structure is three-and-a-half stories tall. Its exterior walls are rusticated Milford granite with Longmeadow brownstone trim. It is topped with a red tiled cross-gabled roof, hipped on the east-west axis, with a nested gabled projection on either end. On the north side of the cross-gable tall chimneys rise on either side of the main gable; a third, shorter chimney rises from the roofline south of the cross-gable\n\n#### Main block\n\nOn the west (front) elevation, narrowing steps with wrought iron decorative handrails lead up to the main entrance, triply-recessed triple stone rounded archways, with the central one slightly larger. The archways are flanked by smooth stone columns topped by Corinthian capitals. The arches themselves are segmented, with decorative leaf patterns carved onto them. Each entrance has a double wooden door, with brass trimmings, including kick plate, and glass window with iron grille. At the springline is a piece of carved wood; the one on the central entrance is more ornate, just below it the words \"City Hall\" are set in brass letters on the entablature. Above each is a semicircular glass transom with ornate iron radial muntins, divided at the center by a fluted wooden panel. Affixed to the one on the central entrance is a brass version of the city's coat of arms and the number 24, in brass.\n\nTo either side is a two-paned recessed casement window with transom and brownstone surround. On the north side is a recessed triple window with transom, stone-mullioned and round-arched with splayed stones, and a similar brownstone surround rising from the brownstone water table that runs from either side of the main entrance. All first-story windows have flower boxes, planted during the season.\n\nOn the north profile, fenestration begins on the west with a window with the same treatment as the one just around the corner from it. Below it are two barred rectangular casement windows. East of it, the rest of the facade projects out slightly; two brownstone courses begin at street level at that point. They are interrupted by three paired recessed one-over-one double-hung sash windows, each immediately below a recessed triple narrow one-over-one double-hung sash topped with two casement lights. At street level below the easternmost of these four is a side entrance to the building, wooden double doors with barred upper windows and a lower panel. Next to the upper portion on either side is a decorative stone panel on the facade depicting a carved tree.\n\nThe east (rear) facade, facing Corning Park, has exclusively double-hung one-over-one sash on the ground floor, with the same treatment but covered with protective metal screening, beginning with a pair at the corner next to the tower. Next to the south is a triple narrow window, followed by two wider ones. Above them, on the first floor, all windows are single versions of the narrow kind seen on the tower, with a wooden panel replacing the lower light. Midway across the facade a small pavilion projects outward with a small metal gate at its northern corner; on its ground floor is a double pair of narrow windows, with a single large one at the south corner. The first story on the pavilion has wider sash windows.\n\nAdjacent to the tower on the ground floor of the south facade are two screen-protected double windows similar to those on the opposite side except for the mullions being recessed as well. Above them, displaced to the east, are a pair of double recessed windows identical to others on the first story but with only one transom. To the west the facade again projects slightly, aligning with the end of the gable atop it. The easternmost bay is taken, only at ground level, with a recessed entryway featuring double wooden paneled doors with barred upper windows identical to those on the opposite side entrance.\n\nTo the west the ground story has three pairs of screened deeply recessed double-hung one-over-one sash that get progressively shorter as the ground slopes up. They culminate with a similar double-pane casement window at the corner with the smaller of the southwest towers. Above them are three cross-windows, their mullions more decorative engaged round smooth columns with ornate capitals, matched by smaller ones between the upper lights. On the edges of the surrounds, narrow smooth round engaged columns support decorative capitals between the windows. Above the casement window, next to the tower, on this story, is another narrow sash window with transom similar to those seen elsewhere on the building.\n\nA projecting stringcourse sets off the second story. Above the entrance is a quadruple-arched loggia opening from the Common Council chambers. Decorative stone balustrades are at the base of each arch; divided by a group of four engaged smooth round stone columns rising from rusticated plinths topped by Corinthian capitals. The arches themselves are formed of one course of segmented brownstone topped by splayed blocks with a decorative cornice along the top and decorative stonework in a leaf pattern at the springline. Behind each arch is a double wooden door with eight square glass panes, divided by a stone mullion and topped by one square glass light and an arched one above, set in a plainer splayed-block arch.\n\nOn either side of the loggia is a recessed narrow one-over-one double-hung sash with a blind third pane above. A stone course sets off the arched transom above, framed by a splayed block arch. To the north is a similarly treated wider double window, its tympanum painted with an intricate sunburst design. Around the corner, on the north facade, fenestration of the second story begins with a similarly styled window. To its east is a large quadruple window that echoes the loggia, with the same surrounds around groups of three narrow sash windows topped by two separated panes and tripartite transom under the arches.\n\nOn the east, the third story fenestration starts past the tower with a double version of the triple-hung sash two-transom windows on the tower, going into the fourth story. Next is a narrow single version, with a narrower, smaller version above, then double-hung with the lowest of three transoms on the story above blind, filled with a wooden panel, followed by a tripled version, flanked by a single one and then a pair of narrow windows similar to those on the other side. Triple versions of the narrow triple-hung follow on both stories. On the ell, where the beltcourse is absent, adjacent to the southeast tower are two small double-hung sash, with recessed double casement windows in decorative stonework around the top of the tower itself. It and the ell are topped by a stringcourse and molded-looking cornice.\n\nThe beltcourse returns on the south facade of the ell, setting off a quadruple version of the narrow double-hung single-upper-light sash, with a splayed block granite mustache in the facade above. Next to the corner of the main block is a single iteration of the same window. On the main block is a triple arched window just like that on the facade opposite.\n\nAnother, identical beltcourse sets off the third story. On the front it has six narrow double double-hung, with the single light above. The lintels above the main window and the transoms both are decorated to appear dentilled. Above is a stone cornice decorated in a leaf pattern. At the north a small parapet rises, set off by a gargoyle and decorated with a floral pattern that extends below the beltcourse.\n\nFive windows stretch across the gable front on the third story of the north facade. All are recessed double-hung sash with two upper lights, wide and single on the sides with three narrower doubles between them. Above is a triple-arched window, smaller than the others two stories below but treated similarly, except for the lack of trim above the arches. The gable is framed by a stone cornice, with decorative floral stonework at the corners and a rounded finial at the apex.\n\nThe east gable facade has on the lower story two sets of recessed double-hung sash flanked on either side by narrower versions, all three topped by transoms without any stone separator, rising from the upper of two stringcourses. Above them, in the apex, are two small recessed double-hung sash rising from a brownstone beltcourse, with the uppermost adjacent stones widening like a capital but flat and plain on the front. A wider brownstone course tops the windows. The gable has the same treatment as the north face.\n\nThe south gable face is identical to the one on the north facade opposite in fenestration and treatment. On the west, the top gable pierces the roof above two shingle-cut stone courses. The three central recessed double-hung one-over-one sash rise from a stone cornice in which three pierced quatrefoils have been cut in the stone beneath the windowsills. Two joined engaged Corinthian columns divide the central window from those in its flanks, which are in turn flanked with single versions of the column. All three windows have decorative stonework above the lintel; above them is a course of vertical blocks and a cornice that forms a splayed-block arch above the central window. Its tympanum is blind, decorated with sunburst artwork similar to that found below on the front facade.\n\nThat pattern also fills the gable apex; on the sides of the windows is a checkerboard pattern. Stone shields are affixed to either side; the one at the south has the city's coat of arms on it. The gable edge has the same decorative treatment as the other three.\n\nOn the roof there are several small skylights next to the eastern and northern gable. A larger one is located higher on the east pitch of the northern gable, with two similarly-sized on the south face of the main gable east of the southern cross-gable. Just east of the southwestern chimney is an 18-cell solar cell array; a 27-cell array is on the east of the main gable just below the apex.\n\n#### Towers\n\nAt the northeast corner is an engaged round tower with five bays. Fenestration on the first story is three windows with similar treatment to those on the neighboring north facade, except with two double windows on either side of a triple, and another double where the tower meets the east facade. Below are double-hung one-over-one sash, again like those on the north facade but without the bars, one beneath each double and two beneath the triple. On its third story are a group of three double windows with a single square transom, except for the second where a third transom is located in a dormer front that rises from the molded cornice to pierce the tower's conical roof. Rounded finials are at the apex and corners of the dormer gable.\n\nThe southeast tower fenestration consists of small deeply recessed casement windows ascending in a spiral pattern. On its west side is a small porch, with a stone-shingled peaked roof supported by an octagonal smooth stone column with decorative capital. To its east is a blind window in a small upper bay flanked by engaged pilasters similar to the porch column. The porch shelters a wooden paneled door with modern metal handle. setting off a conical shingled stone roof topped on the tower by a rounded finial.\n\nThe largest tower, the 202-foot (62 m) southwest tower, is square. At the first story it has three double-hung sash topped with a single light on both faces, in slight vertical recesses that continue up the entire face. Above them are three double-hung one-over-one topped by tympanums filled with the diamond pattern at left and the triangular one in the other two. On the tower's southeast is a small, narrow round tower with no fenestration save crenellation.\n\nAbove the second story the main tower is crenellated as well. The smaller tower is topped with a small conical shingled roof, rising to a small finial, above the level of the main block's lower cross-gable; just below its bracketing are several small windows set in brownstone. Just above that roof is the clock face on all four faces of the tower, with a splayed surround.\n\nThe upper stage of the tower, above the clock face, is a brownstone belfry. It has three narrow double-crossed openings topped by splayed-block arches rising from a decorative cornice. At the corners grouped smooth round columns with Corinthian capitals support a dentilled cornice. The pyramidal stone shingled roof is topped with a small round finial.\n\n### Interior\n\nThe main entrances open into a lobby with a polished stone floor on which a decorative diamond pattern surrounds the city seal. A gently arched passageway, with arched doorways (including that for the elevator), leads into the building's central atrium. There the square enclosed diamond pattern on the floor continues, with a small circle in the middle.\n\nFrom both north and south, stairs ascend to the second story and descend to the ground floor. Flat curved arches supported by engaged pillars and topped with molding rise up on three sides to create a triforium. At the second story all have the blank shield design found on the exterior west facade's fourth-story windows. The staircases and the triforium both have railings of black painted metal with a brass handrail.\n\nAt the third story a stone balustrade replaces the arches, with some decorative carving on the cornice stone. Another metal railing, with intermittent decorative patterns, runs around the fourth floor, topped by gentle, wide arches. Both are lit by a single fixture on each side hanging from a chain. At the ceiling of the atrium is a cornice with decorative dentils.\n\nMost of the rooms in City Hall are the offices of the mayor, city officials and departments. Albany's city council meets in a chamber just inside the loggia on the second story's west facade. Valances hang in the arches of the entryways, separated by two flat square engaged decorated wooden pilasters, just behind the wooden desk, carved with arches on the front echoing those on the wall behind, where the president of the 16-member council sits alongside the mayor and other officials during meetings. The other members sit at desks along the sides.\n\nThe floor is polished dark hardwood. A metal railing with brass handrail separates public viewing at the rear. The north and south walls are decorated with recessed wooden panels separated by pilasters with the same treatment as those on the west wall. They rise to a plain frieze topped by a decorative wooden cornice at the height of the separation between the upper and lower lights in the loggia windows. Above those lights, in the loggia windows, are recessed wooden panels. Decorative molding sets off a coffered ceiling from which a central chandelier is augmented by two fixtures hanging on chains over the desk at west and upward-pointing spotlights on the walls.\n\n## Former city halls\n\nAlbany has had multiple buildings dedicated to being the seat of city government through its history; most have been replaced following fires. Historians disagree on details of many of the earlier structures, and when they were built.\n\n### Stadt Huys\n\nAlbany's original city hall, the Stadt Huys, may have been built as early as 1635. Evidence from the journals of Wouter van Twiller, Director of New Netherland from 1633 to 1638, suggests that at least some type of punitory building was built on the site during his term. George Howell and Jonathan Tenney, in their book Bi-centennial History of Albany, cite reports from 1646 describing the building as a substantial (at least for its time) three-story structure, with the lower floor built of stone and used as a jail. By contrast, another Albany historian, Cuyler Reynolds, writes that the Stadt Huys was not built until 1673. Both historians agree that it stood at the northeast corner of today's Hudson Avenue and Broadway, the current site of the SUNY System Administration Building. The Stadt Huys officially became city hall when the Dongan Charter incorporated Albany as a city in 1686. A 1695 engraved map of Albany depicts the Stadt Huys at that location.\n\nA new city hall was probably built on the site around 1740; historians at the New York State Museum (NYSM) put its completion date as the following year. The city government, quickly outgrowing the space, was able to secure constructionfunds from the provincial government. This building retained the Dutch name, even though it was new and the English had been in control of New York for more than 75 years. The NYSM describes the new Stadt Huys as a three-story brick structure, adding that it was \"more substantial\" than its predecessor. The new building was the third-largest in Albany, surpassed only by that era's local Dutch church and Fort Albany. The roof of the new structure was gabled and topped with a cupola and belfry. Howell and Tenney say the original Stadt Huys was in use for at least 160 years (meaning a replacement structure would not have been needed until 1795 at the earliest), which contradicts with accounts of the new Stadt Huys's construction in the 1740s.\n\nIn 1754, the Stadt Huys was the site of the Albany Congress where Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania presented the Albany Plan of Union, the first formal proposal to unite the British American colonies. The intent was to defend against aggressions of the French to the north rather than become independent from the British crown. It was never adopted by the British Parliament; later it was seen as an important precursor to the United States Constitution. A month prior to the meeting, Franklin published his Join, or Die political cartoon, a graphical representation of the plan.\n\nDuring the Revolutionary War, City Hall was home to the Albany Committee of Correspondence (the political arm of the local revolutionary movement), which took over operation of city government in 1775 and eventually controlled all of Albany County (at that time the largest county in the colony, extending far past its current borders). Tories and prisoners of war were often held in the building with common criminals. Following the war, city hall was an occasional meeting place of the newly formed New York Legislature, in addition to being home to the city and county governments, jail, courts, and local registry.\n\nIn 1797 Albany was declared capital of the state and the legislature made City Hall its home until the first state capitol was opened in 1809. In an effort to move public buildings away from the bustling and expanding waterfront, the new capitol was located atop the State Street hill, directly in front of where the current building stands. City surveyor Simeon De Witt, in his 1794 city plan, marks this land as a public square; it had been dedicated for public purposes since the late 17th century. Also included on DeWitt's map are depictions of City Hall and the new city jail, located at State and Eagle Streets. In 1809, Albany city government moved with the Legislature into the new capitol and remained there until a new city hall was opened in 1832. The old Stadt Huys was demolished after an 1836 fire.\n\n### 1832 city hall\n\nIn order to move city and county government out of the state capitol, in 1832 the city bought a plot of land to build on facing the public square opposite the capitol, on Eagle Street at the eastern end of Lion Street (later renamed Washington Avenue) from St. Peter's Church for \\$10,295.95 (). A design competition for the new City Hall was won by Albany architect Philip Hooker and Boston architect John Kutts. Hooker was charged with integrating components of both architect's proposals into one coherent design. The cornerstone was laid by Mayor John Townsend in a Masonic ceremony in 1829. Construction was completed three years later at a cost of about \\$92,000 ().\n\nThe design combined neoclassical and Greek Revival detailing, and was built of white marble quarried by inmates at Sing Sing prison, with an entrance porch supported by six Ionic columns. A large belvedere supported a dome that was later gilded. The principal rooms of the interior continued the monumental detailing of the exterior. A full-length statue of Alexander Hamilton by Robert Ball Hughes stood in the center of the upper hall, between the Court room and the Common Council Chamber. On one side of this hall was a bas-relief of DeWitt Clinton, with a view of a primitive Erie Canal boat in the distance, and on the opposite wall was a similar figure of Sir Walter Scott. Both of these panels were executed by William Coffee. This building, too, was destroyed by fire, in 1880.\n\n## Current city hall\n\nAfter the fire, Henry Hobson Richardson, then one of a team of architects working on the nearby state capitol, secured the commission for the replacement city hall after a limited competition between six architects and firms. The budget for the new city hall was \\$185,000 (); Richardson's design came in just under that. The appointed public committee increased the budget to \\$204,000 (\\$) after granite was substituted for brownstone in the design. The new city hall design dates from the period regarded as Richardson's architectural peak. It was similar to others executed in his personal version of the Romanesque style. Architectural historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock described city hall as \"one of Richardson's most Romanesque designs\" and the building's NRHP nomination adds that its \"banded arches, rhythmic fenestration, bold expression of materials and corner placement of the tower are characteristic features of Richardson's work often to be repeated by his followers.\"\n\nExcept for the bold asymmetrical placement of the tower, a prime example of Richardson's disregard for architectural correctness known for being one of his best tower designs, the building is noted for its general simplicity and care for small details, especially its intricate carvings. The entranceway is a simple triple-arch loggia; other design elements on the front façade are limited to its windows and a quadruple-arch balcony off the Common Council chamber. It is flanked by multiple tiers of relief sculpture and gargoyles. Most of the stonecutters brought to Albany to work on the capitol were later hired to do the sculptural details on City Hall.\n\nMany elements of the exterior design are representations of interior functionality. Because the Common Council chamber is located on the second floor (above the entrance), that story is the same height as the first-floor entrance hall. The tower is essentially windowless because it was meant to be the city archive; a round staircase extends up the southeast corner of the tower for access. The short tower on the building's southeast corner was originally meant to be the transition between city hall and the never-built jail, complete with a \"bridge of sighs\" to transport inmates straight from their cells to courtrooms in city hall.\n\nDue to lack of funds at the time (the building's initial budget doubled, ending up at \\$325,000 () including furnishings), Richardson devoted most of his efforts to the building's exterior. The Times Union wrote later, \"There wasn't enough money for Richardson to do the job as thoroughly as he would have liked. He said in his writing that if there wasn't sufficient money, he'd rather do it right on the outside and leave it to a future generation to finish the interior. The interior was finished by city architects a good 30 years after Richardson built it.\" Those \"city architects\" were Ogden and Gander who designed the alterations in 1916 that were completed in 1918. The mayor's office is on the first floor of the tower, with a painting of the city's first mayor, Pieter Schuyler; the Council chamber and offices are on the building's second floor, and the city clerk's office is on the second floor of the tower.\n\nUnder the leadership of William Gorham Rice, an Albany native who had run for mayor and served in some appointed state positions, in 1927 a carillon was added to the tower; it contained 60 bells (though it produced only 47 different notes, since the top 13 notes each had two bells) made by John Taylor & Co in England. Financed by public donations (from over 25,000 people), it cost \\$63,000 () and was the first municipal carillon in the United States. Six decades later Mayor Thomas Whalen III had it restored, replacing 30 bells, removing the doubles, and adding two notes to its repertoire. The 49 bells weigh 27 short tons (24,000 kg) in total. The largest is 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) in diameter and weighs 10,953 pounds (4,968 kg). The carillon is still in use and is played during concerts several times a week.\n\nThe clock faces on the tower were added in the 1920s, possibly around the same time as the carillon. An 1897 image of the city hall shows the tower without the clock faces. City Hall was added to the NRHP on September 4, 1972.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of mayors of Albany, New York\n- National Register of Historic Places listings in Albany, New York\n- Statue of Philip Schuyler, in front of city hall, slated to be removed as he was a slaveholder", "revid": "1169789473", "description": "Municipal government building in capital city of U.S. state of New York", "categories": ["Bell towers in the United States", "Buildings and structures in Albany, New York", "City and town halls on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)", "Clock towers in New York (state)", "Government buildings completed in 1741", "Government buildings completed in 1883", "Henry Hobson Richardson buildings", "Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in New York (state)", "National Register of Historic Places in Albany, New York", "Richardsonian Romanesque architecture in New York (state)", "Tourist attractions in Albany, New York", "Towers completed in 1883"]}
{"id": "824265", "url": null, "title": "Witold Pilecki", "text": "Witold Pilecki (13 May 1901 – 25 May 1948; ; codenames Roman Jezierski, Tomasz Serafiński, Druh, Witold) was a Polish World War II cavalry officer, intelligence agent, and resistance leader.\n\nAs a youth, Pilecki joined Polish underground scouting; in the aftermath of World War I, he joined the Polish militia and, later, the Polish Army. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War which ended in 1921. In 1939, he participated in the unsuccessful defense of Poland against the German invasion and shortly afterward, joined the Polish resistance, co-founding the Secret Polish Army resistance movement. In 1940, Pilecki volunteered to allow himself to be captured by the occupying Germans in order to infiltrate the Auschwitz concentration camp. At Auschwitz, he organized a resistance movement that eventually included hundreds of inmates, and he secretly drew up reports detailing German atrocities at the camp, which were smuggled out to Home Army headquarters and shared with the Western Allies. After eventually escaping from Auschwitz in April 1943, Pilecki fought in the Warsaw Uprising of August–October 1944. Following its suppression, he was interned in a German prisoner-of-war camp. After the communist takeover of Poland, he remained loyal to the London-based Polish government-in-exile. In 1945, he returned to Poland to report to the government-in-exile on the situation in Poland. Before returning, Pilecki wrote Witold's Report about his Auschwitz experiences, anticipating that he might be killed by Poland's new communist authorities. In 1947, he was arrested by the secret police on charges of working for \"foreign imperialism\" and, after being subjected to torture and a show trial, was executed in 1948.\n\nHis story, inconvenient to the Polish communist authorities, remained mostly unknown for several decades; one of the first accounts of Pilecki's mission to Auschwitz was given by Polish historian Józef Garliński, himself a former Auschwitz inmate who emigrated to Britain after the war, in Fighting Auschwitz: The Resistance Movement in the Concentration Camp (1975). Several monographs appeared in subsequent years, particularly after the fall of communism in Poland facilitated research into his life by Polish historians.\n\n## Biography\n\n### Early life\n\nWitold Pilecki was born on 13 May 1901 in the town of Olonets, Karelia, in the Russian Empire. He was a descendant of a Polish-speaking noble family (szlachta) of the Leliwa coat of arms. His ancestors had been deported to Russia from their home in Lithuania (former Nowogródek Voivodeship region, now in Belarus) for participating in the January 1863–64 Uprising, for which a major part of their estate was confiscated. Witold was one of five children of forest inspector Julian Pilecki and Ludwika Osiecimska.\n\nIn 1910, Witold moved with his mother and siblings to Wilno, to attend a Polish school there, while his father remained in Olonets. In Wilno, Pilecki attended a local school and joined the underground Polish Scouting and Guiding Association (Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego, ZHP).\n\nFollowing the outbreak of World War I, in 1916 Pilecki was sent by his mother to a school in the Russian city of Oryol, located safer in the East than Wilno. There he attended a gymnasium (secondary school) and founded a local chapter of the ZHP.\n\n### Polish–Soviet War\n\nIn 1918, following the outbreak of the Russian Revolution and the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, Pilecki returned to Wilno (at that time part of the newly independent Polish Second Republic) and joined the ZHP section of the Self-Defence of Lithuania and Belarus, a paramilitary formation under Major General Władysław Wejtko. The militia disarmed the passing German troops and took up positions to defend the city from a looming attack by the Soviet Red Army. After Wilno fell to Bolshevik forces on 5 January 1919, Pilecki and his unit resorted to partisan warfare behind Soviet lines. He and his comrades then retreated to Białystok, where Pilecki enlisted as a szeregowy (private) in Poland's newly established Volunteer Army. He took part in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1921, serving under Captain Jerzy Dąbrowski. He fought in the Kiev offensive (1920) and as part of a cavalry unit defending the then-Polish city of Grodno. On 5 August 1920, Pilecki joined the 211th Uhlan Regiment [pl] and fought in the crucial Battle of Warsaw and in the Rūdninkai Forest [lt]. Pilecki later took part in the Vilna offensive and briefly served in the ongoing Polish–Lithuanian War as a member of the October 1920 Żeligowski's Mutiny.\n\n### Interwar years\n\nBy the conclusion of Polish-Soviet War in March 1921, Pilecki was promoted to the rank of plutonowy (corporal), becoming a non-commissioned officer. Shortly afterward, Pilecki was transferred to the army reserves, completing courses required for a non-commissioned officer rank at the Cavalry Reserve Officers' Training School in Grudziądz. He went on to complete his secondary education (matura) later that same year. He briefly enrolled with the Faculty of Fine Arts at Stefan Batory University but was forced to abandon his studies in 1924 due to both financial issues and the declining health of his father. In July 1925, Pilecki was assigned to the 26th Lancer Regiment with the rank of Chorąży (ensign). Pilecki would be promoted to podporucznik (second lieutenant, with seniority from 1923) the following year. Also in September 1926, Pilecki became the owner of his family's ancestral estate, Sukurcze, in the Lida District of the Nowogródek Voivodeship. In 1931, he married Maria Ostrowska [pl]. They had two children, born in Wilno over the next two years: Andrzej and Zofia [pl]. Pilecki actively supported the local farming community. He was also an amateur poet and painter. He organized the Krakus Military Horsemen Training program in 1932 and was appointed to command the 1st Lida Military Training Squadron, which in 1937 was placed under the Polish 19th Infantry Division. In 1938, Pilecki received the Silver Cross of Merit for his activities.\n\n### World War II\n\n#### Polish September Campaign\n\nWith Polish-German tensions growing in mid-1939, Pilecki was mobilized as a cavalry platoon commander on 26 August 1939. He was assigned to the 19th Infantry Division under Major General Józef Kwaciszewski, part of the Army Prusy and his unit took part in heavy fighting against the advancing Germans during the invasion of Poland. The 19th Division was almost completely destroyed following a clash with the German forces on the night of 5/6 September at the Battle of Piotrków Trybunalski. Its remains were incorporated into the 41st Infantry Division, which was withdrawn to the southeast toward Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine) and the Romanian bridgehead. In the 41st Division, Pilecki served as divisional second-in-command of its cavalry detachment, under Major Jan Włodarkiewicz. He and his men destroyed seven German tanks, shot down one aircraft, and destroyed two more on the ground. On 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland, which worsened the already desperate situation of the Polish forces. On 22 September, the 41st Division suffered a major defeat and capitulated. Włodarkiewicz and Pilecki were among the many soldiers who did not follow the order of Commander-in-Chief General Edward Śmigły-Rydz to retreat through Romania to France, instead opting to stay underground in Poland.\n\n#### Resistance\n\nOn 9 November 1939 in Warsaw, Major Włodarkiewicz, Second Lieutenant Pilecki, Second Lieutenant Jerzy Maringe, Jerzy Skoczyński, and brothers Jan and Stanisław Dangel founded the Secret Polish Army (Tajna Armia Polska, TAP), one of the first underground organizations in Poland. Włodarkiewicz became its leader, while Pilecki became TAP's organizational head as it expanded to cover Warsaw, Siedlce, Radom, Lublin, and other major cities in central Poland. As cover, Pilecki worked as manager of a cosmetics storehouse. From 25 November 1939 until May 1940, he was TAP's inspector and chief of staff. From August 1940, he headed its 1st branch (organization and mobilization).\n\nTAP was based on Christian ideological values. While Pilecki wanted to avert a religious mission so as not to alienate potential allies, Włodarkiewicz blamed Poland's defeat on its failure to create a Catholic nation and wanted to remake the country by appealing to right-wing groups. In the spring of 1940, Pilecki saw that Włodarkiewicz's views had become more anti-semitic and that he had put ultranationalist dogma into their newsletter, Znak [pl]; Włodarkiewicz had also entered into talks about a merger with the far-right underground, including a group that had offered Nazi Germany a Polish puppet government. To stop him, Pilecki went to Colonel Stefan Rowecki, chief of a rival resistance group, the Union of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej, ZWZ), which called for equal rights for Jews, gathered intelligence on German atrocities, and delivered it by courier to the Western Allies in an attempt to gain their involvement. The ZWZ had alerted the Polish Government-in-Exile that the Germans were inciting Polish hatred against the Jews, and that this might lead to the rise of a Polish Quisling.\n\nPilecki called for TAP to submit to Rowecki's authority, but Włodarkiewicz refused and issued a manifesto that the future Poland had to be Christian, based on national identity, and that those who opposed the idea should be \"removed from our lands\". Pilecki refused to swear the proposed oath. In August, Włodarkiewicz announced at a TAP meeting that they would, after all, join the mainstream underground with Rowecki – and that it has been proposed that Pilecki should infiltrate the Auschwitz concentration camp. Little was known about how the Germans ran the then-new camp, which was thought to be an internment camp or large prison rather than a death camp. Włodarkiewicz said it was not an order but an invitation to volunteer, though Pilecki saw it as a punishment for refusing to back Włodarkiewicz's ideology. Nevertheless he agreed, which years later led to him being described in many sources as having volunteered to infiltrate Auschwitz.\n\n#### Auschwitz\n\nPilecki was one of 2,000 men arrested on 19 September 1940. He used the identity documents of Tomasz Serafiński, who had been mistakenly assumed to be dead. Two backstories exist purporting to explain how Pilecki actually found himself in Auschwitz. In one version, he allowed himself to be captured by the occupying Germans in one of their Warsaw street round-ups, in order to infiltrate the camp. In the second version, he did that in the apartment of Eleonora Ostrowska, at ulica Wojska Polskiego (Polish Army Street) during a building search. Afterward, along with 1,705 other prisoners, between 21 and 22 September 1940, Pilecki reached Auschwitz where, under Serafiński's name, he was assigned prisoner number 4859. In autumn of 1941 he learnt that he had been promoted to porucznik (first lieutenant) by people \"far away in the outside world in Warsaw\".\n\nWhile in various slave labor kommandos and surviving pneumonia at Auschwitz, Pilecki organized an underground Military Organization Union (Związek Organizacji Wojskowej, ZOW). Its tasks were to improve the morale of the inmates, provide news from outside the camp, distribute extra food and clothing to its members, set up intelligence networks, and train detachments to take over the camp in the event of a relief attack. ZOW was organized as secret cells, each of five members. Over time, many smaller underground organizations at Auschwitz eventually merged with ZOW.\n\nAs part of his duties, Pilecki secretly drew up reports and sent them to Home Army headquarters with the help of inmates that had been released or escapees. The first dispatch, delivered in October 1940, described the camp and the ongoing extermination of inmates via starvation and brutal punishments; it was used as the basis of a Home Army report on \"The terror and lawlessness of the occupiers\". Further dispatches of Pilecki's were likewise smuggled out by individuals who managed to escape from Auschwitz. The reports' purpose may have been to get the Home Army command's permission for ZOW to stage an uprising to liberate the camp; however, no such response came from the Home Army. In 1942, Pilecki's resistance movement was also using a home-made radio transmitter to broadcast details on the number of arrivals and deaths in the camp and the conditions of the inmates. The secret radio station was built over seven months using smuggled parts. It broadcast from the camp until the autumn of 1942, when it was dismantled by Pilecki's men after concerns that the Germans might discover its location because of \"one of our fellows' big mouth\". The information provided by Pilecki was a principal source of intelligence on Auschwitz for the Western Allies. Pilecki hoped that either the Allies would drop arms or troops into the camp, or that the Home Army would organize an assault on it from outside.\n\nThe Camp Gestapo under SS-Untersturmführer Maximilian Grabner redoubled its efforts to ferret out ZOW members, killing many of them. To avoid the worst outcome, Pilecki decided to break out of the camp with the hope of convincing Home Army leaders that a rescue attempt was a valid option. On the night of 26–27 April 1943 Pilecki was assigned to a night shift at a camp bakery outside the fence, and he and two comrades managed to force open a metal door, overpower a guard, cut the telephone line, and escape outside the camp perimeter. They left the SS guards in the woodshed, barricaded from outside. Before escaping they cut an alarm wire. They headed east, and after several hours crossed into the General Government, taking with them documents stolen from the Germans. The men fled on foot to the village of Alwernia where they were helped by a priest, and then on to Tyniec where locals assisted them. Later, they reached the Polish resistance safe house near Bochnia, owned, coincidentally, by commander Tomasz Serafiński—the very man whose identity Pilecki had adopted for his cover in Auschwitz. At one point during the journey, German soldiers attempted to stop Pilecki, firing at him as he fled; several bullets passed through his clothing, while one wounded him without hitting either bones or vital organs.\n\n#### Outside Auschwitz\n\nAfter several days as a fugitive, Pilecki made contact with units of the Home Army. In June 1943, in Nowy Wiśnicz, Pilecki drafted a report on the situation in Auschwitz. It was buried at the farm where he was staying and was only revealed after his death. In August 1943, back in Warsaw, Pilecki started preparing Witold's Report (Raport W), which focused on the Auschwitz underground. It covered three main topics: ZOW and its members; Pilecki's experiences; and to a lesser extent, the extermination of prisoners, including Jews. Pilecki's intent in writing it was to persuade the Home Army to liberate the camp's prisoners. However, the Home Army command judged such an attack would fail. Even if the initial attack were successful, the resistance lacked sufficient transport capabilities, supplies, and the shelter that would be required for the rescued inmates. The Soviet Red Army, despite being within attacking distance of the camp, showed no interest in a joint effort with the Home Army and the ZOW to free it.\n\nShortly after rejoining the resistance, Pilecki became a member of the Kedyw sabotage unit, using the pseudonym Roman Jezierski. He also joined a secret anti-communist organization, NIE. On 19 February 1944 he was promoted to cavalry captain (rotmistrz). Until becoming involved in the Warsaw Uprising, Pilecki continued coordinating ZOW and Home Army activities and providing ZOW with what limited support he could.\n\nIn Auschwitz, Pilecki had met the author Igor Newerly, whose Jewish wife, Barbara, was hiding in Warsaw. The Newerlys had been working with Janusz Korczak to try to save Jewish lives. Pilecki gave Barbara Newerly money from the Polish resistance, which she passed on to several Jewish families whom she and her husband protected. He also gave her money to pay off her own szmalcownik, or blackmailer, who said he was Jewish and threatened to report her to the Gestapo. The blackmailer disappeared, with Jack Fairweather concluding that \"it is likely that Witold arranged for his execution\".\n\n#### Warsaw Uprising\n\nWhen the Warsaw Uprising broke out on 1 August 1944, Pilecki volunteered for service with Warszawianka Company [pl] of Kedyw's Chrobry II Battalion. Initially, he served as a common soldier in the northern city centre, without revealing his rank to his superiors. After many officers were killed in the early days of the uprising, Pilecki revealed his true identity and accepted command of the 1st \"Warszawianka\" Company deployed in Warsaw's Śródmieście (downtown) district. After the fall of the uprising, which ended on 2 October that year, he was captured and taken prisoner by the Germans. He was sent to Oflag VII-A, a prison-of-war camp for Polish officers located north of Murnau, Bavaria, where he remained until the prisoners were liberated on 29 April 1945.\n\n### After the war\n\nIn July 1945, Pilecki joined the military intelligence division of the Polish II Corps under Lieutenant General Władysław Anders in Ancona, Italy. In October 1945, as relations between the government-in-exile and the Soviet-backed regime of Boleslaw Bierut kept deteriorating, Pilecki was ordered by Anders and his intelligence chief, Lieutenant Colonel Stanisław Kijak, to return to Poland and report on the prevailing military and political situation under Soviet occupation. By December 1945 he had arrived in Warsaw and begun organizing an intelligence gathering network. As the NIE organization had been disbanded, Pilecki recruited former ZOW and TAP members and continued sending information to the government-in-exile.\n\nTo maintain his cover identity, Pilecki lived under various assumed names and changed jobs frequently. He worked as a jewellery salesman, a bottle label painter, and as the night manager of a construction warehouse. However, in July 1946 he was informed that his identity had been uncovered by the Ministry of Public Security. Anders ordered him to leave Poland, but Pilecki refused. In early 1947 his superiors rescinded the order.\n\nArrested on 8 May 1947 by the communist authorities, Pilecki was tortured, but in order to protect other operatives, he did not reveal any sensitive information. His case was supervised by Colonel Roman Romkowski. A show trial, chaired by Lieutenant Colonel Jan Hryckowian [pl], took place on 3 March 1948. Pilecki was charged with illegal border crossing, use of forged documents, not enlisting with the military, carrying illegal arms, espionage for Anders, espionage for \"foreign imperialism\" (government-in-exile), and planning to assassinate several officials of the Ministry of Public Security of Poland. Pilecki denied the assassination charges, as well as espionage, although he admitted to passing information to the II Corps, of which he considered himself an officer and thus claimed that he was not breaking any laws. He pleaded guilty to the other charges. He was sentenced to death on 15 May with three of his comrades. Pleas for pardon from a number of Auschwitz survivors were ignored; one of their recipients was Polish Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz, also an Auschwitz survivor. Cyrankiewicz, who had already testified at the trial, instead wrote that Pilecki must be treated harshly as an \"enemy of the state\". Subsequently, on 25 May 1948, Pilecki was executed by Piotr Śmietański with a shot to the back of the head at the Mokotów Prison in Warsaw. Several of Pilecki's affiliates were also arrested and tried around the same time, with at least three executed as well; a number of others received death sentences that were changed to prison sentences. Pilecki's burial place has never been found, though it is thought to be in Warsaw's Powązki Cemetery.\n\n## Legacy\n\nPilecki's life has been a subject of several monographs. The first in English was Józef Garliński's Fighting Auschwitz: The Resistance Movement in the Concentration Camp (1975), followed by M.R.D. Foot's Six Faces of Courage (1978). The first in Polish was the Rotmistrz Pilecki (1995) by Wiesław Jan Wysocki, followed by Ochotnik do Auschwitz. Witold Pilecki 1901–1948 (2000) by Adam Cyra. In 2010, Italian historian Marco Patricelli wrote a book about Witold Pilecki, Il volontario (2010), which received the Acqui Award of History that year. In 2012, Pilecki's Auschwitz diary was translated into English by Garliński and published under the title The Auschwitz Volunteer: Beyond Bravery. Poland's Chief Rabbi, Michael Schudrich, wrote in the foreword to a 2012 English translation of Pilecki's report: \"When God created the human being, God had in mind that we should all be like Captain Witold Pilecki, of blessed memory.\" Historian Norman Davies wrote in the introduction to the same translation: \"If there was an Allied hero who deserved to be remembered and celebrated, this was a person with few peers.\" More recently Pilecki was the subject of Adam J. Koch's 2018 book A Captain’s Portrait: Witold Pilecki – Martyr for Truth and Jack Fairweather's 2019 book The Volunteer: The True Story of the Resistance Hero Who Infiltrated Auschwitz, the latter a winner of the Costa Book Award.\n\nFrom the 1990s, following the fall of communism in Poland and Pilecki's subsequent rehabilitation, he has been a subject of popular discourse. A number of institutions, monuments, and streets in Poland have been named after him. In 1995, he was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta, and in 2006, the highest Polish decoration, the Order of the White Eagle. On 6 September 2013, the Minister of National Defence announced his promotion to colonel. In 2012, Powązki Cemetery was partly excavated in an unsuccessful effort to find his remains.\n\nIn 2016, The Pilecki Family House Museum (Dom Rodziny Pileckich) was established in Ostrów Mazowiecka; it opened officially in 2019, but its permanent exhibition is still being prepared, with public opening planned for May 2022. The year 2017 saw the founding of the Pilecki Institute, a Polish government institution commemorating persons who helped Polish victims of war crimes and crimes against peace or humanity in the years 1917–1990.\n\nThe 2006 film Śmierć rotmistrza Pileckiego [pl] (\"The Death of Cavalry Captain Pilecki\"), directed by Ryszard Bugajski, presents Pilecki as an ethically flawless man facing unfounded accusations. The narrative structure is reminiscent of a saint's martyrology, with belief in God replaced by belief in Country.\n\nA 2015 film, Pilecki [pl], by Marcin Kwaśny portrays Pilecki as an independence-movement saint. The sacralization is achieved by recounting verified historical facts, along with dramatized scenes. The film shows Pilecki performing deeds impossible for an ordinary man, while keeping faith with his country even under the direst torture.", "revid": "1168620524", "description": "Polish underground resistance soldier, World War II concentration camp resistance leader", "categories": ["1901 births", "1948 deaths", "Auschwitz concentration camp", "Auschwitz concentration camp prisoners", "Auschwitz concentration camp survivors", "Burials at Powązki Cemetery", "Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta", "Cursed soldiers", "Escapees from Auschwitz", "Executed Polish people", "Executed military personnel", "Home Army officers", "People executed by the Polish People's Republic", "People from Olonets", "People from Olonetsky Uyezd", "People from the Russian Empire of Polish descent", "Polish Army officers", "Polish Roman Catholics", "Polish Scouts and Guides", "Polish September Campaign participants", "Polish military personnel of World War II", "Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War", "Polish prisoners of war", "Polish torture victims", "Recipients of the Auschwitz Cross", "Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)", "Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)", "Recipients of the Silver Cross of Merit (Poland)", "Vilnius University alumni", "Warsaw Uprising insurgents", "World War II prisoners of war held by Germany"]}
{"id": "562309", "url": null, "title": "Helvellyn", "text": "Helvellyn (/hɛlˈvɛlɪn/; possible meaning: pale yellow moorland) is a mountain in the English Lake District, the highest point of the Helvellyn range, a north–south line of mountains to the north of Ambleside, between the lakes of Thirlmere and Ullswater.\n\nHelvellyn is the third-highest point both in England and in the Lake District, and access to Helvellyn is easier than to the two higher peaks of Scafell Pike and Scafell. The scenery includes three deep glacial coves and two sharp-topped ridges on the eastern side (Striding Edge and Swirral Edge). Helvellyn was one of the earliest fells to prove popular with walkers and explorers; beginning especially in the later 18th century. Among the early visitors to Helvellyn were the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, both of whom lived nearby at one period. Many routes up the mountain are possible so that it may be approached from all directions.\n\nHowever, traversing the mountain is not without dangers; over the last two hundred years there have been a number of fatalities. The artist Charles Gough is more famous for his death on Striding Edge in 1805 than for what he achieved in his life. Among many human feats upon the mountain, one of the strangest was the landing and take-off of a small aeroplane on the summit in 1926. Since early 2018 the summit of Helvellyn including both Striding and Swirral Edges and the wider Glenridding Common are now managed by the John Muir Trust, a wild places conservation charity under a three-year lease with the Lake District Park Authority.\n\n## Topography\n\nThe volcanic rocks of which the mountain is made were formed in the caldera of an ancient volcano, many of them in violently explosive eruptions, about 450 million years ago during the Ordovician period. During the last ice age these rocks were carved by glaciers to create the landforms seen today.\n\nSince the end of the last ice age, small populations of arctic-alpine plants have survived in favourable spots on rock ledges high in the eastern coves. Rare to Britain species of alpine butterfly, the mountain ringlet, also live on and around Helvellyn.\n\nMineral veins, some with deposits of the lead ore galena, do exist within Helvellyn's rocks, but attempts to find sufficient quantities of lead to be worth mining have not been successful.\n\nThe top of Helvellyn is a broad plateau, trending roughly from north-west to south-east for about a kilometre between Lower Man and the start of Striding Edge. Throughout this distance it remains more than 900 m (3,000 ft) high. To the west the ground drops gently at first but then more steeply down to Thirlmere, while on the eastern side three deep glacial coves, each backed by high cliffs, are separated by two spectacular sharp ridges or arêtes. The middle of these coves contains Red Tarn.\n\nLike much of the main ridge of the range, Helvellyn stands on the watershed between Thirlmere and the Derwent river system to the west, and Ullswater and the Eden river system to the east.\n\nStreams on the west side drain directly into Thirlmere, apart from Helvellyn Gill which flows into a parallel valley to the east of Great How and empties into St John's Beck. However, when Thirlmere reservoir was built, a leat was constructed to capture the water of Helvellyn Gill, so that it is now directed into the reservoir.\n\nA never-failing spring called Brownrigg Well exists 90 m (300 ft) below the summit of Helvellyn, about 500 m (550 yd) due west of the highest point, at the head of Whelpside Gill. In the nineteenth century a leat was constructed to direct the water of this spring into the gill to its north to serve the needs of the Helvellyn Mine further down. This leat has now fallen into disuse. The gill it led to is not named on any map, but some authors have referred to it as Mines Gill.\n\nWhelp Side, between Whelpside Gill and Mines Gill, appears as a distinct shoulder of the mountain when seen from the west, largely grassy though with a few crags and boulders in places, and with coniferous plantations on its lower slopes which were planted to stabilise the land around the reservoir. North of Mines Gill are the Helvellyn Screes, a more craggy stretch of hillside, beneath the north-west ridge, with a loose scree covering in places.\n\nThe deep coves on the rocky eastern side of Helvellyn drain into Ullswater. Water from Brown Cove and Red Tarn unite below Catstye Cam to form Glenridding Beck, which flows through Glenridding village to the lake, while Nethermost Cove drains into the same lake via Grisedale Beck and Patterdale village.\n\nRed Tarn, enclosed between Striding Edge and Swirral Edge, is about 25 m (82 ft) deep, but in the mid-nineteenth century a dam was built to increase its capacity and supply the needs of the Greenside Mine near Glenridding. That dam has now gone and the tarn has returned to its natural size. It contains brown trout and schelly, a species of whitefish found in only four bodies of water in the Lake District.\n\nA second reservoir was built around 1860 in Brown Cove, between Swirral Edge and Lower Man, along with one further down the valley in Keppel Cove. These provided water to generate hydroelectric power for the lead mine. The dam in Keppel Cove is still in place, but water now leaks through its base. The remains of the dam in Brown Cove can be seen, but again water leaks freely through it. It is unclear whether there ever was a natural tarn in Brown Cove. Guidebook writers before 1860 refer only to Keppel Cove Tarn to the north of Swirral Edge.\n\n### Ridges\n\nA total of five ridges diverge from the summit ridge of Helvellyn at different points.\n\nThe north-west ridge continues from Lower Man over Browncove Crags, becoming almost insignificant when it reaches the shore of Thirlmere, yet still separating the valley of Helvellyn Gill from the reservoir, before finally rising again to the wooded height of Great How at its terminus.\n\nThe north ridge, the main ridge of the range, also descends from Lower Man, passing over White Side and Raise to Sticks Pass, then over Stybarrow Dodd and Great Dodd to terminate at Clough Head.\n\nThe north-east ridge is known as Swirral Edge, a sharp arête which joins the summit ridge at a point half-way along, and which terminates in the shapely pyramid of Catstye Cam.\n\nThe east ridge is another sharp arête known as Striding Edge. This joins the summit ridge at its southern end, not far from Helvellyn's summit. It passes over the subsidiary top of High Spying How and leads to Birkhouse Moor before descending to its final top, Keldas, beside the south end of Ullswater.\n\nThe south ridge continues the main ridge of the Helvellyn range over Nethermost Pike, High Crag and Dollywagon Pike to terminate at Grisedale Tarn.\n\nThe former county boundary between Cumberland and Westmorland lay along the Helvellyn Ridge; this meant that the summit of Helvellyn was the highest point in Westmorland, making it a Historic County Top.\n\n### Subsidiary tops\n\n## Routes\n\nThe whole of Helvellyn, above the conifer plantations to the west and the intake walls surrounding the valleys of Glenridding and Grisedale to the east, is Open Access land.\n\nRoutes up Helvellyn can begin from the villages of Glenridding or Patterdale to the east, Grasmere to the south, or from a number of places along the A591 road to the west, and can follow any of the mountain's five ridges, or the ridges of its neighbours, as well as some of the gills and shoulders on the west side of the range. Walkers can choose between many routes.\n\nIn January 2018 Helvellyn was named 'Britain's Best Walk' in an ITV show presented by Julia Bradbury.\n\n### The eastern ridges\n\nStriding Edge is a popular route which involves some scrambling, linking the summit ridge of Birkhouse Moor to Helvellyn's summit by what becomes a sharp arête.\n\nStriding Edge begins at Hole-in-the-Wall and then stretches for over 1.5 km (1 mi) to the Helvellyn summit plateau. This starting point is accessible from both Glenridding and Patterdale. Hole-in-the-Wall used to be a prominent gap in the stone wall on the top of the ridge where a gate was missing. Today the gap has been filled in and a ladder stile crosses the wall. From here the initial part of the ridge is relatively rounded and has a solid path running along the right-hand side. This changes upon reaching High Spying How, the highest point on the ridge — 863 m (2,831 ft). At this point a narrow path continues close to the top of the ridge, which becomes increasingly narrow, and scramblers will often follow the very top of the arête.\n\nThe path on the right-hand side continues until near the end of the ridge where it switches over to the left-hand side. Scramblers who continue on the top of the ridge are forced to descend an awkward short gully down from the final rock tower to rejoin the path. At this point the ridge connects with the main Helvellyn massif. Reaching the summit plateau involves a steep walk or scramble up about 80 m (260 ft) of rough rocky terrain, known as The Abyss by W. A. Poucher, author of a popular series of mountain guide books between 1940 and the late 1960s. From the top of this climb the summit is only 200 m (220 yd) away.\n\nStriding Edge is a notorious accident spot among hikers and scramblers. In winter conditions the climb from Striding Edge up to the summit plateau can involve crossing steep icy ground and a snow cornice, and can be the most dangerous part of the walk. Without an ice axe or crampons this presents a serious obstacle. In January 2008 two walkers died after falling from the ridge in separate incidents. Another walker died after falling from Striding Edge in May 2008. Over the August Bank Holiday weekend in 2017, Patterdale Mountain Rescue attended a fatal fall from Striding Edge on the Saturday and helped rescue a seriously injured walker and his dog on the Sunday.\n\nSwirral Edge offers a shorter but equally exciting scramble along a similar sharp arête. The main path to it comes up from Red Tarn, which is linked by a surprisingly level path to Hole-in-the-Wall, making this ridge equally accessible from Patterdale as from Glenridding. The ridge walk can be extended to include the summit of Catstye Cam.\n\nThe climb up or down from the summit plateau onto Swirral Edge is another well known accident spot. In winter it involves climbing down another snow cornice onto steep icy ground. There have been a number of accidents at this spot in recent years, making it as dangerous as Striding Edge.\n\nNethermost Pike also has an east ridge which gives an alternative route to Helvellyn from Grisedale, which many walkers overlook. It can be combined with a scramble on Eagle Crag, or this part can be bypassed by taking the path to Nethermost Cove before joining the ridge.\n\n### Other approaches from the east\n\nFrom Patterdale a long but safe and easy walk (11.5 km or 7+1⁄4 mi) on a good path follows the track up Grisedale to the tarn, and then takes the old pony track up the south ridge of Helvellyn. The second part of this walk takes a safe route well away from crags on the side of the ridge (see The south ridge below.)\n\nFrom Glenridding a similar long but safe and easy walk (11.5 km or 7+1⁄4 mi) follows Greenside Road, past the old lead mine and towards Keppel Cove. This track, another old pony track, then zigzags up the fellside to join the main ridge path at the col between Raise and White Side.\n\n### The south ridge\n\nGrisedale Tarn is the starting point for the south ridge of Helvellyn, and may be reached from Grasmere or Patterdale, or from Dunmail Raise by a path alongside Raise Beck. Above the tarn the old pony track zigzags up the fellside, and takes a safe but unexciting route well away from crags on the side of the ridge, and avoiding all the intermediate tops. In suitable weather a more interesting and scenic route is to follow the edge of the crags as closely as possible, over the tops of Dollywagon Pike, High Crag and Nethermost Pike.\n\n### The western approaches\n\nShorter and quicker routes to the top of Helvellyn, though with less attractive scenery, begin from several points along the A591 road along the west side of the mountain. Two of these may be combined to create a circular walk. Incorporating the south ridge in the route can restore much of the scenic interest.\n\nStannah at Legburthwaite is the starting point for the bridleway to Sticks Pass, from which Helvellyn can be approached along the main ridge track from the north.\n\nFrom Thirlspot two routes lead up Helvellyn. The old pony route took a very safe and steady route for the benefit of early visitors, who took horses and a guide from the inn. The route traverses the flank of White Side to join the ridge at the col just below Lower Man. The other route, known as the White Stones Route, originally marked by stones painted white, crosses the fellside at a lower level and fords Helvellyn Gill to join the path from Swirls.\n\nSwirls is the start of the most direct route to the top of Helvellyn, \"the modern pedestrian highway\" which has been paved where necessary. It zigzags up the fellside above Helvellyn Gill, over Browncove Crags and joins the main ridge at Lower Man.\n\nSeveral possible routes begin at Wythburn church. A bridleway winds up the fellside, over Comb Crags and traverses the slopes of Nethermost Pike to arrive on the ridge at Swallow Scarth, the col just below Helvellyn. Other routes from Wythburn follow Comb Gill or Whelpside Gill, or Middle Tongue between these two gills. The shortest route of all follows the gill past the old lead mine, perhaps better used as a descent. Wainwright warned walkers with weak ankles to avoid it.\n\n### Longer routes\n\nHelvellyn may be included in a traverse of the full length of the Helvellyn range in either direction, but with a greater sense of climax when starting from the north. Most of the ridge track is a bridleway and so the route can be completed by mountain bike in a challenging six-hour circular route of 16 miles (26 kilometres) off-road and 10 miles (16 kilometres) on-road riding. This may begin (and finish) at Mill Bridge near Grasmere.\n\nHelvellyn can also be included in a circular walk from Patterdale: up Striding Edge, down to Grisedale Tarn and back over St Sunday Crag.\n\n### Climbing routes\n\nHelvellyn is a popular area for winter climbing in the Lake District. The steep headwall above Red Tarn contains several graded routes, clustered around the prow-shaped buttress on the right-hand side of the face, known to climbers as Viking Buttress, and in a couple of gullies which lead to the summit.\n\nNethermost Cove also has some routes, including a large gully between Striding Edge and the back of the cove.\n\nBrowncove Crags on the western side of the mountain has some north-facing routes. These are easier to access from a car park, and they can be linked with the Red Tarn routes.\n\n## Fell top assessors\n\nThe Lake District National Park Authority employs two \"Fell top assessors\" during the winter months, usually between December and March. Working alternate weeks, one of these walks up Helvellyn each day during that period to check the weather, snow and walking conditions. Their report and daily photograph appear on Weatherline, the Lake District weather forecast website and phone line service, which also includes a local weather forecast from the Met Office. The fell top assessors also put their assessments and photos on Twitter. This information is important for people who go out hillwalking and climbing in winter, helping them to plan their routes and get an idea of the mountain conditions.\n\n## Wild camping\n\nMany people camp on Helvellyn throughout the year, often near Red Tarn which gives good views of Striding Edge, Swirral Edge, and the summit of Helvellyn itself. Although camping in England is illegal without the permission of the landowner, there is a tradition of wild camping in the Lake District. This has often been tolerated so long as people have camped unobtrusively, for no more than one night, and have left no trace of their campsite behind.\n\n## Summit\n\nThe summit of Helvellyn takes the form of a broad plateau, sloping gently to the south-west, but dropping abruptly to the north-east into Red Tarn cove. So smooth and large is this summit that a small aeroplane was able to land on it in 1926 (see History below). The highest point, 950 m (3,120 ft) above sea level, is the top of a small rocky knoll, marked by a loose cairn. In former times this knoll used to be known as Helvellyn High Man (or Higher Man.) Nearby there is a cross-shaped stone shelter; to the north is an Ordnance Survey trig point, slightly lower than the summit at 949 m (3,114 ft).\n\nThe view from the top on a clear day extends across the whole of the Lake District to the Solway Firth and hills of south-west Scotland to the north-west, Cheviot and the Pennine Hills to the north-east, Morecambe Bay, Blackpool and the coast of North Wales to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. Snowdon is hidden by the Coniston Fells, and the Isle of Man is largely hidden behind the Great Gable and Pillar group of fells.\n\nThe subsidiary top, Helvellyn Lower Man, is about 700 m (770 yd) to the north-west. Its summit is small compared to the plateau of Helvellyn, but it offers better views to the north-west, as the ground falls steeply away from it on that side.\n\n## History\n\n### Tourism\n\nFor centuries shepherds have walked over all parts of Helvellyn in the course of their work. It is only since the late eighteenth century that people have visited the mountain for pleasure or recreation.\n\nOne of the earliest accounts of an ascent of Helvellyn for the pleasure of doing so is contained in James Clarke's guidebook of 1787. He quotes the account of an unnamed gentleman from Penrith who wanted to eat his dinner on Midsummer Day while sitting in a snowdrift on top of Helvellyn. The man left home at two in the morning, rode to Glencoyne and left his horse at a house in the valley there. He started to walk up the mountain at between four and five in the morning and after five hours hot and hard work he reached the snow and the summit. The snow was covered with dust so he had to dig for clean snow to eat with his dinner. He returned by a different route, reaching Glencoyne ten hours after leaving it. This story seems to reflect the colder climatic conditions of the eighteenth century, during the so-called \"Little Ice Age\".\n\nPoets and artists were among the early visitors to Helvellyn at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Samuel Taylor Coleridge did a lot of fellwalking during the years when he lived near Keswick. In August 1800, barely a month after moving there, he went to visit his friends William and Dorothy Wordsworth in Grasmere, taking a route over Helvellyn and arriving at ten in the evening.\n\nA few days later William Wordsworth with his brother John and their friend Mr Simpson made a trip up Helvellyn, setting out after breakfast and returning home at ten that evening. A year later, in October 1801, William and his sister Dorothy rode to Legburthwaite (to the inn at Thirlspot) and then to the top of Helvellyn before returning the same way. Dorothy recorded that it had been a glorious day. They had mists both above and below them, but the sun shone through and their views extended from the Scottish mountains to the sea at Cartmel. Wordsworth's poem, Inmate of a mountain dwelling (1816), celebrating the captivating power of the old mountain, was dedicated \"To ... on her first ascent to the summit of Helvellyn.\"\n\nJohn Keats speaks of Wordsworth \"on Helvellyn's summit, wide awake...\" in a sonnet that celebrates the poet and other artists. A portrait of Wordsworth, deep in thought among the clouds on the summit of Helvellyn, was painted by Benjamin Robert Haydon in 1842, an example of romanticism in portraiture.\n\nAn early casualty of the mountain was the artist Charles Gough, who slipped and fell from Striding Edge in April 1805. Three months later a shepherd heard a dog barking near Red Tarn and went to investigate. He found Gough's skeleton, his hat split in two, and his dog still in attendance. Initial newspaper reports that the dog had survived by eating the remains of her dead master were quickly forgotten. Gough became regarded as a martyr to the romantic ideal, and his dog Foxie was celebrated for her attachment and fidelity to her long-dead master. William Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott both wrote poems about the scene; Francis Danby and Edwin Landseer both painted it. A memorial stone to Gough was erected on Helvellyn in 1890 and quotes part of Wordsworth's poem \"Fidelity\".\n\nA small tourist industry began to grow up around the mountain, with inns providing ponies and guides as well as accommodation for the visitors, and guidebooks being published for visitors. Jonathan Otley's guidebook of 1823 described the view from the summit and claimed it gave a more complete view of the Lake District than any other point. William Ford, in his guidebook of 1839 recommended the Horse Head Inn at Wythburn as a good place to stay and where a guide could be hired \"at a moderate charge\"; he went on to describe the climb up Whelp Side and the view from the top. Harriet Martineau in 1855 described the ascent from Patterdale. Ponies could be taken as far as Red Tarn, where there were stakes to tether them while undertaking the final part on foot via Swirral Edge. \"Though trying to unnaccustomed nerves,\" she said, \"there is no real danger\"; the other ridge \"is always fool-hardy to do\", and \"every one knows\" the story of Charles Gough. She also mentioned three routes from the west: one by Grisedale Tarn, one from the Nag's Head at Wythburn, \"the shortest, but by far the steepest,\" and a third from Legburthwaite (that is, from the inn at Thirlspot.) An advertisement in her book, placed by the King's Head Inn at Legburthwaite, claimed \"A guide always in readiness at this inn.\"\n\nA further fatality on Striding Edge in 1858 is commemorated by the Dixon Memorial. Robert Dixon from Patterdale was killed while following foxhounds on the ridge.\n\n### Aeroplane landing\n\nIn 1926 a small aeroplane landed on the summit plateau of Helvellyn and took off again. The plane was an Avro 585 Gosport, a two-seater biplane flown by Bert Hinkler, a test pilot who worked for A V Roe, the plane's manufacturers, at Woodford Aerodrome near Manchester.\n\nA ground party had cleared and marked a landing strip. Attempts on 15 December and on 21 December were abandoned.\n\nOn 22 December Hinkler, accompanied by John F. Leeming, president of the Lancashire Aero Club, made another attempt. The landing was no problem. On the steep slope and with a strong headwind the plane stopped quickly. Professor E. R. Dodds witnessed the landing. The uphill take-off was more difficult and the plane dived off the edge of the summit with insufficient airspeed, but picked up speed as it dived, narrowly missing Striding Edge, to return to Manchester.\n\nA stone tablet on Helvellyn, 40 yards (37 m) south of the shelter, commemorates this landing.\n\n## Ecology\n\nMountain birds around Helvellyn include the raven (Corvus corax), which has now become common. Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), buzzards (Buteo buteo) and ring ouzels (Turdus torquatus) have all bred in the immediate area. Skylarks (Alauda arvensis) and wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe) are frequently encountered. At one time eagles (probably Aquila chrysaetos) soared over the mountain and bred on the steep cliffs above Red Tarn, but even in Wordsworth's day they had gone, having been persecuted to extinction.\n\nThe three coves to the east of Helvellyn are all important sites for remnant populations of arctic-alpine plants. Species such as downy willow (Salix lapponum), mountain avens (Dryas octopetala), alpine mouse-ear (Cerastium alpinum), alpine meadowgrass (Poa alpina) and others have been able to survive in these coves since the last glaciation through a combination of rocks rich in basic minerals, a harsh micro-climate and inaccessibility to grazing sheep on cliff ledges. However, these populations are small and are not reproducing well. Natural England has introduced a recovery plan for them.\n\nRed Tarn, a classic corrie tarn, is a high-elevation tarn with low nutrient levels and poor in the number of species it supports. Characteristic vegetation zones include a water-starwort (Callitriche) in shallower areas and the alga Nitella flexilis in deeper water and around the inlet. Other species include a pondweed (Potamogeton) which grows in 2–3 m (7–10 ft) of water and the rush Juncus bulbosus. Brown trout and schelly, a species of whitefish, are found in the tarn.\n\nGrassland on the Helvellyn range has been heavily overgrazed for many years, yet it supports a diversity of acid grassland species including sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina) on the summit ridge, matgrass (Nardus stricta) on the middle slopes, and fescue-bent swards on the lower slopes. The Nardus grasslands are the haunt of the scarce mountain ringlet butterfly (Erebia epiphron), the only alpine species of butterfly found in Britain. Acidic flushes (areas of water seepage) with their carpets of sphagnum mosses are common. Less common are basic flushes, which support a greater diversity of species.\n\nThe summit and the eastern side of the mountain are part of the Helvellyn & Fairfield Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). This covers an area of 2,418.8 hectares (5,977 acres) and was designated in 1975 because of the area's geological and biological features. Natural England, which is responsible for choosing SSSIs, tries to ensure that the management and use of the area is sustainable.\n\n## Geology\n\nAll the rocks of Helvellyn are part of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, formed on the margin of an ancient continent during a period of intense volcanic activity during the Ordovician period, roughly 450 million years ago.\n\nHelvellyn lies within a geological structure which is interpreted as evidence of a volcanic caldera. This is a semi-circular series of faults which sweep eastwards to encompass Helvellyn, Patterdale, Deepdale and Fairfield, and which abut against a major north–south fault to the west (along the line of the A591 road).\n\nThis caldera was formed by an eruption of exceptional magnitude which produced a series of pyroclastic flows, fast moving currents of hot gas and rock, which buried the whole district of roughly 500 km<sup>2</sup> (190 sq mi) beneath at least 150 m (490 ft) (in places up to 800 m (2,600 ft) of ignimbrite). This succession of ignimbrites is known as the Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation, the most widespread volcanic formation in the Lake District. The eruption of such a huge quantity of magma emptied the magma chamber beneath the volcano and led to the collapse of the overlying rocks to form the caldera.\n\nThe lowest and oldest rocks on Helvellyn are those of this Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation, which outcrop along the western side, up to roughly the 550 m (1,800 ft) contour on Whelp Side. The lowest part of the formation here is the densely welded lapilli-tuff of the Thirlmere Member, in which the individual pieces of semi-molten lava were flattened under the weight of deposits above them. Contemporaneous movement on the caldera's boundary fault has produced a thick deposit of breccia above the Helvellyn Screes and on Browncove Crags. The Thirlmere Member is overlain by a deposit of volcaniclastic sandstone, the Raise Beck Member, deposited in water during a break in the volcanism, but succeeded by further thick ignimbrite deposits.\n\nAbove these ignimbrites are found sedimentary rocks of the Esk Pike Sandstone Formation. These were deposited in water, probably in a caldera lake, as the volcanic rocks weathered and were eroded. Structures in these rocks suggest the faults were still active and the caldera was still subsiding. Layers of tuff and lapilli-tuff indicate some ongoing volcanism.\n\nHigher still on Helvellyn, as well as in the coves to the east and covering Swirral Edge and Catstye Cam, are rocks of the Helvellyn Tuff Formation. This consists of up to 400 m (1,300 ft) of ignimbrite, representing another series of pyroclastic flows. This Helvellyn Tuff is found only within the boundary faults of the caldera, and mainly in its western half.\n\nThe highest surviving rocks on Helvellyn, found on the summit plateaux of Helvellyn itself and of Nethermost Pike, and along the crest of Striding Edge, are the volcaniclastic sandstones of the Deepdale Sandstone Formation. Again, this formation is confined to the limits of the caldera, and represents another return to erosion and sedimentary deposition within a caldera lake, though with layers of pyroclastic rock showing that the volcanism had not entirely finished.\n\n### Glaciation\n\nDuring the Late Devensian glaciation, which occurred 28,000 to 14,700 years Before Present (BP), the whole of northern England was covered by an ice sheet. Helvellyn was one of a small number of nunataks which protruded above the ice.\n\nA short period of glacial conditions returned between 12,650 and 11,550 years BP, known in Britain as the Loch Lomond Stadial (and elsewhere as the Younger Dryas stadial), when the Gulf Stream current ceased to flow past the British Isles. Small cirque and valley glaciers formed in north and east facing valleys, including Grisedale and the coves on the east side of Helvellyn. The results are seen in moraines of unsorted boulder gravel in the valleys, the spectacular coves with steep headwalls, and the sharp arêtes formed where the rock was eroded on both sides between adjacent glaciers.\n\nGlacial conditions ended suddenly, 11,550 years BP, when the Gulf Stream current was re-established. Periglacial processes in seasonal freeze-thaw conditions, both present and past, have produced sorted stone stripes and solifluction lobes and sheets on the summit ridge of Helvellyn. These are one reason why the area was included in the Helvellyn & Fairfield SSSI.\n\n## Mining\n\nTwo unsuccessful attempts to find lead ore in economic quantities on Helvellyn have been made.\n\nBrown Cove Mine was high up at the head of Brown Cove, where some disused oil heaps remain, with a couple of levels, one of which ran about 70 m (80 yd) into the mountainside.\n\nHelvellyn Mine or Wythburn Mine opened in 1839 by the gill between Whelpside and Helvellyn Screes. It was operated by a succession of different owners, driving five levels through mostly barren rock to explore three mineral veins. It finally closed in 1880 when Manchester Corporation acquired the land for the Thirlmere reservoir. Only a few hundred tons of galena came out of the mine; probably insufficient to cover its costs.\n\nLittle can be seen of the levels now for the entrances were destroyed when the mine closed, but several spoil heaps remain, one covering the gill, along with the old miners' path which zigzags up the hillside, a self-acting incline to lower ore to the dressing floor, and the old winding-drum house. The narrow leat which once diverted water from Brownrigg Well into the gill beside the mine may also be seen, much higher up the fellside.\n\n## Names\n\nHelvellyn. The earliest known record of the name dates from 1577, but early records are spelling variations of the modern name (such as Helvillon, Helvelon or Hell Belyn) rather than any help with the etymology. Various attempts to interpret the name have been made in the past. Some, led by the present spelling, possibly wrongly thought the final syllable was the Welsh word llyn, \"lake\" which has various historic spellings including 'lin' and 'lynn'. Richard Coates in 1988 proposed a Celtic derivation from the deduced Cumbric word hal, \"moorland\", and velin, the Cumbric equivalent of the Welsh word melyn meaning \"yellow.\" Hel is a Welsh word meaning to gather, drive or hunt, and helfa (historically spelt helva) has been used to describe a portion of mountain from which sheep are collected.\n\nRecent place-name studies have accepted the \"yellow moorland\" derivation, but have struggled to understand how Helvellyn can be regarded as a yellow mountain. Colour, in the Celtic languages, is perceived differently from the way it is seen and described in modern English. For example, in Scottish Gaelic the spectrum of colours was \"pastel rather than primary, gentle rather than bold.\" Colours were related to a landscape context in which blues, greens, greys and whites in particular were both more diverse and more differentiated than in English. People who relied on the system of transhumance for their livelihood gained the ability to assess the nutritional value of upland grasses from a distance before moving their stock to a summer shieling, and used appropriate colour terms for grasses which would become progressively more green as the spring advanced. Yellow, at least in Gaelic hill names, is not a bright colour. It describes hills which are distinguished by grasses such as Nardus stricta and Deschampsia flexuosa, both of which appear pale and bleached in winter. These grasses are common on the Helvellyn range, in an area where transhumance also used to be practiced. Nardus stricta in particular is an unpalatable and unproductive grass, and the Flora of Cumbria specifically notes a possible connection between areas of late snow cover and Nardus grassland at high elevations in the Helvellyn range. A name describing the mountain as \"pale yellow moorland\" is therefore meaningful in a Celtic context.\n\nLower Man. The mountain has two tops, which used to be distinguished as Helvellyn Low Man (or Lower Man) and Helvellyn High Man (or Higher Man). Both are drawn and labelled on a panoramic view of the range found in Jonathan Otley's guidebook of 1823.\n\nStriding Edge. An edge in mountain place-names is a steep escarpment, on either one side or (as here) on both sides. The first reference to Striding Edge was by Walter Scott in 1805 as Striden-edge. A map of 1823 called it Strathon Edge. It is possible that \"Striding Edge\" has replaced an earlier name, now lost.\n\nSwirral Edge may be either \"The precipitous ridge that causes giddiness\" or \"The precipitous ridge where the wind or snow swirls around.\" An edge is a steep escarpment, as above. Swirrel, a dialect variation of \"swirl\" has two possible explanations. It can be used to mean \"giddiness, vertigo\", but it can also be used of a place in the mountains where wind or snow swirls around.", "revid": "1155214039", "description": "Mountain in the English Lake District", "categories": ["Allerdale", "Fells of the Lake District", "Furths", "Hewitts of England", "Highest points of English counties", "Marilyns of England", "Mountains and hills of Cumbria", "Mountains under 1000 metres", "Nuttalls", "Patterdale"]}
{"id": "18798090", "url": null, "title": "Southern Cross Expedition", "text": "The Southern Cross Expedition, otherwise known as the British Antarctic Expedition, 1898–1900, was the first British venture of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, and the forerunner of the more celebrated journeys of Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton. The brainchild of the Anglo-Norwegian explorer Carsten Borchgrevink, it was the first expedition to over-winter on the Antarctic mainland, the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier—later known as the Ross Ice Shelf—since Sir James Clark Ross's groundbreaking expedition of 1839 to 1843, and the first to effect a landing on the Barrier's surface. It also pioneered the use of dogs and sledges in Antarctic travel.\n\nThe expedition was privately financed by the British magazine publisher Sir George Newnes. Borchgrevink's party sailed in the Southern Cross, and spent the southern winter of 1899 at Cape Adare, the northwest extremity of the Ross Sea coastline. Here they carried out an extensive programme of scientific observations, although opportunities for inland exploration were restricted by the mountainous and glaciated terrain surrounding the base. In January 1900, the party left Cape Adare in Southern Cross to explore the Ross Sea, following the route taken by Ross 60 years earlier. They reached the Great Ice Barrier, where a team of three made the first sledge journey on the Barrier surface, during which a new Farthest South record latitude was established at 78° 50′S.\n\nOn its return to Britain the expedition was coolly received by London's geographical establishment exemplified by the Royal Geographical Society, which resented the pre-emption of the pioneering Antarctic role they envisaged for the Discovery Expedition. There were also questions about Borchgrevink's leadership qualities, and criticism of the limited extent of scientific results. Thus, despite the number of significant \"firsts\", Borchgrevink was never accorded the heroic status of Scott or Shackleton, and his expedition was soon forgotten in the dramas which surrounded these and other Heroic Age explorers. However, Roald Amundsen, conqueror of the South Pole in 1911, acknowledged that Borchgrevink's expedition had removed the greatest obstacles to Antarctic travel, and had opened the way for all the expeditions that followed.\n\n## Background\n\nBorn in Oslo in 1864 to a Norwegian father and an English mother, Carsten Borchgrevink emigrated to Australia in 1888, where he worked as a land surveyor in the interior before accepting a provincial schoolteaching appointment in New South Wales. Having a taste for adventure, in 1894 he joined a commercial whaling expedition, led by Henryk Bull, which penetrated Antarctic waters and reached Cape Adare, the western portal to the Ross Sea. A party including Bull and Borchgrevink briefly landed there, and claimed to be the first men to set foot on the Antarctic continent—although the American sealer John Davis believed he had landed on the Antarctic Peninsula in 1821. Bull's party also visited Possession Island in the Ross Sea, leaving a message in a tin box as proof of their journey. Borchgrevink was convinced that the Cape Adare location, with its huge penguin rookery providing a ready supply of fresh food and blubber, could serve as a base at which a future expedition could overwinter and subsequently explore the Antarctic interior.\n\nAfter his return from Cape Adare, Borchgrevink spent much of the following years in Britain and Australia, seeking financial backing for an Antarctic expedition. Despite a well-received address to the 1895 Sixth International Geographical Congress in London, in which he professed his willingness to lead such a venture, he was initially unsuccessful. The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) was preparing its own plans for a large-scale National Antarctic Expedition (which eventually became the Discovery Expedition 1901–04) and was in search of funds; Borchgrevink was regarded by RGS president Sir Clements Markham as a foreign interloper and a rival for funding. Borchgrevink persuaded the publisher Sir George Newnes (whose business rival Alfred Harmsworth was backing the RGS venture) to meet the full cost of his expedition, some £40,000. This gift infuriated Markham and the RGS, since Newnes's donation, had it come their way would, he said have been enough \"to get the National Expedition on its legs\".\n\nNewnes stipulated that Borchgrevink's expedition should sail under the British flag, and be styled the \"British Antarctic Expedition\". Borchgrevink readily agreed to these conditions, even though only two of the entire expedition party were British. This annoyed Markham all the more, and he subsequently rebuked the RGS librarian Hugh Robert Mill for attending the Southern Cross Expedition launch. Mill had toasted the success of the expedition, calling it \"a reproach to human enterprise\" that there were parts of the earth that man had never attempted to reach. He hoped that this reproach would be lifted through \"the munificence of Sir George Newnes and the courage of Mr Borchgrevink\".\n\n## Organisation\n\n### Expedition objectives\n\nBorchgrevink's original expedition objectives included the development of commercial opportunities, as well as scientific and geographical discovery. However, his plans to exploit the extensive guano deposits that he had observed during his 1894–95 voyage were not pursued. Research would be carried out across a range of disciplines, and Borchgrevink hoped that the scientific results would be complemented by spectacular geographical discoveries and journeys, even perhaps an attempt on the geographical South Pole itself; he was unaware at this stage that the site of the base at Cape Adare would not allow access to the hinterland of Antarctica.\n\n### Ship\n\nFor his expedition's ship, Borchgrevink purchased in 1897 a steam whaler, Pollux, that had been built in 1886 in Arendal on the south east coast of Norway, to the design of renowned shipbuilder Colin Archer. Archer had designed and built Fridtjof Nansen's ship, Fram, which in 1896 had returned unscathed from its long drift in the northern polar ocean during Nansen's Fram expedition. Pollux, which Borchgrevink renamed Southern Cross, was barque-rigged, 520 gross register tons, and 146 feet (45 m) overall length.\n\nThe ship was taken to Archer's yard in Larvik to be fitted out with engines designed to Borchgrevink's specification. Although Markham continued to question the ship's seaworthiness, she was able to fulfil all that was required of her in Antarctic waters. Like several of the historic polar ships her post-expedition life was relatively short. She was sold to the Newfoundland Sealing Company, and in April 1914, was lost with her entire complement of 173, in the 1914 Newfoundland sealing disaster.\n\n### Personnel\n\nThe ten-man shore party who were to winter at Cape Adare consisted of Borchgrevink, five scientists, a medical officer, a cook who also served as a general assistant, and two dog drivers. Five—including Borchgrevink—were Norwegian, two were English, one Australian and the two dog experts from northern Norway, sometimes described in expedition accounts as Lapps or \"Finns\".\n\nAmong the scientists was the Tasmanian Louis Bernacchi, who had studied magnetism and meteorology at the Melbourne Observatory. He had been appointed to the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897–1899, but had been unable to take up his post when the expedition's ship, the , had failed to call at Melbourne on its way south. Bernacchi then travelled to London and secured a place on Borchgrevink's scientific staff.\n\nHis later chronicle of the expedition was critical of aspects of Borchgrevink's leadership, but defended the expedition's scientific achievements. In 1901, Bernacchi would return to Antarctica as a physicist on Scott's Discovery expedition. Another of Borchgrevink's men who later served Scott's expedition, as commander of the relief ship , was William Colbeck, who held a lieutenant's commission in the Royal Naval Reserve. In preparation for the Southern Cross Expedition, Colbeck had taken a course in magnetism at Kew Observatory.\n\nBorchgrevink's assistant zoologist was Hugh Blackwell Evans, a vicar's son from Bristol, who had spent three years on a cattle ranch in Canada and had also been on a sealing voyage to the Kerguelen Islands. The chief zoologist was Nicolai Hanson, a graduate from the Royal Frederick University. Also in the shore party was Herluf Kløvstad, the expedition's medical officer, whose previous appointment had been to a lunatic asylum in Bergen. The others were Anton Fougner, scientific assistant and general handyman; Kolbein Ellifsen, cook and general assistant; and the two Sami dog-handlers, Per Savio and Ole Must, who, at 21 and 20 years of age respectively, were the youngest of the party.\n\nThe ship's company, under Captain Bernard Jensen, consisted of 19 Norwegian officers and seamen and one Swedish steward. Jensen was an experienced ice navigator in Arctic and Antarctic waters, and had been with Borchgrevink on Bull's Antarctic voyage in 1894–1895.\n\n## Voyage\n\n### Cape Adare\n\nSouthern Cross left London on 23 August 1898, after inspection by the Duke of York (the future King George V), who presented a Union Flag. The ship was carrying 31 men and 90 Siberian sledge dogs, the first to be taken on an Antarctic expedition. After final provisioning in Hobart, Tasmania, Southern Cross sailed for the Antarctic on 19 December. She crossed the Antarctic Circle on 23 January 1899, and after a three-week delay in pack ice sighted Cape Adare on 16 February, before anchoring close to the shore on the following day.\n\nCape Adare, discovered by Antarctic explorer James Clark Ross during his 1839–43 expedition, lies at the end of a long promontory, below which is the large triangular shingle foreshore where Bull and Borchgrevink had made their brief landing in 1895. This foreshore held one of the largest Adelie penguin rookeries on the entire continent and had ample room, as Borchgrevink had remarked in 1895, \"for houses, tents and provisions\". The abundance of penguins would provide both a winter larder and a fuel source.\n\nUnloading began on 17 February. First ashore were the dogs, with their two Sami handlers, Savio and Must, who remained with them and thus became the first men to spend a night on the Antarctic continent. During the next twelve days the rest of the equipment and supplies were landed, and two prefabricated huts were erected, one as living quarters and the other for storage. These were the first buildings erected on the continent. A third structure was contrived from spare materials, to serve as a magnetic observation hut. As accommodation for ten men the \"living hut\" was small and cramped, and seemingly precarious—Bernacchi later described it as \"fifteen feet square, lashed down by cables to the rocky shore\". The dogs were housed in kennels fashioned from packing cases. By 2 March the base, christened \"Camp Ridley\" after Borchgrevink's English mother's maiden name, was fully established, and the Duke of York's flag raised. That day, Southern Cross departed to winter in Australia.\n\nThe living hut contained a small ante-room used as a photographic darkroom, and another for taxidermy. Daylight was admitted to the hut via a double-glazed, shuttered window, and through a small square pane high on the northern wall. Bunks were fitted around the outer walls, and a table and stove dominated the centre. During the few remaining weeks of Antarctic summer, members of the party practised travel with dogs and sledges on the sea ice in nearby Robertson Bay, surveyed the coastline, collected specimens of birds and fish, and slaughtered seals and penguins for food and fuel. Outside activities were largely curtailed in mid-May, with the onset of winter.\n\n### Antarctic winter\n\nWinter proved to be a difficult time; Bernacchi wrote of rising boredom and irritation: \"Officers and men, ten of us in all, found tempers wearing thin\". During this period of confinement, Borchgrevink's weaknesses as a commander were exposed; he was, according to Bernacchi, \"in many respects ... not a good leader\". The polar historian Ranulph Fiennes later described the conditions as \"democratic anarchy\", with dirt, disorder and inactivity the order of the day.\n\nBorchgrevink's lack of scientific training, and his inability to make simple observations, were additional matters of concern. Nevertheless, the programme of scientific observations was maintained throughout the winter. Exercise was taken outside the hut when the weather permitted, and as a further diversion Savio improvised a sauna in the snowdrifts. Concerts were held, including lantern slides, songs and readings. During this time there were two near-fatal incidents; in the first, a candle left burning beside a bunk set fire to the hut and caused extensive damage. In the second, three of the party were nearly asphyxiated by coal fire fumes as they slept.\n\nThe party was well-supplied with a variety of basic foodstuffs—butter, tea and coffee, herrings, sardines, cheeses, soup, tinned tripe, plum pudding, dry potatoes and vegetables. There were nevertheless complaints about the lack of luxuries, Colbeck noting that \"all the tinned fruits supplied for the land party were either eaten on the passage or left on board for the [ship's] crew\". There was also a shortage of tobacco; in spite of an intended provision of half a ton (500 kg), only a quantity of chewing tobacco was landed.\n\nThe zoologist, Nicolai Hanson, had fallen ill during the winter. On 14 October 1899 he died, apparently of an intestinal disorder, and became the first person to be buried on the Antarctic continent. The grave was dynamited from the frozen ground at the summit of the Cape. Bernacchi wrote: \"There amidst profound silence and peace, there is nothing to disturb that eternal sleep except the flight of seabirds\". Hanson left a wife, and a baby daughter born after he left for the Antarctic.\n\nAs winter gave way to spring, the party prepared for more ambitious inland journeys using the dogs and sledges. Their base camp was cut off from the continent's interior by high mountain ranges, and journeys along the coastline were frustrated by unsafe sea ice. These factors severely restricted their exploration, which was largely confined to the vicinity of Robertson Bay. Here, a small island was discovered, which was named Duke of York Island, after the expedition's patron. A few years later this find was dismissed by members of Scott's Discovery Expedition, who claimed that the island \"did not exist\", but its position has since been confirmed at 71°38′S, 170°04′E.\n\n### Ross Sea exploration\n\nOn 28 January 1900 Southern Cross returned. Borchgrevink and his party quickly vacated the camp, and on 2 February he took the ship south into the Ross Sea. Evidence of a hasty and disorderly departure from Cape Adare was noted two years later by members of the Discovery Expedition, when Edward Wilson wrote; \"... heaps of refuse all around, and a mountain of provision boxes, dead birds, seals, dogs, sledging gear ... and heaven knows what else\".\n\nSouthern Cross first called at Possession Island, where the tin box left by Borchgrevink and Bull in 1895 was recovered. They then proceeded southwards, following the Victoria Land coast and discovering further islands, one of which Borchgrevink named after Sir Clements Markham, whose hostility towards the expedition was evidently unchanged by this honour. Southern Cross then sailed on to Ross Island, observed the volcano Mount Erebus, and attempted a landing at Cape Crozier, at the foot of Mount Terror. Here, Borchgrevink and Captain Jensen were almost drowned by a large wave caused by a calving or breakaway of ice from the adjacent Great Ice Barrier. Following the path of James Clark Ross sixty years previously, they proceeded eastwards along the Barrier edge, to find the inlet where, in 1843, Ross had reached his farthest south. Observations indicated that the Barrier edge had moved some 30 statute miles (50 km) south since Ross's time, which meant that the ship were already south of Ross's record. Borchgrevink was determined to make a landing on the Barrier itself, and in the vicinity of Ross's inlet he found a spot where the ice sloped sufficiently to suggest that a landing was possible. On 16 February he, Colbeck and Savio landed with dogs and a sledge, ascended to the Barrier surface, and then journeyed a few miles south to a point which they calculated as 78°50′S, a new Farthest South record. They were the first persons to travel on the Barrier surface, earning Amundsen's approbation: \"We must acknowledge that, by ascending the Barrier, Borchgrevink opened the way to the south, and threw aside the greatest obstacle to the expeditions that followed\". Close to the same spot ten years later, Amundsen would establish his base camp \"Framheim\", prior to his successful South Pole journey.\n\nOn its passage northward, Southern Cross halted at Franklin Island, off the Victoria Land coast, and made a series of magnetic calculations. These indicated that the location of the South Magnetic Pole was, as expected, within Victoria Land, but further north and further west than had previously been assumed. The party then sailed for home, crossing the Antarctic Circle on 28 February. On 1 April, news of their safe return was sent by telegram from Bluff, New Zealand. The dogs were left on Native Island, New Zealand. Due to quarantine requirements, many of the dogs were killed but a few remained. 9 of the remaining dogs were bought by Ernest Shackleton.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nSouthern Cross returned to England in June 1900, to a cool welcome; public attention was distracted by the preparations for the upcoming Discovery Expedition, due to sail the following year. Borchgrevink meanwhile pronounced his voyage a great success, stating: \"The Antarctic regions might be another Klondyke\"—in terms of the prospects for fishing, sealing, and mineral extraction. He had proved that it was possible for a resident expedition to survive an Antarctic winter, and had made a series of geographical discoveries. These included new islands in Robertson's Bay and the Ross Sea, and the first landings on Franklin Island, Coulman Island, Ross Island and the Great Ice Barrier. The survey of the Victoria Land coast had revealed the \"important geographical discovery ... of the Southern Cross Fjord, as well as the excellent camping place at the foot of Mount Melbourne\". The most significant exploration achievement, Borchgrevink thought, was the scaling of the Great Ice Barrier and the journey to \"the furthest south ever reached by man\".\n\nBorchgrevink's account of the expedition, First on the Antarctic Continent, was published the following year; the English edition, much of which may have been embroidered by Newnes's staff, was criticised for its \"journalistic\" style and for its bragging tone. The author, whom commentators recognised was \"not known for either his modesty or his tact\", embarked on a lecture tour of England and Scotland, but the reception was generally poor.\n\nDespite the unexplained disappearance of many of Hanson's notes, Hugh Robert Mill described the expedition as \"interesting as a dashing piece of scientific work\". The meteorological and magnetic conditions of Victoria Land had been recorded for a full year; the location of the South Magnetic Pole had been calculated (though not visited); samples of the continent's natural fauna and flora, and of its geology, had been collected. Borchgrevink also claimed the discovery of new insect and shallow-water fauna species, proving \"bi-polarity\" (existence of species in proximity to the North and South poles).\n\nThe geographical establishments in Britain and abroad were slow to give formal recognition to the expedition. The Royal Geographical Society gave Borchgrevink a fellowship, and other medals and honours eventually followed from Norway, Denmark and the United States, but the expedition's achievements were not widely recognised. Markham persisted in describing Borchgrevink as cunning and unprincipled; Amundsen's warm tribute was a lone approving voice. According to Scott's biographer David Crane, if Borchgrevink had been a British naval officer his expedition would have been treated differently, but \"a Norwegian seaman/schoolmaster was never going to be taken seriously\". A belated recognition came in 1930, long after Markham's death, when the Royal Geographical Society presented Borchgrevink with its Patron's Medal. It admitted that \"justice had not been done at the time to the pioneer work of the Southern Cross expedition\", and that the magnitude of the difficulties it had overcome had previously been underestimated. After the expedition, Borchgrevink lived quietly, largely out of the public eye. He died in Oslo on 21 April 1934.", "revid": "1172765966", "description": "1898–1900 research expedition to Antarctica", "categories": ["1898 in Antarctica", "1898 in science", "1899 in Antarctica", "1899 in science", "1900 in Antarctica", "1900 in science", "Antarctic expeditions", "Expeditions from the United Kingdom", "Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration", "History of the Ross Dependency", "United Kingdom and the Antarctic"]}
{"id": "27098", "url": null, "title": "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan", "text": "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan is a 1982 American science fiction film directed by Nicholas Meyer and based on the television series Star Trek. It is the second film in the Star Trek film series following Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), and is a sequel to the original series episode \"Space Seed\" (1967). The plot features Admiral James T. Kirk (William Shatner) and the crew of the starship USS Enterprise facing off against the genetically engineered tyrant Khan Noonien Singh (Ricardo Montalbán). When Khan escapes from a 15-year exile to exact revenge on Kirk, the crew of the Enterprise must stop him from acquiring a powerful terraforming device named Genesis. The film is the beginning of a three-film story arc that continues with the film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984) and concludes with the film Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986).\n\nAfter the lackluster critical response to the first film, series creator Gene Roddenberry was forced out of the sequel's production. Executive producer Harve Bennett wrote the film's original outline, which Jack B. Sowards developed into a full script. Meyer completed its final script in twelve days, without accepting a writing credit. Meyer's approach evoked the swashbuckling atmosphere of the original series, a theme reinforced by James Horner's musical score. Leonard Nimoy had not intended to have a role in the sequel, but was enticed back on the promise that his character would be given a dramatic death scene. Negative test audience reaction to Spock's death led to significant revisions of the ending over Meyer's objections. The production team used various cost-cutting techniques to keep within budget, including utilizing miniature models from past projects and reusing sets, effects footage, and costumes from the first film. The film was the first feature film to contain a sequence created entirely with computer graphics.\n\nStar Trek II: The Wrath of Khan was released in North America on June 4, 1982, by Paramount Pictures. It was a box office success, earning US\\$97million worldwide and setting a world record for its first-day box office gross. Critical reaction to the film was positive; reviewers highlighted Khan's character, Meyer's direction, improved performances, the film's pacing, and the character interactions as strong elements. Negative reactions focused on weak special effects and some of the acting. The Wrath of Khan is considered by many to be the best film in the Star Trek series, and is often credited with renewing substantial interest in the franchise.\n\n## Plot\n\nIn 2285, Admiral James T. Kirk oversees a simulator session of Captain Spock's trainees. In the simulation, Lieutenant Saavik commands the starship USS Enterprise on a rescue mission to save the crew of the damaged ship Kobayashi Maru, but is attacked by Klingon cruisers and critically damaged. The simulation is a no-win scenario designed to test the character of Starfleet officers. Later, Dr. McCoy visits Kirk on his birthday; seeing Kirk in low spirits due to his age, the doctor advises Kirk to get a new command instead of growing old behind a desk.\n\nMeanwhile, the starship Reliant is on a mission to search for a lifeless planet to test the Genesis Device, a technology designed to reorganize dead matter into habitable worlds. Reliant'''s Captain Clark Terrell and first officer Commander Pavel Chekov beam down to evaluate a planet they believe to be Ceti Alpha VI; once there, they are captured by the genetically engineered tyrant Khan Noonien Singh explaining that they are on Ceti Alpha V. Fifteen years prior, Kirk exiled Khan and his fellow supermen to Ceti Alpha V after they attempted to take over Enterprise. The neighboring planet exploded, devastating the surface of Ceti Alpha V. Khan implants Chekov and Terrell with indigenous eel larvae (which killed several of his followers, including his wife) that render them susceptible to mind control, and uses them to capture Reliant. Learning of the Genesis Device, Khan attacks space station Regula I where the device is being developed by Kirk's former lover, Dr. Carol Marcus, and their son, David.\n\nKirk assumes command of Enterprise after the ship, deployed on a training cruise, receives a distress call from Regula I. En route, Enterprise is ambushed and crippled by Reliant. Khan offers to spare Kirk's crew if they relinquish all material related to Genesis; Kirk instead stalls for time and, taking advantage of Khan's unfamiliarity with starship controls, remotely lowers Reliant's shields, enabling a counter-attack. Khan is forced to retreat and effect repairs, while Enterprise limps to Regula I. Kirk, McCoy, and Saavik beam to the station and find Terrell and Chekov alive, along with the slaughtered members of Marcus' team. They soon find Carol and David hiding Genesis deep inside the nearby planetoid. Khan, having used Terrell and Chekov as spies, orders them to kill Kirk; Terrell resists the eel's influence and kills himself, while Chekov collapses as the eel leaves his body. Khan transports Genesis aboard the Reliant, intending to maroon Kirk on the lifeless planetoid, but is tricked by Kirk and Spock's coded arrangements for a rendezvous. Kirk directs Enterprise into the nearby Mutara Nebula; conditions inside the nebula render shields useless and compromise targeting systems, making Enterprise and Reliant evenly matched. Spock notes that Khan's tactics indicate inexperience in three-dimensional combat, which Kirk exploits to disable Reliant.\n\nMortally wounded, Khan activates Genesis, quoting Captain Ahab from the novel Moby Dick as he dies. Though Kirk's crew detects the activation and attempts to move out of range, they will not be able to escape the nebula in time without the ship's inoperable warp drive. To restore warp power, Spock goes to the engine room, which is flooded with radiation. When McCoy tries to prevent Spock's entry, Spock incapacitates him with a Vulcan nerve pinch and performs a mind meld, telling him to \"remember\". Spock repairs the warp drive, and Enterprise jumps to warp, escaping the explosion, which forms a new planet. Before dying of radiation poisoning, Spock urges Kirk not to grieve, as his decision to sacrifice himself to save the Enterprise was a logical one. Kirk and the ship's crew host a space burial for Spock, whose photon torpedo casket lands on the new Genesis planet.\n\n## Cast\n\nThe Wrath of Khan's cast includes all the major characters from the original television series, as well as new actors and characters.\n\n- William Shatner as James T. Kirk, a Starfleet admiral and former commander of the Enterprise. Kirk and Khan never confront each other face-to-face during the film; all of their interactions are over a viewscreen or through communicators, and their scenes were filmed four months apart. Meyer described Shatner as an actor who was naturally protective of his character and himself, and who performed better over multiple takes.\n- Ricardo Montalbán as Khan Noonien Singh, a genetically enhanced superhuman who had used his strength and intellect to briefly rule much of Earth in the 1990s. Montalbán said that he believed all good villains do villainous things, but think that they are acting for the \"right\" reasons; in this way, Khan uses his anger at the death of his wife to justify his pursuit of Kirk. Contrary to speculation that Montalbán used a prosthetic chest, no artificial devices were added to Montalbán's muscular physique. Montalbán enjoyed making the film, so much so that he played the role for much less than was offered him, and counted the role as a career highlight. His major complaint was that he was never face-to-face with Shatner for a scene. \"I had to do my lines with the script girl, who, as you might imagine, sounded nothing like Bill [Shatner],\" he explained. Bennett noted that the film was close to getting the green light when it occurred to the producers that no one had asked Montalbán if he could take a break from filming the television series Fantasy Island to take part.\n- Leonard Nimoy as Spock, the captain of the Enterprise who relinquishes command to Kirk after Starfleet sends the ship to Regula I. Nimoy had not intended to have a role in The Motion Picture's sequel, but was enticed back on the promise that his character would be given a dramatic death scene. Nimoy reasoned that since The Wrath of Khan would be the final Star Trek film, having Spock \"go out in a blaze of glory\" seemed like a good way to end the character.\n- DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy, the Enterprise's chief medical officer and a close friend of Kirk and Spock. Kelley was dissatisfied with an early version of the script to the point that he considered not taking part. Kelley noted his character spoke many of the film's lighter lines, and felt that this role was essential in bringing a lighter side to the onscreen drama.\n- James Doohan as Montgomery Scott, the Enterprise's chief engineer. Kelley felt that McCoy's speaking his catchphrase \"He's dead, Jim\" during Spock's death scene would ruin the moment's seriousness, so Doohan instead says the line \"He's dead already\" to Kirk. Scott loses his young nephew following Khan's attacks on the Enterprise. The cadet, played by Ike Eisenmann, had many of his lines cut from the original theatrical release, including a scene where it is explained he is Scott's relative. These scenes were reintroduced when ABC aired The Wrath of Khan on television in 1985, and in the director's edition, making Scott's grief at the crewman's death more understandable.\n- George Takei as Hikaru Sulu, the helm officer of the Enterprise. Takei had not wanted to reprise his role for The Wrath of Khan, but Shatner persuaded him to return.\n- Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov, the Reliant's first officer and former Enterprise crewmember. During filming, Kelley noted that Chekov never met Khan in \"Space Seed\" (Koenig had not yet joined the cast), and thus Khan's recognizing Chekov on Ceti Alpha did not make sense. Non-canon Star Trek books have attempted to rationalize this discrepancy; in the film's novelization by Vonda N. McIntyre, Chekov is \"an ensign assigned to the night watch\" during \"Space Seed\" and met Khan in an off-screen scene. The novel To Reign in Hell: The Exile of Khan Noonien Singh fixes the error by having Chekov escort Khan to the surface of Ceti Alpha after the events of the television episode. The real cause of the error was a simple oversight by the filmmakers. Meyer defended the mistake by noting that Arthur Conan Doyle made similar oversights in his Sherlock Holmes stories. Although they did not appear in the episode together, the Star Trek timeline indicates that Chekov was a member of the crew at that time. Chekov's screaming while being infested by the Ceti eel caused Koenig to jokingly dub the film Star Trek II: Chekov Screams Again, in reference to a similar screaming scene in The Motion Picture.\n- Nichelle Nichols as Uhura, the Enterprise's communications officer. Nichols helped convince Meyer and Bennet to marginally cut back their vision of a more militaristic depiction of Starfleet, which Gene Roddenberry also took issue with.\n- Bibi Besch as Carol Marcus, the lead scientist working on Project Genesis, and the mother of Kirk's son. Meyer was looking for an actress who looked beautiful enough that it was plausible a womanizer such as Kirk would fall for her, yet who could also project a sense of intelligence.\n- Merritt Butrick as David Marcus, a Project Genesis scientist and Kirk's son. Meyer liked that Butrick's hair was blond like Besch's and curly like Shatner's, making him a plausible son of the two.\n- Paul Winfield as Clark Terrell, the captain of the Reliant. Meyer had seen Winfield's work in films such as Sounder and thought highly of him; there was no reason for casting him as the Reliant's captain other than Meyer's desire to direct him. Meyer thought in retrospect that the Ceti eel scenes might have been corny, but felt that Winfield's performance helped add gravity.\n- Kirstie Alley as Saavik, Spock's protege and a Starfleet commander-in-training aboard the Enterprise. Serving on board as the navigator in Chekov's absence, she has a strong habit of questioning Kirk's eccentric heroic methods, preferring a more by-the-book approach. Constantly quoting rules and regulations to Kirk, she is actually vindicated during the battle with Khan, and her manner provides Spock with the idea for how to talk in code to Kirk down at the science lab. When Kirk and McCoy intend to beam down to the science lab, she insists on going with them on the pretext of protecting Kirk. The movie was Alley's first feature film role. Saavik cries during Spock's funeral. Meyer said that during filming someone asked him, \"'Are you going to let her do that?' And I said, 'Yeah', and they said, 'But Vulcans don't cry,' and I said, 'Well, that's what makes this such an interesting Vulcan.'\" The character's emotional outbursts can be partly explained by the fact that Saavik was described as of mixed Vulcan-Romulan heritage in the script, though no indication is given on film. Alley was so fond of her Vulcan ears that she would take them home with her at the end of each day.\n- Judson Scott as Joachim, Khan's chief henchman. Scott took the role believing that it would be more prominent and requested top billing. When Paramount refused, Scott waived billing, believing that he would still appear in the end credits. Instead his performance went uncredited.\n\n## Production\n\n### Development\n\nAfter the release of The Motion Picture, executive producer Gene Roddenberry wrote his own sequel. In his plot, the crew of the Enterprise travel back in time to set right a corrupted time line after Klingons use the Guardian of Forever to prevent the assassination of John F. Kennedy. This was rejected by Paramount executives, who blamed the tepid reception and costs of the first film on its plodding pace and the constant rewrites Roddenberry demanded. As a consequence, Roddenberry was removed from the production and, according to Shatner, \"kicked upstairs\" to the ceremonial position of executive consultant.\n\nHarve Bennett, a new Paramount television producer, was made producer for the next Star Trek film. According to Bennett, he was called in front of a group including Jeffrey Katzenberg and Michael Eisner and asked if he thought he could make a better film than The Motion Picture, which Bennett confessed he found \"really boring\". When Bennett replied in the affirmative, Charles Bluhdorn asked, \"Can you make it for less than forty-five-fucking-million-dollars?\" Bennett replied that \"Where I come from, I can make five movies for that.\" Bennett realized he faced a serious challenge in developing the new Star Trek film, partly due to his never having seen the television series. Watching episodes of the show convinced Bennett that what the first picture lacked was a real villain; after seeing the episode \"Space Seed\", he decided that the character of Khan Noonien Singh was the perfect enemy for the new film. Bennett selected Robert Sallin, a director of television commercials and a college friend, to produce the film. Sallin's job would be to produce Star Trek II quickly and cheaply. Bennett hired Michael Minor as art director to shape the direction of the film.\n\nBennett wrote his first film treatment in November 1980. In his version, titled The War of the Generations, Kirk investigates a rebellion on a distant world and discovers that his son is the leader of the rebels. Khan is the mastermind behind the plot, and Kirk and son join forces to defeat the tyrant. Bennett then hired Jack B. Sowards, an avid Star Trek fan, to turn his outline into a film-able script. Sowards wrote an initial script before a writer's strike in 1981. Sowards' draft, The Omega Syndrome, involved the theft of the Federation's ultimate weapon, the \"Omega system\". Sowards was concerned that his weapon was too negative, and Bennett wanted something more uplifting \"and as fundamental in the 23rd century as recombinant DNA is in our time\", Minor recalled. Minor suggested to Bennett that the device be turned into a terraforming tool instead. At the story conference the next day, Bennett hugged Minor and declared that he had saved Star Trek. In recognition of the Biblical power of the weapon, Sowards renamed the \"Omega system\" to the \"Genesis Device\".\n\nBy April 1981, Sowards had produced a draft that moved Spock's death to later in the story, because of fan dissatisfaction of the event after the script was leaked. Spock had originally died in the first act, in a shocking demise that Bennett compared to Janet Leigh's early death in Psycho. This draft had a twelve-page face-to-face confrontation between Kirk and Khan. Sowards' draft introduced a male character named Saavik. As pre-production began, Samuel A. Peeples, writer of the Star Trek episode \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\", was invited to offer his own script. Peeples' draft replaced Khan with two new villains named Sojin and Moray; the alien beings are so powerful they almost destroy Earth by mistake. This script was considered inadequate; the aliens resembled too closely the villains on a typical TOS (Star Trek: The Original Series) episode. Deadlines loomed for special effects production to begin (which required detailed storyboards based on a finished script), which did not exist.\n\nKaren Moore, a Paramount executive, suggested that Nicholas Meyer, writer of The Seven-Per-Cent Solution and director of Time After Time, could help resolve the screenplay issues. Meyer had also never seen an episode of Star Trek. He had the idea of making a list consisting of everything that the creative team had liked from the preceding drafts—\"it could be a character, it could be a scene, it could be a plot, it could be a subplot, [...] it could be a line of dialogue\"—so that he could use that list as the basis of a new screenplay made from all the best aspects of the previous ones. To offset fan expectation that Spock would die, Meyer had the character \"killed\" in the Kobayashi Maru simulator in the opening scene. The effects company required a completed script in just 12 days. Meyer wrote the screenplay uncredited and for no pay before the deadline, surprising the actors and producers, and rapidly produced subsequent rewrites as necessary. One draft, for example, had a baby in Khan's group, who is killed with the others in the Genesis detonation. Meyer later said:\n\n> The chief contribution I brought to Star Trek II was a healthy disrespect ... Star Trek was human allegory in a space format. That was both its strength and, ultimately, its weakness. I tried through irreverence to make them more human and a little less wooden. I didn't insist that Captain Kirk go to the bathroom, but did Star Trek have to be so sanctified?\n\nMeyer described his script as \"'Hornblower' in outer space\", utilizing nautical references and a swashbuckling atmosphere. (Hornblower was an inspiration to Roddenberry and Shatner when making the show, although Meyer was unaware of this.) Sallin was impressed with Meyer's vision for the film: \"His ideas brought dimension that broadened the scope of the material as we were working on it.\" Gene Roddenberry disagreed with the script's naval texture and Khan's Captain Ahab undertones, but was mostly ignored by the creative team.\n\nAs a gesture of good faith, Paramount changed the film's title from its original working title, The Vengeance of Khan, as it was too close to the working title for Lucasfilm's upcoming Star Wars film. After the name change was made, Lucasfilm changed their title from Revenge of the Jedi to Return of the Jedi. An even earlier working title for the Trek film was The Undiscovered Country, a title which would eventually be used for the sixth film of the franchise.\n\n### Design\n\nMeyer attempted to change the look of Star Trek to match the nautical atmosphere he envisioned while staying within budget. The Enterprise, for example, was given a ship's bell, boatswain's call, and more blinking lights and signage. Meyer had a \"No Smoking\" sign added to the Enterprise's bridge, which he recalled \"Everyone had a fit over [...] I said, 'Why, have they stopped smoking in the future? They've been smoking for four hundred years, you think it's going to stop in the next two?'\" The sign appeared in the first shot of the film, but was removed for all others appearing in the final cut.\n\nTo save money on set design, production designer Joseph Jennings used existing elements from The Motion Picture that had been left standing after filming was completed. Sixty-five percent of the film was shot on the same set; the bridge of the Reliant and the \"bridge simulator\" from the opening scene were redresses of the Enterprise's bridge. The Klingon bridge from The Motion Picture was redressed as the Regula I transporter room and the Enterprise's torpedo bay. The filmmakers stretched The Wrath of Khan's budget by reusing models and footage from the first film, including footage of Enterprise in spacedock. The original ship miniatures were used where possible, or modified to stand in as new constructions. The orbital office complex from The Motion Picture was inverted and retouched to become the Regula I space station. Elements of the cancelled Star Trek: Phase II television show, such as bulkheads, railings, and sets, were cannibalized and reused. A major concern for the designers was that Reliant should be easily distinguishable from Enterprise. The ship's design was flipped after Bennett accidentally opened and approved the preliminary Reliant designs upside-down.\n\nDesigner Robert Fletcher was brought in to redesign existing costumes and create new ones. Fletcher decided on a scheme of \"corrupt colors\", using materials with colors slightly off from the pure color. \"They're not colors you see today, so in a subtle way [they] indicate another time.\" Meyer did not like the Starfleet uniforms from either the television series or The Motion Picture and wanted them changed, but could not be discarded entirely because of the budget. Dye tests of the fabric showed that the old uniforms took three colors well: blue-gray, gold, and dark red. Fletcher decided to use the dark red due to the strong contrast it provided with the background. The resulting naval-inspired designs would be used in Star Trek films until First Contact (1996). The first versions of the uniforms had stiff black collars, but Sallin suggested changing it to a turtleneck, using a form of vertical quilting called trapunto. The method creates a bas-relief effect to the material by stuffing the outlined areas with soft thread shot via air pressure through a hollow needle. By the time of The Wrath of Khan's production, the machines and needles needed to produce trapunto were rare, and Fletcher was only able to find one needle for the wardrobe department. The crew was so worried about losing or breaking the needle that one of the department's workers took it home with him as a security measure, leading Fletcher to think it had been stolen.\n\nFor Khan and his followers, Fletcher created a strong contrast with the highly organized Starfleet uniforms; his idea was that the exiles' costumes were made out of whatever they could find. Fletcher said, \"My intention with Khan was to express the fact that they had been marooned on that planet with no technical infrastructure, so they had to cannibalize from the spaceship whatever they used or wore. Therefore, I tried to make it look as if they had dressed themselves out of pieces of upholstery and electrical equipment that composed the ship.\" Khan's costume was designed with an open chest to show Ricardo Montalbán's physique. Fletcher also designed smocks for the Regula I scientists, and civilian clothes for Kirk and McCoy that were designed to look practical and comfortable.\n\n### Filming\n\nPrincipal photography began on November 9, 1981, and ended on January 29, 1982. The Wrath of Khan was more action-oriented than its predecessor, but less costly to make. The project was supervised by Paramount's television unit rather than its theatrical division. Bennett, a respected television veteran, made The Wrath of Khan on a budget of \\$12 million. The budget was initially lower at \\$8.5 million, but it rose when the producers were impressed by the first two weeks of footage. Meyer used camera and set tricks to spare the construction of large and expensive sets. For a scene taking place at Starfleet Academy, a forced perspective was created by placing scenery close to the camera to give the sense the set was larger than it really was. To present the illusion that the Enterprise's elevators moved between decks, corridor pieces were wheeled out of sight to change the hall configuration while the turbolift doors were closed. Background equipment such as computer terminals were rented when possible instead of purchased outright. Some designed props, such as a redesigned phaser and communicator, were vetoed by Paramount executives in favor of existing materials from The Motion Picture. Additional communicator props were built by John Zabrucky of Modern Props.\n\nThe Enterprise was refurbished for its space shots, with its shiny exterior dulled down and extra detail added to the frame. Compared to the newly built Reliant, the Enterprise was hated by the effects artists and cameramen; it took eight people to mount the model, and a forklift truck to move it. The Reliant, meanwhile, was lighter and had less complex internal wiring. The spaceship miniatures were photographed against a blue screen, which in post production allowed them to be composited with background scenery which had itself been photographed independently of the foreground miniatures. Any reflection of blue on the ship's hull would appear as a hole on the film; the gaps had to be patched frame by frame for the final film. The Dykstraflex motion control system was utilized for filming the miniature photography shots of the Enterprise and other ship exteriors.\n\nThe barren desert surface of Ceti Alpha V was simulated on stage 8, the largest sound stage at Paramount's studio. The set was elevated 25 feet off the ground and covered in wooden mats, over which tons of colored sand and powder were dumped. A cyclorama was painted and wrapped around the set, while massive industrial fans created a sandstorm. The filming was uncomfortable for actors and crew alike. The spandex environmental suits Koenig and Winfield wore were unventilated, and the actors had to signal by microphone when they needed air. Filming equipment was wrapped in plastic to prevent mechanical troubles and everyone on set wore boots, masks, and coveralls as protection from flying sand.\n\nSpock's death was shot over three days, during which no visitors were allowed on set. Spock's death was to be irrevocable, but Nimoy had such a positive experience during filming that he asked if he could add a way for Spock to return in a later film. The mind meld sequence was initially filmed without Kelley's prior knowledge of what was going on. Shatner disagreed with having a clear glass separation between Spock and Kirk during the death scene; he instead wanted a translucent divider allowing viewers to see only Spock's silhouette, but his objection was overruled. During Spock's funeral sequence Meyer wanted the camera to track the torpedo that served as Spock's coffin as it was placed in a long trough and slid into the launcher. The camera crew thought the entire set would have to be rebuilt to accommodate the shot, but Sallin suggested putting a dolly into the trough and controlling it from above with an offset arm. Scott's rendition of \"Amazing Grace\" on the bagpipes was James Doohan's idea.\n\nSpock's death in the film was widely reported during production. \"Trekkies\" wrote letters to protest, one paid for trade press advertisements urging Paramount to change the plot, and Nimoy even received death threats. Test audiences reacted badly to Spock's death and the film's ending's dark tone, so it was made more uplifting by Bennett. The scene of Spock's casket on the planet and Nimoy's closing monologue were added; Meyer objected, but did not stand in the way of the modifications. Nimoy did not know about the scene until he saw the film, but before it opened, the media reassured fans that \"Spock will live\" again. Due to time constraints, the casket scene was filmed in an overgrown corner of San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, using smoke machines to add a primal atmosphere. The shoot lasted from midday to evening, as the team was well aware there would be no time for reshoots.\n\nSpecial consideration was given during filming to allow for integration of the planned special effects. Television monitors standing in for computer displays were specially calibrated so that their refresh rate did not result in banding on film. Due to a loss of resolution and quality resulting from rephotographing an element in an optical printer, live action sequences for effects were shot in 65mm or VistaVision formats to compensate. When the larger prints were reduced through an anamorphic lens on the printer, the result was a Panavision composite.\n\n### Effects\n\nWith a short timeframe to complete The Wrath of Khan's special effects sequences, effects supervisor Jim Veilleux, Meyer, Jennings, Sallin and Minor worked to transform the written ideas for the script into concrete storyboards and visuals. The detailed sequences were essential to keep the film's effects from spiraling out of control and driving up costs, as had occurred with The Motion Picture. Each special and optical effect, and the duration of the sequences, was listed. By the end of six weeks, the producers determined the basic look and construction of nearly all the effects; the resulting shots were combined with film footage five months later. Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) produced many of the effects, and created the new models; the Reliant was the first non-Constitution-class Federation starship seen in the series. Originally, the Reliant was conceived as a Constitution-class starship identical to the Enterprise, but it was felt audiences would have difficulty distinguishing between two alike ships. As the script called for the Reliant and Enterprise to inflict significant damage on each other, ILM developed techniques to illustrate the damage without physically harming the models. Rather than move the models on a bluescreen during shooting, the VistaVision camera was panned and tracked to give the illusion of movement. Damage to the Enterprise was cosmetic, and simulated with pieces of aluminum that were colored or peeled off. Phaser damage was created using stop motion. The script called for large-scale damage to the Reliant, so larger versions of the ship's model were created to be blown up.\n\nThe battle in the nebula was a difficult sequence to accomplish without the aid of computer-generated models. The swirling nebula was created by injecting a latex rubber and ammonia mixture into a cloud tank filled with fresh and salt water. All the footage was shot at two frames per second to give the illusion of faster movement. The vibrant abstract colors of the nebula were simulated by lighting the tank using colored gels. Additional light effects such as auroras were created by the ILM animation department. The ships were combined with the nebula background plates via bluescreen mattes to complete the shot. The destruction of the Reliant's engine nacelle was created by superimposing shots of the engine blowing apart and explosions over the model.\n\nThe scene in which Terrell kills Jedda, a Regula scientist, by vaporizing him with a phaser was filmed in two takes. Winfield and the related actors first played out the scene; this footage became the background plate. A blue screen was wheeled onto the set and actor John Vargas, the recipient of the phaser blast, acted out his response to being hit with the energy weapon. A phaser beam element was placed on top of the background plate, and Vargas' shots were optically dissolved into an airbrushed disintegration effect which matched Vargas' position in every frame.\n\nThe Ceti eel shots used several models, overseen by visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston, who had just finished creature design for Return of the Jedi. He tied a string to the eels to inch the models across the actors' faces before they entered the ear canal. The scene of a more mature eel leaving Chekov's ear was simulated by threading a microfilament through the floor of the set up to Koenig's ear. The scene was filmed with three variations, which Ralston described as \"a dry shot, one with some blood, and the Fangoria shot, with a lot of gore.\" Footage of a giant model of Koenig's ear was discarded from the theatrical release due to the visceral reaction it elicited in test audiences.\n\nAdditional optical effects were provided by Visual Concept Engineering (VCE), a small effects company headed by Peter Kuran; Kuran had previously worked at ILM and left after finishing The Empire Strikes Back. VCE provided effects including phaser beams, the Enterprise reactor, additional sand on Ceti Alpha V, and an updated transporter effect. Meyer and the production staff were adamant about not using freeze frames for the transporter, as had been done in the original television series. Scenes were shot so that conversations would continue while characters were in mid-transport, although much of the matte work VCE created was discarded when the production decided not to have as much action during transports. Computer graphics company Evans & Sutherland used the computer graphics-based Digistar planetarium system to generate the fields of stars, based on a database of real stars. The models of the ships were composited atop the star fields. The Evans & Sutherland team also produced the vector graphics tactical displays seen on the Enterprise and the simulator bridge.\n\nThe Wrath of Khan was one of the first films to extensively use computer graphics to improve the visual quality and production speed of special effects shots. Among the film's technical achievements was cinema's first entirely computer-generated sequence, ILM's animation for the demonstration of the effects of the Genesis Device on a barren planet. The first concept for the shot took the form of a laboratory demonstration, where a rock would be placed in a chamber and turned into a flower. Veilleux suggested the sequence's scope be expanded to show the Genesis effect taking over a planet. While Paramount appreciated the more dramatic presentation, they wanted the simulation to be more impressive than traditional animation. Having seen research done by Lucasfilm's Computer Graphics group, Veilleux offered them the task. Introducing the novel technique of particle systems for the sixty-second sequence, the graphics team paid attention to detail such as ensuring that the stars visible in the background matched those visible from a real star light-years from Earth. The animators hoped it would serve as a \"commercial\" for the studio's talents. The studio would later branch off from Lucasfilm to form Pixar, now a subsidiary of Walt Disney Studios, a division of Disney Entertainment, which is owned by The Walt Disney Company, one of Paramount Pictures and Paramount Global's rivals. The sequence would be reused in two sequels, Star Trek III: The Search for Spock and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, as well as in the unrelated LaserDisc-based stand-up video arcade game Astron Belt.\n\n### Music\n\nJerry Goldsmith had composed the music for The Motion Picture, but was not an option for The Wrath of Khan given the reduced budget; Meyer's composer for Time After Time, Miklós Rózsa, was likewise prohibitively expensive. Bennett and Meyer wanted the music for the film to go in a different direction, but had not decided on a composer by the time filming began. Meyer initially hoped to hire an associate named John Morgan, but Morgan lacked film experience, which would have troubled the studio.\n\nParamount's vice-president of music Joel Sill took a liking to a 28-year-old composer named James Horner, feeling that his demo tapes stood out from generic film music. Horner was introduced to Bennett, Meyer and Sallin. Horner said that \"[The producers] did not want the kind of score they had gotten before. They did not want a John Williams score, per se. They wanted something different, more modern.\" When asked about how he landed the assignment, the composer replied that \"the producers loved my work for Wolfen, and had heard my music for several other projects, and I think, so far as I've been told, they liked my versatility very much. I wanted the assignment, and I met with them, we all got along well, they were impressed with my music, and that's how it happened.\" Horner agreed with the producers' expectations and agreed to begin work in mid-January 1982.\n\nIn keeping with the nautical tone, Meyer wanted music evocative of seafaring and swashbuckling, and the director and composer worked together closely, becoming friends in the process. As a classical music fan, Meyer was able to describe the effects and sounds he wanted in the music. While Horner's style was described as \"echoing both the bombastic and elegiac elements of John Williams' Star Wars and Goldsmith's original Star Trek (The Motion Picture) scores,\" Horner was expressly told to not use any of Goldsmith's score. Instead Horner adapted the opening fanfare of Alexander Courage's Star Trek television theme. \"The fanfare draws you in immediately — you know you're going to get a good movie,\" Horner said.\n\nIn comparison to the flowing main theme, Khan's leitmotif was designed as a percussive texture that could be overlaid with other music and emphasized the character's insanity. The seven-note brass theme was echoplexed to emphasize the character's ruminations about the past while on Ceti Alpha V, but does not play fully until Reliant's attack on the Enterprise. Many elements drew from Horner's previous work (a rhythm that accompanies Khan's theme during the surprise attack borrows from an attack theme from Wolfen, in turn influenced by Goldsmith's score for Alien). Musical moments from the original television series are also heard during investigation of the Regula space station and elsewhere.\n\nTo Horner, the \"stuff underneath\" the main story was what needed to be addressed by the score; in The Wrath of Khan, this was the relationship between Kirk and Spock. The main theme serves as Kirk's theme, with a mellower section following that is the theme for the Starship Enterprise. Horner also wrote a motif for Spock, to emphasize the character's depth: \"By putting a theme over Spock, it warms him and he becomes three-dimensional rather than a collection of schticks.\" The difference in the short, French horn-based cues for the villain and longer melodies for the heroes helped to differentiate characters and ships during the battle sequences.\n\nThe soundtrack was Horner's first major film score, and was written in four and a half weeks. The resulting 72 minutes of music was then performed by a 91-piece orchestra. Recording sessions for the score began on April 12, 1982, at the Warner Bros. lot, The Burbank Studios and continued until April 15. A pickup session was held on April 30 to record music for the Mutara nebula battle, while another session held on May 3 was used to cover the recently changed epilogue. Horner used synthesizers for ancillary effects; at the time, science fiction films such as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and The Thing were eschewing the synthesizer in favor of more traditional orchestras. Craig Huxley performed his invented instrument—the Blaster Beam—during recording, as well as composing and performing electronic music for the Genesis Project video. While most of the film was \"locked in\" by the time Horner had begun composing music, he had to change musical cue orchestration after the integration of special effects caused changes in scene durations.\n\n## Themes\n\nThe Wrath of Khan features several recurring themes, including death, resurrection, and growing old. Upon writing his script, Meyer hit upon a link between Spock's death and the age of the characters. \"This was going to be a story in which Spock died, so it was going to be a story about death, and it was only a short hop, skip, and a jump to realize that it was going to be about old age and friendship,\" Meyer said. \"I don't think that any of [the other preliminary] scripts were about old age, friendship, and death.\" In keeping with the theme of death and rebirth symbolized by Spock's sacrifice and the Genesis Device, Meyer wanted to call the film The Undiscovered Country, in reference to Prince Hamlet's description of death in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, but the title was changed during editing without his knowledge. Meyer disliked Wrath of Khan, but it was chosen because the preferred Vengeance of Khan conflicted with Lucasfilm's forthcoming Revenge of the Jedi (renamed Return of the Jedi late in production).\n\nMeyer added elements to reinforce the aging of the characters. Kirk's unhappiness about his birthday is compounded by McCoy's gift of reading glasses. The script stated that Kirk was 49, but Shatner was unsure about being specific about Kirk's age. Bennett remembers that Shatner was hesitant about portraying a middle-aged version of himself, and believed that with proper makeup he could continue playing a younger Kirk. Bennett convinced Shatner that he could age gracefully like Spencer Tracy; the producer did not know that Shatner had worked with Tracy on Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), and was fond of the actor. Meyer made sure to emphasize Kirk's parallel to Sherlock Holmes in that both characters waste away in the absence of their stimuli; new cases, in Holmes' case, and starship adventures in Kirk's.\n\nKhan's pursuit of Kirk is central to the film's theme of vengeance, and The Wrath of Khan deliberately borrows heavily from Herman Melville's Moby-Dick. To make the parallels clear to viewers, Meyer added a visible copy of Moby-Dick to Khan's dwelling. Khan liberally paraphrases Ahab, with \"I'll chase him round the moons of Nibia and round the Antares maelstrom and round perdition's flames before I give him up!\". Khan quotes Ahab's tirade at the end of the novel verbatim with his final lines: \"To the last I grapple with thee; from Hell's heart I stab at thee; for hate's sake, I spit my last breath at thee.\"\n\n## Release\n\nThe film's novelization, written by Vonda N. McIntyre, stayed on the New York Times paperback bestsellers list for more than three weeks. Unlike the previous film, Wrath of Khan was not promoted with a toy line, although Playmates Toys created Khan and Saavik figures in the 1990s, and in 2007 Art Asylum crafted a full series of action figures to mark the film's 25th anniversary. In 2009, IDW Publishing released a comic adaptation of the film, and Film Score Monthly released an expanded score.\n\nThe Wrath of Khan opened on June 4, 1982, in 1,621 theaters in the United States. It made \\$14,347,221 in its opening weekend, at the time the largest opening weekend gross in history. It went on to earn \\$78,912,963 in the US, becoming the sixth highest-grossing film of 1982. It made \\$97,000,000 worldwide. Although the total gross of The Wrath of Khan was less than that of The Motion Picture, it was more profitable due to its much lower production cost.\n\n## Reception\n\nCritical response was positive. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 86% of 73 critics have given the film a positive review, recording an average score of 8.1/10. After the lukewarm reaction to the first film, fan response to The Wrath of Khan was highly positive. The film's success was credited with renewing interest in the franchise. Mark Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly went further, calling The Wrath of Khan \"the film that, by most accounts, saved Star Trek as we know it\"; it is now considered one of the best films in the series. Pauline Kael of The New Yorker called the film \"wonderful dumb fun.\" Gene Siskel gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it \"a flat-out winner, full of appealing characters in engaging relationships in a futuristic film that has a delightfully old-fashioned sense of majesty about its characters and the predicaments they get into.\"\n\nThe film's pacing was praised by reviewers in The New York Times and The Washington Post as being much swifter than its predecessor and closer to that of the television series. Janet Maslin of The New York Times credited the film with a stronger story than The Motion Picture and stated the sequel was everything the first film should have been. Variety agreed that The Wrath of Khan was closer to the original spirit of Star Trek than its predecessor. Strong character interaction was cited as a strong feature of the film, as was Montalbán's portrayal of Khan. In 2016, Playboy ranked the film number four on its list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals. Popular Mechanics would later rate Spock's death the tenth greatest scene in science fiction.\n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times and Derek Adams of Time Out complained about what were seen as tepid battle sequences and perceived melodrama. While Ebert and TV Guide felt that Spock's death was dramatic and well-handled, The Washington Post's Gary Arnold stated Spock's death \"feels like an unnecessary twist, and the filmmakers are obviously well-prepared to fudge in case the public demands another sequel\". Negative reviews of the film focused on some of the acting, and Empire singled out the \"dodgy coiffures\" and \"Santa Claus tunics\" as elements of the film that had not aged well.\n\nChristopher John reviewed Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan in Ares Magazine \\#13 and commented that \"By not taking itself so seriously – that is, realizing the film should be an action adventure with elements of pathos and philosophy gently added – The Wrath of Khan succeeded brilliantly. For those who loved the series, it was a dream come true (to such an extent that many refuse to acknowledge the existence of the first film as part of the Star Trek epos).\"\n\nThe Wrath of Khan won two Saturn Awards in 1982, for best actor (Shatner) and best direction (Meyer). The film was also nominated in the \"best dramatic presentation\" category for the 1983 Hugo Awards, but lost to Blade Runner. The Wrath of Khan has influenced later movies: Meyer's rejected title for the film, The Undiscovered Country, was finally put to use when Meyer directed the sixth film, which retained the nautical influences. Director Bryan Singer cited the film as an influence on X2 and his abandoned sequel to Superman Returns. The film is also a favorite of director J. J. Abrams, producer Damon Lindelof, and writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, the creative team behind the franchise relaunch film Star Trek. Abrams' second entry in the relaunched film series, Star Trek Into Darkness, drew significantly from Wrath of Khan.\n\n## Home media\n\nParamount released The Wrath of Khan on RCA CED Videodisc in 1982 and on VHS and Betamax in 1983. The studio sold the VHS for \\$39.95, \\$40 below contemporary movie cassette prices and it sold a record 120,000 copies. The successful experiment was credited with instigating more competitive VHS pricing, an increase in the adoption of increasingly cheaper VHS players, and an industry-wide move away from rentals to sales as the bulk of videotape revenue.\n\nParamount released The Wrath of Khan on DVD in 2000; no special features were included on the disc. Montalbán drew hundreds of fans of the film to Universal City, California where he signed copies of the DVD to commemorate its release. In August 2002, the film was re-released in a highly anticipated two-disc \"Director's Edition\" format. In addition to remastered picture quality and 5.1 Dolby surround sound, the DVD set included director commentary, cast interviews, storyboards and the theatrical trailer. The expanded cut of the film was given a Hollywood premiere before the release of the DVD. Meyer stated that he didn't believe directors' cuts of films were necessarily better than the original but that the re-release gave him a chance to add elements that had been removed from the theatrical release by Paramount. The four hours of bonus content and expanded director's cut were favorably received.\n\nThe film's original theatrical cut was released on Blu-ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature, along with the other five films featuring the original crew in Star Trek: Original Motion Picture Collection. Of all six original films, Wrath of Khan was the only one to be remastered in 1080p high-definition from the original negative. Nicholas Meyer stated that the Wrath of Khan negative \"was in terrible shape,\" which is why it needed extensive restoration. All six films in the set have new 7.1 Dolby TrueHD audio. The disc also features a new commentary track by director Nicholas Meyer and Star Trek: Enterprise showrunner Manny Coto. On April 24, 2016, Paramount Pictures announced the Director's Edition of the film would be released for Blu-ray Disc on June 7, 2016. On July 7, 2021, it was announced that the first four films in the Star Trek franchise (including both the theatrical cut and the Director's Edition of The Wrath of Khan) would be released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on September 7 of that year to commemorate the franchise's 55th anniversary, alongside individual remastered Blu-rays of the same films.\n\n## See also\n\n- Star Trek'' film series\n- List of films featuring extraterrestrials\n- List of films featuring space stations", "revid": "1171775704", "description": "1982 US science fiction film by Nicholas Meyer", "categories": ["1980s American films", "1980s English-language films", "1980s science fiction adventure films", "1982 films", "American films about revenge", "American science fiction adventure films", "American sequel films", "American space adventure films", "Films based on Star Trek: The Original Series", "Films directed by Nicholas Meyer", "Films produced by Harve Bennett", "Films scored by James Horner", "Films set in the 23rd century", "Films set in the future", "Films set on fictional planets", "Films shot in Los Angeles", "Films shot in San Francisco", "Films with screenplays by Harve Bennett", "Films with screenplays by Jack B. Sowards", "Films with screenplays by Nicholas Meyer", "Midlife crisis films", "Paramount Pictures films"]}
{"id": "3600979", "url": null, "title": "Bleacher Creatures", "text": "The Bleacher Creatures are a group of fans of the New York Yankees who are known for their strict allegiance to the team and their fierce attitude towards opposing fans and teams. The group's nickname was coined for the first time by New York Daily News columnist Filip \"Flip\" Bondy during the 1990s, and then he spent the 2004 season sitting with the Creatures for research on his book about the group, Bleeding Pinstripes: A Season with the Bleacher Creatures of Yankee Stadium, which was published in 2005.\n\nA prominent aspect of the Bleacher Creatures is their use of chants and songs. The most distinguished of these is the \"roll call\", which is done at the beginning of every home game. Often, the opposing team's right fielder, who stands right in front of the Creatures, is a victim of their jeers and insults. For the last two decades of the original Yankee Stadium, the Creatures occupied sections 37 and 39 of the right field bleachers. In 2009, when the Yankees' new stadium was built, they were relocated and currently sit in section 203 of the right-field bleachers. Over the years, the Creatures have attracted controversy regarding their use of inappropriate chants along with their rowdiness.\n\n## History\n\nIn 1996, New York Daily News columnist Filip \"Flip\" Bondy was asked to write a story from the fans' perspective. In that regular column, he took on the persona of \"the Bleacher Creature,\" coining the nickname in relation to the Yankee Stadium inhabitants. The term \"bleacher creature\" has been used in reference to dedicated fans and supporters since the early 1980s. The founding of the Yankees Bleacher Creatures is often credited to Ali Ramirez. Ramirez rang a cowbell to inspire the fans to cheer, much like Freddy Sez's efforts in the Stadium's main grandstand, during the team's limited success in the early 1980s and 1990s. In 1986, a New York Daily News article stated that Ramirez went to almost every home Yankees game for more than 20 years. Ramirez died on May 8, 1996, and was given a tribute by the Yankees front office before the May 14 game against the Seattle Mariners, a game in which Yankees pitcher Dwight Gooden threw a no-hitter. There was a plaque where he sat, in section 39, row A, seat 29 which read \"This seat is taken. In memory of Ali Ramirez, 'The Original Bleacher Creature.'\" A similar plaque was added to the new stadium.\n\nBecause of the rowdiness of the fans, and the fact that many families began sitting in the more affordable bleachers, alcoholic beverages were banned from the bleachers in 2000. Yankees Stadium vendor Ted Banks commented that \"There wasn't any special reason for that, it just got out of hand. Those people used to get wild when Jose Canseco played for the A's. A few people threw things at Ken Griffey Jr.\" Canseco asked Oakland Athletics manager Tony La Russa to move him from right field due to the continued chants and jeers from the Creatures. The Yankees have instituted rules for the bleacher sections to help control potential disruption. In 2000, alcohol sales were banned throughout the bleacher sections. In addition, anti-profanity rules have been in place for fans throughout the stadium. Lonn Trost, the Yankees chief operating officer, stated the team want to foster a \"fan-friendly environment\".\n\nOn April 5, 2002, pitcher David Cone spent the season's home opener with the Bleacher Creatures in section 39, and even participated in their chants. After the final game played at Yankee Stadium on September 21, 2008, Yankees first baseman Tino Martinez revealed that he had sat with the Creatures during the game the day before. Martinez said he wore a Yankees jacket, glasses and a hat, and that no one recognized him. In addition to former players, numerous celebrities and public figures have sat with the Creatures, including Yankees general manager Brian Cashman and U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor.\n\nIn 2004, Bondy spent the season among the Creatures and wrote a book about his experience, entitling it Bleeding Pinstripes: A Season with the Bleacher Creatures of Yankee Stadium, which was published in 2005. In the blurb, Bondy called it \"a unique, anthropological view of this most dedicated tribe of rooters—their rituals, their personal tribulations, their uncanny commitment to the Bronx ball club and to each other.\" The foreword was written by David Cone.\n\nIn 2009, the Yankees lifted the nine-year alcohol ban in the bleachers in the new Yankee Stadium, where the Bleacher Creatures were relocated to section 203. While no beer vendors come through to the bleachers, fans are permitted to purchase beer in the stadium and take them back to their seats. A few Creatures have admittedly stated they can now desist in their beer smuggling efforts, which they were able to do for years with the help of local delis who used to wrap up sandwiches with beer cans. Other sources of previous alcohol smuggling included \"a guy who would sell those airline-size liquor bottles out of a bathroom stall, like a drug dealer\" according to the New York Post. An April 2009 segment on ABC World News Tonight revealed that the end of the beer ban is a temporary experiment, and if things get out of hand in the section, the Yankees' management might reinstate it. As of the 2022 season, alcohol is still permitted in the bleacher sections.\n\n## Chants and songs\n\nA prominent aspect of the Bleacher Creatures atmosphere is their use of a variety of chants and songs used during the game that are unique to their section.\n\n### Roll call\n\nThe Creatures' most famous and long-standing chant is known as the roll call. During one game in 1998, the fans, led by Ramirez, started chanting the name of Yankees first baseman Tino Martinez. Martinez responded to the chanting fans with a wave, shocking the cheering fans; this started the tradition of roll call where the Bleacher Creatures chant the name of each starting fielder (except the pitcher and catcher). The roll call starts in the first inning after the pitcher throws the first pitch of the game, with the Creatures chanting the names of Yankees players in the field until the players acknowledge them. Roll call has become one of the trademarks of Yankee Stadium according to sports journalists and publications. Former Yankee third baseman Scott Brosius was notorious for not responding immediately to the roll call, as other players on the diamond would. Sometimes he would even wait as long as a minute to respond, getting a kick out of the persistence of the Creatures. In Hideki Matsui's first game at the Stadium in 2003, the chant of \"MAT-SU-I!\" went on for approximately twenty minutes, because he did not know what was going on or how to react. In a 2009 press conference, former Yankees first baseman Jason Giambi said that \"The biggest thing I miss is (the Bleacher Creatures') roll call. There's no doubt about it, it's the best thing in baseball.\"\n\n#### Notable exceptions\n\nFormer or deceased members of the Yankees have been included in chants as well. In 1999, when David Wells made his first appearance at Yankee Stadium after having been traded to the Toronto Blue Jays, his name was chanted. In his tenure with the Yankees, he was the only Yankee pitcher to be included in the roll call every time he pitched. In 2001, some Creatures, led by Japanese Creature, Hiro, learned Japanese so that they could yell obscenities at former Mariners right fielder Ichiro Suzuki. Japanese curses were chanted whenever Ichiro came to town. Ichiro was traded to the Yankees in July 2012. During his first game as a Yankee he was unaware of the roll call and did not respond to the calls. Alfonso Soriano's name was chanted when he made his first appearance after being traded to the Texas Rangers. In the 2006 home opener against the Kansas City Royals, the Bleacher Creatures chanted the name of long-time Yankee outfielder Bernie Williams, who was the designated hitter that day, right after the rest of the defensive lineup. Williams, whose future in baseball was uncertain in the offseason, was in the clubhouse at the time and did not hear the Creatures. The chants continued for around 5 minutes until Williams came out and waved. At the beginning of the 2007 season opener, the Creatures started a chant of \"We want Bernie!\", a reference to the fact that Williams was no longer with the team.\n\nOn May 15, 2011, the Bleacher Creatures chanted Jorge Posada's name after his recent feud with Yankee management, despite Posada not playing in the game. Posada acknowledged them from the dugout. On June 25, 2012, former Yankee center fielder Johnny Damon was greeted by a roll call chant when he returned to Yankee Stadium as a member of the Cleveland Indians. Damon, who played for the Yankees from 2006–09, acknowledged that he may have been the first Yankee player to answer the Bleacher Creature roll call with a signature pose, a tradition continued by other Yankee players, including Nick Swisher, Curtis Granderson, and Brett Gardner. On September 22, 2013, both Andy Pettitte and Mariano Rivera were included in the roll call, despite Pettitte being the starting pitcher and Rivera being a relief pitcher. When Vinny \"Bald Vinny\" Milano was repeatedly asked, via Twitter, whether the Creatures would still include Alex Rodriguez in the roll call around the time of his struggles and suspension in 2013, Milano insisted that A-Rod would still be part of the roll call and that no Yankee would ever be intentionally skipped.\n\nOn July 16, 2010, the Bleacher Creatures elected to not do the roll call out of respect for the recent passing of both public address announcer Bob Sheppard and principal team owner George Steinbrenner. Michael Kay of the YES Network acknowledged this during the top of the first inning during his play-by-play details of the game against the Tampa Bay Rays. The Creatures have done the call in memoriam for former players Phil Rizzuto on August 14, 2007, and Bobby Murcer at the 2008 MLB All Star Game. On June 2, 2021, the Creatures featured Lou Gehrig in the roll call for Lou Gehrig Day, which helped raise funds for the treatment and cure for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.\n\n### The Cowbell Man\n\nAfter the death of Ali Ramirez, the original Cowbell Man, the bell was given to Milton Ousland in 1996. As the official \"Cowbell Man\", nobody else is authorized to use it, although it was agreed upon by the group that other Creatures could take over the duties when he couldn't attend. This agreement was reached due to the many fans who were disappointed that the tradition was not carried out at every game. The cowbell is primarily used to initiate a chant during a Yankees rally. The cowbell can be heard throughout the stadium and often on television broadcasts. Ousland stated that the cowbell is a good luck charm, with the team winning their first World Series in almost 20 years after Ousland inherited the cowbell.\n\n### Other chants and jeers\n\nThe Creatures also have an assortment of other chants which they use at most games. Anti-obscenity laws were exercised in 2007, but are not always strictly enforced; if they are able, the Creatures will turn to the right field box seats at the completion of the roll call and chant \"Box seats suck!\" During the days of the bleachers' no-alcohol-sales policy; fans in the right-field box seats occasionally replied with a chant of \"We've got beer!\" If the Yankees are playing the Red Sox, the intensity of the Yankees – Red Sox rivalry takes hold; the Creatures then cut the 'box seats' chant short and instead chant \"Boston sucks!\" until that dissipates. Also, until the Red Sox won the World Series in , the Creatures would chant \"1918!\" and hold up signs saying \"CURSE OF THE BAMBINO!\" and pictures of Babe Ruth to remind the Red Sox of the last time they won a championship.\n\n## The move to section 203\n\nIn the new stadium, the Creatures occupy section 203 of the stadium's right field bleachers. Before the start of the 2008 MLB season, several creatures publicly expressed their anger with the move out of the old stadium. Creature Vinny Milano was one of them in particular:\n\n> As far as 39 goes next year, there is a right-field bleachers now, there will be a right-field bleachers in the new stadium. When it comes time to pay for our seats, I believe they will offer us something 'comparable' to what we have now and we're pretty much gonna be at their mercy. I have zero faith that anyone that works with or is involved with the Yankees actually cares one way or another if any of us go to the new stadium. Personally, I'm not even sure that I will make the move.\n\nThe Yankees organization did work closely with the Creatures to ensure that they sat together again, and designated a total of 136 season-ticket packages for them in section 203. The move was monitored by long-time Creature Teena Lewis, known as the \"Queen of the Bleachers\", and Marc Chalpin, who organized a list of about 50 Creatures to ensure they would all be sitting together again in the new stadium. Despite the Creatures' concerns over how the Yankees management would handle the move, Lewis said that, \"The Yankees helped us because I calmed everybody down over the years. We behaved ourselves, took away some of the chants, and they pretty much paid us back.\"\n\nUnlike section 39 in the old stadium, section 203 and the rest of the bleachers have access to the entire park. In reference to this new lack of seclusion, and the fact that beer sales are now legal in the section, New York Daily News sports columnist Filip Bondy summed up the new situation by saying, \"At this new-fangled stadium, the golden liquid flows like soda and the walls are down that once protected the aristocracy from the bleacher proletariat. This is bound to create some class warfare down the road, some storming of the Legends suites.\" Bondy also praised the Creatures for \"handling the transition with commendable grace and flexibility.\"\n\n## Controversy and reception\n\nSince the inception of the Bleacher Creatures, many people have held a negative viewpoint towards the section for their notorious attitude towards opposing fans and players, and their raucous nature in general. As a result of their rowdiness, the Creatures have been compared to soccer hooligans in Europe. Seattle Post-Intelligencer reporter Dan Raley called the Creatures \"oblivious to the outside world. Demanding, relentless and venomous\" in a 2001 article. He also claimed that \"They have thrown batteries, coins and a knife at opposing players\" and that \"They throw punches at one another.\" Longtime stadium usher Michael Swann, who used to work in section 39 of the old stadium, also had a negative recollection of them:\n\n> Some are real obnoxious people, some are real foul-mouthed people. Yankee management says if you say certain words and get out of hand, you have to go. But when we try to throw them out, management won't back us. These people won't show us their tickets. They intimidate out-of-towners with tickets into moving to seats somewhere else. They're obnoxious.\n\nOn occasion, one or more Creatures have been asked to leave the stadium by police. The bleacher beer ban in 2000 was blamed on the Creatures, which they regard as a false accusation. However, undercover New York City Police Department officers have issued tickets to different Creatures for public intoxication, both in and outside of the stadium. They have also been accused of heckling rattled musicians in high school bands, which they do not deny. In 2022, the Bleacher Creatures were blamed for garbage being thrown at Cleveland Guardians outfielder Oscar Mercado following a Yankees walk-off victory. Earlier in the game Mercado’s teammate Myles Straw had a verbal altercation with fans in the left field section As a result, the Yankees increased security around the bleachers section.\n\nDuring the seventh-inning stretch, \"Y.M.C.A.\" by the Village People is played at the stadium. For many years the Bleacher Creatures would pick a fan of the opposite team and during the singing and instead chant \"Why are you gay?\" instead of the original song chorus \"It's fun to stay at the Y.M.C.A.\". After complaints from both fans and the Yankees, several key Bleacher Creatures agreed to discontinue the chant in 2010. Despite the agreement to end the chant, some fans stated some Creatures have continued with the song with no intervention from Yankees personnel.\n\nComparisons have been made between the Creatures and other fan groups, including The 7 Line Army of the New York Mets, their crosstown rivals. The Creatures have been praised for their loyalty and dedication in numerous articles and features from Filip Bondy, and in his book as well. Bryan Hoch, writing for MLB.com, stated that the Bleacher Creatures, especially roll call, \"would remain part of the Stadium experience for years to come\". In a 2009 segment, ABC World News Tonight called the Creatures \"the most loyal fans any team could want.\"\n\n## See also\n\n- Bleacher Bums\n- The 7 Line Army\n- Dawg Pound", "revid": "1171860086", "description": "Group of fans of the New York Yankees", "categories": ["Culture of New York City", "Gatherings of baseball fans", "New York Yankees"]}
{"id": "60310620", "url": null, "title": "1921–22 Cardiff City F.C. season", "text": "The 1921–22 season was the 21st season of competitive football played by Cardiff City F.C. and the team's first in the First Division of The Football League. Cardiff had won promotion the previous season by finishing as runners-up in the Second Division, becoming the first Welsh team to reach the top tier of English football.\n\nCardiff had a difficult start to the season, losing the first six matches of the campaign. They eventually saw results improve and finished in fourth place. The club entered the FA Cup in the first round and progressed to the fourth, before being defeated by Tottenham Hotspur after a replay. Cardiff went on to win the Welsh Cup for the third time in the club's history after defeating Ton Pentre 2–0 in the final, having scored seventeen goals and conceded only one during their cup run.\n\nDuring the season, 31 players made at least one appearance for the club. Billy Grimshaw played in more games than any other player, featuring in 47 matches in all competitions. Len Davies finished the season as the side's highest goalscorer with 30 in all competitions, a new club record. His tally of seventeen in the First Division was three short of Jimmy Gill's total, but his fourteen in cup matches, including eight in four appearances in the Welsh Cup, saw him outscore his teammate. The highest attendance recorded at Ninian Park was 51,000 for the FA Cup fourth-round tie against Tottenham. The league fixture against Tottenham recorded an attendance of 50,000 although an extra 6,000–10,000 were estimated to have broken into the ground after turnstiles were closed. The average league attendance during the season was 27,500.\n\n## Background and preseason\n\nDuring the 1920–21 season, Cardiff City were elected into the Second Division of The Football League having spent the previous decade playing in the Southern Football League. In the side's first season in the Second Division, they finished as runners-up behind Birmingham on goal average, a tiebreak formula whereby a team's goals scored is divided by the number of goals conceded, after the two teams accumulated the same number of points. As a result, Cardiff won promotion to the First Division, becoming the first Welsh side to play in the top tier of English football. They also reached the semi-final of the FA Cup.\n\nManager Fred Stewart remained in charge of the first team for the tenth year. He made several additions to the squad, signing full-back Tommy Brown from New Brighton and forward Willie Page, the brother of Cardiff defender Jack Page, from Port Vale. Cardiff were investigated by The Football Association (FA) and the Football Association of Wales (FAW) over an illegal approach for Wolverhampton Wanderers defender Dickie Baugh Jr. The club was found guilty with Baugh having signed an agreement with an agent acting on behalf of Cardiff despite still being contracted to Wolves. Cardiff were fined £50 and Baugh £20. The agent involved was subsequently banned from all football grounds under the jurisdictions of either the FA or FAW. John Pritchard was elected chairman of the club ahead of the new season but left the role in November and was replaced by Walter Empsall.\n\nCardiff also made significant investments in the club's ground Ninian Park. A new pitch was laid using sea-washed turf which officials at the club labelled as \"now being equal to the best in the country\". The earthen embankments that enclosed the pitch were also built up to improve viewing for spectators. The latter work nearly resulted in disaster when the refuse being tipped by Cardiff Corporation caught alight and spread across the Grangetown side of the ground. The fire was doused, with the aid of hundreds of local supporters who had raced to the ground to offer help, and little damage was sustained. Having won promotion and reached the semi-final of the FA Cup, The Times expected Cardiff to adapt well to the higher tier.\n\n## First Division\n\n### August–November\n\nIn Cardiff's first match in the First Division, they met FA Cup holders Tottenham Hotspur at Ninian Park. The game therefore became the first top-tier match in English football to be played in Wales and was described in The Times as \"the most important event in their (Cardiff's) history\". The fixture attracted a large crowd, and when 50,000 supporters had paid and been allowed into the ground officials attempted to close the gates. With thousands still queuing to gain entry, supporters broke through the gates and forced their way into the ground. Club officials estimated that between 6,000 and 10,000 people broke into the ground after the gates were initially closed. Cardiff started the season without influential defender Jimmy Blair who was recovering from a bout of pneumonia; Jack Page started the opening match in his place. Tottenham suffered a setback early in the game as Jimmy Seed picked up an injury, but proved too strong for Cardiff and scored the only goal of the game through Jimmy Banks from outside the penalty area. The excessive crowd numbers produced several unsavoury incidents which included fans taking over the scoreboard to use it a vantage point. This experience prompted the club to seek advice from local police on crowd control at future matches.\n\nDefeat to Tottenham was the start of a difficult beginning in the First Division for the club. Defender Bert Smith became the first player to score for Cardiff in the division in the side's following match with a consolation goal during a 2–1 defeat to Aston Villa on 29 August. Cardiff met Tottenham in the reverse fixture five days later at their opposition's home ground but, having proven stubborn opposition for the more experienced side in the first meeting, they were soundly beaten after conceding three goals in the opening 30 minutes of the match. The game finished 4–1 to Tottenham with The Times describing victory for the London-based side as \"a very easy matter\". A 4–0 defeat in the reverse fixture against Aston Villa followed, prompting Stewart to make changes to his side ahead of back-to-back fixtures against Oldham Athletic. Blair returned to action having missed the first four matches and goalkeeper Herbert Kneeshaw was dropped in favour of Ben Davies. Billy Hardy, who had been ever present the previous season, was also left out due to injury along with forward George West. The changes yielded little reward as Cardiff lost both fixtures against Oldham, 1–0 at home, 2–1 away, starting the campaign with six consecutive defeats which left them bottom of the table.\n\nCardiff's next fixture was against unbeaten league leaders Middlesbrough in a match that was described in The Times as \"the most noteworthy example of disparity of strength between contesting clubs\". In a surprising turn of form given the club's league form, Cardiff recorded their first victory in the First Division after causing an upset to win 3–1 and secure two points. Jimmy Gill, who had been the club's top scorer the previous season, scored his first goals of the campaign with a brace and Harry Nash added a third. The victory prompted an upturn in fortune for the team as they lost only one of their five matches in October, a 2–1 defeat to Bolton Wanderers. Gill enjoyed a fine run of form during this time, scoring six goals in the five matches including braces during victories over West Bromwich Albion and Bolton in the reverse fixture. With the club struggling for goals, October also saw the arrival of Joe Clennell from Everton for £1,500 (approximately £75,000 in 2020). In an attempt to recoup some of the transfer fee, two forwards who had played an integral role in promotion in the 1920–21 season, Arthur Cashmore and Fred Pagnam, were sold having failed to score in a combined 17 appearances. The club also signed Jimmy Nelson from Irish side Crusaders for £500 (approximately £25,000 in 2020). On 31 October, club captain Fred Keenor was granted a benefit match against Bristol City.\n\n### November–May\n\nBack-to-back fixtures against Manchester City at the start of November yielded only a point for Cardiff, who lost 2–0 at home and drew 1–1 away. Two victories against Everton later in the month proved a turning point in the season for Cardiff. The departure of Pagnam allowed Len Davies to make his first appearances of the season, scoring all three of Cardiff's goals in 2–1 and 1–0 victories. The second fixture also saw Hardy and Smith return after injury layoffs. A much improved run of form ensued with Cardiff losing only one of their following thirteen league matches led by the goals of Davies, Gill and Clennell. Davies also scored the first hat-trick in The Football League by a Cardiff player during a 6–3 victory over Bradford City on 21 January 1922. As well as Bradford, the team's run included wins over Birmingham (twice), Arsenal, Preston North End, Blackburn Rovers and Chelsea. The Times described the team during this time as appearing \"almost invincible\" as their improved form lifted them to sixth in the table. The team's victory over Blackburn during this spell saw an unusual Football League debutant when club trainer George Latham was forced into action. Hours before the game was due to start, Gill and Evans both went down with sickness and only one player, Nash, had travelled in reserve. Latham, who had played professionally previously, stepped in and became the oldest player in the club's history at 41 years old.\n\nOn 25 February, Cardiff suffered their first defeat since early December, losing 1–0 to Chelsea at Stamford Bridge as the opposition defence proved impregnable. The team recovered to beat Sheffield United 2–0 in their following match with goals from Clennell and Ken MacDonald but suffered a further blow after losing 1–0 to struggling Bradford who were 21st in the table. Two matches against reigning First Division champions Burnley produced positive results as the teams drew 1–1 at Turf Moor before Cardiff won the reverse fixture 4–2 at Ninian Park. Len Davies scored a brace with Gill and Jack Evans scoring one each. Cardiff repeated the pattern in their following two matches against Newcastle United, drawing away before Len Davies scored the only goal in a home victory. Despite taking the lead early in the match, Cardiff suffered a 5–1 defeat to league leaders Liverpool on 15 April. Two days later, they lost heavily again in a 3–1 defeat to Blackburn. They met Liverpool in the reverse fixture on 22 April, their opponents already having secured the First Division title. Cardiff went on to win the match 2–0. They finished the season with consecutive draws against Sheffield United and Manchester United before beating the already-relegated Manchester United again in the final game. The side finished their inaugural season in the First Division in fourth place.\n\n### Match results\n\nKey\n\n- In result column, Cardiff City's score shown first\n- H = Home match\n- A = Away match\n\n- pen. = Penalty kick\n- o.g. = Own goal\n\nResults\n\n### Partial league table\n\nSource:\n\n## Cup matches\n\n### FA Cup\n\nCardiff entered the competition in the first round, where they drawn against fellow First Division side Manchester United. Cardiff won the match 4–1, following a brace from Len Davies and one each from Nash and Clennell, and were praised by The Times for a \"very brilliant performance\". In the second round, the team were drawn away against Third Division side Southampton, whom they had defeated in the third round the previous year. The lower ranked side held Cardiff to a 1–1 draw at The Dell but goals from Gill and Clennell in the replay sent Cardiff through in a 2–0 victory.\n\nThe side met Second Division leaders Nottingham Forest in the third round. Len Davies scored his second brace in the competition to lead the side to a 4–1 victory in front of over 50,000 spectators at Ninian Park. Their win led to a fourth-round meeting with cup holders Tottenham Hotspur. The match was hotly anticipated, being described by The Times as \"the greatest of the day\". Over 50,000 fans again attended Ninian Park for the tie and despite Cardiff having the better of the first half, Tottenham took the lead through Jimmy Seed after the forward dribbled through the defence to strike the ball past Ben Davies with a powerful shot. Cardiff pressed for the remainder of the match with Billy Grimshaw, Gill and Clennell all going close to scoring. As the match entered the final minute, Len Davies was able to turn the ball into the net to salvage a replay for Cardiff.\n\nThe replay was held at Tottenham's ground White Hart Lane and, such was the demand for tickets, match officials agreed for spectators to be allowed to sit or kneel to the very edge of the pitch. Tottenham enjoyed the brighter start to the match but Cardiff took the lead when Jack Evans beat his man on the wing and crossed for Gill to score. In the second half, Tottenham continued to attack and were rewarded with an equaliser when Jimmy Dimmock headed in from a corner kick. Tottenham went on to score a second when Ben Davies failed to clear a cross and the ball fell to Charlie Wilson who scored the winning goal. Wilson's effort was controversial as Cardiff players complained that goalkeeper Davies had been deliberately impeded as he attempted to deal with the cross but the referee ignored their complaints and the goal stood. Tottenham advanced to the semifinal where they lost 2–1 to Preston North End.\n\n### Match results\n\nKey\n\n- In result column, Cardiff City's score shown first\n- H = Home match\n- A = Away match\n\n- pen. = Penalty kick\n- o.g. = Own goal\n\nResults\n\n### Welsh Cup\n\nCardiff entered the Welsh Cup in the third round, being drawn against Football League Third Division South side Newport County. Cardiff's side ultimately proved too strong for Newport as the match ended 7–0 with Len Davies scoring four, Grimshaw two and Keenor one. The side continued their free-scoring form in the following round where they defeated Merthyr Town, also of the Third Division South, with Len Davies scoring a hat-trick during a 5–0 win. In the semifinal, they were drawn against Welsh league side Pontypridd who had eliminated them from the competition the previous year. Keenor, Gill and Jack Evans each scored once to secure a 3–0 victory and send Cardiff through to the final. Ton Pentre were their opponents as Cardiff secured their third Welsh Cup title after winning 2–0 at Taff Vale Park. Gill and Len Davies each scored once; Davies' goal was his eighth in the competition.\n\n### Match results\n\nKey\n\n- In result column, Cardiff City's score shown first\n- H = Home match\n- A = Away match\n\n- pen. = Penalty kick\n- o.g. = Own goal\n\nResults\n\n## Players\n\nBilly Grimshaw made the most appearances of any Cardiff player during the season, featuring in 47 matches in all competitions. He also made the most league appearances with 38. Jack Evans was the next highest with 44 appearances and a further five players made 40 or more appearances. Goalkeeper Tom Farquharson made a single appearance in the final match of the season. He would go on to set a club record with 445 appearances in The Football League that stood until 1985 when it was surpassed by Phil Dwyer. Farquharson was one of six players who featured in just one match for the club during the campaign. The others included Albert Barnett, who was recovering from a broken leg suffered the previous season, and George Latham, the club's trainer who played one match during an injury crisis. At the age of 41, Latham remains the oldest player ever to feature in a competitive fixture for Cardiff. Two of the players, Ernie Anderson and James Melville, never played another match for Cardiff before moving on.\n\nLen Davies was the club's top goalscorer with 30 goals across all competitions. Although he scored three fewer than Jimmy Gill in league competition, his prolific scoring in cup competitions saw him outscore his teammate. His 30 goals was also a new club single-season record, surpassing Gill's tally of 20 the previous year and standing until the 1926–27 season when Hughie Ferguson scored 32 times. Gill's 21 league goals was also a new club record, surpassing his own tally from the previous year. The record stood for two seasons, until Len Davies scored 23 during the 1923–24 campaign. Davies and Gill were two of the three players to score ten or more goals for Cardiff during the season, the third being Joe Clennell. Eleven players scored at least one goal during the course of the season and one opposition player scored an own goal.\n\nSources:\n\n## Aftermath\n\nBrown and Willie Page, the two signings made at the start of the 1921–22 campaign, would both depart after a single season with only Brown having played for the first team. Such was Stewart's confidence in his side that the club made no major signings before the start of the following season and only a poor run of form toward the end of 1922 prompted the arrival of a few players. As a result of the team's performance, they were regarded as an established side for the 1922–23 season with The Times describing the side as possessing \"undeniable all-round ability\" in its preseason report.\n\nThe club recorded an annual income of £63,000 (approximately £3.2 million in 2020) for the campaign, £12,000 (approximately £600,000 in 2020) of which was profit. The difficulties in crowd control during the opening match against Tottenham had led the club to possessing what was described as \"the heaviest police bill in the country\". The construction of a concrete wall around the ground to counteract any further instances was approved in the hope of lowering the bill.", "revid": "1136932216", "description": "21st season of competitive football", "categories": ["Cardiff City F.C. seasons", "Welsh football clubs 1921–22 season"]}
{"id": "62705243", "url": null, "title": "2021 World Rally Championship", "text": "The 2021 FIA World Rally Championship was the forty-ninth season of the World Rally Championship, an auto racing competition recognised by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) as the highest class of international rallying. Teams and crews competed in twelve rallies for the World Rally Championships for Drivers, Co-drivers and Manufacturers. Crews were free to compete in cars complying with World Rally Car, Rally Pyramid and Group R regulations; however, only manufacturers competing with World Rally Cars homologated under regulations introduced in 2017 were eligible to score points in the Manufacturers' championship. The championship began in January 2021 with the Rallye Monte-Carlo and concluded in November 2021 with Rally Monza. The series was supported by the World Rally Championship-2 and World Rally Championship-3 categories at every round of the championship and by the Junior World Rally Championship at selected events.\n\nSébastien Ogier and Julien Ingrassia were the defending drivers' and co-drivers' champions, having secured their seventh championship titles at the 2020 Rally Monza. Hyundai were the defending manufacturers' champions and were defending their manufacturers' title for the second consecutive year.\n\nAt the conclusion of the championship, Ogier and Ingrassia won their eighth world titles after winning the 2021 Rally Monza. Elfyn Evans and Scott Martin finished second, trailing by twenty-three points. Thierry Neuville and Martijn Wydaeghe were third, a further thirty-one points behind. In the manufacturers' championship, Toyota Gazoo Racing WRT clinched the title, a massive fifty-nine-point lead over the defending manufacturer champion Hyundai Shell Mobis WRT, with M-Sport Ford WRT in third.\n\n## Calendar\n\nThe 2021 championship was contested over twelve rounds in Europe and Africa:\n\nThe following rounds were included on the original calendar published by WRC Promoter GmbH, but were later cancelled:\n\n### Calendar changes\n\nWith the addition of Rally Chile to the calendar in 2019, the FIA opened the tender process for new events to join the championship in 2020. Three events were successful, but the championship was affected by a series of cancellations in 2019 and 2020 that necessitated changes to the 2021 calendar:\n\n- Rally Catalunya returned to the championship. The rally was removed from the 2020 schedule as part of an event-sharing agreement that would see it removed from the calendar for one year, but was guaranteed a spot on the calendar for the next two. The rally returned to running exclusively on tarmac roads for the first time since .\n\n- Rally Chile was due to return after a one-year absence. The rally had been included on the original draft of the 2020 calendar, but was later cancelled in the face of ongoing civil unrest in the country. Organisers of the event negotiated a return to the calendar for the 2021 championship, but it was again cancelled due to continued travel and other restrictions amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Acropolis Rally replaced the rally after a seven-year absence on the calendar.\n- Rally Croatia made its championship debut, replacing Rally Mexico. Croatia thus became the 34th country to host a World Rally Championship round. It was based in Zagreb, and ran on tarmac roads.\n- Rally Deutschland was removed from the calendar. The event had planned to run in 2020, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was not included on the 2021 calendar.\n- The Rallies of Finland and Portugal also returned to the championship after a one-year absence. The 2020 events were cancelled in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\n- Rally GB was replaced by the Ypres Rally in Belgium. Rally GB had originally planned to move from Wales to Northern Ireland, but the event was replaced when organisers were unable to come to an agreement with the government of Northern Ireland to support the rally.\n- Rally Japan was scheduled to return to the calendar for the first time since , but it was ultimately called off due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The rally was also originally included on the 2020 calendar, but was also cancelled because of the pandemic. Rally Monza was confirmed to hold the season finale for the second year in a row.\n- The Safari Rally was run as a World Championship event for the first time since . The event was based in the Kenyan capital Nairobi and featured stages around Lake Naivasha. The event had been planned to make its return to the championship in 2020, but was cancelled in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\n- Rally Sweden was included on the first draft of the calendar with its traditional February date, but was cancelled before the start of the season due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Arctic Rally in northern Finland was chosen as a replacement to ensure that a winter rally was included on the calendar.\n\nIn light of the disruption caused by the pandemic in 2020 and in anticipation of further delays, the calendar included an additional six reserve rounds that could be included in the event of rallies being cancelled. These events include rallies in Turkey, Argentina and Latvia. The Ypres Rally had also been included on this reserve list before it replaced Rally GB, so as the Acropolis Rally and Rally Monza.\n\n## Entries\n\nFour teams from three manufacturers contested the 2021 World Rally Championship for Manufacturers, enlisting the following crews for each round as detailed. All crews use tyres provided by Pirelli.\n\nThe below crews are not entered to score manufacturer points and are entered in World Rally Cars as privateers or under arrangement with the manufacturers.\n\n### In detail\n\nM-Sport Ford WRT only entered two full-time entries in 2021. The first was crewed by Gus Greensmith and Elliott Edmondson, who contested selected rallies for the team in 2019 and 2020. Edmondson was later replaced by Chris Patterson. Stuart Loudon became Greensmith's third co-driver of the season, when Patterson was absent in Sardinia due to personal reasons. Greensmith and Patterson parted away after Rally de Catalunya as Patterson decided to retire from competition. Jonas Andersson is confirmed to co-drive with Greensmith in the season finale. The second car was shared by two crews; one made up of World Rally Championship-2 graduates Adrien Fourmaux and Renaud Jamoul, while the other was led by Teemu Suninen, who was partnered by Mikko Markkula. However, Suninen announced that he quited from the team by mid season. Fourmaux split away with Jamoul during the season. Alexandre Coria became Fourmaux's new co-driver. Esapekka Lappi and Janne Ferm, who drove for M-Sport in 2020, left the team. The two later joined World Rally Championship-2 team Movisport.\n\nHyundai retained the line-up of Ott Tänak and Martin Järveoja. Thierry Neuville also retained with the team, but he ended his ten-year partnership with Nicolas Gilsoul. Martijn Wydaeghe became Neuville's new co-driver. The team's third entry was shared between crews led by Dani Sordo and Craig Breen. Sordo formed a new partnership with new co-driver Borja Rozada after the Monte Carlo Rally as Carlos del Barrio moved to co-drive with Fabrizio Zaldívar in the WRC-3 category. However, their partnership only lasted three rounds, with Cándido Carrera replaced Rozada. Nine-time World Champion Sébastien Loeb left Hyundai to join Bahrain Raid Xtreme team in the 2021 Dakar Rally and Team X44 in the Extreme E electric rally raid series. Tänak is confirmed to miss the season's finale for family reasons. Suninen, who left M-Sport and competed for Hyundai in the WRC-2 category in Spain, replaced the Estonian in Monza.\n\nHyundai's second team, Hyundai 2C Competition, entered an i20 Coupe WRC for Pierre-Louis Loubet and Vincent Landais at every round of the championship. Loubet and Landais had previously contested three events with the team in 2020. Florian Haut-Labourdette later replaced Landais to co-drive with Loubet since Portugal. However, Loubet's full-season programme was brought to an early end as he suffered a hip injury after being involving in a car accident. Junior World Rally Champion Nil Solans made his top-tier debut in Spain as a replacement to the injured Loubet with Marc Martí. Oliver Solberg and Aaron Johnston made their World Rally Car debut at the Arctic Rally. However, Johnston was replaced by Sebastian Marshall at the weekend after testing positive for COVID-19 pandemic. Solberg announced later in the season that the partnership with Johnston ended. American Rally Association champion Craig Drew took over the seat in Catalunya, before Edmondson cooperated with Solberg in Monza.\n\nToyota Gazoo Racing WRT was planned to introduce a new car based on the Toyota GR Yaris, an \"homologation special\", or road-going version of a car specifically designed for competition and with production limited to the minimum number required to meet homologation requirements. However, the team later announced that it had abandoned development the GR Yaris, citing the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the automotive industry and the costs of developing the car when new regulations were due to be introduced in . Tommi Mäkinen stepped down from Toyota's team principal to become the company's motorsport advisor. Former driver Jari-Matti Latvala was named to succeed Mäkinen's role.\n\nReigning World Drivers' Champion Sébastien Ogier announced that he would retire from full-time competition at the end of the 2020 championship, but his retirement was delayed when he renewed a one-year deal with Toyota. Ogier explained that his decision to stay in the sport was because the shortened 2020 championship was not how he wanted his career to end. The team retained the pairings of Elfyn Evans and Scott Martin and of Kalle Rovanperä and Jonne Halttunen. Takamoto Katsuta and Daniel Barritt also remained with the team to contest a full-time campaign in a fourth car. Barritt missed several events following back and neck injuries suffered in Estonia. Keaton Williams joined Katsuta as substitute co-driver in Greece before a family emergency forced him to withdraw from in the next two events. Johnston became Katsuta's third co-driver following the departure with Solberg, but soon succeeded by Edmondson in the following round.\n\n## Changes\n\n### Technical regulations\n\nPirelli has become the championships' sole nominated tyre supplier with the removal of Michelin and Yokohama. Under the terms of the agreement, Pirelli will supply tyres to all entrants of four-wheel drive cars.\n\n### Sporting regulations\n\nThe season saw the creation of the World Rally Championship for Teams, a new championship title that existed alongside the World Rally Championships for Drivers, Co-drivers and Manufacturers. A team taking part in the Teams' championship was able to only score points in a rally if a manufacturer competing with the same make of car had been entered into the event. Teams that competed in the Teams' championship were required to take part in a minimum of seven rallies, one of which had to be outside Europe to be eligible for the championship.\n\nAs the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic meant that only seven of the thirteen events planned for the 2020 championship took place, the World Motorsport Council passed a resolution declaring that for the drivers', co-drivers' and manufacturers' championship titles to be awarded a minimum of six rallies must be held.\n\nManufacturers were awarded Power Stage bonus points for the first time. The scoring system remains the same as that used by drivers and co-drivers, with five points awarded for the fastest manufacturer car down to one point for the fifth quickest. Only the two fastest drivers from a single manufacturer are eligible to score.\n\n## Season report\n\n### Opening rounds\n\nThe 2021 FIA World Rally Championship began in Monaco. The Hyundai crew of Ott Tänak and Martin Järveoja took an early lead, but their lead was wiped out when by a loss of power in hairpins. The Estonian pair's rally was further hampered by two punctures, which meant that they did not have enough rubber on one of their wheels for the car to be considered road legal. Unable to complete the liaison between special stages, Tänak and Järveoja were ruled out for the second consecutive year in Monte-Carlo. The M-Sport crew of Teemu Suninen and Mikko Markkula also retired from the rally when they crashed out on the very first stage of the event. Local heroes Sébastien Ogier and Julien Ingrassia were the favourites for the weekend. Despite a flat tire that lost the lead to their teammates Elfyn Evans and Scott Martin, the reigning world champions set fastest stage time after fastest stage time to regain the top spot and eventually won their eighth Monte Carlo victory, a new record for wins in Monte Carlo. They also became the first crew to win the rally with five different manufacturers. Evans and Martin finished second to complete a Toyota one-two. The Japanese manufacturer's party was further flourished by the dominance at the Power Stage, which saw them build a twenty-two-point lead over the reigning manufacturers' champions Hyundai. The prior year's victor, Thierry Neuville, joined them on the podium with his new co-driver Martijn Wydaeghe, whose first ever podium in the championship.\n\nThe Arctic Rally Finland saw the championship first visiting inside the Arctic Circle, where local favourites Kalle Rovanperä and Jonne Halttunen were determined to win their first WRC event. However, their ambition was spoiled by Tänak and Järveoja, who benefited from a greater road position. The former world champions demonstrated brilliant pace throughout the weekend, leading the event from start to finish to win their first rally of the season. Unable to match the speed of Tänak and Järveoja, Rovanperä and Halttunen were threatened by Neuville and Wydaeghe going onto the final day. The battle for the runner-up spot would decide the championship leads. Eventually, the Finnish crew managed to edge the Belgian pair by 2.3 seconds as well as winning the Power Stage. This was enough to ensure the twenty-year-old Rovanperä to become the youngest driver to lead the championship in the forty-nine-year history of the WRC. Reigning world champions Ogier and Ingrassia had a weekend to forget. The French crew went into a snowbank 200 meters from the flying finish on Saturday's final test, which took them twenty minutes to free themselves from. They eventually limped home in twentieth place but did collect one consolation point form the Power Stage.\n\nThe third round of the season saw the championship held in Croatia, the thirty-fourth country to host a WRC event. Rovanperä and Halttunen entered the rally as championship leaders, but they crashed out on the very first stage of the rally. This gave Neuville and Wydaeghe a clean road, leading the rally onto Saturday. However, an incorrect tyre choice of hard and soft compound mixture plus brake issues on Saturday's morning loop saw them drop down to third. Ogier and Ingrassia became the new rally leaders, but a puncture meant their lead was limited to single-digits. Ogier and Ingrassia snatched the victory and reclaimed the championship leads. 0.6 second was the winning margin, making the rally the third closest win in history after the 2011 Jordan Rally and the 2007 Rally New Zealand. In addition to a full thirty championship points haul, the French pair also reached their 600th stage win milestone. With two 1–2 finishes in three rounds, Toyota held an early lead in the manufacturers' standings, twenty-seven points cleared of Hyundai. Adrien Fourmaux and Renaud Jamoul made their World Rally Car debut with M-Sport Ford this weekend. They posted several top-five stage times to record a remarkable fifth place.\n\n### Mid-season gravel events\n\nRally Portugal marked the championship returned to the gravel surface in over 200 days. Hyundai dominated the early stage of the rally, holding 1–2–3 after Friday's morning loop. The situation was looking good for the South Korean manufacturer until Neuville and Wydaeghe damaged their rear-right suspension in a tight left-hander following an over-optimistic pacenote in the afternoon. Benefitting from their main rivals' retirements and a relative late road position, Evans and Martin won the rally, their first of the season. Dani Sordo and new co-driver Borja Rozada completed the event second overall to bring their team valuable points after a disaster weekend for Hyundai, while Ogier and Ingrassia rounded out of the podium. Katsuta drove a clean and consistent rally, ensuring the Japanese driver a career-high fourth place.\n\nThe Sardinia island rally witnessed another catastrophic weekend for Hyundai. Despite a dominant performance on Friday, the crews of Tänak and Järveoja and of Sordo and Rozada retired from Saturday due to rear suspension damage. Following Hyundai's double disasters, Ogier and Ingrassia took over the rally, with Evans and Martin covered second. With another 1–2 finish, Toyota's lead over Hyundai extended to massive forty-nine points. Neuville and Wydaeghe were the only hope of Hyundai. The Belgian crew was struggling throughout the event and could only managed to finish third.\n\nThe Safari Rally in Kenya, Africa is renowned for impassable, hard to traverse, open, soft, bumpy, rocky and gravel roads. When the World Rally Championship returned to Kenya after nineteen years, nothing changed. Neuville and Wydaeghe retired from the lead on the final day with a suspension-collapsed issue. This meant for the third consecutive rally, a Hyundai retired from the top spot. Japanese driver Takamoto Katsuta became the new rally leader afterwards, leading a WRC event for the first in his career, but he and his co-driver Barritt were soon overhauled by a charging Ogier and Ingrassia, who were once down in seventh overall. The French crew eventually won the eventful rally to wrap up their fourth victory of the season, and held a commanding lead of thirty-four points in the drivers' and co-drivers' championships heading into the second half of the season. Katsuta secured his WRC podium alongside Barritt, with Tänak and Järveoja rounded out of the podium.\n\nHalfway through the season, the championship's next stop was Rally Estonia. Ahead of home crowds, local favourites Tänak and Järveoja were keen to repeat their success one year ago. They initially led the rally, but double punctures on Friday's morning loop put them from heroes to zeroes as they run out of spare wheels. Following Tänak and Järveoja's issue, Rovanperä and Halttunen took the lead. Having fended off the pursuit of Craig Breen and Paul Nagle, they claimed their maiden WRC win. At 20 years and 290 days, Rovanperä became the youngest driver to win a WRC event, breaking the previous record of 22 years and 313 days held by Jari-Matti Latvala. Breen and Nagle achieved their first podium of the season by finishing second, with teammates Neuville and Wydaeghe rounded out of the podium with their fifth third place.\n\n### New and return rallies\n\nThe debut of Ypres Rally on the calendar meant Belgium became the thirty-fifth country to host a WRC event. The combination of bridle path and the famous Spa-Francorchamps circuit proved to be relentless for competitors. Local experience was the key to success, which was why local heroes Neuville and Wydaeghe came out in front, bagging an emotional home triumph. This was also the first career victory for Wydaeghe. The only crew who can match their blistering pace were their teammates Breen and Nagle. The Irish crew completed the weekend with another second place.\n\nGreece gave the championship a warm welcome as the Acropolis Rally returned to the calendar after eight years. Victory in the event belonged to Rovanperä and Halttunen, who steered out of trouble and bagged their second victory of the season. The result also saw Toyota extend their championship lead to a mighty fifty-seven points. With only three rounds to go, things were looking really promising for their championship bid.\n\nRally Finland went ahead on the twenty-first birthday of Rovanperä, who was keen to win his home event. He and Halttunen were running in the front field until they hit with a large pile of gravel on Saturday morning. This caused significant damage to their Yaris, which led to their retirement from the day. Katsuta and new co-driver Aaron Johnston also retired from the day when they ran too deep into a quick left-hander and clouted the bank on the right. Neuville and Wydaeghe's slim title hopes were completely shattered when they stopped halfway through the second test of the Patajoki stage following a compression broke the radiator and caused a water leak. Championship leaders Ogier and Ingrassia were struggled for pace all the weekend, and a one-minute time penalty for not fastening crash helmet strap meant they were in a no men's land. Meanwhile, teammates Evans and Martin were out in front and ultimately won the rally as well as the Power Stage. The result saw Evans and Martin slashed the championship gap by a massive twenty points, trailing Ogier and Ingrassia by twenty-four points after the event.\n\n### Closing rounds\n\nAlthough Neuville and Wydaeghe lost any chance to clinch the world titles coming into the event, they completely dominated the Spain tarmac, winning a total of ten special stages to grab their second victory of the season after overcoming a late starter motor problem. Evans and Martin kept their title hopes alive as they outscored championship leaders Ogier and Ingrassia. The French crew was looking good to achieve a podium finish till an engine stall at Saturday's final test erased their gap over local heros Sordo and Cándido Carrera and eventually got overhauled on Sunday morning. Katsuta and Johnston's hope of a good result was gone at the very first stage when their Yaris understeered into the barrier at the opening stage of Friday.\n\nThe championship was down to the wire as the season finale was again held at Monza. Holding a healthy lead in the championship standings, championship leaders Ogier and Ingrassia immediately took the lead. Title rivals Evans and Martin passed Ogier and Ingrassia by the end of the first day, but soon lost it back to the French crew in the following morning loop. The top spot changed hands repeatedly. Eventually, Ogier and Ingrassia came out on top, winning their fifth rally of the season to bag their eighth world titles. Sordo and Carrera rounded out of the podium after teammates Neuville and Wydaeghe spun into traffic barrier on Saturday. Manufacturer-wise, Toyota won a total of nine victories out of twelve in comparison to Hyundai's three, which was enough for the Japanese team to clinch the title.\n\n## Results and standings\n\n### Season summary\n\n### Scoring system\n\nPoints were awarded to the top ten classified finishers in each event. In the manufacturers' championship, teams were eligible to nominate three crews to score points, but these points were only awarded to the top two classified finishers representing a manufacturer and driving a 2017-specification World Rally Car. There were also five bonus points awarded to the winners of the Power Stage, four points for second place, three for third, two for fourth and one for fifth. Power Stage points were awarded in the drivers', co-drivers' and manufacturers' championships.\n\n### FIA World Rally Championship for Drivers\n\nThe driver who recorded a top-ten finish was taken into account for the championship regardless of the categories.\n\n### FIA World Rally Championship for Co-Drivers\n\nThe co-driver who recorded a top-ten finish was taken into account for the championship regardless of the categories.\n\n### FIA World Rally Championship for Manufacturers\n\nOnly the best two results of each manufacturer in the respective overall classification and Power Stage at each rally were taken into account for the championship.", "revid": "1154446335", "description": "49th running of the World Rally Championship", "categories": ["2021 World Rally Championship season", "2021 in motorsport", "2021 in rallying", "Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on motorsport", "World Rally Championship seasons"]}
{"id": "3094114", "url": null, "title": "Early life of Jan Smuts", "text": "Jan Christian Smuts (aka Jan Christiaan Smuts), OM, CH, ED, KC, FRS (24 May 1870–11 September 1950) was a prominent South African and Commonwealth statesman, military leader, and philosopher. He served as a Boer General during the Boer War, a British General during the First World War and was appointed Field Marshal by King George VI during the Second World War. In addition to various cabinet appointments, he served as Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 until 1924 and from 1939 until 1948. From 1917 to 1919 he was one of five members of the British War Cabinet, helping to create the Royal Air Force. He played a leading part in the post-war settlements at the end of both world wars, making significant contributions towards the creation of the League of Nations and the United Nations. He did much to redefine the relationship between Britain and the Dominions and Colonies, leading to the formation of the British Commonwealth.\n\nJan Smuts was born in 1870, the second son of a traditional Boer farming family. By rural tradition, the eldest son would be the only child to receive a full formal education; however, on the death of his elder brother in 1882, 12-year-old Jan was sent to school for the first time. After four years of education he had made exceptional progress, gaining admission to study at Victoria College in Stellenbosch. He graduated in 1891 with first-class honours in Literature and Science. With this strong academic background, he applied for, and won, the Ebden scholarship for overseas study, electing to read law at Christ's College, Cambridge. After further academic success, and the recipient of many prestigious academic awards, he graduated in 1894 with double First-class honours. After graduating, Smuts passed the examinations for the Inns of Court, entering the Middle Temple. In 1895, despite the prospect of a bright future in the United Kingdom, the homesick Smuts returned to South Africa.\n\n## In South Africa\n\n### Childhood\n\nOn 24 May 1870, at the Smuts family farm, Bovenplaats, in the district of Malmesbury, Cape Colony, a child was born to Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina. This child, their second son in what was to become a family of four sons and two daughters, was christened Jan Christiaan after his maternal grandfather, Jan Christiaan de Vries\n\nThe Smuts family were prosperous yeoman farmers, long-established in the area. For four generations, since 1786, they had farmed in the Malmesbury district, settling on the farm Ongegund, of which Bovenplaats was a part, in 1818. This area was part of the so-called Swartland, the chief wheat-growing area of the Cape Colony.\n\n1870 found Bovenplaats under the care of Jacobus Abraham Smuts and his wife Catharina Petronella. Jacobus Smuts lived in much the same manner as his forefathers — a hard-working farmer, a pillar of the Church, and one who took a leading part in the social and political affairs of the neighbourhood. Such was the regard in which he was held that he was later to be elected as the Member for Malmesbury in the Cape Parliament. Smuts's mother, born Catharina Petronella de Vries, was the sister of Boudewijn Homburg de Vries, the predikant of the nearby town of Riebeek West, some three miles (5 km) from Bovenplaats. The de Vries family originated from the area around Worcester, Cape Colony. Catharina accompanied her brother as his housekeeper when he took up his appointment at Riebeek West, eventually meeting and marrying her husband in 1866. She was a woman of considerable education and culture, at least according to the standards of the area, having studied music and French in Cape Town.\n\nWhen Jan was six years of age the family moved from Bovenplaats to a new farm some thirteen miles (19 km) away. This farm, Klipfontein, was a bequest to Jacobus Smuts, who, keen to have a farm of his own rather than one under the supervision of his father, moved his family there in 1876.\n\n#### Family life\n\nThe Smuts family were traditional Afrikaner farmers. As such, questions of property and family affairs were extensively governed by custom. Custom dictated that it was upon the first son that family expectations fell; the family would strive, so far as their means allowed, to provide him with the best possible education with the goal of paving the way for his entry into one of the professions. As for the others, they would be put to work on the farm, while at the same time receiving a rudimentary home education. As the second son this was to be Jan's role. While he remained at the farm, his elder brother, Michiel, was sent to begin his schooling in Riebeek West, destined, like his uncle Boudewyn, for a future as a predikant in the Dutch Reformed Church.\n\nFarmwork combined with lessons from his mother — such was the order of Jan's life for the next few years. During his early childhood, still too young to be given formal responsibilities on the farm, Jan accompanied the Coloured farm labourers as they went about their daily work. At this time the relations between master and servant, between black and white, were certainly not based on social equality; nevertheless, on these Swartland farms there was little of the rigid segregation which was already emerging elsewhere in South Africa and which was later to have such profound consequences. Since 1828 the Cape had enshrined in law the principle of strict legal equality between the races. Unlike the rest of South Africa, all adult males, were entitled to vote and to stand for election to the Colonial legislature, subject only to a property qualification. In these country districts therefore, there existed a certain intimacy between the farm owners and their labourers. At harvest times it was common to find both working together to gather in the crops and it was also commonplace to find the farm's children playing with one another, irrespective of race.\n\nIn this relatively liberal environment Jan accompanied the servants in their work, listening to their stories, learning the ways of the countryside, and trying to help as best he could. As his knowledge and confidence increased Jan began to go out into the countryside by himself, exploring the hills and valleys which surrounded him. Later, as an older boy, his chief responsibility was as a herd — first of the pigs and poultry in the farmyard, and later of the cattle out on the veld. The same laws of custom which had preordained Jan's role as a farmer also had their beneficial aspect; Boer farmers customarily allotted their sons a share of the natural increase of the beasts under their care. As time passed Jan gradually built up a respectable holding of livestock.\n\nAt home, away from the work of the farm, his education was not neglected. Although restricted to rudimentary home schooling, his mother's own notable education placed him and his siblings at an advantage compared with other children in similar circumstances.\n\n#### Outside influence\n\nThe Smuts family lived in an almost exclusively Afrikaner world. Nevertheless, this cultural identity, unlike that of the Boer republics to the north, did not define itself on opposition to Britain or the British. Swartland farmers had been largely insulated from the causes of discontent of earlier years, discontent which eventually culminated in the mass Boer migrations of the Great Trek. As a result, Jacobus Smuts largely unmoved by the Afrikaner nationalism preached by such organisations as the Afrikaner Bond, founded by Rev. SJ du Toit in 1877. After 1884, having come under the leadership of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, the Bond became more to the Smuts' taste. Hofmeyr changed the fundamental basis of the organisation, from one preaching Afrikaner separatism to one which combined a pragmatic policy of economic protectionism for Cape farmers and their produce with a call for unity between the English and Dutch-speaking populations and cooperation with the Colonial authorities. As a member of the Cape legislature Jacobus Smuts pledged his support to Hofmeyr and the reformed Bond.\n\nUnlike many parts of South Africa, conflict was an element largely absent from Jan Smuts's early life. Whether conflict between Briton and Boer, or conflict between Black and White — it had been many years since the farmers of the Swartland had had to deal with turmoil on their doorsteps. The absence of conflict, along with its inevitable counterpart, development of prejudice, had its effect upon Smuts.\n\nIn later years Smuts was to look upon this time with the uttermost fondness. Of all his childhood experiences it was the time spent out on the veld, whether tending the cattle or out on excursions of his own, which seemed to have the most marked effects on him, developing an attachment which was almost spiritual in nature. As he wrote in 1902, aged 32:\n\n> How well I remember the years I spent tending the cattle on the large farm, roaming over all its far expanse of veld, in which every kloof, every valley, every koppie was endeared to me by the most familiar associations. Month after month I had spent there in lonely occupation — alone with the cattle, myself and God. The veld had grown part of me, not only in the sense that my bones were a part of it, but in that more vital sense which identifies nature with man ... Having no human companion, I felt a spirit of comradeship for the objects around me. In my childish way I communed with these as with my own soul; they became the sharers of my confidence.\n\nIn ordinary circumstances Jan Smuts would have, in time, taken over the running of the family farm, spending his life as a farmer as his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather had before him. However this was not to be; events were to conspire to change this predetermined fate.\n\n### Schooldays\n\nIn 1882 tragedy struck the Smuts family. Their eldest son, Michiel, suddenly succumbed to typhoid while attending school at Riebeek West. This time of family grief and upheaval had a direct effect upon Jan; now, as the eldest son, the weight of family expectation fell squarely upon his shoulders.\n\nWithin weeks Jan was sent from the familiar surroundings of Klipfontein to a boarding house at Riebeek West, to take his brother's place at the school of Mr TC Stoffberg. As had been the case with his brother, his parents had already mapped out his future; like his brother Jan was destined for a future in the Dutch Reformed Church, to be ordained as a predikant at the conclusion of his studies. This vocation, though imposed upon him by his parents, was by no means regarded as an imposition by Jan, growing up as he had in an environment where adherence to the Church and piety of deeds counted for a good deal. This upbringing had turned twelve-year-old Jan into a deeply religious, serious-minded boy. Now, attending school for the first time, he faced a number of obstacles. Foremost amongst these was his rudimentary grasp of English, at a time when it was the main medium of instruction and crucial for any Afrikaner who wished to play a role in wider Cape society. Thanks to his mother's efforts. in this as well as in other subjects, he was better prepared than most children in similar circumstances, but nevertheless he was to start his schooling alongside children many years younger than himself with many years of study separating him from his contemporaries.\n\nEven so, despite these disadvantages, Jan proved himself an outstanding scholar. He surpassed the other children both in terms of innate ability and in terms of dedication to his work. It was not for nothing that his headmaster, Mr Stoffberg, described him as \"one of the most brilliant pupils he had ever taught, and the most hard-working boy he had ever met.\" Within three years Jan had made sufficient progress to have caught up with his age group, children with up to ten years of formal education behind them. He compounded this remarkable achievement when the time came for him to sit the Cape Colony elementary examination in 1885; Jan was placed ninth in the entire colony. The next year he surpassed even this, coming second in the School Higher examination.\n\nDuring these few years at Riebeek West Jan worked assiduously at his studies — self-evidently, given his achievements. His academic abilities were soon noted by his headmaster, who went out of his way to provide Jan with further curricular reading. Yet this was to prove insufficient to meet what was becoming an almost insatiable thirst for knowledge. Jan borrowed books and yet more books from the headmaster, poring over them at all times rather than engaging in the childish pursuits of the other children, separated from them by his strong work ethic. A few weeks before the School Higher examination this had its consequences — Jan fell ill, an illness exacerbated by his unremitting study. With a strict injunction from his doctor, ordering a complete rest with an absolute prohibition on work and reading, Jan was packed off to bed. Nevertheless, despite the doctor's orders, Jan went to strenuous lengths to evade the ban. One story told of him during this enforced convalescence describes how he used to involve the headmaster's youngest son in his subterfuges, bribing the four-year-old child to bring him books from his father's study. This enjoyed considerable success until the day of an unannounced visit from the headmaster's wife. In his sparsely furnished room there were few possibilities, but Jan made the best job that he could of concealing his by now substantial collection of books. The headmaster's wife upon entering the room found Jan, as expected, in bed. However the boy did not look to be comfortably resting as he ought, in fact he looked positively uncomfortable. She offered to make Jan's bed for him, he declined, insisting that he was perfectly comfortable; she insisted and, being the headmaster's wife, got her way. Embarking upon her deed of kindness she found, to her astonishment, the real reason for Jan's restlessness — underneath his bedclothes he was making a valiant effort to conceal an immense pile of contraband books!\n\nThis dedication to reading and study might, in another boy, have been nothing more than a reaction to the impending examinations — but not in Jan's case. What made this particular episode revealing was that the books found under his bedclothes were largely unconnected with his studies. In Riebeek West he developed a lifelong habit, that of reading avidly outside the prescribed curriculum, seeking knowledge for its own sake.\n\nIn 1886, at the age of sixteen, Jan embarked on the next stage of his education. Jan applied to, and was accepted by, Victoria College, Stellenbosch — one of the most prominent institutes of higher education in the Cape. In late 1886 he bade farewell to Riebeek West, ready to embark upon a new stage in life.\n\n### Life in Stellenbosch\n\nMr Stoffberg's school did not take its pupils to the final stage of secondary education. Before Jan could set his schooldays behind him and commence his higher education he would have to sit the Matriculation exam. Jan duly moved from Riebeek West to Stellenbosch, spending early 1886 to late 1886 preparing for this test.\n\nAt Riebeeck West Jan had been a hard-working, deeply religious child, with a strongly reserved, almost solitary, nature. This disposition, a legacy of his pious, rural upbringing, is manifest in what is his earliest surviving letter. This letter, written to Professor C Murray, a tutor at Victoria College, was for the most part a run-of-the-mill enquiry into the administrative arrangements for the forthcoming term. Yet in amongst this mundane request for information on such matters as textbooks and school fees Jan found himself confiding his innermost motive forces to this stranger. As he wrote:\n\n> ... such a place [Stellenbosch] where a large puerile element exists, affords fair scope for moral, and what is more important, religious temptation, which, if yielded to, will eclipse alike the expectations of my parents and the intentions of myself ... For of what use will a mind, enlarged and refined in all possible ways, be to me, if my religion be a deserted pilot and morality a wreck?\n>\n> To avoid temptation and to make the proper use of my precious time, I purposely refuse to enter a public boarding department, as that of Mr de Kock, but shall board privately (most likely at Mr N. Ackermann's) which will, in addition, accord with my private and reserved nature.\n\nIn the event, Smuts's resolution to \"make the proper use of my precious time\" overcame such moral and religious temptations as a small town like Stellenbosch was capable of providing. Religion and his studies – these remained unchallenged as the twin poles of his existence during his matriculation year. In the seclusion of Mr Ackermann's boarding house Jan studied assiduously, attended church with zeal, and ignored the blandishments of the \"puerile element\".\n\nThe Matriculation exam tested candidates on five subjects: Latin, Greek, Mathematics, Science, and English Literature. By exam-time this dedication to his studies had paid off spectacularly; the 1887 Cape lists placed Jan third overall, with the highest marks in the Colony in Greek. In what had been by any standards a year of tremendous success the latter achievement was especially outstanding; a misunderstanding at the start of the year led Jan to believe that he would be exempted from the Greek exam – as a result it was a subject which he largely disregarded. Six days before the exam this potentially devastating oversight was exposed – there was now less than a week in which to catch up with a year's study. Jan immediately shut himself away in his rooms, spending the next days in total seclusion, working from sunrise to sunset in the attempt to master the grammar and vocabulary upon which he was shortly to be tested. By the time of the exam this hard work had paid off. Within a relatively short period Jan had largely memorised his books and had mastered the Greek language to a remarkable degree.\n\nSmuts's determined work ethic played a central role in these successes, yet he was also aided in no small part by his formidable memory. At that age Jan found himself able to memorise large portions of book simply by reading through them, and though this ability gradually diminished as the years passed, it never entirely disappeared. As his son was later to recount:\n\n> [at] Stellenbosch his examiners were, until they learned to understand this prodigy, inclined to accuse the youngster of cribbing, for many of his answers were verbatim from the text-book. At Stellenbosch his facility for memorising was at its peak...\n\nWith the hurdle of Matriculation behind him the start of the 1887 term finally saw Smuts admitted as a student of Victoria College and enrolled as an undergraduate of the University of the Cape of Good Hope.\n\n#### Victoria College\n\nVictoria College proved fertile grounds for Smuts's imagination. As his biographer WK Hancock was to write:\n\n> The small teaching body, hardly more that [sic?] half a dozen men, covered a wide curriculum: but the students were also few and sifted for quality. Teachers and students were able in consequence to enjoy close individual contact with each other and ... they were able to work in an atmosphere of leisure.\n\nSmuts thrived in this environment. With these new vistas of knowledge and learning now revealed that he spared no effort in his attempts to master them. His surviving notebooks from this period reveal the range and breadth of his studies: Latin, Greek, German, the Classics, Optical Physics, Inorganic Chemistry and Metallurgy, Organic Chemistry and Agriculture, and Geology - to name but a few. Once again, as had been the case at Riebeek West, this was not merely study for the sake of exams - as ever, Smuts continued to study avidly outside the confines of the curriculum.\n\nOver the next few years at Victoria College, Smuts's religion continued to be of crucial importance. On Sundays he would attend both morning and evening church services, also leading a Bible study class for local Coloured boys, and during the week he was an assiduous attendee at evening prayer meetings. Within Victoria College, one of the strongest friendships he formed was with Professor JI Marais, the head of the Theology faculty.\n\nSmuts's religious observance was unsurprising in one who whose moral outlook was based exclusively upon Biblical teachings and who was destined for a future in the Church. Yet, though religion continued to serve in this central role, his studies at Stellenbosch, with their decidedly scientific bias, led Smuts towards a more critical examination of his faith. From this time onwards Smuts was, by gradual degrees, to start to move away from the uncompromisingly Calvinist outlook within which he had been raised.\n\nIf Stellenbosch marked Smuts's intellectual awakening, it also was where he came to mature socially. Here he began to cast off the shyness and reserve which afflicted him, joining the local militia, becoming a regular contributor to the college magazine, and becoming leader of the Victoria College debating society. For the first time, in both verbal and literary debate, Smuts began to grapple with the political and social issues facing South Africa.\n\nThough Smuts did much to cast off his shyness and reserve, he made few hard-and-fast friendships at Stellenbosch. Yet it was here that he met the woman who was to play a central role in his life thereafter. Sybella Margaretha Krige, known to all as Isie, was the daughter of Japie Krige, a prominent local wine and dairy farmer. Six months younger than Smuts, she had shared a similar upbringing with much the same resulting character traits. As their son, also name Jan Christian, was later to write:\n\n> There was nothing particularly romantic about the courtship. They were rather reserved and undemonstrative, and from questioning and teasing our mother, we decided that it was rather an odd and old-fashioned courtship. ... But what the courtship lacked in impetuosity if gained in depth of friendship and understanding. That friendship, unscathed and undiminished, withstood the test of time, and was the basis of a fruitful and exemplary married life.\n\nIsie was an intelligent young woman who, like Smuts, had scored highly in her Matriculation exam. It was thought, as a girl, a future in higher education was largely closed to her. The time spent in her company, whether reading poetry and singing together at the piano, or walking together in the mornings and evenings on the journey to and from Victoria College, did much to break down Smuts's social isolation, enabling him to cast some of those protective prejudices which he had harboured of the \"puerile element\", that is to say his peers. As he wrote in his diary some years later: \"[She], less idealistic than I, but more human, recalled me from my intellectual isolation and made me return to my fellows.\"\n\n#### Political Awakening\n\nIn 1888 Cecil Rhodes paid a visit to Victoria College. As the leader of the college debating society, Smuts was called upon to deliver the welcoming address on behalf of the student body. Rhodes, on the verge of becoming Prime Minister of Cape Colony, was a vocal advocate of Southern African political and economic unity. Now, on the occasion of this visit, Smuts chose to give his address on the theme of Pan-Africanism.\n\nSmuts's engagement with politics was very much a product of his time at Stellenbosch. While his parents' political moderation and rejection of Afrikaner exclusivism had left him largely unencumbered by any innate prejudices, it was his time at Victoria College which saw him develop his own independent political outlook. These views developed in tandem with another of Smuts's fixations, his philosophical pursuit of the embodiment of unity. This intellectual quest was later to develop into his philosophy of Holism, but even at this early undeveloped stage he brought these ideas to bear in shaping his political opinions. So it was that Smuts emerged as an outspoken supporter of South African unity, and, by extension, a supporter of Rhodes.\n\nTwo essays written during this time foreshadow Smuts's later views, both political and philosophical. The first of these, entitled South African Customs Union, was written in 1890 in competition for the JB Ebden prize offered by the University of the Cape of Good Hope. This essay, an examination of the economic relations of the colonies and states of South Africa, though 'Highly Commended' by the judges, failed to win the prize. Nevertheless, despite achieving only modest success, it is unsurpassed as a clear and authoritative statement of Smuts's political outlook at this time.\n\nWithin the essay Smuts considered the vexed question of the political and economic relations of the colonies and states of South Africa. Though close in terms of geographical proximity, their troubled relations over the preceding quarter century had done much to create an atmosphere of political estrangement. Smuts considered that this estrangement had come about largely as the result of petty jealousies, fostered by politicians interested more in their own parochial concerns than those of South Africa as a whole. And it was to South Africa as a whole that Smuts looked; he did not take the side of one colony or state over the others, but rather treated the region as one single unity. In his own words he summed this up:\n\n> The general maxim in this particular case of South African politics and interests is this: no policy in any Colony or State is sound, which does not recognise, and frame its measures as much as possible in accordance with, the fact that South African is one, that consisting as it does of separate parts, it yet forms one commercial and moral unity.\n\nA call for unity was his emotional response to the question. Coming down to earth, he proposed two concrete policies as steps towards its ultimate realisation - expansion of a pan-South African railway system, fostering greater commercial links and binding the region together, combined with the elimination of all regional tariffs and trade barriers with the formation of a South African customs union.\n\nThe writing of this essay was an important formative experience for Smuts. For the first time he had seriously grappled with questions of contemporary politics, and in doing so came to comprehend something of his own political role in resolving them. As he was to write:\n\n> In trying to master the [question of a customs union for South Africa] and its relation to other South African problems, I had to study the relations which have existed between the various territories of South Africa during the past quarter century; and to that study I owe the birth of my political consciousness. As I studied old Blue and other books, it dawned for the first time on me, that I too was a member for better or worse of the great South African community, and that as such I too would be called upon to contribute my drop, or fraction of a drop, of thought or action to the great \"river of ocean\" which still has to sweep through the Augeas-stable of the South.\n\nSeminal though this moment was, it was just a start. As his biographer, WK Hancock, noted: \"All the same, [Smuts] knew that nations are not made by administrative arrangements alone\". In The Conditions of Future South African Literature, his next essay of significance, he dealt with the other significant factor in nation-building - the cultural and emotional ties needed to form a united community. Within this essay, not at first sight written on an overtly political topic, Smuts declared that a true South African literature did not and could not exist until a true South African nation had been born. The question then arose - what was hindering this development? Smuts identified the inhibiting factor as the relations between Briton and Boer - particularly the effect of the influx of British emigrants to the gold mines of the Transvaal on the deeply conservative Afrikaner population. The relations between these two groups were fraught; the discover of gold and the rapid industrialisation of the Transvaal had done much to disturb the settled ways of the Boer population. With its vast mineral wealth the Transvaal was rapidly becoming the most significant economic unit of South Africa, but the sudden tide of primarily British immigrants caused a great deal of unrest, with the established population decrying the immorality and degeneracy they perceived in the new mineworkers. These divisions, though strongest in the Transvaal, existed to one degree or another throughout South Africa. Smuts, though sympathising with the concerns of the old population, fearful their established ways and traditions would be swamped in a flood of migration, urged the Afrikaners to embrace the new spirit of dynamism which he saw the new migrants injecting. Likewise he exhorted the new population to integrate with the old, to consolidate the white population both for the sake of a future South African nation but also to secure their survival in the face of the vastly greater Native population.\n\n## A New Direction\n\nIn later years Smuts summed up this period:\n\n> The five years I spent at Victoria College, Stellenbosch ... were probably the happiest of my life. I read much and widely, but especially the poets and philosophical writers. I had not yet any defined channel of thinking or feeling. My mind was simply dazzled and attracted by beauty in all its intellectual forms ... My passion for nature made me spend most of my free time in the mountains, along the streams and in the innumerable winding valleys.\n\nIn the examinations of 1891, Smuts took a double-First in Literature and Science. He applied for, and won, the Ebden scholarship for overseas study offered by the University of the Cape of Good Hope. On 23 September 1891 he departed the Cape, on board the ship Roslyn Castle, bound for the United Kingdom and a place at Cambridge University.\n\n### Cambridge\n\nSmuts was admitted to Christ's College, where he elected to study Law.\n\nThe choice of Law marked the start of a new chapter for Smuts. The preceding years at Stellenbosch had been ones of tremendous intellectual development. From the narrow focus of his upbringing, his outlook had now expanded, awakening within him a consciousness of the breadth of knowledge now open before him. Smuts, though remaining an adherent of the Church, and respectful of the Bible and its teachings, had developed a more questioning and critical outlook during the course of his studies. Whereas at the outset of his university career he was content to follow his parents' wishes and be ordained into the Church, as his time at Victoria College came to an end he found himself more and more unwilling to commit to this path. Though he had not as yet wholly rejected the idea of ordination, he wished for a period of more diversified study before making that decision. So it was that Smuts came to select Law, rather than Divinity or Philosophy - the logical choices for a future Minister of Religion.\n\nDuring his time at Cambridge Smuts maintained a regular correspondence with his old friend and tutor Professor Marais. Smuts's choice of Law gave rise to a lively discussion between the two, with Marais regretting Smuts's choice, declaring Law to be 'simply classified humbug' and accusing 'those who pore over legal tomes' of having a 'contracted view of life'. In response Smuts published an essay in Christ's College Magazine in defence of Law. Entitled 'Law - A Liberal Study', it attempted to rebut these criticisms, declaring that from Moses onwards lawyers had been the 'great lights and ornaments of the Church' and identifying within Law '...as it develops through the ages of human history, ...the deepest, truest, most permanent thought and social achievement of progressive humanity.' Aside from friendship on this intellectual level, Marais was also able to come to Smuts's rescue at a time of awkward crisis.\n\nSmuts came to Cambridge at the age of twenty-one, three or more years older than the typical university undergraduate. He was isolated from the other men of his year by a different social background, different upbringing, and different attitudes. Smuts's disdain for frivolity and laxity combined with his lack of interest in sports and his decision to take up lodgings outside the college, did much to divide him from the other students. During his first year at Cambridge, Smuts suffered from tremendous homesickness, describing himself as being 'utterly desolate'. Yet during this time Smuts had not found himself without social opportunities - as his biographer WK Hancock wrote:\n\n> ...[H]is fellow ... lodger was a serious and friendly man called John Gregg, who became in later life Archbishop of Armagh. Gregg invited him in the first week or two to come for a walk ... but Smuts never proposed a second walk and Gregg got the impression that he wanted to be left to himself. In the same year at Christ's there was a warm-hearted medical student called Auden, who became in later life Chief Medial Officer at Birmingham and the father of a famous poet; but Smuts never returned the invitations to breakfast which he received once or twice from Auden and their acquaintance never ripened. Early in his first term Smuts received and accepted invitations to join the debating society and to write for the College magazine; but the never followed up the chances of friendship which these activities put in his way.\n\nThis could of course have simply been a case of Smuts's diffidence and reserve re-asserting itself in the face of new and unfamiliar surrounding; however Smuts's biographers almost universally ascribe it to the poverty Smuts endured during this first year.\n\nThe Ebden scholarship was usually worth £200 per year. However, in 1891, due to a failure of the fund's investments, it was worth only £100. The sale of Smuts's personal livestock holdings on the family farm had enabled him to pay his sea passage and left him with a small residue to bank, yet despite this there remained a substantial gap between his resources and his essential needs as a student. During his first term Christ's College provided him with a small scholarship, but the gap remained. This was a crippling burden for Smuts, yet it was Professor Marais who was to come to his rescue. Smuts, having confided his difficulties to Marais towards the end of 1891 received by immediate return a cheque for £50. Marais urged Smuts to write to him whenever he felt himself in need, in return of which Smuts took out a life insurance policy naming Marais as beneficiary. Should Smuts have died this policy would cover the loans, but while he lived, Smuts's integrity was Marais's only cover.\n\nWith Marais's loans combined with the Ebden scholarship, Smuts began to enjoy a degree of financial security. Though far from affluent he was at least able to meet his basic expenses. From his second year onwards Smuts began to enter more into the social arena of the university. He ceased to be lonely, making a number of friends and acquaintances, principally amongst the other colonial students. Though no longer so reclusive as he had been during his first year, he remained extremely serious and devoted to his work; an attitude which served as a barrier separating him from the English undergraduates, though not from the Fellows at Cambridge, with many of whom he struck up friendships.\n\nIn respect of his studies, he achieved the unique distinction of sitting both parts of the Law Tripos in the same year, passing both with first-class honours. Over the course of his studies at Cambridge Smuts won many academic awards and accolades, culminating, in 1893, with the award of the prestigious George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence - a particular honour given that the prize was very rarely awarded as the rigorous academic standard required was very rarely met. This was all combined with extensive extracurricular reading and private research into various topics including poetry, philosophy, botany, and archaeology. As his biographer WK Hancock wrote:\n\n> ... he pursued all his other interests after he had taken the measure of his day's work. He was able to do this because he worked unusually faster than other people and because he found recreation, not in the things that are fritterers of time, but in reading, thinking, writing, exploring.\n\n### Aftermath\n\nSmuts's time at Cambridge had been one of outstanding success; his tutor Professor FW Maitland, himself one of the most eminent legal minds of the time, described Smuts as the most brilliant Law student he had ever taught. With testimonials such as this, in summer 1894 Smuts was able to persuade the Ebden trustees to award him £100 for a further year's study. After a short holiday in Strasbourg, spent studying English conveyancing and German philosophy, Smuts returned to England. For a short time he contemplated moving to the Netherlands to seek a Dutch degree, but by October 1894 he had instead decided to read for the Bar. In December 1894 he passed the Honours Examination of the Inns of Court, passing first in his year. Smuts was called to the Middle Temple and soon received an offer of a fellowship in Law from his old college, Christ's. The possibility of a distinguished legal career in England, whether in practice or in academia, now lay before him. Instead, he rejected both paths; in June 1895, as his Ebden funding came to an end, the homesick Smuts returned to the Cape, determined to make his future there.\n\n## Select bibliography\n\n### Primary sources\n\n- Hancock, WK and van der Poel, J (eds) - Selections from the Smuts Papers, 1886–1950, (7 vols), (1966–73)\n\n### Smuts, General\n\n- Cameron, T - Jan Smuts: An Illustrated Biography, (1994)\n- Hancock, WK - Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919, (1962)\n- Ingham, K - Jan Christian Smuts: The Conscience of a South African, (1986)\n- Millin, SG - General Smuts, (2 vols), (1933)\n- Smuts, JC - Jan Christian Smuts, (1952)\n\n[Jan Smuts](Category:Jan_Smuts \"wikilink\") [Early lives by military personnel](Category:Early_lives_by_military_personnel \"wikilink\") [Early lives by heads of government](Category:Early_lives_by_heads_of_government \"wikilink\")", "revid": "1153442164", "description": null, "categories": ["Early lives by heads of government", "Early lives by military personnel", "Jan Smuts"]}
{"id": "647340", "url": null, "title": "William D. Boyce", "text": "William Dickson Boyce (June 16, 1858 – June 11, 1929) was an American newspaper man, entrepreneur, magazine publisher, and explorer. He was the founder of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) and the short-lived Lone Scouts of America (LSA). Born in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, he acquired a love for the outdoors early in his life. After working as a schoolteacher and a coal miner, Boyce attended Wooster Academy in Ohio before moving to the Midwest and Canada. An astute businessman, Boyce successfully established several newspapers, such as The Commercial in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and the Lisbon Clipper in Lisbon, North Dakota. With his first wife, Mary Jane Beacom, he moved to Chicago to pursue his entrepreneurial ambitions. There he established the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company and the weekly Saturday Blade, which catered to a rural audience and was distributed by thousands of newspaper boys. With his novel employment of newsboys to boost newspaper sales, Boyce's namesake publishing company maintained a circulation of 500,000 copies per week by 1894. Boyce strongly supported worker rights, as demonstrated by his businesses' support of labor unions and his concern for his newsboys' well-being.\n\nBy the early years of the 20th century, Boyce had become a multi-millionaire and had taken a step back from his businesses to pursue his interests in civic affairs, devoting more time to traveling and participating in expeditions. In 1909, he embarked on a two-month trip to Europe and a large photographic expedition to Africa with photographer George R. Lawrence and cartoonist John T. McCutcheon. Over the next two decades, Boyce led expeditions to South America, Europe, and North Africa, where he visited the newly discovered tomb of King Tutankhamun.\n\nBoyce learned about Scouting while passing through London during his first expedition to Africa in 1909. According to somewhat fictionalized legend, Boyce had become lost in the dense London fog, but was guided back to his destination by a young boy, who told him that he was merely doing his duty as a Boy Scout. Boyce then read printed material on Scouting, and on his return to the United States, he formed the B.S.A.\n\nFrom its start, Boyce focused the Scouting program on teaching self-reliance, citizenship, resourcefulness, patriotism, obedience, cheerfulness, courage, and courtesy in order \"to make men\". After clashing over the Scouting program with the first Chief Scout Executive James E. West, he left the B.S.A. and founded the L.S.A. in January 1915, which catered to rural boys who had limited opportunities to form a troop or a patrol.\n\nIn June 1924, five years before Boyce's death, a merger was completed between the B.S.A. and the struggling L.S.A. Boyce received many awards and memorials for his efforts in the U.S. Scouting movement, including the famed \"Silver Buffalo Award\".\n\n## Personal life and family\n\nBoyce was born on June 16, 1858, in New Texas, Pennsylvania – now Plum Borough —to a Presbyterian farm couple, David and Margaret Jane Bratton Boyce. The Boyces had three children: William Dickson, Mary, and John. During his rural childhood, Boyce acquired a love for the outdoors. He began teaching school at the age of 16 and then worked briefly as a coal miner. He returned to teaching before joining his sister at Wooster Academy in Ohio, which—according to school records—he attended from 1880 to 1881. It is uncertain if he graduated or was expelled.\n\nHe then worked as a teacher, lumberjack, secretary, and salesman in the Midwest and Canada before settling in Chicago, where he quickly became known as a persuasive and shrewd salesman and learned business quickly. His books on business, travel, and expeditions often used the phrase \"We pushed on.\" On January 1, 1884, Boyce married Mary Jane Beacom (1865–1959), whom he had known since his Pennsylvania childhood. Boyce called her Betsy, but to many her nickname was \"Rattlesnake Jane\" because she matched his skill in poker, was an expert shot, and rode horses cross saddle. It had also become obvious that she was more masculine than Boyce himself, although he had never admitted this, it became clear out of his journal.\n\n`They had one son and two daughters: Benjamin Stevens (1884–1928), Happy (1886–1976) and Sydney (1889–1950).`\n\nBoyce's personal activities included hunting, yachting, Odd Fellows, Freemasonry, Shriners, golf, country clubs and the Chicago Hussars—an independent equestrian military organization.\n\nIn 1903, Boyce purchased a four-story mansion on 38 acres (15 ha) in Ottawa, Illinois, which became the center of his family and social activities. Thereafter, he showed little interest in Chicago and its social activities; he would only go there on business. Boyce and Mary led increasingly separate lives and eventually divorced, which was reported on the front page of the Chicago Tribune because of the prominence he had attained by that time. The divorce was finalized in a Campbell County, South Dakota court in September 1908; his wife's property settlement was close to \\$1 million (USD).\n\nAfter the divorce was finalized, Boyce courted Virginia Dorcas Lee, a vocalist from Oak Park, Illinois, who was 23 years his junior and the eldest child of Virginia and John Adams Lee, a former Lieutenant Governor of Missouri. Both Virginia's parents and Boyce's son Ben opposed the relationship. In May 1910, after the planned marriage was announced, an infuriated Ben scuffled with his father outside the Blackstone Hotel and Boyce sustained a facial wound. Ben was arrested for disorderly conduct and fined \\$5 and court costs. Two days later, Boyce and Virginia married and went to Europe on an extended honeymoon. Almost immediately, there was speculation amongst family members and in newspapers about problems within the marriage. On April 9, 1911, Boyce and Virginia had a daughter, whom they named Virginia. A few months later, in December 1911, Boyce signed an agreement to support and educate their infant daughter. After Boyce's wife filed for divorce in March 1912, she moved to Santa Barbara, California, with their daughter and her parents. Boyce did not contest the divorce and arranged for a \\$100,000 settlement. Years later, the elder Virginia married Richard Roberts, a New York banker, and moved with her and Boyce's daughter to Greenwich, Connecticut. The younger Virginia took the surname Roberts. She did not meet her natural father, Boyce, until she was eight years old.\n\nBen married Miriam Patterson of Omaha, Nebraska, on June 11, 1912. Both Boyce and his first wife attended the ceremony. At this time Boyce's first wife, Mary, exchanged some of her Chicago property for the home in Ottawa, which sparked speculation that she and Boyce might reconcile. The next year they remarried on June 14, 1913, in Ottawa. They then departed on a honeymoon to Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Panama, and Cuba, with their daughter Happy, son Ben, and his wife Miriam.\n\n## Business enterprises\n\nAs Boyce traveled, he often started a newspaper wherever he went. His first venture into commercial publishing was compiling a city directory. He also worked briefly for a publisher in Columbus, Ohio, and a newspaper publisher in Kensington, Pennsylvania, part of Philadelphia. He then boarded a train for Chicago and worked as a secretary and salesman for Western magazine. Restless again, he moved to Saint Paul, Minnesota, and sold advertisements for a publisher for a short time and then spent a month in Fargo, North Dakota, and Grand Forks, North Dakota. Further north in Canada, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, he and local resident James W. Steen co-founded The Commercial in 1881, a newspaper that lasted for 70 years. He sold his share of \"The Commercial\" to his partner in 1882 and returned to Fargo where he became a reporter. In December 1882, Boyce moved to Lisbon, North Dakota, where he bought the Dakota Clipper.\n\nBeginning in December 1884, Boyce managed reporters and news releases at the \"Bureau of Correspondence\" at the six-month-long World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition in New Orleans, Louisiana. Countries from all over the world sent displays. Boyce was responsible for providing news stories on events and displays to over 1,200 newspapers around the country. He returned to North Dakota after the Exposition concluded, but by early 1886 he had moved back to Chicago. He often returned in North Dakota for publishing business deals and deer- and duck-hunting vacations.\n\nIn Chicago, he founded the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company in 1886 which provided advertisements and articles to over 200 newspapers. In 1887, he established the weekly Saturday Blade, an illustrated newspaper aimed at rural audiences and sold by thousands of newsboys—an innovation at the time. By 1892, the Saturday Blade had the largest circulation of any weekly newspaper in the United States. Boyce's detailed reports of his foreign travels provided articles for the \"Saturday Blade\" and were reprinted in books by atlas/map publisher Rand McNally. The success of the Saturday Blade spawned the W. D. Boyce Publishing Company, which Boyce used to buy or start several newspapers and magazines. In 1892, Boyce bought out the \"Chicago Ledger\", a fiction weekly publication. In January 1903 he founded the international Boyce's Weekly, which advocated worker's rights. Boyce's prominence as a supporter of labor attracted labor/union leaders such as John Mitchell of the United Mine Workers and Henry Demarest Lloyd as writers and editors for Boyce's Weekly. Eight months later, Boyce's Weekly was consolidated with the Saturday Blade. Boyce also established the selected subject/topical newspapers Farm Business in 1914 and Home Folks Magazine in 1922. Dwindling sales led to the 1925 merger of the Blade and Ledger into the monthly Chicago Blade & Ledger, which was published until 1937. As Boyce's enterprises grew, he insisted on looking after the welfare of about 30,000 delivery boys, who were key to his financial success. Working with them may have helped him gain an understanding of America's youth. Boyce felt that delivering and selling newspapers taught a youth important responsibilities such as being polite, reading human nature, and handling money. Boyce's focused determination was evident in the advice he gave to young men: \"There are many obstacles to overcome, but toil, grit and endurance will help you to overcome them all. Help yourself and others will help you.\" and \"whatever trade you have selected; never swerve from that purpose a single moment until it is accomplished\".\n\nIn 1891, Boyce began working on his own 12-story office building at 30 North Dearborn Street, known as the \"Boyce Building\", it was designed by architect Henry Ives Cobb. Even 20 years later, this building was recognized as the most expensive building (in terms of dollars per cubic foot) in Chicago. In 1907, Boyce consolidated his business operations into another office building, also known as the Boyce Building, at 500–510 North Dearborn Street. A new four-story office building—designed by the architectural firm of Daniel Burnham—was built on this location in 1912 and expanded during 1913–14 with an additional six stories. This building was later listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 29, 1996, maintained by the United States Department of the Interior and its National Park Service.\n\nAt a time when women had trouble finding work and workers were often oppressed, Boyce felt their rights were important: his businesses employed many women and he supported labor unions. His newspapers often carried stories about the \"nobility of labor\". His businesses were able to pay out wages and benefits during the Panic of 1893, a time when many businesses were laying off workers and cutting wages. During the Pullman Strike of the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894, which spread to 20 companies in over half the states, Boyce called Eugene V. Debs, the socialist labor national leader of the American Railway Union, a \"great labor leader\" and industrialist George Pullman, inventor of the railroad passenger and sleeping car, the man \"who caused all the trouble\" (the then-current labor and social/political strife of the 1890s). In 1901 when the Boyce Paper Manufacturing Company in Marseilles, Illinois, burned down, he paid the workers immediately and then hired them back as construction workers to rebuild the paper mill so they would not lose income. Yet, he was also protective of his money. In late 1894, when two of his workers were injured by a fallen smokestack and won \\$2,000 each in a court judgment, Boyce appealed the case all the way to the Supreme Court of Illinois, and lost. He was also persistent in getting what he wanted; in 1902, he sued the Marseilles Land and Power Company for not supplying enough water power to his mills and won a \\$65,300 judgment. By 1903, the Marseilles Land and Power Company fell into receivership and Boyce bought up the company.\n\nBoyce hired his son, Ben, when he was 20 years old, giving him high-level positions in his water and power businesses in and around Marseilles and Ottawa. However, their relationship was often strained by Boyce's high expectations and Ben's carelessness with his funds in activities such as betting on horse races.\n\nDuring June–August 1906, the government proposed quadrupling the postage rate for second-class mail, which included newspapers, from one cent to four cents per pound. In response, Boyce proposed buying the Post Office Department for \\$300 million (USD), claiming that he would reduce postal rates by half, eliminate chronic deficits by applying business methods to postal operations, establish a rural postal express, pay rent to the United States Department of the Treasury for postal buildings, and return profits over seven percent. This offer was rejected by the government, but it did halt their planned second-class postage rate increase.\n\nBoyce was a multi-millionaire by the early 1900s and by 1909 became more interested in civic affairs and less in finance. He also began to travel, often as part of hunting expeditions. He leased hunting lodges at Fort Sisseton, South Dakota, where he had hunted as a young man. He often hosted friends and relatives, especially his son, for activities such as hunting, fishing, dinner, poker, and plentiful liquor. These changes may have been in part caused by the destruction of his Ottawa mansion by fire in early 1908, which was soon rebuilt, followed three months later by the sale of his Marseilles paper mill due to a new law that prevented railroads from negotiating with shippers, and his September 1908 announcement that he and his wife, Mary Jane, were separating.\n\nIn 1914 Boyce bought two more newspapers, the \"Indianapolis Sun\", which he renamed the \"Indianapolis Daily Times\", and the \"Inter Ocean Farmer\", which he renamed \"The Farming Business\". By 1920, the majority of Americans lived in cities instead of rural areas. Lone Scout, \"Saturday Blade\", and \"Chicago Ledger\" all focused on rural customers and began to falter. Boyce launched \"Home Folks Magazine\" in an attempt to regain customers. By June 1925, sales had slipped so much that he merged the latter two titles into the \"Blade and Ledger\", which caused sales to rise again. This encouraged Boyce to start \"Movie Romances\", one of the first tabloid magazines about movie star romances.\n\nBoyce's success in the publishing business lay in his ability to organize the administration of a business and delegate details to subordinates. He eventually amassed a fortune of about US\\$20 million. Boyce's life paralleled Theodore Roosevelt's in many ways: Both men were products of the Progressive Era, internationally prominent, had concern for children, supported Scouting, were adventurers and outdoorsmen, (modern-day \"environmentalists\"), and were interested in civic reform. Although Boyce admired and sought to surpass Roosevelt, his only foray into politics was the 1896 Republican primary for a United States representative (congressman) in the U.S. House of Representatives – a bitterly fought campaign which he lost to first-term incumbent George E. Foss. In all likelihood, Boyce met Roosevelt at the Union League Club of Chicago, of which the former had become a member in 1891. His ambivalent attitude towards government was a common one of the general public during the Progressive Era. However, Boyce's Republican credentials and monetary contributions earned him an invitation to the presidential inauguration and ball of newly elected successor to \"T.R.\", the 27th President, William Howard Taft in March 1909.\n\n## Expeditions\n\nBoyce financed an expedition of the explorer Frederick Schwatka to Alaska in 1896. Schwatka discovered gold near Nome and Boyce reported this success in his newspapers, which led him to finance other Schwatka expeditions as well as those of other adventurers, including a failed expedition to the Yukon River in 1898. Boyce soon began to carry out his own expeditions. When the United States entered the Spanish–American War in 1898, Boyce set sail for Cuban waters aboard the ship Three Friends. The nature of the activities of Boyce and this ship are unknown.\n\nIn March 1909, Boyce embarked on a two-month trip to Europe, which included a visit to his daughters, who were in Rome. On returning to America, Boyce organized a photographic expedition to Africa with the innovative aerial photographer George R. Lawrence. Boyce met with safari organizers and outfitters and provisioned his expedition in London and Naples. His son Benjamin and Lawrence's son Raymond were part of the expedition. Cartoonist John T. McCutcheon joined the expedition while they were sailing from Naples to Africa. The group disembarked at Mombasa, Kenya, and was in Nairobi by September. After hiring local porters and guides, the entire expedition totaled about 400 people, about three-fourths of whom were servants. It required 15 train cars to move the people and equipment to the area the expedition was going to explore near Kijabi and Lake Victoria. The expedition was a failure because a telephoto lens was neither brought nor subsequently procured, the hot air balloons were not suitable for the conditions on the plains of East Africa, and the cameras were so large and noisy to move into position that the animals were scared away. The members of the expedition had to resort to buying photographs of big game animals from shops in cities such as Nairobi. The expedition did manage to successfully hunt several species of big game animals.\n\nIn December 1910, Boyce led a nine-month, 50,000-mile (80,000 km) expedition to South America that was extensively reported in his newspapers. In late January 1915, Boyce sailed to England because of his concern over World War I. He received permission from the American Legation in Switzerland to travel into Germany and Austria for six weeks to report on the industrial and commercial effects of the war on those countries. He sent extensive reports to his newspapers and returned home around April–May.\n\nIn late 1922, Boyce departed on another expedition to Africa, this time for six months. Morocco reminded him of the Dakotas, Kansas, Texas, Florida, and Arizona. In Egypt he visited the tomb of Tutankhamun, which had been discovered just a few months earlier. His expedition then went to Luxor and sailed up the Nile River to Edfu, where the houses had no roofs and while he was there it rained and hailed for the first time in decades. Boyce stated that between his two expeditions to Africa, he had shot at least one of every game animal.\n\n## Scouting\n\nAs Boyce's interest in philanthropy grew, he turned to his childhood experiences in the outdoors as a resource, but could not find a way to channel his charitable ideas and dreams until a fateful stop to England while en route to what became the failed photographic expedition to Africa. Events in London on the way to and from this expedition would lead to the founding of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), one of many civic and professional organizations formed during the Progressive Era to fill the void of citizens who had become distended from their rural roots. Many youth organizations such as the Woodcraft Indians and Sons of Daniel Boone formed in America in the early 1900s focusing on outdoor character-building activities. The writings and adventures of Theodore Roosevelt contributed to these movements, with their outdoor, nature, and pioneer themes. By the time of his 1922 expedition to Africa, Boyce was so well respected in Scouting that French Boy Scouts in Algeria saluted him and offered to escort him along a trail when they found out he was the founder of BSA and LSA in America.\n\n### Unknown Scout legend\n\nAccording to legend, Boyce was lost on a foggy street in London in 1909 when an unknown Scout came to his aid, guiding him back to his destination. The boy then refused Boyce's tip, explaining that he was merely doing his duty as a Boy Scout. Boyce was so impressed by the boy’s actions that it inspired him to bring Scouting to America. Soon thereafter, Boyce met with Robert Baden-Powell, who was the head of the Boy Scout Association at that time. Boyce returned to America, and, four months later, founded the Boy Scouts of America on February 8, 1910. He intended to base the program around American Indian lore. This version of the legend has been printed in numerous BSA handbooks and magazines. There are several variations of it, including ones that claim Boyce knew about Scouting before this encounter and that the Unknown Scout took him to Scout headquarters.\n\nIn actuality, Boyce stopped in London en route to a safari in British East Africa. It is true that an unknown Scout helped him and refused a tip. But this Scout only helped him cross a street; he did not take him to the Scout headquarters and Boyce never met Baden-Powell. Upon Boyce's request, the unknown Scout did give him the address of the Scout headquarters, where Boyce went and picked up a copy of Scouting For Boys and other printed material on Scouting. He read this while on safari and was so impressed that instead of making his return to America an around-the-world trip via San Francisco, he returned to the Scout headquarters in London. He volunteered to organize Scouting in America and was told that he could use their manual. While Boyce's original account does not mention fog, a 1928 account says there was fog. Climatologists report no fog on that day in London.\n\n### Boy Scouts of America\n\nThe Boy Scouts of America was incorporated on February 8, 1910, but it struggled from shortages of cash and leadership in the beginning. Boyce personally donated \\$1,000 a month to keep the organization running on the condition that boys of all races and creeds be included. He was not interested in directing the organization, and turned over the running of the organization to Edgar M. Robinson of the YMCA, who proceeded to recruit the permanent executive board of the BSA. The much-needed leadership and management arrived when the Sons of Daniel Boone and Woodcraft Indians merged with the BSA.\n\nBoyce felt that Scouting's emphasis on outdoor activity was crucial in producing the type of leaders that America needed because youth reared in cities had too much done for them, whereas those from the country had to learn to do things for themselves. Scouting was focused on teaching self-reliance, citizenship, resourcefulness, patriotism, obedience, cheerfulness, courage, and courtesy in order \"to make men\".\n\n### Lone Scouts of America\n\nBoyce clashed with James E. West, the BSA's Chief Scout Executive, over a program for boys who lived too far from town to join a troop. Boyce offered to publish a magazine for the BSA, as long as it was published in Chicago. The National Executive Board of the BSA turned this offer down and shortly thereafter Boyce ceased being active in administrative activities of the BSA, though he remained a staunch supporter of the program. As a result of this and his desire to serve boys who had limited opportunities as he himself did when he was young, Boyce started a new Scouting-related venture: the Lone Scouts of America (LSA) on January 9, 1915. Reliance on Native American themes gave LSA a distinct Native American flavor: Lone Scouts could form small groups known as \"tribes\", the tribe's treasurer was known as the \"wampum-bearer\", and LSA taught boys to respect the environment. Boyce's annual contribution to the LSA grew to \\$100,000. In both the BSA and the LSA, Boyce was a manager and had little direct contact with the Boy Scouts. Upon his return from reporting on World War I, Boyce immediately began expanding the LSA by starting Lone Scout magazine and hiring Frank Allan Morgan, a noted Chicago Scoutmaster, to lead the LSA. By November 1915, the LSA had over 30,000 members. Warren conferred upon Boyce the title Chief Totem. Youths could join the LSA simply by mailing in some coupons and five cents. By 1916, the BSA and the LSA were in direct competition for members. In the summer of 1917, during his annual Dakota hunt, the Gros Ventres Indian tribe made Boyce an honorary chief with the name \"Big Cloud\" during a three-day ceremony. With America at war, Boyce agreed to the creation of a Lone Scout uniform in late 1917. Though he had a uniform made for himself, he stipulated that no Lone Scout was required to purchase one.\n\nBoyce felt that Lone Scout was the best magazine he had ever done. Lone Scout was so popular that it could not handle all the material that was submitted, so many local and regional Tribe Papers were started. By 1922, Boyce's newspaper business was suffering and Lone Scout was losing money—it switched from a weekly to a monthly. Boyce's racial prejudice was revealed when the racial tensions in Chicago increased in the 1920s. The LSA issued a formal proclamation in late 1920 that it would only accept whites and in 1922 changed the masthead of Lone Scout from \"A Real Boys' Magazine\" to \"The White Boys Magazine\".\n\nThe fortunes of the LSA had begun to decline by 1920 when Boyce hired the first professional editor for Lone Scout, George N. Madison. Madison discovered that the LSA's membership roster was wildly inaccurate: it was full of duplications and inactive members. The reported 490,000 Lone Scouts in 1922 was a vastly inflated number. Boyce finally accepted West's annual offer to merge with the BSA in April 1924, with the merger formalized on June 16, 1924. Some Lone Scouts did not transfer to the BSA, but the BSA continued Lone Scouting as a separate division for another decade, gradually losing its unique programs. Present day Lone Scouts use the standard Cub Scouting and Boy Scouting programs and activities, but are not part of a pack or troop on a regular basis because of factors such as distance, weather, time, disability or other difficulties.\n\n## Legacy\n\nBenjamin Boyce died in 1928 of a heart embolism. His father did not arrive home until after his son's death. Boyce was so saddened over his son's death that his own health suffered. One of Boyce's last efforts was to publish his son's letters from his South Seas expeditions: Dear Dad Letters from New Guinea. Boyce died from bronchial pneumonia on June 11, 1929, in Chicago and was buried in his adopted hometown of Ottawa, Illinois, on June 13, 1929, in the Ottawa Avenue Cemetery, with West delivering the eulogy. Boy Scouts maintained an honor guard with an American flag in a heavy rainstorm in two-hour shifts at his Ottawa home and 32 Boy Scouts were chosen as honorary pallbearers. BSA officials sent his widow a telegram that said the entire American nation owed him a debt of gratitude. A statue that commemorates his contribution to the Boy Scouts of America was placed near his grave on June 21, 1941, which West dedicated.\n\nBoyce was recognized with the Silver Buffalo Award in 1926, the first year it was awarded, for his efforts in starting the BSA. He was the third recipient, after Baden-Powell and the Unknown Scout. During the BSA's 50th anniversary in 1960, 15,000 Scouts and several of Boyce's descendants gathered in Ottawa for a Boyce Memorial weekend. Illinois governor William Stratton delivered the key address and Bridge Street was renamed Boyce Memorial Drive. In 1985, about 2,500 Scouts attended a 75th anniversary pilgrimage in Ottawa, attended by his last surviving child, Virginia, and the Union League of Chicago named Boyce its first Hall of Fame member. Boyce had been a member from 1891 until he died. On December 6, 1997, a Scouting museum opened in Ottawa. The W. D. Boyce Council of the BSA is named in his honor. A Pennsylvania State Historical Marker located on Boyce Campus of Community College of Allegheny County in Monroeville, Pennsylvania, recognizes his achievements to Scouting. Not far from the marker is a county park, Boyce Park, that was named for him. A medallion of Boyce is near the White House as part of The Extra Mile – Points of Light Volunteer Pathway. In 2005, the BSA introduced the William D. Boyce New Unit Organization Award, presented to the organizer of any new Scouting unit.\n\nThe Extra Mile National Monument in Washington, DC selected Boyce as one of its 37 honorees. The Extra Mile pays homage to Americans like Boyce who set their own self-interest aside to help others and successfully brought positive social change to the United States.\n\n## Works\n\n- , also in four volumes:\n  -\n  -\n  -\n  -\n\n## See also\n\n- Diana Oughton – Boyce's great-granddaughter\n- World's Columbian Exposition\n\n## General references", "revid": "1167445793", "description": "BSA founder and businessman (1858–1929)", "categories": ["1858 births", "1929 deaths", "American Presbyterians", "American newspaper publishers (people)", "Businesspeople from Chicago", "Deaths from pneumonia in Illinois", "Illinois Republicans", "Journalists from Illinois", "People from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania", "People from Lisbon, North Dakota", "People from Ottawa, Illinois", "Scouting pioneers"]}
{"id": "10128", "url": null, "title": "Elizabeth I", "text": "Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last monarch of the House of Tudor and is sometimes referred to as the \"Virgin Queen\".\n\nElizabeth was the only surviving daughter of Henry VIII by Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed when Elizabeth was two years old. Anne's marriage to Henry was annulled, and Elizabeth declared illegitimate. Henry restored her to the line of succession when she was ten, via the Third Succession Act 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to a Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the Catholic Mary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside within weeks of his death and Mary became queen, deposing and executing Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.\n\nUpon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots; this laid the foundation for the Kingdom of Great Britain.\n\nIn government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo (\"I see and keep silent\"). In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570, which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain. She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain.\n\nAs she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, and for the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer (\"Gloriana\") and a dogged survivor (\"Good Queen Bess\") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short, disastrous reigns of her siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity.\n\n## Early life\n\nElizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace on 7 September 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard. She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the English throne. Her elder half-sister Mary had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession. She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset. A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the infant by her uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham.\n\nElizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession. Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was undisputed heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.\n\nElizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was \"as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life\". Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine \"Kat\" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Italian and Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. By the age of 12, she was able to translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift. From her teenage years and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello of Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise by Plutarch, and the Annals of Tacitus. A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.\n\nAfter Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging. Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs. By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation. At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish and Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she \"possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue\". Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.\n\n## Thomas Seymour\n\nHenry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protector Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her on the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown \"into a thousand pieces\". However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs. In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.\n\nThomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person. When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her. Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and \"comfort him in his sorrow\", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort.\n\nIn January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, \"I do see it in her face that she is guilty\". Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.\n\n## Reign of Mary I\n\nEdward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side. The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Philip of Spain, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic. Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.\n\nIn January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed. Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her all along the way.\n\nOn 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.\n\nKing Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth. This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558, and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.\n\n## Accession\n\nElizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's \"two bodies\": the body natural and the body politic:\n\n> My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel.\n\nAs her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were \"wonderfully ravished\". The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer John Dee, Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells. Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry.\n\n## Church settlement\n\nElizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.\n\nElizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms. As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.\n\nThe House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury. This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an adapted version of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.\n\n## Marriage question\n\nFrom the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships. She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir. However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.\n\n### Robert Dudley\n\nIn the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley. It was said that his wife Amy was suffering from a \"malady in one of her breasts\" and that the queen would like to marry Robert if his wife should die. By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England: \"There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert.\" Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, many people suspected her husband of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen. Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear. There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.\n\nAmong other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade. Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself. She raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester in 1564. In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred. Still, Dudley always \"remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life\", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation. He died shortly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked \"his last letter\" in her handwriting.\n\n### Foreign candidates\n\nMarriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy. She turned down the hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden. Earlier in Elizabeth's life a Danish match for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551. In the years around 1559 a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered, and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559.\n\nFor several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon. This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands. Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.\n\nIn 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: \"If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married\". Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Parliament. Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566.\n\nHaving previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:\n\n> I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake. And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let [obstruction] happen.\n\nBy 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility. Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that \"a second person, as I have been\" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor.\n\n### Virginity\n\nElizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity related to that of the Virgin Mary. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman. At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, \"And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin\". Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon. Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of \"all my husbands, my good people\".\n\nThis claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in \"filthy lust\" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body. Henry IV of France said that one of the great questions of Europe was \"whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no\".\n\nA central issue, when it comes to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the queen ever consummated her love affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell.\n\nIn 1587, a young man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast of Spain under suspicion of being a spy. The man claimed to be the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being consistent with birth during the 1561 illness. He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary to King Philip II. Three letters exist today describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be the story of his life, from birth in the royal palace to the time of his arrival in Spain. However, this failed to convince the Spanish: Englefield admitted to King Philip that Arthur's \"claim at present amounts to nothing\", but suggested that \"he should not be allowed to get away, but [...] kept very secure.\" The king agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again. Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as \"impossible\", and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.\n\n## Mary, Queen of Scots\n\nElizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there. She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne. Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being \"the nearest kinswoman she hath\". Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. Mary refused to ratify the treaty.\n\nIn 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic, and in 1565, Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:\n\n> How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.\n\nThese events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle. The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James VI, who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped in 1568 but after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch, but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.\n\n### Catholic cause\n\nMary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, and put her on the English throne. After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders. In the belief that the revolt had been successful, Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared \"Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime\" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her. Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication. The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention. In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with \"the intent\" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, carrying the death penalty. From the 1570s missionary priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause of the \"reconversion of England\". Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of martyrdom.\n\nRegnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her. At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that \"the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm diverse things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person.\" On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire. After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.\n\n## Wars and overseas trade\n\nElizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to France in January 1558. Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control.\n\n### Netherlands\n\nAfter the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II. This followed the deaths in 1584 of the queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604.\n\nThe expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him \"to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy\". He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:\n\n> We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ... And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril.\n\nElizabeth's \"commandment\" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby. This public humiliation of her \"Lieutenant-General\" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign. Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587.\n\n### Spanish Armada\n\nMeanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England, as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.\n\nOn 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. The armada was defeated by a combination of miscalculation, misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast. The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland). Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches:\n\n> My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.\n\nWhen no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain. The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained. Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:\n\n> If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness.\n\nThough some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, \"to be transported with an haviour of vainglory\".\n\nIn 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and John Norreys as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease and 40 ships sunk or captured. The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of Philip II's naval power through the next decade.\n\n### France\n\nWhen the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports.\n\nThe subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. Peregrine Bertie, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591.\n\nIn July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. \"Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do,\" she wrote of Essex, \"we are ignorant\".\n\n### Ireland\n\nAlthough Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims \"were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same\". Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, \"that rude and barbarous nation\", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their authoritarian purpose.\n\nBetween 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years' War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain, who backed the rebel leader, Hugh O'Neill. In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, to put the revolt down. To her frustration, he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by Charles Blount, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.\n\n### Russia\n\nElizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised. English merchant and explorer Anthony Jenkinson, who began his career as a representative of the Muscovy Company, became the queen's special ambassador to the court of Tsar Ivan.\n\nUpon his death in 1584, Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor I. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.\n\n### Muslim states\n\nTrade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth. England established a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a papal ban. In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the English court, to negotiate an Anglo-Moroccan alliance against Spain. Elizabeth \"agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish\". Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.\n\nDiplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Sublime Porte, William Harborne, in 1578. For the first time, a treaty of commerce was signed in 1580. Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III. In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Protestantism and Islam had \"much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols\", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.\n\n### America\n\nIn 1583, Humphrey Gilbert sailed west to establish a colony in Newfoundland. He never returned to England. Gilbert's half-brother Walter Raleigh explored the Atlantic Coast and claimed the territory of Virginia, perhaps named in honour of Elizabeth, the \"Virgin Queen\". This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia, extending from New England to the Carolinas. In 1585, Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on Roanoke Island, off present-day North Carolina. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command. When Raleigh returned in 1590, there was no trace of the Roanoke Colony he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America.\n\n### East India Company\n\nThe East India Company was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region and China, and received its charter from Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600. For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. James Lancaster commanded the first expedition in 1601. The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries.\n\n## Later years\n\nThe period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign. The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell. During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her.\n\nOne of the causes for this \"second reign\" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of William Cecil, Baron Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Christopher Hatton in 1591. Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s, now became its hallmark. A bitter rivalry arose between Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burghley, with both being supported by their respective adherents. The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics. The queen's personal authority was lessening, as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.\n\nDuring the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601. In her famous \"Golden Speech\" of 30 November 1601 at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:\n\n> Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us!\n\nThis same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England. The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's Euphues and Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. Continuing into the Jacobean era, the English theatre would reach its peak. The notion of a great Elizabethan era depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts.\n\nAs Elizabeth aged, her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem. Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work. Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics. Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech. André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the queen, during which he noticed, \"her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right. Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly.\" Yet he added, \"her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal.\" Walter Raleigh called her \"a lady whom time had surprised\".\n\nThe more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it. Elizabeth was happy to play the part, but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him. She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies. In February 1601, Essex tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in 1602: \"Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex.\"\n\n## Death\n\nElizabeth's senior adviser, Lord Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government. One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim. Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and \"secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions\". The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: \"So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort\". In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with \"unmistakable if veiled phrases\".\n\nThe queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, the niece of her cousin and close friend Lady Knollys, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a \"settled and unremovable melancholy\", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end. When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: \"Must is not a word to use to princes, little man.\" She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James King of England.\n\nWhile it has become normative to record Elizabeth's death as occurring in 1603, following English calendar reform in the 1750s, at the time England observed New Year's Day on 25 March, commonly known as Lady Day. Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar. The modern convention is to use the old style calendar for the day and month while using the new style calendar for the year.\n\nElizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler John Stow:\n\n> Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the obsequy, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man.\n\nElizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, \"Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis\", translates to \"Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection\".\n\n## Legacy\n\nElizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death. Expectations of King James started high but then declined. By the 1620s, there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth. Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court. The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties, was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: \"When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Then was her memory much magnified.\" Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance.\n\nThe picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential. Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion. In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day, and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress. Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress.\n\nRecent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth. Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea. In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record. Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad.\n\nElizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today. Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England. Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise. In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to \"make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts\".\n\nThough Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. \"She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island,\" marvelled Pope Sixtus V, \"and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all\". Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented. Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent. She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky; she believed that God was protecting her. Priding herself on being \"mere English\", Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule. In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:\n\n> [At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate.\n\n## Family tree\n\n## See also\n\n- Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom\n- Early modern Britain\n- English Renaissance\n- Inventory of Elizabeth I\n- Portraiture of Elizabeth I\n- Protestant Reformation\n- Royal Arms of England\n- Royal eponyms in Canada for Queen Elizabeth I\n- Royal Standards of England\n- Tudor period", "revid": "1169824173", "description": "Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603", "categories": ["1533 births", "1603 deaths", "16th-century English monarchs", "16th-century English women", "16th-century English writers", "16th-century Irish monarchs", "16th-century translators", "17th-century English monarchs", "17th-century English people", "17th-century English women", "17th-century Irish monarchs", "17th-century women rulers", "Burials at Westminster Abbey", "Children of Henry VIII", "Elizabeth I", "English Anglicans", "English people of Welsh descent", "English people of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)", "English pretenders to the French throne", "English women poets", "Founders of English schools and colleges", "House of Tudor", "People excommunicated by the Catholic Church", "People from Greenwich", "People of the Elizabethan era", "People of the French Wars of Religion", "Prisoners in the Tower of London", "Protestant monarchs", "Queens regnant of England", "Regicides of Mary, Queen of Scots", "Reputed virgins"]}
{"id": "5870562", "url": null, "title": "Indianapolis Museum of Art", "text": "The Indianapolis Museum of Art (IMA) is an encyclopedic art museum located at Newfields, a 152-acre (62 ha) campus that also houses Lilly House, The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art & Nature Park: 100 Acres, the Gardens at Newfields, the Beer Garden, and more. It is located at the corner of North Michigan Road and West 38th Street, about three miles north of downtown Indianapolis, northwest of Crown Hill Cemetery. There are exhibitions, classes, tours, and events, many of which change seasonally. The entire campus and organization was previously referred to as the Indianapolis Museum of Art, but in 2017 the campus and organization were renamed \"Newfields\" to better reflect the breadth of offerings and venues. The \"Indianapolis Museum of Art\" now specifically refers to the main art museum building that acts as the cornerstone of the campus, as well as the legal name of the organization doing business as Newfields.\n\nThe Indianapolis Museum of Art is the ninth oldest and eighth largest encyclopedic art museum in the United States. The permanent collection comprises over 54,000 works, including African, American, Asian, and European pieces. Significant areas of the collection include: Neo-Impressionist paintings; Japanese paintings of the Edo period; Chinese ceramics and bronzes; paintings, sculptures, and prints by Paul Gauguin and the Pont-Aven School; a large number of works by J. M. W. Turner; and a growing contemporary art and design collection. Other areas of emphasis include textiles and fashion arts as well as a focus on modern design.\n\nFounded in 1883 as the Art Association of Indianapolis, the first permanent museum was opened in 1906 as part of the John Herron Art Institute. In 1969, the Art Association of Indianapolis changed its name to the Indianapolis Museum of Art, and in 1970 the museum moved to its current location. Among the Art Association's founders was May Wright Sewall (1844–1920), known for her work in the women's suffrage movement. Other supporters have included Booth Tarkington (1869–1946), Eli Lilly (1885–1977), Herman C. Krannert (1887–1972), and Caroline Marmon Fesler (1878–1960). The associated John Herron Art Institute was established with the help of notable Hoosier Group artists T. C. Steele and William Forsyth.\n\nThe museum is widely recognized as innovative in its development of open source technologies, institutional transparency, and collaboration between museums. In 2008, the IMA became the first fine art museum to be named an Energy Star partner due to its greening initiative and efforts to reduce energy consumption. In 2009, the IMA was awarded the National Medal for Museum and Library Service for public service, specifically the museum's free admission policy and educational programming. The free admission policy began in 1941 and remained in place until 2007, when an admission fee for non-members was instated. Free admission returned a year later and remained until 2014, when a fee was reinstated for non-members.\n\n## History\n\n### Early days (1883–1969)\n\nThe Indianapolis Museum of Art was founded as the Art Association of Indianapolis, an open-membership group led by suffragist May Wright Sewall. Formed in 1883, the organization aimed to inform the public about visual art and provide art education. The Art Association's first exhibition, which opened November 7, 1883, contained 453 artworks from 137 artists. The death of wealthy Indianapolis resident John Herron in 1895 left a substantial bequest with the stipulation that the money be used for a gallery and a school with his name. The John Herron Art Institute opened in 1902 at the corner of 16th and Pennsylvania street, with the Herron Art School and the Herron Museum of Art opening in 1906. Emphasis on the Arts and Crafts movement grew throughout the early years of the school, with a focus on applied art. William Henry Fox was hired in 1905 as the Herron Museum of Art's first director. From 1905 to 1910, Fox managed both the museum and the school while constructing two new buildings on the 16th street site.\n\nFrom the 1930s until the 1950s, the John Herron Art Institute placed an emphasis on professionalism and growth in collections. Wilbur Peat, director of the museum from 1929 until 1965, acquired significant portions of the collection. Peat also made connections with benefactors such as George H. A. Clowes, Booth Tarkington, and Eli Lilly. Caroline Marmon Fesler, president of the Art Association of Indianapolis, gave a number of artworks in the 1940s, including 20th-century modern artworks and Post-Impressionist works by Cézanne, Van Gogh, and Seurat. After years of debate surrounding expansion and relocation of the museum and school, the great-grandchildren of Eli Lilly, J.K. Lilly III and Ruth Lilly, donated the family estate, Oldfields, to the Art Association of Indianapolis in 1966. One year later the Art Association decided that the Herron Art School would be ceded to Indiana University's Indianapolis campus in an effort to assist with accreditation. That same year the Association confirmed that the museum would relocate to Oldfields, with the new Krannert Pavilion opening to the public in October 1970. In 1969, prior to moving to the new site, the Art Association of Indianapolis officially changed its name to the Indianapolis Museum of Art.\n\n### Move to current location (1970–2011)\n\nIn 1960, Art Association of Indianapolis board members began discussing the idea of placing the museum at the center of a new cultural campus. Inspired by University Circle in Cleveland, Ohio, board chairman Herman Krannert proposed building an \"Acropolitan Area\" that would combine a number of cultural institutions in a natural setting. The museum's location on the grounds of Oldfields allowed architect Ambrose Madison Richardson to build on the idea of an acropolis while also utilizing the natural features of the site. Krannert Pavilion opened in 1970 as the first of four buildings located on the museum's grounds. Following the opening of Krannert, the expansion continued with the Clowes Pavilion in 1972, which housed the Clowes' collection of Old Masters. Construction on the Showalter Pavilion and Sutphin Fountain was completed in 1973. In 1986, the IMA's board members chose Edward Larrabee Barnes to design the Hulman Pavilion, a new wing of the museum which housed the Eiteljorg collection of African and South Pacific art. The pavilion opened in 1990 and increased the exhibition space to more than 80,000 square feet (7,400 m<sup>2</sup>). The expansion aimed to provide clearer chronological continuity and a more coherent flow as visitors moved from one gallery to the next.\n\nBret Waller became the director of the IMA in 1990, and was succeeded by Anthony Hirschel in 2001. From the mid-1990s until 2005 the IMA focused on the next phase of development, the \"New Vision\", or what became known as the \"New IMA\". After four years of restoration, the Oldfields mansion reopened to the public in June 2002 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2003.\n\nLawrence A. O'Connor Jr., a former CEO of Bank One Indiana, was named the interim director of the IMA in November 2004 when the previous director Hirschel unexpectedly resigned. In 2005 the museum completed a three-year, \\$74 million renovation and expansion project that added three new wings and 50 percent more gallery space to the building. In all, the construction added 164,000 square feet (15,200 m<sup>2</sup>) to the museum, in addition to the renovation of 90,000 square feet (8,400 m<sup>2</sup>) of existing space. Renovations included the Hulman and Clowes Pavilions, which house the museum's European collection, as well as the addition of the Allen Whitehill Clowes Gallery. The expansion aimed to unify the building and campus while creating a more welcoming atmosphere for visitors. As one of three new wings and as a new entry to the building, the Efroymson Pavilion helped to transition visitors between the museum and the surrounding grounds. The Wood Gallery Pavilion added three levels of gallery space as well as a dining area and education suite, while the Deer Zink Pavilion added additional space for private and public events. The architectural focus on welcoming visitors coincided with a new advertising campaign that reached out to a broader, more diverse audience.\n\nMaxwell L. Anderson was hired as the permanent director and CEO of the IMA in 2006. While director, Anderson oversaw the opening of the Virginia B. Fairbanks Art & Nature Park: 100 Acres and a conservation science-focused laboratory, as well as the acquisition of the mid-century modern Miller House and Garden estate. In 2008, the museum changed its main entrance and address from 1200 West 38th Street to 4000 North Michigan Road. Anderson left the museum in 2011.\n\n### Time under Charles L. Venable and after (2012–present)\n\nCharles L. Venable was hired as the director and CEO of the IMA in October 2012. The Indianapolis Star stated that while the previous six years under Anderson had seen impressive and well-received art world achievements, such as the acquisition of the Miller House and securing the bid for the Venice Biennale, liberal spending had led to a decrease in the endowment and the alienation of some big donors. The IMA was struggling with finances at the time, at least in part due to the Great Recession, as well as the departure of two fundraising chiefs from the museum and a top donor from the board of governors. A few months before Venable's arrival, the Moody's credit rating agency changed the IMA's rating from \"stable\" to \"negative\", due to the IMA's outstanding debt and reliance on investment income. From the beginning, Venable's financial conservatism and increase in paid events characterized as populist were a major part of his directorship, a direction that was alternately praised and lambasted by art critics, the local art community, and the media. In February 2013, art journalist Tyler Green criticized the approach, stating, \"a mission-driven art museum is not a theme park [and] mere attendance is not a meaningful end.\" However, Venable defended the approach as pragmatic, stating, \"Arts audiences over the last 50 years are getting smaller, so you've got to appeal to more people.\"\n\nIn March 2013, the IMA cut eleven percent of its staff in order to save \\$1.7 million annually. Following these layoffs, several high-profile staff members left, including curators of contemporary art Lisa Freiman and Sarah Urist Green. In April 2015, IMA leadership ended the organization's policy of free admission to all visitors, a move which was largely criticized by the media and patrons, but that the museum maintained was needed for financial stability. This change came with the addition of free parking. Subsequently, paid membership rose from about 5,000 when the museum was free, to more than 17,000 in October 2017.\n\nIn mid-2016 and 2017, the IMA offered outdoor minigolf. The program was created by Scott Stulen, the curator of audience experiences at the time. The holes were designed by a variety of artists to have a Hoosier theme. The intent of the project was to use the museum's outdoor space to display interactive art that might attract those who might not usually feel comfortable in an art museum.\n\nIn October 2017, the museum continued this movement towards appealing to a wider audience with the announcement of a new branding initiative in which both the campus and the organization itself was renamed \"Newfields\". The initiative formally changed the names of the IMA, The Gardens, The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art & Nature Park, and Lilly House to include the phrase \"at Newfields\" appended to the end of each. The rebranding was preceded by the exodus of several curators, including the curator of contemporary art Tricia Paik and Scott Stulen. The effort included a number of new outdoor events including Winterlights, starting in 2017, and Harvest, starting in 2019.\n\nIn early 2018, the organization's new direction was heavily criticized by art critic Kriston Capps writing for CityLab, stating the changes were, \"the greatest travesty in the art world in 2017\" and that, \"Venable [had] turned a grand encyclopedic museum into a cheap Midwestern boardwalk.\" The criticisms were widely discussed in the art community and Indianapolis media.\n\nAround 2018, the museum spent \\$5.6 million per year to store and maintain the art, and with the museum's growing collection, its storage space needed to double at what would have been a cost of \\$12 million. However, in 2019, Venable sought to improve the quality of the IMA's art collection and reduce the amount of money the museum spent on art storage. A seven-year review of all 55,000 art objects in the collection began, asking curators to rank them in terms of quality from a high “A” to low “D”. This exercise allowed the institution to identify and promote its masterpieces, while slating lower quality pieces for deaccessioning in accordance with national museum standards. Venable's thoughts on the unsustainability of rapid collection growth and building expansions to accommodate more and more art brought him national attention, but proved controversial to some, including the IMA's staff.\n\nThe museum was temporarily closed from March 17, 2020, to June 23, 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Indiana. After reopening, only the outdoor areas were accessible until July 18, when the galleries and other indoor facilities reopened.\n\nIn 2021, the institution opened a remodeled fourth floor with 30,000 sq. ft. of digital art exhibitions called the Lume. The exhibit, considered a pet project of Venable, replaced the contemporary art exhibit at the museum, which provoked further controversy. The first exhibit was a Van Gogh immersive experience.\n\nIn February 2021, the organization and Venable received national attention regarding a job posting for a new director. The Board of Trustees had elevated Venable to the new position of President of Newfields as part of a transition strategy that included Venable's planned retirement and the appointment of a new art museum director. In consultation with the San Francisco-based executive search firm m/Oppenheim Associates, a job description was created that stressed the desire for Newfields to diversify its audience over time without losing supporters who made up its current \"core, white art audience\".\n\nThe phrase attracted significant criticism from the press and art community, and sparked a larger discussion of what was described by some former employees as a \"toxic\" and \"discriminatory\" culture at Newfields. Ganggang, an Indianapolis-based cultural development firm, had been planning at exhibition with the museum featuring the 18 Black artists behind the city's Black Lives Matter street mural, known as The Eighteen Art Collective. The nonprofit announced they would not go forward with the exhibition. Open letters calling for Venable's removal were created by 85 Newfields employees and members of the board of governors, as well as another from more than 1,900 artists, local arts leaders and former employees of the museum. Venable resigned from his position as president of Newfields on February 17, 2021, and the company released a statement announcing chief financial officer Jerry Wise would serve as interim president and committing to a series of changes.\n\nIn November 2021, Newfields announced plans to revamp their galleries, with \"global thematic displays\" that reorganize works by theme, rather than time period or artistic movement.\n\nIn December 2021, Darrianne Christian was hired as the first Black chairwoman on the museum's board. Colette Pierce Burnette was announced as the new president in May 2022, and she began leading the museum in August of that year. Burnette was previously the university president of the private historically Black Huston–Tillotson University and is the first Black women to lead the museum.\n\nIn September 2022, a reworked version of The Eighteen Art Collective's art exhibition began, titled \"We. The Culture\". The works covered themes of hip-hop culture, queer identity and social justice.\n\n## Newfields components\n\n### Indianapolis Museum of Art (IMA)\n\nThe IMA is the building that acts as the cornerstone of Newfields. In addition to housing the museum's extensive collection, the building contains the ticket office, main entrance to the Newfields campus, the museum and garden gift shop, and the basement café. In recent years, the museum has supplemented its food offerings with pop-up restaurants, such as a noodle shop in June 2019. The museum also offers event and performance spaces in the DeBoest Lecture Hall, Pulliam Family Great Hall, Deer Zink Events Pavilion, the Tobias Theater (known as \"The Toby\"), and the outdoor Amphitheater.\n\n#### The Lume\n\nFormerly the museum's contemporary art exhibit, the IMA's fourth floor is dedicated to \"The Lume\" (stylized \"THE LUME Indianapolis\"), a 30,000 square feet (2,800 m<sup>2</sup>) area that displays digital projections of art. When it opened in July 2021, The Lume displayed images inspired by Vincent van Gogh, which remained until May 2022. It was announced at that time that the exhibit would feature displays inspired by Claude Monet and other Impressionists starting in July 2022 and running until May 2023. Access to The Lume is an additional fee on top of admission, with a reduced price for members.\n\n#### Pulliam Family Great Hall\n\nThe Pulliam Family Great Hall houses several large scale works of art and is the main access point to the majority of the museum's galleries. The hall is used for events, including chamber music performances and weddings.\n\n#### Clowes Pavilion\n\nOpened in 1972, the Clowes (/kluːz/) Pavilion is dedicated to the collection of the Clowes family, which includes many of the Old Masters, and contains several of the IMA's most notable works, including Rembrandt's Self-portrait (1629) and three of El Greco's saint portraits (Saint Matthew, Saint Luke, and Saint Simon). The area is divided into small rooms lining a limestone indoor courtyard. The pavilion was closed from 2019 to March 2022 for renovations including updating electrical capabilities, redoing the floor and ceiling, and performing conservation work on the art. This also included the addition of a second entrance and the installation of a 47-foot (14 m) by 31-foot (9.4 m) LED screen that covers the entire ceiling above the courtyard.\n\n### The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art & Nature Park: 100 Acres\n\nFormerly a gravel pit, the Virginia B. Fairbanks Art & Nature Park: 100 Acres officially opened on June 20, 2010. The large-scale outdoor project now encompasses a diverse landscape, including wooded areas, wetlands, open fields, a lake and a series of hiking trails that guide visitors past site-specific works of contemporary art. It is surrounded by the White River to the north and west, 38th Street to the south, and the Indiana Central Canal to the east. Waller Bridge spans the canal, connecting the park to the rest of the Newfields campus. 100 Acres is one of the largest art parks in the country and is the only park to feature an ongoing commission of temporary works.\n\nThe first eight artists selected to create site-responsive pieces were Atelier Van Lieshout, Kendall Buster, Alfredo Jaar, Jeppe Hein, Los Carpinteros, Tea Mäkipää, Type A, and Andrea Zittel. Lieshout's contribution was Funky Bones, a large sculpture consisting of twenty white and black bone-shaped fiberglass benches. The sculpture was featured in the book The Fault in Our Stars by Indianapolis-based author John Green, as well as the movie adaptation. Los Carpinteros' contribution, Free Basket marks the secondary entrance to Newfields on the south side of the park. These artists' works, along with an LEED certified visitor center, are linked by a number of walking trails.\n\n### Lilly House\n\nLilly House, also referred to as Oldfields, is a 26-acre (11 ha) historic estate and house museum on the Newfields campus. The gardens and grounds were restored by the museum in the 1990s. Together with the restoration of the mansion in 2002, Oldfields is now a rare example of a surviving American Country Place Era estate. The estate was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 2003 and has been described as a Gesamtkunstwerk, a unified work of art that combines the arts of landscape design, gardening, architecture, interior design, and decorative arts. Oldfields was built between 1910 and 1913 by architect Lewis Ketcham Davis for the family of Hugh McKennan Landon, who occupied the home from 1913 until 1932 when Landon sold it to J. K. Lilly Jr. Lilly, the late Indianapolis businessman, collector, and philanthropist, renovated and expanded the estate throughout the 1930s and 1940s, updating interiors as well as adding a number of new buildings to the grounds. The 22-room mansion has undergone historic restoration and is currently interpreted to reflect the 1930s era when the Lilly family occupied the residence. In addition to the home's significance as a representation of the American country house movement, Oldfields' gardens and grounds are a rare example of a preserved estate landscape designed by Percival Gallagher of the Olmsted Brothers firm.\n\n### The Gardens at Newfields\n\nThe outdoor areas east of the Indiana Central Canal are collectively known as The Gardens at Newfields. The campus contains distinctive features that have been modified over time to create a greater connection between the museum building and The Gardens. Immediately outside the museum is the Sutphin Mall and Fountain. The Sutphin Mall previously featured the original rendering of the iconic pop art sculpture Love designed by Robert Indiana. The sculpture has since been moved inside for preservation reasons. It is now the site of Five Brushstrokes by Roy Lichtenstein. At the end of mall, opposite the IMA building, is the wheelchair accessible Garden for Everyone. A bronze sculpture, La Hermana del Hombre Bóveda (Sister of the Vault Man) is displayed in the center of the garden.\n\nThe Richard D. Wood Formal Garden, the Rapp Family Ravine Garden, the Allée, and the Border Gardens are historical gardens bordering the Lilly House. The Formal Garden features a fountain, arbors, and plantings. Modified by Percival Gallagher from the original landscape design of Oldfield, its current name is in honor of Newfields trustee and former CEO of Eli Lilly and Company, Richard D. Wood. The Ravine Garden was designed by Gallagher, and connects the Lilly estate to the Indiana Central Canal, which divides the Gardens from the 100 Acres. The Allée is a 775-foot (236 m) lawn directly in front of the Lilly House, lined with 58 red oak trees, that ends in a circular pool and fountain. On either side of the Allée are the Border Gardens, a heavily shaded area with winding paths.\n\nOther nature areas include the Tanner Orchard, the Dickinson Four Seasons Garden, Nonie's Garden, and the Rain Garden.\n\n### Madeline F. Elder Greenhouse, the Playhouse, and the Garden Terrace\n\nThe Madeline F. Elder Greenhouse originally provided plants and produce to the residents of the Oldfield estate. The present structure was constructed in the late 1940s. In addition to the plants, the greenhouse was also the site of the Beer Garden starting in March 2017. In 2022, the Beer Garden was moved to the Playhouse, a larger location closer to the main museum building, next to what the Lilly's had called the Recreation Building. The move also coincided with the Beer Garden being renamed the \"Garden Terrace\". The Garden Terrace features rotating taps of seasonal beers and ciders, including Among the Leaves, a custom beer from Indianapolis-based Sun King Brewing Co. only available at Newfields.\n\n### Sites off the main campus\n\n#### The Miller House and Garden\n\nThe Miller House is a Mid-Century modern home designed by Eero Saarinen and located in Columbus, Indiana. The residence was commissioned by American industrialist, philanthropist, and architecture patron J. Irwin Miller and his wife Xenia Simons Miller in 1953. Design and construction on the Miller House took four years and was completed in 1957. The home was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2000. In 2009, the home and gardens, along with many of the original furnishings, were donated to the Indianapolis Museum of Art by the Miller family. In addition to Eero Saarinen, the house and gardens showcase the work of leading 20th-century figures such as interior designer Alexander Girard, landscape architect Dan Kiley, and principal design associate at the Saarinen office, Kevin Roche.\n\n#### Westerley House and gardens\n\nLocated just south of the museum at 3744 Spring Hollow Road in the Golden Hill neighborhood, Westerley House is the former home of George H. A. Clowes and wife Edith, and their son, Allen Clowes. Designed by architect Frederick Wallick and built in 1922, the four-story home consists of 20 rooms as well as a carriage house, a greenhouse, and the surrounding grounds. Allen Clowes died in 2000 and bequeathed the estate to the museum, intending it to serve as an event space and the home for the IMA director. In 2006, the estate underwent a US\\$2 million renovation, with a major gift of \\$800,000 by the Allen Whitehill Clowes Foundation and an anonymous donor. The renovation was headed by Indianapolis-based architects Rowland Design, construction company Shiel Sexton, and interior designer Jacqueline Anderson, who is married to former IMA director Maxwell Anderson. In 2007, the first floor and grounds were a space for museum events, while the IMA director and family lived on the second and third floors. Westerley historically served as a venue for the Clowes family to showcase their fine art collection, which eventually became the foundation for the IMA's early European collection. Upon the renovation, Jacqueline Anderson chose to continue the display of selected Clowes' pieces alongside the couple's collection of contemporary art.\n\nCharles L. Venable lived in the house during his directorship at Newfields until he left in 2021. Before leaving, he had stated a desire to move out of the house as part of an effort from Newfields to save money and for the director to have a less public-facing residence. In May 2022, about a year after his departure, the house was put on sale for \\$2.2 million and sold over list price within a week.\n\n## Collections\n\nThe Indianapolis Museum of Art has a permanent collection of over 54,000 works that represent cultures from around the world and span over 5,000 years. Areas of the collection include: European painting and sculpture; American painting and sculpture; prints, drawings, and photographs; Asian art; art of Africa, the South Pacific, and the Americas; ancient art of the Mediterranean; Design Arts; textile and fashion arts; and contemporary art. The museum holds a significant collection of Neo-Impressionist paintings and prints, many of which were given in 1977 by local industrialist W. J. Holliday. Combined with the Neo-Impressionist collection is the Samuel Josefowitz Collection of Gauguin and the School of Pont-Aven, which includes highlights such as Bretons in a Ferryboat by Émile Bernard. The IMA also holds a large collection of works by J.M.W. Turner, containing highlights such as the 1820 watercolor, Rosslyn Castle. The collection, which was formed by a substantial donation by philanthropist Kurt Pantzer in 1979, includes over fifty watercolors, as well as oil paintings, prints, and etchings.\n\nThe European collection, which is organized into works before 1800 and works from 1800 to 1945, includes highlights such as Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera and The Flageolet Player on the Cliff by Paul Gauguin. Rembrandt's Self-Portrait is part of the Clowes Fund Collection, which comprises a number of significant Old Masters pieces. Part of the Neo-Impressionist collection, The Channel of Gravelines, Petit Fort Philippe by Georges Seurat was one of the first works to be donated by Caroline Marmon Fesler in the 1940s. Fesler would go on to donate a number of important works, including her bequest in 1961 of notable 20th-century modernism pieces that included Pablo Picasso, Chagall, and Matisse. Pieces in the American collection represent American Impressionism and Modernism, including works by Georgia O'Keeffe and George Inness. Significant pieces include Hotel Lobby (1943) by Edward Hopper and Boat Builders by Winslow Homer.\n\nThe museum has a substantial Asian art collection, with more than 5,000 pieces spanning 4,000 years. Most notable is the IMA's acclaimed collection of Japanese Edo Period paintings, scrolls, and screens. Highlights include A Thousand Peaks and Myriad Ravines, a Ming Dynasty work by Wu Bin, and Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian Patriarchs, an Edo period panel by Kano Sanraku, in addition to a number of Chinese ceramics and bronzes that were donated by Eli Lilly in 1961, such as a fine Shang bronze guang.\n\nThe IMA's collection is also made up of more than 2,000 pieces of African art and artifacts, 1,200 of which were donated by Harrison Eiteljorg in 1989. The IMA has expanded the collection to include both historical and contemporary objects from every major region of Africa, including Egypt. The museum is unique in its inclusive display of Islamic and ancient Egyptian works within the African gallery, rather than with Greek or Roman antiquities. Significant pieces include a female ancestor figure of the Senufo people and Magbo helmet mask for Oro association by master carver Onabanjo of Itu Meko. Also notable within the African art collection is one of the thousands of Benin Bronzes stolen from the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin during a British colonial raid in 1897. The plaque was purchased by Harrison Eiteljorg in 1977 and donated by him to the museum in 1989. While the museum acknowledged in public signage on display in October 2022 that the plaque was stolen from Benin, and as of May 2022 reported to be in talks with Nigerian cultural institutions, no formal plans for its restitution have been announced.\n\nThe museum's textile and fashion art collection is made up of 7,000 items, including 20th-century, custom-designed costumes by Givenchy, Chanel, and Balmain. The collection includes a number of the world's fabric traditions, including African textiles donated by sisters Eliza and Sarah Niblack between 1916 and 1933 and a significant collection of Baluchi rugs. Based on the museum's early history of collecting textiles, items range from couture to silks and antique laces spanning 500 years. Some notable pieces include an Imperial Russian court dress by designer Charles Frederick Worth and Bodhisattva of Wisdom (Mañjusri), a Ming Dynasty silk panel. The museum's Design Arts collection is made up of European and American pieces from the Renaissance to the present. The collection includes Eliel Saarinen's sideboard designed in 1929 for The Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition The Architect and the Industrial Arts: An Exhibition of Contemporary American Design and the Bubbles chaise longue designed by Frank Gehry in 1979 for the Experimental Edges Series. In 2018, the museum added a Sevres lunch service to its decorative arts collection.\n\nStarting in the late 2000s the IMA began to focus on developing its contemporary art collection, which includes works such as Two White Dots in the Air by Alexander Calder and Light and Space III, a permanent installation by Robert Irwin located in the Pulliam Great Hall. Since 2007 the museum has featured site-specific contemporary installations in the Efroymson Pavilion, rotating the temporary works every six months. The Efroymson Pavilion has featured works by artists such as William Lamson, Ball-Nogues Studio, Orly Genger, and Heather Rowe. Contemporary art is also featured in 100 Acres: The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art and Nature Park, which is unique in its inclusion of commissioned works by emerging mid-career artists.\n\nSince 2007, the IMA has built a modern design collection that illustrates the artistic merits of utilitarian objects. The focus on international contemporary design, combined with the opening of the Miller House in 2011, has positioned the museum as an authority on design, with the museum's design gallery being the largest of its kind.\n\n### Transparency\n\nFormer director and CEO Max Anderson spoke of the need to shift away from museums that \"collect, preserve, and interpret\", encouraging the IMA and other institutions to instead \"gather, steward, and converse\" in a way that increases accountability and responsiveness. The IMA's collecting and deaccessioning practices have reflected this perspective, utilizing technology to provide public access, openness, and transparency in museum operations. Unveiled in March 2009, the museum's online deaccession database lists every object being deaccessioned and links new acquisitions to the sold objects that provided funds for their purchase. The IMA has been praised for being the first among museums to openly share their deaccessioning practices and for including the ability to post public comments on entries in the searchable database. The IMA also developed the Association of Art Museum Director's (AAMD) Object Registry, a database that helps museums more easily abide by the 1970 UNESCO ruling that prevents illicit trafficking of antiquities. Since 2003, the IMA has systematically researched the provenance of artworks created before 1946 and acquired after 1932.\n\n### Selected collection highlights\n\n## Exhibitions\n\nIn 1909 the Art Association campaigned for a major retrospective, the Augustus Saint-Gaudens Memorial Exhibition, to be brought to Indianapolis. The exhibition, also referred to as the Saint-Gaudens Memorial Exhibition of Statuary, attracted 56,000 visitors during its three-month run, well beyond the board's goal of attracting 50,000 visitors. A 1937 exhibition, Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century, included loans from the Cincinnati Art Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. The six-week exhibition presented 65 pieces, including several Rembrandts, and was considered the beginning of the museum's rise to connoisseurship.\n\nIn 1977, the IMA acquired a collection of Neo-Impressionist paintings from Indianapolis industrialist W.J. Holliday, which was presented in an exhibition in 1983 titled The Aura of Neo-Impressionism: The W.J. Holliday Collection. From 1986 to 1988, the exhibit traveled to seven cities in the United States and made one stop in Europe at the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. Opening in the summer of 1987 to coincide with the Pan American Games, Art of the Fantastic: Latin America, 1920–1987 presented 125 works by artists from a variety of nations. Well-known artists such as Frida Kahlo and Roberto Matta were featured, as well as artists who had never exhibited outside their native country. The show was the first large-scale presentation of 20th-century Latin American art in the United States in over 20 years and was the museum's first contemporary exhibition to travel.\n\nIn 1992, the IMA hosted The William S. Paley Collection, a traveling exhibition organized by the Museum of Modern Art that included Impressionist, Post-Impressionist, and modern pieces collected by the late CBS news chairman William S. Paley. The exhibit helped establish the IMA as a prominent museum venue in the Midwest and brought in a record-setting 60,837 visitors. In 2001, the IMA collaborated with the Armory Museum in Moscow to organize Gifts to the Tsars, 1500–1700: Treasures from the Kremlin. The show helped the IMA form partnerships with local arts organizations, gain international exposure, and attracted a record 70,704 visitors. Another important exhibit to travel to the IMA was Roman Art from the Louvre, which attracted 106,002 visitors during its 2008 run. The exhibition featured 184 mosaics, frescoes, statues, marble reliefs, and vessels loaned from the permanent collection of the Louvre in Paris, France. It was the largest collection ever loaned from the Louvre to date, and only stopped in three U.S. cities before returning to France.\n\nIn 2009, Sacred Spain: Art and Belief in the Spanish World brought together 71 works of art from a wide variety of lenders, including Peru, Mexico, and the Prado in Spain. The exhibit was composed of a rare collection of pieces, many of which had never been on view in the United States. It featured paintings, sculpture, metalwork, and books by artists such as El Greco, Diego Velázquez, and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. Andy Warhol Enterprises was displayed at the IMA from October 2010 to January 2011 and featured more than 150 works of art by Andy Warhol, as well as archival materials. The exhibition was the largest to illustrate Warhol's fascination with money and feature consumerism as a central theme. Visitors were able to view the progression of Warhol's career, from his beginnings as a commercial artist to his multimillion-dollar empire.\n\nIn April 2013, the IMA hosted the first full-scale retrospective of the work of Chinese activist and artist Ai Weiwei in the United States. Named Ai Weiwei: According to What? after a painting by Jasper Johns, the exhibit was curated by Sarah Urist Green, and was the largest ever at the IMA by footspace.\n\nIn November 2021, Newfields announced plans to begin organizing galleries into \"global thematic displays\" that group works by theme, rather than time period or artistic movement. The first of these exhibitions was titled Embodied: Human Figures in Art, and began in December 2021.\n\n### Traveling exhibitions\n\nEuropean Design since 1985: Shaping the New Century was displayed from March 8 to June 21, 2009, and was the first major survey of contemporary European Design. The exhibition contained a collection of nearly 250 pieces by Western European industrial and decorative designers such as Philippe Starck, Marc Newson and Mathias Bengtsson. Three prominent modes of design emerged from 1985 to 2005 and could be seen in the exhibition: Geometric Minimal design, Biomorphic design and Neo-Pop design. Among the themes addressed throughout the exhibition was the question of what makes something \"art\" and how to distinguish a museum quality piece in a world full of mass-produced products. Rather than organizing the exhibition by designer or country, the pieces were organized based on the intellectual or philosophical precept under which they fell. After leaving the IMA, the exhibition traveled to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta and the Milwaukee Art Museum.\n\nHard Truths: The Art of Thornton Dial, on display from February to September 2011, included over 70 large-scale artworks and is the largest assemblage of Thornton Dial's work ever mounted. The exhibition contextualized Dial as a relevant, contemporary artist rather than a folk artist or outsider artist as many have portrayed him in the past. The pieces on view in Hard Truths covered a range of social and political themes, many of which address rural life in the south and the treatment of African Americans. After departing Indianapolis, the exhibition traveled to New Orleans, Charlotte, North Carolina and Atlanta.\n\n### Venice Biennale\n\nIn 2010, the IMA was selected to be the commissioning organization for the United States pavilion at the Venice Biennale (Biennale di Venezia). The IMA's selection over numerous other top American museums was seen as a distinguished honor for the organization as they represented the United States in the \"world's most prestigious contemporary art exhibit\". Lisa Freiman, senior curator and chair of the IMA's department of contemporary art at the time, organized the exhibition and served as the commissioner of the U.S. pavilion. The IMA's proposal to create an exhibition featuring the work of Puerto Rican artists Jennifer Allora and Guillermo Calzadilla was accepted by the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs at the U.S. State Department. Allora and Calzadilla were the first collaborative team to be exhibited at the Venice Biennale, and 2011 was the first time American artists from a Spanish-speaking community were selected. Six new works of art were developed by the pair, who often explore geopolitical themes through their work. The pieces they created for the 2011 U.S. Pavilion formed an exhibition entitled Gloria and highlighted competitive institutions such as the Olympic Games, the military, and international commerce. Allora and Calzadilla also brought bring elements of performance into their multimedia pieces through the participation of Olympic athletes. Three of the six pieces, entitled Body in Flight (Delta), Body in Flight (American), and Track and Field, featured Olympians Dan O'Brien, Chellsie Memmel, and David Durante.\n\n## Festivals and events\n\n### Winterlights\n\nWinterlights began in 2017, in which 1.2 million Christmas lights were strung across the Newfields campus, as well as a musically coordinated light show. The 2018 and 2019 had increasing number of lights both years, and the festival is now held every year. The festival is a paid event, with a reduced price for members.\n\n### Harvest\n\nIn October 2019, an autumn-themed festival was introduced titled \"Harvest\", which ran for one weekend. The event included an infinity mirror room by Yayoi Kusama titled, \"All the Eternal Love I have for the Pumpkin\", pumpkin painting, beer and food tents, and a petting zoo. Subsequent editions of the event lasted most of October and included \"Harvest Days\", which ran during normal museum hours, and \"Harvest Nights\", which ran in the evenings. Harvest Nights featured a Halloween-themed path of Jack-o-lanterns and sound effects that led to the Lilly House, where a ghost story of the mansion's past was projected onto its facade. Harvest Nights is a paid event, with a reduced price for members, while Harvest Days is included with admission.\n\n### Penrod Art Fair\n\nThe all-male Penrod Society was formed in 1967 to boost membership for the Art Association of Indianapolis. The society has hosted an event, now known as the Penrod Art Fair, annually at Newfields since 1968. The first iteration of the event, called \"An Afternoon at Oldfields\", was a celebration of the recently donated Oldfields land. The event drew more than 4,000 people and included a performance by the Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra. The current Penrod Art Fair, nicknamed \"Indiana's Nicest Day\", is the United States' largest single-day art fair, and attracted more than 20,000 patrons and 300 artists in 2016. The event did not take place in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but returned the following year.\n\n## Conservation\n\nThe IMA's conservation department was established in 1970 by the museum's first full-time conservator, Paul Spheeris, and quickly became known as a regional center for conservation. In 1978, the department began providing consulting services to regional institutions, taking on contracts from across the Midwest. An early high-profile contract involved the preservation of 45 governors' portraits over the course of 15 months. The 1979 exhibit, Portraits and Painters of the Governors of Indiana, was held at the IMA from January to March before the portraits were placed on permanent display at the Indiana Statehouse. Other major regional projects have included the conservation and restoration of the Thomas Hart Benton murals, first created for the Indiana Hall at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair and now located at Indiana University, the Wishard Memorial Hospital murals, the Otto Stark and Clifton Wheeler murals in Indianapolis Public School 54, and most recently the restoration of the May Wright Sewall Memorial Torches at Herron High School, the former site of the John Herron Art Institute.\n\nCurrently, the conservation department serves the needs of the museum through the expertise of specialists in paintings, textiles, works on paper, frames, and objects conservation. The department has grown in both size and staff throughout the years, with the most recent expansion occurring in 2007. As of 2007, the IMA owned one of the few computer-based X-ray units in the United States, continuing a trend in X-ray technology that the department began in the 1970s. In 1980, the department helped organize and establish the Midwest Regional Conservation Guild, which includes conservators and conservation scientists from Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan. In the mid-1980s, the department received attention when head conservator Martin Radecki assisted local authorities in uncovering over two dozen forged T.C. Steele and William Forsythe paintings worth more than \\$200,000. The high-profile forgery case led Radecki to organize an exhibit in 1989, Is it Genuine? Steele, Forsythe and Forgery in Indiana. The exhibit highlighted conservation techniques and examined how forgeries can be discovered. Another public presentation of conservation took place in 2007 with Sebastiano Mainardi: The Science of Art, a Star Studio exhibit that allowed visitors to watch conservators as they worked on the 16th-century altarpiece. The IMA's Star Studio is an interactive gallery that enables visitors to learn, through the process of art-making and observation, about the museum's collections.\n\nIn February 2010, the IMA shifted from current environmental control standards within their exhibition spaces, allowing temperature and humidity fluctuation of a few degrees on either side of the suggested standard. The IMA relinquished the standard after concluding that the majority of artworks could sustain a greater range of humidity, so permitting the museum to save on the cost of energy bills and reduce its carbon footprint.\n\n### Conservation science\n\nIn October 2008, the IMA announced a \\$2.6 million grant from the Lilly Endowment to be used toward the creation of a state-of-the-art conservation science lab. Through a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, Gregory Dale Smith, was hired in October 2009 to lead the lab as its senior conservation scientist. A main focus of the lab is researching the IMA's collection, including couture fashion in the textile collection and objects made of synthetic materials in the design collection. Another focus is scientific research on materials found in the collections, such as resins and dyes on African art pieces and glazes on Asian ceramics. Through the addition of the lab, the IMA aims to establish itself as an internationally recognized conservation center and to increase its potential as a training and professional development resource in conservation science.\n\n## Administration\n\nThe Indianapolis Museum of Art is a 501(c)(3) corporation d/b/a Newfields. It is governed by President and CEO Colette Pierce Burnette, three vice chairmen, a treasurer, secretary, and 21 additional board members. The museums endowment consists of approximately 120 individual funds devoted to building operations, bond costs, personnel expenses, legal fees and other purposes. As a consequence of the 2007–2012 global financial crisis, the endowment fell from \\$382 million at the start of 2008 to \\$293 million at the end of November. The endowment had returned to approximately \\$350 million by March 2021.\n\n### Affiliates\n\nThe IMA has relied on affiliates to support and raise awareness about the museum's collections since the early 20th century. In 1919, the Friends of American Art was founded to support purchases for the Art Association of Indianapolis and Herron Museum. For two decades the Friends purchased 22 works of art for the collection, funded by members' annual donations. The Alliance of the Indianapolis Museum of Art was founded in 1958 and planned lectures, black tie balls, and related activities in order to raise funds for the museum. Major gifts included a \\$350,000 contribution in 1979 toward the \\$40 million centennial endowment campaign and a \\$500,000 contribution toward the IMA's 1990 expansion. By 2007 the Alliance had provided purchase funds for over 300 works of art. The Contemporary Art Society was formed in 1962 to acquire contemporary art for the museum's permanent collection. In 1963, the first major acquisition consisted of 65 works. The Horticultural Society was founded in 1972 to contribute to the care and education of the museum's gardens and grounds, raising \\$65,000 in 1989 toward the restoration of Oldfields' gardens. In the late 1970s the Second Century Society and the Print and Drawing Society were both formed. The Second Century Society, later known as the IMA Council, was founded to celebrate donations of \\$1,000 or more to the museum's annual operating fund, attracting more than 200 contributors during its inaugural year. In 1979, the Print and Drawing Society exhibited 70 artworks spanning 500 years in their first exhibit, The Print and Drawing Society Collections. By the late 1980s the museum had expanded its affiliate program to include the Decorative Arts Society, the Asian Arts Society, the Ethnographic Arts Society, and the Fashion Arts Society.\n\n### Awards\n\nAfter undergoing a sustainability initiative that reduced natural gas consumption by 48 percent and electricity consumption by 19 percent, the IMA became the first fine art museum to be named an Energy Star partner in 2008. As of 2010, the IMA was one of only 11 museums to receive this recognition by the Environmental Protection Agency. The museum instituted a \"greening committee\" to organize a variety of efforts to maintain environmental stewardship, a primary component of the institution's mission.\n\nIn 2009 the IMA was awarded the National Medal for Museum and Library Service, one of 10 institutions to receive this annual distinction by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS). The IMA was recognized for serving its community through a number of programs, including Viewfinders, a school program that serves 9,000 local students a year. IMLS also cited the IMA's free admission, greening and sustainability initiatives, efforts to reach virtual audiences, and improvements in accessibility throughout the museum.\n\n### Leadership\n\nWhen the institution was founded in 1883, the leader of the organization was known as the President of the Art Association of Indianapolis. When the Association formed the John Herron Art Institute in 1902, the head of the John Herron Art Museum was given the title of Director. After the whole organization and museum became known as the Indianapolis Museum of Art in 1969, the institution had both a director of the museum alongside a president of the board of trustees. In 1987, the position of chief executive officer (CEO) was created to ease the administrative load of then-director Robert Yassin. Former board of governor's member E. Kirk McKinney served as the first CEO. When Bret Waller joined the museum in 1990, the positions were consolidated. Starting in 2007, Newfield's chief executive was referred to as the Melvin and Bren Simon Director and CEO of the Indianapolis Museum of Art (later \"of Newfields\") in recognition of a \\$10 million gift from philanthropists Bren and Melvin Simon to endow the position of the director and CEO. A new position titled the President of Newfields was created in February 2021, whom the Director of the Indianapolis Museum of Art and the also newly created Ruth Lilly Director of The Garden and Fairbanks Park at Newfields both report to.\n\nSources:\n\n## Outreach\n\n### Admission\n\nAs early as 1915, the IMA (then the John Herron Art Institute) introduced free admission on Saturdays and Sundays, resulting in an increase in attendance and diversity in audience. In 1941 the museum began a free admission policy that remained in effect until 2006 when the board initiated a \\$7 admission fee for nonmembers. Beginning in January 2007, the museum returned to free general admission with the exception of special exhibits. Dropping the admission charge, which then director and CEO Max Anderson described as a barrier that kept people away, resulted in increased attendance, membership, and donor support. During Anderson's tenure at the museum attendance more than doubled, to 450,000 visitors annually. In 2009, the IMA was awarded the National Medal for Museum and Library Service for public service, specifically the museum's free admission policy and educational programming.\n\nIn April 2015 the IMA returned to charging the public for admittance to the museum at a price of \\$18 per person for nonmembers. The price was increased to \\$20 for nonmembers in June 2022, with the price for seniors remaining at \\$18.\n\n### Education\n\nThe IMA's educational initiatives include programming for the local community as well as online audiences. Viewfinders, an art-viewing program that serves 9,000 local students a year, uses Visual Thinking Strategy, an arts-based curriculum that teaches critical thinking, communication skills, and visual literacy. The museum's emphasis on online engagement has led to educational tools such as ArtBabble, a now defunct video portal for art museum content. Davis Lab, located within the museum next to the Pulliam Great Hall, is a space where visitors can virtually browse the museum's collection and experiment with new technology. In addition to its focus on technology and school outreach, the museum provides classes, lectures, and film series, as well as ongoing tours of the collections, historic properties, and grounds. Other programming includes the Star Studio, a space for drop-in art making where visitors, along with museum staff, carry out projects inspired by museum exhibitions.\n\nFrom 1946 until 1981, the Indianapolis Junior League provided volunteers and monetary support for the museum's docent program. In 1981, the museum began its own docent training program, which continues to serve a large number of volunteer docents through classes and training. As of 2009 over 500 individuals volunteer at the IMA.\n\n### Accessibility\n\nSince the 1990s the IMA has continually improved accessibility for visitors; the initiative was a contributing factor to the museum receiving the National Medal for Museum and Library Service in 2009. The IMA provides captioning on videos produced by the museum, large print binders for exhibits, accessible seating and sign language interpretation in Tobias Theater, and wheelchair-accessible trails in 100 Acres. The museum also maintains partnerships with the Indiana School for the Deaf and the Indiana School for the Blind. In 1993 the IMA opened the Garden for Everyone, a wheelchair-accessible garden designed to emphasize multiple senses. The garden includes varieties of fragrant and textured plants as well as a number of sculptures, including La Hermana del Hombre Boveda by Pablo Serrano.\n\n## Initiatives\n\n### Newfields Lab\n\nIn February 2010, the IMA announced the launch of IMA Lab, later renamed Newfields Lab, a consulting service within the museum's technology department. IMA Lab was designed to address museum-specific technology needs not currently met by software vendors and to provide consulting services to museums and nonprofit organizations that want to use technology to help solve problems and meet objectives. Newfields Lab projects include TAP, steve.museum, and the IMA Dashboard. TAP is a mobile tour application for iPod Touch that presents visitors with content related to the IMA's collection, such as artist interviews, text and audio files, and pictures. Steve.museum, for which IMA Lab is the technical lead, is a project that explores social tagging as a new way to describe collections and make them more accessible. The Lab also developed a virtual reality experience of the Miller House that allowed guests to \"walk through\" the house and learn about the architectural and design features.\n\nIn November 2021, Newfields Lab, in association with the Institute of Museum and Library Services, the Field Museum, and History Colorado, launched the Museums for Digital Learning. The website is a platform for K-12 educators to use digitized collection resources and resource kits in teaching. The project was initially funded by a two-year pilot project through a National Leadership Grant awarded to Newfields.\n\n### ArtBabble\n\nIn 2009 the IMA launched ArtBabble, an online art themed video website that features interviews and full-length documentaries. ArtBabble serves as a repository for art related media content created by not only the IMA but other institutions. The Smithsonian American Art Museum, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, San Diego Museum of Contemporary Art, and the New York Public Library are some of the 30 worldwide partners who contribute content. ArtBabble was a showcase project for the National Summit on Arts Journalism and was chosen \"Best Overall\" Best of the Web winner at Museums and the Web 2010. The site has since ceased operating.\n\n### IMA Art Services\n\nIMA Art Services is a consulting service focused around public art and modeled after the museum's other consulting arm, Newfields Lab. In January 2011, IMA Art Services signed its first contract with the Indianapolis Airport Authority. With the \\$100,000, one-year contract, the museum managed the Indianapolis Airport Authority's art collection, which included 40 works currently on display in the passenger terminal of the Indianapolis International Airport.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of largest art museums\n- List of attractions and events in Indianapolis", "revid": "1164108231", "description": "Art museum in Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.", "categories": ["1883 establishments in Indiana", "Art museums and galleries in Indiana", "Art museums established in 1883", "Asian art museums in the United States", "Contemporary art galleries in the United States", "Edward Larrabee Barnes buildings", "Fashion museums in the United States", "Indianapolis Museum of Art", "Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums", "Modern art museums in the United States", "Museums in Indianapolis", "Museums of American art"]}
{"id": "36640339", "url": null, "title": "Take Me Home (One Direction album)", "text": "Take Me Home is the second studio album by British-Irish boy band One Direction, released on 9 November 2012 by Syco Music and Columbia Records. As a follow-up to One Direction's internationally successful debut album Up All Night (2011), Take Me Home was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track. Largely recorded and composed in Sweden during 2012, Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub and Carl Falk, who composed One Direction's hits, \"What Makes You Beautiful\" and \"One Thing\", spent six months in Stockholm developing songs for the album, and were able to shape melodies around the members' tones.\n\nThe album's songs are characterised by metronomic pop, vocal harmonies, hand claps, prominent electric guitar riffs, bright synthesizers, a homogeneous sound and message, and rotations of lead vocals. The members' voices are presented individually on the record, and its lyricism speaks of falling in love, unrequited love, commitment, jealousy and self-empowerment. Take Me Home garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics. There was praise for its quality of production, while criticism hinged on its generic, rushed nature.\n\nGlobally, the album topped the charts in more than 35 countries. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Take Me Home was the fourth-global-best-selling album of 2012, selling 4.4 million units. The album's number-one debut on the US Billboard 200 chart made One Direction the first group to bow atop the Billboard 200 with their first two albums since American girl group Danity Kane entered with Welcome to the Dollhouse in 2008 and their self-titled debut in 2006. One Direction also became the second act in 2012 to achieve two number-one albums within a 12-month period, and the first boy band in US chart history to land two number-one albums in a calendar year. Their debut album and Take Me Home were the third and fifth-best-selling albums of 2012 in the United States, respectively, making the band the first act to place two albums in the year-end top five in the Nielsen SoundScan era.\n\nThe album's lead single, \"Live While We're Young\", released on 28 September 2012, peaked inside the top ten in almost every country it charted in and recorded the highest one-week opening sales figure for a song by a non-U.S. artist. The subsequent singles, \"Little Things\" and \"Kiss You\", were less successful, although the former topped the UK Singles Chart. To promote the album, One Direction performed the album's songs on several televised programmes and a headlining sold-out concert at the Madison Square Garden. Furthermore, One Direction embarked on their second worldwide concert tour entitled the Take Me Home Tour in 2013.\n\n## Background and production\n\nIn 2012, One Direction revealed that a follow-up release to their debut album, Up All Night (2011), was in development. \"In the summer, we're going to get back and start a new record. We want to bring out a record nearly every year, every year and a half,\" Niall Horan said, revealing they were arranging \"meetings and stuff with different writers and producers.\" In March 2012, McFly frontman Tom Fletcher confirmed that he would be writing a song for the album. In February 2012, One Direction expressed interest in working with Ed Sheeran, and in June 2012, Sheeran confirmed that they were in contact: \"I'm going into the studio in August to produce the tracks for them. I won't feature on the tracks though\".\n\nIn April 2012, The Independent reported that Simon Cowell, the group's manager, had challenged prominent songwriters to compete for space on One Direction's second album. Dee Demirbag, responsible for repertoire at BMG Rights Management, a music publisher, in Scandinavia, said: \"Breaking a boy band in the U.S. is about as big as it gets in the music industry, so you can imagine the competition to get cuts on the next One Direction album is immense\". In addition, the article reported that Syco Records was working on candidates with Max Martin and Kristian Lundin. By August 2012, it was confirmed that album would feature work from veterans such as Carl Falk, Rami Yacoub, Dr. Luke, Cirkut, and Shellback.\n\nTake Me Home was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track. \"The Swedish-style songwriting: melody first\" was predominantly utilised, according to Time correspondent Douglas Wolk. Savan Kotecha, Yacoub, and Falk, who composed One Direction's hits, \"What Makes You Beautiful\" and \"One Thing\", spent six months in Stockholm, Sweden, developing songs for the album, and were able to shape melodies around their tones. Kotecha reflected: \"We'll spend days, sometimes weeks, challenging the melody. The goal is to make it sound like anyone can do this, but it's actually very difficult\". In addition, after viewing the international success of \"What Makes You Beautiful\", the trio conceptualised songs \"that kids could play on guitar and cover on YouTube.\"\n\nAfter extensive promotional appearances in support of their debut album, One Direction began recording the album in May 2012, in Stockholm, Sweden, at Kinglet Studios. In June 2012, the group continued recording the album in the United States, while touring on the final leg of their Up All Night Tour. Horan, in a June interview with MTV News, disclosed that the group were intending to spend their time in July and August \"getting the album done.\" Besides sessions in Kinglet Studios, recording sessions and mixing for the album took place at Chalice Studios in Los Angeles, MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach, Wendy House Productions in London, and Sticky Studios in Surrey, England.\n\n## Packaging\n\nThe album cover artwork, revealed on 30 August 2012, features the group surrounding a traditional British K6 red telephone box, a familiar sight on the streets of the UK.\n\n## Music and lyrics\n\nThe album's songs are characterised by metronomic rock-inherited pop, vocal harmonies, hand claps, prominent electric guitar riffs, bright synthesisers, double entendres for sexual intercourse, a homogeneous sound and message, the pitch-correcting software Auto-Tune, and rotations of lead vocals. Jon Caramanica, writing in The New York Times, considered the album \"far more mechanical\" than their debut album, although noted that it is sonically and lyrically similar. San Lansky, an editor for Idolator, described it as \"'80s-inflected and intermittently rock-dappled\", and as more indebted to the \"sanitized punk crunch of McFly\" than to teen pop.\n\nAlexis Petridis, a music journalist, interpreted its signature sound as a \"peppy, synth-bolstered take on early-80s new-wave pop, heavy on clipped rhythms and chugging guitars,\" which, he said, is at least an improvement on the substitute R&B \"that was once the grim lot of the boyband.\" The opening guitar riff of \"Live While We're Young\" has been noted as similar to that of the Clash's 1982 single, \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\", by some critics. According to Petridis, the guitar is played thrice between the riff with the plectrum stroking the strings, while it is pressed. One note in the chord is changed, which Petridis surmised was probably to avoid paying any royalty to the Clash. \"Rock Me\" has a clapping, mid-tempo beat that has been likened to that \"We Will Rock You\", a 1977 single by Queen.\n\nThe group's voices are presented individually on the record. Savan Kotecha noted that the Backstreet Boys' late-'90s hits inspired the way he formulated One Direction's voices for the album. Composer Julian Bunetta, who worked on three of Take Me Home's tracks, also tried to place emphasis on the sound of each member: \"The fans can tell the difference, but we wanted to make sure that when it came on the radio, the average person knew that it must be One Direction, because it's five guys.\" Likewise, Caramanica noted that the album's songs produced by Bunetta \"tend to start out with more breathing room, giving the guys a chance to show off vocally\". The album's lyricism speaks of falling in love, unrequited love, the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique, and commitment, in songs such as \"Little Things,\" \"Last First Kiss,\" \"Back For You,\" and \"They Don't Know About Us.\" Other tracks, like \"Heart Attack,\" \"Rock Me,\" \"I Would,\" and \"Over Again,\" have a more solemn tone, addressing jealousy and longing for past significant others.\n\n## Promotion\n\nTake Me Home has yielded three singles, including two US singles. Its lead single, \"Live While We're Young\", was released by Syco Records on 28 September 2012. The song rocketed to worldwide success, peaking at number one in Ireland and New Zealand and the top ten in almost every country it charted in. In the United States, \"Live While We're Young\" debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, sold 341,000 downloads in its first week, and bowed at number one on the Digital Songs chart. Its debut marks the highest bow by a British group and the second-highest debut among all UK acts, outpaced only by Elton John's number one arrival with \"Candle in the Wind 1997\". Its opening sales denote the biggest opening sales figure for a single by a non-US artist and the third ever for a download by a group, surpassed by the arrivals of Maroon 5's 2012 single, \"Payphone\" (493,000), and The Black Eyed Peas' 2009 single, \"Boom Boom Pow\" (465,000). \"Little Things\" was released in the UK and Ireland on 12 November 2012, as the second single. The track debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart of 18 November 2012, becoming One Direction's fifth top-ten appearance and second number-one hit in the United Kingdom. \"Kiss You\", chosen as the second and final U.S. single third and final overall single of Take Me Home, was released digitally on 17 November 2012, according to MTV News.\n\nThe group and the album's lead single were featured in a Pepsi television commercial for the United States, which premiered on the Fox Broadcasting Company network on 10 October 2012. Columbia Records allowed the record to stream in full on iTunes in the week leading up to its 13 November 2012 release. In addition, One Direction promoted the album in a series of live appearances from October toward December, notably on television programmes The X Factor USA, The X Factor UK, The Today Show, and the BBC's Children in Need 2012 telethon. Additional live appearances include at the Royal Variety Performance, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II, the Bambi Awards, and a headlining sold-out show at New York City's Madison Square Garden. The album's accompanying concert tour, the Take Me Home Tour, commenced at London's O2 Arena on 23 February 2013. The concert tour consists of over 100 shows in Australasia, Europe, and North America, and is set to visit arenas and stadiums from February through October 2013. Announced by member Liam Payne at the 2012 BRIT Awards in early 2012, the original concert tour was billed as the UK & Ireland Arena Tour. In mid-2012, the concert tour expanded with legs in North America and Australasia following the band's international breakthrough. In the UK and Ireland, ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release, which included a six-date sell out at the O2 Arena in London. In Australian and New Zealand markets, tickets grossed US\\$15.7 million, with all 190,000 tickets being sold for eighteen shows to be held in Australia and New Zealand.\n\n## Critical reception\n\nThe album received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 68, based on ten reviews. Despite its \"boardroom-defined objectives\" and \"safety\", Al Fox, writing for BBC Music, considered the music itself \"notable quality\" and reliable. Matt Collar from AllMusic described it as an \"immediately catchy mix of dancey pop that maximizes the group's shared lead-vocal approach and peppy, upbeat image.\" Kate Wills from The Independent praised the uptempo material while defining the ballads as jarring, a notion shared by John Dolan of Rolling Stone. Simon Gage of Daily Express noted that \"it's not going to change the world\" but \"the voices are good and the charm undiminished\". Chris Richards of The Washington Post wrote that \"the group's best songs are dazzlingly efficient\" and \"the boy band's sophomore album is pop candy in the purest sense—sweet, colorful, and unlike so many releases aimed at ticklish tweenage hearts, consistent\". Sam Lansky of Idolator commented that the album is \"some of the purest pop of the year\" and \"is actually pretty great—certainly better than it needs to be\" while adding that \"the hooks are instantaneous and keenly crafted\" and \"the production is '80s-inflected and intermittently rock-dappled\".\n\nAl Fox of BBC Music complimented the album, writing \"polished and dependable, despite its safety there are some show-stopping pop anthems present\" while adding that the album \"takes the One Direction brand, reinforces it nicely, and as far as their fans' needs are concerned, ticks every single box\". Josh Langhoff of PopMatters praised \"C'mon C'mon\" as the album's best song, calling it \"amazing\" and \"euphoric\" and complimenting the group's harmonies while also adding that the album had \"unexpected variety\" and that \"these may be the least articulate cads on the pop charts, but their beats speak volumes\". James Robertson of The Daily Mirror praised the album, writing that \"it's fun, infectious and they've found the balance between poptastic fun for the pre-teens and lyrics with meaning for embarrassed twenty-somethings who secretly listen to Up All Night on their iPods\" and that \"there are some obvious rhymes and repetitive tones but the five-piece have smashed it with Take Me Home\". Carmin Chappell of HuffPost commented that \"their maturation into young adults is made evident\" and that \"although the songs still have the poppy vibe characteristic of boybands, this album has a more cohesive sound than the last\" while complimenting the album for how it \"successfully embodies the carefree and fun nature of teens\". Sarah Dean, also writing for HuffPost, deemed the album as \"disappointingly good pop\" and \"the kind of music you want to hate and know you shouldn't enjoy as someone who isn't a 'teeny-bopper', but it still puts a smile on your face\" while ending her review by saying \"One Direction's global music domination won't be ending anytime soon. And this album has made me think it's probably just easier to give in and enjoy it\".\n\nSome reviews were less positive, with Entertainment Weekly writer Adam Markovitz panning the record as an empty gesture and asserting that the album was rushed, signifying an album with \"barely enough zip to keep the kids up past dinner.\" Likewise, Robert Copsey from Digital Spy wrote, \"The result [of Take Me Home] may see them progressing at a snail's pace, but when you've got it so good, what's the rush anyway?\" In a mixed review, The New York Times contributor Jon Caramanica appreciated the album's sonic palette, but dismissed its lyricism as narrow and tedious, and Sheeran's contributions as \"unusually lumpy in the hands of such a polished group\". Caramanica characterised the members' vocals as \"fundamentally interchangeable\", and opined that only Zayn Malik \"breaks free from the pack vocally with any regularity.\"\n\nWhile he commended the album for its \"variable quality\", Alexis Petridis for The Guardian felt the record would not be able to transcend its target market, a core audience aged approximately 8 to 12 and female: \"To anyone else, the mystery of One Direction's success—or at least the sheer scale of it—remains as opaque as ever.\" The latter view was shared by Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star: \"Unless you're in the target demographic or are, perhaps, a mom who lived through the same thing in her youth, there's no point in even going near this record, of course, but the rest of us were never meant to in the first place.\" Writing for HitFix, Melinda Newman maintained that the album \"masterfully hits its target\", and concluded as follows: \"I'm so far out of the One Dimension demographic, I practically need a GPS to find it.\" Kyle Kramer of Chicago Tribune called the album \"a bit of a cash grab\" and \"an empty gesture\" while stating \"that almost every song\" on the album \"appears carefully engineered to stick to a three-minute run time and the same strict structural formula, in which two verses crescendo into forgettable choruses\".\n\n## Commercial performance\n\nGlobally, Take Me Home topped the charts in more than 35 countries, and was the fourth-best-selling album of 2012, selling 4.4 million units. In the United Kingdom, the album sold over 94,000 copies in its first two days of sale. It debuted atop the UK Albums Chart with first-week sales of 155,000 copies, becoming their first album to top the chart and the second fastest selling album of 2012. The album and its second single, \"Little Things\", both debuted simultaneously at number one in the UK on 18 November 2012, making One Direction the youngest act in British chart history to achieve the feat. The album became the fifth-best-selling album of 2012 in the UK, having sold 616,000 copies by the end of 2012. It was certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in 2022, denoting sales of 1,200,000 equivalent units. As of February 2016, the album has sold 1,000,924 copies in the UK.\n\nIn Ireland, Take Me Home became the fastest-selling album of 2012, lodged six consecutive weeks atop the Irish Albums Chart, and was certified triple platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association (IRMA). In Italy, the collection became their second Italian chart-topper, and Italy's seventh-best-selling album of 2012. It has been certified double platinum by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry (FIMI), indicating sales of 60,000 copies. In the Netherlands, the album debuted at number one on 17 November 2012, and shipped 25,000 copies in its first day of release. It was certified platinum by 18 December 2012, denoting shipments of 50,000 copies in the region. After a month of its release, it was certified platinum in Poland for shipments of 30,000 copies, while it became the seventh-best-selling album of 2012 in Denmark, having sold 28,875 copies by year end in that country. In Sweden, the album was the ninth-best-selling album of 2012, and has been certified platinum by the Swedish Recording Industry Association (GLF), signifying shipments of 40,000 units.\n\nThe album debuted at number one on the Australian ARIA Chart dated 25 November 2012, a position it held for a second week. It was certified platinum in Australia in its first week by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and has since been certified double platinum for a shipment of 140,000 copies.\n\nThe record became the band's second number-one album in the United States in the week of 18 November 2012, and recorded the biggest first-week sales tally for an album by a boy band since N'Sync's Celebrity (2001), and the third-largest debut sales week of 2012, behind Taylor Swift's Red and Babel by Mumford & Sons, with 540,000 copies sold. One Direction became the first group to bow atop the Billboard 200 with their first two albums since American girl group Danity Kane entered with Welcome to the Dollhouse in 2008 and their self-titled debut in 2006, the second act in 2012 to achieve two number-one albums within a 12-month period alongside Justin Bieber, and the first boy band in US chart history to land two number-one albums in a calendar year. The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 5 December 2012, denoting shipments of one million copies. It became their second album in 2012 to top the one-million mark in US sales in the week of 16 December 2012, making them the first act to achieve the feat in a calendar year since 2009, and the first group or duo to achieve the feat since Rascal Flatts in 2007. Their debut album and Take Me Home were the third- and fifth-best-selling albums of 2012 in the United States, respectively, making the band the first act to place two albums in the year-end top five in the Nielsen SoundScan era. On 29 March 2015, it surpassed the 2 million threshold becoming their second album (after Up All Night) to sell over 2 million copies in the U.S. As of August 2015, the album has sold 2.02 million copies in the U.S.\n\n## Track listing\n\nNotes\n\n- signifies a co-producer\n- signifies a vocal producer\n- signifies an additional producer\n\n## Personnel\n\nAdapted from AllMusic.\n\n- Karl Brazil – drums\n- David Bukovinszky – cello\n- Julian Bunetta – engineer, musician, producer, vocal producer\n- Mattias Bylund – editing, string arrangements, string engineer\n- Cirkut – musician, producer, programming\n- Rupert Coulson – engineer\n- Tom Coyne – mastering\n- Tommy Culm – background vocals\n- Dr. Luke – musician, producer, programming\n- Chris Elliot – string engineer\n- Levon Eriksson – assistant\n- Carl Falk – guitar, musician, producer, programming, vocal editing, vocal engineer, background vocals\n- Rachael Findlen – assistant\n- Kristoffer Fogelmark – guitar, musician, producer, programming, vocal editing, vocal engineer, background vocals\n- Ian Franzino – assistant engineer\n- Serban Ghenea – mixing\n- Clint Gibbs – assistant, vocals\n- Jake Gosling – drums, mixing, percussion, piano, producer, programming, strings\n- Lukasz Gottwald – vocals\n- Stephen P. Grigg – assistant\n- John Hanes – mixing engineer\n- Sam Hollander – musician, programming\n- Niall Horan – guitar\n- Ash Howes – mixing, programming\n- Andy Hughes – assistant\n- Ava James – vocals\n- Matthias Johansson – violin\n- Koool Kojak – engineer, musician, producer, programming, vocals\n- Savan Kotecha – background vocals\n- Chris Leonard – acoustic guitar, bass guitar, electric guitar\n- Zayn Malik – illustrations\n- Sam Miller – engineer\n- Katie Mitzell – production coordination\n- Malcolm Moore – bass\n- Adam Nedler – background vocals\n- Albin Nedler – musician, producer, programming, vocal editing, vocal engineer\n- One Direction – primary artist\n- Alex Oriet – vocal engineer\n- Tebey Ottoh – vocal producer\n- Joel Peters – assistant\n- Luke Potashnik – guitar\n- Irene Richter – production coordination\n- Steve Robson – guitar, keyboards, mixing, producer\n- Shellback – bass, musician, producer, programming, background vocals\n- Peter Svensson – musician, programming, vocals\n- John Urbano – photography\n- Henry Walter – vocals\n- Sam Waters – vocal engineer, vocal producer\n- Caroline Watson – stylist\n- Emily Wright – engineer, vocal producer, vocals\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n### Decade-end charts\n\n## Certifications and sales\n\n## Release history", "revid": "1170586301", "description": null, "categories": ["2012 albums", "Albums produced by Dr. Luke", "Albums produced by Rami Yacoub", "Albums produced by Shellback (record producer)", "Columbia Records albums", "One Direction albums", "Syco Music albums"]}
{"id": "867243", "url": null, "title": "Millennium Stadium", "text": "The Millennium Stadium (Welsh: Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as the Principality Stadium (Welsh: Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is the national stadium of Wales. Located in Cardiff, it is the home of the Wales national rugby union team and has also held Wales national football team games. Initially built to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as the Tsunami Relief Cardiff concert, the Super Special Stage of Wales Rally Great Britain, the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain and various concerts. It also hosted FA Cup, League Cup and Football League play-off finals while Wembley Stadium was being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the 2012 Summer Olympics.\n\nThe stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, a subsidiary company of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU). The architects were Bligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers were WS Atkins and the building contractor was Laing. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million, of which the Millennium Commission funded £46 million.\n\nThe Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999 and its first major event was an international rugby union match on 26 June 1999, when Wales beat South Africa in a test match by 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000. With a total seating capacity of 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outside London) in the United Kingdom by total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in the Six Nations Championship behind the Stade de France and Twickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fully retractable roof and was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature. Listed as a category four stadium by UEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017. In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with the Principality Building Society that saw the stadium renamed as the \"Principality Stadium\" from early 2016.\n\n## History\n\n### Background\n\nUntil 1969, Cardiff RFC and Wales both played their home matches on the same pitch at Cardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season. As a result of an agreement between Cardiff Athletic Club and the WRU, the National Stadium project established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium. By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup.\n\nIn 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962, only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such as Twickenham (England) with a capacity of 75,000, and Murrayfield Stadium (Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also about to build the Stade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to the Taylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the East Terrace and the conversion to an all-seater stadium would have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500.\n\nIn addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across the River Taff in the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike.\n\nThe options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution. The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by the Millennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site. It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football. The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – the Amsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000; and Gelredome in Arnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998.\n\nTo remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by the River Taff on the western side of the stadium.\n\nBy 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969.\n\n### Construction\n\nThe stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture, who later merged with HOK Sport to become Populous. The building contractor was Laing and the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof, which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries. Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the roof.\n\nConstruction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park), Wales Empire Pool (swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned by BT) in Park Street, the newly built Territorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reserve building in Park Street, and the Social Security offices in Westgate Street.\n\nThe stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager. It was built for the 1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host, with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium.\n\nThe total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million, which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission, the sale of debentures to supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt.\n\nThe Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building.\n\nThe stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks.\n\n### 2016 renaming\n\nOn 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with the Principality Building Society. Some fans expressed opposition on social media.\n\nOn 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium. The new name, written bilingually (\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby. The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captain Ryan Jones and staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design. A spokesperson for the WRU said: \"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\"\n\n## Features\n\nThe all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity. Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New Zealand All Blacks, or for the FA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at the Anthony Joshua v Carlos Takam fight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles.\n\nThe natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed by GreenTech ITM. It features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events.\n\nIn May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand based Desso pitch.\n\nThe four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east). The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand, until Hyder was sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators.\n\nThe stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and the Millennium Commission would not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC. The WRU held talks with Cardiff RFC to see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for the Cardiff Arms Park to be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, after Glanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president.\n\nThe superstructure of the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges, 22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts. The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 is for Security only also via Westgate Street, Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south).\n\nAny future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand. However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide.\n\nIn each of the stadium's bars, so-called \"joy machines\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game at Twickenham. The stadium has a resident hawk named \"Dad\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium.\n\nIn 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, the Millennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the then Wales Tourist Board. The curtain was supplied by Blackout.\n\nIn May 2015, the chairman of the WRU, Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will be installed.\n\nIn February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931.\n\n### Statue of Sir Tasker Watkins\n\nA statue of Sir Tasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted by Llantwit Major based sculptor Roger Andrews. The Welsh Government contributed £50,000, as did Cardiff Council. It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams.\n\n## Usage\n\nAs well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including, rugby league (including the Challenge Cup Final on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the 2013 Rugby League World Cup and Welsh Rugby League internationals), speedway, boxing, the Wales Rally Great Britain stage of the World Rally Championship, Monster Jam and indoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002.\n\n### Rugby union\n\nThe stadium is the home of the Welsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during the Six Nations, as well as the Autumn Internationals against nations from the Southern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted the European Rugby Champions Cup finals on five occasions. In total, the site, including the National Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions.\n\nThe stadium has also been used for Celtic League games, and the semi-finals of the Anglo-Welsh Cup in 2006 and 2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hosted Judgement Day, a double-header between the four Welsh United Rugby Championship teams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league.\n\nThe stadium hosted the first match in the 2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand when they drew 25–25 against Argentina in a warm-up test match.\n\nWelsh Varsity rugby matches\n\nOn 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted the Welsh Varsity rugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams of Cardiff University and Swansea University. The stadium is used alternating years with Liberty Stadium in Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016.\n\nRugby World Cup\n\nThe Welsh Rugby Union hosted the 1999 Rugby World Cup with the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the 2007 Rugby World Cup.\n\nOn 15 October 2011, the stadium was open to Welsh Rugby Union fans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the 2011 Rugby World Cup semi-final between Wales and France that was played at Eden Park, Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for the Bronze Final between Wales and Australia which saw Wales defeated and take fourth place.\n\nThe stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the 2015 Rugby World Cup.\n\n### Rugby league\n\nThe stadium first hosted rugby league football during the 2000 World Cup: a double header featuring Cook Islands versus Lebanon and Wales versus New Zealand that attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the 2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and France when they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators.\n\nThe Stadium has hosted three Challenge Cup Finals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In 2003 the Bradford Bulls defeated the Leeds Rhinos 22–20 in front of 71,212 fans. St. Helens defeated Wigan 36–16 in 2004 in front of 73,734 fans, while Hull F.C. defeated Leeds 25–24 in 2005 in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium.\n\nAlso, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inaugural Millennium Magic weekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round of Super League matches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, the RFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played.\n\nOn 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the 2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales against Italy and England against title favourites and eventual tournament champions Australia. This double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium.\n\n### Association football\n\nFrom 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. The national team played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful of friendly matches once or twice a year at the Racecourse Ground, Wrexham or Liberty Stadium, Swansea. The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000, and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000. This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smaller Cardiff City Stadium, the home of Cardiff City. Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 against England and in 2018 against Spain.\n\nWhile the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the original Wembley Stadium had hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from 2001 while the new Wembley Stadium was being built, with the Millennium hosting:\n\n- FA Cup Final\n- League Cup Final\n- Football League Trophy Final\n- Football League play-off Finals\n- FA Community Shield\n\nThe stadium became notorious for an apparent \"away team hoodoo\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room. Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \"hoodoo\", after Paul Darby carried out a feng shui blessing.\n\nLiverpool were the first team to win the FA Cup at the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beating Arsenal 2–1. They were also the first team to win the League Cup at the Stadium, defeating Birmingham City in a penalty shoot-out earlier that year. In 2003, Liverpool won the League Cup for the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won the last FA Cup Final at the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beating West Ham United 3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw after extra time in what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'.\n\nThe Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 saw AFC Bournemouth beat Lincoln City 5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten. The last domestic cup match played was when Doncaster Rovers beat Bristol Rovers 3–2 after extra time in the Football League Trophy Final on 1 April 2007.\n\nIn 2001, the Football Association of Wales (FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium by UEFA, making it one of the favourites to host the match, but the final was eventually awarded to Old Trafford, the home of Manchester United.\n\nIt was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposed UEFA Euro 2016 championship hosted jointly by Wales and Scotland. However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons. In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final at Euro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe. When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow's Hampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final. UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration. The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian club Juventus and Spanish club Real Madrid, in a repeat of the 1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1.\n\nWhen London was selected as the host city for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the six venues for the football competition. It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for the Great Britain women's team against New Zealand – as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's.\n\n### Boxing\n\nThere have been five nights of boxing at the stadium. On 8 July 2006 when Matt Skelton beat Danny Williams for the Commonwealth heavyweight title. On 7 April 2007, Joe Calzaghe beat Peter Manfredo to retain his WBO super middleweight belt. On 3 November 2007, Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kessler to retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win the WBA and WBC super middleweight titles.\n\nOn 28 October 2017 Anthony Joshua successfully retained his WBA (Super), IBF and IBO heavyweight titles against mandatory challenger Carlos Takam with a 10th round stoppage.\n\nOn 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of the WBA and IBF belts, and Joseph Parker, holder of the WBO belt. Joshua beat Parker on points.\n\n### Motorsports\n\nIn 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010. The temporary motorcycle speedway track is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500.\n\nIn September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of the World Rally Championship during the Wales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course. In addition to this, the stadium has also hosted Supercross events. In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of the Monster Jam trucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019.\n\n### Film\n\nThe stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... were filmed there.\n\nBetween 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of the BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who. The 2005 episode \"Dalek\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium, using its underground areas to represent a bunker in Utah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for the Doctor Who Christmas special, \"The Christmas Invasion\", and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \"The Runaway Bride\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006. Shots of the Stormcage Facility in which River Song is incarcerated in series 5 and 6 of Doctor Who are also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011.\n\nThe stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who spin-off The Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \"Death of the Doctor\", included corridor scenes for the UNIT headquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium.\n\nThe Wembley Stadium scene in the film 28 Weeks Later was actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley.\n\nSébastien Foucan jumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in the parkour documentary \"Jump Britain\".\n\n### Eventing\n\nThe inaugural Express Eventing International Cup took place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up of dressage, cross-country and show jumping all took place over the one day. The event was won by Oliver Townend.\n\n### Concerts\n\nThe stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including the Manic Street Preachers concert held on Millennium Eve, and, on the following day, a recording of the BBC's Songs of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000. Tina Turner performed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successful Twenty Four Seven Tour in 2000. Welsh rockers Stereophonics have played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \"A Day at the Races\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the late Stuart Cable.\n\nAmerican rock band Bon Jovi played the venue during the One Wild Night Tour in 2001. At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted a tsunami relief concert in aid of the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, with Eric Clapton headlining the event. The stadium has also been host to Madonna on two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of her Confessions Tour, and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off her Sticky & Sweet Tour at the stadium. Other performers who have played at the stadium include Robbie Williams as part of his Weddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour, U2 as part of their Vertigo Tour, Red Hot Chili Peppers as part of their By the Way tour, The Rolling Stones as part of their A Bigger Bang Tour, R.E.M. as part of their Monster tour and again for their Around the Sun tour.\n\nPaul McCartney also played at the stadium as part of his Up and Coming Tour, and The Police performed there as part of their Reunion Tour. In late 2005, Oasis played at the stadium during their Don't Believe the Truth Tour and again on their Dig Out Your Soul Tour in 2009. In 2008, the stadium hosted Neil Diamond and Bruce Springsteen with the E Street Band as part of their Magic Tour, On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of their U2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354. On 17 May 2023, Beyoncé performed at the stadium as part of her record-breaking Renaissance World Tour. Taylor Swift will be playing on the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part of the Eras Tour.\n\n### Conferences\n\nThe stadium offers conferencing facilities via the foodservice organisation Compass Group. The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites.\n\nIn addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions.\n\n### Temporary hospital\n\nOn 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of the COVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as the Excel Centre, London, NEC, Birmingham, and the Manchester Central Convention Complex. By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds.\n\n### Professional wrestling\n\nOn 12 April 2022, American professional wrestling company WWE announced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK since SummerSlam at the original Wembley Stadium in 1992. On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titled Clash at the Castle, in reference to nearby Cardiff Castle. The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record.\n\n## See also\n\n- Sport in Cardiff\n- Millennium Stadium Charitable Trust\n- List of stadiums by capacity\n- List of covered stadiums by capacity\n- List of stadia in Wales by capacity\n- List of European stadia by capacity\n- List of association football stadiums by capacity\n- List of tallest buildings in Cardiff", "revid": "1173809905", "description": "National stadium of Wales, located in central Cardiff", "categories": ["1999 establishments in Wales", "Boxing venues in the United Kingdom", "Buildings and structures celebrating the third millennium", "Castle, Cardiff", "FA Cup final venues", "Football venues in Wales", "Landmarks in Cardiff", "Millennium Stadium", "Music venues completed in 1999", "Music venues in Cardiff", "National stadiums", "Olympic football venues", "Rally GB", "Redevelopment projects in Cardiff", "Retractable-roof stadiums in Europe", "Rugby League World Cup stadiums", "Rugby World Cup stadiums", "Rugby league stadiums in Wales", "Rugby union stadiums in Wales", "Speedway venues in Wales", "Sports venues completed in 1999", "Sports venues in Cardiff", "Stadiums in Cardiff", "Tourist attractions in Cardiff", "Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics", "Wales national football team", "Wales national rugby union team", "World Rugby Sevens Series venues"]}
{"id": "89510", "url": null, "title": "University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill", "text": "The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC, UNC-Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Chapel Hill, or simply Carolina) is a public research university in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. It is the flagship of the University of North Carolina system and is considered to be one of the \"Public Ivies\". After being chartered in 1789, the university first began enrolling students in 1795, making it one of the oldest public universities in the United States.\n\nThe university offers degrees in over 70 courses of study and is administratively divided into 13 separate professional schools and a primary unit, the College of Arts & Sciences. It is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\", and is a member of the Association of American Universities (AAU). According to the National Science Foundation, UNC spent \\$1.14 billion on research and development in 2018, ranking 12th in the nation.\n\nThe campus covers 729 acres (3 km<sup>2</sup>) of Chapel Hill's downtown area, encompassing the Morehead Planetarium and the many stores and shops located on Franklin Street. Students can participate in over 550 officially recognized student organizations. UNC Chapel Hill is one of the charter members of the Atlantic Coast Conference, which was founded on June 14, 1953. The university's athletic teams compete as the Tar Heels.\n\nUNC's faculty and alumni include 9 Nobel Prize laureates, 23 Pulitzer Prize winners, and 51 Rhodes Scholars. Additional notable alumni include a U.S. President, a U.S. Vice President, 38 Governors of U.S. States, 98 members of the United States Congress, and 9 Cabinet members as well as CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, Olympians and professional athletes.\n\n## History\n\nChartered by the North Carolina General Assembly on December 11, 1789, the university's cornerstone was laid on October 12, 1793, near the ruins of a chapel, chosen because of its central location within the state. The first public university chartered under the US Constitution, the University of North Carolina is one of three universities that claims to be the oldest public university in the United States and the only such institution to confer degrees in the eighteenth century as a public institution.\n\nDuring the Civil War, North Carolina Governor David Lowry Swain persuaded Confederate President Jefferson Davis to exempt some students from the draft, so the university was one of the few in the Confederacy that managed to stay open. However, Chapel Hill suffered the loss of more of its population during the war than any village in the South, and when student numbers did not recover, the university was forced to close during Reconstruction from December 1, 1870, until September 6, 1875. Following the reopening, enrollment was slow to increase and university administrators offered free tuition for the sons of teachers and ministers, as well as loans for those who could not afford attendance.\n\nFollowing the Civil War, the university began to modernize its programs and onboard faculty with prestigious degrees. The creation of a new gymnasium, funding for a new Chemistry laboratory, and organization of the Graduate Department were accomplishments touted by UNC president Francis Venable at the 1905 “University Day” celebration.\n\nDespite initial skepticism from university President Frank Porter Graham, on March 27, 1931, legislation was passed to group the University of North Carolina with the State College of Agriculture and Engineering and Woman's College of the University of North Carolina to form the Consolidated University of North Carolina. In 1963, the consolidated university was made fully coeducational, although most women still attended Woman's College for their first two years, transferring to Chapel Hill as juniors, since freshmen were required to live on campus and there was only one women's residence hall. As a result, Woman's College was renamed the \"University of North Carolina at Greensboro\", and the University of North Carolina became the \"University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.\" In 1955, UNC officially desegregated its undergraduate divisions.\n\nDuring World War II, UNC was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.\n\nDuring the 1960s, the campus was the location of significant political protest. Prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, protests about local racial segregation which began quietly in Franklin Street restaurants led to mass demonstrations and disturbance. The climate of civil unrest prompted the 1963 Speaker Ban Law prohibiting speeches by communists on state campuses in North Carolina. This stand towards the racial segregation on campus led up to the Sit-in movement. The Sit-in movement started a new era in North Carolina, which challenged colleges across the south against racial segregation of public facilities. The law was immediately criticized by university Chancellor William Brantley Aycock and university President William Friday, but was not reviewed by the North Carolina General Assembly until 1965. Small amendments to allow \"infrequent\" visits failed to placate the student body, especially when the university's board of trustees overruled new Chancellor Paul Frederick Sharp's decision to allow speaking invitations to Marxist speaker Herbert Aptheker and civil liberties activist Frank Wilkinson; however, the two speakers came to Chapel Hill anyway. Wilkinson spoke off campus, while more than 1,500 students viewed Aptheker's speech across a low campus wall at the edge of campus, christened \"Dan Moore's Wall\" by The Daily Tar Heel for Governor Dan K. Moore. A group of UNC-Chapel Hill students, led by Student Body President Paul Dickson, filed a lawsuit in U.S. federal court, and on February 20, 1968, the Speaker Ban Law was struck down. In 1969, campus food workers of Lenoir Hall went on strike protesting perceived racial injustices that impacted their employment, garnering the support of student groups and members of the university and Chapel Hill community.\n\nFrom the late 1990s and onward, UNC-Chapel Hill expanded rapidly with a 15% increase in total student population to more than 28,000 by 2007. This is accompanied by the construction of new facilities, funded in part by the \"Carolina First\" fundraising campaign and an endowment that increased fourfold to more than \\$2 billion within ten years. Professor Oliver Smithies was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2007 for his work in genetics. Additionally, Professor Aziz Sancar was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2015 for his work in understanding the molecular repair mechanisms of DNA.\n\nIn 2011, the first of several investigations found fraud and academic dishonesty at the university related to its athletic program. Following a lesser scandal that began in 2010 involving academic fraud and improper benefits with the university's football program, two hundred questionable classes offered by the university's African and Afro-American Studies department came to light. As a result, the university was placed on probation by its accrediting agency in 2015. It was removed from probation in 2016.\n\nThat same year, the public universities in North Carolina had to share a budget cut of \\$414 million, of which the Chapel Hill campus lost more than \\$100 million in 2011. This followed state budget cuts that trimmed university spending by \\$231 million since 2007; Provost Bruce Carney said more than 130 faculty members have left UNC since 2009., with poor staff retention. The Board of Trustees for UNC-CH recommended a 15.6 percent increase in tuition, a historically large increase. The budget cuts in 2011 greatly affected the university and set this increased tuition plan in motion and UNC students protested. On February 10, 2012, the UNC Board of Governors approved tuition and fee increases of 8.8 percent for in-state undergraduates across all 16 campuses.\n\nIn June 2018, the Department of Education found that the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill had violated Title IX in handling reports of sexual assault, five years after four students and an administrator filed complaints. The university was also featured in The Hunting Ground, a 2015 documentary about sexual assault on college campuses. Annie E. Clark and Andrea Pino, two students featured in the film, helped to establish the survivor advocacy organization End Rape on Campus.\n\nIn August 2018, the university came to national attention after the toppling of Silent Sam, a Confederate monument which had been erected on campus in 1913 by the United Daughters of the Confederacy. The statue had been dogged by controversy at various points since the 1960s, with critics claiming that the monument invokes memories of racism and slavery. Many critics cited the explicitly racist views espoused in the dedication speech that local industrialist and UNC Trustee Julian Carr gave at the statue's unveiling on June 2, 1913, and the approval with which they had been met by the crowd at the dedication. Shortly before the beginning of the 2018–2019 school year, the Silent Sam was toppled by protestors and damaged, and has been absent from campus ever since. In July 2020, the University's Carr Hall, which was named after Julian Carr, was renamed the \"Student Affairs Building.\" Carr had supported white supremacy and also the Ku Klux Klan.\n\nAfter reopening its campus in August 2020, UNC-Chapel Hill reported 135 new COVID-19 cases and four infection clusters within a week of having started in-person classes for the Fall 2020 semester. On 10 August, faculty and staff from several of UNC's constituent institutions filed a complaint against its board of governors, asking the system to default to online-only instruction for the fall. On 17 August, UNC's management announced that the university would be moving all undergraduate classes online from 19 August, becoming the first university to send students home after having reopened.\n\nNotable leaders of the university include the 26th Governor of North Carolina, David Lowry Swain (president 1835–1868); and Edwin Anderson Alderman (1896–1900), who was also president of Tulane University and the University of Virginia. On December 13, 2019 the UNC System Board of Governors unanimously voted to name Kevin Guskiewicz the university's 12th chancellor.\n\nIn the early afternoon on August 28, 2023, the second week of the fall semester, a PhD student shot and killed associate professor Zijie Yan in Caudill Labs, a laboratory building near the center of campus.\n\n## Campus\n\nUNC-Chapel Hill's 729-acre (3.0 km<sup>2</sup>) campus is dominated by two central quads: Polk Place and McCorkle Place. Polk Place is named after North Carolina native and university alumnus President James K. Polk, and McCorkle Place is named in honor of Samuel Eusebius McCorkle, the original author of the bill requesting the university's charter. Adjacent to Polk Place is a sunken brick courtyard known as the Pit where students will gather, often engaging in lively debate with speakers such as the Pit Preacher. The Morehead–Patterson Bell Tower, located in the heart of campus, tolls the quarter-hour. In 1999, UNC-Chapel Hill was one of sixteen recipients of the American Society of Landscape Architects Medallion Awards and was identified as one of 50 college or university \"works of art\" by T.A. Gaines in his book The Campus as a Work of Art.\n\nThe university's campus is informally divided into three regions, usually referred to as \"north campus,\" \"middle campus,\" and \"south campus.\" North campus includes the two quads along with the Pit, Frank Porter Graham Student Union, and the Davis, House, and Wilson libraries. Almost all classrooms are located in north campus along with several undergraduate residence halls. Middle campus includes Fetzer Field and Woollen Gymnasium along with the Student Recreation Center, Kenan Memorial Stadium, Irwin Belk outdoor track, Eddie Smith Field House, Boshamer Stadium, Carmichael Auditorium, Sonja Haynes Stone Center for Black Culture and History, School of Government, School of Law, George Watts Hill Alumni Center, Ram's Head complex (with a dining hall, parking garage, grocery store, and gymnasium), and various residence halls. South campus includes the Dean Smith Center for men's basketball, Koury Natatorium, School of Medicine, UNC Hospitals, Kenan–Flagler Business School, and the newest student residence halls.\n\nA new satellite campus, Carolina North, to be built on the site of Horace Williams Airport was approved in 2007. This is planned to be primarily a research park with expanded science facilities, but will also add classrooms and residence halls to cope with future increases in student population.\n\n### Environment and sustainability\n\nThe principles of sustainability have been integrated throughout much of UNC-Chapel Hill. In the area of green building, the university requires that all new projects meet the requirements for LEED Silver certification and is in the process of building the first building in North Carolina to receive LEED Platinum status. UNC-Chapel Hill's award-winning co-generation facility produces one-fourth of the electricity and all of the steam used on campus. In 2006, the university and the Town of Chapel Hill jointly agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 60% by 2050, becoming the first town-gown partnership in the country to do so. Through these efforts, the university achieved a \"A−\" grade on the Sustainable Endowment Institute's College Sustainability Report Card 2010. Only 14 out of 300 universities received a higher score than this.\n\nThe university has come under recent criticism for abandoning a promise to shutter its coal-fired power plant by 2020. The university has announced plans to become carbon neutral by 2050. In December 2019, the university was sued by the Sierra Club and the Center for Biological Diversity for violations of the Clean Air Act.\n\n### McCorkle Place and Old Well\n\nMcCorkle Place, a green square on campus of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, commemorates Samuel Eusebius McCorkle, the inceptor and progenitor of the university.\n\nA symbol of the university is the Old Well, a small neoclassical rotunda based on the Temple of Love in the Gardens of Versailles, in the same location as the original well that provided water for the school. The well stands at the south end of McCorkle Place, the northern quad, between two of the campus's oldest buildings, Old East, and Old West.\n\nAlso located in McCorkle Place is the Davie Poplar tree under which the university's founder, William Richardson Davie, supposedly selected the location for the university. The legend of the Davie Poplar says that as long as the tree stands, so will the university. Because of the tree's questionable health from damage caused by severe weather such as Hurricane Fran in 1996, the university has planted two genetic clones nearby called Davie Poplar Jr. and Davie Poplar III. The second clone, Davie Poplar III, was planted in conjunction with the university's bicentennial celebration in 1993. The student members of the university's Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies are not allowed to walk on the grass of McCorkle Place out of respect for the unknown resting place of Joseph Caldwell, the university's first president.\n\nThe Morehead–Patterson bell tower was commissioned by John Motley Morehead III, the benefactor of the Morehead-Cain Scholarship. The hedge and surrounding landscape was designed by William C. Coker, botany professor and creator of the campus arboretum. Traditionally, seniors have the opportunity to climb the tower a few days prior to May commencement.\n\nThe historic Playmakers Theatre is located on Cameron Avenue between McCorkle Place and Polk Place. It was designed by Alexander Jackson Davis, the same architect who renovated the northern façade of Old East in 1844. The east-facing building was completed in 1851 and initially served as a library and as a ballroom. It was originally named Smith Hall after North Carolina Governor General Benjamin Smith, who was a special aide to George Washington during the American Revolutionary War and was an early benefactor to the university. When the library moved to Hill Hall in 1907, the School of Law occupied Smith Hall until 1923. In 1925, the structure was renovated and used as a stage by the university theater group, the Carolina Playmakers. It has remained a theater to the present day. Louis Round Wilson wrote in 1957 that Playmakers Theatre is the \"architectural gem of the campus.\" Playmakers Theatre was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973. Today, the building is a venue for student drama productions, concerts, and events sponsored by academic departments.\n\n## Academics\n\n### Curriculum\n\nUNC-Chapel Hill offers 71 bachelor's, 107 master's and 74 doctoral degree programs. The university enrolls more than 28,000 students from all 100 North Carolina counties, the other 49 states, and 47 other countries. It is the third largest university in North Carolina, just behind North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte in enrollment. State law requires that the percentage of students from North Carolina in each freshman class meet or exceed 82%. The student body consists of 17,981 undergraduate students and 10,935 graduate and professional students (as of Fall 2009). Racial and ethnic minorities comprise 30.8% of UNC-Chapel Hill's undergraduate population as of 2010 and applications from international students have more than doubled in the last five years (from 702 in 2004 to 1,629 in 2009). Eighty-nine percent of enrolling first year students in 2009 reported a GPA of 4.0 or higher on a weighted 4.0 scale. UNC-Chapel Hill students are strong competitors for national and international scholarships. The most popular majors at UNC-Chapel Hill are biology, business administration, psychology, media and journalism, and political science. UNC-Chapel Hill also offers 300 study abroad programs in 70 countries.\n\nAt the undergraduate level, all students must fulfill a number of general education requirements as part of the Making Connections curriculum, which was introduced in 2006. English, social science, history, foreign language, mathematics, and natural science courses are required of all students, ensuring that they receive a broad liberal arts education. The university also offers a wide range of first year seminars for incoming freshmen. After their second year, students move on to the College of Arts and Sciences, or choose an undergraduate professional school program within the schools of medicine, nursing, business, education, pharmacy, information and library science, public health, or media and journalism. Undergraduates are held to an eight-semester limit of study.\n\n### Admissions\n\n#### Undergraduate\n\nUNC-Chapel Hill's admissions process is \"most selective\" according to U.S. News & World Report. For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), UNC-Chapel Hill received 53,776 applications and accepted 10,347 (19.2%). Of those accepted, 4,689 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 45.3%. UNC-Chapel Hill's freshman retention rate is 96.5%, with 91.9% going on to graduate within six years.\n\nOf the 60% of enrolled freshmen in 2021 who submitted ACT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite score was between 29 and 33. Of the 15% of the incoming freshman class who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1330-1500. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 20 freshman students were National Merit Scholars. The university is need-blind for domestic applicants.\n\n### Department of Public Policy\n\nThe UNC-Chapel Hill Department of Public Policy, established in 2001, is a public policy program offering specializations in areas such as global health policy, education policy, tax policy, and social justice.\n\nEstablished in 1979, the Curriculum in Public Policy Analysis was one of the first undergraduate degree programs in public policy, and a charter member of the national Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management. It was augmented in 1991 by an interdisciplinary PhD Curriculum in Public Policy Analysis. In 1995 the two curricula were combined and began recruiting their own core faculty. In 2001 the combined curriculum became the present Department of Public Policy.\n\n### Honor Code\n\nThe university has a longstanding Honor Code known as the \"Instrument of Student Judicial Governance,\" supplemented by a mostly student-run Honor System to resolve issues with students accused of academic and conduct offenses against the university community. The Honor System is divided into three branches: the Student Attorney General Staff, the Honor Court, and the Honor System Outreach, and further bifurcated by constituency (Undergraduate Attorney General and Graduate and Professional Student Attorney General). The Attorneys General are appointed by their constituency's President to investigate all reports of Honor Code violations and determine whether or not to bring charges against the student as detailed in the \"Instrument.\" The Attorney General is supported by a select staff of around 40 students, representative of the diversity of the student body. The Honor Court is led by the Chair, who is appointed by their constituency's President, and supported by Vice Chairs who adjudicate all students' hearings. The Honor Court as a whole is made up of some 80 selected students. The Honor System Outreach is a branch of the System solely devoted to promoting honor and integrity in the university community. UNC-Chapel Hill is the only public university, with the exception of the military academies, that has a completely student-run system from the beginning to the end of the process.\n\n### Libraries\n\nUNC-Chapel Hill's library system includes a number of individual libraries housed throughout the campus and holds more than 7.0 million volumes in total. UNC-Chapel Hill's North Carolina Collection (NCC) is the largest and most comprehensive collection of holdings about any single state nationwide. The unparalleled assemblage of literary, visual, and artifactual materials documents four centuries of North Carolina history and culture. The North Carolina Collection is housed in Wilson Library, named after Louis Round Wilson, along with the Southern Historical Collection, the Rare Books Collection, and the Southern Folklife Collection. The university is home to ibiblio, one of the world's largest collections of freely available information including software, music, literature, art, history, science, politics, and cultural studies.\n\nThe Davis Library, situated near the Pit, is the main library and the largest academic facility and state-owned building in North Carolina. It was named after North Carolina philanthropist Walter Royal Davis and opened on February 6, 1984. The first book checked out of Davis Library was George Orwell's 1984. The R.B. House Undergraduate Library is located between the Pit area and Wilson Library. It is named after Robert B. House, the Chancellor of UNC from 1945 to 1957, and opened in 1968. In 2001, the R.B. House Undergraduate Library underwent a \\$9.9 million renovation that modernized the furnishings, equipment, and infrastructure of the building. Prior to the construction of Davis, Wilson Library was the university's main library, but now Wilson hosts special events and houses special collections, rare books, and temporary exhibits.\n\n#### Documenting the American South\n\nThe library oversees Documenting the American South, a free public access website of \"digitized primary materials that offer Southern perspectives on American history and culture.\" The project began in 1996. In 2009 the library launched the North Carolina Digital Heritage Center, a statewide digital library, in partnership with other organizations.\n\n### Rankings and reputation\n\nFor 2022, U.S. News & World Report ranks UNC-Chapel Hill tied for 5th among the public universities and tied for 28th among national universities in the United States. The Wall Street Journal ranked UNC-Chapel Hill 3rd best public university behind University of Michigan and UCLA.\n\nThe university was named a Public Ivy by Richard Moll in his 1985 book The Public Ivies: A Guide to America's Best Public Undergraduate Colleges and Universities, and in later guides by Howard and Matthew Greene. Many of UNC-Chapel Hill's professional schools have achieved high rankings in publications such as Forbes magazine, as well as annual U.S. News & World Report surveys. In 2020, US News & World Report ranked the School of Medicine \\#1 in primary care and \\#23 in research. In 2016, U.S. News & World Report ranked UNC-Chapel Hill business school's MBA program as the 16th best in the nation. In the 2019 edition, U.S. News & World Report ranked the UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health as the second best school of public health in the United States (behind Johns Hopkins and tied with Harvard). The UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy was ranked \\#1 among pharmacy schools in the United States in 2020 by U.S. News & World Report. In 2005, Business Week ranked UNC-Chapel Hill business school's Executive MBA program as the 5th best in the United States. UNC also offers an online MBA program, MBA@UNC, that is ranked \\#1 in the country in 2019 for Best Online MBA Programs (tied with the Kelley School of Business at Indiana University). Other highly ranked schools include journalism and mass communication, law, library and information science, medicine, dentistry, and city and regional planning. Nationally, UNC-Chapel Hill is in the top ten public universities for research. Internationally, the 2016 QS World University Rankings ranked North Carolina 78th in the world (in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings).\n\nKiplinger's Personal Finance in 2015 ranked UNC-Chapel Hill as the number one \"best value\" public college in the country. The university also topped The Princeton Review's list of the Best Value Colleges in 2014. Similarly, the university is first among public universities and ninth overall in \"Great Schools, Great Prices\", on the basis of academic quality, net cost of attendance and average student debt.\n\nThe university is also a large recipient of National Institute of Health grants and funds. For fiscal year 2020, the university received \\$509.9 million in NIH funds for research. This amount makes Chapel Hill the 10th overall recipient of research funds in the nation by the NIH.\n\n### Scholarships\n\nFor decades, UNC-Chapel Hill has offered an undergraduate merit scholarship known as the Morehead-Cain Scholarship. Recipients receive full tuition, room and board, books, and funds for summer study for four years. Since the inception of the Morehead, 29 alumni of the program have been named Rhodes Scholars. Since 2001, North Carolina has also co-hosted the Robertson Scholars Leadership Program, a merit scholarship and leadership development program granting recipients full student privileges at both UNC-Chapel Hill and neighboring Duke University. Additionally, the university provides scholarships based on merit and leadership qualities, including the Carolina, Colonel Robinson, Johnston and Pogue Scholars programs.\n\nIn 2003, Chancellor James Moeser announced the Carolina Covenant, wherein UNC offers a debt free education to low-income students who are accepted to the university. The program was the first of its kind at a public university and the second overall in the nation (following Princeton University). About 80 other universities have since followed suit.\n\n## Athletics\n\nNorth Carolina's athletic teams are known as the Tar Heels. They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level (Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) sub-level for football), primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports since the 1953–54 season. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, fencing, field hockey, golf, gymnastics, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.\n\nThe NCAA refers to UNC-Chapel Hill as the \"University of North Carolina\" for athletics. As of Fall 2011, the university had won 40 NCAA team championships in six different sports, eighth all-time. These include twenty one NCAA championships in women's soccer, six in women's field hockey, four in men's lacrosse, six in men's basketball, one in women's basketball, and two in men's soccer. The Men's basketball team won its 6th NCAA basketball championship in 2017, the third for Coach Roy Williams since he took the job as head coach. UNC was also retroactively given the title of National Champion for the 1924 championship, but is typically not included in the official tally. Other recent successes include the 2011 College Cup in men's soccer, and four consecutive College World Series appearances by the baseball team from 2006 to 2009. In 1994, the university's athletic programs won the Sears Directors Cup \"all-sports national championship\" awarded for cumulative performance in NCAA competition. Consensus collegiate national athletes of the year from North Carolina include Rachel Dawson in field hockey; Phil Ford, Tyler Hansbrough, Antawn Jamison, Vince Carter, James Worthy and Michael Jordan in men's basketball; and Mia Hamm (twice), Shannon Higgins, Kristine Lilly, and Tisha Venturini in women's soccer.\n\n### Mascot and nickname\n\nThe university's teams are nicknamed the \"Tar Heels,\" in reference to the state's eighteenth century prominence as a tar and pitch producer. The nickname's cultural relevance, however, has a complex history that includes anecdotal tales from both the American Civil War and the American Revolution. The mascot is a live Dorset ram named Rameses, a tradition that dates back to 1924, when the team manager brought a ram to the annual game against Virginia Military Institute, inspired by the play of former football player Jack \"The Battering Ram\" Merrit. The kicker rubbed his head for good luck before a game-winning field goal, and the ram stayed. There is also an anthropomorphic ram mascot who appears at games. The modern Rameses is depicted in a sailor's hat, a reference to a United States Navy flight training program that was attached to the university during World War II.\n\n### The Carolina Way\n\nBasketball coach Dean Smith was widely known for his idea of \"The Carolina Way\", in which he challenged his players to, \"Play hard, play smart, play together.\" \"The Carolina Way\" was an idea of excellence in the classroom, as well as on the court. In Coach Smith's book, The Carolina Way, former player Scott Williams said, regarding Dean Smith, \"Winning was very important at Carolina, and there was much pressure to win, but Coach cared more about our getting a sound education and turning into good citizens than he did about winning.\"\n\nThe October 22, 2014 release of the Wainstein Report alleged institutionalized academic fraud that involved over 3,100 students and student athletes, over an 18-year period from 1993 to 2011 that began during the final years of the Dean Smith era, challenged \"The Carolina Way\" image. The report alleged that at least 54 players during the Dean Smith era were enrolled in what came to be known as \"paper classes.\" The report noted that the questionable classes began in the spring of 1993, the year of Smith's final championship, so those grades would not have been entered until after the championship game was played. In response to the allegations of the Wainstein report, the NCAA launched their own investigation and on June 5, 2015 the NCAA accused the institution of five major violations including: “two instances of unethical conduct and failure to cooperate“ as well as “unethical conduct and extra benefits related to student-athletes' access to and assistance in the paper courses; unethical conduct by the instructor/counselor for providing impermissible academic assistance to student-athletes; and a failure to monitor and lack of institutional control\". In October, 2017, the NCAA issued its findings and concluded \"that the only violations in this case are the department chair's and the secretary's failure to cooperate.\"\n\n### Rivalries\n\nThe South's Oldest Rivalry between North Carolina and its first opponent, the University of Virginia, was prominent throughout the first third of the twentieth century. The 119th meeting in football between two of the top public universities in the east occurred in October 2014.\n\nOne of the fiercest rivalries is with Durham's Duke University. Located only eight miles from each other, the schools regularly compete in both athletics and academics. The Carolina-Duke rivalry is most intense, however, in basketball. With a combined eleven national championships in men's basketball, both teams have been frequent contenders for the national championship for the past thirty years. The rivalry has been the focus of several books, including Will Blythe's To Hate Like This Is to Be Happy Forever and was the focus of the HBO documentary Battle for Tobacco Road: Duke vs Carolina. Duke was Carolina's biggest rival from the 1930s until the early 1960s, when Duke's declining athletic program shifted Carolina's rival focus to North Carolina State.\n\nCarolina holds an in-state rivalry with fellow Tobacco Road school, North Carolina State University. Since the mid-1970s, however, the Tar Heels have shifted their attention to Duke following a severe decline in NC State's basketball program (and the resurgence of Duke's basketball program) that reached rock bottom during Roy Williams' tenure as evidenced by their 4–36 record against the Tar Heels. The Wolfpack faithful still consider the rivalry the most bitter in the state despite the fact that it's been decades since Tar Heel supporters have acknowledged NC State as a rival. Combined, the two schools hold eight NCAA Championships and 27 ACC Championships in basketball. Students from each school often exchange pranks before basketball and football games.\n\n### Rushing Franklin\n\nWhile students previously held \"Beat Duke\" parades on Franklin Street before sporting events, today students and sports fans have been known to spill out of bars and residence halls upon the victory of one of Carolina's sports teams. In most cases, a Franklin Street \"bonfire\" celebration is due to a victory by the men's basketball team, although other Franklin Street celebrations have stemmed from wins by the women's basketball team and women's soccer team. The first known student celebration on Franklin Street came after the 1957 men's basketball team capped their perfect season with a national championship victory over the Kansas Jayhawks. From then on, students have flooded the street after important victories. After a Final Four victory in 1981 and the men's basketball team won the 1982 NCAA Championship, Franklin Street was painted blue by the fans who had rushed the street. This event has led local vendors to stop selling Carolina blue paint as the Tar Heels near the national championship.\n\n### School colors\n\nSince the beginning of intercollegiate athletics at UNC in the late nineteenth century, the school's colors have been blue and white. The colors were chosen years before by the Dialectic (blue) and Philanthropic (white) Societies, the oldest student organization at the university. The school had required participation in one of the clubs, and traditionally the \"Di\"s were from the western part of North Carolina while the \"Phi\"s were from the eastern part of the state.\n\nSociety members would wear a blue or white ribbon at university functions, and blue or white ribbons were attached to their diplomas at graduation. On public occasions, both groups were equally represented, and eventually both colors were used by processional leaders to signify the unity of both groups as part of the university. When football became a popular collegiate sport in the 1880s, the Carolina football team adopted the light blue and white of the Di-Phi Societies as the school colors.\n\n### School songs\n\nNotable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are the university fight songs \"I'm a Tar Heel Born\" and \"Here Comes Carolina\". The fight songs are often played by the bell tower near the center of campus, as well as after major victories. \"I'm a Tar Heel Born\" originated in the late 1920s as a tag to the school's alma mater, \"Hark The Sound\". \"Hark the Sound\" was usually played at the end of games, but as of late it has been played at the beginning of games as well.\n\nThe Institute of Folk Music at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was founded by Lamar Stringfield in 1930, followed by the founding of the North Carolina Symphony in 1932.\n\n## Student life\n\n### Organizations and activities\n\nMost student organizations at UNC-Chapel Hill are officially recognized and provided with assistance by the Carolina Union, an administrative unit of the university. Funding is derived from the student government student activity fee, which is allocated at the discretion of the Undergraduate Senate (UGS) or the Graduate and Professional Student Government Senate (GPSG Senate).\n\nThe largest student fundraiser, the UNC Dance Marathon, involves thousands of students, faculty, and community members in raising funds for the North Carolina Children's Hospital. The organization conducts fundraising and volunteer activities throughout the year and, as of 2008, had donated \\$1.4 million since its inception in 1999.\n\nThe student-run newspaper The Daily Tar Heel is ranked highly by The Princeton Review, and received the 2004–5 National Pacemaker Award from the Associated Collegiate Press. Founded in 1977, WXYC 89.3 FM is UNC-Chapel Hill's student radio station that broadcasts 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Programming is left up to student DJs. WXYC typically plays little heard music from a wide range of genres and eras. On November 7, 1994, WXYC became the first radio station in the world to broadcast its signal over the internet. A student-run television station, STV, airs on the campus cable and throughout the Chapel Hill Spectrum system. Founded in 1948 as successor to the Carolina Magazine, the Carolina Quarterly, edited by graduate students, has published the works of numerous authors, including Wendell Berry, Raymond Carver, Don DeLillo, Annie Dillard, Joyce Carol Oates, and John Edgar Wideman. Works appearing in the Quarterly have been anthologized in Best American Short Stories and New Stories from the South and have won the Pushcart and O. Henry Prizes.\n\nThe Clef Hangers (also known as the Clefs) are the university's oldest a cappella group, founded by Barry Saunders in 1977. The group has since won several Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (CARAs), including Best Soloist in the song Easy, featured on the 2003 album Breeze. They have won two more CARAs for Best Male Collegiate Songs for My Love on Time Out (2008), and for Ain't Nothing Wrong on Twist (2009). Members have included Brendan James, who graduated in 2002, and Anoop Desai, who graduated in 2008. Since the spring of 2002, the Clef Hangers have sung each year at Commencement. They hold fall and spring concerts, sometimes featuring special guests.\n\nThe Residence Hall Association, the school's third-largest student-run organization, is dedicated to enhancing the experience of students living in residence halls. This includes putting on social, educational, and philanthropic programs for residents; recognizing outstanding residents and members; and helping residents develop into successful leaders. The organization is run by 8 student executive officers; 16 student governors that represent each residence hall community; and numerous community government members. RHA is the campus organization of NACURH, the largest student organization in the world. In 2010 the organization won the national RHA Building Block Award, which is awarded to the school with the most improved RHA organization.\n\nThe athletic teams at the university are supported by The Marching Tar Heels, the university's marching band. The entire 275-member volunteer band is present at every home football game, and smaller pep bands play at all home basketball games. Each member of the band is also required to play in at least one of five pep bands that play at athletic events of the 26 other sports.\n\nUNC-Chapel Hill has a regional theater company in residence, the Playmakers Repertory Company, and hosts regular dance, drama, and music performances on campus. The school has an outdoor stone amphitheatre known as Forest Theatre used for weddings and drama productions. Forest Theatre is dedicated to Professor Frederick Koch, the founder of the Carolina Playmakers and the father American folk drama.\n\nMany fraternities and sororities on campus belong to the National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), Interfraternity Council (IFC), Greek Alliance Council, and National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC). As of spring 2010, eighteen percent of undergraduates were Greek (1146 men and 1693 women out of 17,160 total). The total number of community service hours completed for the 2010 spring semester by fraternities and sororities was 51,819 hours (average of 31 hours/person). UNC-Chapel Hill also offers professional and service fraternities that do not have houses but are still recognized by the school. Some of the campus honor societies include: the Order of the Golden Fleece, the Order of the Grail-Valkyries, the Order of the Old Well, the Order of the Bell Tower, and the Frank Porter Graham Honor Society.\n\nStudent Government at Carolina is composed of an executive branch headed by the student body president, two legislative branches representing Undergraduate and Graduate Students, and a judicial branch which includes the Honor Court and the Student Supreme Court established by the Supreme Court Act of 1968. This model was adopted after a constitutional referendum in 2016 which saw the single Student Government, broken into two constituencies: Undergraduate Student and Graduate and Professional Students. After surviving a challenge in the Student Supreme Court, the referendum vote was allowed to go ahead, and the present constitution was placed into effect in 2017. Each constituency has its own governing bodies, and there are governing bodies characterized as \"joint\" which may make laws and regulations pertaining to students of either constituency. The Joint Governing bodies are the office of the Student Body President, the Joint Governance Council, and the Student Supreme Court.\n\nIn 1974, the Judicial Reform Committee created the Instrument of Student Judicial Governance, which outlined the current Honor Code and its means for enforcement. The creation of the Instrument and the Judicial Reform Committee was preceded by a list of \"Demands by the Black Student Movement\" (BSM) which stated that \"[e]ither Black students have full jurisdiction over all offenses committed by Black students or duly elected Black Students from BSM who would represent our interests be on the present Judiciary Courts.\" Most academic and conduct violations are handled by a single, student-run Honor System. Prior to that time, the Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies, along with other campus organizations such as the Men's Council, Women's Council, and Student Council supported student concerns.\n\nUNC Chapel Hill also provides clubs and activities for first-generation college students: CSTEP - Carolina Student Transfer Excellence Program, Carolina First, First Generation College Student Program, etc.\n\n### Dining\n\nLenoir Dining Hall was completed in 1939 using funds from the New Deal Public Works Administration, and opened for service to students when they returned from Christmas holidays in January 1940. The building was named for General William Lenoir, the first chairman of the Board of Trustees of the university in 1790. Since its inception, Lenoir Dining Hall has remained the flagship of Carolina Dining Services and the center of dining on campus. It has been renovated twice, in 1984 and 2011, to improve seating and ease mealtime rushes.\n\nChase Hall was originally built in 1965 to offer South Campus dining options and honor former UNC President Harry Woodburn Chase, who served from 1919 to 1930. In 2005, the building was torn down to make way for the Student and Academic Services buildings, and was rebuilt north of the original location as the Rams Head Center (with the inner dining hall officially titled Chase Dining Hall). Due to students nicknaming the dining hall Rams Head, the university officially reinstated Chase Hall as the building name in March 2017. It includes the Chase Dining Hall, the Rams Head Market, and a conference room called the \"Blue Zone\". Chase Dining Hall seats 1,300 people and has a capacity for serving 10,000 meals per day. It continues to offer more food service options to the students living on south campus, and features extended hours including the 9 pm – 12 am period referred to as \"Late Night\".\n\n### Housing\n\nOn campus, the Department of Housing and Residential Education manages thirty-two residence halls, grouped into thirteen communities. These communities range from Olde Campus Upper Quad Community which includes Old East Residence Hall, the oldest building of the university, to modern communities such as Manning West, completed in 2002. First year students are required to live in one of the eight \"First Year Experience\" residence halls, most of which are located on South Campus. In addition to residence halls, the university oversees an additional eight apartment complexes organized into three communities, Ram Village, Odum Village, and Baity Hill Student Family Housing. Along with themed housing focusing on foreign languages and substance-free living, there are also \"living-learning communities\" which have been formed for specific social, gender-related, or academic needs. An example is UNITAS, sponsored by the Department of Anthropology, where residents are assigned roommates on the basis of cultural or racial differences rather than similarities. Three apartment complexes offer housing for families, graduate students, and some upperclassmen. Along with the rest of campus, all residence halls, apartments, and their surrounding grounds are smoke-free. As of 2008, 46% of all undergraduates live in university-provided housing.\n\n## Alumni\n\nWith over 300,000 living former students, North Carolina has one of the largest and most active alumni groups in America. Many Tar Heels have attained local, national, and international prominence. James K. Polk served as the 11th President of the United States, William R. King was the thirteenth Vice President of the United States. North Carolina has produced many United States Senators including Paul Wellstone and Thomas Lanier Clingman, along with multiple House Representatives such as Virginia Foxx and Ike Franklin Andrews. Algenon L. Marbley and Thomas Settle have received positions of federal judgeship. Former Secretary of War and Secretary of the Army Kenneth Claiborne Royall and the fifth White House Press Secretary Jonathan W. Daniels were graduates of North Carolina. North Carolina has also produced 38 state governors, including Terry Sanford, Jim Hunt, and Roy Cooper, the current Governor of North Carolina. Peaches Golding was appointed by Queen Elizabeth II as High Sheriff of the City and County of Bristol 2010–2011, the first Black female High Sheriff and second only black High Sheriff in over 1,000 years. Stormie Forte was appointed as the first Black woman and openly LGBTQ female member of the Raleigh City Council. Michael R. Nelson became the first openly gay mayor in North Carolina when he was elected as mayor of Carrboro in 1995. Carolyn Hunt served as the Second Lady of North Carolina and twice served as the First Lady of North Carolina. Margaret Rose Sanford served as First Lady of North Carolina. Betty Ray McCain served as the North Carolina Secretary of Culture and was the first woman to chair the North Carolina Democratic Party. James E. Webb, the 2nd Administrator of NASA and an architect of the Apollo program during the Kennedy administration, was a Tar Heel. NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, the successor of Hubble launched in December 2021, was named in honor of Webb.\n\nTar Heels have also made a mark on pop culture. Andy Griffith and John Forsythe became successful actors. Stuart Scott, Woody Durham, and Mick Mixon have become sportscasters. Civil War historian and writer Shelby Foote, sportswriter Peter Gammons, Pulitzer Prize winner Lenoir Chambers and comedian Lewis Black all graduated from North Carolina. Other notable writers who have attended UNC-Chapel Hill include Thomas Wolfe, who has a memorial on campus; National Book Award winners Walker Percy, Hayden Carruth, and Charles Frazier; Dos Passos Prize winner Russell Banks; National Book Critics Circle Award winner Ben Fountain; Pulitzer Prize finalist Lydia Millet; New Yorker columnist Joseph Mitchell; National Geographic writer John Patric; Armistead Maupin; and the notable poets Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Bollingen Prize winner Edgar Bowers.Television journalist Charles Kuralt, honored with three Peabody Awards, is a UNC-Chapel Hill graduate. Three-time Pulitzer Prize winner, political cartoonist Jeff MacNelly graduated from Carolina. Caleb Bradham, the inventor of the popular soft drink Pepsi-Cola, was a member of the Philanthropic Society and the class of 1890. Actor Ken Jeong attended UNC's School of Medicine, joining the small group of performers and personalities who also possess doctorates. Brooke Baldwin anchors CNN's Newsroom and graduated from UNC in 2001. Pamela Brown serves as CNN's Senior White House Correspondent. Pulitzer Prize winner and creator of the 1619 Project, Nikole Hannah-Jones achieved her master's degree from UNC in 2003.\n\nTar Heels have made their mark on the basketball court with Southern Methodist University head coach Larry Brown, title winning coach Roy Williams, Charlotte Hornets general manager Mitch Kupchak, college player of the year award winners George Glamack, Lennie Rosenbluth, Antawn Jamison, and Tyler Hansbrough, Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Michael Jordan,James Worthy, Billy Cunningham, and Robert McAdoo, great defender Bobby Jones, and NBA All-Star Vince Carter. Other notable Tar Heels include football players Lawrence Taylor, Julius Peppers, Harris Barton, Hakeem Nicks, Mitchell Trubisky, and Dré Bly, soccer stars Mia Hamm, Ashlyn Harris, Heather O'Reilly, Meghan Klingenberg, Whitney Engen, Allie Long, Lori Chalupny, Crystal Dunn and Tobin Heath, baseball standouts Dustin Ackley, Matt Harvey, Andrew Miller, Kyle Seager, and B.J. Surhoff, and Olympians April Heinrichs and Vikas Gowda. Vic Seixas is a member of the International Tennis Hall of Fame, and won 15 Majors.\n\nMany Tar Heels have become business leaders. The leaders include Jason Kilar, former CEO of Hulu; Howard R. Levine, chairman of the board and CEO of Family Dollar; Paul Kolton, chairman of the American Stock Exchange; Julian Robertson, founder of Tiger Management; Bill Ruger, founder of Sturm, Ruger; Warren Grice Elliott, former president of Atlantic Coast Line Railroad; Allen B. Morgan Jr., founder and former CEO of Morgan Keegan & Company; Ken Thompson, former chairman and CEO of Wachovia; Hugh McColl, former CEO of Bank of America; Sallie Krawcheck, former CFO of Citigroup ,William Johnson, the current president and CEO of Progress Energy, John A. Allison IV, former CEO of BB&T,, Marvin Sands, founder and CEO of Constellation Brands, Ritch Allison, CEO of Dominos Pizza, Chuck Robbins, CEO of Cisco, Jonathan Reckford, CEO of Habitat for Humanity, and Michelle Buck, CEO of The Hershey Company, William H. Rogers Jr., CEO of SunTrust Banks, William B. Harrison Jr., former CEO of JPMorgan Chase, and Peter Grauer, Chairman of Bloomberg.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of colleges and universities in North Carolina", "revid": "1173533301", "description": "Public university in North Carolina, U.S.", "categories": ["1789 establishments in North Carolina", "Buildings and structures in Chapel Hill-Carrboro, North Carolina", "Educational institutions established in 1789", "Flagship universities in the United States", "Need-blind educational institutions", "Public universities and colleges in North Carolina", "Tourist attractions in Orange County, North Carolina", "Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools", "University of North Carolina", "University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill"]}
{"id": "34484574", "url": null, "title": "Toyota TS030 Hybrid", "text": "The Toyota TS030 Hybrid is a Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) sports car built by Toyota Motorsport GmbH and used by the manufacturer in the FIA World Endurance Championship in 2012 and 2013. It was Toyota's first all new prototype since the GT-One last competed in 1999, and was the first petrol-hybrid engine car to participate in the World Endurance Championship. Work on designing the car began in late 2010 when early chassis designs were presented to Toyota Motorsport. The project was stopped briefly after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, but the car's building was approved six months later. The TS030 Hybrid featured a Kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) regenerative braking device to charge a super capacitor. Its engine, a naturally aspirated petrol 3.4-litre (210 cu in) V8 power unit, was mounted at a 90-degree angle, produced 530 horsepower (400 kW; 540 PS), and was based on Toyota's Super GT project.\n\nOn 24 January 2012 the TS030 Hybrid was shown to the press for the first time at Circuit Paul Ricard and the team commenced testing at the track shortly after. Its planned debut at the 2012 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps was delayed while the car's chassis was rebuilt after a heavy testing crash. Two TS030 Hybrid cars were entered for Le Mans which saw the team fail to finish because of a sizeable accident by Anthony Davidson in the No. 8 vehicle, and an engine failure for the sister No. 7 entry. After the race, the company fielded a sole TS030 Hybrid for the rest of the season and attracted attention for an innovative rear wing extension. It was able to compete successfully against the two Audi R18 e-tron quattro cars, securing three victories with drivers Nicolas Lapierre and Alexander Wurz, ending the season second to their rivals in the World Manufacturers' Championship.\n\nFurther car development was undertaken to minimise the impact of the 2013 LMP1 technical regulations by focusing on engine fine-tuning for improvements in power, efficiency and reliability. Only one TS030 Hybrid was entered for the entire 2013 World Endurance Championship because Toyota had limited resources, though a second car was used in selected races. The 2012-specification chassis was used in the season's first two races with the updated 2013 chassis debuting at Spa-Francorchamps. The TS030 Hybrid cars won two of the eight rounds contested in the season with a second-place finish for the No. 8 vehicle at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Toyota again finished second behind their rivals Audi in the Manufacturers' Championship. The 2014 LMP1 regulations rendered the TS030 Hybrid obsolete, and it was superseded by the TS040 Hybrid.\n\n## Background\n\nPrior to the development of the TS030 Hybrid, Toyota last competed in sports car racing in 1999. That year their cars, called GT-Ones, qualified on pole position for the 24 Hours of Le Mans. All three cars ran quickly for most of the race although two retired from tyre issues, while the remaining GT-One finished in second place behind race winners BMW. The company chose to withdraw from sports car racing at the end of the year to concentrate their efforts on establishing their Formula One team. After the Hybrid GT500 Toyota Supra HV-R won the Tokachi 24 Hours outright in 2007, Toyota sought a larger and more international audience for acknowledgement of the company's work in hybrid racing technology. Engineers set themselves the objective of developing a purpose-built car to return to international endurance racing, and garner worldwide interest by competing in the 24 Hours of Le Mans.\n\n## Design and development\n\nWork on designing the car began in late 2010 when early designs of its chassis were presented to Toyota Motorsport. The project was halted briefly after the earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan in March 2011 although the building of the car was approved six months later. The carbon fibre monocoque was constructed at Toyota Motorsport's headquarters in Cologne which built 84% of the chassis, and performed aerodynamic development of the design in its wind tunnel. Designers were influenced by findings from outdated Dome chassis and impressions from current Audi and Peugeot monocoques. The suspension setup consisted of an independent double wishbone system with pushrod actuated dampers, and was designed to accommodate wide tyres. Its engine, a naturally aspirated petrol 3.4-litre (210 cu in) V8 power unit, was mounted at a 90-degree angle, and produced 530 horsepower (400 kW; 540 PS). Toyota engineers elected to base the engine on their Super GT project instead of constructing a new one. The six-speed sequential gearbox unit was transverse-mounted to the engine and the brakes were constructed from carbon materials.\n\nThe TS030 Hybrid featured a Kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) regenerative braking device produced by Toyota Racing Development (the Le Mans organisers, Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), use the alternate name ERS) to charge a super capacitor. The extra power is directed to the rear wheels, giving an automatic horsepower increase of 300 bhp (220 kW; 300 PS). Its motor generator unit acts as a generator under braking; this allows it to harvest direct energy from the drive shaft which slows the car and converts energy into electricity that is stored in the super capacitor, which was supplied by Nisshinbo and mounted in the car's passenger compartment. The result allows for faster lap times when the driver exits track turns and saves fuel by reducing engine usage leaving a corner. Toyota chose Aisin AW to build the front electric motor while Denso were selected to build the rear power unit. Under the 2012 Le Mans rules they were allowed to use the system at any speed, unlike Audi who had elected to send power to the front, with a restriction to a minimum speed of 120 kilometres per hour (75 mph). Michelin was the team's tyre supplier.\n\n### Livery, launch and testing\n\nThe car was liveried in white, with blue stripes running down the sides of the cockpit and on top of each of its sidepods. Several sponsor stickers were on a number of areas of the car. The vehicle's race number was placed in a red square on the middle of the top section of its front left fender and the far-right of both fenders. The livery incorporated the colour scheme of Toyota's hybrid production cars and returned to the livery used by the Japanese manufacturer between 1985 and 1993. Toyota publicly announced its return to sports car racing in October 2011. Three months later the first car undertook a three-day, private test session at Circuit Paul Ricard. Toyota planned to test their TS030s for 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi) during the 2012 pre-season period. The company entered into a partnership with the French-based Oreca racing team for the provision of operational support.\n\nOn 24 January the TS030 was shown to the press for the first time during its test session at Paul Ricard. After its three-day roll-out at Paul Ricard, the TS030 Hybrid covered more than 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) with tyre evaluation, testing the hybrid system over long distances, and aerodynamic and mechanical set-up optimising undertaken in their test session. The team returned to the track in mid-February and performed a 30-hour endurance stint, after evaluating multiple performance developments. After a heavy accident at Paul Ricard during a second endurance test on 4 April that damaged the chassis beyond repair, Toyota cancelled seven days of running at EuroSpeedway Lausitz and Ciudad del Motor de Aragón. Following the car's rebuilding, Toyota scheduled a functionality test at Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours one month later.\n\n### Preparation\n\nThe initial schedule for the TS030s consisted of participation in the May pre-qualifying and testing session at Le Mans in preparation for the race in June. It was scheduled to make its début in the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, but its heavy accident at Paul Ricard, forced the team was forced to delay the TS030's debut race appearance until the 24 Hours of Le Mans in June because of the time needed to produce a new monocoque. The ACO and world motorsport's governing body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), persuaded Toyota to expand their presence in the World Endurance Championship (WEC) by extending the deadline for entries following Peugeot's withdrawal from sports car racing, but Toyota elected not to enter the 12 Hours of Sebring because of time constraints.\n\nIn early 2012, Toyota named seven drivers to the team. Sébastien Buemi, the third driver for the Red Bull Racing Formula One team, had no prior experience of endurance motor racing. Former Williams Formula One and Formula Nippon driver Kazuki Nakajima also came from an open wheel racing background. Anthony Davidson was added to the team for his previous experience with sports cars, while Nicolas Lapierre transferred from Team Oreca's Le Mans squad. Alexander Wurz also had extensive experience of sports car racing having twice won the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Stéphane Sarrazin was employed by Toyota in May 2012 to replace Hiroaki Ishiura who withdrew following the completion of the car's first testing session due to back discomfort. Super GT competitor Andrea Caldarelli served as the team's junior driver.\n\n## Racing history\n\n### 2012\n\nThe TS030 Hybrid made its race debut at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with two cars entered. It was the first petrol-hybrid car to compete in the WEC. Despite electrical problems in practice and qualifying, the No. 8 car qualified third with the No. 7 entry securing fifth. On the 82nd lap, Davidson collided with the No. 81 AF Corse Ferrari of Piergiuseppe Perazzini at Mulsanne corner, somersaulted into the air and crashed heavily into a tyre barrier. Davidson got out of his car unassisted, but was transported to a local hospital, complaining of back pain. A medical inspection found he had cracked two vertebrae (T11 & T12) from the accident. The No. 7 TS030 Hybrid, which had briefly led the race before the accident, had previously suffered from car damage that required lengthy repairs to it, and retired ten and a half hours into the event after an engine failure. After Le Mans, Toyota fielded one car for the remainder of the season, and installed innovative rear wing extensions to their cars which garnered controversy in the series, but were declared legal. The championship resumed two months later at Silverstone, where the No. 7 Toyota qualified in third position, seven-tenths of a second behind the pole-sitting No. 1 Audi R18 e-tron quattro of Marcel Fässler, Benoît Tréluyer and André Lotterer. In the race, the car was able to compete with the lead Audi car, with the two vehicles trading the lead throughout, but lost their race-long duel and took second place, finishing ahead of Allan McNish's and Tom Kristensen's third-placed No. 2 Audi.\n\nNakajima missed the next two events because of Super GT commitments. At the following round of the season, the 6 Hours of São Paulo, Wurz took the TS030 Hybrid's first pole position on his first timed lap which he improved on minutes later; he was nearly eight-tenths of a second faster than Audi's No. 2 car driven by Lucas di Grassi. Wurz and Lapierre maintained the No. 7's pole position advantage throughout most of the race, only ceding it to Audi during the pit stop cycles, to secure its first victory in the WEC. Lapierre qualified the No. 7 TS030 in third place for the 6 Hours of Bahrain behind the two rival Audi cars. Wurz started the car and used slower traffic to move into the lead 13 minutes into the race. Wurz and later Lapierre cemented their advantage at the front of the field over the next two hours until both illuminated number panels failed, forcing an unscheduled seven-minute pit stop for replacement car parts. Lapierre and later Wurz recovered to third place before Laiperre made contact with Jonny Kane in the No. 21 Strakka Racing HPD ARX-03a, damaging the No. 7 TS030 Hybrid's suspension. This caused him to abandon the car at the side of the track.\n\nFor the 6 Hours of Fuji, Nakajima returned to partner Wurz and Lapierre. He was nominated by Toyota to drive the No. 7 car in qualifying and took pole position with an early effort that removed Tréluyer in the No. 1 Audi from the top of the time sheets. In the race, the vehicle kept its startline advantage and pulled away from the field. The No. 2 Audi of Lotterer, Tréluyer and Fässler traded the lead with the Toyota multiple times before it was penalised for colliding with a slower car. Hence, the No. 7 Toyota maintained the lead for the rest of the race to secure its second victory of the season. Nakajima was unable to attend the 6 Hours of Shanghai because his Super GT commitments took priority over WEC, leaving Wurz and Laiperre to drive the car as a two-person entry. Wurz put the No. 7 TS030 Hybrid on pole position despite losing time on his fastest lap, and was one-tenth of a second quicker than McNish's No. 2 Audi. In the race, the car was unhindered throughout as it consistently ran under a second faster than both Audi cars, and only ceded the lead to their rivals in the pit stop cycle, clinching its third victory of the season with a large lead over Audi's No. 2 car. Competing with the TS030 Hybrid, the Toyota team scored 96 points and were second to Audi in the 2012 World Manufacturers' Championship.\n\n### 2013\n\nToyota opted to develop the car to minimise the impact of the 2013 Technical Regulations which increased the minimum weight of manufacturer Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) vehicles by 15 kilograms (33 lb) by focusing on fine-tuning the engine for power improvement, efficiency and reliability. They also manufactured new chassis tubs consisting of a narrower front nose because there was no longer a need to have an option to operate the hybrid system on the front wheels. The company had limited resources, so they elected to run one TS030 Hybrid for the entire WEC season with a second vehicle participating in selected rounds including the 24 Hours of Le Mans. The first race of the season, the 6 Hours of Silverstone, saw Toyota bring two 2012-specification cars in place of the updated 2013 chassis. Nakajima was absent from Silverstone because of a Super Formula commitment. Despite a timing system malfunction preventing lap times from being published for more than an hour, the No. 7 and No. 8 Toyota cars qualified in first and second places, separated by nearly two seconds. However, the event was at best uneventful, with neither car being able to match either Audi's pace, finishing third and fourth overall having struggled in the first few hours of the race with tyre management.\n\nThe second round of the season, the 2013 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps, saw Toyota debut the new 2013 specification car with one older chassis entered. After a close qualifying session, the updated No. 7 car ran near the front of the race for the first three hours, before retiring due to overheating brakes as a result of a malfunctioning energy recovery system. With the rear brake assembly designed to be assisted with certain amounts of mechanical retardation provided by the hybrid recovery system by design, it did not provide the deceleration when malfunctioning, thus overloading the conventional rear brakes. The No. 8 sister car remained in fourth for the rest of the event, closing what was a mixed outcome for the team. Post race, technical director Pascal Vasselon explained that \"his team's analysis from Spa showed that the current Balance of Performance significantly favoured Audi's turbo-diesel engine over its own normally-aspirated petrol engine,\" calling for the ACO and FIA for a more favourable balance of performance to be applied before Le Mans. As agreed at the season's start, the FIA and the ACO reviewed the technical regulations at the end of May 2013 to adjust the performance between petrol and diesel LMP1 cars for the rest of the 2013 championship. From Le Mans onward, petrol-engine cars had an additional 3 litres (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of fuel capacity.\n\nAt Le Mans, the No. 8 Toyota qualified fourth, three-tenths ahead of the sister TS030 Hybrid in fifth, but off the pace of both Audi cars. The race started on a damp and slippery track with the two TS030 cars driving faster than they had done in qualifying, moving up the field and separating the first five runners. As the track dried, Toyota dropped back from the quicker Audi cars, but had better fuel mileage. This recurring pattern continued into the night when the No. 7 and 8 Toyota vehicles took over second and third places after two of Audi's entrants ran into problems. Rain fell overnight and Toyota's tyre strategy enabled their cars to narrow Audi's lead to below two minutes. The positions remained constant until heavy rain fell on the track in the final hour, and Lapierre in the No. 8 Toyota aquaplaned into the barriers, requiring swift and extensive car repairs, and finished fourth overall. The No. 8 Toyota of Buemi gained on Kristensen's No. 2 Audi in the closing stages, but was too far behind to effect any positional change and came second. Starting from the 6 Hours of São Paulo, Davidson, Buemi and Sarrazin took part in the next two races while Wurz and Lapierre focused on developing Toyota's 2014 car and Nakajima concentrated on a joint Super Formula and Super GT programme.\n\nBuemi and Davidson were chosen to qualify the car and took third with a two-lap average lap time that was two-tenths slower than the pole-sitting No. 1 Audi. More than half an hour into the race, Sarrazin drove around the outside of the slower No. 32 Lotus T128 of Dominik Kraihamer to lap him, but Kraihamer lost control of his car's rear and went into Sarrazin's left-hand side. Both drivers made high speed contact with the turn three tyre barrier. The damage to the No. 8 Toyota's steering was great enough to force it to retire. At the inaugural 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas held three weeks later, Sarrazin and Buemi qualified the car in third position, 1.3 seconds off the lead No. 2 Audi car's pace, and Sarrazin could not improve following Jan Charouz's No. 32 Lotus T128 hitting his rear-end, sending the TS030 Hybrid spinning at the first turn. In a warm weather affected race, Buemi moved into second immediately after a fifteen-minute safety car period and challenged the No. 1 Audi for the lead before the pit stop cycle. Toyota achieved a strong performance through better tyre management, enabling the No. 8 car to finish second. Going into the team's home event, the 6 Hours of Fuji, Toyota announced that two TS030 Hybrid cars would take part in the race.\n\nBoth Toyota cars lined up in second and third places on the grid with Buemi and Davidson driving the No. 8 car and Nakajima and Lapierre in the sister No. 7 vehicle. The race was shortened because of heavy rain and poor visibility. The No. 8 Toyota secured the victory when the No. 1 Audi made unscheduled pit stops for debris removal, with the other Toyota finishing one lap behind in 27th as it had to make a fuel pit stop at the race's start, but attempted to leave pit lane five seconds later than allowed and fell to the back of the field. Following their victory, Toyota changed a decision to run a sole car at Shanghai and included a second; reports suggested Toyota wished to increase their prospects of winning a race on outright speed. It was also confirmed that Nakajima would skip the round to contest the Super Formula Championship. Lapierre and Wurz qualified the No. 7 car on pole position with the No. 8 entry of Sarrazin and Buemi separating the two Audi cars in third. The No. 7 Toyota led the race heading into the final hour, but Wurz ceded it when he went off the racing line while moving past slower traffic because of worn tyres. It was overtaken by the No. 1 Audi and Wurz could only manage second place in the No. 7 car. Toyota's No. 8 car retired from the lead in the fifth hour because a right-front suspension bolt sheared.\n\nFor the season-closing round in Bahrain, Toyota confirmed to the press that two cars would be fielded with the provision that neither car finished in Shanghai with major problems, although the No. 8 Toyota's suspension failure did not affect their decision. It was also announced that Nakajima would return to drive the No. 7 car with Lapierre and Wurz. Both cars qualified on the front row of the grid with Wurz and Nakajima's No. 7 vehicle taking pole position by three-tenths of a second from the No. 8 Toyota of Sarrazin and Davidson. Although it picked up a vibration in the race's closing minutes, the No. 8 Toyota was unchallenged throughout, taking the victory with a one-minute and ten-second advantage over Audi's No. 1 car. It shared the lead with sister car No. 7 until it was driven to the side of the track when its engine failed before the second hour's end. Competing with the TS030 for the second consecutive year, the Toyota team accumulated 142.5 points and finished in second place in the World Manufacturers' Championship, 64.5 points behind rivals Audi. The new LMP1 regulations for 2014 made the TS030 Hybrid obsolete. The car was retired, and replaced by the TS040 Hybrid.\n\n## Results summary\n\nResults in bold indicate pole position. Results in italics indicate fastest lap.\n\n## See also\n\n- TMG EV P001", "revid": "1164297959", "description": "Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) sports car", "categories": ["24 Hours of Le Mans race cars", "Green racing", "Hybrid electric cars", "Le Mans Prototypes", "Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles", "Toyota racing cars"]}
{"id": "1056464", "url": null, "title": "Diamond Rio", "text": "Diamond Rio is an American country music band. The band was founded in 1982 as an attraction for the Opryland USA theme park in Nashville, Tennessee, and was originally known as the Grizzly River Boys, then the Tennessee River Boys. It was founded by Matt Davenport, Danny Gregg, and Ty Herndon, the last of whom became a solo artist in the mid-1990s. After undergoing several membership changes in its initial years, the band consisted of the same six members from 1989 to 2022: Marty Roe (lead vocals, rhythm guitar), Gene Johnson (mandolin, guitar, fiddle, tenor vocals), Jimmy Olander (lead guitar, banjo), Brian Prout (drums), Dan Truman (keyboards), and Dana Williams (bass guitar, baritone vocals). After Prout and Johnson both departed in 2022, they were replaced by Micah Schweinsberg and Carson McKee respectively.\n\nAfter assuming the name Diamond Rio, the band was signed to Arista Nashville and debuted in 1991 with the single \"Meet in the Middle\", which made them the first band ever to send a debut single to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts. The band charted 32 more singles between then and 2006, including four more that reached No. 1: \"How Your Love Makes Me Feel\" (1997), \"One More Day\" (2001), \"Beautiful Mess\" (2002), and \"I Believe\" (2003).\n\nDiamond Rio has recorded nine studio albums, four Greatest Hits compilations, and an album of Christmas music. Three of the band's albums have achieved RIAA platinum certification in the United States. In addition, Diamond Rio has received four Group of the Year awards from the Country Music Association, two Top Vocal Group awards from the Academy of Country Music, and one Grammy Award. The band is known for its vocal harmonies, varied instrumentation, and near-exclusive use of only its own band members on recordings instead of session musicians. Their sound was originally defined by mainstream country, bluegrass, and rock influences, but later albums drew more influence from Christian country music and country pop.\n\n## Beginnings\n\nIn 1982, Matt Davenport and Danny Gregg founded a band at Opryland USA, a former country music-based amusement park in Nashville, Tennessee. The band was first named the Grizzly River Boys, after a new river rafting ride at the park, but quickly changed names to the Tennessee River Boys due to its members disliking the original name. Originally intended to promote the park through a one-time television special, the band proved popular enough that it became one of many regular performers there. Davenport, Gregg, and Ty Herndon alternated as lead vocalists, with Davenport also playing bass guitar and Gregg on rhythm guitar; completing the lineup were Larry Beard (lead guitar, fiddle, banjo), Mel Deal (steel guitar), Al DeLeonibus (piano), and Ed Mummert (drums). The group \"swapped lead voices, told jokes, and balanced old-school country concert shtick with a contemporary sound\". Herndon left the group in 1983 to compete on the talent show Star Search, and became a solo artist for Epic Records between 1995 and the early 2000s. Herndon was temporarily replaced by Anthony Crawford and then Virgil True before his role was taken over by Marty Roe, who had originally toured nationally with the Christian band Windsong, and worked in the park by doing impersonations of Larry Gatlin. Following Herndon's departure, DeLonibus and Mummert quit as well, with Dan Truman (who had previously played in Brigham Young University's Young Ambassadors) and Jimmy \"J. J.\" Whiteside taking their places. Beard quit shortly afterward and ultimately became a session musician, and former Mel McDaniel sideman Jimmy Olander took his place. The band, through the assistance of Bill Anderson's drummer Len \"Snuffy\" Miller, submitted demos to various Nashville record labels with no success.\n\nBy 1985, the Tennessee River Boys had quit working at Opryland. According to Roe, while the band enjoyed playing at the park, they also felt that their status as a theme park attraction discredited them as \"real musicians\" to those in the Nashville community. For the next few years, they played at small venues, such as high school auditoriums, and usually worked no more than four concerts a month. They also competed on Star Search, but were eliminated in the first round. Frustrated by the sporadic touring schedules, Whiteside quit the group and was replaced by Brian Prout, who previously performed in Hot Walker Band and Heartbreak Mountain. Around 1986, Deal and Gregg both left the group, the latter due to health complications from a serious illness he had developed as a teenager. They initially chose to operate as a quintet, with Davenport as the sole lead vocalist and Roe and Prout singing harmony; when this arrangement proved unsuccessful, they found mandolinist Gene Johnson, a former member of the bluegrass group Eddie Adcock's IInd Generation, which Olander was a fan of as a child. Johnson debuted at a concert in Clewiston, Florida, in May 1987. Also at this point, the band members supplemented their incomes with outside jobs: Johnson continued to work in carpentry, Olander and Roe mowed lawns, and Prout drove tour buses.\n\nIn 1988, the band caught the attention of Keith Stegall, a singer-songwriter who would later become known primarily for his work as Alan Jackson's record producer. Stegall produced demos for the Tennessee River Boys, but noted that Davenport could not record the lead vocal and bass parts at the same time, as they would be difficult to separate in the control room. As a result, Stegall had Roe sing a \"scratch\" vocal track live with the other musicians, which would then be replaced by Davenport's voice in post-production. Upon hearing Roe sing the \"scratch\" track, Stegall successfully convinced the other members that Roe should be the lead vocalist instead. Due to his discomfort outside the lead role and his wife's dissatisfaction with his career, Davenport quit in late 1988, becoming the last founding member to leave. The group quickly had to find a replacement, as they were scheduled to appear on the talk show Nashville Now on January 23, 1989. Alan LeBeouf, who had just left Baillie & the Boys, expressed interest in replacing Davenport but ultimately declined due to other commitments. They finally chose Dana Williams, a nephew of the bluegrass group Osborne Brothers and former sideman for Jimmy C. Newman, who had been a fan of the Tennessee River Boys since Herndon was a member.\n\n### 1990: Signing with Arista Nashville\n\nWilliams officially joined before the Nashville Now appearance, but the band still did not have a record deal at this point. They continued to record demos in Prout's garage with assistance from Monty Powell, who had previously hired Roe and Olander for recording jingles, but wanted to produce commercial music. Powell was a friend of audio engineer Mike Clute, who would later become one of the band's producers, and songwriters Tim DuBois and Van Stephenson. DuBois was talking with record executive Clive Davis about creating a country music branch of Arista Records called Arista Nashville; Stephenson would later sign to the label in 1993 as a member of Blackhawk. Initially, DuBois was hesitant about signing the Tennessee River Boys, as he felt that there were too many popular bands in country music, and he was about to sign both Asleep at the Wheel and Exile. He expressed interest in signing Roe as a solo artist, but at Powell's insistence, he agreed to see the band open for George Jones at a May 1989 concert, and officially signed them to Arista Nashville in 1990. The band members also decided to choose a new name, as they thought that Tennessee River Boys sounded more suitable for a bluegrass or gospel group than a country one. Among the names they had chosen were Kilroy and T-Town Mavericks, the latter of which was rejected by Arista executives. Prout suggested Diamond Rio, after the truck manufacturing company Diamond Reo Trucks. The name had been previously rejected by another country band, Shenandoah, whose lead singer Marty Raybon (also a former member of Heartbreak Mountain) gave Prout permission to use the name even though Shenandoah \"conducted business\" under that name.\n\nShortly after the band received its record deal, the band underwent a series of misfortunes when Olander, Johnson, and Williams came down with health problems. On August 9, 1990, Johnson was injured in a carpentry accident in Arkansas a day before his 41st birthday, severely cutting his left thumb. Robert Bolin substituted for Johnson during the band's tour in Brazil with Kevin Welch and Jann Browne. On September 6, four weeks after Johnson's accident, Williams was water skiing with his family in Cookeville, Tennessee, as his boat came forward at high speed when his wife was picking him up. The propeller slashed Williams' legs, and he was rushed to a hospital for his injuries. Brian Helgos and Paul Gregg (Danny Gregg's brother, and a member of Restless Heart) substituted for Williams. Meanwhile, Olander discovered that he had a lemon-sized tumor that was pressing against his esophagus. The tumor was never successfully diagnosed, although it ultimately vanished.\n\n## Musical career\n\n### 1991–1992: Diamond Rio\n\nAfter Olander, Williams, and Johnson had recovered, the six musicians set to work on their debut album. In doing so, Johnson soon discovered that the injuries to his hands had altered his dexterity on the mandolin, and threatened to walk away after Powell offhandedly remarked that he would have Roe dub in his own tenor harmonies instead of having Johnson sing them. The band also had commitments to finish as the Tennessee River Boys, to the point that they occasionally had to promote themselves under both names in the same day.\n\nArista Nashville released Diamond Rio's debut single, \"Meet in the Middle\", on February 6, 1991. As the lead single to their self-titled debut album, \"Meet in the Middle\" went on to spend two weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts, making Diamond Rio the first country music group ever to send its debut single to the top of that chart. Following its release, the band performed its first official concert as Diamond Rio on May 4, 1991. They shared the bill with Wild Rose, whose membership included Prout's then-wife, Nancy Given Prout. Released three weeks later with DuBois and Powell as producers, Diamond Rio was met with positive critical reception from critics such as Allmusic, Chicago Tribune, and Entertainment Weekly, which praised the band's vocal harmonies, instrumentation, and song choices.\n\nFour more singles were released from Diamond Rio, all reaching top 10 on the Billboard country singles charts: \"Mirror, Mirror\", \"Mama Don't Forget to Pray for Me\", \"Norma Jean Riley\" (which was previously the B-side of \"Mama Don't Forget to Pray for Me\"), and \"Nowhere Bound\", the latter two of which were co-written by Powell. Roe and Prout had found both \"Mama Don't Forget to Pray for Me\" and \"Mirror, Mirror\" by attending shows at the Bluebird Cafe in Nashville, a popular spot for performances by aspiring songwriters. Truman and an employee of Arista had found \"Norma Jean Riley\", which was originally titled \"Pretty Little Lady\" until DuBois remarked that the lady in the song should have a name: \"It could be 'Norma Jean Riley', anything!\" Johnson spoke positively about \"Mama Don't Forget to Pray for Me\", which was written and originally recorded by Larry Cordle, and the impact that it had on fans. He recalled a letter sent to him by a female fan who had run away from home and chose to return after hearing that song, and said that \"We already didn't wanna do the drinkin' songs and stuff ... if you're gonna touch someone, touch them with something that's positive.\"\n\nDiamond Rio was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping one million copies in the United States. In addition, the band won the Academy of Country Music's Top Vocal Group for 1992, an award they would receive again in 1993, 1994, and 1997. They were also nominated for Top New Vocal Duet or Group by the same association in 1992. A cut from the album, the instrumental \"Poultry Promenade\", gave the band its first Grammy Award nomination.\n\n### 1992–1995: Close to the Edge and Love a Little Stronger\n\nClose to the Edge, the group's second album, was released in 1992. Certified gold by the RIAA for U.S. shipments of 500,000 copies, the album produced the Top 5 country hits \"In a Week or Two\" and \"Oh Me, Oh My, Sweet Baby\", the latter of which was originally recorded by George Strait on his 1989 album Beyond the Blue Neon. The next singles, \"This Romeo Ain't Got Julie Yet\" and \"Sawmill Road\", both failed to reach top 10. Roe considered Close to the Edge a weaker album than their debut because the band only had one month to pick the songs for it; in a 1994 interview with New Country magazine, he stated: \"There aren't ten great songs out there for everybody, certainly not that you could find in a 30-day period of time.\" Olander was also critical of the novelty factor of \"This Romeo Ain't Got Julie Yet\", which he co-wrote, saying that it was \"by far not my favorite Diamond Rio recording – but that's at the time when I'm thinkin', 'Oh, this is easy, let's write this. It's kinda cute.'\" Brian Mansfield of Allmusic was also critical of the song, but described the rest of the album with favor, saying that its \"strongest material emphasizes the virtues of God, family and honest living – traditional stuff, no doubt influenced by the members' bluegrass background\", while Jack Hurst of the Chicago Tribune thought that \"In a Week or Two\" and \"Sawmill Road\", \"which is about the diverse trails some rural schoolmates follow in adulthood\", were the strongest tracks.\n\nIn 1994, the band released its third album, Love a Little Stronger. The album was recorded on a more relaxed schedule than the previous album; as a result, they did not have a single on the charts for three months after \"Sawmill Road\" fell off the charts. For this album, Clute joined DuBois and Powell as co-producer, a role that he has held on all of the band's subsequent releases. The title track (co-written by Billy Crittenden, later a member of the vocal group 4 Runner), reached a peak of No. 2 on the Billboard country singles charts, and No. 1 on the country singles chart published by Radio & Records. It was followed by the No. 9 hit \"Night Is Fallin' in My Heart\", originally recorded by J. P. Pennington in 1991. Next were the Top 20 hits \"Bubba Hyde\" and \"Finish What We Started\". Because the band had taken a longer period of time to choose songs for Love a Little Stronger, they considered it a superior album to its predecessor; Mansfield shared a similar opinion in his review of the album, stating that \"Spurred by the relatively lackluster performance of Close to the Edge ... Diamond Rio explored the musical possibilities of its talents rather than digging for easy commercial success.\" Bob Cannon of New Country was more mixed, saying that \"the production on Love a Little Stronger is so sparkling clean it could've been recorded in an operating room.\" This album also earned the band its second platinum certification.\n\n### 1996–1999: IV, Greatest Hits, and Unbelievable\n\nIV, Diamond Rio's fourth album, was released in 1996. It was the \"first country release recorded entirely on a digital console\"; specifically, a Fairlight console which recorded the album directly to a hard drive. Produced by DuBois, Clute, and the band itself, it was also their first album not to have Powell as a co-producer. According to DuBois, Powell left this role on good terms, as he \"saw a need to go in a certain direction, and the guys saw a need to go in a different direction.\" Roe thought that the album benefited from a new label policy that allowed label personnel to respond more quickly to pitches from songwriters. He recalled to Billboard that the label's head of artists and repertoire (A&R) recommended the lead single \"Walkin' Away\" while co-writer Craig Wiseman (who co-wrote \"Bubba Hyde\") was still recording its demo, and the band was able to record the song in the same day that the demo was completed. \"Walkin' Away\" peaked at No. 2 on the country charts in early 1996. Three more singles were released from the album: the top 10 hits \"That's What I Get for Lovin' You\" and \"Holdin'\" (also written by Wiseman), with the top 20 \"It's All in Your Head\", co-written by Van Stephenson, in between. The music video for \"It's All in Your Head\" featured Martin Sheen and Ramon Estevez, the former playing the part of a snake handling preacher.\n\nA year after IV, Diamond Rio released its first Greatest Hits package, which included eleven of the singles from their first four albums, plus the album cut \"She Misses Him on Sunday the Most\" from IV and two new songs: \"How Your Love Makes Me Feel\" and \"Imagine That\". \"How Your Love Makes Me Feel\" became the band's second No 1 on Hot Country Songs, as well as their longest-lasting at three weeks, making it the biggest chart hit for any country group that year. \"Imagine That\", co-written by Bryan White, reached Top 5 by early 1998. Greatest Hits became the band's third platinum album.\n\nDiamond Rio was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in April 1998, becoming the first band in fourteen years to be inducted. Later in the year, the band released its fifth studio album, Unbelievable. Contributing songwriters to the album included Paul Williams, former NRBQ member Al Anderson, Robert John \"Mutt\" Lange, and Huey Lewis. The lead single was the ballad \"You're Gone\", which reached top 5 on the country charts. After it was the title track, which peaked at No. 2 on the country charts and became the band's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100, where it reached No. 36. The third and final single was \"I Know How the River Feels\", originally recorded on Herndon's 1996 album Living in a Moment and later released as a single by McAlyster in 2000. Diamond Rio's rendition peaked at 33 on the country charts, their lowest chart peak at the time.\n\nIn 1998, Prout began dating Mary Bono, the widow of singer and politician Sonny Bono. The two became engaged but later ended their relationship in 2001. On December 28 of the same year, Prout married singer-songwriter Stephanie Bentley, best known for co-writing Faith Hill's 1999 single \"Breathe\".\n\n### 2000–2002: One More Day\n\nDiamond Rio released its twenty-third official chart single, \"Stuff\", in May 2000. The song was originally intended to be the title track to their sixth studio album, which would have been released on August 22 of the same year, but according to Truman, \"Certain radio stations, for some reason, didn't want to play 'Stuff'.\" As a result, \"Stuff\" was withdrawn after peaking at number 36 on the country charts, and the album was delayed until February 2001. Following this song's failure, the band released \"One More Day\" later in 2000. The song was written by Steven Dale Jones and Bobby Tomberlin, the same two writers who wrote \"She Misses Him on Sunday the Most\". \"One More Day\" went on to spend two non-consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the country charts, with the album, by this point re-titled One More Day, having its release date moved up to February 6, 2001. The song also peaked at No. 29 on the Billboard Hot 100, in addition to reaching top 10 on the Adult Contemporary charts (the band's first appearance on that chart). Regarding the song's popularity among fans who have used the song to cope with personal losses, Prout said, \"Actually, 'One More Day' was recorded as a love song. Then one of Oklahoma State's basketball team's plane went down, then in early 2001 we lost Dale [Earnhardt] in Daytona, and then of course, 9/11 came after that. And every event of that year, the song took on a different meaning to different people ... We hear quite often in e-mails and people talking to us in shows. If you're asking how it makes us feel? Pretty darn special ... to know that you had that impact on someone's life and helped in a tough time of healing and hope.\"\n\nThe third and fourth singles from One More Day were less successful: \"Sweet Summer\" made Top 20, while \"That's Just That\" failed to make Top 40. The album featured a guest vocal from Chely Wright on \"I'm Trying\", making for the band's first ever duet with another artist on one of their own albums. It also included a cover of \"Hearts Against the Wind\", originally recorded by J. D. Souther and Linda Ronstadt for the Urban Cowboy soundtrack. Chris Neal of Country Weekly thought that the album showed a greater musical variety than its predecessors, specifically noting the \"spoken-word verses\" of \"Here I Go Fallin'\", the \"Hearts Against the Wind\" cover, and the Wright duet as standout tracks. Rick Cohoon of Allmusic cited the album's singles and the Wright duet as the album's best tracks, adding that \"If any flaw can be found here it would be the band's choice not to experiment with new sound, but then again, why tamper with a good thing?\"\n\nStarting in 2001, the other members had noticed that Roe was having difficulty maintaining proper pitch in concert. Although they did not want to confront him about it for fear of \"bruis[ing] his ego\", they eventually convinced Roe of his problems by listening to concert recordings together. Roe also consulted unsuccessfully with vocal coaches and throat doctors at the Vanderbilt University Medical Center. The band attempted to cover up Roe's problems by removing certain songs from concert set lists, lowering the key on others, having Truman sometimes take the lead vocal, and using pitch correction software, but even these did not fully correct the issues. Finally, they consulted vocal coach Diane Sheets, a friend of Johnson's son-in-law. She determined that Roe was over-compensating for a small degree of hearing loss typical of musicians who have performed live for long periods of time, thus tightening muscles in his throat and diaphragm and causing him to lose pitch. Although Roe was initially \"cynical\" toward Sheets's coaching, she was ultimately successful in restoring his voice.\n\n### 2002–2007: Completely, Can't You Tell, and Greatest Hits II\n\nIn 2002, Diamond Rio released its seventh studio album, Completely. The band originally conceived it as a double album, featuring traditional country on one disc and more pop-oriented country on the other, but according to Prout, this concept did not fully materialize because \"country music has blinders on as far as what's acceptable – and what isn't\", although Olander and Williams noted that the idea allowed them \"more leeway in choosing songs\". In addition to earning a gold certification, it produced two consecutive No. 1 singles in \"Beautiful Mess\" and \"I Believe\", the latter being the band's last single to top Hot Country Songs. Third single \"Wrinkles\" made Top 20, while the last single, \"We All Fall Down\" (also written by Steven Dale Jones), failed to reach top 40. Two of the album's tracks were previously recorded by other artists: \"Make Sure You've Got It All\", written by Bill Anderson and Steve Wariner, was originally recorded on Collin Raye's 1998 album The Walls Came Down, and \"If You'd Like Some Lovin'\" by its co-writer, David Ball, on his 1996 album Starlite Lounge.\n\nRick Cohoon of Allmusic praised the album for its musical variety, saying, \"With artists as well anchored in the business as Diamond Rio, the musical quality is a given. The real challenge is outdoing yourself and coming up with fresh concepts. The selections on this album seem to be the fruition of that search for musical renewal\". He cited \"Beautiful Mess\" and \"I Believe\" as standout tracks. Ray Waddell of Billboard also thought that the singles were among the best tracks on the album, while highlighting the instrumental track \"Rural Philharmonic\" (which Olander had originally intended to record for a solo album) as an example of the band's strong musicianship. Chrissie Dickinson of the Chicago Tribune was less favorable, commending the \"masterful musicianship\" and Roe's \"light vocal timbre\", while criticizing the song selections as \"mostly a paint-by-numbers trip around the musical block, from the predictable power balladry of 'I Believe' to the saccharine sentiments of 'We All Fall Down.'\"\n\nA seventh album, tentatively titled Can't You Tell, was recorded in 2003, but it was cancelled after its first two singles – the title track and \"One Believer\" – both failed to make Top 40 upon their releases in late 2004 and early 2005 respectively. Diamond Rio's second Greatest Hits package, Greatest Hits II, was released in 2006. Like their first Greatest Hits album, this compilation included several new songs as well as the band's greatest hits; one of these new songs, \"God Only Cries\", was released as a single, peaking at No. 30. Shortly after the album's release, Diamond Rio parted ways with Arista Nashville.\n\n### 2007–present: New record label, The Reason, and I Made It\n\nOn August 31, 2007, Diamond Rio signed with Word Records, a Christian music label based in Nashville. Their first album for Word was a Christmas album entitled A Diamond Rio Christmas: The Star Still Shines, which they recorded in Olander's basement studio. Roe said in an interview with CMT that \"we just didn't try to copy anybody else. We tried to make up our own arrangements.\" The group released its first contemporary Christian album, The Reason, on September 22, 2009. It earned the band three Dove Award nominations: Song of the Year for \"God Is There\", Country Song of the Year for the title track, and Country Album of the Year.\n\nIn 2014, Olander told The Arizona Republic that the group was no longer signed to Word Records and planned to release new material independently. \"I will say that I was proud of the material, but maybe it's not the best version of Diamond Rio,\" Olander told the publication. \"We were kind of in a no-man's land. We didn't fit in with country radio and we didn't fit with Christian radio. It was something that wasn't fully realized.\" The band began releasing records independently, starting with a live album in 2014 and following in 2015 with the studio album I Made It.\n\nProut and Johnson both retired from the band in 2022. Micah Schweinsberg filled in on drums, and Carson McKee on harmony vocals, mandolin, and fiddle, for a series of concerts in 2022. Said tour, focused on songs from their 2007 Christmas album, was the band's first since before the COVID-19 pandemic. Schweinsberg and McKee both became official members of the band in mid-2023, making McKee the band's first female member. The first single following their addition to the lineup, an instrumental called \"The Kick\", was released soon after.\n\n### Outside contributions\n\nDiamond Rio has been featured on several projects featuring multiple country artists, including three tribute albums released between 1993 and 1994. The first was a cover of the Eagles' 1975 hit \"Lyin' Eyes\" for Common Thread: The Songs of the Eagles, an album released in late 1993 via Giant Records which featured various country musicians covering that band's songs. Diamond Rio had originally wanted to record the song for Love a Little Stronger, but DuBois rejected the idea because he felt that they were not yet well-established enough to record a cover song on one of their own albums. The second was Keith Whitley: A Tribute Album, to which they contributed a cover of Keith Whitley's 1986 hit \"Ten Feet Away\", and the third was a cover of Merle Haggard's \"Workin' Man Blues\" for a tribute album entitled Mama's Hungry Eyes: A Tribute to Merle Haggard. This rendition, which featured guest appearances from Lee Roy Parnell and Steve Wariner (both of whom were also signed to Arista Nashville at the time), was credited to \"Jed Zeppelin\". The song peaked at No. 48 on the Billboard country charts from unsolicited airplay, and was made into a music video. In 1996, the band covered \"Beauty and the Beast\" for the multi-artist compilation The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney and contributed the original song \"Christmas Spirit\" (which Powell and Roe co-wrote) to Star of Wonder: Country Christmas Collection, a Christmas album featuring various artists on Arista Nashville's roster. A year later, Diamond Rio contributed a recording of the gospel standard \"Walkin' in Jerusalem\" to a compilation entitled Peace in the Valley: A Country Music Journey Through Gospel Music. Diamond Rio and Collin Raye also sang backing vocals on Kenny Rogers' 2000 single \"He Will, She Knows\". In 2002, the band was featured on country parodist Cledus T. Judd's \"Man of Constant Borrow\", a parody of \"Man of Constant Sorrow\" on his album Cledus Envy. Jerrod Niemann's late-2017 album This Ride features Diamond Rio on the song \"I Ain't All There\".\n\nSome of the individual members have also contributed to songs by other artists. Roe sang duet vocals with then-labelmate Pam Tillis on \"Love Is Only Human\", a cut from her 1992 album Homeward Looking Angel. Olander was featured along with bluegrass musicians Carl Jackson and Mark O'Connor on the track \"Hap Towne Breakdowne\" from Steve Wariner's 1996 instrumental album No More Mr. Nice Guy. He also co-wrote Kenny Chesney's 2001 single \"I Lost It\", Marshall Dyllon's 2001 single \"You\", and the track \"The Night Before (Life Goes On)\" from Carrie Underwood's 2005 debut album Some Hearts. Truman co-wrote Shane Minor's 1999 single \"Ordinary Love\"; Minor would later co-write the band's hit \"Beautiful Mess\". In 2003, Truman and songwriter Jason Deere co-founded the Nashville Tribute Band, which has recorded three albums for missionaries of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, of which Truman is a member. Roe, Johnson, and Williams sang backing vocals on Josh Turner's 2006 single \"Me and God\" (from the album Your Man), which also featured a guest vocal from bluegrass musician Ralph Stanley.\n\n## Musical stylings\n\nIn the country music industry particularly, record producers hire mostly session musicians to record tracks for an album for both solo artists and bands, as opposed to rock bands who record their own instrumental and vocal tracks on their albums. Diamond Rio has been one of few self-contained country bands to have followed the practice of each member playing their own instruments and singing their own vocals on all their albums themselves, without any additional input from outside musicians. The sole exception has been the inclusion of string sections on some of their later work, starting with \"I Know How the River Feels\" and continuing through certain tracks on One More Day and Completely. According to Prout, other labels had rejected the band prior to their signing with Arista Nashville due to the band members' insistence that they play all their own instruments.\n\nTheir early music blended neotraditionalist country with occasional traces of country rock, primarily in the song's prominent rhythm sections. A bluegrass influence has also been shown, primarily in the three-part harmonies among Roe (lead), Williams (baritone), and Johnson (tenor). Bluegrass influences are also shown in the band's prominent use of the mandolin, as well as in the instrumentals featured on many of their earlier albums. The band's later material has tended towards pop-oriented ballads, such as \"I Believe\" and \"One More Day\" – songs which received critical acclaim for their often religious-themed messages, but were considered departures from the more traditional material of their first four albums.\n\nAnother trademark of Diamond Rio's sound is the custom-built B-Bender guitar played by Olander. He refers to this instrument as the \"Taxicaster\" because of its yellow body and black-and-white checkered pickguard, which give it the coloration of a taxicab.\n\n## Awards\n\nDiamond Rio received the Academy of Country Music's award for Top Vocal Group in 1991 and 1992. In 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1997, they also received the Country Music Association's award for Vocal Group of the Year (an award for which they received fifteen total nominations, more than any other country music group). In addition, Diamond Rio has received thirteen Grammy Award nominations. In 2010 they received three nominations for the GMA Dove Awards, and on April 22 won the award for Country Album of the Year. In 2011, they received their first Grammy Award in the Grammy Award for Best Southern, Country or Bluegrass Gospel Album category for The Reason.\n\n## Personnel\n\n### Members\n\nCurrent members\n\n- Dan Truman – (born August 29, 1956; piano, keyboards) (1983–present)\n- Marty Roe – (born December 28, 1960; lead vocals, rhythm guitar) (1984–present)\n- Jimmy Olander – (born August 26, 1961; lead guitar, banjo) (1985–present)\n- Dana Williams – (born May 22, 1961; bass guitar, baritone vocals) (1989–present)\n- Carson McKee – mandolin, fiddle, tenor vocals (2022–present)\n- Micah Schweinsberg– drums (2022–present)\n\nFormer members\n\n- Larry Beard – lead guitar, fiddle, banjo (1982–1985)\n- Al DeLeonibus – piano (1982–1983)\n- Matt Davenport – bass guitar, lead vocals (1982–1988)\n- Danny Gregg – rhythm guitar, lead vocals (1982–1986)\n- Ty Herndon – vocals (1982–1983)\n- Ed Mummert – drums (1982–1983)\n- Jimmy \"J. J.\" Whiteside – drums (1983–1985)\n- Anthony Crawford – vocals (1983)\n- Virgil True – vocals (1984)\n- Brian Prout - drums (1985–2022)\n- Gene Johnson – mandolin, fiddle, tenor vocals (1987–2022)\n\n## Discography\n\n- Diamond Rio (1991)\n- Close to the Edge (1992)\n- Love a Little Stronger (1994)\n- IV (1996)\n- Unbelievable (1998)\n- One More Day (2001)\n- Completely (2002)\n- A Diamond Rio Christmas: The Star Still Shines (2007)\n- The Reason (2009)\n- I Made It (2015)", "revid": "1168575466", "description": "American country and Christian music band", "categories": ["1982 establishments in Tennessee", "Arista Nashville artists", "Country music groups from Tennessee", "Grammy Award winners", "Grand Ole Opry members", "Musical groups established in 1982", "Musical groups from Nashville, Tennessee", "Word Records artists"]}
{"id": "355502", "url": null, "title": "Dennis Rodman", "text": "Dennis Keith Rodman (born May 13, 1961) is an American former professional basketball player. Known for his fierce defensive and rebounding abilities, his biography on the official NBA website states that he is \"arguably the best rebounding forward in NBA history\". Nicknamed \"the Worm\", he played for the Detroit Pistons, San Antonio Spurs, Chicago Bulls, Los Angeles Lakers, and Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Rodman played at the small forward position in his early years before becoming a power forward.\n\nHe earned NBA All-Defensive First Team honors seven times and won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award twice. He also led the NBA in rebounds per game for a record seven consecutive years and won five NBA championships. On April 1, 2011, the Pistons retired Rodman's No. 10 jersey, and he was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame later that year. In October 2021, Rodman was honored as one of the league’s greatest players of all-time by being named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team.\n\nRodman experienced an unhappy childhood and was shy and introverted in his early years. After aborting a suicide attempt in 1993, he reinvented himself as a \"bad boy\" and became notorious for numerous controversial antics. He repeatedly dyed his hair in artificial colors, had many piercings and tattoos, and regularly disrupted games by clashing with opposing players and officials. He famously wore a wedding dress to promote his 1996 autobiography Bad as I Wanna Be. Rodman pursued a high-profile affair with singer Madonna and was briefly married to actress Carmen Electra. Rodman also attracted international attention for his visits to North Korea and his subsequent befriending of North Korean leader Kim Jong Un in 2013.\n\nIn addition to being a former professional basketball player, Rodman has appeared in professional wrestling. He was a member of the nWo and fought alongside Hulk Hogan in the main event of two Bash at the Beach pay-per-views. In professional wrestling, Rodman was the first-ever winner of the Celebrity Championship Wrestling tournament. He had his own TV show, The Rodman World Tour, and had lead roles in the action films Double Team (1997) and Simon Sez (1999). Both films were critically panned, with the former earning Rodman a triple Razzie Award. He appeared in several reality TV series and was the winner of the \\$222,000 main prize of the 2004 edition of Celebrity Mole.\n\nRodman was one of the athletes – among other victims – successfully targeted by professional scam artist/fraudster Peggy Ann Fulford.\n\n## Early life\n\nRodman was born in Trenton, New Jersey, the son of Shirley and Philander Rodman, Jr., an Air Force enlisted member, who later fought in the Vietnam War. When he was young, his father left his family, eventually settling in the Philippines. Rodman has many brothers and sisters: according to his father, he has either 26 or 28 siblings on his father's side. However, Rodman has stated that he is the oldest of a total of 47 children.\n\nAfter his father left, Shirley took many odd jobs to support the family, up to four at the same time. In his 1996 biography Bad As I Wanna Be, he expresses his feelings for his father: \"I haven't seen my father in more than 30 years, so what's there to miss ... I just look at it like this: Some man brought me into this world. That doesn't mean I have a father\". He would not meet his father again until 2012.\n\nRodman and his two sisters, Debra and Kim, grew up in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas, at the time one of the most impoverished areas of the city. Rodman's mother gave him the nickname \"The Worm\" for how he wiggles while playing pinball. Rodman was so attached to his mother that he refused to move when she sent him to a nursery when he was four years old. According to Rodman, his mother was more interested in his two sisters, who were both considered more talented than he was in basketball, and made him a laughingstock whenever he tagged along with them. He felt generally \"overwhelmed\" by the all-female household. Debra and Kim would go on to become All-Americans at Louisiana Tech and Stephen F. Austin, respectively. Debra won two national titles with the Lady Techsters.\n\nWhile attending South Oak Cliff High School, Rodman was a gym class student of future Texas A&M basketball coach Gary Blair. Blair coached Rodman's sisters Debra and Kim, winning three state championships. However, Rodman was not considered an athletic standout. According to Rodman, he was \"unable to hit a layup\" and was listed in the high school basketball teams, but was either benched or cut from the squads. Measuring only as a freshman in high school, he also failed to make the football teams and was \"totally devastated\".\n\n## College career\n\nAfter finishing high school, Rodman worked as an overnight janitor at Dallas Fort Worth International Airport. He then experienced a sudden growth spurt from to and decided to try basketball again, despite becoming even more withdrawn because he felt odd in his own body.\n\nA family friend tipped off the head coach of Cooke County College (now North Central Texas College) in Gainesville, Texas. In his single semester there, he averaged 17.6 points and 13.3 rebounds, before flunking out due to poor academic performance. After his short stint in Gainesville, he transferred to Southeastern Oklahoma State University, an NAIA school. There, Rodman was a three-time NAIA All-American and led the NAIA in rebounding twice (1985, 1986). In three seasons there (1983–1986), he averaged 25.7 points and 15.7 rebounds, and registered a .637 field goal percentage. In 1986 he led his team to the NAIA semifinals where he scored 46 points in a single game, while grabbing a tournament-tying record 32 rebounds, as they finished the season with the highest ranking in school history, at No. 3 in the nation. This helped get him invited to the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament, a pre-draft camp for NBA hopefuls, where he won Most Valuable Player honors and caught the attention of the Detroit Pistons.\n\nDuring college, Rodman worked at a summer youth basketball camp, where he befriended camper Byrne Rich who was 13 yrs old at the time, who was shy and withdrawn due to a hunting accident in which he mistakenly shot and killed his best friend. The two became almost inseparable and formed a close bond. Rich invited Rodman to his rural Oklahoma home; at first, Rodman was not well-received by the Riches due to the fact he was 22 years old and black. But the Riches were so grateful to him for bringing their son out of his shell that they were able to set aside their prejudices. Although Rodman had severe family and personal issues himself, he \"adopted\" the Riches as his own in 1982 and went from the city life to \"driving a tractor and messing with cows\". Though Rodman credited the Riches as his \"surrogate family\" that helped him through college, as of 2013 he had stopped communicating with the Rich family after Byrne’s mother referred to Rodman as a “n----r.”\n\n## Professional basketball career\n\n### Detroit Pistons (1986–1993)\n\n#### Early years and first championship (1986–1989)\n\nRodman made himself eligible for the 1986 NBA draft. He was drafted by the Detroit Pistons as the third pick in the second round (27th overall), joining the rugged team of coach Chuck Daly that was called \"Bad Boys\" for their hard-nosed approach to basketball. The squad featured Isiah Thomas and Joe Dumars at the guard positions, Adrian Dantley and Sidney Green at forward, and center Bill Laimbeer. Bench players who played more than 15 minutes per game were sixth man Vinnie Johnson and the backup forwards Rick Mahorn and John Salley. Rodman fit well into this ensemble, providing 6.5 points, 4.7 rebounds and some tough defense in 15.0 minutes of playing time per game.\n\nWinning 52 games, the Pistons comfortably entered the 1987 playoffs. They swept the Washington Bullets and soundly beat the Atlanta Hawks in five games, but bowed out in seven matches against the archrival Boston Celtics in what was called one of the physically and mentally toughest series ever. Rodman feuded with Celtics guard Dennis Johnson and taunted Johnson in the closing seconds when he waved his right hand over his own head. When the Celtics took Game Seven, Johnson went back at Rodman in the last moments of the game and mimicked his taunting gesture.\n\nAfter the loss, Rodman made headlines by directly accusing Celtics star Larry Bird of being overrated because he was white: \"Larry Bird is overrated in a lot of areas. ... Why does he get so much publicity? Because he's white. You never hear about a black player being the greatest\". Although teammate Thomas supported him, he endured harsh criticism, but avoided being called a racist because, according to him, his own girlfriend Anicka \"Annie\" Bakes was white.\n\nIn the following 1987–88 season, Rodman steadily improved his stats, averaging 11.6 points and 8.7 rebounds and starting in 32 of 82 regular season games. The Pistons fought their way into the 1988 NBA Finals, and took a 3–2 lead, but lost in seven games against the Los Angeles Lakers. In Game Six, the Pistons were down by one point with eight seconds to go; Dumars missed a shot, and Rodman just fell short of an offensive rebound and a putback that could have won the title. In Game Seven, L.A. led by 15 points in the fourth quarter, but Rodman's defense helped cut down the lead to six with 3:52 minutes to go and to two with one minute to go. But then, he fouled Magic Johnson, who hit a free throw, missed an ill-advised shot with 39 seconds to go, and the Pistons never recovered. In that year, he and his girlfriend Annie had a daughter they named Alexis.\n\nRodman remained a bench player during the 1988–89 season, averaging 9.0 points and 9.4 rebounds in 27 minutes, yet providing such effective defense that he was voted into the All-Defensive Team, the first of eight times in his career. He also began seeing more playing time after Adrian Dantley was traded at midseason to Dallas for Mark Aguirre. In that season, the Pistons finally vanquished their playoffs bane by sweeping the Boston Celtics, then winning in six games versus the Chicago Bulls—including scoring champion Michael Jordan—and easily defeating the Lakers 4–0 in the 1989 NBA Finals. Although he was hampered by back spasms, Rodman dominated the boards, grabbing 19 rebounds in Game 3 and providing tough interior defense.\n\n#### Second championship and rebounding titles (1989–1993)\n\nIn the 1989–90 season, Detroit lost perennial defensive forward Rick Mahorn when he was taken by the Minnesota Timberwolves in that year's expansion draft and ended up on the Philadelphia 76ers when the Pistons could not reacquire him. It was feared that the loss of Mahorn – average in talent, but high on hustle and widely considered a vital cog of the \"Bad Boys\" teams – would diminish the Pistons' spirit, but Rodman seamlessly took over his role. He went on to win his first big individual accolade. Averaging 8.8 points and 9.7 rebounds while starting in the last 43 regular season games, he established himself as the best defensive player in the game; during this period, the Pistons won 59 games, and Rodman was lauded by the NBA \"for his defense and rebounding skills, which were unparalleled in the league\". For his feats, he won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award; he also connected on a .595 field goal percentage, best in the league. In the 1990 playoffs, the Pistons beat the Bulls again, and in the 1990 NBA Finals, Detroit met the Portland Trail Blazers. Rodman suffered from an injured ankle and was often replaced by Mark Aguirre, but even without his defensive hustle, Detroit beat Portland in five games and claimed their second title.\n\nDuring the 1990–91 season, Rodman finally established himself as the starting small forward of the Pistons. He played such strong defense that the NBA stated he \"could shut down any opposing player, from point guard to center\". After coming off the bench for most of his earlier years, he finally started in 77 of the 82 regular season games, averaged 8.2 points and 12.5 rebounds and won his second Defensive Player of the Year Award. In the 1991 playoffs, however, the Pistons were swept by the championship-winning Chicago Bulls in the Eastern Conference Finals.\n\nIt was in the 1991–92 season where Rodman made a remarkable leap in his rebounding, collecting an astounding 18.7 rebounds per game (1,530 in total), winning his first of seven consecutive rebounding crowns, along with scoring 9.8 points per game, and making his first All-NBA Team. His 1,530 rebounds (the most since Wilt Chamberlain's 1,572 in the 1971–1972 season) have never been surpassed since then; the best mark not set by Rodman is by Kevin Willis, who grabbed 1,258 boards that same season. Willis lamented that Rodman had an advantage in winning the rebounding title with his lack of offensive responsibilities. In a March 1992 game, Rodman totaled a career high 34 rebounds. However, the aging Pistons were eliminated by the up-and-coming New York Knicks in the first round of the 1992 playoffs.\n\nRodman experienced a tough loss when coach Chuck Daly, whom he had admired as a surrogate father, resigned in May; Rodman skipped the preseason camp and was fined \\$68,000. The following 1992–93 season was even more tumultuous. Rodman and Annie Bakes, the mother of his daughter Alexis, were divorcing after a short marriage, an experience which left him traumatized. The Pistons won only 40 games and missed the 1993 playoffs entirely.\n\nFour years later in his biography Bad As I Wanna Be, Rodman revealed just how far he had fallen. He had driven to The Palace of Auburn Hills in February 1993 late one night carrying a loaded rifle in his truck, debating whether or not he wanted to continue living. Eventually he fell asleep in the truck, where he was found by police who had been called to perform a welfare check on Rodman by a friend. It was in that moment that he had an epiphany: \"I decided that instead [of killing myself] I was gonna kill the impostor that was leading Dennis Rodman to a place he didn't want to go ... So I just said, 'I'm going to live my life the way I want to live it and be happy doing it.' At that moment I tamed [sic] my whole life around. I killed the person I didn't want to be.\" The book was later adapted for a TV movie Bad As I Wanna Be: The Dennis Rodman Story. Although he had three years and \\$11.8 million remaining on his contract, Rodman demanded a trade. On October 1, 1993, the Pistons dealt him to the San Antonio Spurs.\n\n### San Antonio Spurs (1993–1995)\n\n#### Playoff upset (1993–1994)\n\nIn the 1993–94 season, Rodman joined a Spurs team that was built around perennial All-Star center David Robinson, with a supporting cast of forwards Dale Ellis, Willie Anderson and guard Vinny Del Negro. On the hardwood, Rodman now was played as a power forward and won his third straight rebounding title, averaging 17.3 boards per game, along with another All-Defensive Team call-up. Living up to his promise of killing the \"shy imposter\" and \"being himself\" instead, Rodman began to show first signs of unconventional behavior: before the first game, he shaved his hair and dyed it blonde, which was followed up by stints with red, purple, blue hair and a look inspired from the film Demolition Man. During the season, he headbutted Stacey King and John Stockton, refused to leave the hardwood once after being ejected, and had a highly publicized two-month affair with Madonna. The only player to whom Rodman related was reserve center Jack Haley, who earned his trust by not being shocked after a visit to a gay bar. However, despite a 55-win season, Rodman and the Spurs did not survive the first round of the 1994 playoffs and bowed out against the Utah Jazz in four games.\n\n#### Team conflict and shoulder injury (1994–1995)\n\nIn the following 1994–95 season, Rodman clashed with the Spurs front office. He was suspended for the first three games, took a leave of absence on November 11, and was suspended again on December 7. He finally returned on December 10 after missing 19 games. After joining the team, he suffered a shoulder separation in a motorcycle accident, limiting his season to 49 games. Normally, he would not have qualified for any season records for missing so many games, but by grabbing 823 rebounds, he just surpassed the 800-rebound limit for listing players and won his fourth straight rebounding title by averaging 16.8 boards per game and made the All-NBA Team. The Spurs won 62 games, good enough for the league’s best record.\n\nHowever, things fell apart in the playoffs. During the second round series against the Los Angeles Lakers, Rodman was suspended for insubordination for sitting on the floor with his shoes off during a timeout. Despite this, the Spurs advanced to the Western Conference Finals against their division rivals, the Houston Rockets. The Rockets had only recorded 47 wins and had to come back from a 3-1 deficit to win their previous series against the Phoenix Suns, but the team was the defending NBA champion and it was thought that Rockets center Hakeem Olajuwon would have a hard time asserting himself versus Robinson and Rodman, who had both been voted into the NBA All-Defensive Teams.\n\nThe Spurs, however, were never able to stop Olajuwon as he averaged 35.3 points per game in the series. Rodman was particularly critical of Spurs coach Bob Hill’s play calling, saying that he coached the playoffs “like we were playing Minnesota in the middle of December” and that his idea that Rodman should assist Robinson, who he accused of freezing up in big moments, in defending Olajuwon was counterproductive because it would force him off his man and leave the Spurs prone to giving up scoring opportunities. He even went off on the organization, including general manager Gregg Popovich, in the locker room following a game, saying that everything they did “sucked” and that Hill was “a loser”. The Spurs would lose in six games, in a series Rodman said they “could have and SHOULD have” won.\n\nRodman admitted his frequent transgressions, but asserted that he lived his own life and thus a more honest life than most other people:\n\n> I just took the chance to be my own man ... I just said: \"If you don't like it, kiss my ass.\" ... Most people around the country, or around the world, are basically working people who want to be free, who want to be themselves. They look at me and see someone trying to do that ... I'm the guy who's showing people, hey, it's all right to be different. And I think they feel: \"Let's go and see this guy entertain us.\"\n\n### Chicago Bulls (1995–1999)\n\n#### Third championship (1995–1996)\n\nPrior to the 1995–96 season, Rodman was traded to the Chicago Bulls of perennial scoring champion Michael Jordan for center Will Perdue to fill a large void at power forward left by Horace Grant, who left the Bulls prior to the 1994–95 season. Given Rodman could not use the 10 jersey as the Bulls had retired it for Bob Love, and the NBA denied him the reversion 01, Rodman instead picked the number 91, whose digits add up to 10. Although the trade for the already 34-year-old and volatile Rodman was considered a gamble at that time, the power forward quickly adapted to his new environment, helped by the fact that his best friend Jack Haley was also traded to the Bulls. Under coach Phil Jackson, he averaged 5.5 points and 14.9 rebounds per game, winning yet another rebounding title, and was part of the great Bulls team that won 72 of 82 regular season games, an NBA record at the time. About playing next to the iconic Jordan and co-star Scottie Pippen, Rodman said:\n\n> On the court, me and Michael are pretty calm and we can handle conversation. But as far as our lives go, I think he is moving in one direction and I'm going in the other. I mean, he's goin' north, I'm goin' south. And then you've got Scottie Pippen right in the middle. He's sort of the equator.\n\nAlthough struggling with calf problems early in the season, Rodman grabbed 20 or more rebounds 11 times and had his first triple-double against the Philadelphia 76ers on January 16, 1996 scoring 10 points and adding 21 rebounds and 10 assists; by playing his trademark tough defense, he joined Jordan and Pippen in the All-NBA Defense First Team. Ever controversial, Rodman made negative headlines after a head butt of referee Ted Bernhardt during a game in New Jersey on March 16, 1996; he was suspended for six games and fined \\$20,000, a punishment that was criticized as too lenient by the local press.\n\nIn the 1996 playoffs, Rodman scored 7.5 points and grabbed 13.7 rebounds per game and had a large part in the six-game victory against the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1996 NBA Finals: in Game Two at home in the Bulls' United Center, he grabbed 20 rebounds, among them a record-tying 11 offensive boards, and in Game Six, again at the United Center, the power forward secured 19 rebounds and again 11 offensive boards, scored five points in a decisive 12–2 Bulls run, unnerved opposing power forward Shawn Kemp and caused Seattle coach George Karl to say: \"As you evaluate the series, Dennis Rodman won two basketball games. We controlled Dennis Rodman for four games. But Game 2 and tonight, he was the reason they were successful.\" His two games with 11 offensive rebounds each tied the NBA Finals record of Elvin Hayes.\n\n#### Suspensions and fourth championship (1996–1997)\n\nIn the 1996–97 season, Rodman won his sixth rebounding title in a row with 16.7 boards per game, along with 5.7 points per game, but failed to rank another All-Defensive Team call-up. However, he made more headlines for his notorious behavior. On January 15, 1997, he was involved in an incident during a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. After tripping over cameraman Eugene Amos, Rodman kicked Amos in the groin. Though he was not assessed a technical foul at the time, he ultimately paid Amos a \\$200,000 settlement, and the league suspended Rodman for 11 games without pay. Thus, he effectively lost \\$1 million. Missing another three games to suspensions, often getting technical fouls early in games and missing an additional 13 matches due to knee problems, Rodman was not as effective in the 1997 playoffs, in which the Bulls reached the 1997 NBA Finals against the Utah Jazz. He struggled to slow down Jazz power forward Karl Malone, but did his share to complete the six-game Bulls victory.\n\n#### Fifth ring and Finals controversy (1997–1999)\n\nThe regular season of the 1997–98 season ended with Rodman winning his seventh consecutive rebounding title with 15.0 boards per game, along with 4.7 points per game. He grabbed 20 or more rebounds 11 times, among them a 29-board outburst against the Atlanta Hawks and 15 offensive boards (along with ten defensive) versus the Los Angeles Clippers. Led by the aging Jordan and Rodman (respectively 35 and 37 years old), the Bulls reached the 1998 NBA Finals, again versus the Jazz. After playing strong defense on Malone in the first three games, he caused major consternation when he left his team prior to Game Four to go wrestling with Hulk Hogan. He was fined \\$20,000, but it was not even ten percent of what he earned with this stint. However, Rodman's on-court performance remained top-notch, again shutting down Malone in Game Four until the latter scored 39 points in a Jazz Game Five win, bringing the series to 3–2 from the Bulls perspective. In Game Six, Jordan hit the decisive basket after a memorable drive on Jazz forward Bryon Russell, the Bulls won their third title in a row and Rodman his fifth ring.\n\nRodman garnered as much publicity for his public antics. He dated Madonna and claimed she tried to conceive a child with him. Shortly after, Rodman famously wore a wedding dress to promote his autobiography Bad As I Wanna Be, claiming that he was bisexual and that he was marrying himself.\n\nAfter the 1997–98 season, the Bulls started a massive rebuilding phase, largely at the behest of then-general manager Jerry Krause. Head coach Phil Jackson and several members of the team left via free agency or retirement, including Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, Steve Kerr, and Jud Buechler. Rodman was released by the Bulls on January 21, 1999, before the start of the lockout-shortened 1998–99 season.\n\n### Los Angeles Lakers (1999)\n\nWith his sister acting as his agent at the time, Rodman joined the Los Angeles Lakers, for a pro-rated salary for the remainder of the 1998–1999 season. With the Lakers he played in only 23 games, in which he started in 11 of them and averaged 2 points and 11 rebounds per game, and was released in the offseason.\n\n### Dallas Mavericks (2000)\n\nIn the 1999–2000 season, the then-38-year-old power forward Rodman was signed by the Dallas Mavericks, returning Rodman to his hometown. Dallas had won 10 of 13 before his arrival, but went just 4–9 until he was waived by the Mavericks. He played 12 games, received six technical fouls, was ejected twice, and served a one-game suspension. While averaging 14.3 rebounds per game, above his career average of 13.1, Rodman alienated the franchise with his erratic behavior and did not provide leadership to a team trying to qualify for their first playoffs in 10 years. Dallas guard Steve Nash commented that Rodman \"never wanted to be [a Maverick]\" and therefore was unmotivated.\n\n### Long Beach Jam (2003–2004)\n\nAfter his NBA career, Rodman took a long break from basketball and concentrated on his film career and on wrestling.\n\nAfter a longer hiatus, Rodman returned to play basketball for the Long Beach Jam of the newly formed American Basketball Association during the 2003–04 season, with hopes of being called up to the NBA midseason. While he did not get that wish that season, he did help the Jam win the ABA championship in their inaugural season.\n\n### Fuerza Regia (2004)\n\nRodman also played in Mexico, with Fuerza Regia in 2004.\n\n### Orange County Crush (2004–2005)\n\nIn the following 2004–05 season, Rodman signed with the ABA's Orange County Crush\n\n### Tijuana Dragons (2005–2006)\n\nRodman played the following season with the ABA's Tijuana Dragons. In November 2005, he played one match for Torpan Pojat of Finland's basketball league, Korisliiga.\n\n### Brighton Bears (2006)\n\nThe return to the NBA never materialized, but on January 26, 2006, it was announced that Rodman had signed a one-game \"experiment\" deal for the UK basketball team Brighton Bears of the British Basketball League to play Guildford Heat on January 28 and went on to play three games for the Bears. In spring 2006, he played two exhibition games in the Philippines along with NBA ex-stars Darryl Dawkins, Kevin Willis, Calvin Murphy, Otis Birdsong and Alex English. On April 27, they defeated a team of former Philippine Basketball Association stars in Mandaue City, Cebu and Rodman scored five points and grabbed 18 rebounds. On May 1, 2006, Rodman's team played their second game and lost to the Philippine national basketball team 110–102 at the Araneta Coliseum, where he scored three points and recorded 16 rebounds.\n\nOn April 4, 2011, it was announced that Rodman would be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.\n\n## NBA career statistics\n\n### Regular season\n\n\\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1986–87 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 77 \\|\\| 1 \\|\\| 15.0 \\|\\| .545 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .587 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 6.5 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1987–88 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 82 \\|\\| 32 \\|\\| 26.2 \\|\\| .561 \\|\\| .294 \\|\\| .535 \\|\\| 8.7 \\|\\| 1.3 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 11.6 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1988–89† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|82\\* \\|\\| 8 \\|\\| 26.9 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|.595\\* \\|\\| .231 \\|\\| .626 \\|\\| 9.4 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| 9.0 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1989–90† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|82\\* \\|\\| 43 \\|\\| 29.0 \\|\\| .581 \\|\\| .111 \\|\\| .654 \\|\\| 9.7 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 8.8 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1990–91 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|82\\* \\|\\| 77 \\|\\| 33.5 \\|\\| .493 \\|\\| .200 \\|\\| .631 \\|\\| 12.5 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 8.2 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1991–92 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 82 \\|\\| 80 \\|\\| 40.3 \\|\\| .539 \\|\\| .317 \\|\\| .600 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|18.7\\* \\|\\| 2.3 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| 9.8 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1992–93 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 62 \\|\\| 55 \\|\\| 38.9 \\|\\| .427 \\|\\| .205 \\|\\| .534 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|18.3\\* \\|\\| 1.6 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 7.5 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1993–94 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|San Antonio \\| 79 \\|\\| 51 \\|\\| 37.8 \\|\\| .534 \\|\\| .208 \\|\\| .520 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|17.3\\* \\|\\| 2.3 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 4.7 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1994–95 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|San Antonio \\| 49 \\|\\| 26 \\|\\| 32.0 \\|\\| .571 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .676 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|16.8\\* \\|\\| 2.0 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 7.1 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1995–96† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Chicago \\| 64 \\|\\| 57 \\|\\| 32.6 \\|\\| .480 \\|\\| .111 \\|\\| .528 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|14.9\\* \\|\\| 2.5 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 5.5 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1996–97† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Chicago \\| 55 \\|\\| 54 \\|\\| 35.4 \\|\\| .448 \\|\\| .263 \\|\\| .568 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|16.1\\* \\|\\| 3.1 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .3 \\|\\| 5.7 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1997–98† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Chicago \\| 80 \\|\\| 66 \\|\\| 35.7 \\|\\| .431 \\|\\| .174 \\|\\| .550 \\|\\| style=\"background:#cfecec;\"\\|15.0\\* \\|\\| 2.9 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 4.7 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1998–99 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|L.A. Lakers \\| 23 \\|\\| 11 \\|\\| 28.6 \\|\\| .348 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .436 \\|\\| 11.2 \\|\\| 1.3 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 2.1 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1999–00 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Dallas \\| 12 \\|\\| 12 \\|\\| 32.4 \\|\\| .387 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .714 \\|\\| 14.3 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 2.8 \\|- class=\"sortbottom\" \\| style=\"text-align:center;\" colspan=\"2\"\\|Career \\| 911 \\|\\| 573 \\|\\| 31.7 \\|\\| .521 \\|\\| .231 \\|\\| .584 \\|\\| 13.1 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 7.3 \\|- class=\"sortbottom\" \\| style=\"text-align:center;\" colspan=\"2\"\\|All-Star \\| 2 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 18.0 \\|\\| .364 \\|\\| — \\|\\| — \\|\\| 8.5 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| 4.0\n\n### Playoffs\n\n\\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1987 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 15 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 16.3 \\|\\| .541 \\|\\| \\|\\| .563 \\|\\| 4.7 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| 6.5 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1988 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 23 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 20.6 \\|\\| .522 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .407 \\|\\| 5.9 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 7.1 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1989† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 17 \\|\\| 0 \\|\\| 24.1 \\|\\| .529 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .686 \\|\\| 10.0 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 5.8 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1990† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 19 \\|\\| 17 \\|\\| 29.5 \\|\\| .568 \\|\\| \\|\\| .514 \\|\\| 8.5 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 6.6 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1991 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 15 \\|\\| 14 \\|\\| 33.0 \\|\\| .451 \\|\\| .222 \\|\\| .417 \\|\\| 11.8 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 6.3 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1992 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Detroit \\| 5 \\|\\| 5 \\|\\| 31.2 \\|\\| .593 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .500 \\|\\| 10.2 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 7.2 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1994 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|San Antonio \\| 3 \\|\\| 3 \\|\\| 38.0 \\|\\| .500 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .167 \\|\\| 16.0 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| 2.0 \\|\\| 1.3 \\|\\| 8.3 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|1995 \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|San Antonio \\| 14 \\|\\| 12 \\|\\| 32.8 \\|\\| .542 \\|\\| .000 \\|\\| .571 \\|\\| 14.8 \\|\\| 1.3 \\|\\| .9 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 8.9 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1996† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Chicago \\| 18 \\|\\| 15 \\|\\| 34.4 \\|\\| .485 \\|\\| \\|\\| .593 \\|\\| 13.7 \\|\\| 2.1 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .4 \\|\\| 7.5 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1997† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Chicago \\| 19 \\|\\| 14 \\|\\| 28.2 \\|\\| .370 \\|\\| .250 \\|\\| .577 \\|\\| 8.4 \\|\\| 1.4 \\|\\| .5 \\|\\| .2 \\|\\| 4.2 \\|- \\| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"\\|1998† \\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\\|Chicago \\| 21 \\|\\| 9 \\|\\| 34.4 \\|\\| .371 \\|\\| .250 \\|\\| .605 \\|\\| 11.8 \\|\\| 2.0 \\|\\| .7 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 4.9 \\|- class=\"sortbottom\" \\| style=\"text-align:center;\" colspan=\"2\"\\|Career \\| 169 \\|\\| 89 \\|\\| 28.3 \\|\\| .490 \\|\\| .149 \\|\\| .540 \\|\\| 9.9 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| .6 \\|\\| 6.4\n\n## Awards, records, and achievements\n\n## Legacy in basketball\n\nFrom the beginning of his career, Rodman was known for his defensive hustle, which was later accompanied by his rebounding prowess. In Detroit, he was mainly played as a small forward, and his usual assignment was to neutralize the opponent's best player; Rodman was so versatile that he could guard centers, forwards, or guards equally well and won two NBA Defensive Player of the Year Awards. From 1991 on, he established himself as one of the best rebounders of all time, averaging at least 15 rebounds per game in six of the next seven years. Playing power forward as member of the Spurs and the Bulls, he had a historical outburst in the 1996 NBA Finals: he twice snared 11 offensive rebounds, equalling an all-time NBA record. In addition, he had a career-high 34-rebound game on March 4, 1992. Rodman's rebounding prowess with Detroit and San Antonio was also aided by his decreased attention to defensive positioning and helping teammates on defense. Daly said Rodman was selfish about rebounding, but deemed him a hard worker and coachable. Rodman's defensive intensity returned while with Chicago.\n\nOn offense, Rodman's output was mediocre. He averaged 11.6 points per game in his second season, but his average steadily dropped: in the three championship seasons with the Bulls, he averaged five points per game and connected on less than half of his field goal attempts. His free throw shooting (lifetime average: .584) was considered a big liability: on December 29, 1997, Bubba Wells of the Dallas Mavericks committed six intentional fouls against him in only three minutes, setting the record for the fastest foul out in NBA history. The intention was to force him to attempt free throws, which in theory would mean frequent misses and easy ball possession without giving up too many points. However, this plan backfired, as Rodman hit 9 of the 12 attempts. This was Dallas coach Don Nelson's early version of what would later develop into the famous \"Hack-a-Shaq\" method that would be implemented against Shaquille O'Neal, Dwight Howard, and other poor free throw shooters.\n\nIn 14 NBA seasons, Rodman played in 911 games, scored 6,683 points, and grabbed 11,954 rebounds, translating to 7.3 points and 13.1 rebounds per game in only 31.7 minutes played per game. NBA.com lauds Rodman as \"arguably the best rebounding forward in NBA history and one of the most recognized athletes in the world\" but adds \"enigmatic and individualistic, Rodman has caught the public eye for his ever-changing hair color, tattoos and, unorthodox lifestyle\". On the hardwood, he was recognized as one of the most successful defensive players ever, winning the NBA championship five times in six NBA Finals appearances (1989, 1990, 1996–1998; only loss 1988), being crowned NBA Defensive Player of the Year twice (1990–1991) and making seven NBA All-Defensive First Teams (1989–1993, 1995–1996) and NBA All-Defensive Second Teams (1994). He additionally made two All-NBA Third Teams (1992, 1995), two NBA All-Star Teams (1990, 1992) and won seven straight rebounding crowns (1992–1998) and finally led the league once in field goal percentage (1989).\n\nRodman was recognized as the prototype bizarre player, stunning basketball fans with his artificial hair colors, numerous tattoos and body piercings, multiple verbal and physical assaults on officials, frequent ejections, and his tumultuous private life. He was ranked No. 48 on the 2009 revision of SLAM Magazine's Top 50 Players of All-Time. In 2021, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Rodman as the 62nd greatest player in NBA history. Metta World Peace played one year with the 91 jersey number in homage to Rodman, who he described as a player who he liked \"on the court as a hustler, not when he kicked the cameraman.\"\n\n## Professional wrestling career\n\n### World Championship Wrestling (1997–1999)\n\nRodman took up his hobby of professional wrestling seriously and appeared on the edition of March 10 of Monday Nitro with his friend Hollywood Hulk Hogan in World Championship Wrestling (WCW). At the March 1997 Uncensored event, he appeared as a member of the nWo. His first match was at the July 1997 Bash at the Beach event, where he teamed with Hogan in a loss to Lex Luger and The Giant. At the August 1997 Road Wild event, Rodman appeared as the Impostor Sting hitting Luger with a baseball bat to help Hogan win the WCW World Heavyweight Championship.\n\nAfter the 1997–98 season, where Rodman and the Chicago Bulls defeated Karl Malone and the Utah Jazz in the 1998 NBA Finals, Rodman and Malone squared off again, this time in a tag team match at the July 1998 Bash at the Beach event. He fought alongside Hulk Hogan, and Malone tagged along with Diamond Dallas Page. In a poorly received match, the two power forwards exchanged \"rudimentary headlocks, slams and clotheslines\" for 23 minutes. Rodman bested Malone again as he and Hogan picked up the win.\n\nRodman returned to WCW in 1999 and feuded with Randy Savage. This culminated in a match at Road Wild which Rodman lost.\n\n### i-Generation Superstars of Wrestling and retirement (2000)\n\nOn July 30, 2000, Rodman competed on the i-Generation Superstars of Wrestling pay-per-view event. He fought against i-Generation champion Curt Hennig in an Australian Outback match; Hennig won the match by disqualification. Following the match, Rodman refrained from wrestling at the top level and retired.\n\n### Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling (2008)\n\nRodman came out of retirement to appear as a contestant on Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling, broadcast on CMT. Rodman was the winner of the series, defeating other challengers such as Butterbean and Dustin Diamond.\n\n### Championships and accomplishments\n\n- Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling\n  - Celebrity Championship Wrestling Tournament Champion\n\n## Media appearances\n\nIn 1995, Rodman appeared as himself in an episode of the CBS situation comedy Double Rush.\n\nIn 1996, Rodman had his own MTV reality talk show called The Rodman World Tour, which featured him in a series of odd-ball situations. That same year, Rodman had two appearances in releases by rock band Pearl Jam. A Polaroid picture of Rodman's eyeball is on the cover of the album No Code, and \"Black, Red, Yellow\", B-side of its lead single \"Hail, Hail\", was written about Rodman and has him contribute a voice message.\n\nA year later, he made his feature film debut in the action film Double Team alongside Jean-Claude Van Damme and Mickey Rourke. The film was critically panned and his performance earned him three Golden Raspberry Awards: Worst New Star, Worst Supporting Actor and Worst Screen Couple (shared with Van Damme). Rodman starred in Simon Sez, a 1999 action/comedy and co-starred with Tom Berenger in a 2000 action film about skydiving titled Cutaway. In 1998, he joined the cast of the syndicated TV show Special Ops Force, playing 'Deke' Reynolds, a flamboyant but skilled ex-Army helo pilot and demolitions expert.\n\nIn 2005, Rodman became the first man to pose naked for PETA's advertisement campaign \"Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur\". That same year, Rodman traveled to Finland, at first, he was present at Sonkajärvi in July in a wife-carrying contest. However, he resigned from the contest due to health problems. Also in 2005, Rodman published his second autobiography, I Should Be Dead By Now; he promoted the book by sitting in a coffin.\n\nRodman became Commissioner of the Lingerie Football League in 2005.\n\nSince his initial entry into acting, he has appeared in few acting roles outside of playing himself. Rodman has made an appearance in an episode of 3rd Rock from the Sun playing the character of himself, except being a fellow alien with the Solomon family. He voiced an animated version of himself in the Simpsons episode \"Treehouse of Horror XVI\".\n\nRodman has also appeared in several reality shows: in January 2006, Rodman appeared on the fourth version of Celebrity Big Brother in the UK, and on July 26, 2006, in the UK series Love Island as a houseguest contracted to stay for a week. Finally, he appeared on the show Celebrity Mole on ABC. He wound up winning the \\$222,000 grand prize.\n\nIn 2008, Rodman joined as a spokesman for a sports website OPENSports.com, the brainchild of Mike Levy, founder and former CEO of CBS Sportsline.com. Rodman also writes a blog and occasionally answers members' questions for OPEN Sports.\n\nIn 2009, he appeared as a contestant on Celebrity Apprentice. Throughout the season, each celebrity raised money for a charity of their choice; Rodman selected the Court Appointed Special Advocates of New Orleans. He was the fifth contestant eliminated, on March 29, 2009.\n\nIn 2013, he appeared again as a contestant on Celebrity Apprentice. He raised \\$20,000 for the Make-A-Wish Foundation and was the sixth contestant eliminated, on April 7, 2013.\n\nIn March 2013, Rodman arrived at the Vatican City during voting in the papal conclave for the selection of a new pope. The trip was organized by an Irish gambling company.\n\nIn July 2013, Rodman joined Premier Brands to launch and promote Bad Boy Vodka.\n\nRodman's visits to North Korea were depicted in the 2015 documentary film Dennis Rodman's Big Bang in Pyongyang.\n\nIn 2017, Rodman was featured on the alternative R&B/hip-hop duo Mansionz's self-titled album Mansionz. He provides vocals on the single \"Dennis Rodman\" and uncredited vocals on \"I'm Thinking About Horses\". In 2020, Rodman again featured on a track named after him, on rapper ASAP Ferg's Floor Sears II mixtape.\n\n## Personal life\n\n### Family\n\nRodman married his first wife Annie Bakes in September 1992. They began dating in 1987, and had a daughter, Alexis Caitlyn. Their relationship was marred by infidelities and accusations of abuse. They divorced after 82 days.\n\nOn November 14, 1998, Rodman married model Carmen Electra at the Little Chapel of the Flowers in Las Vegas, Nevada. Nine days later, Rodman filed for an annulment claiming he was of \"unsound mind\" when they married. They reconciled, but Electra filed for divorce in April 1999. She later stated that it was an \"occupational hazard\" to be \"Rodman's girlfriend\".\n\nIn 1999, Rodman met Michelle Moyer, with whom he had a son, Dennis Jr. (\"DJ\", b. April 25, 2001) and a daughter, Trinity (b. May 20, 2002). Moyer and Rodman married in 2003 on his 42nd birthday. Michelle Rodman filed for divorce in 2004, although the couple spent several years attempting to reconcile. The marriage was officially dissolved in 2012, when Michelle again petitioned the court to grant a divorce. It was reported that Rodman owed \\$860,376 in child and spousal support.\n\nRodman's son DJ started playing college basketball for Washington State in 2019. His daughter Trinity is a professional soccer player for the Washington Spirit, and the United States national team.\n\nOn July 14, 2020, Rodman's father Philander died of prostate cancer in Angeles City, Philippines, at age 79. Dennis had previously reconciled with his father in 2012 when he made a trip to the Philippines after years of being estranged.\n\n### Alcohol issues\n\nRodman entered an outpatient rehab center in Florida in May 2008. In May 2009, his behavior on Celebrity Apprentice led to an intervention which included Phil Jackson as well as Rodman's family and other friends. Rodman initially refused to enter rehabilitation because he wanted to attend the Celebrity Apprentice reunion show. In 2009, Rodman agreed to appear on the third season of Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew. Rodman remained a patient at the Pasadena Recovery Center for the 21-day treatment cycle. A week after completion he entered a sober-living facility in the Hollywood Hills, which was filmed for the second season of Sober House. During episode seven of Sober House, Rodman was shown being reunited with his mother Shirley, from whom he had been estranged for seven years. During this same visit Shirley also met Rodman's two children for the first time. On January 10, 2010, on the same day that Celebrity Rehab premiered, Rodman was removed from an Orange County (California) restaurant for disruptive behavior. In March 2012, Rodman's financial advisor said, \"In all honesty, Dennis, although a very sweet person, is an alcoholic. His sickness impacts his ability to get work.\"\n\nOn January 15, 2014, Rodman again entered a rehabilitation facility to seek treatment for alcohol abuse. This came on the heels of a well-publicized trip to North Korea where his agent, Darren Prince, reported he had been drinking heavily and to an extent \"that none of us had seen before.\"\n\n### Legal troubles\n\nRodman has settled several lawsuits out of court for alleged sexual assault.\n\nIn August 1999, Rodman was arrested for public drunkenness and spent the night in jail after he got into an altercation at Woody's Wharf in Newport Beach, California. The charges were eventually dropped.\n\nOn November 5, 1999, Rodman and his then-wife, Carmen Electra, were charged with misdemeanor battery after police were notified of a domestic disturbance. Each posted bail worth \\$2,500 and were released with a temporary restraining order placed on them. The charges were dropped the next month.\n\nIn December 1999, Rodman was arrested for drunk driving and driving without a valid driver's license. In July 2000, Rodman pleaded guilty to both charges and was ordered to pay \\$2,000 in fines as well as attend a three-month treatment program.\n\nIn 2002, he was arrested for interfering with police investigating a code violation at a restaurant he owned; the charges were eventually dropped. After settling down in Newport Beach, California, the police appeared over 70 times at his home because of loud parties. In early 2003, Rodman was arrested and charged with domestic violence at his home in Newport Beach for allegedly assaulting his then-fiancée.\n\nIn April 2004, Rodman pleaded nolo contendere (no contest) to drunk driving in Las Vegas. He was fined \\$1,000 and ordered to serve 30 days of home detention. On April 30, 2008, Rodman was arrested following a domestic violence incident at a Los Angeles hotel. On June 24, 2008, he again pleaded no contest to the misdemeanor spousal battery charges. He received three years of probation and was ordered to undergo one year of domestic violence counseling as well as 45 hours of community service, which were to involve some physical labor activities.\n\nOn November 21, 2016, Rodman was charged with causing a hit and run accident, lying to police, and driving without a license following an incident on Interstate 5 near Santa Ana, California, in July. In February 2017, Rodman pleaded guilty to the charges. He was sentenced to three years of probation and 30 hours of community service. He was also ordered to pay restitution and donate \\$500 to the Victim Witness Emergency Fund.\n\nIn January 2018, Rodman was arrested for driving under the influence in Newport Beach. He pleaded guilty to two misdemeanor charges and received three years of probation.\n\nIn May 2019, the Los Angeles Times reported that Newport Beach yoga studio owner Ali Shah accused Rodman of helping steal over \\$3,500 worth of items from the studio's reception area, including a 400 lb (180 kg) decorative geode. Rodman disputed the account, claiming the owner told him \"Dennis, get anything you want.\" No charges had been filed at the time of reporting.\n\nOn October 18, 2019, Rodman was charged with misdemeanor battery after slapping a man at the Buddha Sky Bar in Delray Beach, Florida.\n\nRodman was one of the victims of professional scam artist/fraudster Peggy Ann Fulford (Peggy King, Peggy Williams, Peggy Ann Barard, etc.), losing \\$1.24 million, amongst the \\$5.79 million in total she stole from him, Ricky Williams, Travis Best, Rashad McCants, Lex Hilliard and others. Fulford's crimes included stealing funds Rodman believed were being distributed as child-support payments he owed to his first wife, contributing to an unsuspecting Rodman – in 2012 – being left trying to explain the missed payments in an Orange County, California, court; the issue was clarified when Fulford was indicted by the FBI in 2016. She continued her criminal activity until sentenced, in February 2018, to 10 years in prison and full financial restitution (unlikely) to her victims.\n\n### Politics\n\nOn July 24, 2015, Rodman publicly endorsed Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign. That same month, Rodman sent out an endorsement tweet, stating, \"Donald Trump has been a great friend for many years. We don't need another politician, we need a businessman like Mr. Trump! Trump 2016.\" Rodman and then US Presidential hopeful Trump had previously appeared together on Celebrity Apprentice.\n\nIn 2020, Rodman endorsed and campaigned for the presidential campaign of rapper Kanye West.\n\n### North Korea visits\n\nOn February 26, 2013, Rodman made a trip to North Korea with Vice Media correspondent Ryan Duffy to host basketball exhibitions. He met North Korean leader Kim Jong Un. Rodman and his travel party were the first Americans to meet Kim. He later said that Kim was \"a friend for life\" and suggested that President Barack Obama \"pick up the phone and call\" Kim, since the two leaders were basketball fans. On May 7, after reading an article in The Seattle Times, Rodman sent out a tweet asking Kim to release American prisoner Kenneth Bae, who had been sentenced to 15 years of hard labor in North Korea. Kim released Bae the following year.\n\nIn July 2013, Rodman told Sports Illustrated: \"My mission is to break the ice between hostile countries. Why it's been left to me to smooth things over, I don't know. Dennis Rodman, of all people. Keeping us safe is really not my job; it's the black guy's [Obama's] job. But I'll tell you this: If I don't finish in the top three for the next Nobel Peace Prize, something's seriously wrong.\" On September 3, 2013, Rodman flew to Pyongyang for another meeting with Kim Jong Un. He said that Kim has a daughter named Kim Ju-ae, and that he is a \"great dad\". He also noted that he planned to train the North Korean national basketball team. He stated that he is \"trying to open Obama's and everyone's minds\" and encouraged Obama to reach out to Kim Jong Un.\n\nIn December 2013, Rodman announced that he would visit North Korea again. He also said that he has plans to take a number of former NBA players with him for an exhibition basketball tour. According to Rory Scott, a spokesman for the exhibitions' sponsoring organization, Rodman planned to visit December 18–21 and train the North Korean team in preparation for January games. The games were scheduled for January 8 (Kim Jong Un's birthday) and January 10, 2014. Included on the U.S. exhibition team were Kenny Anderson, Clifford Robinson, Vin Baker, Craig Hodges, Doug Christie, Sleepy Floyd, Charles D. Smith, and four streetballers. Rodman departed from Beijing on January 6. Among his entourage was Irish media personality Matt Cooper, who had interviewed Rodman a number of times on the radio.\n\nRodman made comments on January 7, 2014 during a CNN interview implying that Kenneth Bae was at fault for his imprisonment. The remarks were widely reported in other media outlets and provoked a storm of criticism. Two days later, Rodman apologized for his comments, saying that he had been drinking and under pressure. He added that he \"should know better than to make political statements\". Some members of Congress, the NBA, and human rights groups suggested that Rodman had become a public relations stunt for the North Korean government. On May 2, 2016, Kenneth Bae credited Rodman with his early release. He said that Rodman's rant raised awareness of his case and that he wanted to thank him for his expedited release.\n\nOn June 13, 2017, Rodman returned to North Korea on what was initially described as a sports-related visit to the country. \"My purpose is to go over there and try to see if I can keep bringing sports to North Korea,\" he said. He added that he hoped to accomplish \"something that's pretty positive\" during the visit. He met with national Olympic athletes and basketball players, viewed a men's basketball practice, and visited a state-run orphanage. He was not able to meet with Kim Jong Un, but met instead with the nation's Minister of Sports and gave him several gifts for Kim, including two signed basketball jerseys, two soap sets, and a copy of Donald Trump's 1987 book The Art of the Deal. Other gifts believed to be intended for the leader's daughter included a Where's Waldo? book and a jigsaw puzzle of a mermaid.\n\nRodman posted a video on Twitter that was recorded before he left for the visit in which he and his agent describe the mission of the trip. \"He's going to try to bring peace between both nations,\" said Rodman's agent Chris Volo, referring to the strained relations between North Korea and the United States. Rodman added, \"That's the main reason why we're going. We're trying to bring everything together. If not, at least we tried.\" The visit was sponsored by the cryptocurrency company PotCoin.\n\nRodman's \"hoops diplomacy\" inspired the 20th Century Fox comedy Diplomats. Tim Story and Peter Chernin are set to produce the film, while Jonathan Abrams is reportedly writing the script.\n\nRodman visited North Korea again in June 2018. \"I'm just happy to be a part of\" the 2018 North Korea–United States summit, he said, \"because I think I deserve it.\"\n\nThere has been speculation that Rodman might be an intelligence officer working for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) on North Korea, with the CIA neither confirming nor denying the speculation.\n\n#### Presidential involvement suggested\n\nThe Washington Post raised the question of whether President Donald Trump sent Rodman on his 2017 visit to negotiate the release of several American prisoners of North Korea or to open a back channel for diplomatic communications. The U.S. State Department, White House officials, and Rodman all denied any official government involvement in the visit. Rodman, who publicly endorsed Trump during the 2016 presidential campaign, is a self-described longtime friend of the president and, as the article put it, \"Trump and Kim's only mutual acquaintance.\" The Washington Post article stated, \"Multiple people involved in unofficial talks with North Korea say that the Trump administration has been making overtures toward the Kim regime, including trying to set up a secret back channel to the North Korean leader using 'an associate of Trump's' rather than the usual lineup of North Korea experts and former officials who talk to Pyongyang's representatives.\"\n\nWhen asked if he had spoken with Trump about the visit, Rodman replied, \"Well, I'm pretty sure he's pretty much happy with the fact that I'm over here trying to accomplish something that we both need.\" Rodman publicly presented a copy of Trump's book, \"The Art of the Deal\" to North Korean officials, as a personal gift for Kim Jong Un. In a Twitter video posted by Rodman, his agent Chris Volo said, \"He's the only person on the planet that has the uniqueness, the unbelievable privilege of being friends with President Trump and Marshal Kim Jong Un.\" Rodman went on to say in the video that he wanted to bring peace and \"open doors between both countries.\"\n\nOtto Warmbier, an American student held captive in North Korea for 17 months, was released to U.S. officials the same day as Rodman's visit to North Korea. Despite the timeline of the two events, the U.S. State Department, The White House, and Rodman all flatly denied any diplomatic connection or coordination between Rodman's visit and the U.S. government. The U.S. State Department said the release of Warmbier was negotiated and secured by high level U.S. diplomats including Joseph Yun, the State Department's special envoy on North Korea. Warmbier, who was in a nonresponsive coma throughout much of his imprisonment in North Korea, died days after being returned to his family in the U.S.\n\nIn an emotional interview with Michael Strahan of Good Morning America, Rodman expressed sorrow for the death of Warmbier and said, \"I was just so happy to see the kid released. Later that day, that's when we found out he was ill. No one knew that.\" He added that he wished to give \"all the prayer and love\" to the Warmbier family and had contacted them and hoped to meet with them personally.\n\nRodman's agent, Chris Volo, told ABC News that before they left for the 2017 trip, he had asked North Korean officials to release Warmbier as a symbol of good faith for any future sports-relations visits. \"I asked on behalf of Dennis for his release three times,\" Volo said.\n\nIn December 2017, Columbia University professor of neurobiology Joseph Terwilliger, who has accompanied Rodman to North Korea, argued that \"While I don't suspect that very many Americans would have chosen him to be an emissary or international goodwill ambassador, Dennis has had a long friendship with Mr. Trump and has also developed a very cordial friendship with Mr. Kim. In this tense climate, as we stand at a perilous crossing, Mr. Rodman's unique position as a friend to the leaders of both U.S. and North Korea could provide a much-needed bridge to help resolve the current nuclear standoff.\n\n## Works\n\n### Books\n\n\n### Films\n\n- Eddie (1996) as Himself (cameo)\n- Double Team (1997) as Yaz\n- Simon Sez (1999) as Simon\n- The Comebacks (2007) as Warden (cameo)\n- Rodman: For Better or Worse (2019) as Himself\n\n## See also\n\n- List of career achievements by Dennis Rodman\n- List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders\n- List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders\n- List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders\n- List of National Basketball Association single-game rebounding leaders", "revid": "1173104568", "description": "American basketball player (born 1961)", "categories": ["1961 births", "20th-century American male actors", "21st-century American male actors", "Actors from Trenton, New Jersey", "African-American basketball players", "African-American male actors", "African-American male professional wrestlers", "African-American television personalities", "American expatriate basketball people in Finland", "American expatriate basketball people in Mexico", "American expatriate basketball people in the United Kingdom", "American male film actors", "American male professional wrestlers", "American men's basketball players", "American people convicted of assault", "American sportspeople convicted of crimes", "Basketball players from Dallas", "Basketball players from Trenton, New Jersey", "Brighton Bears players", "British Basketball League players", "Chicago Bulls players", "Dallas Mavericks players", "Detroit Pistons draft picks", "Detroit Pistons players", "Fuerza Regia de Monterrey players", "Living people", "Long Beach Jam players", "Los Angeles Lakers players", "Male actors from Dallas", "Male actors from New Jersey", "NCTC Lions men's basketball players", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees", "National Basketball Association All-Stars", "National Basketball Association players with retired numbers", "New World Order (professional wrestling) members", "North Korea–United States relations", "Participants in American reality television series", "People convicted of battery", "People convicted of domestic violence", "Power forwards (basketball)", "Professional wrestlers from New Jersey", "Professional wrestlers from Texas", "San Antonio Spurs players", "Small forwards", "Southeastern Oklahoma State Savage Storm men's basketball players", "Television personalities from New Jersey", "The Apprentice (franchise) contestants", "Tijuana Dragons players", "Torpan Pojat players"]}
{"id": "11370", "url": null, "title": "FIFA World Cup", "text": "The FIFA World Cup, often simply called the World Cup, is an international association football competition between the senior men's national teams of the members of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to the Second World War. The reigning champions are Argentina, who won their third title at the 2022 tournament.\n\nThe contest starts with the qualification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The next FIFA World Cup is scheduled to expand to 48 teams for the 2026 tournament.\n\nAs of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. The trophy has been won by eight national teams. Brazil, with five wins, are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina, with three titles; France and inaugural winner Uruguay, each with two titles; and England and Spain, with one title each.\n\nThe World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world. The viewership of the 2018 World Cup was estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population, while the engagement with the 2022 World Cup was estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watching the final match.\n\nSeventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recently Qatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The 2026 tournament will be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups.\n\n## History\n\n### Previous international competitions\n\nThe world's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England. The first international tournament for nations, the inaugural British Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics; however, the International Olympic Committee has retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the 1906 Intercalated Games.\n\nAfter FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful.\n\nAt the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.\n\nWith the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title. Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the 1895 game between Sunderland A.F.C. and the Heart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won.\n\nIn 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event. This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by Belgium. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason why Uruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars.\n\n### World Cups before World War II\n\nDue to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship. With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.\n\nThe national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of the Great Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America.\n\nThe first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup. After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and the IOC disagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the 1932 Summer Olympics. After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup.\n\nThe issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 World Cup and all North and South American nations except Brazil and Cuba boycotted the 1938 tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II.\n\n### World Cups after World War II\n\nThe 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British football associations. Scotland, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland had withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football. The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation. The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese: Maracanaço).\n\nIn the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland, and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: United States, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938; North Korea, quarter-finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1970.\n\n### Expansion to 24 and 32 teams\n\nThe tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, and then to 32 in 1998, allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals: Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter-finalists in 1990; South Korea, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter-finalists in 2002; Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010; Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; and Morocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far.\n\nTwo hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.\n\n### Expansion to 48 teams\n\nIn October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup. In the edition of 25 October 2013 of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\" Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency.\n\nFollowing the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency, UEFA President Michel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA, two each to the Asian Football Confederation and the Confederation of African Football, two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation. Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \"[The World Cup is] not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\"\n\nIn October 2016, FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026. On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams.\n\n### 2015 FIFA corruption case\n\nBy May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games, with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than \\$150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December. By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016.\n\nOn 4 June 2015, Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups. On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter. The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\" On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media.\n\nOn 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May. An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day.\n\n### Biennial World Cup proposition\n\nA biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by the Saudi Arabian Football Federation at the 71st FIFA Congress on 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger and national federations in Africa and Asia. Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the plan but, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA.\n\n### Other FIFA tournaments\n\nAn equivalent tournament for women's football, the FIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in China. The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991.\n\nMen's football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players. Women's football made its Olympic debut in 1996.\n\nThe FIFA Confederations Cup was a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country. The first edition took place in 1992 and the last edition was played in 2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of the FIFA Club World Cup in 2021.\n\nFIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although a FIFA Women's Club World Cup has been proposed.\n\nThe FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup is held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010, 2014 and 2018).\n\n## Trophy\n\nFrom 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves.\n\nAfter 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18 carat (75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb).\n\nThe base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\"\n\nThis new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards.\n\nAll members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the 2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.\n\nSince 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear the FIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided.\n\n## Format\n\n### Qualification\n\nSince the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams.\n\nThe qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches.\n\n### Final tournament\n\nThe final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage.\n\nIn the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups. The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation.\n\nEach group plays a round-robin tournament in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).\n\nConsidering all possible outcomes (win, draw, loss) for all six matches in a group, there are 729 (= 3<sup>6</sup>) combinations possible. However, 207 of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by:\n\n1. Greatest combined goal difference in all group matches\n2. Greatest combined number of goals scored in all group matches\n3. If more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined as follows:\n    1.  Greatest number of points in head-to-head matches among those teams\n    2.  Greatest goal difference in head-to-head matches among those teams\n    3.  Greatest number of goals scored in head-to-head matches among those teams\n    4.  Fair play points, defined by the number of yellow and red cards received in the group stage:\n        1.  Yellow card: minus 1 point\n        2.  Indirect red card (as a result of a second yellow card): minus 3 points\n        3.  Direct red card: minus 4 points\n        4.  Yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points\n4. If any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lots\n\nThe knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the third-place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.\n\nOn 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026. On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32.\n\n## Hosts\n\n### Selection process\n\nEarly World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup.\n\nSince the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts. South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010. The 2014 FIFA World Cup was hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since Argentina 1978, and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe.\n\nThe host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament.\n\nFor the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder.\n\nThe 2026 FIFA World Cup was chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations. The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each.\n\n### Selection results\n\n- West Germany was the host of the 1974 Cup, and (reunited) Germany host to the one in 2006\n\n### Performances\n\nSix of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions being Brazil, who finished as runners-up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semi-final against Germany in 2014, and Spain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982. England (1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation. Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934), Argentina (1978), and France (1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil.\n\nOther nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Switzerland (quarter-finals 1954), Sweden (runners-up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), South Korea (fourth place in 2002), Russia (quarter-finals 2018), and Mexico (quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, South Africa (2010) and Qatar (2022) failed to advance beyond the first round.\n\n## Attendance\n\n`Source: FIFA`\n\n`The best-attended single match has been the final in 11 of the 21 World Cups as of 2018`<sup>`[update]`</sup>`. Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1930, 1938, 1958, 1962, 1970–1982, 1990, and 2006.`\n\n## Broadcasting and promotion\n\nThe World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion. 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. The World Cup attracts major sponsors such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Adidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event.\n\nThe governing body of the sport, FIFA, generated \\$4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament, and \\$6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament.\n\nEach FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo. World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. World Cups feature official match balls specially designed for each tournament. After Slazenger produced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA. Each World Cup also has an official song, which have been performed by artists ranging from Shakira to Will Smith. Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed by The Three Tenors at four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament.\n\nForming a partnership with FIFA in 1970, Panini published its first sticker album for the 1970 World Cup. Since then, collecting and trading stickers and cards has become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation. FIFA has licensed World Cup video games since 1986, sponsored by Electronic Arts.\n\n## Results\n\nNotes\n\nIn all, 80 nations have played in at least one World Cup. Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. (Uruguay, however, choose to display four stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognised by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950).\n\nWith five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup (22) to date. Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8).\n\n### Teams reaching the top four\n\n### Best performances by confederations\n\nTo date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA (Europe) and CONMEBOL (South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: United States (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930; South Korea (Asia) in 2002; and Morocco (Africa) in 2022. Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022.\n\nBrazil, Argentina, Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in 1986 and in Asia in 2022. Spain won in Africa in 2010. In 2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018 tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively).\n\n## Records and statistics\n\nFive players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico's Antonio Carbajal (1950–1966) and Rafael Márquez (2002–2018); Germany's Lothar Matthäus (1982–1998); Argentina's Lionel Messi (2006–2022); and Portugal's Cristiano Ronaldo (2006–2022) all played in five tournaments with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments. Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances. Brazil's Djalma Santos (1954–1962), West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer (1966–1974), and Germany's Philipp Lahm (2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World Cup All-Star Teams.\n\nMiroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He broke Ronaldo of Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the 2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany's Gerd Müller (1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals. The fourth-placed goalscorer, France's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament.\n\nIn November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. This made Brazil's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury), with 20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974: Franz Beckenbauer, Jürgen Grabowski, Horst-Dieter Höttges, Sepp Maier, and Wolfgang Overath (1966–1974), Italy's Franco Baresi (1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals.\n\nBrazil's Mário Zagallo, West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer and France's Didier Deschamps are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach. Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach, and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain. Italy's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938). All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory.\n\nAmong the national teams, Germany and Brazil have played the most World Cup matches (109), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (21), has the most wins (73) and has scored the most goals (229). The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi-final.\n\n### Top goalscorers\n\nIndividual\n\nPlayers in bold are still active.\n\nCountry\n\n## Awards\n\nAt the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament.\n\n- There are five post-tournament awards from the FIFA Technical Study Group:\n\n- - the Golden Ball (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Ball\") for best player, first awarded in 1982;\n  - the Golden Boot (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Boot\", formerly known as the \"adidas Golden Shoe\" from 1982 to 2006) for top goalscorer, first awarded in 1982;\n  - the Golden Glove (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Glove\", formerly known as the \"Lev Yashin Award\" from 1994 to 2006) for best goalkeeper, first awarded in 1994;\n  - the FIFA Young Player Award (formerly known as the \"Best Young Player Award\" from 2006 to 2010) for best player under 21 years of age at the start of the calendar year, first awarded in 2006;\n  - the FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team that advanced to the second round with the best record of fair play, first awarded in 1970.\n\n- There is currently one award voted on by fans during the tournament.:\n  - the Player of the Match (currently commercially termed \"Budweiser Player of the Match\", formerly known as the \"Man of the Match\" from 2002 to 2018) for outstanding performance during each match of the tournament, first awarded in 2002.\n\n- There are two awards voted on by fans after the conclusion of the tournament:\n  - the Goal of the Tournament, (currently commercially termed \"Hyundai Goal of the Tournament\") for the fans' best goal scored during the tournament, first awarded in 2006;\n  - the Most Entertaining Team during the World Cup final tournament, as determined by a poll of the general public.\n\n- One other award was given between 1994 and 2006:\n  - an All-Star Team comprising the best players of the tournament chosen by the FIFA Technical Study Group. From 2010 onwards, all Dream Teams or Statistical Teams are unofficial, as reported by FIFA itself.\n\n## See also\n\n- List of FIFA World Cup finals\n- FIFA World Cup records and statistics\n- FIFA World Cup awards\n- FIFA U-20 World Cup\n- FIFA U-17 World Cup\n- FIFA Club World Cup\n- FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup\n- FIFA Futsal World Cup\n- FIFA Confederations Cup\n- List of association football competitions\n\n## Cited works", "revid": "1173399253", "description": "Men's international association football competition", "categories": ["FIFA World Cup", "FIFA competitions for national teams", "July sporting events", "June sporting events", "Quadrennial sporting events", "Recurring sporting events established in 1930", "World championships in association football"]}
{"id": "50239", "url": null, "title": "Led Zeppelin II", "text": "Led Zeppelin II is the second studio album by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, released on 22 October 1969 in the United States and on 31 October 1969 in the United Kingdom by Atlantic Records. Recording sessions for the album took place at several locations in both the United Kingdom and North America from January to August 1969. The album's production was credited to the band's lead guitarist and songwriter Jimmy Page, and it was also Led Zeppelin's first album on which Eddie Kramer served as engineer.\n\nThe album exhibited the band's evolving musical style of blues-derived material and their guitar riff-based sound. It has been described as the band's heaviest album. Six of the nine songs were written by the band, while the other three were reinterpretations of Chicago blues songs by Willie Dixon and Howlin' Wolf. One single, \"Whole Lotta Love\", was released outside of the UK (the band would release no UK singles during their career), and peaked as a top-ten single in over a dozen markets around the world.\n\nLed Zeppelin II was a commercial success, and was the band's first album to reach number one on charts in the UK and the US. The album's cover designer David Juniper was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Recording Package in 1970. On 15 November 1999, the album was certified 12× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales passing 12 million copies. Since its release, various writers and music critics have regularly cited Led Zeppelin II as one of the greatest and most influential albums of all time.\n\n## Background\n\nLed Zeppelin II was conceived during a busy period of Led Zeppelin's career from January through August 1969, when they completed four European and three American concert tours. Each song was separately recorded, mixed and produced at various studios in the UK and North America. The album was written on tour, during periods of a couple of hours in between concerts, a studio was booked and the recording process begun, necessarily resulting in spontaneity and urgency, which is reflected in the sound. Several songs resulted from improvisation while touring, including during the instrumental sections of \"Dazed and Confused\", and were recorded mostly live in the studio.\n\nRecording sessions for the album took place at a wide variety of studios in the UK and US, including Olympic and Morgan Studios in London, England; A&M, Quantum, Sunset, Mirror Sound and Mystic Studios in Los Angeles; Ardent Studios in Memphis, Tennessee; A&R, Juggy Sound, Groove and Mayfair Studios in New York City; and R&D Studios. Some of these were ill-equipped, leading to one Vancouver studio, which had an 8-track set-up without even proper headphone facilities, being credited as \"a hut\". A more favourable set-up was Mystic Studios in Hollywood, Los Angeles with Chris Huston engineering.\n\nLead singer Robert Plant later complained that the writing, recording, and mixing sessions were done in many different locations, and criticised the writing and recording process. \"Thank You\", \"The Lemon Song\" and \"Moby Dick\" were overdubbed during the tour, while the mixing of \"Whole Lotta Love\" and \"Heartbreaker\" was also done on tour. Page later stated, \"In other words, some of the material came out of rehearsing for the next tour and getting new material together.\"\n\nPage and Kramer spent two days mixing the album at A&R Studios, and the album's production was entirely credited to Jimmy Page, with Eddie Kramer engineering. Kramer was quoted as saying, \"The famous Whole Lotta Love mix, where everything is going bananas, is a combination of Jimmy and myself just flying around on a small console twiddling every knob known to man.\" Kramer later gave great credit to Page for the sound that was achieved, despite the inconsistent conditions in which it was recorded: \"We cut some of the tracks in some of the most bizarre studios you can imagine ... but in the end it sounded bloody marvellous ... there was one guy in charge and that was Mr. Page.\"\n\n## Music and lyrics\n\nThe finished tracks reflect the evolving sound of the band and their live performances. Plant had his first songwriting credits on Led Zeppelin II; he had been unable to have his contributions to the writing process credited for the first album because of a prior contract with CBS Records.\n\n### Side one\n\n\"Whole Lotta Love\" was built around a five-note Page riff. Parts of the lyrics were taken directly from Willie Dixon's \"You Need Love\", which led to the group being sued for plagiarism, eventually settling out of court. The arrangement also resembles the Small Faces track \"You Need Loving\". With basic tracks recorded on Page's houseboat, the middle section of the song contained a variety of overdubbed instruments and vocals which were mixed live by Page and Kramer, making full use of stereo panning and other controls available on the desk. The song was edited down to a single in the US, where it became a top 5 hit. In the UK, a single release was cancelled; the group never issued any singles there during their active career together. It was finally issued as a single in 1997. A mainly instrumental version of the song was recorded by CCS and was used as the theme tune to the BBC TV show Top of the Pops, ensuring it was well known by virtually everyone in Britain.\n\nLed Zeppelin performed \"Whole Lotta Love\" at every gig from June 1969 onwards. It was the closing number of their live shows between 1970 and 1973, often extended to incorporate a rock'n'roll medley towards the end of the set. A different arrangement of the song was played for the Knebworth Fayre concerts in 1979. It was the last song the group ever performed live with Bonham, on 7 July 1980. \"Whole Lotta Love\" has since been critically praised as one of the definitive heavy metal tracks, though the group have never considered themselves to fit that specific style.\n\n\"What Is and What Should Never Be\" was primarily written by Plant. It features a variety of dynamics during the track, along with flanged vocals and wide-panned stereo guitars.\n\n\"The Lemon Song\" was a re-arrangement of Howlin' Wolf's \"Killing Floor\", which had become a regular part of the group's live show during 1969. It was mostly recorded live and expanded to include new lyrics, including the sexually-charged phrase \"squeeze my lemon\" which was borrowed from Robert Johnson's \"Travelling Riverside Blues\", which the band had played for the BBC radio show Top Gear broadcast on 29 June 1969.\n\n\"Thank You\" was written by Plant as a love song to his wife, Maureen. Page played twelve-string guitar and Jones played Hammond organ on the track.\n\n### Side two\n\n\"Heartbreaker\" was mostly written by Page as a showcase for his guitar skills, including an unaccompanied solo in the middle of the song. It quickly became a live favourite, being performed regularly from October 1969 onwards, and throughout the group's career.\n\n\"Living Loving Maid (She's Just a Woman)\" was purported to be written about a groupie the band encountered while touring the US. The group disliked the track, considering it to be little more than filler, and consequently it was never played live by the group. Plant performed the track live on his 1990 solo tour.\n\n\"Ramble On\" was written by Plant. The lyrics were inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien, and similar themes appeared on subsequent Led Zeppelin albums. The track made good use of dynamics, moving from a quiet acoustic guitar in the opening, to a variety of overdubbed electric guitars towards the end. It was never performed live by Led Zeppelin during their main career, but Plant has performed the song regularly on solo tours, and it was part of Page and Plant's live set in the mid-1990s. It was finally performed live for the first time by Led Zeppelin at the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert in 2007.\n\n\"Moby Dick\" was designed as a showcase for Bonham's drum solo. It was originally called \"Pat's Delight\" (after his wife) and features a variety of drums and percussive instruments played with bare hands as well as drumsticks. It was a regular part of Led Zeppelin's live show, developing to include additional percussion and electronic drums.\n\n\"Bring It On Home\" was a cover of a Willie Dixon song originally performed by Sonny Boy Williamson II. Led Zeppelin's arrangement includes a faster middle section in addition to the straightforward blues structure of the original. It was played live regularly throughout late 1969 and 1970.\n\n## Artwork\n\nThe album sleeve design was from a poster by David Juniper, who was simply told by the band to come up with an interesting idea. Juniper was a fellow student of Page's at Sutton Art College in Surrey.\n\nJuniper's design was based on a photograph of the Jagdstaffel 11 Division of the German Air Force during World War I, the Flying Circus led by the Red Baron. Juniper replaced four of the flyers' heads with photos of the band members, added facial hair and sunglasses to some of the flyers' faces or replaced some with the faces of other people. The blonde-haired woman is French actress Delphine Seyrig in her role as Marie-Magdalene in the film Mr. Freedom, a leftist anti-war satire by William Klein. The cover also pictured the outline of a Zeppelin on a brown background (similar to the cover of the band's first album), which gave the album its nickname \"Brown Bomber\".\n\n## Release and reception\n\nThe album was released on 22 October 1969 on Atlantic Records, with advance orders of 400,000 copies. The advertising campaign was built around the slogans 'Led Zeppelin – The Only Way to Fly' and 'Led Zeppelin II Now Flying'. In the United States, some commercially duplicated reel-to-reel copies of Led Zeppelin II made by Ampex bore the title Led Zeppelin II – The Only Way to Fly on their spine. Commercially, Led Zeppelin II was the band's first album to hit No. 1 in the US, knocking The Beatles' Abbey Road (1969) twice from the top spot, where it remained for seven weeks. By April 1970 it had registered three million American sales, whilst in Britain it enjoyed a 138-week residence on the LP chart, climbing to the top spot in February 1970. Meanwhile, the album reached the top spot in other 5 national albums charts (including Canadian, Australian and Spanish albums charts). In November Ritchie Yorke reported in Billboard that while the album had achieved \"staggering\" sales, as a hard rock record it was considered unsuitable for North American Top 40 radio stations, who were \"dreary and detached from the mainstream of contemporary rock music\".\n\nThe album also yielded Led Zeppelin's biggest hit, \"Whole Lotta Love\". This song reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1970, after Atlantic went against the group's wishes by releasing a shorter version on 45. The single's B-side, \"Living Loving Maid (She's Just a Woman)\", also hit the Billboard chart, peaking at No. 65 in April 1970. The album helped establish Led Zeppelin as an international concert attraction, and for the next year, the group continued to tour relentlessly, initially performing in clubs and ballrooms, then in larger auditoriums and eventually stadiums as their popularity grew.\n\nLed Zeppelin II was not well-received by contemporary music critics. John Mendelsohn wrote a negative review of the record for Rolling Stone, in which he mocked the group's heavy sound and white blues, while writing that \"until you've listened to the album eight hundred times, as I have, it seems as if it's just one especially heavy song extended over the space of two whole sides\". In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau jokingly referred to the band as \"the best of the wah-wah mannerist groups, so dirty they drool on demand\", while complaining that \"all the songs sound alike\", before assigning the album a \"B\" grade. He nonetheless conceded in 1970 that \"Led Zeppelin simply out-heavied everyone\" the previous year, \"pitting Jimmy Page's repeated low-register fuzz riffs against the untiring freak intensity of Robert Plant's vocal. This trademark has only emerged clearly on the second album, and more and more I am coming to understand it as an artistic triumph.\"\n\nOn 10 November 1969, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and in 1990 it was certified 5× platinum reflecting shipping of five million copies. By 14 November 1999, Led Zeppelin II had shipped twelve million copies and was certified 12× platinum by the RIAA. The 2014 reissue of the album helped itself get back into the Billboard Top 10 when it got to .\n\n## Legacy and reappraisal\n\nLed Zeppelin II has since been regarded as the quintessential hard rock and heavy metal album. AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine said it \"provided the blueprint for all the heavy metal bands that followed it\". While crediting the band for essentially inventing metal, Tom Hull said that, after the first album had declared their musical ambition, \"the second honed it down to a singular entity, a sound\", with subsequent albums expanding on it in \"sophisticated, subtler, often quite intelligent\" ways, but still indebted to \"the basic dumbness\" of II – \"dumb not in the sense of stupid but of non-speaking. Lyrics are there of course, but as an integral part of the music, a music better appropriated tactilely, through incoherent sensation, than intellectually, literarily.\"\n\nThe album was described as a \"brilliant if heavy-handed blues-rock offensive\", by popular music scholar Ronald Zalkind. According to Robert Santelli's The Big Book of Blues: A Biographical Encyclopedia (2001), Led Zeppelin \"had already begun to move beyond its blues-rock influences, venturing into previously unexplored hard-rock territories\". Blues-derived songs like \"Whole Lotta Love\", \"Heartbreaker\", \"The Lemon Song\", \"Moby Dick\", and \"Bring It On Home\" have been seen as representing standards of the metal genre, where the guitar-based riff (rather than vocal chorus or verses) defines the song and provides the key hook. Such arrangements and emphasis were at the time atypical in popular music. Page's guitar solo in \"Heartbreaker\" was an influence on later renowned guitarists Eddie Van Halen, as inspiration for his two-handed tapping technique, and Steve Vai.\n\nSince its initial critical reception, Led Zeppelin II has earned several accolades from music publications, frequently ranked on critics' \"best album\" lists. In 1989, Spin magazine ranked the album No. 5 on its list of The 25 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 1990, CD Review ranked it sixth on their list of top 50 CDs for starting a \"pop/rock\" library; an accompanying blurb described the album as \"white boy blues with a hard rock edge\". In 2000, Q magazine placed Led Zeppelin II at number 37 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 2003, the album was ranked number 75 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, 79 in a 2012 revised list, and 123 in a 2020 revised list. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.\n\n(\\*) designates unordered lists.\n\n## 2014 reissue\n\nAlong with the group's self-titled debut album and their third album, Led Zeppelin III, the album was remastered and reissued on 2 June 2014. The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition, a deluxe two-CD edition, a standard LP version, a deluxe two-LP version, a super deluxe two-CD plus two-LP version with a hardback book, and as high-resolution, 24-bit/96k digital downloads. The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material containing alternative takes, backing tracks and the previously unreleased instrumental, \"La La\". The reissue was released with an altered colour version of the original album's artwork as its bonus disc's cover.\n\nThe reissue was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 95, based on 10 reviews. Pitchfork journalist Mark Richardson said, \"the reissue sounds as thrilling as ever\", while Julian Marszalek of The Quietus noted the bonus disc's \"intriguing insight\" into the original record's creation. In Rolling Stone, David Fricke wrote, \"the alternate takes highlight Robert Plant's ripening vocal poise and, in a rough mix of 'Ramble On', the decisive, melodic force of John Paul Jones' bass and John Bonham's drumming.\" \"As a two-disc set\", Consequence of Sound's Michael Madden wrote, \"this reissue is both a reminder of the original album's wallop and a closer look at the alchemy of a band increasingly attuned to ideas of progression.\" Raoul Hernandez from The Austin Chronicle was more critical of the bonus disc, finding it to be \"the thinest of extras\" offered by the reissue program.\n\n## Track listing\n\nAll tracks composed by Jimmy Page and Robert Plant, except where noted.\n\n### Original release\n\n### Deluxe Edition (2014)\n\n## Personnel\n\nLed Zeppelin\n\n- John Bonham – drums, backing vocals\n- John Paul Jones – bass guitar, organ, backing vocals\n- Jimmy Page – guitars, theremin, backing vocals\n- Robert Plant – lead vocals, harmonica\n\nProduction\n\n- Producer – Jimmy Page\n- Recording engineers\n\nGeorge Chkiantz at Olympic Studios, London: \"Whole Lotta Love\", \"What Is and What Should Never Be\"\n\nChris Huston at Mirror Sound, Los Angeles: \"The Lemon Song\", \"Moby Dick\"\n\nAndy Johns at Morgan Studios, London: \"Thank You\", \"Living Loving Maid (She's Just a Woman)\"\n\nEddie Kramer at A & R Studios, Juggy Sound Studio, and Atlantic Studios (resp.), New York: \"Heartbreaker\", \"Ramble On\", \"Bring It On Home\"\n\n- Director of engineering and mixing at A & R Studios – Eddie Kramer\n- LP mastering – Robert Ludwig\n- Executive producer – Peter Grant\n- Artwork – David Juniper\n\nDigitally remastered editions\n\n- First 1987 CD mastering [19127-2] –  Barry Diament at Atlantic Studios\n- 1994 digital remastering (from the original master tapes) –  Jimmy Page and George Marino at Sterling Sound\n- 2014 24 bit/192 kHz digital transfers of the original analogue tapes –  Jimmy Page at Metropolis Mastering, London\n\nAdditional engineering for prev. unreleased studio outtakes –  Drew Griffiths at Metropolis Mastering, London\n\nMastering of prev. unreleased tracks –  John Davis at Metropolis Mastering, London\n\n- All reissues produced by Jimmy Page\n\n## Charts\n\n### Weekly charts\n\nOriginal release\n\n2014 reissue\n\n### Year-end charts\n\n## Certifications\n\n## See also\n\n- List of best-selling albums in the United States\n- List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 1970", "revid": "1172425629", "description": null, "categories": ["1969 albums", "Albums involved in plagiarism controversies", "Albums produced by Jimmy Page", "Albums recorded at A&M Studios", "Albums recorded at Morgan Sound Studios", "Albums recorded at Olympic Sound Studios", "Albums recorded at Sunset Sound Recorders", "Atlantic Records albums", "Led Zeppelin albums"]}
{"id": "732460", "url": null, "title": "Albert Ketèlbey", "text": "Albert William Ketèlbey (/kəˈtɛlbi/; born Ketelbey; 9 August 1875 – 26 November 1959) was an English composer, conductor and pianist, best known for his short pieces of light orchestral music. He was born in Birmingham and moved to London in 1889 to study at Trinity College of Music. After a brilliant studentship he did not pursue the classical career predicted for him, becoming musical director of the Vaudeville Theatre before gaining fame as a composer of light music and as a conductor of his own works.\n\nFor many years Ketèlbey worked for a series of music publishers, including Chappell & Co and the Columbia Graphophone Company, making arrangements for smaller orchestras, a period in which he learned to write fluent and popular music. He also found great success writing music for silent films until the advent of talking films in the late 1920s.\n\nThe composer's early works in conventional classical style were well received, but it was for his light orchestral pieces that he became best known. One of his earliest works in the genre, In a Monastery Garden (1915), sold over a million copies and brought him to widespread notice; his later musical depictions of exotic scenes caught the public imagination and established his fortune. Such works as In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple Garden (1923), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931) became best-sellers in print and on records; by the late 1920s he was Britain's first millionaire composer. His celebrations of British scenes were equally popular: examples include Cockney Suite (1924) with its scenes of London life, and his ceremonial music for royal events. His works were frequently recorded during his heyday, and a substantial part of his output has been put on CD in more recent years.\n\nKetèlbey's popularity began to wane during the Second World War and his originality also declined; many of his post-war works were re-workings of older pieces and he increasingly found his music ignored by the BBC. In 1949 he moved to the Isle of Wight, where he spent his retirement, and he died at home in obscurity. His work has been reappraised since his death; in a 2003 poll by the BBC radio programme Your Hundred Best Tunes, Bells Across the Meadows was voted the 36th most popular tune of all time. On the last night of the 2009 Proms season the orchestra performed his In a Monastery Garden, marking the fiftieth anniversary of Ketèlbey's death—the first time his music had been included in the festival's finale.\n\n## Biography\n\n### Early life and education, 1875–95\n\nAlbert William Ketèlbey was born on 9 August 1875 at 41 Alma Street in the Aston area of Birmingham, England. He was the second of five children of George Henry, a jewellery engraver, and his wife Sarah Ann, née Aston. The grave accent was Albert's invention: the family name was spelled without it at the time of his birth and there had been several variants of the name in the previous generations. All the children were taught a musical instrument and Ketèlbey's brother, Harold, was later a violinist of note. Albert showed a natural talent for the piano and singing, and he subsequently became head chorister at St Silas' Church in nearby Lozells.\n\nAt the age of eleven Ketèlbey joined the Birmingham and Midland Institute school of music (now the Royal Birmingham Conservatoire) where he was tutored by Dr Alfred Gaul in composition and Dr H. W. Wareing in harmony. At the age of thirteen Ketèlbey composed his first serious piece of music, \"Sonata for Pianoforte\", which, for Tom McCanna, his biographer, \"shows a precocious mastery of composition\". Ketèlbey competed for a scholarship to Trinity College of Music in London, and received the highest marks of all entrants; the future composer Gustav Holst came second. Ketèlbey entered the college in 1889, studying under G. E. Bambridge (piano), Dr G. Saunders (harmony) and Frederick Corder (composition).\n\nIn 1892 Ketèlbey again won the annual scholarship competition and was appointed as the organist at St John's Church, Wimbledon, London. He held the post for the next five years, during which time he wrote several anthems and hymns, the latter of which included \"Every Good Gift\", \"Behold! Upon the Mountains\" and \"Be Strong! All ye People\". It was around this time he added the accent to his surname, with the aim of moving the stress onto the second syllable, rather than the first. In that year he appeared in a series of concerts in London and provincial cities. In March 1892 at the capital's Queen's Hall he played Frédéric Chopin's Scherzo No. 2 in B-flat minor; the reviewer for The Illustrated London News thought the \"brilliant\" Ketèlbey played \"most beautifully\". He won several prizes at the college before being awarded his certificate in 1895. During this period, The British Musician reports, some critics found likenesses between Ketèlbey's music and that of Edward German.\n\nTowards the end of his time at the college Ketèlbey wrote lighter, mostly mandolin-based, compositions. As he still aspired to be a serious composer, he adapted the pseudonym Raoul Clifford in an effort to distance himself from the genre. On leaving the college he became one of its examiners in harmony. He wrote piano pieces as part of his role, and used the pseudonym Anton Vodorinski for the work; he subsequently used the name for more serious works, which he published with French titles.\n\n### Early career, 1896–1914\n\nIn 1896 Ketèlbey took up the post of conductor for a travelling light opera company; his father, who wanted his son to be a composer of serious music, disapproved of what he saw as a lightweight role. After a two-year tour Ketèlbey was appointed as musical director of the Opera Comique Theatre—at age 22, the youngest theatrical conductor in London at the time. He moved into a house in Bruton Street, in London's Mayfair, where he wrote the song \"Blow! Blow! Thou Winter Wind\", to words from Shakespeare's As You Like It. The Opera Comique staged a successful revival of the musical Alice in Wonderland between December 1898 and March 1899, and according to his biographer John Sant, it is possible that Ketèlbey wrote some of the music. This was followed by the comic opera A Good Time from April, for which Ketèlbey wrote the music and songs. Following poor reviews, the short run of the piece ended in May and the Opera Comique closed because of the losses brought about by the production. There, Ketèlbey began a relationship with the actress and singer Charlotte \"Lottie\" Siegenberg. The couple married in 1906 but the relationship was childless.\n\nKetèlbey wrote music in the style of the Gilbert and Sullivan works for a comic opera The Wonder Worker, which was staged at the Grand Theatre, Fulham in 1900. The reviewer for the London Evening Standard thought Ketèlbey's score was \"attractive though conventional ... No originality is shown in conception or treatment, but the conception is appropriate, and the treatment effective.\" The same year Ketèlbey began undertaking transcription work at the music publisher A. Hammond & Co, making arrangements of music for smaller orchestras. In 1904 he also began to work for a second music publisher, Chappell & Co, a third in 1907, the Columbia Graphophone Company, and a fourth in 1910, when he worked for Elkin & Co. McCanna considers that \"this hack-work may have been tedious, but the experience was invaluable in moulding the composer's fluent writing for both piano and orchestra\". Throughout the time working for the companies he continued to compose and publish his own work, comprising organ music, songs, duets, piano pieces and anthems. He worked for Columbia for over twenty years and rose to the position of Musical Director and Adviser, working with leading musicians across a range of musical styles; Columbia released more than 600 recordings with Ketèlbey conducting.\n\nIn 1912 the composer and cellist Auguste van Biene offered a prize for a new work to complement his popular piece The Broken Melody. Ketèlbey was the winner of the competition with a new composition, The Phantom Melody, which became his first major success. In the following year he won two prizes totalling £200 in a competition held by The Evening News: second place with a song for female voices, and first place with his entry for male voices. The latter song, \"My Heart Still Clings to You\", is described by Sant as \"a typical tragical-love ballad of this time, and its almost Victorian sentimentality comes through in its words\". In the early to mid-1910s Ketèlbey began to write music for silent films—a new growth industry in Britain from 1910 onwards—and he had great success in the medium until the advent of talking films in the late 1920s.\n\n### Rising reputation and success, 1914–46\n\nIn 1914 Ketèlbey wrote the orchestral work In a Monastery Garden, which was published in the following year both as a piano piece and in full orchestral form. It was his first major success, his most famous piece, and became known all over the world; by 1920 over a million copies of the sheet music had been sold. There are two competing stories detailing the inspiration behind the piece: although Ketèlbey later said that he wrote the work for an old friend, he also stated that he composed it after visiting a monastery. The musicologist Peter Dempsey considers that \"this piece ... remains to this day a world-renowned staple of the light-music repertoire, while McCanna opines that from the first bar, listeners \"... might sooner expect such a device in the impassioned world of a [Gustav] Mahler symphony than in a genteel English salon piece\". The success of The Phantom Melody and In a Monastery Garden led to Ketèlbey's engagement by André Charlot as the musical director for the 1916 revue Samples! at the Vaudeville Theatre. The appointment led to similar positions at other London theatres, including the Adelphi, Garrick, Shaftesbury and Drury Lane theatres.\n\nBecause of the rise in Ketèlbey's popularity, and in sales of his sheet music, in 1918 he became a member of the Performing Rights Society. Except for a brief interval in 1926 when he resigned over a dispute about the allocation of funds to its members, he remained a lifelong member. In 1919 he composed the romantic work In the Moonlight, which his publisher considered to be \"a work of striking beauty\". In the following year he wrote Wedgwood Blue—a gavotte—and In a Persian Market; the latter became one of his more popular works. The musicologist Jonathan Bellman, calling In a Persian Market \"immortal\", describes it as \"an 'intermezzo scene' for band or small orchestra; reprehensibly demeaning or delightfully tacky\". The work was not without its critics; the composer and conductor Nicolas Slonimsky quotes the view of a Russian journal that \"the suite ... had its 'immaculate conception' in imperialistic colonial England. The composer's intention is to convince the listener that all's well in the colonies where beautiful women and exotic fruits mature together, where beggars and rulers are friends, where there are no imperialists, no restive proletarians.\" In The Musical Times, the pseudonymous reviewer \"Ariel\" described the work as \"naive and inexpensive pseudo-orientalism\", which led to heated correspondence in the journal over the following months between the composer and the critic.\n\nIn 1921 Ketèlbey moved from his home in St John's Wood, where he had been living for the previous seven years, to Frognal, an area of Hampstead, north west London. He installed a billiards table in the basement, which became his favoured form of relaxation. He produced a series of orchestral pieces in the first half of the 1920s, including Bells Across the Meadows released in 1921, and Suite Romantique (1922), which the music critic Tim McDonald considers \"impressive\". In the following year Ketèlbey wrote In a Chinese Temple Garden, followed in 1924 by Sanctuary of the Heart and Cockney Suite. The last of these contained the finale \"'Appy 'Ampstead\", which the writers Lewis and Susan Foreman describe as \"... a kaleidoscope of passing images, mouth organs, a cornet playing, ... a band, ... shouts of a showman ... with his rattle and a steam engine and roundabout\".\n\nIn 1923 the composer Frederic Austin wrote the opera Polly, closely based on the 1729 work of the same name by John Gay and Johann Christoph Pepusch; recordings of Austin's work were published by Columbia's main rival, the Gramophone Company. At Columbia's request Ketèlbey produced his own version of Gay's original. Austin considered that it copied elements of his, and sued for copyright infringement. Acting as a court expert witness, the composer Sir Frederick Bridge thought that the case \"... is an awful bore. ... These two good men are good musicians, and they have no business to be fighting over the game. It is not worth the trouble. ... It is rubbish. I am sick of 'Polly'.\" After three weeks the case ended with the judge finding against Columbia.\n\nSuch was Ketèlbey's popularity that by 1924 his works could be heard several times a day in restaurants and cinemas, and in that year the Lyons tea shops spent £150,000 on playing his music in their outlets. He continued to build on his success in 1925 with In a Lovers' Garden and In the Camp of the Ancient Britons—inspired by a trip he took to Worlebury Camp, near Weston-super-Mare. He undertook annual tours of Britain, conducting his music with municipal orchestras, and also worked with the BBC Wireless Orchestra. He was invited to conduct several international orchestras, and spent time in Belgium, Germany, France, Switzerland and particularly in the Netherlands, where he built a strong relationship with the Concertgebouw and Kursaal Grand Symphony orchestras. His music was popular on the continent and his obituarist in The Times later reported that one Viennese critic considered that Ketèlbey's music was behind only that of Johann Strauss and Franz Lehár. Continental audiences often called him \"The English Strauss\".\n\nKetèlbey was financially successful enough to leave Columbia Records in 1926 to spend more time composing, although he continued to conduct for them on an occasional basis, particularly between 1928 and 1930 when he conducted sixteen of his own works with the company, published as Ketèlbey Conducting his Concert Orchestra. He spent his time undertaking annual conducting tours and composing, and in 1927 he published By the Blue Hawaiian Waters and the suite In a Fairy Realm, while in the following year he wrote another suite, Three Fanciful Etchings. His works continued to sell well, and in the October 1929 issue of the Performing Right Gazette his publisher described him as \"Britain's greatest living composer\"; when the advertisement was mentioned in The Musical Times, the anonymous writer wrote \"we sympathise with Mr Ketèlbey in being thus raised to a pinnacle which he himself, we are sure, would be very far from claiming.\" Sant writes that Ketèlbey subsequently became Britain's first millionaire composer. In February 1930 he began what became an annual series of concerts at the Kingsway Hall, conducting a new work, The Clock and the Dresden Figures. In a review of the 1933 concert, the critic S.R. Nelson wrote that \"as a descriptive writer Ketèlbey really does take some beating. He has the happy knack of combining infinitely melodious themes and the cleverly diluted likeness of the authentic atmosphere.\"\n\nThe introduction of talking films in 1927 with The Jazz Singer and the subsequent growth of the medium had a serious impact on composers and music publishers involved in the film industry as it heralded a decline in the sales of sheet music. Although Ketèlbey's income from this source declined, the period was also marked by a rise in the popularity of the radio and gramophones and his new compositions were successful with audiences at home. By the early 1930s over 1,500 broadcasts of his work were made on BBC Radio in a year, and more than 700 on continental radio stations, including a weekly Sunday programme of his music, sponsored by Decca Records on Radio Luxembourg. For this programme he wrote the theme music, \"Sunday Afternoon Reverie\", with the melody based on the musical notes D E C C A.\n\nKetèlbey wrote an intermezzo—A Birthday Greeting—in 1932, on the sixth birthday of Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II). His connection to royalty continued in 1934, when his march A State Procession was played to accompany the arrival of King George V at a Royal Command Performance; the king requested that the march should be played again during the interval, and he and the queen stayed in the royal box to listen to the piece. In the following year Ketèlbey wrote the march With Honour Crowned for the King's silver jubilee; the work was played for the royal family at Windsor Castle before Ketèlbey conducted its first public performance at Kingsway Hall. The work was played at that year's Trooping the Colour and at the Jubilee Thanksgiving Service at St Paul's Cathedral.\n\nKetèlbey continued to conduct on his annual tours during the Second World War, but these were on a smaller scale because of travel restrictions. He also continued with his annual concerts at Kingsway Hall, and introduced a new march, Fighting for Freedom, which he had written in a supportive response to Winston Churchill's \"We shall fight on the beaches\" speech. Apart from composing and conducting, he also acted as a Special Constable during the war.\n\n### Post-war; retirement and death, 1946–59\n\nThe winter of 1946–47 was harsh, and in February the sub-zero temperatures burst the water main outside Ketèlbey's Hampstead home. With his house partially flooded, he lost most of his correspondence, manuscripts and papers, and he and his wife both contracted pneumonia. The couple were taken to the Regent's Park Nursing Home, where Lottie died two days later. He sold his house and moved temporarily to the Hendon Hall Hotel, where he had a nervous breakdown. He spent the remainder of the year staying in hotels in southern England; in Bournemouth he began a relationship with Mabel Maud Pritchett, a hotel manageress, and the couple married in October in the following year.\n\nIn 1949 Ketèlbey and his new wife moved to the Isle of Wight, and purchased Rookstone, Egypt Hill, in Cowes, where he partly retired, although he composed occasionally. Tastes in popular music had changed during and after the Second World War and his music declined in popularity; his income in 1940 had been £3,493, which dropped to £2,906 in 1950—a particularly steep drop when wartime inflation is considered. McCanna writes that apart from a commission for the National Brass Band competition in 1945, Ketèlbey produced nothing memorable after the war, and his biographer Keith Anderson considers that in the postwar period Ketèlbey's work \"... lacked novelty. Of the handful of works published ... most were reworkings of old material, although the composer attempted to disguise the origins\". The BBC also began to ignore his work. In their 1949 Festival of Light Music, none of his compositions were played, which he found distressing. In his letter to the Director-General of the BBC, Sir William Haley, Ketèlbey said the exclusion was \"a public insult\". His music still found an audience: in 1952 and 1953 With Honour Crowned was again played as a slow march at the Trooping the Colour ceremony.\n\nKetèlbey died in his Cowes home of heart and renal failure on 26 November 1959. By the time of his death he had slipped into obscurity. Only a handful of mourners attended his funeral, which was held at Golders Green Crematorium in London.\n\n## Music\n\nUnder his own name and at least six pseudonyms, Ketèlbey composed several hundred works, about 150 of them for the orchestra. In the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Phillip Scowcroft writes, \"His gifts for melody and sensitive, colourful scoring ensured continuing popularity with light orchestras and bands until after 1945. The most popular of his hundreds of pieces emphasize emotionalism and sometimes exaggerated effects at the expense of structure and harmonic subtlety.\"\n\n### Early works and serious music\n\nKetèlbey's early compositions are classical and orthodox in form, reflecting the training at Trinity College. The first substantial work was a piano sonata (1888); it was followed by a Caprice for piano and orchestra (1892), a Concertstück for piano and orchestra (circa 1893) and a piano concerto in G minor (1895). Ketèlbey's piano writing was notable for its brilliance, and the composer's own performance of the solo part of the Concertstück brought out that quality. As a student, Ketèlbey composed a cadenza for the first movement of Beethoven's First Piano Concerto, judged \"clever and effective\" in performance in 1890.\n\nFor the chamber repertoire, Ketèlbey composed a string quartet (c. 1896) and a quintet for piano and wind (1896) which won the Costa Prize and the College Gold Medal. His 1894 Romance for violin and piano was praised as \"a charming, musicianly work\". His other early works include choral pieces, including the anthems \"Every good Gift\"; \"Behold upon the mountains\", and \"Be strong, all ye people\" (all 1896). After these works he moved professionally into conducting light opera, and serious music became the exception rather than the rule in his compositions.\n\nKetèlbey's concert music was less well known in England than in continental Europe, where he conducted many programmes of his own works for the Concertgebouw Orchestra and others. The composer's more avowedly serious music was less widely esteemed by his compatriots. In a 1928 profile the magazine The British Musician commented, \"There is no need to explain here why his serious music, whether written thirty years ago or as recently as 1927 ... has not won the popularity of, say, Edward German's dances: it is pleasant music, delightfully scored; but it is not so fascinating as that from which it derives—the music of the Viennese writers of dance music, of Delibes and Gounod and the like.\" The reviewer added, \"Albert Ketèlbey's works of the Monastery Garden type are by far the best that anyone in this country has written, and they represent the end to which he was born.\"\n\n### Light orchestral\n\nKetèlbey, a capable player of the cello, clarinet, oboe, and horn, was a skilled orchestrator. He generally followed the normal style for light music of his day: picturesque and romantic, with colourful orchestral effects. Reviewing a collection of Ketèlbey's music, the authors of The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music commented in 2008, \"when vulgarity is called for it is not shirked—only it's a stylish kind of vulgarity!\" Many of Ketèlbey's pieces are programmatic, typically lasting between four and six minutes. His penchant for arranging his works for various combinations of instruments makes them harder to categorise than the works of many other composers. His first two pieces to make a mark with a wide public were The Phantom Melody (1911) and In a Monastery Garden (1915), both best known in their orchestral versions, but originally written for cello and piano and for solo piano respectively. For the familiar orchestral version of the second of these pieces the composer published a synopsis:\n\n> The first theme represents a poet's reverie in the quietude of the monastery garden amidst beautiful surroundings—the calm serene atmosphere—the leafy trees and the singing birds. The second theme in the minor expresses the more 'personal' note of sadness, of appeal and contrition. Presently, the monks are heard chanting the \"Kyrie Eleison\" with the organ playing and the chapel bell ringing. The first theme is now heard in a quieter manner as if it had become more ethereal and distant; the singing of the monks is again heard—it becomes louder and more insistent, bringing the piece to a conclusion in a glow of exultation.\n\nKetèlbey followed the same basic formula for many of his most popular later works. For In a Persian Market his synopsis notes \"the camel drivers approaching, the cries of beggars, entry of beautiful princess (represented by a languorous theme given at first to clarinet and cello and then full orchestra) ... she watches the jugglers and snake-charmers ... the Caliph passes by, interrupting the entertainment ... all depart, their themes heard faintly in the distance, and the marketplace becomes deserted.\" Ketèlbey establishes the eastern setting in the opening section, employing the distinctive melodic intervals, A–B–E. The orchestral players are instructed to sing at two points in the score, a descending motif representing beggars crying for baksheesh. Although one contemporary critic belittled the music as \"pseudo-orientalism\", McCanna comments that \"The princess portrayed by the big romantic theme is a cousin of the princesses in Stravinsky's Firebird\".\n\nKetèlbey sought to repeat the exoticism of In a Persian Market in several later pieces. Among them is In a Chinese Temple Garden (1923), described as an \"oriental phantasy\", with episodes depicting a priestly incantation, two lovers, a wedding procession, a street brawl and the restoration of calm by the beating of the temple gong. Another example is In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931), which, like its Persian predecessor, opens with a vigorous march theme followed by a broad romantic melody. Again, the composer employs unconventional musical devices for colour—in this case a chromatic scale, descending at each appearance until the closing bars, where it is inverted. In 1958, the critic Ronald Ever wrote that Ketèlbey was noted for his use of \"every exotic noisemaker known to man—chimes, orchestra bells, gongs (all sizes and nationalities), cymbals, woodblocks, xylophone, drums of every variety\". Ever commented that Ketèlbey's exoticism had left an immovable impression of eastern music on western ears, to which \"Oriental music is Ketèlbey music: the clashing cymbals; the little pinging bells; the minor modes; the amazingly graphic mincing step created by rapidly reiterated notes; the coy taps on the woodblock.\"\n\nAmong Ketèlbey's light orchestral works with a wholly British flavour is Bells Across the Meadows (1921), redolent, in the words of McDonald, of \"rose-entwined thatched cottages standing amidst gardens full of hollyhocks with a gentle brook bubbling on its rustic way and cows grazing peacefully in the pastures beyond\". Urban life was evoked in the five-movement Cockney Suite (1924), described by The Times as \"character pieces complete with leering saxophone, cheeky mouth-organ, and some infernally catchy tunes\". Ketèlbey depicts successively a royal procession from Buckingham Palace to the Houses of Parliament; an East End pub, with a main theme based on the Cockney ditty \"'Arf a pint of mild and bitter\"; a waltz at a palais de danse; a sombre glimpse of the Cenotaph in Whitehall; and in the finale, \"'Appy 'Ampstead\", a picture of the August Bank Holiday fair on Hampstead Heath.\n\nMuch of the music Ketèlbey wrote as accompaniment to silent films between 1915 and 1929, though lucrative at the time, has proved ephemeral, although he reused and rearranged some of it in solo pieces for amateur pianists. With the requirements of cinemas of all sizes in mind, his film music was published in the \"Bosworth Loose Leaf Film Play Music Series\" in versions for solo piano or for small orchestras. The titles offered included Dramatic Agitato, Amaryllis (described by the composer as \"suitable for use in dainty, fickle scenes\"), Mystery (\"greatly in favour for uncanny and weird picturizations\"), \"Agitato Furioso\" (\"famous for its excellence in playing to riots, storms, wars, etc.\") and Bacchanale de Montmartre (for \"cabaret, orgy and riotous continental scenes\").\n\n### Instrumental works\n\nIn addition to arrangements for solo instruments of his popular orchestral works, Ketèlbey wrote a range of music for organ and for piano. Some of the more serious of these pieces were published under his \"Vodorinski\" pen name. Among the organ works are Pastorale and Rêverie dramatique, both dating from about 1911. The piano works include the early classical pieces such as the 1888 Sonata, and shorter items in a more popular style, such as Rêverie (1894) and Les pèlerins (1925), by way of A Romantic Melody (1898), Pensées joyeuses (1888), In the Woodlands (1921), A Song of Summer (1922), and Légende triste (1923). The musical influences on his piano works were on the whole conservative: for the early works McCanna mentions Haydn and Mendelssohn in this context. Much of the piano music published in the years after the First World War was aimed at a domestic audience; it requires only a modest technical proficiency to play and is simple in structure with deft harmonies. The most commercially successful of the Vodorinski works was the Prelude in C minor (1907). McCanna comments that not only the title but the material is reminiscent of Rachmaninoff: \"the music turns out to copy some of the more illustrious composer's features, notably the final fortissimo statement of the melody in the bass\". Ketèlbey followed Chopin's model in several waltzes in the key of A major, including La grâcieuse (1907) and two different pieces under the title Valse brillante (1905 and 1911).\n\n### Songs\n\nThroughout his career Ketèlbey composed songs, providing the words for most of those written after 1913. His first, unpublished, song, \"Be Still, Sad Heart\" dates from 1892, and during the rest of the 1890s he wrote songs for children as well as sentimental ballads like \"Believe Me True\" (1897) for their seniors. Many had words by Florence Hoare, whose other lyrics included English words for songs by Tchaikovsky, Gounod and Brahms. Ketèlbey's popular ballads included \"The Heart's Awakening\" (1907), \"My Heart-a-dream\" (1909), \"I Loved You More Than I Knew\" (1912), \"My Heart Still Clings to You\" (1913), \"Will You Forgive?\" (1924), and \"A Birthday Song\" (1933). He wrote patriotic songs for use in three wars: \"There's Something in the English After all\" (1899, during the Boer War), \"The Trumpet Voice of Motherland is Calling\" (1914, for the First World War) and \"Fighting for Freedom\" (1941, during the Second World War). His sole Shakespeare setting, \"Blow! Blow! Thou Winter Wind\" (1898, revised 1951), was written as incidental music for a production of As You Like It.\n\n## Reputation and legacy\n\nThe obituarist for The Musical Times wrote that \"Ketèlbey's especial fame ... consisted in his phenomenal success as a composer of light music. His remarkable gift for alluring tunes, rich in homely sentiment, was reflected in the immense popularity of [his] pieces\". McCanna opines that Ketèlbey's popularity\n\n> lay in its memorable expressive melodies combined with its ability to set the scene by enhanced use of different kinds of colour: local colour in the choice of characteristic settings, often with explicit narrative captions printed above the music; musical colour in the form of exotic scales and harmonies; orchestral colour in the novel use of singing by the players and of sound effects executed by the drummer.\n\nDuring his tenure at Columbia, Ketèlbey promoted the works of several composers, including Haydn Wood, Charles Ancliffe, Ivor Novello, James W. Tate and Kenneth J. Alford, helping to increase the popularity of British light music. Ronnie Ronalde made In a Monastery Garden his signature tune from 1958, while Serge Gainsbourg used the theme of In a Persian Market for his 1977 song \"My Lady Héroïne\".\n\nDempsey, writing in 2001, considered that Ketèlbey's \"late-Romantic tone miniatures ... are deserving of reappraisal\". The composer's reputation has improved over time, and the cultural historian Andrew Blake identifies a \"form of 'cult following'\" for him. In the 21st century, Ketèlbey's music is still frequently heard on radio and in a 2003 poll by the BBC radio programme Your Hundred Best Tunes, Bells across the Meadows was voted thirty-sixth most popular tune of all time. The last night of the corporation's 2009 Proms season included In a Monastery Garden to mark the fiftieth anniversary of Ketèlbey's death; it was the first time the tune had been included in the festival's finale. Tim Page, the music critic for The Washington Post, considers that Ketèlbey's work expresses an \"ornate, perfumed, genteel Orientalism [which] found expression in miniatures\"; he adds that \"all of Ketèlbey's music is pretty weird—deeply derivative yet unmistakably personal, tidy in form yet grandiose in execution, amiable and often touching despite its unashamed mawkishness.\"\n\n## Notes, references and sources", "revid": "1167005154", "description": "English composer and pianist (1875–1959)", "categories": ["1875 births", "1959 deaths", "19th-century British composers", "19th-century English musicians", "19th-century classical composers", "19th-century classical pianists", "19th-century conductors (music)", "20th-century British conductors (music)", "20th-century British male musicians", "20th-century English composers", "20th-century classical composers", "20th-century classical pianists", "Alumni of Birmingham Conservatoire", "Alumni of Trinity College of Music", "British male conductors (music)", "English classical composers", "English classical pianists", "English conductors (music)", "English male classical composers", "Golders Green Crematorium", "Light music composers", "Male classical pianists", "Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands"]}
{"id": "313602", "url": null, "title": "Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom", "text": "Princess Beatrice (Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore; 14 April 1857 – 26 October 1944), later Princess Henry of Battenberg, was the fifth daughter and youngest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Beatrice was also the last of Queen Victoria's children to die, nearly 66 years after the first, her elder sister Alice.\n\nBeatrice's childhood coincided with Queen Victoria's grief following the death of her husband on 14 December 1861. As her elder sisters married and left their mother, the Queen came to rely on the company of her youngest daughter, whom she called \"Baby\" for most of her childhood. Beatrice was brought up to stay with her mother always and she soon resigned herself to her fate. The Queen was so set against her youngest daughter marrying that she refused to discuss the possibility. Nevertheless, many suitors were put forward, including Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial, the son of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France, and Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, the widower of Beatrice's older sister Alice. She was attracted to the Prince Imperial and there was talk of a possible marriage, but he was killed in the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879.\n\nBeatrice fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg, the son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia von Hauke and brother-in-law of her niece Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. After a year of persuasion, the Queen, whose consent was required pursuant to the Royal Marriages Act, finally agreed to the marriage, which took place at Whippingham on the Isle of Wight on 23 July 1885. Queen Victoria consented on condition that Beatrice and Henry make their home with her and that Beatrice continue her duties as the Queen's unofficial secretary. The Prince and Princess had four children, but 10 years into their marriage, on 20 January 1896, Prince Henry died of malaria while fighting in the Anglo-Asante War. Beatrice remained at her mother's side until Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. Beatrice devoted the next 30 years to editing Queen Victoria's journals as her designated literary executor and continued to make public appearances. She died aged 87 in 1944.\n\n## Early life\n\nPrincess Beatrice was born on 14 April 1857 at Buckingham Palace, London. She was the fifth daughter and youngest of the nine children of the reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria, and her husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (later the Prince Consort). The birth caused controversy when it was announced that Queen Victoria would seek relief from the pains of delivery through the use of chloroform administered by Dr John Snow. Chloroform was considered dangerous to mother and child and was frowned upon by the Church of England and the medical authorities. Queen Victoria was undeterred and used \"that blessed chloroform\" for her last pregnancy. A fortnight later, Queen Victoria reported in her journal, \"I was amply rewarded and forgot all I had gone through when I heard dearest Albert say 'It's a fine child, and a girl!'\" Albert and Queen Victoria chose the names Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore: Mary after Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester, the last surviving child of King George III of the United Kingdom; Victoria after the Queen; and Feodore after Feodora, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, the Queen's older half-sister. She was baptised in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace on 16 June 1857. Her godparents were the Duchess of Kent (maternal grandmother); the Princess Royal (eldest sister); and the Prince Frederick of Prussia (her future brother-in-law).\n\nFrom birth, Beatrice became a favoured child. The elder favourite daughter of Prince Albert, the Princess Royal, was about to take up residence in Germany with her new husband, Frederick (\"Fritz\") of Prussia. At the same time, the newly arrived Beatrice showed promise. Albert wrote to Augusta, Fritz's mother, that \"Baby practises her scales like a good prima donna before a performance and has a good voice!\" Although Queen Victoria was known to dislike most babies, she liked Beatrice, whom she considered attractive. This provided Beatrice with an advantage over her elder siblings. Queen Victoria once remarked that Beatrice was \"a pretty, plump and flourishing child ... with fine large blue eyes, [a] pretty little mouth and very fine skin\". Her long, golden hair was the focus of paintings commissioned by Queen Victoria, who enjoyed giving Beatrice her bath, in marked contrast to her bathing preferences for her other children. Beatrice showed intelligence, which further endeared her to the Prince Consort, who was amused by her childhood precociousness.\n\nHe wrote to Baron Stockmar that Beatrice was \"the most amusing baby we have had.\" Despite sharing the rigorous education programme designed by Prince Albert and his close adviser, Baron Stockmar, Beatrice had a more relaxed infancy than her siblings because of her relationship with her parents. By four years of age, the youngest, and the acknowledged last royal child, Beatrice was not forced to share her parents' attention the way her siblings had, and her amusing ways provided comfort to her faltering father.\n\n## Queen Victoria's devoted companion\n\nIn March 1861, Queen Victoria's mother Victoria, Duchess of Kent, died at Frogmore. The Queen broke down in grief and guilt over their estrangement at the beginning of her reign. Beatrice tried to console her mother by reminding her that the Duchess of Kent was \"in heaven, but Beatrice hopes she will return\". This comfort was significant because Queen Victoria had isolated herself from her children except the eldest unmarried daughter, Princess Alice, and Beatrice. Queen Victoria again relied on Beatrice and Alice after the death of Albert, of typhoid fever, on 14 December.\n\nThe depth of the Queen's grief over the death of her husband surprised her family, courtiers, politicians and general populace. As when her mother died, she shut herself off from her family—most particularly, the Prince of Wales, (whom she blamed for her husband's death), with the exception of Alice and Beatrice. Queen Victoria often took Beatrice from her cot, hurried to her bed and \"lay there sleepless, clasping to her child, wrapped in the nightclothes of a man who would wear them no more.\" After 1871, when the last of Beatrice's elder sisters married, Queen Victoria came to rely upon her youngest daughter, who had declared from an early age: \"I don't like weddings at all. I shall never be married. I shall stay with my mother.\" As her mother's secretary, she performed duties such as writing on the Queen's behalf and helping with political correspondence. These mundane duties mirrored those that had been performed in succession by her sisters, Alice, Helena and Louise. However, to these the Queen soon added more personal tasks. During a serious illness in 1871, the Queen dictated her journal entries to Beatrice, and in 1876 she allowed Beatrice to sort the music she and the Prince Consort had played, unused since his death fifteen years earlier.\n\nThe devotion that Beatrice showed to her mother was acknowledged in the Queen's letters and journals, but her constant need for Beatrice grew stronger. The Queen suffered another bereavement in 1883, when her highland servant, John Brown, died at Balmoral. Once again, the Queen plunged into public mourning and relied on Beatrice for support. Unlike her siblings, Beatrice had not shown dislike for Brown, and the two had often been seen in each other's company; indeed, they had worked together to carry out the Queen's wishes.\n\n## Marriage\n\n### Possible suitors\n\nAlthough the Queen was set against Beatrice marrying anyone in the expectation that she would always stay at home with her, a number of possible suitors were put forward before Beatrice's marriage to Prince Henry of Battenberg. One of these was Napoléon Eugéne, the French Prince Imperial, son and heir of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France and his wife, Empress Eugénie. After Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon was deposed and moved his family to England in 1870. After the Emperor's death in 1873, Queen Victoria and Empress Eugénie formed a close attachment, and the newspapers reported the imminent engagement of Beatrice to the Prince Imperial. These rumours ended with the death of the Prince Imperial in the Anglo-Zulu War on 1 June 1879. Queen Victoria's journal records their grief: \"Dear Beatrice, crying very much as I did too, gave me the telegram ... It was dawning and little sleep did I get ... Beatrice is so distressed; everyone quite stunned.\"\n\nAfter the death of the Prince Imperial, the Prince of Wales suggested that Beatrice marry their sister Alice's widower, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse. Alice had died in 1878, and the Prince argued that Beatrice could act as replacement mother for Louis's young children and spend most of her time in England looking after her mother. He further suggested the Queen could oversee the upbringing of her Hessian grandchildren with greater ease. However, at the time, it was forbidden by law for Beatrice to marry her sister's widower. This was countered by the Prince of Wales, who vehemently supported passage by the Houses of Parliament of the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill, which would have removed the obstacle. Despite popular support for this measure and although it passed in the House of Commons, it was rejected by the House of Lords because of opposition from the Lords Spiritual. Although the Queen was disappointed that the bill had failed, she was happy to keep her daughter at her side.\n\nOther candidates, including two of Prince Henry's brothers, Prince Alexander (\"Sandro\") and Prince Louis of Battenberg, were put forward to be Beatrice's husband, but they did not succeed. Although Alexander never formally pursued Beatrice, merely claiming that he \"might even at one time have become engaged to the friend of my childhood, Beatrice of England\", Louis was more interested. Queen Victoria invited him to dinner but sat between him and Beatrice, who had been told by the Queen to ignore Louis to discourage his suit. Louis, not realising for several years the reasons for this silence, married Beatrice's niece, Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. Although her marriage hopes had been dealt another blow, while attending Louis's wedding at Darmstadt, Beatrice fell in love with Prince Henry, who returned her affections.\n\n### Engagement and wedding\n\nWhen Beatrice, after returning from Darmstadt, told her mother she planned to marry, the Queen reacted with frightening silence. Although they remained side by side, the Queen did not talk to her for seven months, instead communicating by note. Queen Victoria's behaviour, unexpected even by her family, seemed prompted by the threatened loss of her daughter. The Queen regarded Beatrice as her \"Baby\" – her innocent child – and viewed the physical sex that would come with marriage as an end to innocence.\n\nSubtle persuasions by the Princess of Wales and the Crown Princess of Prussia, who reminded her mother of the happiness that Beatrice had brought the Prince Consort, induced the Queen to resume talking to Beatrice. Queen Victoria consented to the marriage on condition that Henry give up his German commitments and live permanently with Beatrice and the Queen.\n\nBeatrice and Henry were married at Saint Mildred's Church at Whippingham, near Osborne, on 23 July 1885. Beatrice, who wore her mother's wedding veil of Honiton lace, was escorted by the Queen and Beatrice's eldest brother, the Prince of Wales. Princess Beatrice was attended by ten royal bridesmaids from among her nieces: Princesses Louise (18), Victoria and Maud of Wales; Princesses Irene and Alix of Hesse and by Rhine; Princesses Marie, Victoria Melita and Alexandra of Edinburgh; and Princesses Helena Victoria and Marie Louise of Schleswig-Holstein. The bridegroom's supporters were his brothers, Prince Alexander of Bulgaria and Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg.\n\nThe ceremony – which was not attended by her eldest sister and brother-in-law, the Crown Prince and Princess of Prussia, who were detained in Germany; William Ewart Gladstone; or Beatrice's cousin, Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck, who was in mourning for her father-in-law – ended with the couple's departure for their honeymoon at Quarr Abbey House, a few miles from Osborne. The Queen, taking leave of them, \"bore up bravely till the departure and then fairly gave way\", as she later admitted to the Crown Princess.\n\n## Queen Victoria's last years\n\nAfter a short honeymoon, Beatrice and her husband fulfilled their promise and returned to the Queen's side. The Queen made it clear that she could not cope on her own and that the couple could not travel without her. Although the Queen relaxed this restriction shortly after the marriage, Beatrice and Henry travelled only to make short visits with his family. Beatrice's love for Henry, like that of the Queen's for the Prince Consort, seemed to increase the longer they were married. When Henry travelled without Beatrice, she appeared happier when he returned.\n\nThe addition of Prince Henry to the family gave new reasons for Beatrice and the Queen to look forward, and the court was brighter than it had been since the Prince Consort's death. Even so, Henry, supported by Beatrice, was determined to take part in military campaigns, and this annoyed the Queen, who opposed his participation in life-threatening warfare. Conflicts also arose when Henry attended the Ajaccio carnival and kept \"low company\", and Beatrice sent a Royal Navy officer to remove him from temptation. On one occasion, Henry slipped away to Corsica with his brother Louis; the Queen sent a warship to bring him back. Henry was feeling oppressed by the Queen's constant need for his and his wife's company.\n\nDespite being married, Beatrice fulfilled her promise to the Queen by continuing as her full-time confidante and secretary. Queen Victoria warmed to Henry. However, the Queen criticised Beatrice's conduct during her first pregnancy. When Beatrice stopped coming to the Queen's dinners a week before giving birth, preferring to eat alone in her room, the Queen wrote angrily to her physician, Dr James Reid, that, \"I [urged the Princess to continue] coming to dinner, and not simply moping in her own room, which is very bad for her. In my case I regularly came to dinner, except when I was really unwell (even when suffering a great deal) up to the very last day.\" Beatrice, aided by chloroform, gave birth the following week to her first son, Alexander. Despite suffering a miscarriage in the early months of her marriage, Beatrice gave birth to four children: Alexander, called \"Drino\", was born in 1886; Victoria Eugenie, called \"Ena\", in 1887; Leopold in 1889; and Maurice in 1891. Following this, she took a polite and encouraging interest in social issues, such as conditions in the coal mines. However, this interest did not extend to changing the conditions of poverty, as it had done with her brother, the Prince of Wales.\n\nAlthough court entertainments were few after the Prince Consort's death, Beatrice and the Queen enjoyed tableau vivant photography, which was often performed at the royal residences. Henry, increasingly bored by the lack of activity at court, longed for employment, and in response, the Queen made him Governor of the Isle of Wight in 1889. However, he yearned for military adventure and pleaded with his mother-in-law to let him join the Ashanti expedition fighting in the Anglo-Asante war. Despite misgivings, the Queen consented, and Henry and Beatrice parted on 6 December 1895; they would not meet again. Henry contracted malaria and was sent home. On 22 January 1896, Beatrice, who was waiting for her husband at Madeira, received a telegram informing her of Henry's death two days earlier.\n\nDevastated, she left court for a month of mourning before returning to her post at her mother's side. The Queen's journal reports that Queen Victoria \"[w]ent over to Beatrice's room and sat a while with her. She is so piteous in her misery.\" Despite her grief, Beatrice remained her mother's faithful companion, and as Queen Victoria aged, she relied more heavily on Beatrice for dealing with correspondence. However, realising that Beatrice needed a place of her own, she gave her the Kensington Palace apartments once occupied by the Queen and her mother. The Queen appointed Beatrice to the governorship of the Isle of Wight, vacated by Prince Henry's death. In response to Beatrice's interest in photography, the Queen had a darkroom installed at Osborne House. The changes in the family, including Beatrice's preoccupation with her mother, may have affected her children, who rebelled at school. Beatrice wrote that Ena was \"troublesome and rebellious\", and that Alexander was telling \"unwarrantable untruths\".\n\n## Later life\n\nBeatrice's life was overturned by the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. She wrote to the Principal of the University of Glasgow in March, \"... you may imagine what the grief is. I, who had hardly ever been separated from my dear mother, can hardly realise what life will be like without her, who was the centre of everything.\" Beatrice's public appearances continued, but her position at court was diminished. She, unlike her sister Louise, was not close to her brother, now Edward VII, and was not included in the King's inner circle. Although their relationship did not break down completely, it was occasionally strained, for example when she accidentally (but noisily) dropped her service book from the royal gallery onto a table of gold plate during his coronation.\n\nAfter inheriting Osborne, the King had his mother's personal photographs and belongings removed and some of them destroyed, especially material relating to John Brown, whom he detested. Queen Victoria had intended the house to be a private, secluded residence for her descendants, away from the pomp and ceremony of mainland life. However, the new king had no need for the house and consulted his lawyers about disposing of it, transforming the main wing into a convalescent home, opening the state apartments to the public, and constructing a Naval College on the grounds. His plans met with strong disapproval from Beatrice and Louise. Queen Victoria had bequeathed them houses on the estate, and the privacy promised to them by their mother was threatened. When Edward discussed the fate of the house with them, Beatrice argued against allowing the house to leave the family, citing its importance to their parents.\n\nHowever, the King did not want the house himself, and he offered it to his heir-apparent, Beatrice's nephew George, who declined, objecting to the high cost of maintenance. Edward subsequently extended the grounds of Beatrice's home, Osborne Cottage, to compensate her for the impending loss of her privacy. Shortly afterwards, the King declared to Arthur Balfour, the prime minister, that the main house would go to the nation as a gift. An exception was made for the private apartments, which were closed to all but the royal family members, who made it a shrine to their mother's memory.\n\n### Queen Victoria's journals\n\nUpon Queen Victoria's death, Beatrice began the momentous task of transcribing and editing her mother's journals. The hundreds of volumes from 1831 onwards contained the Queen's personal views of the day-to-day business of her life and included personal and family matters as well as matters of state.\n\nQueen Victoria had given Beatrice the task of editing the journals for publication, which meant removing private material as well as passages that, if published, might be hurtful to living people. Beatrice deleted so much material that the edited journals are only a third as long as the originals. The destruction of such large passages of Queen Victoria's diaries distressed Beatrice's nephew, George V, and his wife Queen Mary, who were powerless to intervene. Beatrice copied a draft from the original and then copied her draft into a set of blue notebooks. Both the originals and her first drafts were destroyed as she progressed. The task took thirty years and was finished in 1931. The surviving 111 notebooks are kept in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle.\n\n### Retirement from public life\n\nBeatrice continued to appear in public after her mother's death. The public engagements she carried out were often related to her mother, Queen Victoria, as the public had always associated Beatrice with the deceased monarch.\n\nThe beauty of Beatrice's daughter, Ena, was known throughout Europe, and, despite her low rank, she was a desirable bride. Her chosen suitor was Alfonso XIII of Spain. However, the marriage caused controversy in Britain, since it required Ena to convert to Catholicism. This step was opposed by Beatrice's brother, Edward VII, and Spanish ultra-conservatives were against the King's marriage to a Protestant of low birth, as her father, Prince Henry, was the son of a morganatic marriage. Thus, they considered Ena to be only partly royal and thus unfit to be Queen of Spain. Nonetheless, the couple wed on 31 May 1906. The marriage began inauspiciously when an anarchist attempted to bomb them on their wedding day. Apparently close at first, the couple grew apart. Ena became unpopular in Spain and grew more so when it was discovered that her son, the heir-apparent to the throne, suffered from haemophilia. Alfonso held Beatrice responsible for having brought the disease to the Spanish royal house and turned bitterly against Ena.\n\nDuring her time as Queen of Spain, Ena returned many times to visit her mother in Britain, but always without Alfonso and usually without her children. Meanwhile, Beatrice lived at Osborne Cottage in East Cowes until she sold it in 1913, when Carisbrooke Castle, home of the Governor of the Isle of Wight, became vacant. She moved into the Castle while keeping an apartment at Kensington Palace in London. She had been much involved in collecting material for the Carisbrooke Castle museum, which she opened in 1898.\n\nHer presence at court further decreased as she aged. Devastated by the death of her favourite son, Maurice, during the First World War in 1914, she began to retire from public life. In response to war with Germany, George V changed the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor and at the same time adopted it as the family surname, to downplay their German origins. Subsequently, Beatrice and her family renounced their German titles; Beatrice stopped using the style Princess Henry of Battenberg, reverting to only using her birth style, HRH The Princess Beatrice. Her sons gave up their style, Prince of Battenberg. Alexander, the eldest, became Sir Alexander Mountbatten and was later given the title Marquess of Carisbrooke in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Her younger son, Leopold, became Lord Leopold Mountbatten and was given the rank of a younger son of a marquess. He was a haemophiliac, having inherited the \"royal disease\" from his mother, and died during a knee operation in 1922 one month short of his 33rd birthday.\n\nFollowing the war, Beatrice was one of several members of the royal family who became patrons of The Ypres League, a society founded for veterans of the Ypres Salient and bereaved relatives of those killed in fighting in the Salient. She was herself a bereaved mother, as her son, Prince Maurice of Battenberg, had been killed in action during the First Battle of Ypres. Rare public appearances after his death included commemorations, including laying wreaths at the Cenotaph in 1930 and 1935 to mark the 10th and 15th anniversaries of the founding of the League.\n\n### Last years\n\nEven in her seventies, Beatrice continued to correspond with her friends and relatives and to make rare public appearances, such as when, pushed in a wheelchair, she viewed the wreaths laid after the death of George V in 1936. She published her last work of translation in 1941. Entitled \"In Napoleonic Days\", it was the personal diary of Queen Victoria's maternal grandmother, Augusta, Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She corresponded with the publisher, John Murray, who greatly approved of the work. She made her last home at Brantridge Park in West Sussex, which was owned by Queen Mary's brother, Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone, and his wife, Princess Alice, who was Beatrice's niece; the Athlones were at the time in Canada where the Earl was governor-general. There, Beatrice died in her sleep on 26 October 1944, aged eighty-seven (the day before the 30th anniversary of her son, Prince Maurice's death). After her funeral service in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, her coffin was placed in the royal vault on 3 November. On 27 August 1945, her body was transferred and placed inside a joint tomb, alongside her husband, in St Mildred's Church, Whippingham. Beatrice's final wish, to be buried with her husband on the island most familiar to her, was fulfilled in a private service at Whippingham attended only by her son, the Marquess of Carisbrooke, and his wife.\n\n## Legacy\n\nBeatrice was the shyest of all of Queen Victoria's children. However, because she accompanied Queen Victoria almost wherever she went, she became among the best known. Despite her shyness, she was an able actress and dancer as well as a keen artist and photographer. She was devoted to her children and was concerned when they misbehaved at school. To those who enjoyed her friendship, she was loyal and had a sense of humour, and as a public figure she was driven by a strong sense of duty. She was Patron of the Isle of Wight Branch of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1920 until her death. Music, a passion that was shared by her mother and the Prince Consort, was something in which Beatrice excelled. She played the piano to professional standards and was an occasional composer. Like her mother, she was a devout Christian, fascinated by theology until her death. With her calm temperament and personal warmth, the princess won wide approval.\n\nThe demands made on Beatrice during her mother's reign were high. Despite suffering from rheumatism, Beatrice was forced to endure her mother's love of cold weather. Beatrice's piano playing suffered as her rheumatism got gradually worse, eliminating an enjoyment in which she excelled; however, this did not change her willingness to cater to her mother's needs. Her effort did not go unnoticed by the British public.\n\nIn 1886, when she agreed to open the Show of the Royal Horticultural Society of Southampton, the organisers sent her a proclamation of thanks, expressing their \"admiration of the affectionate manner in which you have comforted and assisted your widowed mother our Gracious Sovereign the Queen\". As a wedding present, Sir Moses Montefiore, a banker and philanthropist, presented Beatrice and Henry with a silver tea service inscribed: \"Many daughters have acted virtuously, but thou excellest them all.\" The Times newspaper, shortly before Beatrice's marriage, wrote: \"The devotion of your Royal Highness to our beloved Sovereign has won our warmest admiration and our deepest gratitude. May those blessings which it has hitherto been your constant aim to confer on others now be returned in full measure to yourself.\" The sentence was, as far as it dared, criticising the Queen's hold over her daughter.\n\nShe died at Brantridge Park, the home of her niece, Princess Alice, and her husband, the Earl of Athlone, at the time serving as Governor General of Canada. Osborne House, her mother's favourite home, is accessible to the public. Her Osborne residences, Osborne and Albert Cottages, remain in private ownership after their sale in 1912.\n\n## Titles, styles, honours and arms\n\n### Titles and styles\n\n- 14 April 1857 – 23 July 1885: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice\n- 23 July 1885 – 14 July 1917: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg\n- 17 July 1917 – 26 October 1944: Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice\n\n### Honours\n\nBritish honours\n\n- 1 January 1878: Order of the Crown of India\n- 8 January 1919: Dame Grand Cross of the British Empire\n- 12 June 1926: Dame Grand Cross of St John\n- 11 May 1937: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order\n- Royal Order of Victoria and Albert\n- Royal Red Cross\n\nForeign honours\n\n- Grand Cross of St. Catherine\n- 11 September 1875: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel\n- 25 April 1885: Dame of the Golden Lion\n- 27 May 1889: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa\n\n### Arms\n\nIn 1858, Beatrice and the three younger of her sisters were granted use of the royal arms, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced by a label of three points argent. On Beatrice's arms, the outer points bore roses gules, and the centre a heart gules. In 1917, the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from George V.\n\n## Issue\n\n## Ancestry", "revid": "1169751788", "description": "British princess, youngest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert", "categories": ["1857 births", "1944 deaths", "19th-century British people", "19th-century British women", "20th-century British people", "20th-century British women", "Battenberg family", "British princesses", "Burials at St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham", "Children of Queen Victoria", "Companions of the Order of the Crown of India", "Dames Grand Cross of the Order of St John", "Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire", "Dames Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order", "Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel", "Daughters of monarchs", "German princesses", "House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)", "Ladies of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert", "Members of the Royal Red Cross", "People from Balcombe, West Sussex", "People from Kensington", "People from the Isle of Wight", "Princesses of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "Royal reburials", "Women of the Victorian era", "Women who experienced pregnancy loss"]}
{"id": "19088", "url": null, "title": "Malawi", "text": "Malawi (/məˈlɔːwi, məˈlɑːwi, ˈmæləwi/; or [maláwi]; Tumbuka: Malaŵi), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km<sup>2</sup> (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 19,431,566 (as of January 2021). Malawi's capital (and largest city) is Lilongwe. Its second-largest is Blantyre, its third-largest is Mzuzu and its fourth-largest is its former capital, Zomba. The name Malawi comes from the Maravi, an old name for the Chewa people who inhabit the area. The country is nicknamed \"The Warm Heart of Africa\" because of the friendliness of its people.\n\nThe part of Africa now known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by migrating Bantu groups. Centuries later, in 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate, renamed Nyasaland in 1907. In 1953, it became a protectorate within the semi-independent Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was dissolved in 1963. In 1964, the protectorate was ended: Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda, and was renamed Malawi. Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Declared President for life in 1971, Malawi's next few decades of independence were characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship. Following the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda was defeated in the 1994 general election. Today, Malawi has a democratic, multi-party republic headed by an elected president and has continued to experience peaceful transitions of power. The country's military, the Malawian Defence Force, includes an army, a navy, and an air wing. Malawi's foreign policy is pro-Western. It maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU).\n\nMalawi is one of the world's least-developed countries. The economy is heavily based on agriculture, and it has a largely rural and rapidly growing population. The Malawian government depends heavily on outside aid to meet its development needs, although the amount needed (and the aid offered) has decreased since 2000. The Malawian government faces challenges in its efforts to build and expand the economy, to improve education, healthcare, and environmental protection, and to become financially independent despite widespread unemployment. Since 2005, Malawi has developed several policies that focus on addressing these issues, and the country's outlook appears to be improving: key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008.\n\nMalawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples, Asians, and Europeans. Several languages are spoken, and there is an array of religious beliefs. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and the idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged.\n\n## History\n\n### Pre-colonial history\n\nThe area of Africa now known as Malawi had a very small population of hunter-gatherers before waves of Bantu peoples began emigrating from the north around the 10th century. Although most of the Bantu peoples continued south, some remained and founded ethnic groups based on common ancestry. By 1500 AD, the tribes had established the Kingdom of Maravi that reached from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River and from Lake Malawi to the Luangwa River in what is now Zambia.\n\nSoon after 1600, with the area mostly united under one native ruler, native tribesmen began encountering, trading with and making alliances with Portuguese traders and members of the military. By 1700, however, the empire had broken up into areas controlled by many individual ethnic groups. The Indian Ocean slave trade reached its height in the mid-1800s, when approximately 20,000 people were enslaved and considered to be carried yearly from Nkhotakota to Kilwa where they were sold.\n\n### Colonial occupation\n\nMissionary and explorer David Livingstone reached Lake Malawi (then Lake Nyasa) in 1859 and identified the Shire Highlands south of the lake as an area suitable for European settlement. As the result of Livingstone's visit, several Anglican and Presbyterian missions were established in the area in the 1860s and 1870s, the African Lakes Company Limited was established in 1878 to set up a trade and transport concern working closely with the missions, and a small mission and trading settlement were established at Blantyre in 1876 and a British Consul took up residence there in 1883. The Portuguese government was also interested in the area so, to prevent Portuguese occupation, the British government sent Harry Johnston as British consul with instructions to make treaties with local rulers beyond Portuguese jurisdiction.\n\nIn 1889, a British protectorate was proclaimed over the Shire Highlands, which was extended in 1891 to include the whole of present-day Malawi as the British Central Africa Protectorate. In 1907, the protectorate was renamed Nyasaland, a name it retained for the remainder of its time under British rule. In a prime example of what is sometimes called the \"Thin White Line\" of colonial authority in Africa, the colonial government of Nyasaland was formed in 1891. The administrators were given a budget of £10,000 (1891 nominal value) per year, which was enough to employ ten European civilians, two military officers, seventy Punjabi Sikhs and eighty-five Zanzibar porters. These few employees were then expected to administer and police a territory of around 94,000 square kilometres with between one and two million people.\n\nThat same year, slavery came to its complete cessation when Sir Harry Johnston, the Commissioner of Nyasaland made his significant effort to put an end to the trade.\n\nIn 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was formed by the Africans of Nyasaland to promote local interests to the British government. In 1953, Britain linked Nyasaland with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in what was the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, often called the Central African Federation (CAF), for mainly political reasons. Even though the Federation was semi-independent, the linking provoked opposition from African nationalists, and the NAC gained popular support. An influential opponent of the CAF was Hastings Banda, a European-trained doctor working in Ghana who was persuaded to return to Nyasaland in 1958 to assist the nationalist cause. Banda was elected president of the NAC and worked to mobilise nationalist sentiment before being jailed by colonial authorities in 1959. He was released in 1960 and asked to help draft a new constitution for Nyasaland, with a clause granting Africans the majority in the colony's Legislative Council.\n\n### Hastings Kamuzu Banda era (1961–1993)\n\nIn 1961, Banda's Malawi Congress Party (MCP) gained a majority in the Legislative Council elections and Banda became Prime Minister in 1963. The Federation was dissolved in 1963, and on 6 July 1964, Nyasaland became independent from British rule and renamed itself Malawi, and that is commemorated as the nation's Independence Day, a public holiday. Under a new constitution, Malawi became a republic with Banda as its first president. The new document also formally made Malawi a one-party state with the MCP as the only legal party. In 1971, Banda was declared president-for-life. For almost 30 years, Banda presided over a rigidly totalitarian regime, which ensured that Malawi did not suffer armed conflict. Opposition parties, including the Malawi Freedom Movement of Orton Chirwa and the Socialist League of Malawi, were founded in exile.\n\nMalawi's economy, while Banda was president, was often cited as an example of how a poor, landlocked, and heavily populated country deficient in mineral resources could achieve progress in both agriculture and industrial development. While in office, and using his control of the country, Banda constructed a business empire that eventually produced one-third of the country's GDP and employed 10% of the wage-earning workforce.\n\n### Multi-party democracy (1993–present)\n\nUnder pressure for increased political freedom, Banda agreed to a referendum in 1993, where the populace voted for a multi-party democracy. In late 1993, a presidential council was formed, the life presidency was abolished and a new constitution was put into place, effectively ending the MCP's rule. In 1994 the first multi-party elections were held in Malawi, and Banda was defeated by Bakili Muluzi (a former Secretary General of the MCP and former Banda Cabinet Minister). Re-elected in 1999, Muluzi remained president until 2004, when Bingu wa Mutharika was elected. Although the political environment was described as \"challenging\", it was stated in 2009 that a multi-party system still existed in Malawi. Multiparty parliamentary and presidential elections were held for the fourth time in Malawi in May 2009, and President Mutharika was successfully re-elected, despite charges of election fraud from his rival.\n\nPresident Mutharika was seen by some as increasingly autocratic and dismissive of human rights, and in July 2011 protests over high costs of living, devolving foreign relations, poor governance and a lack of foreign exchange reserves erupted. The protests left 18 people dead and at least 44 others suffering from gunshot wounds.\n\nIn April 2012, Mutharika died of a heart attack. Over a period of 48 hours, his death was kept secret, including an elaborate flight with the body to South Africa, where the ambulance drivers refused to move the body, saying they were not licensed to move a corpse. After the South African government threatened to reveal the information, the presidential title was taken over by Vice-President Joyce Banda (not related to the former president Banda).\n\nIn 2014 Malawian general election Joyce Banda lost the elections (coming third) and was replaced by Peter Mutharika, the brother of ex-President Mutharika. In the 2019 Malawian general election president Peter Mutharika was narrowly re-elected. In February 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court overturned the result because of irregularities and widespread fraud. In May 2020 Malawi Supreme Court upheld the decision and announced a new election was held on July 2. This was the first time an election in the country was legally challenged. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won the 2020 Malawian presidential election and he was sworn in as the new president of Malawi.\n\n## Government and politics\n\nMalawi is a unitary presidential republic under the leadership of President Lazarus Chakwera The current constitution was put into place on 18 May 1995. The branches of the government consist of executive, legislative and judicial. The executive includes a President who is both Head of State and Head of Government, first and second Vice Presidents and the Cabinet of Malawi. The President and Vice President are elected together every five years. A second Vice President may be appointed by the President if so chosen, although they must be from a different party. The members of the Cabinet of Malawi are appointed by the President and can be from either inside or outside of the legislature.\n\nThe legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly of 193 members who are elected every five years, and although the Malawian constitution provides for a Senate of 80 seats, one does not exist in practice. If created, the Senate would provide representation for traditional leaders and a variety of geographic districts, as well as special interest groups including the disabled, youth, and women. The Malawi Congress Party is the ruling party together with several other parties in the Tonse Alliance led by Lazarus Chakwera while the Democratic Progressive Party is the main opposition party. Suffrage is universal at 18 years of age, and the central government budget for 2021/2022 is \\$2.4 billion from \\$2.8 billion for the 2020/2021 financial year.\n\nThe independent judicial branch is based upon the English model and consists of a Supreme Court of Appeal, a High Court divided into three sections (general, constitutional, and commercial), an Industrial Relations Court and Magistrates Courts, the last of which is divided into five grades and includes Child Justice Courts. The judicial system has been changed several times since Malawi gained independence in 1964. Conventional courts and traditional courts have been used in varying combinations, with varying degrees of success and corruption.\n\nMalawi is composed of three regions (the Northern, Central, and Southern regions), which are divided into 28 districts, and further into approximately 250 traditional authorities and 110 administrative wards. Local government is administered by central government-appointed regional administrators and district commissioners. For the first time in the multi-party era, local elections took place on 21 November 2000, with the UDF party winning 70% of the available seats. There was scheduled to be a second round of constitutionally mandated local elections in May 2005, but these were cancelled by the government.\n\nIn February 2005, President Mutharika split with the United Democratic Front and began his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party, which had attracted reform-minded officials from other parties and won by-elections across the country in 2006. In 2008, President Mutharika had implemented reforms to address the country's major corruption problem, with at least five senior UDF party members facing criminal charges. In 2012, Malawi was ranked 7th of all countries in sub-Saharan Africa in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance, an index that measures several variables to provide a comprehensive view of the governance of African countries. Although the country's governance score was higher than the continental average, it was lower than the regional average for southern Africa. Its highest scores were for safety and rule of law, and its lowest scores were for sustainable economic opportunity, with a ranking of 47th on the continent for educational opportunities. Malawi's governance score had improved between 2000 and 2011. Malawi held elections in May 2019, with President Peter Mutharika winning re-election over challengers Lazarus Chakwera, Atupele Muluzi, and Saulos Chilima. In 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court annulled President Peter Mutharika's narrow election victory last year because of widespread fraud and irregularities. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won 2020 Malawian presidential election and he became the new president.\n\n### Administrative divisions\n\nMalawi is divided into 28 districts within three regions:\n\n### Foreign relations\n\nFormer President Hastings Banda established a pro-Western foreign policy that continued into early 2011. It included good diplomatic relationships with many Western countries. The transition from a one-party state to a multi-party democracy strengthened Malawian ties with the United States. Significant numbers of students from Malawi travel to the US for schooling, and the US has active branches of the Peace Corps, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Department of Health and Human Services and the Agency for International Development in Malawi. Malawi maintained close relations with South Africa throughout the Apartheid era, which strained Malawi's relationships with other African countries. Following the collapse of apartheid in 1994, diplomatic relationships were made and maintained into 2011 between Malawi and all other African countries. In 2010, however, Malawi's relationship with Mozambique became strained, partially due to disputes over the use of the Zambezi River and an inter-country electrical grid. In 2007, Malawi established diplomatic ties with China, and Chinese investment in the country has continued to increase since then, despite concerns regarding the treatment of workers by Chinese companies and competition of Chinese business with local companies. In 2011, relations between Malawi and the United Kingdom were damaged when a document was released in which the British ambassador to Malawi criticised President Mutharika. Mutharika expelled the ambassador from Malawi, and in July 2011, the UK announced that it was suspending all budgetary aid because of Mutharika's lack of response to criticisms of his government and economic mismanagement. On 26 July 2011, the United States followed suit, freezing a US\\$350 million grant, citing concerns regarding the government's suppression and intimidation of demonstrators and civic groups, as well as restriction of the press and police violence.\n\nMalawi has been seen as a haven for refugees from other African countries, including Mozambique and Rwanda, since 1985. These influxes of refugees have placed a strain on the Malawian economy but have also drawn significant inflows of aid from other countries. Donors to Malawi include the United States, Canada, Germany, Iceland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Ireland, the UK and Flanders (Belgium), as well as international institutions such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the European Union, the African Development Bank and UN organizations.\n\nMalawi is a member of several international organizations including the Commonwealth, the UN and some of its child agencies, the IMF, the World Bank, the African Union and the World Health Organization. Malawi tends to view economic and political stability in southern Africa as a necessity and advocates peaceful solutions through negotiation. The country was the first in southern Africa to receive peacekeeping training under the African Crisis Response Initiative.\n\nIn October 2022, a memorandum of understanding was signed with Liberland, which caused public critics in the country.\n\n### Human rights\n\nAs of 2017, international observers noted issues in several human rights areas. Excessive force was seen to be used by police forces, security forces were able to act with impunity, mob violence was occasionally seen, and prison conditions continued to be harsh and sometimes life-threatening. However, the government was seen to make some effort to prosecute security forces who used excessive force. Other legal issues included limits on free speech and freedom of the press, lengthy pretrial detentions, and arbitrary arrests and detentions. Societal issues found included violence against women, human trafficking, and child labour. Corruption within the government is seen as a major issue, despite the Malawi Anti-Corruption Bureau's (ACB) attempts to reduce it. The ACB appears to be successful at finding and prosecuting low level corruption, but higher level officials appear to be able to act with impunity. Corruption within security forces is also an issue. Malawi had one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. In 2015 Malawi raised the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18. Other issues that have been raised are lack of adequate legal protection of women from sexual abuse and harassment, very high maternal mortality rate, and abuse related to accusations of witchcraft.\n\nAs of 2010, homosexuality has been illegal in Malawi. In one 2010 case, a couple perceived as homosexual (a cis man and a trans woman) faced extensive jail time when convicted. The convicted pair, sentenced to the maximum of 14 years of hard labour each, were pardoned two weeks later following the intervention of United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon. In May 2012, then-President Joyce Banda pledged to repeal laws criminalising homosexuality. It was her successor, Peter Mutharika, who imposed a moratorium in 2015 that suspended the country's anti-gay laws pending further review of the same laws. On 26 June 2021, the country's LGBT community held the first Pride parade in the country's Capital City, Lilongwe.\n\n## Geography\n\nMalawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa, bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique to the south, southwest, and southeast. It lies between latitudes 9° and 18°S, and longitudes 32° and 36°E.\n\nThe Great Rift Valley runs through the country from north to south, and to the east of the valley lies Lake Malawi (also called Lake Nyasa), making up over three-quarters of Malawi's eastern boundary. Lake Malawi is sometimes called the Calendar Lake as it is about 365 miles (587 km) long and 52 miles (84 km) wide. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 400 kilometres (250 mi) farther south in Mozambique. The surface of Lake Malawi is at 457 metres (1,500 ft) above sea level, with a maximum depth of 701 metres (2,300 ft), which means the lake bottom is over 213 metres (700 ft) below sea level at some points.\n\nIn the mountainous sections of Malawi surrounding the Rift Valley, plateaus rise generally 914 to 1,219 metres (3,000 to 4,000 ft) above sea level, although some rise as high as 2,438 metres (8,000 ft) in the north. To the south of Lake Malawi lie the Shire Highlands, gently rolling land at approximately 914 metres (3,000 ft) above sea level. In this area, the Zomba and Mulanje mountain peaks rise to respective heights of 2,134 and 3,048 metres (7,000 and 10,000 ft).\n\nMalawi's capital is Lilongwe, and its commercial centre is Blantyre with a population of over 500,000 people. Malawi has two sites listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Lake Malawi National Park was first listed in 1984 and the Chongoni Rock Art Area was listed in 2006.\n\nMalawi's climate is hot in the low-lying areas in the south of the country and temperate in the northern highlands. The altitude moderates what would otherwise be an equatorial climate. Between November and April, the temperature is warm with equatorial rains and thunderstorms, with the storms reaching their peak severity in late March. After March, the rainfall rapidly diminishes, and from May to September wet mists float from the highlands into the plateaus, with almost no rainfall during these months.\n\n### Flora and fauna\n\nAnimal life indigenous to Malawi includes mammals such as elephants, hippos, antelopes, buffaloes, big cats, monkeys, rhinos, and bats; a great variety of birds including birds of prey, parrots and falcons, waterfowl and large waders, owls and songbirds. Lake Malawi has been described as having one of the richest lake fish faunas in the world, being the home for some 200 mammals, 650 birds, 30+ mollusk, and 5,500+ plant species.\n\nSeven terrestrial ecoregions lie within Malawi's borders: Central Zambezian miombo woodlands, Eastern miombo woodlands, Southern miombo woodlands, Zambezian and mopane woodlands, Zambezian flooded grasslands, South Malawi montane forest-grassland mosaic, and Southern Rift montane forest-grassland mosaic.\n\nThere are five national parks, four wildlife and game reserves and two other protected areas in Malawi. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.74/10, ranking it 96th globally out of 172 countries.\n\n## Economy\n\nMalawi is among the world's least developed countries. Around 85% of the population lives in rural areas. The economy is based on agriculture, and more than one-third of GDP and 90% of export revenues come from this. In the past, the economy has been dependent on substantial economic aid from the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other countries. Malawi was ranked the 119th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings.\n\nIn December 2000, the IMF stopped aid disbursements due to corruption concerns, and many individual donors followed, resulting in an almost 80% drop in Malawi's development budget. However, in 2005, Malawi was the recipient of over US\\$575 million in aid. The Malawian government faces challenges in developing a market economy, improving environmental protection, dealing with the rapidly growing HIV/AIDS problem, improving the education system, and satisfying its foreign donors that it is working to become financially independent. Improved financial discipline had been seen since 2005 under the leadership of President Mutharika and Financial Minister Gondwe. This discipline has since evaporated as shown by the purchase in 2009 of a private presidential jet followed almost immediately by a nationwide fuel shortage which was officially blamed on logistical problems but was more likely due to the hard currency shortage caused by the jet purchase. The overall cost to the economy (and healthcare system) is unknown.\n\nIn addition, some setbacks have been experienced, and Malawi has lost some of its ability to pay for imports due to a general shortage of foreign exchange, as investment fell 23% in 2009. There are many investment barriers in Malawi, which the government has failed to address, including high service costs and poor infrastructure for power, water, and telecommunications. As of 2017, it was estimated that Malawi had a GDP (purchasing power parity) of \\$22.42 billion, with a per capita GDP of \\$1200, and inflation estimated at 12.2% in 2017.\n\nAgriculture accounts for 35% of GDP, industry for 19% and services for the remaining 46%. Malawi has one of the lowest per capita incomes in the world, although economic growth was estimated at 9.7% in 2008 and strong growth is predicted by the International Monetary Fund for 2009. The poverty rate in Malawi is decreasing through the work of the government and supporting organisations, with people living under the poverty line decreasing from 54% in 1990 to 40% in 2006, and the percentage of \"ultra-poor\" decreasing from 24% in 1990 to 15% in 2007.\n\nMany analysts believe that economic progress for Malawi depends on its ability to control population growth.\n\nIn January 2015 southern Malawi was devastated by the worst floods in living memory, stranding at least 20,000 people. These floods affected more than a million people across the country, including 336,000 who were displaced, according to UNICEF. Over 100 people were killed and an estimated 64,000 hectares of cropland were washed away.\n\n### Agriculture and industry\n\nThe economy of Malawi is predominantly agricultural. Over 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming, even though agriculture only contributed to 27% of GDP in 2013. The services sector accounts for more than half of GDP (54%), compared to 11% for manufacturing and 8% for other industries, including natural uranium mining. Malawi invests more in agriculture (as a share of GDP) than any other African country: 28% of GDP.\n\nThe main agricultural products of Malawi include tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, tea, corn, potatoes, sorghum, cattle and goats. The main industries are tobacco, tea and sugar processing, sawmill products, cement and consumer goods. The industrial production growth rate is estimated at 10% (2009). The country makes no significant use of natural gas. As of 2008, Malawi does not import or export any electricity, but does import all its petroleum, with no production in country. Beginning in 2006, the country began mixing unleaded petrol with 10% ethanol, produced in-country at two plants, to reduce dependence on imported fuel. In 2008, Malawi began testing cars that ran solely on ethanol, and initial results are promising, and the country is continuing to increase its use of ethanol.\n\nAs of 2009, Malawi exports an estimated US\\$945 million in goods per year. The country's strong reliance on tobacco places a heavy burden on the economy as world prices decline and the international community increases pressure to limit tobacco production. Malawi's dependence on tobacco is growing, with the product jumping from 53% to 70% of export revenues between 2007 and 2008. The country also relies heavily on tea, sugar, and coffee, with these three plus tobacco making up more than 90% of Malawi's export revenue. Because of a rise in costs and a decline in sales prices, Malawi is encouraging farmers away from tobacco towards more profitable crops, including spices such as paprika. The move away from tobacco is further fueled by likely World Health Organisation moves against the particular type of tobacco that Malawi produces, burley leaf. It is seen to be more harmful to human health than other tobacco products. India hemp is another possible alternative, but arguments have been made that it will bring more crime to the country through its resemblance to varieties of cannabis used as a recreational drug and the difficulty in distinguishing between the two types. This concern is especially important because the cultivation of Malawian cannabis, known as Malawi Gold, as a drug has increased significantly. Malawi is known for growing \"the best and finest\" cannabis in the world for recreational drug use, according to a recent World Bank report, and cultivation and sales of the crop may contribute to corruption within the police force.\n\nOther exported goods are cotton, peanuts, wood products, and apparel. The main destination locations for the country's exports are South Africa, Germany, Egypt, Zimbabwe, the United States, Russia, and the Netherlands. Malawi currently imports an estimated US\\$1.625 billion in goods per year, with the main commodities being food, petroleum products, consumer goods, and transportation equipment. The main countries that Malawi imports from are South Africa, India, Zambia, Tanzania, the US, and China.\n\nIn 2006, in response to disastrously low agricultural harvests, Malawi began a programme of fertilizer subsidies, the Fertiliser Input Subsidy Programme (FISP) that was designed to re-energise the land and boost crop production. It has been reported that this programme, championed by the country's president, is radically improving Malawi's agriculture, and causing Malawi to become a net exporter of food to nearby countries. The FISP fertiliser subsidy programmes ended with President Mutharika's death; the country quickly faced food shortages again, and farmers developed reluctance to purchase fertilisers and other agricultural inputs on the open markets that remained.\n\nIn 2016, Malawi was hit by a drought, and in January 2017, the country reported an outbreak of armyworms around Zomba. The moth is capable of wiping out entire fields of corn, the staple grain of impoverished residents. On 14 January 2017, the agriculture minister George Chaponda reported that 2,000 hectares of crop had been destroyed, having spread to nine of twenty-eight districts.\n\n### Infrastructure\n\nAs of 2012, Malawi has 31 airports, seven with paved runways (two international airports) and 24 with unpaved runways. As of 2008, the country has 797 kilometres (495 mi) of railways, all narrow-gauge, and, as of 2003, 24,866 kilometres (15,451 mi) of roadways in various conditions, 6,956 kilometres (4,322 mi) paved and 8,495 kilometres (5,279 mi) unpaved. Malawi also has 700 kilometres (430 mi) of waterways on Lake Malawi and along the Shire River.\n\nAs of 2022, there were 10.23 million mobile phone connections in Malawi. There were 4.03 million Internet users in 2022 (Datareportal). Also, As of 2022 there was one government-run radio station (Malawi Broadcasting Corporation) and approximately a dozen more owned by private enterprises.\n\nRadio, television and postal services in Malawi are regulated by the Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA). Malawi television is improving. The country boasts 20 television stations by 2016 broadcasting on the country's digital network MDBNL e.g.[3] This includes Times Group, Timveni, Adventist, and Beta, Zodiak and CFC. In the past, Malawi's telecommunications system has been named as some of the poorest in Africa, but conditions are improving, with 130,000 land line telephones being connected between 2000 and 2007. Telephones are much more accessible in urban areas, with less than a quarter of land lines being in rural areas.\n\n## Science and technology\n\n### Research trends\n\nMalawi devoted 1.06% of GDP to research and development in 2010, according to a survey by the Department of Science and Technology, one of the highest ratios in Africa. This corresponds to \\$7.8 per researcher (in current purchasing parity dollars).\n\nIn 2014, Malawian scientists had the third-largest output in Southern Africa, in terms of articles cataloged in international journals. They published 322 articles in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index expanded) that year, almost triple the number in 2005 (116). Only South Africa (9,309) and the United Republic of Tanzania (770) published more in Southern Africa. Malawian scientists publish more in mainstream journals – relative to GDP – than any other country of similar population size. This is impressive, even if the country's publication density remains modest, with just 19 publications per million inhabitants cataloged in international journals in 2014. The average for sub-Saharan Africa is 20 publications per million inhabitants. Malawi was ranked 107th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 118th in 2019.\n\n### Policy framework\n\nMalawi's first science and technology policy dates from 1991 and was revised in 2002. The National Science and Technology Policy of 2002 envisaged the establishment of a National Commission for Science and Technology to advise the government and other stakeholders on science and technology-led development. Although the Science and Technology Act of 2003 made provision for the creation of this commission, it only became operational in 2011, with a secretariat resulting from the merger of the Department of Science and Technology and the National Research Council. The Science and Technology Act of 2003 also established a Science and Technology Fund to finance research and studies through government grants and loans but, as of 2014, this was not yet operational. The Secretariat of the National Commission for Science and Technology has reviewed the Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, and Innovation (2011–2015) but, as of early 2015, the revised policy had not yet met with Cabinet approval.\n\nMalawi is conscious of the need to attract more foreign investment to foster technology transfer, develop human capital and empower the private sector to drive economic growth. In 2012, most foreign investments flowed to infrastructure (62%) and the energy sector (33%). The government has introduced a series of fiscal incentives, including tax breaks, to attract more foreign investors. In 2013, the Malawi Investment and Trade Centre put together an investment portfolio spanning 20 companies in the country's six major economic growth sectors, namely:\n\n- agriculture;\n- manufacturing;\n- energy (bio-energy, mobile electricity);\n- tourism (ecolodges);\n- infrastructure (wastewater services, fiber optic cables, etc.); and\n- mining.\n\nIn 2013, the government adopted a National Export Strategy to diversify the country's exports. Production facilities are to be established for a wide range of products within the three selected clusters: oilseed products, sugar cane products, and manufacturing. The government estimates that these three clusters have the potential to represent more than 50% of Malawi's exports by 2027. In order to help companies adopt innovative practices and technologies, the strategy makes provision for greater access to the outcome of international research and better information about available technologies; it also helps companies to obtain grants to invest in such technologies from sources such as the country's Export Development Fund and the Malawi Innovation Challenge Fund.\n\nThe Malawi Innovation Challenge Fund is a competitive facility, through which businesses in Malawi's agricultural and manufacturing sectors can apply for grant funding for innovative projects with the potential for making a strong social impact and helping the country to diversify its narrow range of exports. The first round of competitive bidding opened in April 2014. The fund is aligned on the three clusters selected within the country's National Export Strategy: oilseed products, sugar cane products, and manufacturing. It provides a matching grant of up to 50% to innovative business projects to help absorb some of the commercial risks in triggering innovation. This support should speed up the implementation of new business models and/or the adoption of technologies. The fund is endowed with US\\$8 million from the United Nations Development Programme and the UK Department for International Development.\n\n### Achievements\n\nAmong the notable achievements stemming from the implementation of national policies for science, technology and innovation in recent years are the:\n\n- Establishment, in 2012, of the Malawi University of Science and Technology and the Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) to build STI capacity. LUANAR was delinked from the University of Malawi. This brings the number of public universities to four, with the University of Malawi and Mzuzu University;\n- Improvement in biomedical research capacity through the five-year Health Research Capacity Strengthening Initiative (2008–2013) awarding research grants and competitive scholarships at Ph.D., master's and first-degree levels, supported by the UK Wellcome Trust and DfID;\n- Strides made in conducting cotton confined field trials, with support from the US Program for Biosafety Systems, Monsanto, and LUANAR;\n- Introduction of ethanol fuel as an alternative fuel to petrol and the adoption of ethanol technology;\n- Launch of the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Policy for Malawi in December 2013, to drive the deployment of ICTs in all economic and productive sectors and improve ICT infrastructure in rural areas, especially via the establishment of telecentres; and\n- A review of secondary school curricula in 2013.\n\n## Demographics\n\nMalawi has a population of over Expression error: Unexpected / operator million, with a growth rate of 3.32%, according to estimates. The population is forecast to grow to over 45 million people by 2050, nearly tripling the estimated 16 million in 2010. Malawi's estimated 2016 population is, based on most recent estimates, 18,091,575.\n\n### Ethnic groups\n\nMalawi's population is made up of the Chewa, Tumbuka, Yao, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni, and Ngonde native ethnic groups, as well as populations of Chinese and Europeans.\n\n### Languages\n\nThe official language is English. Major languages include Chichewa, a Bantu language spoken by over 41% of the population, Chitumbuka (28.2%) Chinyanja (12.8%), and Chiyao (16.1%). Other native languages are Malawian Lomwe, spoken by around 250,000 in the southeast of the country; Kokola, spoken by around 200,000 people also in the southeast; Lambya, spoken by around 45,000 in the northwestern tip; Ndali, spoken by around 70,000; Nyakyusa-Ngonde, spoken by around 300,000 in northern Malawi; Malawian Sena, spoken by around 270,000 in southern Malawi; and Tonga, spoken by around 170,000 in the north.\n\nAll students in public elementary school receive instruction in Chichewa, which is described as the unofficial national language of Malawi. Students in private elementary schools, however, receive instruction in English if they follow the American or British curriculum.\n\n### Religion\n\nMalawi is a majority Christian country, with a significant Muslim minority. Government surveys indicate that 87% of the country is Christian, with a minority 11.6% Muslim population. The largest Christian groups in Malawi are the Roman Catholic Church, of which 19% of Malawians are adherents, and the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP) to which 18% belong. The CCAP is the largest Protestant denomination in Malawi with 1.3 million members. There are smaller Presbyterian denominations like the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Malawi and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church of Malawi. There are also smaller numbers of Anglicans, Baptists, evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, and the Lutherans.\n\nMost of the Muslim population is Sunni, of either the Qadriya or Sukkutu groups, with a few who follow the Ahmadiyya.\n\nOther religious groups within the country include Jehovah's Witnesses (over 95,000), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with just over 2,000 members in the country at the end of 2015, Rastafari, Hindus, Baháʼís, (0.2%) and around 300 Jews. Atheists make up around 4% of the population, although this number may include people who practice traditional African religions that do not have any gods.\n\n### Health\n\nMalawi has central hospitals, regional and private facilities. The public sector offers free health services and medicines, while non-government organizations offers services and medicines for fees. Private doctors offer fee-based services and medicines. Health insurance schemes have been established since 2000. The country has a pharmaceutical manufacturing industry consisting of four privately owned pharmaceutical companies. Malawi's healthcare goal is for \"promoting health, preventing, reducing and curing disease, and reducing the occurrence of premature death in the population\".\n\nInfant mortality rates are high, and life expectancy at birth is 50.03 years. Abortion is illegal in Malawi, except to save the mother's life. The Penal Code punishes women who seek illegal or clinical abortion with 7 years in prison, and 14 years for those perform the abortion. There is a high adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS, with an estimated 980,000 adults (or 9.1% of the population) living with the disease in 2015. There are approximately 27,000 deaths each year from HIV/AIDS, and over half a million children orphaned because of the disease (2015). Approximately 250 new people are infected each day, and at least 70% of Malawi's hospital beds are occupied by HIV/AIDS patients. The high rate of infection has resulted in an estimated 5.8% of the farm labour force dying of the disease. The government spends over \\$120,000 each year on funerals for civil servants who die of the disease. In 2006, international superstar Madonna started Raising Malawi, a foundation that helps AIDS orphans in Malawi, and also financed a documentary about the hardships experienced by Malawian orphans, called I Am Because We Are. Raising Malawi also works with the Millennium Villages Project to improve education, health care, infrastructure and agriculture in Malawi.\n\nThere is a very high degree of risk for major infectious diseases, including bacterial and protozoal diarrhoea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria, plague, schistosomiasis, and rabies. Malawi has been making progress on decreasing child mortality and reducing the incidences of HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; however, the country has been \"performing dismally\" on reducing maternal mortality and promoting gender equality. Female genital mutilation (FGM), while not widespread, is practiced in some local communities.\n\nOn 23 November 2016, a court in Malawi sentenced an HIV-positive man to two years in prison with forced labour after having sex with 100 women without disclosing his status. Women rights activists asked the government to review the sentence calling it too \"lenient\". Some of the major health facilities in the country are Blantyre Adventist Hospital, Mwaiwathu Private Hospital, Queen Elizabeth Central, and Kamuzu Central Hospitals.\n\n### Education\n\nIn 1994, free primary education for all Malawian children was established by the government, and primary education has been compulsory since the passage of the Revised Education Act in 2012. As a result, attendance rates for all children have improved, with enrollment rates for primary schools up from 58% in 1992 to 75% in 2007. Also, the percentage of students who begin standard one and complete standard five has increased from 64% in 1992 to 86% in 2006. According to the World Bank, it shows that youth literacy had also increased from 68% in 2000 to 75% in 2015. This increase is primarily attributed to improved learning materials in schools, better infrastructure and feeding programs that have been implemented throughout the school system. However, attendance in the secondary school falls to approximately 25%, with attendance rates being slightly higher for males. Dropout rates are higher for girls than boys, attributed to security problems during long walks to school, as girls face a higher prevalence of gender-based violence.\n\nEducation in Malawi comprises eight years of primary education, four years of secondary school and four years of university. There are four public universities in Malawi: Mzuzu University (MZUNI), Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR), the University of Malawi (UNIMA) and Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST). There are also private universities, such as Livingstonia, Malawi Lakeview, Catholic University of Malawi, Central Christian University, African Bible College, UNICAF University, and MIM. The entry requirement is six credits on the Malawi School Certificate of Education, which is equivalent to O levels.\n\n## Women in Malawi\n\nThe status of women throughout the world, including Malawi, is measured using a wide range of indices that cover areas of social, economic, and political contexts. Focusing primarily on the time period between 2010 and the current day, the status of women in Malawi will be analyzed through a range of statistical indices.\n\nThe current social status of women in Malawi is effectively estimated through indices such as female access to schooling, maternal mortality rate, and life expectancy of women from birth. These indices offer a wide lens of information on women's rights and life in Malawi. Women's access to schooling in Malawi as an index highlights how within the state, the ratio of male to female students for many age groups and for total students by gender shows women's access to schooling maintains on par with men's access. Female students in Malawi, though, see consistent declines as the age increases, signifying the failure of compulsory education amongst female students in Malawi. The life expectancy of women from birth in Malawi has seen significant growth over the past decade as the life expectancy of women in 2010 was approximately 58 years old whilst the most recent data from 2017 finds that women in Malawi's average life expectancy grew to 66 years. The maternal mortality rate in Malawi which is particularly low even when compared with states at similar points in the development process.\n\nThe economic status of women in Malawi is gauged using indices such as the inheritance rights for women, unemployment, and labour force participation for females, along with the extent of the wage gap present between men and women in the Malawian economy. The inheritance rights index gauges the ability of women to effectively own and maintain the property in comparison with their male counterparts. The current inheritance rights in Malawi are found to be equal in their dispersion between male/female children and for male/female surviving spouses. Contrary to the equality found in inheritance rights in Malawi, labour force participation and unemployment highlight the challenges for female employment in the state. The current state of female labour participation details how a higher percentage of the male population is currently employed despite the female population having a higher total employed population and a very similar unemployment rate. This gap continues with wages in Malawi as the state continues to score towards the bottom of the list when compared to states across the world. Along with their poor international ranking, the state scores poorly when compared to other sub-Saharan countries as the highest-ranked sub-Saharan state, Rwanda, scored a 0.791 on a 0–1 scale while Malawi scored 0.664.\n\nThe indices used to gauge the political status of women include political participation amongst women, access to political institutions, and female seats in the national parliament. The political participation of women in Malawi as an index is effectively captured through a myriad of sources; these sources come to similar conclusions in regards to the political participation of women. The participation of women in the national political structure has been shown to be weaker than their male counterparts due to the normalization of negative stereotypes which women are not expected to be as politically active as men. The female participation in politics is further restricted from national political structures due to the presence of gatekeepers which provide access to the resources needed to win elections and maintain seats in parliament. This limited participation is directly correlated to the limited positions which are occupied by women in the national setup. This setup, despite its commitment to equal positions for men and women, has failed to promote methods for female politicians maintaining their seats in parliament and as a result of said policies, women throughout Malawi are left without the proper structure and resources to maintain their position in the national structure. Despite the limited resources available to these female politicians, the national parliament within Malawi finds reasonable success in appointing female members to seats within the body as over 20% of the seats in parliament are held by women. Despite the limited access and resources widely available for female politicians in Malawi, the state is finding reasonable success in promoting female politicians on the national scene which works in conjunction with the positive trajectory of the social and economic indices to conclude that Malawi should expect continued growth toward gender equality.\n\n## Military\n\nMalawi maintains a small standing military of approximately 25,000, the Malawian Defence Force. It consists of army, navy and air force elements. The Malawi army originated from British colonial units formed before independence, and is now made up of two rifle regiments and one parachute regiment. The Malawi Air Force was established with German help in 1976, and operates a small number of transport aircraft and multi-purpose helicopters. The Malawian Navy was established in the early 1970s with Portuguese support, presently having three vessels operating on Lake Malawi, based in Monkey Bay. In 2017, Malawi signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.\n\n## Culture\n\nThe name \"Malawi\" comes from the Maravi, a Bantu ethnic group who emigrated from the southern Congo around 1400 AD. Upon reaching northern Lake Malawi, the group divided, with one group moving south down the west bank of the lake to become the group known as the Chewa, while the other group, the ancestors of today's Nyanja, moved along the east side of the lake to the southern section of Malawi. Ethnic conflict and continuing migration prevented the formation of a society that was uniquely and cohesively Malawian until the dawn of the 20th century. Over the past century, ethnic distinctions have diminished to the point where there is no significant inter-ethnic friction, although regional divisions still occur. The concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to form around predominantly rural people who are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent. The \"Warm Heart of Africa\" nickname is not due to the hot weather of the country, but due to the kind, loving nature of the Malawian people.\n\nFrom 1964 to 2010, and again since 2012, the Flag of Malawi is made up of three equal horizontal stripes of black, red, and green with a red rising sun superimposed in the center of the black stripe. The black stripe represented the African people, the red represented the blood of martyrs for African freedom, green represented Malawi's ever-green nature and the rising sun represented the dawn of freedom and hope for Africa. In 2010, the flag was changed, removing the red rising sun and adding a full white sun in the centre as a symbol of Malawi's economic progress. The change was reverted in 2012.\n\nIts dances are a strong part of Malawi's culture, and the National Dance Troupe (formerly the Kwacha Cultural Troupe) was formed in November 1987 by the government. Traditional music and dances can be seen at initiation rites, rituals, marriage ceremonies and celebrations.\n\nThe indigenous ethnic groups of Malawi have a rich tradition of basketry and mask carving, and some of these goods are used in traditional ceremonies still performed by native peoples. Wood carving and oil painting are also popular in more urban centres, with many of the items produced being sold to tourists. There are several internationally recognised literary figures from Malawi, including poet Jack Mapanje, history and fiction writer Paul Zeleza and authors Legson Kayira, Felix Mnthali, Frank Chipasula and David Rubadiri.\n\n### Sports\n\nFootball is the most common sport in Malawi, introduced there during British colonial rule. Its national team has failed to qualify for a World Cup so far, but have made three appearances in the Africa Cup of Nations. Football teams include Mighty Wanderers, Big Bullets, Silver Strikers, Blue Eagles, Civo Sporting, Moyale Barracks, and Mighty Tigers. Basketball is also growing in popularity, but its national team is yet to participate in any international competition.\n\nMore success has been found in netball, with the Malawi national netball team ranked 6th in the world (as of March 2021). Notably a number of players in the national team play in international leagues.\n\n### Cuisine\n\nMalawian cuisine is diverse, with tea and fish being popular features of the country's cuisine. Sugar, coffee, corn, potatoes, sorghum, cattle and goats are also important components of the cuisine and economy. Lake Malawi is a source of fish including chambo (similar to bream), usipa (similar to sardines), and mpasa (similar to salmon and kampango). Nsima is a food staple made from ground corn and typically served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. It is commonly eaten for lunch and dinner.\n\n## See also\n\n- Outline of Malawi\n- Telephone numbers in Malawi", "revid": "1172653026", "description": "Country in Southeastern Africa", "categories": ["1964 establishments in Malawi", "Countries in Africa", "East African countries", "English-speaking countries and territories", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Malawi", "Member states of the African Union", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations", "Southeast African countries", "Southern African countries", "States and territories established in 1964"]}